The Encyclopedia Of Herbs And Herbalism

The Encyclopedia of

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Edited by Malcolm Stuart

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In The Encyr' ^edia of Herbs and Herbalism, an enthusiastic

Malcolm

team

<

.

experts headed by

Dr

Stuart has produced a practical

detailed guide. Beginning with the origins development of herbalism, they give fall

and and

r;

account of the biology and chemistry of plants, moving on to present-day usage ranging from medicine, cooking and cosmetics, to dyes and animal food-stuffs. Practical aspects of herb cultivation, collection and pr-- ^1 vation are also examined. The alphabetical section describes 420 herbs in detail, with full botanical descriptions, their habitats

and methods of and

cultivation, their chemical constituents

their

many and varied uses.

The 350 superb photograph^ and over 1 go specially commissioned drawings and diagrams allow the reader to identify each species, and the notes on cultivation will c.iable anyone to start a personal herb garden. The possibilities provided by modern processes such

as electric drying,

and the age-old refinement

traditional herb cookery, are all elements in

comprehensive new work of reference on an increasingly popular subject.

this

Jacket photograph by

Mike Foster

Below : The Mandrake, thought for

centuries to

possess magical powers because of its resemblance the

human form. ( IGDA)

Back flap : Galanthus (Pat Brindley)

rac«>^v "

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nivalis

- Snowdrop

to

of

The Encyclopedia of

Herbs and Herbalism

The Encyclopedia of

Herbs Herbalism Edited by /

Malcolm Stuart Publishers

•

GROSSET & DUNLAP

-

New

York

A FILMWAYS COMPANY

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B^VIf

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Copyright

1979 Orbis Publishing Limited, London, and Istituto ("

Geografico de Agostini, SpA, Novara All rights reserved

Printed in Italy by Grafiche,

IGDA,

Officine

Novara

SBN: 0-448-15472-2 Library of Congress catalog card

number: 78-58101 First Grosset & Dunlap Edition 1979

Endpapers

from (

:

Spices

haded by

Mansell Collection)

HalJ-litle page

:

The pomegranate Punica I

granatum from Duhamel's century herbal, (

the Chinese,

a seventeenth-century illustration

nineteenth-

Traite des Arbres

Michael Holjord)

Title page

spica

:

English Lavender

'Lavandula

(Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman)

Right: Some of

the ingredients for

pot-pourri (Leslie Johns)

making s<

3

Contents

Introduction

7

Malcolm Stuart

The history of herbalism

1

Kay Sanecki and Christopher Pick

The biology and chemistry of plants Allen Paterson

and Peter Hy lands

The medicinal uses Peter Hylands

of plants

47

and Malcolm Stuart

Herbs /.

29

in the kitchen Audrey Ellison and Christopher Pick

The domestic and cosmetic uses of herbs

71

93

Kay Sanecki Cultivation, collection

and preservation of herbs 115

Kay Sanecki

Reference section

141

Malcolm Stuart

v>

Glossary

284

Conversion tables

291

Organizations

291

Bibliography

292

General index

294

Index of plants

296

Acknowledgments

304

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Introduction

Herbalism

has

long

been

thought

to

almost exclusively of the lighthearted study of early printed works which dealt with the supposed medicinal action of plants or their use in cookery.

consist

The

only recently with quack medicine and become part of the return to a more natural way of life with the study

begun

of herbs

has

to lose its association

rediscovery of our pre-industrial heritage. The study of herbs cannot be slotted into a

narrow botanical niche, either, since the development of man's relationship with plants has always been inextricably linked with economics, religion and science. "herb", In defining the term 'herbaceous' plants arc those which lack a wood) stem and die down to the ground at

end of

tin

the plant

is

their

growing season, or

an annual. Yet

life if

this definition

cannot accommodate some of herbs that come to mind such

the

first

as Sage.

Rosemary or Lavender. These arc among the most commonly used herbs which are woody and do not die down. As het

dictionary restricts our study to

the-

use of

and leaves from plants whereas herbalism can involve the- use of lichens, fungi and innumerable other plants whose

steins

fruit, roots, us.

bark and

we must simply

gums

are of value to

define herbalism as the

stuck of those plants which are of use to

man. The

definition of a herb

complicated Left

.'

by

the

inclusion

is

further of

such

The old-world charm of a formal

herb garden showing the use

of a focal point and plants with foliage of various colours (Gatdden Manor, near Taunton, England).

plants as certain onions, beetroot, celery,

and chicory, which we now term

olives

vegetables. Originally herbs were divided into

three

types:

different

pot

herbs,

which

included onions, for example; sweet herbs, such as thyme, which we now call culinary herbs; and salad herbs such as wild celery. In the seventeenth century pot herbs began to be called vegetables since they were no longer thought of as suitable only for the pot but

The

used at table.

were

also

horticultural breeding

of these plants led to the development of their structure

and

from the wild plant bitter

modern

Until

their

away and less

flavour

to the larger

equivalents.

comparatively

recently

herbs

and quite clearly a necessary commodity in life. In medieval were an Europe,

integral

for

instance,

their

cultivation,

and distribution were essential to the smooth maintenance of any household. In the kitchen Ash twigs (Fraxinus excelsior) and Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) served respectively as egg whisks and brushes. Such herbal implements are to be collection

found today only

Soapwort

or

in exclusive chandlers.

Bouncing

Bet

(Saponana

was used as a soap for delicate fabrics, and Pennyroyal {Mentha pulegium) Verbascum as a flea-repellent. Mullein thapsus) and other herbs served as tapers or emergency candles, and almost every daily task involved one herb or another. For cheesemaking Lady's Bedstraw {Galium verum) provided a juice which acted as the rennet. Herbs still play a vital role in the tobacco and brewing industries, in the manufacture of wine and liqueurs, as officinalis)

INTRODUCTION and colourings in the conand in the manufacture of dyes. With their lovely natural scents and oils, herbs are once again becoming as essential to the modern cosmetic business as they have always been to perfume flavourings

fectionery trade

manufacturers. In order to understand the present revival of herbalism, the development of man's relationship with plants through the centuries should be examined. Historv from the emergence of Homo sapiens to the present day can be divided into three broad epochs the hunter-gatherer period, the agricultural period and the present agricultural-industrial period with its beginnings some four hundred years ago. :

Our knowledge of man

We

and

his

know

can

of the very early history

evolution

very

early man's diet

is still

little for

very vague.

certain about

and way of

and our

life,

assessment of his dependence on plants must, therefore, be a combination of

A

Above: This ancient painting of healing drugs

Below

page from an eleventh-century

surmise and deduction from the remains

was used

herbal. It illustrates an Ivy

discovered by archaeologists. While tools

Galen, whose accounts of botanical drugs

herb's

and describes the medicinal applications. (This one was

and

were undisputed until the Middle Ages.

written at

Bury St Edmunds, England.)

indication of economics and technology,

to illustrate

a book by

:

artifacts

plants

^«T«.

C/'flbnTndlu.

ftulluTfarrom aVU-

JLrpprui

*

•

l^rfriu cdcti,

M .u]iui Qbtai

\rj u

JtSau

'fun>

<

jM

a* myczu tnirr far

regions and, often, caves. Plant remains

comprise a variety of forms, mostly seeds,

some flower and

fruit stalks

and

leaves.

A

can identify plants from these remains, and even fossilized faeces can provide clues.

skilled botanist

hunter-gatherer,

man hunted

animals, fished, gathered wild fruits and leaves

and grubbed up the edible

wild plants.

He may

or

may

roots of

not have

poisonous plants. Certainly he must have experimented with and come to know the many plants within the limits of his

rsfcC-Mtm* jttiiii).;^'

wanderings. Most were innocuous and bland; some nourished him; a handful were particularly pleasant to taste and some equally unpleasant. By trial and error he discovered that some could relieve pain, some proved fatal and a few had a strange unearthly effect on his mind and body. In this period man was able to develop techniques for neutralizing or rendering palatable the parts of plants which he discovered to be of any value to him. Plants were chopped, leached, dried, roasted and cooked. There is even some evidence that the hunter-gatherer may have experimented with fermentation.

nomadic

fumr

i

aqua

adite,-

aiyauom

l>ocfarirf lurvt cjirca tcciTttX*

li rtiu nlatt t^ uino

7mrr Umax

in

reacted instinctively in his rejection of

Cdrra niqia

ftbrr

and foods are only preserved

As a aiirf fbrtr«

m oUd rof*mo frgS

ltmino

nna

bucaf A,

luptu ponti-

survive to give an

ideal conditions, such as particularly dry

„w

i

commonly

•

(rbvrc fuf^

5*

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boo

urnr cotara Tfunbar^

Tiiairolr*^^

mmjytnffmr^J dLumoftilZ*n^ ruf mdxzun lb ^ nwUifliinc aim riidcra) <eto&JJ PW^ducr tufoTDtTn

(rdrrr for

Right : Marjoram was cultivated

v»V^

m

medieval times not only as a food flavouring but also for

its

medicinal qualities,

particularly as an antiseptic.

HUNTER-GATHERERS

INTRODUCTION The hunter-gatherer period was est clinical trial in

ally

history

the long-

which eventu-

produced the herbs that provided the

best foods, the poison to destroy enemies,

the

finest

drinks,

fuels

and weapons,

soporific

medicines, the plants that pro-

duced colour for body and cave paintings, and the 'magic' plants which carried primitive man away from reality. This last group consists, of course, of those

herbs

tactile, taste or

causing

visual,

auditory,

other hallucinations.

They

are variously described as hallucinatorv. psvchedelic. narcotic or psychoactive,

and

can vary from mild euphoria inducement of artificial psychoM s. Their importance cannot be overemphasized since the effects they have on the

human mind and body ful role

To

led to the

early

man

such herbs offered tempor-

ary relief and an escape from the severitv of his environment.

When

The

power-

they played in primitive society.

sick they pro-

and

early doctors

herbalists

were

invested with an appropriately high social status

and indeed, they often enhanced

their

social

secrets'

position

of their

by

herbal

guarding the remedies and

ills,

stage-managing superstition. Mandrake.

though often we must suppose that the psychic effects of these plants were of more importance than their purely physical

a herb with anciently appreciated anaes-

vided a direct palliative or cure for his

effects.

we

This

is

when modern

especially significant

consider that to early

man

the

between science, medicine, art and religion would not have had any meaning. Sickness, in primitive societies, divisions

often attributed to supernatural forces

their effect

is

to the

entering; the

body and from the earliest medicine was linked with

times, therefore,

the supernatural.

and purgative properties, was imbued with many forbidding superstitions. In the first century a.d.. Josephus the Jewish historian said that Mandrake had the power to expel evil spirits from sick persons but that it was certain death to uproot it casually. The Paeony. too. had to be dug at night, for if a woodpecker thetic

caught a gatherer by day. woe to his c Hallucinatory herbs and their products have been used for thousands of years in all civilizations. Today their abuse is a topic of much contention in what is known as the drug problem. Opium, hashish, cannabis, morphine, and cocaine are the most frequently misused. The long historical associations of such herbs with the supernatural and primitive religion have been incorporated into modern attitudes to herbalism. Much of the valuable knowledge our ancestors accumulated about herbs has been dismissed because of superstitious contamination. The second period in history witnessed the birth of agriculture, not as was once supposed in the fertile valleys of M> potamia. but in the Near East. One of the earliest archaeological sites

i>

at

Jarmo

in

where excavations have revealed evidence of wheat and barley which have been dated at 6750 B.C. Agriculture began a few thousand years later in the New W( >rld and probably started independently. Maize, gourds, beans and squashes have been found in early sites in Mexico. Iraq

The

discovery

Neolithic

of

agriculture

revolution,

as

or

the

archaeologists

was to change man's whole Whereas the hunter-gatherer needed a good deal of land to sustain him. term

it.

existence.

agriculture

meant

that relatively smaller

under cultivation could sustain a whole community. Man began to make permanent settlements and the prerequisites for the growth of science areas

of land

commenced. Instead of subsisting man could open up the forests to make suitable environments

for

the

herbaceous sun-

loving crops he favoured. B.C.. the Egyptians were makPapyrus and palm fibre, ropes from ing

By 3500

they had begun to Left:

make

cosmetics and

The frontispiece of a compendium of was published in France in

plants, which

IJJ4- It describes the plants' range of uses man.

to

10

REVIVAL OF INTEREST Right

Many

:

aquatic herbs are

still

important as medicinal or aromatic plants

-

Papyrus, the best known aquatic herb, was used by the Egyptians

5000 years

perfumes and

treatment of disease reliant on magic. By

in their

became

they

2700

the

B.C.

ago.

less

Chinese had started

to

approach healing with the use of herbs on a more scientific basis. Everywhere those species most usecultivate

and

to

or highly prized for domestic, medicin-

ful al

tea

or religious

employment were brought

into cultivation, planted nearer to

dwellings and stored.

man

The

human

Persians gave

first gardens by planting aroscented herbs together with and matic shade-offering trees in beautiful and peaceful sites. In some early cities like Nineveh, municipal herb gardens were planted for popular use. State-run medicinal herb gardens can be seen in Nepal. Slowly scholarship and trade developed and flourished. Ideas were exchanged as communication grew and with the great civilizations of Greece and Rome the foundations of modern science and medicine had been laid. The classical works of the Greeks and Romans provided standard reference sources right up to the

the

seventeenth century, but nevertheless the most useful herbs included in them can be traced back to the hunter-gatherers and Neolithic

man. Herbalism and our under-

have a far more restricted than the Roman conquerors of Europe. Sadly, industrializ-

and most of vegetable

us

diet

meant

ation has

the loss of

much

of the

standing of the benefits of plants did not Stop developing with the Greeks and

valuable herbal knowledge of our ancestors and the misconception that we can

Romans, however, neither has its stud) been limited to Europe. he dis< o\ ei \ of New World brought the many new plants which were added to European herbals and pharmacopoeias. But even so u only have records of a mere fraction ol the

manage without This

I

(

world's 342.000 estimated species ol plant life. Wild products and plants are still

gathered in large quantities even in the most economically advanced countries; new spei ies of wild plants are still being taken into cultivation

way

in exactly

same

the

as the firsl auric ulturalists did, while-

more

uses air being found

leu

well-known

plants.

enthusiasm for the initial Yet OUl hemical and synthetic alternatives to herbs made available by modern science

(

has had the effect

our Rein o\ eel from the basic proe esses o| prod lie tion, we now know little or nothing about

real

e>l

blindfolding us

and continued need

for

tei

herbs,

raw mate-rials or staye-s involved in the we cannol tell commodities we- buy whether the- d\e in blue- jeans is from Incline. e>r India, Efficiency had dictated the

thai

e>|

the-

200,000

spec ies of

plants, only 12 or 13 arc- widely

e

herbs.

clearly a very great misconcep-

is

tion if one thinks of the

massive quantities crude herbs used today <\ en in the- most

ol

sophisticated of societies.

revival

hundred

herbalism is now experiencing a >>\ both public and professional

interest.

The

culed medic

al

professions

which

herbalism

ineffective

wi\es"

'old

Superstitious

nature

.is

tales'

so ridi-

are-

and

once

an attempt to methods and materials free horn discover tinundesirable side-effects frequently experienced with the modern 'chemically again turning

to

tailored' synthetic drug.

in

New methods

reappraisal are being used to judge

of

the

produced by centuries of practical experience. There ate- signs that the beliefs

revival

of interest

tremely profitable practices ol our i

1

ic

it

ol

in

to

herbs will be ex-

man and

ancestors

the-

herbal

are

being

reasingly vindicated. By careful studies

has been shown that a good proportion the beliefs of the old herb physicians

flowering

were right, and that, for example, plants do indeed posse-ss different properties if

ultivated.

harvested

at

herbs used separately. There has also been a revival

of popular Enthusiasm has been aroused for the charm and serenity of the old fashioned herb garden with its associated culinary and aromatic herbs which

interest

different times ol the da\ 01

in

herbs.

somehow suit the requirements of modern times. Herb gardens provide useful materand

ials

Alter a decline of about two years,

year and that certain combinations of more active than the individual

plants are

minimum

yet

require

not

remain attractive with a

of maintenance, for herbs do

horticultural

special skills.

soils or complex Herbs provide the

vitamins and minerals increasingly sought alter for a healthy diet. They provide an ideal starting-point for a range of home-

made products wines, dyes. use.

such as cosmetics, ales, pot-pourris and

scented sachets,

Not only are herbs cheap and easy but

those in general

advantage of being to

free

to

use have- the

from the dangers

health often contained in

man-made

commodities, be they drugs, food colourings or hair dyes.

Herbalism has become part of the new concern in our society for an ecological balance and an unpolluted 'natural' way of life. This late twentieth-century appreciation of herbs and their immense value in food and medicine truly represents the rediscovery of old wisdom indicating that the biblical expression as true-

today

as

it

'all

flesh

is

grass'

is

always has been. I

I

«

Sfet

Skri

The history #

of herbalism

&& ^*fcm.

a»

sa».

-

mn.

,

—

"-—

Who first used plants we do not know. But someone - more probably, many different

religious belief in a

people - in the earliest mists of history, long before the earliest records that now

the gods, receiving their powers of healing from them. This much is assumption. But it is valid assumption, given our understanding of human nature in general and our knowledge of the earliest communities that archaeologists have been able to trace. It also accords with the first medical records that we have, from India, China, Egypt

survive, discovered that

good

to eat

and

some plants are

that others have healing

i

properties. This

was the

first

step in a

lengthy process of trial and error by which early man in different communities slowly

up a corpus of knowledge about To this gradual process was added, no doubt, experience handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth and a measure of intuition. Why and how a plant should have been capable of curing sickness must have remained a mystery to those early communities, Indeed, only the development of built

plants.

f

sophisticated techniques of chemical an-

century or so has at last provide the solution. So those

alysis in the last

begun

who

to

took a special interest in the healing

qualities of plants

and became especially

gradually gained an honoured place in society. Their skills and knowledge singled them out from the mass as medicine men. Because there were no readily comprehensible explanations of how plants healed, primitive communities tended to attribute the process to a god or gods, as indeed they did any phenomenon that puzzled them. Thus the earliest medicine men became associated with the whole structure of skilled

in

their

application

were

priests

who

community.

Many

acted as instruments of

and Assyria. This very vagueness about the first herbalists points to an important dichotomy in our knowledge of herbs and those who used them. The story that follows inevitably recounts what might be termed the 'official' aspect of herbalism - the only one for which records remain. We can only suppose - but none the less with every confidence - the existence of an 'unofficial' side to herbalism, a succession of ordinary country men and women skilled and knowledgeable about the herbs of their area and their uses - medicinal, culinary and in the preparation of dyes, perfumes and cosmetics. Only rarely do these people emerge in the 'official' story. Finally, in the nineteenth-century industrial revolution in the western world, urbanization and the increasing division of labour gradually caused such rural

Mandrake. For centuries it was thought that if humans dug up the plant it meant certain

wisdom to die out. We know little of the origins of medicine in China and in India. It is thought that the Emperor Chin Nong composed a herbal in about 2700 b.c. and that some 60 years later another Emperor, Huang-

death.

ti,

Left:

A

1

dog uprooting the 'shrieking

wrote a

treatise

on medicine. In India. '3

HISTORY the Rig Yeda. one of the sacred books of

ledge

the Brahmins, mentions the use of medi-

spread

cinal plants.

The

scarcity of

knowledge

about ancient medical practice in these countries should not. however, lead us to assume that no developed system existed there, nor that ideas, beliefs and practices may not have passed across Asia, between these ancient civilizations, in a process of

which we now know nothing. Lack of evidence means that we can only point to China and India and cross-fertilization of

state that a tradition of medicine as old as

that of

Europe does

exist

there, perhaps

one that is even older, and that plants were undoubtedly used as remedies. As a result, an account of the history of herbalism is confined to describing the gradual development of medical know-

in

Egypt and Mesopotamia,

first

its

to the countries of the eastern

Mediterranean and Persia and Armenia, to ancient Greece and then throughout Europe and - two thousand years later to the New World. For many centuries botany and medicine were closely linked, and plants were central to medical practice. They provided the chief,

if

not the only, remedies

other than surgery, and theories

were

addition,

many

many medical

around

them. In ordinary people will have put their faith in the long line of herbalistwho sold their patent remedies made up from different herbs in towns and villages, successful because they were cheaper than doctors and physicians and perhaps also because they appealed to the always very built

potent traditions of folklore and magic.

Only

have and medical scienthe same time medical

since the eighteenth century

the paths of botanists

tists divided: at treatment has become available for everyone, and the old herbal remedies have died out.

EGYPT The Egyptian civilization is the first of which we have any extensive medical knowledge. Much of that is somewhat imprecise, as

is

illustrated in the case of

Imhotep. the first Egyptian physician whose name survives. He served Zoser. a 3rd Dynasty Pharaoh, in about 2980 B.C. and was renowned as an astrologer and magician as well as for his healing powers. His reputation lived on after he died: legends grew up about his work and he was eventually transformed into a god of healing. For the Egyptians some two millennia later, whether Imhotep had actually lived or not would have been unimportant; in fact, his reality would not have been questioned in such terms. Just as a contemporary healer would have been regarded as a priest and instrument of the gods because of his healing

Imhotep.

skills.

who had been the subject of down for many centurie-.

legends handed

would have been regarded as a god. The ground becomes rather firmer by about 2000 b.c. Various medical papyri most important among them being the famous Ebers Papyrus - discovered by archaeologists in the last 100 years

list

a

of medical prescriptions in use after about 1800 B.C. Mineral substances and series

animal products were included, but about five-sixths of the ingredients were of vegetable origin. Each prescription dessymptoms of the disease and

cribes the

gives instructions

on how the cure

One

is

to

be

administered and prepared. prescription, intended "to empty the belly and clear out all impurities from the body typical

of a sick person", required field herbs, honey, dates and uah grain to be mixed together and chewed by the patient for one day. These same papyri demonstrate the central role of the gods in Egyptian medicine - and. of course, in the entire life of Egyptian society. Osiris was worshipped as a god of vegetation. Isis. his twin sister Left: Imhotep (c.2g8o B.C.). the first

known Egyptian physician. A celebrated sage among his contemporaries, he was worshipped as a god after his death. Imhotep was the patron of the sciences and of doctors. For ordinary people he was regarded as the god of healing.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

and mother, was one of the most ancient goddesses of Egypt. She held it in her power to renew life and was reputed to have transmitted the secrets of healing to mankind. As such a powerful magician and healer, it was to her that the Egyptians prayed for deliverance from disease. Thoth was believed to have formulated each healing prescription. He is represented as holding in his left hand the symbol of life and in his right a staff

around which a serpent is coiling itself - a symbol of the physician to this day. So the picture that comes down to us from Egyptian sources is of increasing medical skill confined as it were within a framework of magic. A herbalist carried with him both a casket of medicines and a magician's wonder-working rod; before treatment could begin, the gods had t<> be called on to cast out the devil which

We

shall find this

association between medic

me and magic How much

possessed the patient.

continuing in ancient Greece. both there and in Egypt it was

,i

resull ol a

genuine belief in the power of the L, ods, how much because of a desire on the herbalist's part to keep his skills secrel through a pio< ess ol mystification we anr

i

uot

now

distinguish. But before

Greece objectiveat

turn to <>l

we must look Mesopotamia and

medical science

the civilizations of

their

we

also saw the beginnings

which

approach

to

medic

inc.

or vice versa ly,

is

not known. Quite probab-

they both borrowed from a

Asian source

common

in a process of cultural

con-

which is now lost. The earliest Sumerian herbal dates from some time after 2500 b.c. and has come down to us in the form of a copy tact all trace of

dating from the seventh century b.c. Later Assyrian inscribed tablets are

much more

informative. Tablets from the library of

Ashurbanipal. King of Assyria between 668 and 626 B.C.. reveal that knowledge of herbs and their medicinal properties must have been considerable. Some 250 vegetable drugs are mentioned, as well as 120 mineral drugs and some 180 that remain unidentified. This wealth of information makes it reasonable to assume that gardens where medicinally useful plants wen cultivated must have been established. Whether physic gardens in the sense th.it the term came to be used in the Middle Ayes ever existed is uncertain. But we do know that gardens and parks

were

laid out

that in

one

round the royal palaces and herbs were grown.

at least

Language is and spread of ideas, and it is significant that a number of the names \>\ which plants are known today are derived an obvious indicator of the

Above: Tablet depicting Ashurbanipal.

King of Assyria, at work on his herbal. Ashurbanipal was very interested in herbs and their medicinal properties, and large numbers were grown in the royal gardens for his

use.

Aesculapius Like the Sumerians and Egyptians, the Greeks believed that the gods were the first herbalists and physicians and that they had taught the art of healing to man.

Aesculapius was the first, and probably greatest, of them. Historians now

the

believe that he actually lived, but

whether

he did or not is of little importance. Aesculapius must have been a healer whose skills and successes brought him

renown and about

whom

after his

death

legends gradually grew up. His signifi-

cance lies in those legends. They tell that Aesculapius was the son of Apollo and Coronis. Born in Epidaurus in about 1250 B.C., he was slain by Zeus, who was jealous of his success in healing the sick

and

daughter was Another closer link with

raising the dead. His

Hygieia, the goddess of health.

provides

origin

tradition

from the Sumerians, having passed through the Greek and Arabic languages.

Egypt by claiming that Aesculapius was born in the Egyptian city of Memphis and emigrated to Greece, bringing with him Egyptian medical techniques and know-

These include Apricot, Saffron, Cumin, Turmeric, Myrrh, Mandrake, Almond, Poppv. Mulberry and Sesame.

MESOPOTAMIA

a

ledge.

The root-gatherers The

link

with the Egyptian association of

ANCIENT GREECE

healing with magic and mystery

that

The civilization of classical Greece took much from the Egyptian world and from

physicians.

Mesopotamia, including, of course, its knowledge of the practice of medicine. It took much, but it added even more-. It also

demonstrated by the rhizotomists is root-gatherers who wandered from place to place gathering roots and herbs used in medical prescriptions For the most part, they were uneducated and would follow a complex ritual as they went about their work complex in all likelihood, again, to

I

he

Sumerians believed

that sickness

the manifestation of devils

and

was

evil spirits

had attacked the human body. Magic and medicine went hand in hand, and many of the- gods were believed to be

The

similarity of these

beliefs

Egyptians is cleat. Whether the Egyptians influenced die Sumerians

io

diose

ol

began, perhaps most important of basis lor medic

establish a scientific

all.

inc.

to

is

clear.

It

also

'"»

HISTORY He earns

protect their trade from inquisitive out-

known

Certain prayers and chants had to be spoken as the plants were gathered, and specific times were appointed for the task.

this

person to establish and

The

to

learning he took from Egyptian sources.

pharmacopolists, who prepared drugs and other healing remedies for sale in village markets. The rhizotomists and

But he dropped the elements of mystery and magic and, recognizing disease as a natural phenomenon, established for the first time a system of diagnosis and prognosis. Hippocrates used about 400 drugs,

siders.

rhizotomists

sold

their

plants

pharmacopolists of ancient Greece together form the start of a long tradition of what might best be described as dealers in herbs, usually itinerant and always re-

magic and mystery to justify Such people could still be the markets and fairs of Europe in

ferring to

their products.

seen in

the early part of this century.

Hippocrates Despite

the

traditional

framework of ancient Greece

was in that scientific medicine fas we now understand the term) was first developed. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), who was born and practised on the island of Cos, is religious belief,

it

tific

as the father of medicine.

description because he was the set

system of medicine.

down

Much

first

a scien-

of his

mostly of vegetable origin, but he never wrote a herbal. The Hippocratic Oath, to which all doctors until very recently had to swear before they could practise, is of course named after Hippocrates. Its opening words - 'I swear by Apollo, the Physician, by Aesculapius, by Hygieia and Panacea and by all the Gods and Goddesses that to the best of

my power and judgment

BED(pPAI"F5

MEAANTA

.' .

.

demonstrate a close and fascinating link between modern medical practice and the beliefs of the earliest medical

EPE2I DS

scientists.

'

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Aesculapius, the Greek god of

medicine.

Left

:

Hippocrates, the most important

physician of the classical world.

He

wrote a

number of medical works distinguished for their scientific content, much of which is still valid.

memorial 16

The Hippocratic Oath

to his ethical

philosophy.

is

a

,

THE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL Left: Theophrastus ( c. 37 2-286 B.C.) the

Greek philosopher, was a pupil of

Aristotle

and

the first scholar to attempt to

establish a scientific classification

plants.

He

is

reputedly the author

of

of

227 works. Right: Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health and daughter of Aesculapius. She is usually depicted with

him and

others

of the family

such as her sister Panacea.

Greek herbals

The

first

The

earliest

Greek herbal of which any-

known was written by Diocles Carystius, who was born some time in the

thing

first

is

half of the fourth century B.C.

He

noted their habitats and briefly described their medicinal properplants,

listed

ties.

Nothing

is

now

left

of Diocles'

writings.

was Theophrastus of Eresus c.372286 B.C. on the island of Lesbos, who was the first person to try to establish any scientific system of plants. Theophrastus was Aristotle's friend and pupil and was bequeathed Aristotle's garden on the latter's death. His two treatises. Historia Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum Inquiry which into Plants and Growth oj Plants between them listed some 500 plants, were based on Aristotle's botanical writings. These he supplemented with his own observations made during his travels and with the reports of foreign travellers and It

,

.

merchants.

The Alexandrian School Alexandria Greek Emperor Alexander the Great - in 331 B.C. that Greek medicine really began to flourish. A school of medicine was rapidly set up commonly referred to as the Alexandrian S( hool which attracted the foremost scientists and botanists from all over tin Near East. Gradually a body of knowledge and experience was built up, based on the observations of contemporary writers, but also drawing on Egyptian knowledge and practices and on the beliefs of the Sumerians and Assyrians. In addition much information was brought back from Alexander's campaigns into western Asia. The Alexandrian School thus brought together beliefs and practices from many different sources and developed and extended them through research and writing, so forming a tradition that was eventually transmitted to medieval Europe- through the writers and u holara of the Arab world. The written herbals produced dining the Alexandrian period were mainK the It

was

after the foundation ol

named

after the

works of physicians. first

half of the

Of these. Herophilus century B.C. Andreas of Karystos

third

.

Mantias (.270 B.C.;, d.217 B.C. and Appolonius Mys ir.220 were perhaps the most important. B.C. Later, in the second century B.C.. Nikander produced a work on poisons and their antidotes.

Mithridates Experimental work was also carried out under the aegis of the Alexandrian School and was encouraged by Mithridates, who was Eupator king of Pontus between 120 and 63 B.C. Mithridates

was especially interested in poisons and their antidotes. His name is commemorated in the word 'mithridate', which came to mean any concoction used an antidote against poison. Up to the eighteenth century every physician would

as

be equipped with his personal mithridate. Mithridate's rhizotomist. Kraetus, was more intelligent and sensitive than most of his calling. He not only collected plants but

wrote about them and

nificant of all

including

its

most

sig-

illustrated the entire plant, roots.

Each drawing was the plant and

name of

accompanied by

the

by a description

ol its

medicinal

uses.

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acri

Below

:

Galen, philosopher, teacher and

physician.

proposed

The

theories

and diagnoses he

in his extensive

medical works

Above: Pages from an version

illustrated Latin

of Dioscorides' writings

made

in the

twelfth century. Beautiful though the

may

remained, in essence, unchallenged until the

illustrations

Renaissance.

scientific value.

be, they

have

little

or no

Dioscorides Thus the picture

at the beginning of the century a.d. is one of increasing experimentation and knowledge. One man, the Greek physician Dioscorides, first

drew

knowledge together and assembled it in one vast work, De Materia Medica. Dioscorides was a physician with the Roman army and much of his information came from first-hand observation in the Near East, France, Spain, Germany and Italy. He supplemented this with material taken from Hippocrates - about 1 30 of the plants known to Hippocrates are mentioned by Dioscorides - Theophrastus, Andreas, Kraetus and many others. His work mentions some 600 plants. Each entry names the plant, describes it and its habitat, notes how it should be prepared for medicinal use and the effect it has.

18

this

Dioscorides was without doubt the

first

medical botanist. For 1500 years his Materia Medica was the standard reference work on the medical application of plants and most later herbals were closely modelled on it. Indeed, many of the plants he mentions still gain a place in modern pharmacopoeias such as Aniseed, Chamomile, Cinnamon, Dill, Ginger. Marjoram, Pepper, Rhubarb and Thyme. real

Other Greek Christian

era

herbalists

were

in

the early

Pamphilos,

who

arranged the plants in his herbal in alphabetical order, Menecrates, physician to

Emperor Tiberius (reigned 37), and Andromachos of Crete. the

a.d.

14-

ANCIENT ROME Pliny was the most important writer on

He devoted in ancient Rome. seven of the 37 volumes of his Historia

plants

Naturalis {Natural History), a.d.

77,

to

their

medical

writing was uncritical,

uses.

in

Pliny's

information

and thus his work is now of value. It was during this time.

unverified, little

his

composed

THE DARK AGES however, that the Doctrine of Signatures, become of such significance in Paracelsus' hands, originated. later to

Galen

Much more Galen

significant are the writings of

perhaps the great-

(a.d. 131 -201),

physician after Hippocrates. Galen was Greek by birth; he travelled extensively in

est

the Near East and had an enormous output of books, which earned him a great reputation as a philosopher, teacher and physician. His herbal, which forms part of De Simplicibus, contains information on each plant and its habitat, usually to-

gether

with

about

note

a

its

use

in

medicine.

THE DARK AGES Greek herbal tradition, seen, embraced the much older traditions of Egypt and Mesopotamia, comes to an end. Though

With Galen,

the

we have

which, as

the dark ages after the

fall

Empire no longer seem

of the

so

dark

Roman to the

and writing stopped. Six centuries or so must pass before we can point with any confidence historian, scientific research

evidence to a resumption of interest and, indeed, in botany and medicine in general. What happened in the intervening time can only be sketched in outline. In Europe, only the monasteries kept alive the literature of medical and herbal pracin the in

herbs

Monks were

tices.

often physicians

and

care for the sick was seen as part of a

Above

:

Avicenna,

ad. g8o-iojy,

and 950 by a

possibly the greatest physician and scientist

of the Moslem world. His

Medicinae was kept

its

Canon

translated into Latin

been a friend of King Alfred of England. This is the first book on herbs written in the vernacular and also the first which did

and

place as a standard university

became very

lore

influential;

travelling

and herb women treated the and magic were resorted much as they had been in ancient

bone-setters sick, to,

and

ritual

Egypt.

not base itself directly on Greek texts.

century.

knowledge it displays of herbs is remarkable. Another such manuscript is the Lacnunga, thought to have been written in

and pharmacological lore of the entire Orient' and on their own observations. Among them were Rhazes (865-925), a Persian employed as a royal physician in Baghdad, whose investigations into clinical practice gave a considerable impetus 9H0 1037)5 to knowledge, and Avicenna whose ('.anon Medicinae brought together information about the diseases, drugs and

THE ARAB WORLD

medical

In contrast, the highly sophisticated cul-

world. In Spain, in particular, where the

Arab world maintained and the Greeks. By

Cordoban physician Abulcasis (d.1013)

ture of the

added about

to

the legacy of

900 or a little after, all the surviving Greek medical works had been A.I).

known

theories

in

the

practised, especially high standards

reached, and wealthy men over Europe for treatment.

Arab

all

eighth century. this

The

greatesi physicians ol

Arab empire drew

011

the

works

ol

the

Greek physicians arid writers as well as on what one writer on medieval Spain has described as the 'accumulated botanical

ANGLO-SAXON HERBALS was the Arab world that prethe main tradition of medical learning, it should not be supposed that

Although

it

served

came to a halt in northern Europe. The Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of

all

writing

England,

were very interesnumber of manuscripts

for instance,

ted in herbs,

and

have- survived.

a

The

Leech Book of Bald,

earliest ol these

the late eleventh or early twelfth century. It

consists chiefly of a

poem

in praise

of the

Nordic god Woden. Ritual and magic still played an enormous role in the herbalist's work, just as they had in ancient Egypt Waybroad, for instance, one of the nine sacred herbs, was believed to cure a headache if it were gathered, untouched by iron, before sunrise and its roots bound round the sufferer's head with a red ribbon. nine

herbs

sacred

of the

:

were

came from

translated in the great cultural centres ol

Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo. Knowledge of them spread with the advancing Arab armies across North Africa and into Spain, almost all of which had fallen under Moslem rule- by the end ol the

The

textbook until as late as the seventeenth

Christian's duty. In another way, too, the

monasteries preserved knowledge, tor it was there that scribes copied manuscripts by hand. Outside the cloister walls, folk-

named Cild under the who is thought to have

scribe

direction of Bald,

is

the

compiled between 900

THE REVIVAL OF KNOWLEDGE Greek medical theory - supplemented as we have seen by Arab observation and practice - was restored to western Europe at the end of the dark ages by two main routes. In Spain, a school of translators

grew up

in

Toledo (which had

century.

The

fallen to

twelfth 1085) work generally went in two

Christian forces in

in

the-

from Arabic to Romance (a form of old French), then from Romance to Latin, the universal language ol scholarship in medieval Europe. In Italy, stages,

first

|(

>

HISTORY Fulda - produced numerous influential medical works. Two emanating from Salerno were the Liber de simplici medicina. a herbal compiled by Matthaeus Platearius during the middle of the twelfth

Constantine the African c. 1020- 1087 translated a number of Arabic philosophical, scientific and medical works into Latin. Constantine remains a shadowy figure of whom little is known except that he was an Arabic-speaking Christian who became a monk and spent the last years of his life at the Benedictine abbey at Monte Cassino. where he composed most of his translations. His work spread rapidly throughout Europe.

century, and the Regimen Sanitatis Salerno.

have been assembled by to Arnold of Villa Nova, a Catalan who thought

simplici

Both these cultural channels, as one might describe them, centred upon monasteries the school of translators at

Toledo had

.

ists and until the invention of printing were the most important in early medieval times probably the only source of Others were horticulturalists; books. again, they were secure in their monasteries and had both time and opportunity to cultivate herbs and other plants; contacts

with

other

monasteries

in

their

order

Europe no doubt led to an of information and of actual of the sick was another part of and in many areas only the monks possessed any medical skills. At throughout interchange plants. Care their work,

Barnwell Abbey in England, the infirmarius the monk in charge of the pharmacy was required always to have 'ginger, cinnamon, penny and the like, ready in his cupboard, so as to be able to render promptly assistance to the sick if [they were] stricken by a sudden malady".

The study of medicine

Two

of the most important schools of medicine were at Salerno, where Con-

were

stantine the African's translations

particularly

influential,

and

MontCremona

at

founded by Gerald of 14- 1 187 who had translated Avicenna's Canon Medicinae. The Canon be-

pellier. 1

1

,

came

a standard

work

at the

University

and was

still

as 1650.

These schools and others -

a prescribed textbook as late for in-

stance at St Gall. Bobbio. Reichenau Right: Page from

and

Trattato de Pestilentia, a fourteenth-century work on the human body and the diseases to which it is subject. Almost all medical writing at this time

was

derivative

the

and

theoretical

practical experimentation of any

consequence

was

centuries later.

20

not to begin until several

medicina

Above: Constantine

the African (c.1020io8j), an Arabic-speaking Christian, translated a number of Arabic medicinal and

scientific

marked

works

the

into Latin.

These new ideas

end of the dark ages.

usually

Circa instans was concerned with the medicinal use of plants and was compiled from both Latin and Arabic sources. It had considerable influence throughout the Middle Ages. Despite increasing medical studies from the twelfth century onwards, the framework within which writers and physicians worked and thought had remained unaltered since Galen's day. There was

opening words.

The work of the monks

been established under the patronage of Archbishop Raymond, a member of the And the monasteries Cluniac order played a vital role in medieval Europe in the spread of medical knowledge and writing. Many monks were skilled copy-

The Liber de known by its

studied at Salerno for a time.

THE MIDDLE AGES little

new observation

or research.

What

was confined within galenic there was little questioning of basic ideas; certainly no attempt to overpremises throw them - and most medical writers were content to base their writings on the works of Greek physicians which, as has been shown, had been translated into Arabic and then further into Latin. This cumbersome process had led to numerous there was

errors; illustrations of plants often bore little

or no resemblance to the original

from any scientific names of the plants themselves had become altered because of

plants

and were

useless

point of view often the ;

errors of transcriptions

The development

made by

scribes.

of medicine had stultiwas to take a complete revolution in methods and outlook before any genuine progress was made. Even the fied,

and

it

foremost medieval scientist Albertus

200on plants on nus

(c.

1

1

280),

who based

Mag-

his writings

first-hand observations

and

by Konrad von Megenberg (1309- 1374), which was written in German - contributed

the

to

process.

So,

did the

too,

refused to accept without question the

increasing

statements

spices from the East available in western Europe. For much of the Middle Ages Venice was the European centre of this trade, and Venetian merchants grew rich from the commodities that eventually reached Europe after the long journey across Asia from India and China.

of earlier writers,

failed

to

break out of the galenic mould.

The birth of the herbals As the Middle Ages progressed, increasing interest began to be taken in herbal remedies. The first major work in English on botanical medicine was the Rota Medicinae also (

known

as the

Rosa Anglica

written between 1314 and 1 3 1 7 by a known as John of Gaddesden. His

but also included observations based on personal experience. Other vernacular herbals - among them the Book of Nature

V

ft

J

«•

•*

of exotic herbs and

.

monk

work combined Greek, Arabic, Jewish and Saxon medical writings and herbal lore

*>•*

number

Dissemination of knowledge The whole intellectual revolution of

the

Renaissance had of course a profound effect on medical science. The old galenic preconceptions gradually fell away; observation and experiment flourished, drawing on the works of ancient writers but soon soaring beyond their preconceptions. More particularly, the invention of printing in the mid-fifteenth century gave a tremendous boost to herbalism, as indeed it did to all forms of knowledge. Herbals could be circulated in far greater numbers. The first to be printed had previously been available in manuscript form, but by the early sixteenth century original works were being reproduced. These were vast improvements on their immediate predecessors, both in their scope and organization and in the quality of their woodcuts, which depicted the plants described accurately

and

in detail

rather than as mere decoration, which had

previously

Tragus'

Germany tions

been

the

Kreuterbuch,

of

in all

case. first

Hieronymus published

in

1539, gave precise descripthe plants included. In

England, William Turner, the first part of whose New Herball appeared in 1551, was the first person to study plants scientifically. He travelled widely throughout Europe and grew herbs in his garden at Kew, coincidentally on the site of the present Royal Botanic Gardens. Three years later in the Low Countries, R. Dodoens published his Cruydboeck, in which he grouped plants according to their properties and affinities rather than alphabetically. Later a French translation was published, and in 1578 an English version. John Gerard's Herball, first published in 1597 and extended and Left: Illustration of Coltsfoot fTussilago

farfaraj from an illuminated Greek copy of Dioscorides'

De Materia Medica.

commentary Dioscorides wrote that leaves could be dried

through a reed

to

In his

the

and then smoked mucus and catarrh - a

clear

remedy that has now been used for over two thousand years. 21

HISTORY Below : Title page of the first edition of John Gerard's Herball. Gerard was the Elizabethan

best-known herbalist

in

England; he had

own garden

his

in

London, where he grew plants assembled

from

all over the world.

gardener

to

He was

Lord Burghley for

also

over

20 years. Gerard's herbal is based entirely on the work Pemptades,

revised by Thomas Johnson proved extremely popular. By

1583 by the Flemish physician Dodoens. But it is in fact the later editions

herbals had

written in

of Gerard's Herball, which were considerably Thomas Johnson in 1633, that are most valuable. extended by

become

in

1633,

this

time

authoritative

and

comprehensive, covering practically every plant then known; one which appeared in 1640 mentioned 3800 plants, whereas von Megenberg's Book of Mature, the first printed edition of which had appeared in 1475, had dealt with just 89.

THE DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES Despite what, to use a twentieth-century term, might be called a 'boom' in herbals, all of them consisted of what we today would describe as 'objective' information.

not

In the sixteenth century in particular, the Doctrine of Signatures held sway over many writers. It was promoted by Paracelsus (1493- 1 541), a physician whose controversial opinions and manner (not for nothing was his second name Bombastus!) caused him to lead an unsettled existence in

many

of the

Europe. According

plant acted in effect as

of

medical

its

cities

its

of central

dogma, every

to this

own

application,

definition

resembling

body afflicted or the cause of the affliction. William Coles, an English herbalist who published the Art of

either the part of the

God had not only 'stamped upon them [plants] (as upon every man) a distinct forme, but also given them particular signatures, Simpling in 1656, wrote that

Man may read even in legible Characters the Use of them. Heart Trefoyle is so called not only because the Leafe is Triangular like the Heart of a Man, but also because each Leafe contains the perfect Icon of an Heart and that in its proper colour.' Nicholas Culpeper 6 6- 654^, too, was an influential exponent of the Doctrine of Signatures, as whereby a

1

1

1

by under the domination of the sun, the moon or one of the five planets then known. His herbal, published in 1652, was immediately successful and was reprinted many times. He was per-

well as of various astrological theories,

which herbs were

set

haps the first herbalist to write directly for ordinary people who might collect and use herbs during the course of their daily lives.

THE APOTHECARIES The

increasing

number

of herbals being

produced and their growing scope and accuracy (Culpeper being the last important adherent to the Doctrine of Signatures) reflected the widening interest in herbal remedies and the developing status of the apothecary. Originally, apothecaries had merely sold drugs - the root of the word comes from the Greek for a store - but gradually they had absorbed skills and

APOTHECARIES knowledge and had come

compound

to

prepare and

drugs, as well as

sell

them.

establish

fessionally

In England they had been associated prowith the Grocers' Company

were

body of general traders who and drugs. (Interestingly enough, the Grocers themselves had their origin in the twelfth century in one of the

this

since 1378, a

also sold herbs

early City of

London

Guild of

guilds, the

Pepperers, a reminder of the importance trade in medieval times.) purchased herbs and roots Apothecaries collected in the countryside by wandering 'green men and women' the term is one of many used to describe rural herb collectors), the descendants, nearly two thousand

of the spice

years later, of the rhizotomists of ancient

and also imported drugs and from abroad. They also established

Greece, spices their

own

their

demanded

own

Their work

guild.

specific professional skills,

and

had been allegations that grocers Then, in 1586, came an attempt by the College of Physicians to set up their own physic

there

selling adulterated drugs.

garden.

was

The

apothecaries thought that

their prerogative

-

for

by that

time the practice was for physicians to diagnose and prescribe, while the apothecaries dispensed medicine and attended the patient. Although the apothecaries failed to prevent the physicians establishing their garden, they did in 161 7 succeed in forming the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London, with 114 members. At the same time a law was passed forbidding medicines to be sold by surgeons or grocers.

physic gardens, so serving as a

between horticulture and medicine by growing their own medicinal herbs. By the late sixteenth century in England the apothecaries were trying to dissociate themselves from the Grocers and link

THE PHYSIC GARDENS The

origins

of physic gardens can be

traced back several centuries. astic

communities,

as

alive interest in herbs

we have and

The monseen, kept

their healing

and the Middle Ages, and it

potential during the dark ages early part of the

seems fairly certain that the first herb gardens were established behind monastic walls. The monastery at St Gall in Switzerland probably had 16 herb beds as

and twelfth-century plans monastery at Canterbury indicate a small piece of ground set aside for a herb garden. But the first garden intended to provide plants for the purpose of study (until then, students had worked from herbals alone) was not established until 1545, at the medical school of the University of Padua in Italy. Botany and medicine - hitherto studied as one subject - were from then on taught separately. Pisa followed almost immediately and also set up a herbarium (in which pressed and dried plants are preserved on paper). Within two decades, Florence, Rome and Bologna had started their own gardens. Nor was the rest of Europe far behind. By the end of the seventeenth century, physic gardens had been laid out at early as 830,

for a

\

Tnr

.-7-

1

1

i-t

'/

tti.it

•i< i

Above

:

Bo/y krtr

aiAiC U

trves rut a Jff" Jnhil'tjuj* fjrr

St j-iras'u

m

a'rl'crie'ttl

r/iV

vou t '

rind

Mu

h-'lu

mind.

CofKt

Bookt

Portrait of Nicholas Culpeper and,

right, illustrations

from

his herbal.

Culpeper'1 theories rested on his belief

in

astrological influences: herbs were placed

under the dominion of one of the the sun or the

moon

;

five

.

planet \.

different parts of the

body were themselves governed by the planets.

Hi

also believed that plants resembled

either the part 0/ thf

body or the ailment

which they were intended

Herbal! and

A

to lira/. I lis

Physical Dire* tory both

enjoyed an enormous

sale.

23

HISTORY Right

:

The botanical garden

at the

Founded in 16j j and destroyed by fire in 1702, the garden was revived by Carl Linnaeus who University of Uppsala, Sweden.

arranged the plants according

and described

it

in

system,

to his

Hortus Upsaliensis.

translated into English as Joyfull Newes out

ofthe.XeweFounde W'orldem 1577. as well as into Italian, French, Flemish and Latin. Interest in the plants ofthe Xew World continued for a long time. In the eighteenth century in particular, numerous

made

botanists

the transatlantic journey:

more frequent passenof packing them was to

plants were even gers - one

way

wrap them

in an ox bladder half filled with wet moss and the plant's natural soil - and form the basis of the North American

collections

in

many European

botanic

gardens.

Bv the early eighteenth century the heyday of herbalism was passing. William Salmon's Botanologia : The English Herbal (1710) was the last herbal of any import-

iyoy-ijj8) the founder of modern botany. The system of Above: Carl Linnaeus

(

,

plant classification he developed opened the

way for and

the precise identification

their properties at a time

ance

of plants

when m a

to

The

be published.

erties of plants

still,

curative prop-

of course, played a

plants were being discovered at a great

vital role in

rate throughout the world.

two centuries the skills of the herbali^ were slowly replaced by medical tech-

Although

Linnaeus' s system has been continually modified,

it

remains the basis

ojf

owed more

niques that

today'

medicine, but over the next

to the scientific laboratory than to traditional wisdom.

internationally applicable system.

Heidelberg, Leiden, Montpellier. Stras-

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

bourg. Oxford, Paris (the garden there

The system

now

is

famous and popular Jardin des Plantes), Uppsala and Amsterdam, to name only a few. All of them were linked with universities where medicine was taught. In London, the Chelsea Physic Garden was founded by the Worshipful the

Society of Apothecaries in 1673: on the same site today.

it

still

of plant classification estab-

by Carl Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum and Critica Botamca of 1737 was a harbinger ofthe new attitudes. Linnaeus lished

in effect formalized a

new

scientific lan-

guage - botanical Latin. Each plant was described by two separate names: one. the generic

name

given

first

.

identified

THE BEGINNINGS OF TRADE

which the plant belonged, that is, a group with common structural characteristics; the second name, of the

One consequence ofthe age of exploration, inaugurated by Christopher Columbus'

from

flourishes

discovery of central America in 1492, was an increase in the number and varietv of imported herbs and spices available in

Europe. The English in India and Ceylon and the Dutch in the East Indies were the main suppliers, and London became the centre of the world spice trade, keeping this position until the early

years of the

twentieth century, when New York superseded it. Xor were herbs, spices and plants of all kinds the only imports from the Xew

World; great

was taken in the remedies practised by the native inhabitants. Nicholas Monardes. a physician from Seville, was one of the first to interest

describe these. His three books, published in

24

Spain

in

1569,

1571 and

1574. were

the class

to

individual species, distinguished the plant all its

fellows within the

same

class.

In his Philosophica Botanica of 1751 Linas a group of species

naeus defined a genus

constructed organs and arranged in a similar way later he published rules for the formulation of a generic name. Though changes have since

possessing

similarly

:

been made

upon which the made, the principle of

in the bases

classifications are

Linnaeus' system is still in operation. Indeed, it is now obligatory throughout the world. Thus by the mid-eighteenth century, it was possible for the first time to disting-

manner. might have given the same plant widely differing names. For instance, the Autumn Crocus, used as uish specific plants in a scientific Before, different writers

a

remedy against gout, was given no less seven Latin names by different

than

herbalists during the sixteenth century. In

addition, it was known by at least half a dozen names in English and by a similar number in most ofthe different European

languages.

The new svstem made

it

im-

possible, at least for trained botanists, to

confuse different plants. it

also identified

many

More important. previous mistakes

and misconceptions, thus enabling herbalists to refine and extend their skills and knowledge.

Although herbalists of course benefited from Linnaeus' work, in as much as it helped all those associated in one way or another with plants, in another, wider, sense it helped to speed the decline ofthe herbal

tradition

and

to

establish

the

CLASSIFICATION

between botany and medicine. Botanists were interested in all aspei is ol plants, rather than merely those that had

division

value as herbs.

From

the late eighteenth

century, and especially throughout the nineteenth, plant-collecting expeditions

were mounted, and plant-hunters ally out

of the best

s<

ientific

sometimes spurred on b\ desire mercial gain ously

unknown,

for

roamed over man) oi at least

comprevi-

uninvestigated,

parts ol the world, sometimes ing,

usu-

motives, but

accompany-

lew steps on other occasions onk many famous explorers. he\ ,i

behind,

I

and other botanical writers

at

home

than merel) have medical value. rathei

ol

those thought

frequently administered as a sedative for

MEDICINE

was the- Second World War, however, during which traditional sources of plant drugs dried up (quinine from

to

shell-shock.

At the same time, medical

science-

was

moving in quite different directions. The slow development of chemical and biochemical techniques during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries gradually enabled scientists to isolate and then to manufacture the chemical substances previously administered in plant form. Plain material was never entirely rejected, but nevertheless it came to be considered old fashioned and in some way second class None th<- less, even today, the orthodox medical

ed flora rather than heibals. sc ienstudies of all the plants ol an an a

|)ioc|uc tific

THE ROOTS OF MODERN

profession

relies

extracted from plants

on

substances

digitoxin from the

Foxglove and morphine from the Opium Poppy, for example. During the First World War, inn tine ol Valerian was

It

Malaysia for malaria, for example), that provided the impetus for the search for alternative chemical synthetic drugs. Alter the war, an enormous programme ol research and development, much of it carried out by international drug companies, gave- us the wide range of antibiotics available today.

Even the most dedicated and

skilled

herbalist found himself gradually denied

work of modern medicine be divided among the drug which became ever larger

a role as the

slowly

came

to

companies, from the mid-nineteenth century wards, who manufactured, doctors,

on-

who 25

HISTORY

} remedies and is slowly realizing that they have by no means been entirely superseded by medical science. To begin with, actual plant material is still used to a far greater extent than many people are aware - in 1968, some 3 per cent (over 41 million items) of interest in the old herbal

prescriptions in the United States con-

tained crude herbs. Conferences have examined the role of traditional medicine in contemporary society, and increasing notice

is

being taken of the experience of

the Third World, both in regard to those nations' its

own medical development and

to

application in the industrialized world.

In this context, Chinese practice ally interesting:

acupuncture

is

is

especi-

practised

alongside western medicine, neither tradition

dominating

at

the expense of the

other. In herbaria throughout the world, a vast

store

much, no

of information

doubt, merely native folklore but some surely of enormous importance - noted by plant-collectors ally

is

only

now being gradu-

tapped and collated

(it

took research-

and a half years to survey the collection at Harvard University; they ended with almost 6000 notes of interest,

ers four

revealing new information of value not only to medical scientists but also to those active in the fields of nutrition

taxonomy and entomology the Herb Society has started national

Above: Stripping tree to

the

300 years

is

used

between

to treat its

and the World War it was the only effective remedy. The tree is found principally in

introduction to western medicine

tropical South America, as well as in

Asia.

who

dispensed.

were forbidden to practise (although, no doubt, in remote country areas, remedies continued to be dispensed - part of the continuing In

some countries

'unofficial'

herbalists

tradition

of herbalism),

in

work was frowned on and came to be dismissed as in some way 'cranky' (though schools of homeopathy others their

thrived and, in the United States, a school

of physiomedicalism latter part of the

flourished

in

the

nineteenth century).

MEDICINE IN THE TWENTIETH

CENTURY Today,

century, the

quarter of the twentieth

dominance of what might be

termed chemical medicine is indisputable. the less the medical profession - and, beyond it, an increasingly concerned and informed lay public - is taking a growing

None

26

up a

herb centre with a botanical

This then points to the way ahead. No one suggests that the clock should be turned back and the advances of modern science be ignored, nor that the old folklore remedies have any credibility merely despite by virtue of their longevity. Yet all the mystery and charlatanism that have surrounded herbalists and their work - surely we should not ignore the wisdom accumulated and found effective over

many

centuries.

Right : Interior view of a pharmacy or apothecary's shop at Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, thought to be one of the oldest in Europe. Such shops flourished in medieval Europe and dispensed a wide variety of medicines.

Between

in the last

to build

which will eventually provide data for a computerized collection of literary and scientific references to herbs. Research centres have also been established in China, Germany, Holland, Poland and the United States.

First

prescribed, and chemists,

and plant

In England,

garden

bark oj the Cinchona

obtain quinine, which

malaria - in the

.

the fifteenth

and

seventeenth

centuries they were the centres practice. Doctors

would meet

of medical their patients at

pharmacy where the drugs they prescribed would be made up and sold by the apothecary. The word 'pharmacy' comes from the Greek word for drug. the

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The biology and chemistry of plants sH

.

"•-.

Most herbs belong to the relatively highly developed class of living organisms known as flowering plants, but nearly all tindivisions of the plant world include at least a number of herbs. They are different from other plants only in that they being nutritious to are beneficial to man good flavouring agents or effective medicines because they happen to contain

eat,

certain 'active constituents'. This section sets out the evolutionary interrelationships of the plant kingdom and explains the basic plant anatomy and physiology which is essential lor an understanding of herbs

THE BIOLOGY OF PLANTS There are two

(lasses of living things on animals and plants. Both owe their existence to the presence of an cxtrcinelv complicated chemical substance this

plaint

known as deoxynbose nucleic acid DNA which has the remarkable ability of being able to replicate itself from smaller chemicals in

vicinity. Ibis material

its

house the genes, and see

shall

later,

organism.

The

all

it

is

said to

controls, as

the activities of

DNA

molecules

ol

the

I.rjl

:

As

this

Bumble Bee

collects nectar

jiom a Siottish 'Hustle, pollen nibs its

legs which become involuntary

pollinators.

off onto

may be

looked upon as the

first

strand of

DNA which happened to be formed in the 'primeval soup' and then replicated

itself.

This single molecule subsequently developed into a unicellular organism by enclosing its own controlled environment around itself, within a cell-wall. There are still present today a number of unicellular organisms exactly like those original ones from which all living things evolved. We know that there have been two main routes of evolutionary development, one resulting in plants and the other in animals. As will be explained later, the fundamental difference between the two classes is the way in which they obtain their food, but first we should examine the

way

in

which a plant grows.

considering

In herbs,

we

the

basic

biology of

are concerned mainly with the

higher plants.

They can be recognized by

we

the greenness of their aerial vegctativ e

the

parts this characteristic separates chemic-

all

and minute variations in the composition of this material determine the type of organism that results. Lite, then, is literally dependent on the presence of this DNA. The original oceans contained millions of organic and inliving things are essentially similar,

organic substances formed by the action of heat, light and electric storms on the air and minerals. The first living thing

:

from the lower, and plants themselves from animals the possession of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is

ally the higher plants

which enables plants to build body of cells from inorganic elements. Each body will vary in size, depending upon the species, from microscopic algae to the- huge California!] redwoods which are certainly the biggesl living things on earth. Growth depends upon cell enlargement and division, both of which are made- nutritionally possible l>\ the actions of roots and the leaf activity. the catalyst

up

their

29

BIOLOGY The

structure of plant leaves

cell

is

with wide intercellular spaces. Filtering through them is a constant stream of air brought in through small pores or stomata which are normally situated on the undersides. Young green stems also possess stomata. Oxygen is

open

largely

taken from the air for the respiration process characteristic of all living things. chlorophyll, however, which

The green

is

apart from the upper and

in all leaf cells

lower epidermal layers, promotes reacenabling the small amount of tions, carbon dioxide in the air to be utilized. This is combined with the water brought up from the soil to produce usable foods in the form of carbohydrates. The process is

known as photosynthesis,

ing

up

simplified process,

nutrition

(

literally 'build-

presence of

the

in

The

light'.

upon which

all

plant

and hence ultimately animal is based, can be shown as:

foods as well)

light

6C0 +6H 2

^ C 6 H 12

2

water

carbon

glucose

6

+6

2

oxygen

(a sugar)

dioxide

The energy needed

to

power the process

comes from sunlight. Certain species of plants are adapted to live in shady habitats and this is usually reflected in their larger, thinner leaves which can utilize the weaker energy source. Once

made

often starch - in roots or tubers.

The enormous

variation in plant forms

can thus be seen

and what

it

climate (that

A

differentially stained, transverse

shows

the outer cork fat the top)

phloem (dark pink) and (

mauve)

as 1

30

of a tree trunk (left), magnified

.

The

the inner

layers in the

,

the

xylem

xylem are known

annual rings. The main water-conducting

wood -

lements of the

magnified

the vessels (right)

times.

375

is,

existence.

green

fall

into

ex-

products of that unceasing

tinct are the

search for efficiency and effectiveness in

any given habitat which must accompany success as an organism. 'Survival of the fittest' is no mere Darwinian catchphrase

temperature, availability

Plants

:

where the chlorophyll, although present, is masked by the presence of another pigment - Purple Sage and Purple Basil are typical examples and those which have developed a cuckoo-like existence by living either on the decomposing remains of their fellows (saprophytes) or directly, as parasites upon other living plant or

animal hosts. All fungi come into these two categories: mushrooms are in the former group while others, such as various diseases, fall into the latter.

as facultative parasites,

Some of these,

have the extra-

ordinary ability to live saprophytically on the remains of the host they have themselves parasitically killed.

Those that die

with the host which they themselves have probably killed are described as obligate parasites.

the

and

which are not two main categories those

their

The range of plants alive today and number of species that have become

as a response to habitat

offers in soil nutrients

of water and especially light). Greenness, then, is typical of the more highly evolved members of the plant kingdom and, at the same time, essential for

30

times,

:

the simple sugars can be trans-

located around the plant or stored in some

form

Above section

but a basic fact of

life

compounded upon

competition. This teeming diversity within the plant

kingdom has been

man's existence from the

a part of

earliest times,

notably as a basic source of food, but even at a very early stage man recognized that

had the power to heal and As a knowledge of plants with medicinal powers became of more certain plants

others to harm.

than local importance, a comprehensive popular knowledge developed which has come down to us from classical times. This produced the beginnings of classification and nomenclature which are still developing today. Both aspects might seem to be of only academic interest but this is far from the case. Unless it is possible to refer individually to the approximately 342,000

different

and

species

of flowering

6000-odd species of ferns, or to the almost innumerable algae, fungi and mosses, no knowledge can be

plants

to

the

successfully disseminated

must be suspect.

and

all

reference

CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION AND

NOMENCLATURE The

first

attempt

to classify living things

was made by Theophrastus

in the fourth

century B.C. He classified plants as either herbs, shrubs or trees. The word 'herb' here does not, of course, have present-day implications but merely relates to the overall size of the plant. step in classification

A very significant

was made with the

publication in 1753 of Species Plantarum bv Carl Linnaeus. His system, largely restricted

to

the flowering plants,

noted

differences in the form of flowers. This

was 'artificial' in as much as variation of one particular character, namely flower structure, often does not necessarily indicate any real or 'natural' affinity. It was not until the publication of Darwin's theory on evolution that the idea was fully conceived that living organisms might be related to each other by descent,

classification

that

is

to say

that certain present-day

organisms share common ancestors. We have seen already that all living things have arisen from similar DNA molecules and as modifications were made to these original molecules, so branching of the evolutionary tree occurred.

Some

of these

primitive organisms developed the ability to

produce certain photosynthesizing pig-

ments, notably those organisms known now as the blue-green algae. Many simple green algae survive in fresh and salt waters today and there is evidence from fossils of the Pre-Cambrian period that similar plants existed over one thousand million years ago. Certain of these original organisms gradually acquired the ability to live outside their first environment - the

oceans - and slowly began to colonize estuaries and mud-flats and then finally

became land-living. Profound structural and physiological changes were required and such development were concerned mainly with the conservation of water.

Modern classification

A

based on ancestry will considerably more in-

classification

obviously

yield

formation about the relationships between plants than one based on similarities of certain morphological characters, and the former is the main criterion used in modern systems of classification. Morphology is not completely disregarded, however. Indeed, with modern analytical instruments, such as the electron microscope, fine structural differences may be of use in clarifying certain relationships. Similarly, recent advances in techniques of chemical analysis have made it possible for the presence or absence of certain chemical substances in plants to be used for classification purposes. Such taxonomic knowledge may help in the search for more useful herbs; if, for example, a medicinally useful plant is known to possess a certain tvpe of chemical constituent as its active ingredient, a search in closely related plants, which probably also contain similar (though not necessarily identical) substances,

discovery of a

the

plant

may

lead to

with similar

useful pharmacological actions, but, for

example,

undesirable

less

side-effects.

way from undergoing constant revision as more and more data comes to come

Classification has

Theophrastus and

a long

is

light.

A

current classification of the plant 17 initial divisions. It begins

kingdom has

with the bacteria which are the simplest and therefore probably evolutionarily the

most primitive, and it proceeds in ascending order (in developmental and hence to the flowering group, although the most obviously visible and valuable to

terms)

evolutionary

The

plants.

latter

man, by no means encompasses

all

plant

life.

The

bacteria possess neither chloro-

phyll nor an obvious nucleus in their unibodies,

cellular

and

their

relationship

with the animal kingdom is very close. The next eight divisions make up what we generally term the seaweeds. These are the algae, varying from single-celled organisms that can move around by movements of their special whip-like outgrowths called cilia, to the green covering on ice bark or to the incredibly diverse marine flora, some of which can be almost as large as terrestrial trees. A connection 1

/.///.

.Hiding

and gains some

t

is

own

its

0/ the hint

which

fViscum album J

Mistletoe

parasitt

.

of

its

is

a temi-

nourishment by

roots directly into the tissue

eithei

deciduous

in this ins,

01 e;ci»ieeii.

n Silvei

Maple

Acer saccharinumj. 3'

BIOLOGY can be noticed immediately these simple plants are not able to conserve moisture well and so must live in water or in damp, shady places. The Mycophyta - moulds, mildews and mushrooms - are all fungi. Unlike the algae they cannot photosynthesize because they do not contain any chlorophyll, which accounts for their parasitic or :

A

Classification of the Plant

Kingdom

Divisions

Bacteriophyta (9 orders)

Cyanophyta

(4)

Pyrrophyta (4)

Euglenophyta (1 Chrysophyta (6) Chlorophyta (1 1

Algae-

saprophytic modes of existence. Lichens have an unusual position in the classification order in that each species is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a

Chlorochytridiales

Phaeophyta (Brown Seaweeds) [Gelidium] Rhodophyta (Red Seaweeds)

We

fungus.

Myxophyta Acrasiophyta Lichenes [Cetraria]

Fungi-

Mycophyta

(4 Classes, 33 Orders) [Yeasts. Ergot.

Fomes]

see

them usually

grey.

as

yellow or brown circles on rocks, and, in areas of the world where humidity is high, lichens can attain considerable proportions.

Liverworts

and Mosses

The

Hepaticae (5)

Bryophyta_

Musci

(1

5)

Lycopsida (club-mosses) [Lycopodium] Ferns and

Pteridophyta-

Bryophyta and are the lowest generally noticed level in any

[Dryopteris.

Ophioglossum]

Higher

Cycadales L Ginkqoale kgoales

Cycadopsida-f Coniferophyta

(Gymnospermae)

Coniferales (5 fams) [Pinus. Juniperus]

Coniferopsida—

Taxales (2 fams) Gnetales (3 fams) [Ephedra]

community of plants.

in the evolutionary

usually in stature, too, fern-allies:

Seed-bearing

come

(Dicotyledons)

/lagnoliophyta

plants

[over 44 orders-|_3oo Families

(Angiospermae) Liliopsida _

Herb examples

in

[

]

fover (Monocotyledons; 10orders -L60 Families _

order and

the ferns

the Pteridophyta.

and

They can some trees

be tiny plants or as large as (though the trunks of tree-ferns are not composed of real wood, but compressed Left

:

Each main

kingdom

is

division

of the plant

divided into classes, orders,

tribes, families

and genera. Such a

classification reflects origins, relationships

and evolutionary progress from

Magnoliopsida_ Higher flowering

liver-

Psilotinae

Filicopsida (true ferns)

plants

and

types of mosses

Sphenopsida Equisetinae (Horsetails) [Equisetum]

fern allies

many

worts follow next. These are still humble plants needing, in most cases, much moisture to survive. They comprise the

the

most

primitive algae to the higher flowering plants.

Below from

left to right

:

Different small

fungi -fruiting bodies of a Penicillium; a young root tip in symbiotic association with a mycorrbxzal fungus

:

Mucor.

a black

saprophytic mould.

sporangium

spores

developing

sporangium

hyphae

32

of the

mycelium

,

LICHENS

foliose general view

frond-bases

and

fruticose

root-like

growths

and

i

are invariably leafy in habit.

Of

compacted hyphae

vertical section

the earlier groups only one or two

cross section

have higher plants, and so their world is greatly circumscribed by external factors. A similar rough comparison may be made within the animal kingdom

as

mushrooms and yeasts by man. Although few

ferns

molluscs with

are of use as loods or in any other

utili-

The last two major groups of this plant kingdom classification arc visually and

useful fungi

cultivated tarian

used

way as

a

exception)

{Dryopteris flix-mas

treatment

many

are

are

which

is

worms is an grown as objects oi for

beauty. Bacteria, algae and bryophytes can usually reproduce themselves by a

by fragmentation by sexual means; this helps in classification. Ferns, however, have

vegetative process as well as their

a special

method of reproduction

ing a rather complicated life-histoi

involv\

.

I

ru

which develop and are shed like dust from underneath the fern-fronds

spores

germinate, not into a recognizable fern plant, but into a flat plate <>l green tissiir which resembles a liverwort. This pro-

produces male and female sexual organs, the combination of whose gametes reproductive cells eventually thallus in turn

develops into a typical fern of the species. All the plant groups so lar mentioned, although su( ceeding in their damp, if not

mammals,

economically by

for instance.

Above

:

Lichens consist of two plants, an

alga and a fungus living in partnership. The green alga makes food for the fungus which in turn provides

most important to man though the interdependence of all plant and animal communities should never be forgotten, as no one group can be disregarded just because it seems to have no immediate economic relevance. These two groups, the Gymnospcrms and the Ant^iosperms, are the seed-bearing plants. Gymnosperms include cycads (a feu tropical palm-like trees) but mainly confar the

lichens are shrubby while crustose lichens

form fat consists

crusts on rocks or trees.

which enclose the algal layers

of the

diversity of this

Each of the

dom

possesses

Angiosperms are the highest (evoluspeaking flowering plants whose development has in many ways been conditioned by the need to ensure pollination

classes,

with specific functions within the organism

tion

and continuation of the

species.

The

upper

group

is

and

legion

is

17

groups

in the plant king-

many, usually thousands,

of different organisms. Since Darwin, the belief that each was an individual creation

related

the flowers with consequent reproduc-

cells in the

discussed later.

their berry-like fleshy fruits.

of

type

lichen.

continuation

tionarilv

Each

of strands, called hyphae, offungus

of the invaluable conifers so named because the majority develop their seeds. not in flowers, but in the axils of woody (ones' those of Pine, Cedar, Spruce and Kir are very familiar. Less obviously 'coniferous' are Yew (Taxus baccata) and the Maidenhair tree [Ginkgo biloba) with

sist

actually watery, habitats, arc not vn\ highly evolved. This implies that the) have not developed the range ol organs

moisture and shelter for the

alga. Foliose lichens are leafy, fruticose

has not held credence. As

each plant

is

background

we have

the product of

its

seen,

genetic

affected, gradually, over mil-

lions of years,

by

its

necessity to classify

environment. The to slot each into

and

the divisions already described requires a

smaller and

into

groups

through

sub-classes,

tribes, sub-tribes

and

smaller

subdivisions,

sub-orders,

orders, families.

Such

archical placings have been built

hier-

upon

study and research over centuries but as classification depends utterly

clature

(it

upon nomen-

has to be possible to

relet

to

33

BIOLOGY something by name low)

it is

for discussion to fol-

now universal practice to go back

only as far as the eighteenth century to Linnaeus. In his Species Plantarum, as well as offering a form of classification, he also

introduced a method for the naming of plants which has been adopted as standard. His book listed and described all the plants known at that time. He gave a two-part name to each, one for its genus (the generic name) followed by a species

name

(specific epithet).

the plant's

Hellebore

name,

for

The two make up

example, the Green

Helleborus

is

(genus)

viridis

(species). A plant (or animal) species can thus be referred to by a combination of

words which belong to it and it alone. Universality was and still is assured by the use of Latin.

To

be absolutely correct, such botanical names are followed by the names of the botanist who first described the species. Thus the Green Hellebore

THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS A prime factor in the success of the flowering (and hence of the seed-bearing) plants

extraordinary diversity of of species, although great, cannot compare with that of the lower plant groups but their dominance in most habitats is paramount. This will lies

their

in

form.

The number

be discussed more fully when the adaptation of plants to their environment is considered. Some aspect of diversity of form is exhibited by almost every species. Indeed, it is largely these differences of form which, as we have seen, have been used to give a plant its specific status. Even though every plant specimen is a living individual and as such is subject to biological variation, each individual of a single species maintains enough characteristics of that species to be able to breed successfully with others of the same species

among

its

community.

The

destiny of an organism

lies in its

part in the successful continuance of the species. Atropa belladonna is a herb which

grows best on calcareous shade.

Under

soils in

the half-

these ideal conditions a

strong healthy plant

is formed (that is, the conditions are good for the health of the plant as an individual), but, concomitant with this, the plant makes luscious black

berries

which contain the seeds which

germinate

to

of the plant species. What is good for the individual must also be good for the species. Breeding or reproduction is the

end

to

which

all

life-cycles,

plant

animal, are conditioned.

Below

:

Parts of a generalized plant. All

flowering plants have the same general

arrangement of their parts but individual to their organs vary ,

modifications

enormously.

should properly be referred to as Helleborus viridis Linnaeus (often abbreviated

toL). terminal

which we would recognize as being identical - all the Green Hellethus have bores, to retain our example binomial. Other plants, for the same Stinking Hellebores, are example the similar enough to the green ones to be placed in the same genus {Helleborus) but have their own species name - foetidus. Still more plants have enough similar characteristics to be placed in the same All the plants

family (the next highest ranking in the hierarchy) as the hellebores but not in the

same genus, such as Monkshood (Acomtum napellus) and the Common Buttercup {Ranunculus

acris).

bud

flower

peduncle

lamina

shoot

.

leaf

petiole stipule

All these plants are in

the family Ranunculaceae.

By a similar process of comparison, this time with other families, these Ranunculaceous plants are placed in the order Tubiflorae, along with 25 other families, and the order Tubiflorae in the class Sympetalae. Sympetalae is a class within the

subdivision

Dicotyledones,

in

the

division Angiospermae.

Cultivar

is

soil line

the term for a category,

within the same species, of distinct culti-

vated

sorts.

They are

lateral root

usually referred to as

Hybrids in seed catalogues. between species of the same or even different genera occur and these are indicated by an x sign, for example, Tilia x europaea, being the hybrid derived from T. cordata and T. platyphyllos An inter-

varieties

.

system of rules now governs nomenclature. The necessity for this seemingly very complicated system of nomenclature is national

that correct botanical consistent worldwide.

34

names are thus

beginning of root hairs

will

provide the next generation

lateral root

or

PLANT STRUCTURE The

life-cycle of a flowering plant be-

Already diversification may be a huge cocoA seed apparent. is de-mer of the Seychelles weighing several kilograms, the mustard-seed used in the Bible to illustrate a tiny measure, or the gins with the seed.

seeds of certain

even smaller dust-like orchids

and begonias. Each

seed, regard-

less of its size, contains the vital ability to

continue its species for a further generation. It bears the full genetic complement of

its

parents,

making

it

what

it

will be,

similar to, but not necessarily identical

with, those parents. that

do occur take

Any slight

their

differences

chance

in the race

A

variant that helps, however infinitesimally, an individual to survive for

life.

habitat than

otherwise chance of stands better fellows a identical generation, subsequent continuing into a better in its

and

in so

its

is

less

to

likely

The

:

dispersal

growing

of these methods of seed

prevent young plants from

too close to their parents but rather

new ground.

colonize

to

object

is to

although diversity of form is extreme the basic parts have the same functions. The organs of an angiosperm may be classified as vegetative or reproductive. Vegetative organs are those structures of the plant which are concerned with growth, maintenance and development such as roots, stems and leaves. Those parts of the plant which are concerned with the production of the next generation are classified as the reproductive parts and include the flowers

which give

rise

the seed-containing

to

The

root of an angiosperm

is

are either utilized in the roots themselves

the

Variegated plants, for example, have reduced photosynthetic capabilities and only the efforts of gardeners in propagating them vegetatively keep them alive. Once the seed has found a suitable environment the new generation can begin to grow. The seed-coat opens and a first root emerges to give initial anchorage, and then a shoot appears to reach for the light. By the time this happens unicellular root hairs are abstracting water and salts in solution from the soil. As it breaks above ground, the shoot's greenness develops

or conducted via the vascular tissue to

other parts of the plant. In addition, they

may have

certain specialized functions: food storage, especially as starch (as in Taraxacum officinale, the Dandelion), or as aerial roots they

may

serve to support the

plant either by growing downwards at an angle from the stem to the soil (maize, for example) or by being especially modified as climbing roots to anchor stems to walls and rocks Hedera helix Ivy for instance (

(

album

i

)

some

Further,

species

Mistletoe)

,

such

Viscum

as

which penetrate the vascular

this first growth-spurt is obtained from the food-store within the seed itself, produced while the seed was still developing within the fruit on the parent plant. From this moment the plant develops and eventually attains maturity. As with any living organism its life is beset with dangers and difficulties: problems of competition, availability of food, unpredictability of weather, inevitability of predators. Yet if only because of the sheer number of any one species generally in-

plant host.

The stem is that part of the plant which rises above the ground and, together with the leaves, forms the shoot. Most stems are erect aerial organs but some remain underground and still others creep along the surface. The stem typically serves as a mechanical support for the leaves, flowers and fruits; a pathway for conduction of newly made- food to other parts of the plant, perhaps for storage, and of stored

volved, success for that species

manufacture of the food

is

assured.

Only geological cataclysms and man's interference -

ever before

now

a greater danger than

are likely to cause extinction.

Structure of the typical plant Depending upon the species concerned vegetative growth continues by extension of the primary shoot and root structures fall growth, of course, is by continual ell elongation and division) which branch and branch again. In a 'typical' plant aerial growth is paralleled by that underground growth which cannot be seen. But (

food to

stems

;

its

and

required

site;

a

tissues

site

itself

for in

the

green

as a potential reproductive

Certain underground stems be used for food storage as tubers, rhizomes, bulbs and corms. Modifications to aerial stems include stolons, ten-

may

and thorns.

Leaves, the characteristic photosynthe-

organs of higher plants, have their size. shape and structure expressly designed to promote maximum contact with light and air. Another important leaf activity is transpiration, the loss of water vapour tic

through the leaves.

dispersal

of a

structure.

drils

water

have parasitic roots

and photosynthesis begins. The eneruv for

dispersal

a subterranean organ whose functions are

reproduce.

to

is

strawberry cranesbil

animal

typically

A debilitating variant

survive

this

cotoneaster

fruits.

to anchor the plant to its growing medium and to take up water and other nutrients from the soil. These absorbed materials

doing gradually changes the

characteristics of the species

process of evolution.

Right

coconut

Leaves, like stems and roots, vary in

many

example, in their shape and size, their arrangement on the stem and their vein patterns. Certain basic features are, however, distinguishable. The leal blade or lamina is attached to the stem by means of a continuation of the stem itself, the stalk or petiole. At the base of the petiole are axillary buds which produce secondary branches or flowers or both. respects

-

for

Sometimes small

leaf-like structures, called

In some leaves, leaf and the leaves are said The blades of some leaves are

stipules, are found.

petioles are absent to be sessile.

deeply indented at the margins or edges while others are completely separated into individual parts called leaflets. II the

lamina remains in one piece even though deeply lobed, the leaf is referred to as a simple leal. Complete segmentation of the 35

BIOLOGY blade into leaf.

leaflets

produces a compound different examples

There are many

of both types.

Flowers are specialized branched stems with lateral appendages. The flower is supported by a stem or pedicel which enlarges terminally to give a receptacle, to

which the

floral parts are

attached.

The

sepals (collectively forming the calyx) are

joined to the receptacle and within them are found the petals (or corolla Together the calyx and corolla are termed the perianth. The next group of appendages )

.

are the stamens (the male parts, collectively called the androecium) each consisting of a

narrow

filament, topped by an

anther which produces the pollen. Within these, at the centre of the flower, is the female reproductive structure, the gynoecium. The basic unit of this is the carpel.

At the base is the ovary containing the ovules which develop into the seeds. The ovule is surmounted by a style culminating in a stigma. Extraordinary variation

of the relative size and arrangement of these structures is observed. Some (lowers so-called perfect flowers have both male and female parts, but other plants havi male flowers which are distinct from male ones. When both types ol the flowers are found on one plant, the plant is said to be monoecious (for example. Cucumber) when they are on separate It

;

plants, the species (for

is

known

as dioecious

example, Holly).

After fertilization, the flower structure develops into a fruit containing the fertilized ovules or seecis. The embryo within the seed consists of a short axis with one or

two seed-leaves or cotyledons which are food stores. After germination, sometimes the seed-leaves stay below ground (hypogeal germination), but in other species

they break through the soil surface to act as the primary photosynthesizers (epigeal germination). Monocotyledonous plants

produce only one cotyledon, dicotyledonous two. In addition the mature embryo contains a plumule which gives rise to the shoot and the radicle which becomes the root system. The seed is surrounded by a testa or seed-coat. The wall of the immature ovary gives rise to

the

main

structure of the fruit-wall

- the pericarp - which

is

generally divided

Right: Diagram of a generalized flower (all flowering plants have the same general arrangement )

,

which may be defined, simply,

as a specialized branched stem with a

number

of modified lateral appendages. The enormous variations in size, shape

and colour are

often attributable to the plant's adaptation to

a particular method of pollination.

36

into three,

more or

less distinct, layers:

and the endocarp. A very wide range of seeds and fruits exists. The variation in form and character the exocarp, the mesocarp

of each of the organs

is

useful in identifica-

tion and a brief description of each main type will be found in the glossary.

be realized that every plant is adapted to its habitat. The available resources of nutrients derived from the soil (both of organic and inorganic origins) restrict or promote the It will

perfectly

dominance of certain groups. do the amounts of water and the

success or So, too,

vagaries

Because

of climate.

they

are

plants they are able to harness air

and

sunlight. Herbs, as they have

defined, are plants used by

come

man

in a

to

be

num-

ber of different ways: only in a few cases does this detract from their efficiency as organisms. Their botanical classification,

however,

human

is

not necessarily determined b\

usage. Certain plant families con-

numbers of herb plants. The Umbelliferae, which includes Parsley, Dill, Caraway, Coriander and Angelica, and the Labiatae with Sage, Thyme, Mint, Savory, Rosemary, for example, have main culinary herbs. The tain

relatively

Solanaceae

large

include

a

disproportionate

number of drug plants Mandrake, monium, Belladonna and Henbane

Stra.

PLANT GROWTH The

growth are water, warmth, air and nutrients.

basic necessities for plant

light,

We will see shortly how plant forms develop in response to the search for these basic requirements, so making maximum use of the available resources. Air is the only essential factor for every phase of growth of the higher plants except in the short initial stage of seed germination. In normal conditions the ramifying root system possesses myriads of root hairs in contact with the soil. Each soil 'crumb" is surrounded by a film of water in which inorganic salts (the product of the continual weathering of inorganic rocks and decomposing organic remains; are disThe root-hair wall acts as a membrane through which water and

solved.

certain dissolved salts can pass. Osmosis,

the process by which two solutions (in this case cell sap

and

soil

a semi-permeable

water), separated by

membrane

(here, the

root-hair wall) attempt to equalize each other,

means

that

weaker solutions flow

into stronger ones. In this case, the cell

sap

is

more concentrated and hence salts) from the soil are drawn root hair. Its contents are now

the

water and into the

weaker than those of the adjoining inner cells

and

so the osmotic flow proceeds

inwards until

it

reaches the conducting

NUTRITION These are groups of specialized throughout the plant whose function it is to convey water and tissues.

extending

cells

dissolved minerals to all part of the plant

(both the nutrients and the products of photosynthesis in the green parts). The sophistication of these tissues is a feature

yffctrlM

«/.:,

»

^K^^^^*

^^

m

of the morphology of the higher plants. The conducting or vascular tissues are

capable of permitting nutrient movement in both directions (that is, both to and from the roots). In young roots and stems there are separate strands of xylem taking

pimmmmB'

1

(

nutrients

up from the

roots)

and phloem

J

Ij

(bringing the products of photosynthesis down). There is considerable variation in the form of these conducting elements (vessels

and tracheids are examples) and

may

be used for identification purposes. In more developed (older this diversity

plants, these tissues exist as rings

1

H

•xi

^|

^8^mr7nHvTTf ~^yij

^H

^m

^^H

which

develop as the stems and roots enlarge.

The nutrition of plants For efficient growth plants require a wide range of nutrients in solution, the main elements being nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. To these are added calcium, sulphur,

magnesium and

a large

number

of trace elements such as boron, iron, copper, zinc and

molybdenum which

are

equally essential but in minute quantities only. Deficiencies of these minor or trace elements show as physiological diseases; in excess, however, they can be positively

the crop has been harvested. Decomposi-

Above

tion of the root system with the nodules

kept in the dark

and the bacteria they contain

stem with small leaves

into the soil, so

Surprisingly, although nitrogen

a major constituent of the air with which most plants are in constant contact, only a relatively small number of them can make direct use of this source. Most nitrogen has to be obtained from nitrogenous compounds in the soil hence ui apply ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate as fertilizers to supplement what is already there. But members of one plant family in particular, the Leguminosae, have developed a symbiotic 01 mutually beneficialj relationship with is

certain bacteria (notably Bacillus species or Rhizobium radicicola) which are able to this

is

for

with most crops which deplete soil nitrogen. The nodules are clearly visible on any carefully lifted legume root. Alders and a few subtropical trees such as Casuarinas also display this adaptation.

atmospheric nitrogen. The bacsmall nodules grown by the

teria live in

roots of the plant host

and provide

it

in

return with nitrogen. This is why crops of peas or beans, lor example, positively benefit the soil

provided that the under-

ground parts are

left

in the

ground

after

with

ted

reddish

a

tinge.

Phosphorus

energy through photosynthesis respiration, and without it both

transfers

and

body

reactions in the plant

to take

fail

place properly. Potassium seems to have a special part to play in carbohydrate

metabolism and a deficiency shows as pool general development in many parts ol the plant. Potassium also contributes to resistance against disease It is

the

not necessary to

inorganic

and

list all

nutrients

the roles of

which

plants

growing in a balanced soil. The vital part played by water as a pathway to nutrient is

also clear.

Water

is

also

biochemical processes in the plant, including photosynthesis. Most plants, however, take up more water than they actually require for these processes because the essential materials essential to all the

are generally only present in

very dilute solution, so that a has to

be-

taken into

the-

the-

lot

soil

in

ofwatei

plant for

it

to

obtain enough of its dissolved salts. This excess water is transpired from the surlae c ol

the leaf or

young

and

so has developed a long

- a good example of

a plant growing without light, one of the necessities for healthy

growth.

stems. Vast

of water pass through the plants in this way a summer crop of grass, for example, has been estimated to have transpired some 500 tons of water per acre 255 tonnes per hectare) between May and :

(

1

July.

The warmth needed

for

plant growth

relates directly to the species naturally

occurring in any one climate. Plants are seldom killed by cold in their own habitats. When a range of exotics is grown in a cold climate, however, it can be seen that the ability to withstand frost is not necessarily

plants

inherent.

much

greater

Among

primitive

extremes

appear

Certain unicellular algae, for example-, have- been recorded in Antarctica, while some species of bacteria may live at 77 C 71 F). In higher plants the life-cycle is also seen to be directly related to seasonal temperatures. A similar relationship is observed, in the higher or lower latitudes, according to the amount of daylight available. Flowering plants grow rapidly and seeds germinate in response- to increased temperature and day-length. These- growth patterns of vegetative development leading to flowering and seed production have evolved to capitalize upon or to work within the conditions that exist in their nativepossible.

frost.

obtain through their roots to appreciate the importance of a healthy root svstem

availability

This courgette seedling has been

in contrast

Plants lacking phosphorus appear stun-

Nitrogen is a basic constituent of all proteins but also of the vitally important chlorophyll, hence a lack of this elemenl produces weak, yellowish plants. An excess of nitrogenous fertilizers results in lush, sappy growth which is prone to

fix'

becoming available

the next season's crop. This

toxic.

disease.

compounds

nitrogen-containing

useful

releases

:

amounts

!

habitats.

1

The

stimulus for activity

may

however, be a direct one, such as this. Winter-hardy cereals, for example, flower not,

M

BIOLOGY Left: Tangles

fLaminaria digitataj,

with a smooth stalk and a strap-like blade

which

is slit

into several sections, is one

the oar-weeds.

of These are brown algae which

are specially adapted to live only in

particular zones along the seashore.

flowering plant divisions are predominant. Flowering plants which

now

live in

water have probably moved back to it from the land to cope with excessive terrestrial competition and have, therefore, had to develop very specialized structures. The floating leaves of waterlilies have stomata on their upper sides, not mainly on the lower ones as do most aerial plants.

The

merged water

cells

of the largely sub-

plants,

hydrophytes, are

wide intercellular spaces, for air is at a premium. If a plant is to succeed each problem has to be solved. The swamp large with

cypress of the Florida Everglades, Taxo-

dium distichum, grows snorkel-like structures, in the

warmth of

the early

summer

be-

cause their seedlings have been subjected to winter cold. Chrysanthemums only flower in

autumn

as the night-length in-

creases sufficiently to allow production ol

hormones which in turn cause the buds to develop. That we now accept as normal the permanent availability of chrysanthemums, and other the various plant

crops, out of season,

man's success

is

an indication of

in providing, particularly

in the highly controlled environments of greenhouses, the exactly right amount of the basic necessities for growth. Air is enriched with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide to accelerate photosynthe-

provided or denied, temperature is controlled, optimal amounts of water and concentrations of

sis,

extra

light

is

nutrients are given. All these factors must

be contrived to create the balanced regime that may accelerate, but cannot fundamentally alter, the growth pattern of the plant species concerned.

species)

Plants, no less than animals, are the result of each species' evolutionary response to its environment. Yet plants complement

and add

to their

environment

in a

way

that animals cannot.

A

climate which permits forest as a

vegetation climax (so called because this represents the peak of plant growth and

development;

is

itself

aided by the convapour from

tinual transpiration of water

the highest branches of the trees that form a forest canopy.

The

soil

the trees to attain maturity

annual 38

leaf-fall

(even

which enables

is enriched by from evergreen

In

in the root network of the Within such woodland a stratification of other plants, from shrubs to mosses, is encouraged and helps to develop its associated fauna. A fully developed habitat encourages a great richness ol plant and animal life. Yet the natural

being held plants.

balance

ecological

is

very

sensitive

to

man's interference. The aridity of the Sahara desert today, and the pollution of much of the Mediterranean coastal areas, is a reminder of the hazards of careless

human Not

exploitation.

all

natural environments, however,

permit the attainment of the woodland climax and yet in the areas of the earth which are able to provide even a minimum of the necessary requirements for plant growth, some such growth is always present. Its form reflects the availabilitx of the basic necessities and the external factors that It

may

limit their utilization.

seems probable that

moved

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT

and protected from erosion

terrestrial life

very slow evolutionary stages

in

from watery habitats, and thus in plants the ability to withstand drought can be seen as a highly developed (and late stage of this evolution. Thus the world of plants may be seen as an unbroken continuum from lake or even sea to desert. Each main compels plant habitat characteristic species to adapt to it (although the plants which are successful in this adaptation may be of widely differing families and of )

diverse evolutionary origin and age). This similarity of form in response to the

known

as

pneumatophores. which

protrude above the water level and so help in obtaining enough air. The mangroves of most tropical swamps have developed an invaluable seed-dispersal

method: seeds just dropped would fall into the sea and probably be carried awa\ with little chance of germination. Seeds of several species thus germinate on the parent plant, producing a heavy torpedolike first root;

the seedling

falls,

slicing

through the water to stick into, and so grow in, the mud below. Bog plants have no difficulty in finding enough water so long as it is not brackish, but aeration at the roots presents more of a problem. The plants of the saline marshes, halophytes, suffer from physiological drought. Water is available all around, yet because of its high salt concentration osmotic intake is difficult. Water-loss must thus be avoided at all costs and halophytes exhibit similar waterconserving characteristics to desert plants, where all water is scarce. Plants which

are

known

grow

best in

as mesophytes.

normal

They

soils

are in-

cluded in a broad band of morphological types reflecting every sort of habitat and micro-climate throughout the world. The great majority of herbs are mesophytic. In cultivation, however, the individual requirements of each species have to be considered: semi-shade and a moist soil suits Angelica and Sorrel, for example, while Sage and Basil like full sun and perfect drainage. In general all aromatic

as convergent evolution.

herbs thrive in warmth and sunlight. In areas of high humidity where plant growth is at its most concentrated, such as the

In watery habitats the simpler, non-

equatorial jungles, trees will be covered

conditions habitat

is

prevailing

known

in

a

particular

,

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT with flowering plants and ferns which have adapted themselves to enjoy an aerial life. These so-called epiphytes are especiallv represented in the Orchidacctie for example, Vanilla) and Bromeliaceae

Pineapple

The

families.

typical plants of desert regions are

They are generally leafless with stems and deeply moisture-retaining thick the cacti.

stomata to reduce water-loss. Cacti are good examples of the extreme

sunken

xerophytic

and

condition,

native

are

only to the New World. The problem of water retention and excessive water-loss (leading of course to wilting, desiccation is, however, worldbe a seasonal problem, as in the Arctic where although there is always plenty of water, it is unavailable to the plant in the winter because it is locked away in the form of ice. Plants have developed a vast number of ways of minimizing such dangers. Leaves always the most vulnerable of organs may have thick, waxy cuticles such as the Bay Laurel. The woolly covering of many greyleaved shrubs and their colour also helps to reflect excessive sunlight. Leaves may be greatly reduced ias in Lavender and Rosemary or be completely missing (Ephedra, for example Succulent leaves Purslane indicate their increased capacity for water storage. Variation in morphology is also clear in the type of life a species is programmed to live, and every possibility exists. Ephemcrals such as Corn Salad rush through

and ultimately death wide.

It

may

.

;

their life-cycle

(that

is

to

sav.

the seed

germinates, develops into the adult plant

which flowers and produces a new generation of seeds) in only a few weeks,

suitable conditions are available.

require a

full

summer

when

Annuals

season. Biennials.

on the other hand, take two years for the full cycle: during the first year the seed germinates and develops into a \ egetativc 'body' and an underground storage organ.

The mer

is used the following sumproduce a flowering spike which then produces fresh seed. Many vegetables and herbs do this, for example. Carrot, Pal nip and Parsley. 1'eiennial plants, which live horn three to four years to several thousands, have bifurcated into the herbaceous, which

stored food to

retire to a resting bulb,

bud

01

some other

inclement seasons

eithei

excessively hot or cold), or the

wood v.

root-stock

in

Shrubs, and especially

trees.

m< rease

theii

vegetative bod) yearly, and this in its turn has demanded the production of special

strengthening tissues to support the enormous weight of the tree trunks. Similarly in these cases, special water-conducting

mechanisms within the plant (to convey water and nutrients from below soil-level which to the tips of the highest branches may be a hundred metres above) have had

Above : Swamp cypress fTaxodium distichumj, seen here in autumn coloration, shows adaptation to its marshy

to be developed.

pneumatophores which come above wet

form of body and of lifesi v le a species has evolved, it must be seen as a preliminary to flowering and sexual reproduction. The range of flower types has evolved in parallel with the diversity of fauna which are available to pollinate them. Colour, scent, size and season arcgeared to the animate visitors such as insects and birds and the inanimate wind

water for

Whatever

the'

rain. Efficiency is all and the fact th.it a plant succeeds in the wild is proof that

and

methods adopted, however bizarre, u.dk work. Only distribution of the seeds remains be considered and the methods are as

the ,k

t

environment by having modified roots known as

air,

and a

special

soil or

method of seed

germination which avoids losing the seeds in the sea

where they may fail

to develop.

groups include suitable species which by trial and error have been discovered to possess useful properties.

The

alkaloids

which are now used from such species as Datura stramonium (Thorn Apple) and Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane) may be byproducts of the plant's normal metabolic processes or defence mechanisms. 1 1 would seem that the volatile oils of Rue or

The

Rosemary are in fact intended as a discouragement to browsing animals. Man, ironic ally, finds them attractive and both collects them in the wild and cultivates

its

them.

to

varied as those

employed

for pollination.

individual species demonstrates by existence the efficiency of the whole

organism. Each has reached success and continues to succeed in its ecological niche by a constant process of adaptation ovei many thousands of years. The- range- of species that man has used as herbs throughout the world as food, medicine or elves is enormous. As already indicated, almost all of the major plant

It is significant that few herbs are the product of intensive breeding or, indeed, selection. They are species that have been hist collected, then cultivated, and now even farmed with the development of horticulture. They have not, however, been changed genetically from their

original wild form.

39

CHEMISTRY

THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS

fundamental point of difference between

We know

plants

that

some plants are

useful in

and animals. The

latter take in

treating certain diseases or in cooking, but

large molecules such as starches, proteins

not sufficient to say that we know that they work or that they impart pleasing odours and flavours to food. The reason

and

it is

for their various actions is that they contain certain active chemical substances

and

it

is

these

compounds

that produce

various effects. This section is concerned with a consideration of what these active

how and why the plant makes them and how we can best use

materials are,

them. Before discussing the active substances, however, it is necessary to look at the chemistry of plants in general.

There are a number of similarities between plants and animals - both are composed ofcells, for example. The typical mature plant cell is a very small (about o.o

i

to o.ooi

cm

or 0.004 to 0.0004 ins

in diameter), many-sided compartment enclosed by a cell-wall. Within this wall is

contained the cytoplasm

(in

which most

of the life-giving processes occur) and the nucleus (which houses the genes and controls all activities

of the

cell).

Most of the

occupied by a cavity or vacuole containing a watery sap. Some of the most important components of the cytoplasm are the chloroplasts in which the plant assimilates its food. This is the

cell

is

(which contain many carbon atoms), and gradually break them down in a sort of controlled combustion process, thus obtaining their contained energy (required for growth, for example in small definite quantities rather than all at once as in a fire. They then reassemble these small fragments of the original food molecules to form their own substance. Plants, on the other hand, take in from the air a very small molecule, carbon dioxide, as their source of carbon and bring together several (sometimes manyi of these single carbon units, combined with water from the soil, to make up their own substance, releasing back oxygen into the air in the process. The energy required for this conversion is provided by sunlight which is trapped by the green pigment, chlorophyll, contained in the chloroplasts. Other pigments, usually yellow. trap light of slightly different wavelengths so increasing the efficiency of the conversion of solar to chemical energy. The initial product of these photosynthetic reactions is a simple sugar containing six carbon atoms, glucose, which may then be used in other reactions or stored as fats

starch.

Enzymes Plants are very efficient at carrying out this process because unlike in the chemical

when

laboratory

a great deal of energy has to be supplied to cause

(usually heat

a chemical change to take place which

is

very wasteful), reactions in living systems are controlled by complex protein cata-

enzymes.

called

lysts

These work

by

drastically lowering the energy required for

each stage in a complicated sequence

of reactions

(like the

process of converting

carbon dioxide to glucose] The protein of most enzymes is combined in some way with a metal atom such as iron or manganese which explains why small quan.

of these materials are essential for healthy growth. If that metal is absent.

tities

enzyme of which it forms a and the reacwhich that enzyme catalyzes cannot

the particular

part cannot be produced, tions

proceed so that the chemical constitution of the plant, hence its development, is impaired or even stopped. A little energy still is required for enzyme-catalyzed reactions and this energy is stored in special chemical bonds high-energy phosphate bonds hence the requirement for phosphorus. Enzymes are highly specific materials which can promote only one small reaction in a complicated sequence and the overall change from carbon ,

dioxide to glucose requires the presence of hundreds of closely related enzyme molecules.

The absence

or malfunction of

one of these means that the reactions cannot proceed normally. They are also extremely dependent, among other factors, on temperature the optimal temperature is usually 37 C or 98 F The sugars produced by the green

just

.

tissue in the first stages

of photosynthesis

may

be further metabolized in the same cell or transported, via the vascular tissue, to other parts of the plant. They may then Left: Parts of a typical rigid-walled cell. ( The cell-wall material

plant is

mainly cellulose but may be

impregnated with other materials such as lignin.)

A

choroplast

B C

endoplasmic reticulum

D

nucleolus

E F

chromatin

G

nucleus

nuclear

membrane

H

vacuole

I

mitochondrion

J

Golgi membrane

K

40

cytoplasm

L

cell membrane plasma membrane

M

thickened cell-wall

LIFE-GIVING PROCESSES Right: The enzyme ( i ) combines with

(2) to form an This breaks down

certain substrate molecules

activated complex (3)

.

and

give the products (4)

to

regenerates the

enzyme. Only some molecules will exactly which explains 'fit' on the enzyme surface their

high

specificity.

be assimilated

to give, for

example, cellu-

main constituent of plant

lose (the

cell-

important food walls) may be used in or they storage material), important biothe synthesis of other chemicals such as proteins (some of which may be used to make more enzymes), nucleic acids (which make up part of the genetic material of the cells - the chromo(an

starch

or

somes) and A plant

fats.

increases

substance,

its

or

grows, either by enlargement of the existing cells of which it is comprised or by

produce subsequently may which two further enlarge and divide themselves. Both enlargement and division are influenced by the environment as has been mendivision of certain of these cells to cells

tioned previously but it is at the biochemical level that control really takes place.

example, germinate as a temperature in the spring because the warmth activates certain enzymes which produce chemical Seeds,

for

of increased

result

substances whose function

growth by

become important

are to sion.

An

it

is

on

acting directly

to initiate-

cells

which

centres of divi-

increase in the length ol stems

and roots (as in germination), in the development of their branching systems and in the development of lateral growths such as leaves, Rowers and root hairs is known as primary growth. The regions ol extremely active, dividing ells which give c

these growths

rise to

arc-

called primary

meristems. Secondary meristems also occur and the most important of these is known as the cambium. It usually occurs as a continuous, annular layer ol small cells from just above the root tip to just below the stem apex. Lateral division of these cambial cells inwards towards the centre- of the stem produces xylem cells. which conduct water upwards from the loots.

Outward

nutrients to

all

energy and the energy stored as phosphate groups ma\ he released

ol 1

'active

cells,

parts of the plant. All cell elongation and requires the utili-

division

zation

same manwhich convex

division in the

ner produces phloem

and so become available- lor carrying out other processes by a sequence of reactions which

is

essentially

the-

reverse

breaking

synthesis

tin-

molecules to

much

e>l

photo-

down of

smaller ones

in the-

large pro-

Above

:

A

lack of potassium in the soil

produces browning and death of the leaves of this

Paeony plant. Other

give

rise to different

may proceed

deficiencies also

diseases but all

may

tually

The

soil

tilled or the fertilizer will be belli fit the

must be well

unable

ess

takes over as the

is

known

as respiration.

fundamental,

processes

an obvious chemical influence on chlorophyll production as well as inducing indirect chemical changes which promote in

inhibited

main growth

Primary and secondary metabolism

Light, vital as an energy source, exerts

flowering

and even-

to

plant.

which

previously

point.

All these(

at other levels

one of the

laterals

generally be rectified by application of the

appropriate fertilizer-

apex, and hence the hormones, are removed by pruning, for example growth

the

Chrysanthemum,

for

example, as has already been mentioned. In an established plant, cell division and thus elongation of the stem or branch occurs at the apical bud because it produces certain growth-retarding substane es hormones which suppress activity at the other buds lower down the- stem. If the

(the

literally life-giving,

assimilation

of food,

its

and hence growth) most plants, and their

digestion, respiration

are

common

to

biochemical control is essentially identical in all cells (whether they arc on the surface of a leaf or deep inside a root) of all species from microscopic, floating seaweeds to the giant redwoods. For this reason they areknown as primary metabolic processes and the compounds involved as primary metabolites.

Most

plants, however,

make other sub-

stances in addition to those they require 4'

CHEMISTRY

•

..

.

V->

&

I

,'

K

V

——

.

,

L

,

with low osmotic pressures called flavonoids, which happen to be red. A pink colour thus develops in the leaves. After some time when the plant has grown and so needs and can accommodate more sugar, the red substances are removed by reconversion into useful sugars so that the pink hue gradually disappears.

The main types of metabolites The 'active constituents' of plants may categorized according

to

their

be chemical

structure: Alkaloids are distinguished chemically

by

the fact that they contain a basic nitrogen

atom. An alkaloid-containing plant almost never contains just one alkaloid but rather a whole range of closely related chemical components. Thousands of alkaloids are known and they are very widespread in the plant world being present even in certain fungi.

the

Some

Solanaceous

of the best

group

shows

more may serve a protective function. Some compounds are extremely toxic (even in very low concentrations) and a

section through a holly leaf

the 'open' structure

of leaves with good circulation

large air-spaces to promote

bird, for example, which cats a bcrrv which contains these substances and as a result becomes ill soon learns to avoid the fruit from that particular species: the

of gases. Holly, an evergreen, possesses a modification to enable it to withstand drought conditions in winter by having a thick outer cuticle.

merely to exist and these are often ofver) complicated structure. They can sometimes be unique to a single species or a

group of very closely related species. Despite their wide diversity of character and distribution they all have one thing in common and that is that their function in the plant, if they have one at all, is very poorly understood. It is these secondary metabolites, sometimes present in an extremely minute concentration, which exert

the

physiological

logical effects

on

man and

or

pharmaco-

are responsible

and odours of some obvious that it is on these substances that an account of the chemistry of herbs should concentrate. for the strong flavours

species

and

it is

Biosynthesis

The secondary

may

be

regarded as 'end-products' of metabolism have an extremely wide range of chemical structure but their functions are largely unknown. Some coloured compounds have an obvious reproductive role in that they are responsible for the colour of

and the yellow carotenes of sunflowers are good examples and hence attract insects which pollinate and cross-fertilize. Others may have a role in growth regulation the hormones already mentioned while still flowers (the red flavonoids of roses

42

among other

Deadly Nightshade and Thorn Apple. Another much more complex group which includes morphine is found in certain species of poppy. Glycosides are compounds which consist of two parts: a sugar portion attached via a species,

special

linkage to a non-sugar residue.

chances of survival of the plant are thus

They may be

increased.

action of dilute acid. Probably the most

Some

evidence that

these secondary

substances are concerned, however indirectly, with vital processes is given In the fact that not

all

parts of those plants

by enzymes or by the

split

important group are those which exert a powerful physiological effect on heart muscle the cardio-active glycosides

which are special

steroids found,

among

which contain these materials have the same concentration of them. They may.

other plants, in the Foxglove and the-Valley. Second only to the cardiac

for

example, be concentrated in the bark Buckthorn) or the fruits (for example, Caraway). Their concentration, furthermore, varies with the season (and this has obvious important consequences regarding the collection of some medicinal plants and herbs which will be referred to later) and even with the time of day. The concentration of active principles in the

glycosides are those

(as in the

anthraquinone, the purgative substances of Cascara, Rhubarb, Buckthorn and Senna. Saponins are special glycosides which form stable froths or foams when shaken in water. Their physiological action depends on the fact that they break up red blood haemolysis). The Primula is one of cells

medicinally useful plants of the family Solanaceae (particularly the Deadly

the herbs containing saponins.

Nightshade) metabolites which

are

(atropine and

hyoscine, ibr example) from,

Above: This

known

for

instance

show marked

Lily-of-

compounds based on

i

mixtures of oils are complex quite small molecules which are volatile Essential

diurnal variation. Another example in which secondary metabolites may play a

and generally have a pronounced odour.

role in

fundamental metabolism is given by the so-called 'pink flush' of lettuces. When growth and photosynthesis is very active, in young seedlings for example,

many

high concentrations of sugars build up

including Dill, Caraway, Fennel and Anise and the leaves of certain species of Labiatae including Peppermint and Thyme). In addition,

increasing the osmotic pressure of the

some

cell

sap to dangerously high levels. If allowed to proceed the cells could literally explode at this point certain enzymes are activated which divert the metabolism to break

down

these sugars to aromatic

compounds

They

are responsible for the flavours of culinary herbs (for example, the

umbelliferous

fruits

have a therapeutic effect - for example, oil of Clove is antiseptic. Mucilages and gums consist of large molecules made up of several hundred individual sugar units linked together to form chains. They have the special propertv of oils

EXTRACTION being able to form gels with water and thus exert a soothing effect on inflamed

They may

tissue.

also act as laxatives

by

increasing the bulk of the contents of the intestines and hence induce peristalsis. A good example is Marshmallow root. Tannins are complex phenols which react

with protein. Just as a tannin solution is used to prevent putrefaction of animal hides by converting them to leather so may an extract of the Oak (which is high in tannin content) be used to promote wound healing by encouraging the formation of new tissue under the leathery layer formed on broken mucosal surface by the action of tannins. Because of their astrin-

gent

compounds

these

properties

also

have a marked effect on flavour - as in tea, for example. Bitten as the name implies have a strong bitter taste but do not belong to any one special chemical class. They are generally Gentian, used to stimulate the appetite for example, is included for this purpose in a

number of aperitifs.

can be seen that all these different of substances have very different chemical properties. Because of these It

classes

methods used in the preparation of extracts of plants also vary. The extraction procedures obviously dedifferences, the

pend on the types of constituent present and it is worthwhile examining the vari< ius procedures

in detail.

MAKING EXTRACTS OF PLANTS Although it is desirable for all purposes to have
and sometimes, though

not always, profitable

t<>

extract from

it

the active constituents.

important to choose the appropriate

It is

part of the plant, lor not theii active

all

plants contain

ingredients distributed evenly

throughout

each

organ.

materials in Bcarbcrry.

fol

The

active

example, are

the simplest

method of preservation. The

concentrated mainly in the leaves while the useful parts of Chamomile are the

layers

flower-heads.

bunches] and kepi

After collection the pro* edure ling the material

lot

depends on the

hand-

species,

pail ol the plant, active ingredients

and

whether or not the plant is to be used .it once or stored, fresh plant material contains a high proportion of water leaves and flowers usually lose up to about 85 pet cent ol their weight on drying)

and

foi

reason the fresh materials are ratek

this

used

in

the

preparation of cxtnu is. A extract may be ob-

more concentrated tained the

il

the plant

is first

added advantage

(hied, vvln< h has

that drying

is

also

fresh plant material

certain

in

01

cases

in thin

hung up

in

in a dry, well-\ cnlila-

Tubers and

ted place.

spread out

is

toots will obviously

take longer to dry than flowers

and

Above

:

The

volatile oil

being extracted. droplets)

is

The

of certain plants

oil (seen as yellow

driven off mixed with steam

condenses in the upper right-hand

arm

and

of

the apparatus.

leaves

even though the former are sometimes cut

accelerate decomposition by promoting

up

of the

enzyme

also vital.

Once

into

small

Selection

pieces.

correct drying temperature

Too high

,i

temperature ma) cause

active ingredients

volatile oils, for

name

their

as

ple,

is

suggests

loss ol

exam-

vaporize

above about 40 C or some chemical degradation 10 may oeeur as in Digitalis and most other readily at temperatures 1

1

,

glycoside-containing plants). On the other temperature ma) actually hand, too low ,1

activity within the plant

itself.

dried the plant material should

be stored in a dark, cool place in containers that ate as near airtight as possible.

Some

is bound to occur with and it is advisable to use only material which has not been Stored for longer than two years. The material is usually reduced to a moderate powder b\

deterioration

time, however,

grinding

just

before use.

43

CHEMISTRY Purification of the extract

The

next problem

is

the extraction ot the

There are two major the first is to choose a method

active substances. difficulties:

which in a

will extract the desired

high yield and the second

compound is

to ensure

unwanted impurities as possible are removed from the plant at the same time. As has been seen already the that as few

principles have very different chemical, and hence solubility, characteristics depending on the class of comactive

pound

which they belong. Since,

to

example,

oils

for

are insoluble in water, water

or solvents containing a high proportion

of water cannot be used in their isolation. Alkaloids are soluble in organic solvents

such as chloroform but so are the highly coloured pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenes. Glycosides are watersoluble but a great many other substance :s formed in plants such as the sugars and acids also dissolve in water.

Thus

it

is

extremely difficult to prepare an extract which contains a reasonably high concentration of the desired material and that material alone. A fairly satisfactory compromise may be achieved, however, by the use of dilute ethyl alcohol. Ethyl alcohol contains enough of the properties of water to dissolve the sugars and acids,

which arc polar compounds.

It

also be-

haves sufficiently like a non-polar organic solvent such as petrol to cause the larger organic molecules, such as polypeptides and steroids, to dissolve. This has the

advantage

in

that

in

most herbal

remedies the compounds actually responreported action are either not known or they are only, or sometime^ more, effective in combination with other substances either closely related or not which are found in that particular plant. This last phenomenon, known as synersible for the

gism,

is

discussed in the next chapter.

The

various ways of

is

making extracts follow. One of the simplest ways of using herbs as herbal teas or tisanes, which involves

simply extraction of the plant with water. If the active ingredients are very soluble in water, it may be sufficient to macerate the powder with water for several hours at room temperature. Maceration at higher temperatures (as in the case of

some hard barks; the drug

is

is

called digestion. If

boiled in water for half an hour

or so the result

is

lor several

days or longer. This

may

either

be by maceration in a closed \ essel with occasional shaking or stirring or by a process of percolation which involves packing the drug into a glass column and slowly pouring water through, over the

drug.

The

active ingredients dissolve in

may

be collected and passed through the column a second time. Concentration by evaporation results in a the water which

thick

residue

alcohol

is

known

as

an extract.

used the percolate

is

If

called a

tincture.

Volatile oils

may

be extracted

rather pure^state by a process

in

a

known

as

distillation. This method heating the powdered drug with boiling water which causes the oil to vaporize into the steam. The oil and the steam are collected together by condensation. The oil, being lighter than the water, floats on the surface and may then be collected.

steam

involved-

a decoction; but pro-

bably the best method is to place the plant in a pot, cover with water that is just boiling for about a quarter of an hour and strain the resulting infusion.

Not all plant constituents are soluble in water under these circumstances, however, and it may be necessary to leave the 44

plant material in contact with the water

This

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

quality.

relatively straightforward

when

whole, fresh condition either by direct comparison with an authentic specimen or by the use of book^ of plant descriptions floras Many recognizable characteristic features may be lost on drying, however, and certainly in is

in the

.

powdered condition further work is required and this is best achieved by a microscopical investigation. the

Microscopical examination Although most plants contain essentially the same sorts of cells cork, for example, or the elements in the xylem, the conducting tissue

form

which have broadly the same

in all species, the fine, microscopic

structure of these cells

is

often

highly

Examination of a powder under the microscope and the observation of xylem vessels shows that the powder contains wood, but from the fine structure individual.

may

be possible to identify the source size of the individual cells may be important: the width of the fibres enables powdered Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum\ to be distinguished from

it

plant.

As the activities of plants are very diverse and even quite closely related species often have completely different effects, it is important to ensure that the correct species is being used and that it is of good

is

the plant

Even the

the closely related Cassia

Cinnamomum

cassia).

The

botanical source of the plant

is

not

necessarily a sufficiently strong criterion

.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Above

:

In this chromotagraphic separation,

the various constituents

with the spray reagent spots.

Unknown

of the plant react to

extracts

produce coloured

of plants may thus

be compared with those of authentic

specimens.

Left

:

Closely related plants in the powdered

state are often indistinguishable to the eye

but

may

be easily identified microscopically.

Fibres in powdered Cinnamon (near left) are rarely greater than

jo

micrometres in

diameter, while those in Cassia (far left)

30 and 40

are usually between

micrometres.

of identity. Certainly such techniques not be applied to the examination

Some

actually responsible for the

The second technique, which has been known lor about 30 years but only recently

logical activity of the plant, the pattern of

spots

is

applied to the study of plant extracts,

tic

is

called

ex-

which contain no plain

tracts or tinctures

material.

Chromatography

mav

<>l

further

means of control

obviously desirable, but the problem

complicated by the fact that although many plants have been thoroughly investigated referred to

and their biological activity one particular or more than

one group of constituents, many have nol and we still have very little idea of which components are the physiologic ally active ones. If

purify

we

did,

it

should be possible

to

crude extract and actually

the

chromatography.

into individual

with a suitable

and as it does components of the mixthe bottom of the plate

port by capillary attraction so the individual

is

nol

possible in the majority of cases, howevei and the solution to the problem may be approached in two ways. One is tin application of certain chemical tests. It an extract under investigation is suspce ted to be of, for example, Blueberry, which is

known

contain

to

chemical

tannins,

a

simple

with a dilute solution offerric chloride 'which gives a blue-black colour with such substances) would rapidly tell test

the investigator not. But

the

it

if

tannins were present or

would certainly not

extract

were-

truly

of

tell

him

if

Blueberry from what-

ause generally all tannins ever source) would give a similar colour. bee

ture applied to

move-

as

well,

depending on

but

at

different

rates

their affinity for the solvent

and the adsorbent. When the

solvent

reaches the top of the plate, the

plate-

removed and

dried. Coloured

is

compounds

are visible directly, but the plate

is

usually

sprayed with a detecting reagent which reacts with colourless compounds to give coloured spots. The pattern of spots produced by this technique is characteristic for

a

particular plant extract under a

particular

Although

of operating conditions.

set the

to the spots

ompounds which give mav not be those which e

none the

less

characteris-

compared

ditions, reasonably certain identification

adsorbent. The paper or plate is then placed in a tank which contains a solvent. This solvent gradually rises up the sup-

characterize them chemically. This

is

these patterns are

examined

techniques are available but essentially all involve placing a small amount of the sample on a sheet of paper

isolate the active substances so as to fully

if

components.

Several

or glass plate covered

produced

and

with those produced by an authentic specimen, obtained under identical con-

This enables very

small quantities of material to be

and separated

is

pharmaco-

rise

are

may be made. Extra evidence may be obtained by comparing the patterns made using different chromatography solvents. By this technique small differences in

biochemical make-up of plants may be is important both from the- quantitative and qualitative points of view the amount of extract of a certain plant which is low in active ingredient required for a particular pharmacologic al effect may be very different from the quantity of extract required from an apparently identical plant which contains a high concentration of active material. Such variations could lead to serious overdoses. Only chemical examidetected and this

nation

would

show

differences.

these

Qualitative differences will also be shown

up by chromatography. The chemical assessment

account

of a

crucial

herb

must

variables

take

such

as

into the

time of collection and the fact that plants of the same species can have completely different active constituents. habitat,

45

tsxv«l

W«»^S^»

M!?ti!SS

i*?fc<05

partem

^-Si^r

r**£

*

It.

The medicinal uses of plants i

^--«J!

last 50 years crude plant use has been central to medicine and there is little doubt that herbs are man's most ancient

Until the

therapeutic

aids.

We

are

still

heavily

western world for semistarting materials sources of as synthetic drugs or as the drugs themselves. Because there are still many conditions we

dependent on plants

in the

unable to treat significantly, and because synthetic drugs sometimes cause side-effects, there is a growing tendency to reconsider the traditional systems of healing as alternative medical treatment, and one such system is herbalism. Herbalism is now understood to be a collection of different methods for using

are

plants in healing: some of these methods use poisonous plants, some do not; some employ mixtures of herbs, others believe in

the success of 'simples' or individual

plants; others

combine

different forms of

treatment with a healing regime using plants. This situation is reflected in the names given to the various approaches to herbalism such as eclectic medicine, botanic medicine, physiomedicalism, plant healing, medical herbalism, phyto-

therapy and flower remedies. Their common denominator, however, is their derivation from the beliefs of folklore and origin in the observations of ordinary people. Left: Lonitzer's Kreuterbuch' a German herbal published in I In sixteenth century, '

appeared

,

in various editions until

1

783.

The left-hand page shows the Spindle tree f Euonymus,i, whose berries were urn e

Because plants were so central to medithroughout history they acquired

1

used as a purgative.

cine

many

of the

beliefs

of folklore, which

sometimes had nothing intrinsic

and

to

do with the

therapeutic qualities of plants,

order to re-evaluate the efficacy of herbs, we must, therefore, consider the development of a medicinal plants usage in

together with the influence of folklore on

on and disease of supernatural spirits, and

that use. All medical folklore converges

a

common

belief that illness

are the result

hence from the earliest times medicine and religion have been closely associated. As soon as primitive societies developed, the

man who became

the

priest

also

and medicine man and he started to employ a limited range of therapeutic methods which included predominantly herb-lore and suggestion (psychotherapy). The combination was an important one, and was effective for as

became

the magician

mankind associated disease with unknown. Indeed, the success of suggestive methods of treatment is shown to this day in the efficacy of placebos. long as

the

In these early days many of the most important plants used were those which acted on the mind - the so-called hallucinogens or narcotics, which temporarily relieved pain and which in combination with the suggestion of medico-religious ritual were probably of material benefit. Numbers assumed an importance which was initially derived from the astrological beliefs of the Babylonians. Seven and nine were believed to be especially powerful;

thus plants which carried the sign of these numbers were thought to be particularly

47

MEDICINAL USES Left: Alchemilla mollis readily seeds

and is used only as a decorative plant. Other Alchemilla species are of

itself

medicinal importance and of these none had

Mantle was once used treat painful menstruation, and in a greater reputation than Lady's ( Alchemilla

vulgaris,). It

to

veterinary medicine.

Below : An illustration of early surgery from the anonymous thirteenth-century Pseudo-Apuleius herbal, 'herb a papauer' or the

in

which

the use

Opium Poppy

of

is

described. Several herbs with the ability to lessen

pain were known

to

early surgeons,

the Opium Poppy and the Mandrake were undoubtedly the most

and of these

and ultimately it led to the fusion between Arabic. Graeco- Alexandrian and Oriental medicine that emerged in Europe at the end of the dark ages. It was in Alexandria that the best recorded experiments with poisons were conducted, and there Mithridates in the Syria,

second

century

B.C.

formulated

of succeeding centuries. of Mithridates and

beneficial.

lobes on the leaves

the ages to the present call

orthodox, which

day - those we now

initially

represented

the efforts by physicians to introduce logic

and experimentation into medical practice, and unorthodox, which represented a continuation of very old, traditional and often magical beliefs, but which until two centuries ago largely represented the medical treatment available to rich and poor respectively. Whether the unorthodox medicine of the Egyptians was conducted by the herb women who characterized so much of later history we do not know. But we do

know

that

much

of the knowledge of

Egyptian medicine was passed on to the Hippocrates (460-377 b.c. Greeks learned much from their works - and that the close association between medicine and religion was continued by the Greek physician priests. Hippocrates, however, began the process of careful observation which characterized the birth of science, and he laid down the laws which deemed

him the 'father of medicine' and which founded modern medicine. Information had largely been localized to this point but 48

both

and antidotes which remained famous as the 'theriacs' and 'mithridates'

poisons

The works

important.

Lady's Mantle with its nine is one such plant with numerical power; alternatively, plants with seven or nine roots or berries or seeds would be prescribed. These and many similar folklore beliefs must have already become associated with plants by the time the Egyptian physicians began to formulate their healing remedies because it was probably the Egyptians who began the orthodox rejection of magic in medicine. It is evident that by 1550 B.C. the orthodox physicians had begun to specialize, for it seems that the Egyptian doctors then restricted their treatment to one disease or one part of the body. Thus there arose the two levels of healing which have continued through

one of the first important movements of medicinal plant knowledge began with the establishment of Alexandria in 331 B.C. and with it the Alexandrian School. This signalled the introduction of Greek medicine into Egypt. Mesopotamia and

n aotmicinma ixCc&pttxf fcolorcrru rDclxi pafuucrftluAttcu oorrctum cum acuta irt£u n id fco Kibut colon •

tti'jo fbtnriw c\u x no £*>2rmu nt

lvUxipApaucrcuoieocvttSi^montt mouctaf

omm cqvfn mxrc1bmmtme£roaO£>ucvr,

all

before

MEDICAL HISTORY him were

distilled into four

with the 600 best

known

books dealing -i^ ^•s.'

plants by the

greatest figure in the history of herbalism.

•

t;

v>,

^O

^A

Pedacius Dioscorides. Following the col146 B.C. Greek lapse of Corinth in

moved to Rome, and from an army surgeon under Nero

physicians there as

Dioscorides travelled widely and described the herbs he saw in use in what was the first 'materia medica' or

(54-68 a.d.

"pharmacopoeia". Without doubt he was the first real medical botanist, and his work was for 1500 years the standard reference for the medical application of plants.

Galen

a.d.

- whose name meaning had enormous in-

131-201

gave rise to the term galenical, botanical drug - also

fluence until the seventeenth century, but

Galen was a physician, and

his

major

therapy was the introduction of a system of 'polypharmacy' or mixing herbal preparations to treat specific conditions; some forms of

contribution

plant

to

herbalism still retain this type of therapy. Following Galen and Dioscorides. and

and fall of the Roman Empire. European medicine entered a stagnant period which was to last several hundred the decline

years.

To a

large extent the moral ethics ol

physicians were replaced with greed, envy and quackery, and the old incantation and magic of previous ages resurrected. Folklore rose to the surface again, and individuals either treated themselves with

family

visited

recipes,

travelling

bone-

and herb women, or were helped by those in religious orders. Even tin medical work of monks, however, was stopped by the Papal decrees which were setters

issued regularly for a century,

from that

ol

Clermont council 130 to the council ol Le Mans 1247 In early Germany medicine fell largely into the hands ol 'wise women' or 'wild women who employed herbal remedies, magic and amulets, and to the lekeis who were the equivalent ol the Anglo-Saxon leech-men. In Russia the position was similar with the 'wolf-men' or volkhava employing herbs and spells, while the Celtic order ol Druids and Druidesses did likewise. The 1

.

Druids

favoured

seven

magic

herbs

of

which the Mistletoe held pride of place. In the dark ages, however, between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Arabic mechc

ine rose

on the tide of

Mohammedanism,

and physicians ol the standing ofRhazes, Haly ben Abbas and Avicenna. and the Jewish physician Avenzoar, combined the previous Greek work with their own observations and studies ol botanical drugs and pharmacology. Much ol this work was recorded in the thirteenth-

century compilation of Ibn Baitar whose materia medica described 1400 drugs. The proximity of Arabia to the- East led Arabian pharmacists (or sandalani) to the Stud) ol a wide- range of plants and plant products which became of immense importance to later European medicine: they developed the use of Cassia. Senna.

Rhubarb, Camphor. Myrrh. Cloves, and used

the-

flavouring ability

ol

rose-water,

orange and lemon peel and other aromatics

id

mask

unpleasant

medication. Before the advent of printing

tastes

in

the mid-

had already begun the internal wrangling in the medical profession to be exacerbated by the printed word which continued until the nineteenth

century.

Initially

concerned the relative status

in full judicial

The Druids had an

excellent

knowledge of the medicinal application of local herbs, and considered some to possess magical qualities.

Of all plants,

the

Mistletoe held pride of place.

and barbers; the

being increasingly persecuted by the surgeons who tried to pi event them from treating wounds. In latter

England in 1368 the Master Surgeons formed a separate guild, and in 1421 joined forces temporarily with the Physic-

in

fifteenth century there

late

Above: An Arch Druid costume.

ol

this

surgeons

ians,

although

even

these

two

bodies

treated each other with suspicion. This

move

forced

the

barbers

to

obtain" a

separate charter (1462) and led to the beginning of barber-surgery or surgery of the

common

place-

in

people. Similar events took

France and Germany. Under »'•

MEDICINAL USES Henry YIU's act of and surgeons

151

ians

licensed practitioners,

1

While herbal traditions based on

English physic-

became the only and all others were

lore continued, the effect of printing to

mark

folk-

was

the beginning of the Renaissance

excluded from practising medicine, but b\ 1542 the greed shown by the profession caused another act to be passed to allow those common people having knowledge of herbal and folk medicine to minister to

and the continuation of the

scientific

method

The

the poor.

its

started by Dioscorides.

teenth century was

marked by

six-

the emerg-

ence of both 'proto-botany' books and herbals, although the herbal did not reach

peak

in

England

until

1633 when enlarged

Thomas Johnson improved and Below

:

The sumptuous

interior

sixteenth-century apothecary.

of a

As some

apothecaries charged very high prices, people

sought the services of herbalists.

the herbal of

John Gerard,

itself

mostly

employed by apothecaries; the 'materia medicas', pharmacopoeias and dispensatories (the first edition of the

Pharmacopoeia,

for

London

example, appeared

1 6 1 8 Apothecaries were originally drug and herb traders, who managed to develop a special relationship with the medical fraternity. In England they had been associated from 1378 with the Grocers' Company who also sold herbs and drugs,

in

.

derived from a translation of Dodoens.

and who were the

This period also saw the beginning of printed works devoted to those substances

Both the grocers and apothecaries purchased herbs and roots collected from the

original

drug vendors.

HOMEOPATHY countryside, and they also imported drugs and spices from abroad. The apothecaries frequently established their own physic gardens and thus served as a link

between horticulture and medicine by growing their own medicinal herbs. The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London was incorporated in 1617 and the apothecaries soon began to diagnose and prescribe without associating with a physician. They continued to do so until 1886 when medical registration was finally only granted to those candidates qualifying by examination in surgery, medicine, and pharmacy. By the middle of the seventeenth century therefore, herbs were being used in many different ways by physicians, apothecaries, manufacturers of proprietary medicines and a host of traditional country herbalists and town quacks. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, although herbs continued to play an important role in medicine, their importance slowly declined.

The

botanic writers

who amassed

details of plant use included

information

from a host of sources - the Greeks, the Arabs, folklore, early botany, and information received by the grocers or apothecaries from foreign lands. In some cases

mentioned was unand while the real advances of medicine such as anatomy, physiology and clinical diagnosis were progressing, plant-lore became increasingly confused with an assortment of chemical compounds, mixtures, electrical and magnetic treatment, and blind faith in tradition. By the beginning of the nineteenth century scientific investigation was growing apace, and with it came the realization the identity of plants certain,

that specific effects could be demonstrated

when

or

isolated

particular,

purified

substances were applied to living systems.

known

as pharmacology, owes work and inspiration of 803-1 873 ), the father Justus von Liebig

This study,

much

to

the

1

of physiological

chemistry,

who

to

medical

therapeutics:

on

the

effect

specific cells,

Samuel Hahnemann (1 755-1843) and the work of American physicians of the early nineteenth century

medicalism,

a

Homeopathy

is

and

known as physio-

branch

herbalism.

of

a system of healing based

on the supposition that infinitesimally small quantities of a given substance, such as a medicinal plant, will cure a condition in which symptoms exist that would be identical to the symptoms produced in a healthy person who is given large quantities

of the same substance. doctors had an open

Many American

intro-

duced the concept of 'metabolism', and carried forward the development of organic chemistry which had already produced such important isolated substances as morphine ,1806; from the Opium Poppy, strychnine (181 8) from Strychnos nux-vomica and quinine (1820) from Cinchona bark. This approach is the modern rationale specific substances

orthodox practitioner was as eager as the research worker to move away from crude plants to the more 'exact', isolated chemical. Notable exceptions to this in the West were the introduction of homeopathy by

approach to medicine which was unfettered by the historical trappings of their colleagues in the Old World; certainly

them

the early settlers took with

when

traditional remedies

they

their

Eur-

left

ope, but they soon adapted to the rigours

of

new life by adopting some of the remedies of the North American Indians. All these remedies were in continuous use by an oral culture, rather than a culture

in

which

of their

upon

depended

written

(and,

and

the excitement of the nineteenth-century

therefore, often erroneous) records,

development of organic chemistry the

be reliable. This led to many reliable drugs being incorporated into the first American materia medicas and dispensatories.

were therefore found

One group

to

of physicians, led by

Thompson, decided

Samuel

not to interest them-

selves in the isolation of active ingredients

of plants, as was being done elsewhere in

America

and Europe, but simply to administer tinctures of the whole plant, a

system which became known as the physiomedical concept, and which was concerned with assisting the natural power of tissue regeneration which the body possesses. Schools specializing in pliysiomedicalism flourished for a while,

mainly

Chicago, but by the beginning

in

of the twentieth century their influence

declined and retained in

this

concept

now

is

only

some forms of unorthodox

herbalism.

Herbalism as a system of healing exists today in name only as there are various approaches which range from the use of all types of plant material to the use of non-poisonous herbs only. In the West the orthodox employment of medicinal plants is largely restricted to those with strong I.i

ft

:

rural

The less opulent interior of the Swiss pharmacy of Michael Schuppart, an

eighteenth-century apothecary.

examining

the urine

sitting in front

He

is

of the patient who

is

of him. ")'

MEDICINAL USES Right: The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum). The latex, which is obtained by excision of the immature capsules,

25

contains

-

is

of which modern medicine

different alkaloids

morphine - indispensable the strongest

pain

to

reliever (analgesic)

pharmacological action, such as Opium Poppy, Foxglove and their derivatives. The great dependence of Third World nations on traditional plant use has, however, recently stimulated the beginnings of a modern medical appraisal of

and

herbs,

scientific

possible

that

future

reassessment will

lead

to

it

is

the

orthodox utilization of ancient herbal remedies and the discovery of new

wider ones.

MYTHS AND TRADITIONS Many

magical and religious ideas associ-

ated with plants have survived almost unaltered to the present day. In Crete the fat

onion-like bulbs of the Sea Squill maritima) are

(

i'rginea

hung up by farmers

at tin-

entrances to their vineyards to protect the

ripening grapes from harmful influences, a superstition which seems pointless but

which is explained by tracing the Squill back to the days when it was sacred to the god Pan who protected mortals from evil spirits. Similarly, in some parts of central Europe villagers still plant the succulent Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) on the roof tiles to prevent their houses from being struck by lightning. The Romans called

Iovis

it

caulis

or Jupiter's

plant

ancient times, and even todav in

plants were thought not only to protect

are tannins, malic acid and mucilages, and while they may have some minor effect in treating superficial burns and

man from the dangers of the outside world,

diarrhoea they are completely ineffective

but also to preserve him from disease and

in shingles,

In

some

health, so

ill

properties

wielded.

protect plants were carried on the person

for the benefit of their protective qualities.

A

leaf of

Betony

{Stachys officinalis) carried

pocket or purse was said to offer protection from witchcraft. A sprig of in the

Mugwort

[Artemisia vulgaris)

worn

inside

the shoe was thought to prevent a traveller from becoming tired, an old practice which, surprisingly, persisted in East Anglia until the beginning of this century. In southern Europe walking-sticks cut from the boughs of the Chaste tree Vitex agnus-castus) were carried by pilgrims because they believed they were magical and could protect them from both robbers (

and the bites of venomous creatures. These primitive beliefs in the talismanic qualities of plants are, however, by no means confined to the ancient cultures of the world; they abound today in Third World countries, and you can still be stopped in the heart of London by gypsies hawking sprigs of 'lucky heather'. 52

was considered

it

wear a magical plant

because they believed Zeus or Jupiter had given it to man to protect his property from the destructive bolt of lightning he

Some

many

parts of the world,

infusion of

or

better

with

still

of these

The

protective

balism

is

this

partly due to the fact that early

drink

to

an

believed to

thatched roofs of medieval fire from the sky, was also considered to be effective against fire in the body - medicine in the Middle Ages the

houses from

classified diseases into hot

and

cold,

wet and dry. So William Salmon, writing on the medicinal virtues of the Houseleek as late as the end of the seventeenth century was able to say - 'Herba iova is Glutinative and Segnotick; it quenches thirst, allays heat, stops fluxes

and abates

the violence of cholerick Fevers, being

given in a spoonful or two of Wine, or the juice mixt with Sugar.

Balsam

it

is

on the subject received their information by hearsay or accepted without criticism what they read in the works

Outwardly

in a

cures burns, scalds, shingles,

of other authors. This early attitude led to the publication of a large number of

accounts of plants which did not even exist, such as the 'Scythian Lambe' described by John Parkinson, and the 'Fountain tree of water' which Lewis Jackson maintained grew on the CanaryIslands. There was even thought to be a 'Barnacle tree' that bore fruit which eventually hatched into live geese. Of the plants which did actually exist, many were attributed with medicinal properties because of their association in previous a

inflammations.'

examples

these

therapeutic indications are

concerned with other,

and

vividly

how

the

plant

the

in some form or example demonstrates

'heat'

the magical 'primary' use of

dictated

its

'secondary'

or

medical use. We now know that the Houseleek's principal active constituents

who governed One of the best common Myrtle Myrtus

ages with a god or goddess

pains of the gout, creeping ulcers and hot All

of myths and false ideas, and

full

writers

it.

The Houseleek. which was

still

gout and fevers. history of medical botany or her-

logical to

particular

communis

is

disease.

the

.

Myrtle was known

to

the Greeks as

and was sacred to the goddess Aphrodite ^who was also known as 'myrsini'

Myrsini), the goddess of fertility, simply because the pointed elliptical leaves of this plant closely resembled the shape of

METABOLISM As a result of this was chiefly employed in Greek medicine as a herb for treating female complaints - a practice the female genitalia.

association the Myrtle

which was not discredited

until the nine-

teenth century.

Another medicinal plant which earned reputation by association with the Greek gods was the Black Hellebore its

a plant sacred to the

iHelleborus niger |,

'kthonoi' or gods of the underworld. deities, spirits

deified

These

whose number included cave and the souls of the dead and physicians, belonged to an older

and darker

than the

cult

celestial

Olym-

was believed that they possessed the power to inflict enormous suffering on mankind in the form of disease and madness. Black Hellebore, which became linked with their worship, was considered to be the specific remedy for the diseases for which they were held responsible, and the root was. used for pian

deities.

It

treating epilepsy,

and

melancholia, hysteria disorders. In

neurological

other

Shakespeare's time and beyond it continued to be used for 'the falling sicknesses' fepilepsyi,

melancholicke

'all

diseases'

and 'convulsions', besides being employed as a poison, an abortive and a local anaesthetic. Modern examination, how-

Animals,

including

man,

are

very

ever, has suggested that Black Hellebore

similar to plants in this respect, the funda-

neurological

mental difference between the two groups being in the way in which they obtain

does

the general

in

assist

conditions for which the Greeks employed

homeopathic tincture is prepared from the rhizome and used to treat epilepsy, certain psychoses, eclamp-

and today

it,

sia

a

(convulsion

with

associated

preg-

nancy), meningitis and encephalitis. After a period in which herbal medicine

was regarded with the greatest suspicion by the medical profession, many of the

now being

claims of herbalism are

by

stantiated

scientific

sub-

observation and

reinstated.

up their own food from small molecules whereas animals take in large molecules and break them down. All materials ingested by the animal are treated in exactly the same general way: the food is digested in the their food. Plants build

Above: The evergreen Myrtle fMyrtus

communis ) it

was

is

now of little

importance, but

once sacred to the Greek goddess

Aphrodite. In the Middle Ages Myrtle berries It

was

were used as a condiment, also used in the treatment

like pepper.

of

female complaints.

Below : The Christmas Rose or Black Hellebore fHelleborus niger,) contains

gastro-intestinal tract, the small molecules

powerful substances which act on the heart

formed are absorbed through the gut wall and transported via the blood to other parts of the body where they are used to build up new enzymes or cell

rather like Digitalis. These

so

much

too strong for

make

modern herbal

the plant use.

material or act as essential catalysts in

THE INTAKE AND ACTIONS OF

these reactions. Certain foodstuffs contain

MEDICINAL PLANTS

ingredients such as minerals and vitamins

Plants

are

very complicated

composed of millions of

cells

structures

many

per-

forming extremely specialized functions and each contributing to the existence of the organism as a whole. Organisms are 'alive' because of the many chemical reactions which are carried out in each of these cells; thus life is essentially a series of highly controlled chemical changes which consist of building up (anabolismj or breaking down (catabolism processes

known

which are

essential

process to occur.

our diet in

for

some enzymic

deficiency of these in

likely to lead to

some of our

just as

to

is

A

an impairment

basic metabolic functions,

mineral deficiencies

visible

in plants lead

abnormal symptoms such

as

and yellowing. digestive and transportation proesses described above are not capable of discriminating between materials which spots

The

i

way Thus

find their

into the gut from different

metabolism these changes are initiated by chemical catalysts. All these reactions are under the

sources.

direct

because they contain substances which after absorption enter certain biochemical

(collectively

found

as

;

influence of the genetic material in

the nucleus of each

cell.

certain plants are

'good'

foodstuffs because they are rich in starch

or

protein and

some plants are

'toxic'

53

MEDICINAL USES Right

A

:

magnified section through the wall

of the small intestine showing the folded mucous membrane (top, pink) through which food and drugs are absorbed. The rate

of absorption depends on the nature of drug molecule and on the other

the food or

substances present in the tract.

and disrupt them. Similarly the which are medicinally useful contain materials which act in some beneficial way on the fundamental processes in animal cells, either by promoting processes

plants

certain reactions or inhibiting other pro-

may

which

cesses

abnormal.

be

The

practice of medicine with herbal products

no fundamental chemical way different from treatment with synthetic drugs. Both act by the introduction of a foreign molecule into the body (sometimes at a more or less in

this

respect

specific site) so that

The concept

in

is

it

may

exert

its effect.

of herbalism does, of course,

differ theoretically

from the orthodox

in

that herbal medicine attempts to treat the

patient

as

whole,

a

rather

than

the

condition in isolation.

Pharmacology Pharmacology is the study of the manner in which the functions of living organisms can be modified by chemical substances. Since living cells are very complex, many of the factors which control their activities are completely unknown. For this reason a

new

been

science,

pharmacokinetics,

developed

to

study

the

has

factors

hence on the body. This goes to

a long

wa\

explaining the highly specific nature of

some drug actions, as well as why some compounds possess powerful, often dangerous, side-effects, since some drugs may by chance interact with more than one

which would decompose in the acid stomach juices. Other routes which invoke passage of active materials through a mucosal layer are those via the vagina or urethra. Drugs may also be administered by slowly dissolving a lozenge under the orally, or

affecting the absorption, distribution and eventual elimination of drugs from the

type

body and

Routes of drug administration The oral route is the one most frequently

nasal

cheap, easy and convenient and the patient can administer himself tablets which can be manu-

cation

it

largely employs mathematical

models. A theory which has been advanced from simple experimental evidence and has found considerable success in explain-

why

drugs exert their effects is the It was proposed originally by Paul Ehrlich who believed that mammalian cells possessed side chains ing

receptor theory.

which contained receptors (reactive chemical groupings) which combine with another active group on the drug molecule (in a more or less reversible way) to cause the drug effect. This proposal was a great advance and much modern research is based on a modified form of the theory. Simply,

drugs

can

be

considered

as

and the receptors on which may be opened

of

tongue (sublingually) or as snuffs (whereby absorption is effected through the

receptor.

used because

it

is

factured to contain an exact dose. ever,

if

the medicine

liquid or powder,

is

in the

and most herbal pre-

parations are, the dosage inaccurate.

How-

form of a

The drug

is

likely to

be

will also be diluted

by the contents of the stomach and intestine. Since the stomach juices are strongly acid and those in the intestine alkaline this may lead to decomposition of Absorption the active ingredients. through the gastro-intestinal tract may be slow or irregular due to the presence of

precisely cut keys,

the partly digested or undigested food,

the cells as locks

thus delaying the effect.

only by the appropriate keys.

When

the

key turns the lock (that is when the drug reaches and combines with the receptor on the cell) processes are initiated which cause chemical changes and so induce the

drug 54

to exert

its

effect

on the

cell,

and

Some

materials are given as suppositor-

ies and the active ingredients are absorbed through the delicate lining (mucous membrane) of the rectum. This may be

particularly useful for giving substances

which would cause vomiting

if

given

mucosa

When is

i.

a local effect

made

is

required appli-

to the surface

of the skin in

the form of a cream, paste, ointment, lo-

In these cases some occur by penetration through to the subcutaneous tissues. Sterile solutions may, of course, be injected directly into the bloodstream which removes the initial absorption step. The rate and efficiency of absorption of tion

or liniment.

absorption

may

is largely dependchemical nature but also on the method of formulation ^how it is presented for administration). The most obvious factor is the solubility of the substance in

a material from the gut

ent on

its

the gastro-intestinal contents. No substances can be absorbed from the fluid in the gut unless they are soluble in the first place.

Secondly,

the

passage of drugs (that

is

barriers

to

the

the intestinal cell

walls) consist largely of fatty substances,

hence drugs which dissolve well in fats are absorbed more rapidly and completely than those which do not. There are some

DRUG ADMINISTRATION exceptions to this and these depend on the existence of a specific transport mechan-

ism for a particular type of chemical. In addition, some drug molecules contain acidic or basic groupings

which

may

be

ionized (electrically charged) in aqueous solution. Since only non-ionized or elec-

molecules are fat-soluble, governed to some extent

trically neutral

absorption

by

also

is

this factor.

Finally, the presence of substances in

whole plants other than the active ingredients may considerably modify not only the physiological effect of the active substances themselves but also their solu-

and hence absorption.

bility

The

It will

sweat and milk. that when one medicine many-

now be apparent

takes a dose of herbal

the blood

meate

and

drug exerts

its

effect.

but

ingredients

the

also

sub-

'ballast'

body via compounds that perthrough cell membranes

freely

evenly distributed in all parts of the body. Some, however, tend to concentrate at particular sites. Compounds are often bound to carrier molecules - for example, proteins in the blood plasma - or become strongly attached to specific

binding

less

sites

in

tissues.

such active transport processes

Where

exist, the

ordinary physico-chemical principles no longer apply. One particularly effective

mechanism is known as barriei which prevents

the blood-brain

passage of most molecules from the bloodstream into the central nervous system and the the

cerebro-spinal fluid.

Metabolism a drug enters the body,

it

is

acted

upon by enzymes which usually change its chemical structure into substances which have less effect (pharmacological activity on the body. This is why the effects of drugs wear off gradually. These enzymatic reactions

which may exert a modifying on the 'active' substances have first to be made soluble, then absorbed and distributed (perhaps via an active binding process throughout the whole body, to stances effect

reach their active site (receptor) before they can produce an action. Later they are usually metabolized to inactive sub-

and then excreted.

are

known

as

detoxification

and the most important organ concerned is the liver. This does not always happen, however. Pharmacologically active metabolites (products that have been produced l>\ the breakdown of the drug; may be formed from an inactive substance a precursor or or sometimes the metabolites 'pro-drug' may have a type of activity which differs from that of the 'active ingredient in the drug originally administered. The principal route of excretion of drugs and theii detoxified metabolites is the urine. This may be facilitated by metabolic changes

Biological variation

,

measurements

Repeated

of

same

the

quantity do not always give identical results. While this may be due to variations in accuracy, with living systems it is

more

be the result of biological its very nature biological variable. This produces prob-

likely to

variation - by

material is lems in the quantitative biological evaluation of all medicines, and these difficulties are particularly severe in the case of medicinal plants and their extracts. Medicinal plants are usually administered

as tinctures of the

whole plant, which

many different chemical substances, only some of which are active pharmacologically. Not only may the presence of the so-called inactive substances modify the absorption of the active ones (mixtures are in general more soluble than pure compounds), but they may actually modify the pharmacological activity of the active ingredients, either in a potentiating

way

or

former

is

oppositely

known

as

The

retardants.

The modifying substances need come from the same plant.

sometimes found that the particular plant extract

as the detoxification rea< lions

generally produce

than

compounds which

are

soluble in water (hence in urine in fat.

Alternatively, drugs

may

be

excreted into the intestinal trad via the bile and so eliminated in the fae< es. Minor

One

of the problems of this

is that haphazard administration of different plant extracts can produce undesired effects. For this reason orthodox medical authorities sometimes consider such herbal prac-

tices as unscientific

and inexact.

the-

presence

In recent attempts at the scientific evalu-

of one

effect

considerably of greater or

is

therapy, often quite complex,

is

the rule

the

exception.

This

is

the

fundamental difference between herbal and orthodox medicine. Whereas the latter is often symptomatic in approach, the former essentially treats the patient as

whole rather than

isolated

effect.

ation of this approach

amounts of extracts of other plants. This is of paramount importance in herbal medicine where combination

a

bined

herbal combination therapy

not

1

much

helps digestion.

It is

smaller

rather than

Above: Magnification of secretory cells of the stomach, which secrete the fluid which

Evaluating herbal medicines

necessarily

by

*r.flL

as the s\ net gistic effect or

synergism.

altered

J*£

will

consist of solutions in dilute alcohol of

processes,

more

**

r/m&L

and after the Not only the active

processes intervene before

stances

the

become more or

in as

4.

active materials, once absorbed,

are transported throughout the

When

routes of elimination include the lungs, saliva, tears,

conditions.

as a collection of Hence- preparations

containing several different plant extracts are administered with the intention that each component will exert its own specific effect which will produce an overall com-

that

some of

the

it

has been realized

compounds preset

minute concentration

in plants

in

often so

low as to be undetectable by standard techniques may themselves by extremely potent pharmacological agents. This

phenomenon

is

often referred to as the

effect of ballast material.

must be emphasized that everything body can be considered as a drug. This is an easy concept to accept when an active material exerts a pronounced, readily observable pharmacologic al effect on the body such as producing anaesthesia, but some compounds may act in a more subtle way, for example, by promoting efficient working of certain enzymes or by encouraging the development ol a good immunological defence It

ingested by the

55

MEDICINAL USES Plants

system.

belong

the

to

currently

know

producing these effects group about which we least:

traditionally they

were the panaceas or tonics - Ginseng being the best-known example. Today

DISEASES OF THE

HEART AND

blood vessels

The cardiovascular system

is

concerned

difficulties

with the circulation of blood. It consists essentially of a pump, the heart, and a system of tubes, the arteries, veins and capillaries - comprising the blood vessels. Circulation involves two joined systems one in which blood passes from the heart to the lungs where it is oxygenated, and then back to the heart; and another in which this oxygen-rich blood is pumped to the furthest parts of the body, gives up

ticism will

some of its oxygen

they are

known

All these difficulty

in

as

adaptogens.

problems have led deciding

how

to great

herbal pre-

parations should be examined, tested and

standardized and this has contributed to the current scepticism about the efficacy of the herbal approach. When these

have been overcome this scepundoubtedly decline and some aspects of plant medication will assume an even more important role in medicine. Having described briefly the uptake and actions of herbs, four groups of diseases, including their physiology and their treatment with medicinal plants, are

now examined. The

mentioned orthodox and

plants

have found use both in herbal methods and no distinction is made the examples simply between them emphasize the importance of plan's in medicine as a whole.

The commonest

vessels.

CIRCULATION

to the tissue's cells,

and

then returns to the heart. Besides oxygen, which

all tissues need biochemical reactions, the blood carries foodstuffs absorbed from the alimentary tract, and is also responsible for carrying the waste products of metabolism to sites of excretion, such as

for certain of their

the kidneys.

is

disorder of the

arteriosclerosis 'resulting in

narrowing of the arteries), the commonest site being the blood vessels supplying the heart (coronary arteries). This leads to a reduced oxygen supply for the action of the heart, especially during exercise, resulting in chest pain (angina pectoris The coronary blood supply is sometimes so |

.

drastically obstructed that a portion of

and this is known as Another common disorder is in which the blood pressure is

the heart wall dies, heart attack. hypertension,

abnormally raised, causing excessive strain on the heart, rupture of cerebral brain blood vessels causing a stroke, and

damage

to the kidneys.

Both coronary artery disease of which arteriosclerosis is one and hypertension

may

cause heart failure : this action of the heart

pumping

cope with the work load:

is

when

is

unable

the to

this results in

and retenand water (causing ankle swelling, for example) due to a reduced blood-flow to the kidneys. Other causes of

shortness of breath, tiredness,

The treatment of disorders Cardiovascular diseases are concerned with disorders of the heart and blood

of

tion

heart

salt

rheumatic

include

failure

fever,

congenital defects, diseases of the valves

which separate the chambers of the heart, infections and chronic respiratory disease.

The treatment of heart failure includes oxygen, cardiotonic substances (which improve the function of the heart and (substances which cause an increased excretion of salt and water by the kidneys The leaf of the Foxglove Digitalis purpurea is an effective cardiotonic for the treatment of heart failure and millions of people throughout the world diuretics

i.

|

are

still

(or

its

of the

treated with this material today

derivatives

The

|.

active principles

Foxglove are complex steroidal

substances

known

as cardiotonic glycos-

Many

ides or cardenolides.

very closely

Left: Diagrammatic representation of the cardiovascular system

A

Superior vena cava

B

Aorta

D

Right

F

Blood exchange

G

Blood supply within the

C

Right atrium

E

ventricle

Inferior vena cava

in the liver

H

of Pulmonary

vein

I

Pulmonary

arteries

J

Left atrium

K

M A"

the upper part

body especially the brain

Left ventricle

L

Blood exchange

Portal vein in the intestine

Blood exchange within the kidneys and

within the lower parts of the body. Areas of blood exchange consist of arterioles and venules which meet at the smallest subdivisions or capillaries.

v>

DIGITALIS THERAPY compounds of this type are present plant and some of these have a pro-

related in the

nounced strengthening ing heart.

They bind

effect

to heart

on the

fail-

muscle and

increase the force of contraction of the

heart at each beat without increasing

its

for

efficiently.

The need

is

enormous and much modern research

is

for cardiotonic

concerned with the chemical modification of these active molecules in order to produce better drugs. The major glycosides digitoxin and of digoxin are often isolated from

of Digitalis purpurea |

the dried leaves by complex and costly chemical procedures to enable administration to the patient in the form of tablets, but better results, however, are sometimes obtained by treatment with the whole powdered leaf. It is found that the

combined

effect

of

the

highly

active

glycosides together with the less potent

compounds found in the crude drug may provide therapy which is less harsh, more easily controlled, and therefore safer than the

use

minute

A major problem with Foxglove therapy

of isolated

active

compounds

lanata,) which contains steroidal glycosides.

63 different The most important of

these substances is digoxin, often used in

modern medicine

to treat

heart failure.

and diosphenol, Wild Carrot

volatile oil

(Daucus carota) which contains both volatile oil and an alkaloid, daucine, or

which

Dandelion

dangerous side-effects occur). This may be overcome to some extent by the use of the whole dried leaf, as mentioned above. Similar cardiotonic activity is found in the closely related D. lanata and the Yellow Foxglove. D.lutea. Hedge Hyssop

advantage of containing large quantities of potassium salts - substances which are often lost from the body during the process of diuresis, and which need replacing. Several medicinal plants may be used

which belongs

to the

as the Foxgloves, the

Scrop-

(Gratiola officinalis)

same family

hulariaceae, has also been

cardiotonic action, but

shown

it is

to possess

considered too

Almost identical compounds are present in certain Apocytoxic to use medically.

including members of the genera Strophanthus. .Xenum. and Acokanthera),

naceae

which

possesses

cardiac

more genera containing any

than

glycosides

other

so

compounds have been identified in members of the Ranunculaceae, the Nymphaeaceae, the Celastraceae and the Bignoniaceae. Similar

studied.

far

Below: The Woolly Foxglove ^Digitalis

Juniper, however, is too powerful to be used when the kidneys are inflamed, and it can in this case be replaced with Buchu leaves {Agathosma betulina) which contains

that the therapeutic dose (the dose required to produce the desired effect) is almost as high as the toxic dose (the dose which undesirable and sometimes at is

substances

D. lanata

compounds

present in the leaf in concentration may completely alter the physiological effect of the glycosides - this is a good example of synergism. certain

oxygen; the heart thus pumps

need

more

Another explanation may be that

alone.

Digitalis glycoside-like active principles

possesses

make

Taraxacum

(

several

officinale)

substances that

active

one of the most effective of

it

treatment of hypertension, some of which have been shown to be remarkably effective. Hypertension has long been treated in Asia by the root of a shrub, Rauvolfia serpentina, but it was not until

in the

the 1930s that the agent largely responsi-

was isolated. This comon the central nervous system

reserpine,

ble,

pound

acts

by depleting the stores of a vital transmitting substance called noradrenaline (or norepinephrine as it is known in the United States) without this material nerve impulses cannot travel and the resultant loss of smooth muscle tone in the walls of the blood vessels causes their relaxation and so reduces blood pressure, ;

are also found in the morphologically far

thus acting as a hypotensive.

removed monocotyledonous Liliaceae and Cactaceae.

with

Rauvolfia

families, the

Convallaria

all

plant diuretics. Dandelion also has the

alkaloids

synergistically

act

such

hypotensives

other

as

the

and

this

majalis, of the Liliaceae

alkaloids from

the most powerful of

potentiation of the combined effect (syner-

Family, is in fact the cardiac glycoside-containing plants growing in temperate zones, and has an important place in both the folk and orthodox medical treatment of arrhythmia flack ofa regular heart brat especially in eastern Europe. all

.

the

exactly

In

same way

that

gism)

Veratrum species,

very useful since

is

it

enables rela-

low doses of both materials to be used - an important fact since both sub-

tively

stances

may

cause side-effects

when used

on their own.

the

Foxglove glycosides promote regular beatan ing of the heart so does quinidinc

New Treatments

alkaloid isomeric with quinine, the anti-

that only recently has detailed investi-

malarial substance from the same source,

gation of their activity been started. This

the bark of the

Cinchona

tree.

This

dis-

covery was made quite by chance when it was noticed that patients being treated with Cinchona bark for malaria were tree from arrhythmias. As well as cardiotonic agents, diuretics are

essential

failure

and

in

cinal plants possess

Although there

arc-

certain effective

treatment of heart number of medi-

the

a very large

this

is

some

diuretic action.

often not very powerful

Many other

herbs have similar histories in

has shown the presence of other chemical groups in plants which have a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system. The plants under current investigation include the is

Hawthorn

widely used

{Crataegus monogyna), in the

which

treatment of angina

arteriosclerosis, heart failure, hypertension and coronary thrombosis.

pectoris,

Its

major constituents are flavonoids. Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum) (

also

several herbs, notably those with

contains substances beneficially affecting

contents,

which are

The

fruit

cardiovascular system, as well as vitamin P. Hawthorn and Buckwheat are often combined in the treatment of hyper-

volatile in

oil

diuresis.

ripe

of

Juniper Juniperui communis), for example, contains up to two per cent ofa volatile oil plus resins and a bitter principle which, together, act directly on the kidneys.

the

tension they are frequently also ;

with Yiscum

I ilia

x

album

europaea

(Lime

(Mistletoe-

1.

combined tree

Main

and herbs 57

MEDICINAL USES with cardio-active properties contain kaloids.

The hypotensive

tains several, of which the

are protoveratrin

A

and

is

blood pressure

Motherwort

most important B.

Broom

(Saro-

possesses

the alkaloid

employed

to raise the

thamnus scoparius) sparteine

and

al-

Veratrum con-

in

cardiac insufficiency.

(Leonurus cardiaca), however,

Below : A schematic representation of the human digestive system which consists principally of a hollow tube about

g

produced initially by the liver, not only facilitates digestion but is also an important route for the elimination of certain waste products in the faeces. The pancreas, in addition to producing a Bile,

metres

(jo feet) long from the mouth to the anus. Each part, with its specialized structural or cellular form, plays one or

more

digestive juice

roles in the

which

is

discharged into the

gut, also releases directly into the blood-

processes of mastication, maceration,

lowering the blood pressure, and help in angina

processes which all contribute to the

stream a hormone, insulin, which regulates the blood-sugar level. The condition

eventual elimination of unwanted waste

where

insufficient insulin

pectoris.

matter from the body.

known

as diabetes.

contains alkaloids which

assist in

With further detailed study of itional remedies,

it

is

digestion

and absorption offoodstuffs,

is

produced

trad-

possible that new-

groups of compounds will be discovered or certain plant combinations will prove to be useful in cardiovascular disease. cavity of the

DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND LIVER The

mouth vestibule

tongue

digestive system consists of the ali-

pharynx

mentary canal and the accessory digestive organs. Food passing along the tract is broken down by enzymes into small units which are then absorbed into the blood stream by passage across the gut cell-wall. Some substances in the diet need no digesfor example, tion before absorption water, certain vitamins and minerals - but the most important foodstuffs - fats, proall require teins and carbohydrates extensive degradation before they may be

trachea

absorbed.

Some

dietary

constituents,

however,

such as the cellulose of plant cell-walls are not digested at all by man because the appropriate enzymes are lacking, and so these pass through the gut to be expelled

unchanged in the diet

in the faeces; their inclusion is

none the

less

important be-

cause they add bulk to the intestinal con-

and improve peristalsis - the rhythmic contractions which propel the contents from one end of the gastro-intestinal tract

liver

spleen

tents

all

bladder

pancreas

to the other. pyloric orifice

duodenum

The

digestive system alimentary canal comprises the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Although digestion begins in the mouth while the food is being chewed,

The

since saliva contains the

enzyme

ascending colon

descending "colon

ptyalin

which breaks down starch into sugars, by far the most important digestive organs are the stomach and small intestine. The stomach produces a secretion which provides the optimal degree of acidity for the operation of the

enzyme The

pepsin, also secreted in the stomach.

sigmoid colon

appendix

rectum

partly digested food passes to the small

where it meets an alkaline secrecomposed of juices provided by two

intestine tion

glands - the bile from the gall-bladder

and the digestive juices from the pancreas. 58

small intestine

(jejunum and ileum)

is

DIGESTION is thus completed in the small and most of the small molecules so produced - amino-acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol - are absorbed by the time the mass of food (bolus) has reached the far end of the small intestine.

Digestion

(Iceland Moss)

Overactive acid-producing cells in the stomach initially produce heartburn and indigestion. If the excessive secretion of gastric hydrochloric acid is prolonged, peptic ulcer of the wall of the stomach or the

duodenum may

Here a small mucosal lining is

result.

portion of the delicate

digested away, exposing the lower layers

together with their associated nerve-endings,

which are

irritated

by the acidic

produce pain. Ulcers have long been treated with Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and a semisynthetic derivative of its major constituent, glycyrrhizin, has been introducgastric contents to

ed with useful results.

Hops

which was the traditional remedy of North American Indians, and Carlina acaulis (Stemless Thistle). In Europe a favourite is Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) which is often combined with Althaea officinalis (Marshmallowj. The latter contains up to 20 per cent mucilage, which protects the stomach lining, acting in a similar way to the natural mucus. For the same reason (Humulus

the

lupulus)

mucilage-rich

it

Cetraria

islandica

similarly employed.

may

be

desirable

in the elderly

stimulate

to

the

appetite. Usually the agents used for this

ipecacuanha). Ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Other plants have been used in this respect but their effect was due mostly to their toxicity - the body simply reacts to the

purpose are bitter tonics containing bitter principles, which increase glandular secretions. Many plants have a history of this use and the most popular come from the family Gentianaceae (which characteris-

presence of a noxious substance in the

contain bitter principles), for ex-

by inhibiting the overactivity of the vomiting centre in the brain. Some of these are found in the family Solanaceae. Their action is drastic however, and often

tically

known and

ample, Gentiana lutea, the best most widely used bitter tonic, phylla, G. punctata, G. purpurea,

G. macro-

Menyanthes

(Buckbean) and Sabatia angularis (American Centaury). Because the tone of the muscle in the

trifoliata

gastro-intestinal

tract

as

well

secretion of the digestive juices

as is

the

con-

by nervous as well as chemical stimulation, an increase in nervous activtrolled

ity

may

acidity

Plants used for indigestion include

is

During convalescence or

intestine

lead or

intestine,

either

spasm

known

in

to all

as colic.

may

in

of

and

is

vomit-

often

com-

bined for this purpose with Filipendula ulmaria, Chamaemelum nobile and Peppermint (Mentha x piperita).

and Wild

Yam

constipation.

cerns

divided

into

Below

Purgatives

main

may

classes

:

be bulk

:

The

performs several

liver

important functions besides producing bile

for use

in the digestive process

:

the removal

of waste products from blood, the destruction

of

substances.

tincture

three

purgatives, which simply increase the volume of the intestinal contents and so

Emesis (vomiting) cases of poisoning by the

effective, especially in

preparations for digestive problems con-

villosa).

be induced

and

safer

ing during pregnancy

parts

Many members

gently acting herbs include mints, Acorus and gentians

administration

associated with side-effects. Ballota nigra is

Purgatives The major use of herbal

More

root (Dioscorea

act

hyper-

which are powerful antispasmodics. Good examples are Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramon-

calamus, Alpinia ojficinarum

Anti-emetics include some herbs containing anticholinergic properties which

of the

hyos.cine,

certain

by the most

it

gastric

of the Solanaceae family contain simple tropane alkaloids, such as atropine and

ium.

stomach and removes rapidly effective means.

of worn-out blood

vital detoxification

cells,

and

the

of drugs and harmful

vena cava

hepatic veins liver

-

spleen

ortal vein

hepatic artery

common bile

duct

intestine

59

MEDICINAL USES promote a

'natural' peristalsis

defaecation act

and hence

lubricant purgatives, which

;

by generally loosening and softening epiglottis

and irritants, which exercise a localized irritant action on the wall of the large bowel, inducing the impacted faecal mass;

reflex evacuation.

Foods which contain a high proportion of indigestible cellulose or 'roughage' such

blood vessels of heart

bran or seeds of Plantago species are not destroyed by digestion and swell by absorbing water; when they reach the lower intestine, therefore, they act as bulk as

right

bronchus

purgatives.

As the name tives

suggests, lubricant purga-

include mucilages and

oils

which are

lobes of right lung

heart

extracted from a variety of plants, including the Psyllium species, Athaea

officinalis.

(Castor Oil Tree) and

Ricinus communis

Olea europaea (Olive Tree). Irritant purgatives are used either because they are toxic hence causing a violent reaction to the presence of the poison, for example, Ricinus communis

and certain Podophylsome specific physiological action. Toxic irritant purgatives are seldom used because they are danseeds (Castor

oil)

lum species, or for

aorta

gerous.

Of those which

cause a specific physio-

most effective are the which contain glycosides based on the anthraquinone nucleus. The main examples are Senna Cassia angustijolia and C. acutifolia), Aloes (Aloe ferox, for and example), Rhubarb Rheum spp logical action, the

species

certain

members

of the

Rhamnaceae such

Rhamnus frangula Alder Buckthorn and Rhamnus purshiana (Cascara

as

|

.

Injection

of extracts of these

plants

Diseases of the liver

may

lead to the

impairment of the metabolism of all kinds of foods and. since the liver is the main organ of detoxification in the body, to an accumulation of waste products. As the liver is closely associated with the gall-bladder problems of these organs are

as Anise.

Fennel and

and certain Labiatae Rosemary, for example).

Mint and

Umbelliferae such Dill,

DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM When we

breathe, air

is

taken

first

into the

Hence

nasopharynx and then into the chest via

but orally they take eight hours or more to exert their effect. This is because the active principles are in the form of inactive

some herbs are accredited with both

the windpipe, or trachea. This divides into two bronchi one for each lung and then

tion of bile,

further into smaller tubes, bronchioles.

These are well absorbed from the small intestine and are then hydrolyzed by enzymes in the blood to give the active aglycones. These latter compounds are excreted into the colon where they irritate the mucosa to produce evacuation.

the liver itself,

The

results in

purgation

in

about 30 minutes

glycosides.

This process takes several hours and for this reason extracts of such plants are best taken at night. Diarrhoea, an increase in the fluidity and frequency of the stools, has usually been treated with plants which predominantly contain astringent tannins.

The

action

of these

compounds

is

to

coagulate protein in a thin layer of the gut lining thereby stopping its secretory action.

Common

Potentilla

examples of such herbs are Agnmonia species.

species,

Rubus idaeus, Polygonum and Ulmus campestris.

Quercus species, bistorta

60

usually considered in association.

choleretic action (stimulating the produc-

and thus working directly on and cholagogue action increasing the release of bile from the gall-bladder Important cholagogues are .

Berberis vulgaris

Balmonv

Barberry Chelone glabra Taraxacum officinale ,

and

Dandelion).

The Dandelion action

and

is

also possesses choleretic

one of the most useful plants

for treating liver disease. It

is

employed

gall-bladder

.

inflammation of and cholelithiasis

also relieve the

first

as alveolar ducts,

each

leading to an alveolar sac. These alveoli

and they commain body of the lung itself. They

are small hollow spheres prise the

have very thin cell-walls which are well supplied with minute blood vessels called capillaries.

The respiratory system Oxygen from

the air contained in the

it

alveoli diffuses across the cell-walls into

stage of cirrhosis.

the blood and in exchange waste products, notably carbon dioxide, are expelled into the air. This exchange of gases is known as respiration. At even breath the air con-

(stones in the gall-bladder or bile duct

may

known

in

jaundice, cholecystitis the

bronchioles branch further into very

fine tubules

;

Another important choleretic is Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke which has also been shown to promote liver regeneration, following damage by poisons. Flatulence can be treated with the carminative plants which contain volatile oils. Important here are the aromatic

tained in the lungs

is

partially

exchanged

for fresh air from the atmosphere. Oxygen is required for nearly all the biochemical processes which occur in the

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM to

bronchiole

lung

air

pulmonary vein

passage

from pulmonary artery

alveolus

:fY

bronchus

^bJ^m ess, ** capillary

alveolus

Left

Diagrammatic

:

representation

of the respiratory system. Increasing magnification of a portion of one lung (above)

show

to

its

internal structure,

and

relationship between blood vessels

which allows

alveoli,

the air

the

an increased activity of these glands. There may, in addition, be spasm of the muscle in the walls of the bronchi adding to the

Arabs.

obstruction.

tussive agents

Another condition of the bronchial system which causes considerable suffering is asthma. This is frequently of allergic

rest

tion

exchange of oxygen

The

blood

is

in

a

high

therefore vital.

rapid removal of carbon dioxide is important because high blond

contribute

also

to

that attacks (pro-

equally

origin,

or tissue concentrations of this substance

nounced constriction of the bronchi and excessively viscous secretions which lead to the characteristic wheezing of asthma

depress many enzyme processes. Most of the oxygen in the blood is not simply dissolved in the body fluid but is actively bound to a special molecule called

may

haemoglobin, found within the red blood corpuscles. This is complex organic ;i

molecule, rather like the light-absorbing of green plants in its structure,

chlorophyll

but

instead

magnesium

of containing

an atom of

as in chlorophyll

it

is

bound

This is the main reason that our diet should contain an adequate quantity of this element, for a deficiency of iron or to iron.

its

to

inefficient utilization in the

body leads

anaemia. As blood passes around the organs ol oxygen from the oxygenated

the body,

haemoglobin passes into the cells to be used up in their chemical processes, and each cell exchanges its waste carbon

The commonest

chronic disordei

ol

the

chronic bronchitis inflammation of the bronchi), which may tract

be associated with

ment

of

that

is

sufferers) are

a

specific

particular

to say

induced by the inhalation of

foreign

type

of

substance, pollen.

often

a

Treatment

bronchi using bronchodilators, and some of the best known of these are Ephedra species.

consists of the relaxation of the

is

emphysema

enlarge-

may

be caused

the alveoli). This

as

Cough

is

foreign

materials.

tussives (like alkaloids

is

effective

in

chronic

asthma for which purpose the North American Indians smoked the leaves. In India the and

related

nicotianaefolia

L.

bronchial

is

used in

the

same way. The following plants are also commonly employed in both asthma and bronchitis often in combination with each other: Drosera rotundifolia

,

Euphorbia hirta,

Polygala

senega,

Symplocarpus foetidus and

Urginea maritima.

A relatively new treatment for asthma depends on the administration of a semisynthetic substance which is a derivative

from Opium, the

dried latex of Papaver somniferum) act by

suppressing

this

reflex.

They

are

thus

widely used in cough syrups. Also used are extracts of Wild Cherry bark (Prunus serotina or P. virginiana) which was once frequently used with a complex bitter compound produced by the Greater

Wild Lettuce (Lactuca virosa) combined action is sedative as well as

Prickly or the

;

phlegm

infiata

may

and promote sleep. Cough is conby a reflex from a centre in the central nervous system, and many anti-

to treat this condition.

Lobelia

and

Anti-cough or antibe needed to facilitate

trolled

anti-tussive.

bronchitis

a natural reflex to help clear

the respiratory system of secretions

which contain ephedrine. Ephedra has been used for 5000 years by the Chinese

Grmdelia camporum, Sanguinaria canadensis,

dioxide-.

respiratory

an anti-asthmatic agent among the

viscous secretions.

and the maintenance of level in the

air pollu-

the

in the blood.

body,

Smoking and

compound isolated from the mediterranean umbelliferous plant Ammi visnaga - a plant which has a long history

of khellin, a

and

with waste carbon dioxide

oxygen

by recurrent episodes of infection which lead to an increased number of the mucus glands and therefore an increase in

For difficulty a

in clearing the chest

class

known

of agents

of as

may

be used. These act cough or by increasing the fluidity of an excessively viscous bronchial secretion. The best-known irritant or cough-inducing expectorant is tincture of syrup of Ipecacuanha used in a much weaker concentration than that for promoting emesis. Other expectorant herbs include Cowslip (Primula verts), Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), Mullein Verbascum thapsus) and Snakeroot (Polygala senega), all of which contain saponins

expectorants

either by inducing

(

(detergent-like substances) that aid dissolution of sputum.

employed

as

Viola odorata

an expectorant;

it

is

also

contains a ()t

MEDICINAL USES glycoside, violarutin, as well as saponins.

Primary infection of the upper respiratory tract is in go per cent of cases caused by minute living particles called viruses. These may be highly infectious (demonstrated by the occurrence of the common cold), and so far few plants have been shown to possess specific anti-viral activity. General resistance to these and other infections in the body may be increased, however, by employing Phytolacca americana, which stimulates the immunological defence system. Where primary viral infection is followed by bacterial infection a

number

of plants are

is

The nervous system That part of the peripheral system which is under active control is called the voluntary system and is concerned with the skeletal muscles while the involuntary or

acts

on the muscles

from min-

controlled by will, such as the heart or the

(Allium

bladder.

Messages are conducted by changes

strongly antibacterial as are

Cone flower Elecampane

autonomic system

of the organs and glands which cannot be

ute plants, the moulds). Garlic sativum)

pulses in the reverse direction.

power of

used, although few possess the antibiotics (originally isolated

and the peripheral nervous system comprising the major nerves which connect the spinal cord with the minute nerve-endings in every part of the body. The peripheral system conducts messages from the organs to the central nervous system and also conveys controlling imcord,

and

{Echinacea angustifoliai, {Inula helenium).

in

the electrical balance of the nerve cells or

neurones concerned. More than one cell involved with each pathway, and the electrical change is transmitted from one cell to another by the release of tiny amounts, or quanta, of a special chemical substance called a transmitter. This process can be illustrated with a specific example. When you burn your

two in

The nervous system grates

all

controls

and

the activities of the body.

inte-

There

are two main parts: the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal

hand, temperature-detecting Below

:

showing

The autonomic

nervous system,

the opposing actions

of the

parasympathetic and sympathetic parts on various organs of the body. receive nerves

Most organs

of both systems

and

are

controlled by impulses from each.

cells in the

skin activate nerve-endings. This is

message

passed along afferent or sensory nerve

fibres

to

changes.

spinal

the

When

cord

by

electrical

the message arrives at the

spinal cord, a chemical transmitter passes it

across the synapse

the junction

between

activates another

cord.

The

'perceived'

and

down

as

a result an impulse

down

the spinal cord

the efferent or

are controlled in distinct regions of the

ies

and brain by two sets of nerve - the sympathetic and the parasympathetic - which, generally speaking,

spinal cord cells

The parasympathetnervous system is responsible, for example, for increased blood-flow to the digestive system after a meal, and the decrease in size of the pupil in bright sunlight. The transmitting substance for these act in opposite ways. ic

is known as acetylcholine. The sympathetic nervous system, which

nerves uses

mainly adrenaline and noradrenaits transmitter compounds, comes

line as

into effect in conditions of stress such as fear

and anger, and

acts antagonistically

of the parasympathetic sympathetic stimulation causes increase both in pupil size and to

stimulation

system.

Thus

heart-rate but, at the

same

time, constric-

and abdominal viscera. All these actions prepare the body for intense activity. tion of the blood-vessels in the skin

At a higher level of activity functions such as consciousness, thought, memory.

saliva

saliva

glands

glands heart

heart

lungs

lungs

stomach

stomach

intestine

intestine

bladder

bladder

spinal

cord

sympathetic trunk

is

and then motor nerve to the muscles of the arm and hand - which is withdrawn involuntarily from the heat. Function of organs autonomic activit-

passes

pupil

pupil

neurone

"message"

sympathetic

parasympathetic

62

and

spinal

transmitted up the spinal cord to the cerebral cortex in the brain. The pain is

is

DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

cells)

the

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM touch receptors central nervous

in

the skin

system

* ^

'6^

K.

effectors and receptors in the muscles and tendons

and reasoning

reside

in

the superficial

layer of the cerebral cortex in the brain. In

man, with

his

high intellectual capacity,

dominate

these portions of the brain

all

Co-ordination of the reflexes is carried out in a smaller region of the brain called the hypothalamus. The mid-brain and medulla are concerned with the maintenance of the wakeful state land hence also sleep temperature regulation,

the

Passion-flower

[Passiflora

incarnata)

which contain the alkaloids passiflorine, harmol. and harmine, are also used as sedatives. Other popular medicinal plants category include Lady's Slipper

others.

in

respiratory regulation

American Valerian; and Tilia species. Drugs acting on the peripheral nervous system may be divided into two groups depending on whether they exert their effect on the sensory or motor neurones. In

.

and maintenance

of blood pressure.

this

(Cypripedium

the

first

pubescens\

class

fall

also

nervous

central

the

which

relieve

pain,

the strongest of these

system

are

those

the analgesics,

known

and

in the plant

kingdom are derived from Poppy Papaver sommjerum

Opium

the

Historically the best-known pain-killer

Mandrake

which,

like

root

Mandragora

Henbane

i

officinarum

Hyoscyamus

nigei

.

contains the alkaloids hyoscyaminc and

scopolamine. Both were used during early

Other analgesics include Bos-

surgery. wellia

serrata,

Chrysanthemum anemijolium.

Ervatamia dichotoma and '

ontain

certain

many

essential

herbs which

oils,

such

as

Erythroxylum

irritants

coca

,

American

the

physiological

of Physostigma venenosum

its

active ingredients arc terpenoid

pounds

t

is :

com-

ailed \;de pot notes, present in the

root-Stock The Indian spe< ies V. wallnhn is even more effective. Extra* ts of fresh

linking with the

via the central nervous system.

The

reflex

response causes the cigarette to be dropped.

Below: Henbane fHyoscyamus rarely used today since

it

contains

niger,)

is

many

powerful substances but, historically,

it

has

been very important.

.

Drugs which act on the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system in the opposite way, that is by inhibiting or

Adrenergic drugs, or those acting on neuromuscular junction, include stimulants such as ephedrine from Ephedra species) and drugs acting

officinalis

pain of a cigarette

pathway (red) effector pathway (green)

the receptor

such as nicotine in the leaves oi .\icotiana (from Pilocarpus jaborandi) or eserine isolated from the beans

hallu-

depressant

and

tabacum.i, pilocarpine

and

A well-known

the reaction to the

burn,

autonomic system include stimulants which act like an excess of acetylcholine

simu-

tincture of Valerian {Valeriana

show

of tin

transmitter

tranquillizers; and, conversely, the

cinogens.

reflex consists

and counter-

antagonizing the effects of acetylcholine, include the tropane alkaloids from many species of the family Solanaceae, for example, Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus

lants such as antidepressants

:

from, for example, the seed of

Wintergreen whose oil comprises mainly methyl salicylate. Other central nervous system drugs include the depressant group comprising the anaesthetics, hypnotics, sedatives and Caultheria procumbens

A

of the and an involuntary muscle movement. The diagrams left

stimulation of a receptor neuron

Mustard and the oil of Wintergreen. Drugs which act predominantly on the cholinergic nerves that is those in which the chemical compound, acetylcholine, is

.

is

shrub,

as

the local anaesthetics

(such as cocaine from the South

Treatment of nervous disorders The most widely used drugs which act on

known

Above and

niger.

the sympathetic

way (antagonists such as from both Rauvoljui rpentina reserpine and R. vomitoria) and ergotamine (from in the

opposite

\

(Jlaviceps purpurea).

63

SELF-HELP

SELF-HELP WITH HERBS

are frequently described as a diuretic, but

mainstream medical profession and unorthodox practitioners have tended to dissuade ordinary people from treating themselves or obtaining the means or information for doing so. This opposition was often concerned with the profit motive and, equally, no doubt because of the need for secrecy to

they must not be used where there is a kidney inflammation. Similarly, some

history both the

Throughout

lack of knowledge, ineffective remedies or even outright charlatanism. The strongest argument today against self-medication is the danger of misdiagnosis. Certain commonplace symptoms, such as vomiting, stiff neck, head-

conceal

ache,

fever

themselves

or

earache,

may seem

in

complaints. But, con-

trivial

sidered in the perspective of other associ-

symptoms and dispositions and case

the

ated

patient's

pre-

symp-

history, such

toms may indicate a much more serious problem. Since any complaint is best treated immediately, it is important to remember that if symptoms do not disappear very quickly, proper qualified advice must be sought. Children must never be treated with herbal remedies, or with any other form of home medication; in children ordinary symptoms such as those of the common cold may develop into a potencondition

tially serious

in as

quickly as 24

may

herbs

person

blood pressure in a suffering from hyper-

raise the

already

more than 12 hours as they may deteriorate. Even under ideal conditions herbs lose their activity: leaves, flowers and fruit

seeds,

should be used within one year; roots and rhizomes within three

and there are some plants which must never be taken internally by preg-

years.

nant women.

weight of remedy used is 30 g. For those remedies containing more than one herb, the combined weight is still 30 g.

tension,

There

is

also the question of correct

how and when the dose should be administered, and the length of time for which a remedy should be taken. Lack of dosage:

In both infusions and decoctions the

Used

Infusion

water-soluble dense parts of leaves, stems and

to extract the

knowledge of correct herb combinations, and the use of incorrect doses, can produce

substances from the

adverse

is also sometimes employed on thin, small or chopped roots and fruits. The method consists of pouring 500 ml

Simply because herbs are natural prodoes not follow that their use in medicine is any easier than the use of

ducts

it

substances - in

It

method

oz to of boiling water on to 30 g (or 20 fl ozs) of the finely cut material con-

for these reasons, therefore, that

tained in a porcelain, stone or glass vessel,

it is

is

many

the

as

the

ways,

synthetic

indeed,

such

herbs

flowers,

effects.

more complicated.

recommended many popular modern 'herb-

1

self-medication cannot be

fitted

and why

volatile substances

als'

less

may

so

be considered with interest, but

be

with a tight

lost

The

lid.

lid

keeps in the

which would otherwise

during the required

not as medical manuals. In this chapter

normally

some examples have been given of plants

straining the liquid

10 for is

or

minutes

15

After

infusion.

allowed

to cool to

below blood heat before the dose

medically effective in disturbances of the

just

cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and

taken,

demonstrate the effectiveness of herbal medicine as administered by a properly qualified prac-

one cup of infusion taken three times a

systems

digestive

titioner.

Some

to

or

it

completely.

may be allowed The normal dose

to is

is

cool

up

to

day, usually before meals.

of these plants are poison-

Hard

hours.

ous even in only moderate doses. There

Decoction

Apart from mis-diagnosis, some individuals do not tolerate certain plant material either because of an intrinsic allergic problem, or because an organ or system in the body is malfunctioning to some extent. Juniper berries, for example.

are,

however, many simple conditions which can be treated at home so long as the warnings above are fully considered.

rhizomes, bark, seed, and

PREPARATIONS

500 ml (or oz to 20 fl ozs) of cold water an enamel or glass vessel and allowing it to soak for 10 minutes. The temperature is raised to boiling point and the mixture then simmered for 10 to 15 minutes; this is

purposes of self-care, only three methods

need be employed. Infusion involves

external application only.

Left

:

There are many

different

ways of

preparing herbal remedies but for the

extraction

tin

of water-soluble substances from

the less dense parts

of a herb, such as

leaves, stems or flowers.

Decoction

extraction

its

is

best

for hard plant parts which will release their

water-soluble parts only after being soaked in hot water. Poultice simply

means

the use

afresh plant by bruising or crushing pulp, which

is

then

it

Other

of

into a

mixed with a

methods

of specific

to

groups of active

materials from a plant, so that alcoholic

may

indicate all three methods, kettle, a

and

include a

good mortar and

of wooden spoons, storage jars, and, most importantly, a wide range of dried and fresh herbs. 1 Other methods

pestle,

<>)

a fine strainer,

lots

preparing herbal remedies require a

greater knowledge of

pharmacy and

are best left to the experts.)

entire

process

usually one cup

Still

other methods are related to the

physical nature of the herb

itself;

pouring

its

may

constituents,

whereas the same procedure is perfectly satisfactory for most leaves and flowers. A complete understanding of all the

methods of preparation of herbal remedies requires a knowledge of phar-

different

macy, and is thus not relevant to self-care. For this purpose only three methods need be employed, namely infusion, decoction and poultice. These should always be made fresh before use, and never kept for

the

(or slightly less)

Poultice

extract only a fraction of

saucepan and

the

vessel

should be kept covered. After straining and cooling the dose may be taken; this is

released or solubilized in water.

of hot water,

body surface. The variety of containers and implements assembled here

followed by a further 10 minutes steeping.

times a day before meals.

be

boiling water over a thick hard root

in readiness for application

1

1

in

needed to remove therapeutic chemicals which would not be

solutions

moistening material, such as small quantities

directly to the

the

release

more prolonged hot water treatment. This requires adding 30 g of the herbal remedy

During related

are

wood

their water-soluble constituents only after

i(

remedies may be prepared in several different ways. Some methods are directly related to their form of administration - poultices, ointments, creams and salves, for example, are obviously for

Herbal

plant parts such as roots,

This method

may

three

utilize either

which is bruised and a pulp, and then mixed with a

fresh plant material

crushed to small quantity of hot water; or dried herbs which are softened by mixing with host pastes, which act as a suspending material, made from flour, bran, corn meal or other suitable vehicles. If the latter method is employed 60 g of dried herbs are mixed with 500 ml (or 2 ozs to 20 fl ozs) of fairly loose paste. Both fresh and dried plant poultices are best applied indirectly to the skin by sandwiching the paste

between thin cloth prior to application the affected part of the body surface.

to

65

SELF-HELP TABLE

Left

Herb farms, such as

:

the one

shown

here,

can supply the herbs used in the following recipes.

Below

:

is for adults - children Herbal remedies should

The dosage

must not be

treated.

be taken daily for two to three weeks.

No

medication should be taken continuously

sometimes better

The figures

; it is

vary the formulations

to

indicate the proportionate parts

by weight.

Key

ACIDITY

see Dyspepsia

1

1

ANAEMIA

Golden Seal Myrrh rs

Dandelion

Spinach Watercress

As salad herbs,

rs

resin

bd

buds

hb

herb

rt

root

bl

bulb

If

leaf

sd

seed

cl

clove

Witch Hazel,

distilled

Wormwood

1

Angelica

1

Nettle

water of

If

1

If 1

Walnut Sage If

If

Peppermint

Gentian

hb If

Marigold fl Black Bryony hb

cup

1

hr before

European Centaury hb 1 St Johns Wort hb Infusion: 2 cups per day

Linseed sd rt

Sweet Flag Caraway sd

Cuckoopint If Lime bk Herb Robert If Rue hb Fenugreek sd Sanicle hb

rt

1

Agrimony hb

1

Gentian

1

Calumba

1

European Centaury hb

Hemp Agrimony hb Apply hot poultices of any of the

rt

rt

Decoction: ^ cup meals

7

1

Bogbean hb

1

Blessed Thistle hb

1

Mugwort

Infusion: \

If

cup

1

hr before meals

Globe Artichoke If 1 Gentian rt Decoction: \ cup 1 hr before meals 1

Garlic

Rosemary hb

cl

Echinacea rt Juniper by

Poultice or Decoction

Renew

hr before

(external use)

1

above, alone or at least

in

combination.

4 times a day

BURNS

1

1

If

Comfrey If St Johns Wort hb

cups per day

European Centaury hb 1 Thyme hb 1 White Horehound If 1 Hyssop hb Infusion: 2 cups per day

If

Oak If Cabbage

Decoction: ± cup \ hr before

2

fl

Cowslip

meals

Infusion: 2

ANTISEPTIC

hr before meals

cups per day 1

Birch

I

meals

If

2 Nettle

Hyssop hb Arnica

rt

Infusion: 5

Infusion: 2

BAD BREATH

see Halitosis

1

Cucumber

2

Comfrey

1

Oak bk

1

Marigold

ft

If

fl

Johns Wort hb Poultice: renew frequently 2 St

1

Marigold

1

Sanicle hb

1

Plantain

fl

If

Comfrey If 2 Lady's Mantle hb 2

1

Onion Myrrh

1

Melilot hb

1

Thyme hb

1

BILIOUSNESS

bl

see Nausea

rs

Poultice:

Plantain

1

If

2

Poultice 1

Golden Rod hb

1

Wintergreen

1

If

Rue hb Southernwood hb

Poultice or Infusion

66

renew

frequently

BLEEDING

Poultice or Decoction

1

petals

(lack of)

1

or vegetables:

frequently

1

Pt

fruit

Apply on cotton wool

Agrimony hb Infusion: 1 cup

Moss

Iceland

1

flower

ft

BRUISES APPETITE

Nettle

1

ft

berry

Decoction, use diluted

Comfrey

1

bark

by

rt

Chives

1

bk

1

Cranesbill

rt

1

Raspberry

If

1

Bistort

1

rt

Decoction: as a poultice or wash

Chickweed hb Golden Seal rt Irish Moss hb

Poultice:

Burdock Marigold

renew rt fl

frequently

SELF-HELP TABLE

Coltsfoot Plantain

If

Flag

If

Eucalyptus

1

Garlic

1

If

cup before

1

retiring

Severe 3

CONJUNCTIVITIS

1

2

Eyebright hb

1

Infusion: apply as lotion or

Senna If Marjoram

If

Chamomile Sweet Flag

fl

rt

eyewash

Peppermint If Decoction: 7 cup before

Marigold fl Fumitory hb 1 Eyebright hb Infusion: apply as lotion or

4 Senna If 1 Ginger rt 4 Sweet Flag

eyewash

Decoction:

1

retiring

Blessed Thistle hb

Rue hb Mugwort hb

2 Horseradish

1

1

rt

2 Blessed Thistle

Mallow Sage If

1

Coltsfoot

Walnut

2

hb 1

Golden Seal Rose pt

1

Elder

1

If

1

If

2

fl

1 1

2

Chamomil?

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder) 1 Cayenne (powder) 2 Blessed Thistle hb

1

1

Cornflower

Poultice

1

Melilotfl

2 Plantain

Golden Rod hb 2 Yarrow hb 1 Hawthorn fl Infusion: 2 cups a day

Coltsfoot Fennel sd

If

1 1

and

1

Sundew hb Thyme hb Aniseed sd 3 cups per day

Infusion:

Fennel sd

2 Irish

1

Rue

1

If

Moss hb

Thyme

If

4 Elecampane rt 2 Aniseed sd 4 Liquorice rt 4 Lungwort If 1 Fennel sd Decoction: 3 cups per day

Mild

Fruit juices, especially

rt

Elecampane rt White Horehound. hb

fl

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder)

Blood Root

retiring

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Decoction apply as eye compress

prune

Cabbage

Poultice

cup before

Suppressant

1

CONSTIPATION

7

fl

apply as lotion or eyewash

2

rt

rt

If

Infusion: dilute 1:3 with water

Angelica rt 2 Lady's Mantle hb

2

Rhubarb

COUGHS

rt

Decoction: dilute 1:5 with water and apply as lotion or eyewash

If

Poultice

1

Angelica rt Alder Buckthorn bk

Infusion:

cl

the vapour

Poultice

1

1

2 If

Couch-grass hb Borage If Dandelion If

rt

CHILBLAINS

1

1

rt

Decoction: wash carefully with any of the above, alone or in combination

1

Sage If Marjoram

1

Pour on boiling water and inhale

Tormentil

1

1

1

Willow If Elm bk Avens rt

2

2

1

Hound's Tongue Lady's Mantle If

Sweet

Rosemary hb Peppermint If

1

If

Figs

COLDS

Expectorant

Dates Prunes 1

Yarrow

1

Elder

1

Peppermint

1

Raisins

Bran

If

3-4 cups per day

Infusion

2 Coltsfoot

Rhubarb

fl

fl

1

Hyssop hb White Horehound. hb Infusion 3 cups per day

in the diet,

1

2 1

or their intake

2

increased

1 1

Elder

fl

1

Lime

fl

Psyllium sd Alpine Plantain sd Decoction: do not strain, drink 3 cups per day

1

1

Bayberry bk 1 Ginger rt Infusion 2 cups per day.

in

doses

small

1 1

Liquorice sd

Fennel sd Linseed sd

1

Ginger

rt

3 cups per day

Infusion

1

Liquorice

2 Elder 1

Meadowsweet hb

2 Violet 1

rt

fl

Garlic

fl

cl

Decoction 2 cups per day

1

fl

Marshmallow rt Soapwort hb or

rt

Mullein hb Balm of Gilead bd

cups per day

Sage If Marshmallow

1

Coltsfoot

1

Comfrey

rt

If If

Infusion 3 cups per day

Decoction 3 cups per day 4 Boneset hb 4 Elder fl 4 Yarrow fl

rt

1

1

1

1

Cowslip

Infusion: 2

1

Infusion 3 cups per day

Liquorice

Decoction 3 cups per day

Spinach Apples The above should be incorporated

1

If

White Horehound. hb

Turnera hb

Yellow Dock rt 1 Dandelion rt Decoction: 3 cups per day

CUTS

see Bleeding

DIARRHOEA

1

2 Alder 1

Ash

1

Alder

1

Buckthorn bk

Bilberry

If

Bistort

fl

Peppermint

Infusion:

bed

Tormentil

1

If

cup before

retiring to

rt

Agrimony hb Ground Ivy hb Oak bk ft

rt

Elm bk Yarrow hb Lady's Mantle hb

67

MEDICINAL USES Cranesbill

GARGLE

rt

Decoctions of any of the above, alone or in combinations. Up to 2 cups per day taken in small doses

1

Red Sage

1

Valerian

2

Chamomile

rt fl

If

Myrrh rs Marigold fl Decoction: as required 1

Lavender fl Infusion: 2 cups per day 1

1

1

Jambul

1

Oak bk

ft

2 Raspberry

Sweet

1

rt

hb

2 Tormentil

Peppermint

2 Marigold

1

day

hb Rosemary hb Infusion: 3 cups per day 2 Blessed Thistle

fl

1

Marshmallow Sage hb

rt

INDIGESTION

3 or more cups per day

Infusion: 1

If

Marshmallow If cups per day

Infusion: 3

Sanicle hb

1

Lavender

1

Thyme hb

1

Tormentil

1 1 1

If

1

to

fl

2

Dandelion

1

Meadowsweet hb

1

Limefl

1

Marshmallow

rt

Infusion: as required 1

Meadowsweet hb Lemon Balm

Peppermint

cup as required, not exceed 4 cups per day

in

Meadowsweet hb

1

rt

If

Herb Robert hb Decoction: as required

DYSPEPSIA

1

Hops hb Valerian

1

1 Ginger rt Decoction: 3 cups per day, small doses

1

1

1

Infusion: 2 cups per

If

Infusion: as required 1

rt

Thyme hb

Infusion:

1

2 Blackberry

Decoction. 3 cups per day. in small doses

1

Cleavers hb

If

Flag

2 Plantain

1

Golden Seal rt Herb Robert hb Sage If Sea salt

If

rt

Infusion: 4 cups per

Decoction: as required

1

Parsley hb

1

Sage

day

If

Fennel sd Decoction: 2 cups per day 1

1

Sweet Flag

1

Meadowsweet hb

HALITOSIS

rt

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Anise sd

Cardamom

1

sd

Sweet Flag

rt

Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not to exceed 2 cups per day 1

1

Gentian

1

Chamomile

1

Angelica

1

Lemon Balm

Clove Angelica rt Fennel sd Peppermint

rt fl

rt

If

If

Decoction: 3 cups per day

1

Parsley

If 1

Sweet

Flag

rt 1

1

Wormwood

2

Coriander sd

2

Sage

hb

Dill

If

Liquorice rt Infusion: 7 cup per day

see Coughs

sd

of any of the above. combination. Consider the need for a laxative, dental care. treatment of flatulence or stomach little

alone or

in

1

Wormwood

1

Chicory

1

1

Anise sd Fennel sd

1

Orris

1

rt

1

Meadowsweet hb

Caraway sd

in

Sweet Flag

Decoction: gargle frequently 2 Lavender

Peppermint

2

Caraway sd

1

Garlic

1

Yarrow

If

cl

2

Sage

fl

If

to

exceed

Lemon Balm hb Chamomile fl

Peppermint If Infusion: 2 cups per day

HEADACHE

Irish Moss Chickweed

Carrot

1

Lime

1

Lemon Balm hb

Coltsfoot

Borage

1

Rosemary hb

Linseed

Cucumber

Houseleek

Slippery Elm

fl

Infusion: as required.

1-4 cups

per day 1

Caraway sd

1

Fennel sd

1

Mugwort hb

Anise sd Decoction: 3 cups per day 1

1 1

1 1

Lovage

1

1

3 cups per day

Vervain hb Scullcap hb

Infusion:

3 cups per day

rt

Cumin sd Thyme hb

Decoction: 2 cups per day

68

Catmint hb Rosemary hb

Infusion:

1

Winter Savory hb Angelica rt

1

5 cups per day

INFLAMMATIONS cups per day

1

1

7

Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle 3 times per day

Apple

1

rt

Turnera hb 1 Cola ft 1 Ginger rt Decoction: \ cup as required, not

1

fl

Infusion: 2

1

taken

small doses

1

Decoction: 3 cups per day 2

rt

2-3 cups per day.

2 Sarsaparilla

rt

hb

rt

hb

2 Basil

acidity.

1

4 Sweet Flag Ginger rt

If

Woodruff hb Decoction: 2 cups per day

Infusion:

FLATULENCE

2

If

1

Chew a

1

EXPECTORANTS

Tarragon

Fennel sd Gentian rt Peppermint

1

Yarrow

1

Scullcap hb

Infusion:

fl

2—3 cups per day

Oats

Purple Loosestrife

Onion

White Pond Okra Lungwort

Parsley

Comfrey Pumpkin

Lily

Marshmallow

Watercress Iceland Moss Any of the above may be crushed and pulped with a little hot water to produce a poultice suitable for application to inflammations or

swellings

INFLUENZA

see Colds

SELF-HELP TABLE Black Horehound hb 1 Decoction: 3 cups per day

INSECT BITES Houseleek

Parsley

Leek Olive

1

1

Golden Rod hb

1

1

Meadowsweet hb

Sage hb Black Horehound hb 1 Vervain hb 1 Pennyroyal hb Infusion: 3 cups per day (not during pregnancy)

If

fl

If

bl oil

Plantain

cl

If

Rue If St Johns Wort Marigold

Garlic

Eaten raw: 2 per day

Infusion: gargle

Summer Savory Infusion: gargle

If

Pennyroyal

If

Comfrey If Crush the fresh plant of any of the above and rub on the sting

Red Sage

1

Raspberry If Ginger rt Peppermint hb

1

Lemon Balm hb

1 1

Bayberry bk

cups per day

Infusion: 2

If

Infusion: gargle

Decoction: gargle

Repellent

Clove

Lavender of Pennyroyal

Oil of Oil

Elder

TONICS

Chew one

slowly

(crushed)

If

see Burns

INSOMNIA SEDATIVES Valerian

Lime

Betony hb

1

Scullcap hb

fl

Fennel sd Aniseed sd Passion flower hb (i cup only)

Infusion:

1 1 1

1 1

1

1

sd Fennel sd Dill

3 cups per day

1 1

1 1

Lime

fl

Hops hb Lemon Balm hb Valerian

Infusion

cup

(see also Gargle)

Poke Root

Lady's Slipper hb

TOOTHACHE

Hyssop hb Lemon Balm hb

Mallow

Eaten raw. 2 per day

Clove

oil

to tooth cavity,

rt

1

Mistletoe hb

2

Scullcap hb

but avoid

gums

cups per day.

in

small

Chamomile

fl

Infusion: repeatedly rinse

doses 2 Mistletoe hb 4 Lime fl

Hawthorn

ft

VOMITING or

2

fl

Decoction 2 cups per day. small doses

in

1

Lavender

1

Orange

1

Lemon Balm hb

1

Basil

fl

1

1

Valerian

2

(see also Nausea)

Peppermint hb Spearmint hb European Centaury hb

2

Chamomile

1

Wormwood

fl

hb

Infusion sip as required, to 3 cups

fl

hb Hops hb

2

mouth

per day

1

Chamomile Lemon Balm hb

1

Peppermint hb

1

Fennel sd

1

European Centaury hb

1

rt

fl

fl

1

Mullein hb Coltsfoot If

1

Marshmallow

1

If

and chew gently

Apply

cl

Mallow

4-5 cups per day

.

2 Valerian

1

Infusion 4 cups per day

1

ft

If

Turnera hb Saw Palmetto by 1 Cola ft 1 Oats sd Decoction: 2 cups per day. in small doses

Hedge Mustard hb

1

Sace

rt

Decoction: gargle

Garlic

1

fl

Soften,

at night

8 Coltsfoot If 4 Blood Root rt 4 Balm of Gilead bd 1

Dog Rose

1

Oats sd Hops hb

Infusion: 2

LARYNGITIS

Hibiscus

Lavender fl Infusion: 4 cups per day

rt

I

1

1

1

3 cups per day

1

1

ft

Infusion 3 cups per day

1 Peppermint hb Decoction I cup at night

1

Dog Rose

Infusn

Lady's Slipper hb Oats sd Scullcap hb

Infusion:

1

1

2

If

Peppermint If Infusion: 3 cups per day

1 fl

Lavender fl Woodruff hb Thyme hb Infusions of any of the above. cup at night

Dandelion Chicory rt

1

rt

Hops hb Chamomile

1

1

SCALDS

Liquorice

Infusion 2 cups per day. Or take alone. 2 cups per day

any one rt

Infusion: as required

SORE THROAT

rt

Infusion 3 cups per day

LAXATIVES

see Constipation

NAUSEA

1

Golden Seal

1

Thyme hb

2

Sage

During Pregnancy

rt

1

If

Iceland

Moss hb

Black Horehound hb Decoction: 2 cups per day

Myrrh rs Decoction: gargle

1

1

Black Horehound hb Infusion: 2

cups per day

1

Galangal

1

Marshmallow

rt rt

1

Bistort

1

Balm

rt

of Gilead

1 Sanicle hb Decoction, gargle

bd

1

Chamomile

1

Meadowsweet hb

1

fl

Black Horehound. hb cups per day

Infusion: 2

69

\

*

'--

c

v

;

•••

*Jk-<'~

-/

\ag

UP

Herbs in the kitchen

y

n

Herbs and spices have had an important role in cooking tor more than 5000 years. No doubt herbs were eaten for their flavour long before it was recognized that

Proverbs (xv:i7), we find 'Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith'. Classical

various other beneficial

herbs and spices. Theophrastus, born in Greece in 372 B.C. and a student of Plato

possessed

they

properties.

An

organized

international

literature

is

similarly rich in references to

many

trade in spices already existed by about

and

1550 B.C. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical work, contained references to Indian spices as well as locally grown plants. In about 950 B.C. King Solomon

of herbs in his writings. Pliny, born in a.d.

was visited by the Queen of Sheba who brought gifts of Arabian spices and herb seeds. Ancient Babylon already grew its own Bay, Saffron, Thyme, Cumin and Juniper. In 450 B.C. Herodotus described Indian spices then

known

in

Greece.

It

was from the mediterranean regions that many plants came to northern Europe as the Roman empire expanded. Native herbs were augmented by Roman favourites such as Mustard, and spices were imported. South Indian Pepper was the most popular import and this pungent spice was sprinkled liberally over dishes both sweet and savoury. Even today freshly milled pepper is sometimes added to

strawberries to heighten their flavour.

Ginger was next

in

popularity

cuisine

of first-century

used

many

in

in

the

Rome and was

spiced mixtures, sauces and

stuffings as a digestive

and

laxative.

Biblical references to herbs

and

spices,

obtained from them, abound in both the Old and New Testaments. In

and

oils

Aristotle, includes

23, included natural history in his writings

and referred to the custom of sprinkling egg-brushed bread dough with Poppyseeds prior to baking.

In a.d. 812 the

HerbSy bread

I

and eggs

simple

Emperor Charlemagne

issued an edict instructing his people to

grow certain herbs and vegetables

in their

gardens - probably the earliest 'permitted list' of herbs. Perhaps the Emperor's best tended garden, stocked according to his plan, was in the Benedictine monastery at St Gall in Switzerland. In Britain, the Guild of Pepperers was in existence in 1180. The guild then became the Mistery of Grossers, Pepperers and Apothecaries, later the Guild of Grocers and finally the Grocers' Company. From the fourteenth century the guild acted as a watchbody, controlling the quality of spices,

with

adulterated

which could easily be or low grade water was another

spent

material. Adding means of defrauding

the buyer.

Only

in

1875 did the necessary legal machinery come into the hands of the law with the Sale

of Food

rendered guild

Left:

descriptions

the

and Drugs Act, which watchdog powers of the

less vital.

The

fifteenth-century

from

term

'pepperoccasional

materials that can provide cooks with all the

torn

variety they need.

practice of paying rents to landlords in

rent'

arose

the

7'

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN SI'

ICE

PLANTS

I'

late

ma

Above: Herbs have been used for hundreds of years, and

it is

only in recent times that they

have been neglected. Here a cook seasons one

of his dishes -

illustration from a cookery

book published

in

1507. For

the

GINGER

medieval

BLACK PEPPER piper nigrum,.

:in
cook herbs were an essential part of cooking, 4

most often for heir preservative powers.

Right : Ginger, Black Pepper, Caper and

Cayenne : four spices that have been used kitchens for

many

in

centuries.

A peppercorn rent signified a trivial amount, but realistic rents paid in pepper consignments meant that the landowner's annual pepper expenditure could be avoided. Rent paid in peppercorns was often preferred because it held its value better than unstable coinage - suggesting problems with inflationary currency even in those days! The staff of monastic gardens, kitchens and distilling rooms, the cultivators of the farms of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem and church missionaries (often selected because of their botanical acumen) all played important roles in promoting the knowledge and use of herbs and spices. The Arab conquest of Spain

his first

meant

Arabian spice traders operated from Spain to the borders of China. At about the same time Greek, Levantine and Arabian traders were busy establishing trading stations and factories along

years later Vasco da

the west coast of India.

navigated the Cape of Good Hope and was transformed, the legendary overland caravan routes being replaced

Colombo, Ceylon. In 1600 the British East India Company was founded. The Dutch formed a similar trading company two years later, the Danes following in 6 6. In 65 the Portuguese were driven out of Malakka, in 1658 out of Ceylon, and for some 200 years London was the

by sea journeys. In 1492 Columbus made

leading spice market.

specified weights of peppercorns.

The

that

period between

the blossoming of the

1

100 and 1290 saw

North

Italian spice

trade centres. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz trade

7^

CAYENNE PEPPER

C AJ' F. R

capsicum

capari.i apinosa

voyage

to the

New World and Gama landed

six

As trade

annuum

in spices slowly

developed,

ref-

in

erences to their culinary use were gradu-

15 10 the Portuguese estab-

lished a base in

Goa and a year later they entered Malakka in the Spice Islands. In

documented. The fourteenth-century book Forme of Cury published in England is evidence of the widespread use of herbs

151 7 the Portuguese established a base in

in cookery.

Calicut.

1

1

In

1

1

ally

liberally

herbs.

The

plays of Shakespeare are

sprinkled

with

To quote just one

references extract,

to

from A

Midsummer Nighfs Dream (II.ii.249): 'I a bank whereon the wild thyme blows, where ox-lips and the nodding

know

violet

lush

grows; Quite over-canopied with woodbine, With sweet musk roses

and with

eglantine."

FINDING YOUR HERBS The

sixteenth

and seventeenth-century

Andrew Boorde, Gervase Markham and John Evelyn made frequent references to culinary plants. The indulgent use of herbs and spices may well writers such as

have been necessary

to

mask

the taints of

partially rotten and rancid food (storage and preservation techniques were primitive, to say the least), and to add greater

variety

the

to

of basic

flavour

foods.

Today, though methods of food storage and preservation may be technologically sophisticated, factory and battery-farming methods of rearing cattle and poultry

much

be desired in terms of fruit and vegetable crops (notably apples and potatoes have come under fire, and the plant breeder is often reproached for breeding uniform, unblemished items, designed to suit the packer's boxes rather than to delight the leave

flavour.

in

The

function of herbs and spices

transient in dishes

may

be

which are quickly pre-

salad decorated with Nasturtium blooms;

addition at just the right

herbs have more of an effect on diet

necessary.

if,

for

coming

Herbs are often associated with

specific

The

earliest

dates, often religious festivals.

Shrove Tuesday pancakes were tansyflavoured; bitter herbs still symbolize the Jewish Passover; on Good Friday (tradfree of devilish

itionally

tings of Bay,

Thyme

influence)

cut-

Lavender, Sage, Rosemary are planted to ensure their

healthy growth; on

May

i

German

the

cooking process are

all

important

Steeping, distilling, infusion, or

The

dish

moment may be may be needed for

immediate consumption, or

chutneys, preserves, wines, vinegars, hon-

storage or (as in the case of certain pickles, chutneys and wines) it may need time to

eys

and

oils.

for

freezer

mature.

AVAILABILITY OF HERBS Most herbs are grown and harvested

aluminium

when

to the cook's aid.

the

instance, they are used in stored pickles,

in

though nowadays many flourish in town plots and window-boxes or pots. For those without access to the fresh form, the cool cabinets of some chain-stores now have a limited range of freshly packed containers or freeze-dried herbs in jars and ring-pull

spices are

whether it is in the fresh and the method and time of

itself,

or dried state, factors.

rural settings such as country gardens,

again, herbs and

of the herb

pared, served and eaten, such as a herb omelette, Elder flower fritters or a bowl of

to

Once

Adding herbs to dishes needs exjudgment and care. The nature

perience,

diets.

Even certain

consumer's palate.

and

min B complex can be a dietary hazard vegan

cans. Until relatively recently,

upsurge of interest in herbs began, many cooks were using herbs which were not always packaged and stored in the best manner. Often they were too old, and so generally poor results were obtained. Today the situation has much improved. There is more interest in growing fresh herbs and the home freezer enables the grower to store herbs

the

much more

effectivelv.

Four main botanical families supply the majority of culinary herbs, the Umbelliferae which include Angelica, Caraway, Dill, Fennel and Parsley, the Labiatae (the Mints, Basil, Sage and Thyme), the Compositae (Chamomile, Tansy and Yarrow) and the Cruciferae (Mustard).

Gathering fresh herbs Pick or snip the young

leaves or whole from the ends of stems if the plant is large enough. Avoid over-picking too many leaves from one stem or from very sprigs

Below: This flourishing herb bed contains Marjoram, Lemon Balm, and two types of Fennel, together with

many

other plants used

by man, which together provide an attractive kitchen garden.

(The

table on

page 123

lists

some herbs suitable for a cook's garden.)

Mai-Bowie - a white wine cup flavoured with Woodruff and early Strawberries - is prepared. August crayfish parties in Swe-

den and Finland would not be traditional without the flavour of Dill and decorative Dill heads which are used to garnish the

mounds of succulent

red

pre-

shellfish

viously boiled in a Dill bath.

HERBS AND DIET As a source of nutrients herbs and spices are usually consumed in too small quantities

enter

to

the

calculations

concerned

dietician

mended

intakes.

with

The

C

plant

only significant

is

the

of

recom-

contribution

vitamin

to the diet

daily

of

from a particular if

a bowlful

is

consumed. Used as a garnishing herb, the same plant may contribute little in nutrient terms but a good deal in visual and palate appeal, thereby playing an essential role in stimulating the appetite

and aiding digestion. Gertain plants, however, are known to be rich sources of nutrients. For example, vitamin C is present significantly in Rosehips,

Sweet

Peppers.

Nettles

and

Watercress. Nutritional claims are for certain

and

herbs: for instance,

Alfalfa

source- of

Deficiency

shoots provide an

vitamin B12 oi

tins

in

made

Com In

\

essential

vegan

diet.

component of the

vita-

in

the

73

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN Left

:

Garlic, onions

these are three

of the

popular herbs used onions belong

—

and

chillies

best

known and most

on sale

and same family and both

in the kitchen. Garlic

to the

have a very wide culinary use, ranging from soups

to

meat. Chillies are an integral part

of Indian cooking and are responsible for that distinctively hot, spicy taste.

made of dark glass or plastic with well-fitting lids so that direct light and air do not shorten the storage life. Do not store over a warm cooker but in a dry cool spot. When the herb loses its aroma it is of doubtful use in cooking and should be replaced. containers

Freezing herbs Perhaps the most satisfactory domestic

method of

storing herbs

in the freezer

is

since variable results are obtained bv dry-

ing and not

all

herbs dry well - Chives

'Allium schoenoprasum)

and leathery

Dill

(Anethum graveolens) and Fennel Foeniculum vulgare), for example. Freeze the (

clean herbs in small quantities suitable

average size dishes. Blanching may be dispensed with if the freezer storage time is to be brief, say six to eight weeks. For longer storage, blanch the herbs by immersing them in boiling water for about 45 seconds, then plunge them for use in

water, drain, and pack in wrapping material or freezer bags. An alternative method of blanching herbs is to steam-blanch them by placing the sprigs in a steamer above rapidly boiling water. Allow about i£ minutes blanching into

chilled

freezer

The recommended

time.

blanched

Whole young Use at once or wrap in foil and keep in the refrigerator. Sprigs of Mint (Mentha spp) and Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) may be kept in a jar of water plants.

in an airing cupboard or in a barely

warm

oven, leaving the oven door open. The temperature should not exceed 34°C

frozen

sprigs

may

freezer

life

for

months. be crumbled while

herbs

is

six

frozen.

Frozen herbs can be added to many dishes without thawing. Defrost before

herbs on wire cooling

using in salads and spreads or for garnish-

racks covered with muslin, cheesecloth or

(95°F).

Lay

the

Picking and drying Herbs are usually harvested when the flowers are just coming into bloom as they

storage jars, preferably of tinted glass, and

Bouquets garnis and portion-wrapped sprigs of herbs can be protected in the freezer by placing the labelled foil- or polythene-wrapped parcels in covered

cover with a plastic screw cap. Should

plastic

are then richest in aromatic

signs of condensation

for a

few days.

nylon

ably a certain

amount

of

loss

oils.

Inevit-

of these

occurs during drying and storage.

when

oils

Some

bloom, namely Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), Lavender {Lavandula spp), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Sage (Salvia officinalis) is harvested when the earliest buds are seen. Pick just after the dew has gone and discard any yellow or damaged herbs. herbs are harvested

in full

Handle with care and only

move obvious

rinse to re-

Pat the herbs dry gently with kitchen paper. Dry them

74

dust or

soil.

When

dry the herbs are brittle and crumbly. Put the dried herbs into net.

jar, the

appear inside the

herbs are incompletely dried and

should be returned to the drying cupboard or oven.

Long-stemmed herbs may be dried by hanging them in a warm, dry, airy place for a

loose

in small bunches in a Cover the bunches with

few days. Tie fashion.

dark paper if direct sunlight is liable to reach them. Crumble and store the dried herbs as above. Avoid purchasing large quantities of dried

avoid

herbs as

shelf-life

paper-packaged

is

and Choose

limited

brands.

ing.

boxes or screw-top

jars.

Chopped herbs can be mixed with

soft

breadcrumbs and frozen for use as toppings or in stuffings and dumplings. Place the chopped herbs in ice-cube containers and top up with stock. Transfer the frozen bags for storage. Likesprigs of tiny Mint leaves in ice-cube trays, top with water and freeze for use in wine cups and some aperitifs. Chopped herbs can be mixed

cubes

wise,

to freezer

you can put small

with butter, rolled into cylindrical rolls or flat blocks ready for slicing and served with grilled meat or fish, or as part of a sandwich filling. Herbs commonly used in

TEAS AND TISANES such savoury butters are: Parsley (Petroselinum crispum),

{Ocimum

Basil

basilicum).

Chives {Allium schoenoprasum), Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus), Watercress [Nasturtium

officinale),

folium),

Garlic

Chervil

Mustard

Anthriscus cere-

Capers

(Allium sativum),

(Capparis spinosa), Dill

Horseradish

i

(

Anethum

.

and

armoracia

Cochlearia

[Brassica nigra.

graveolens

Lemon juice and

may also be added. Similarly, store Rose petals (Rosa spp in butter and spread on sweet scones for tea. Remember that ready-prepared dishes stored in the freezer should be seasoned more lightly than dishes for immediate consumption. Herbs and other aromatic seasonings become more pronounced in flavour during freezsalt

)

er storage.

USING HERBS IN COOKING Fines herbes are mixtures of three or four

chopped herbs used

to flavour particular

dishes, the classical

mixture consisting of

Parsley

Petroselinum

(Anthriscus cerefolium

dracunculus

i

,

crispum

Chervil

.

Tarragon

Artemisia

and Chives (Allium

schoeno-

prasum). Fines herbes are used in soups,

and cream cheese. Herb bouquets are small bunches of herbs added to food usually only for the duration of cooking. They can easily be removed if they are tied together with white cotton thread or bound in cheesecloth. A bouquet simply consists of a lew sprigs of Parsley [Petroselinum crispum and sauces, omelettes

a few Chives

Allium schoenoprasum

(hop-

.

ped and added to sauces, salads or (ream A bouquet garni is made of two two Parsley stalks Petroselinum crispum

cheese.

.

sprigs of

Thyme

Thymus

vulgaris

.

one

Marjoram

of

sprig

(Origanum

onites),

and half a Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis). Such bouquets may be added to stocks, soups and stews or put into roastoptional)

Ready-made

ing birds.

sachets of the dried

completely dissimilar tastes, the action of fermentation producing quite different flavours.

Whether you plan

to

make

or

teas

you should always pick the herbs

tisanes,

come

into full flower. This

herbs are easily obtainable. Generally speaking, herbs and spices

just before they

should be used carefully and sparingly. There are exceptions to this rule; for example in the use of fresh Dill sprigs

flavour.

Anethum graveolens) in the preparation of dill-marinaded salmon when liberal amounts of the herb bring the best results. Herbs and spices play a major role in enhancing rather than overpowering nat-

The range

includes Rosehip, Rosehip and

Hibiscus,

Fennel, Peppermint,

ural food flavours in the various foods

and

which they are added. The addition of one tablespoon of chopped fresh herbs usually suffices in a four-portion dish. Correspondingly less of the dried herb is used (j to f teaspoon if coarsely chopped. 5 to 7 teaspoon if ground This last amount also applies to ground spices. Freshly ground spices are more flavoursome than those purchased ready-ground particularly if they have been stored for some time. Commercially prepared freeze-dried herbs, such as Chives and Dill, are almost the equal of fresh herbs in colour and flavour. They are expensive to buy but excellent in quality. Store at room temperature in welldishes to

1

.

sealed containers.

Dried seeds are usually bruised prior

to

will

ensure

Individual

sachets

storage period.

Iu frozen foods die flavours of herbs

storage,

become stronger during them with discretion in destined for the freezer. Some

dishes

si.

should

Do

last for

about a year.

10

making

a tisane, as the tannin deposits

inevitably

infuse for three to ten minutes, strain

listed

in

table

the

on pages

HERB TEAS and

tea

tisane arc often used

synonymously, but the distinction vital importance. A tea is a drink

is

of

made

adding boiling water to the fermented leaves and stalks of One or more plants. A tisane is made by adding boiling water to the fresh or dried but unlermented f>\

normally

plant material

green leaves Left

Making

:

The

.

i/b

1

resulting drinks have

Thyme, Marjoram and

and

casseroles.

bih cotton thread

bubs

Ibi i\

,.

00k id.

the form of

Tisanes are drunk without milk. They can be sweetened with a little sugar or honey according to taste. Some people

1

an

to

add a

Among suitable

little

juice,

and

herbs which are most

those

for

lemon

as well.

use

as

tisanes

are

Lime,

a

In

ni\ily

to

If tied together

f» example, removed whin the /nod <»

string,

Hibiscus, Chamomile, Lemon Balm, Sage and Marjoram. Certain herbs, such as Bergamot and Lemon Balm for example,

need to be boiled for at least a few minutes to extract the full flavour. Aromatic seeds may also be used in the preparation of infusions. They need to be bruised and crushed and then simmered gently for at least ten minutes to draw out

Use four teaspoons of 560ml (20 fl oz). Strain and

their full flavour.

seeds to every serve hot.

Teas The characteristic

flavour of Tea (includ-

ing herb teas) results from the high tannin

content of the leaves used; the aroma is not naturally present in the fresh leaves

This makes a delicious addition

leaf.

toups, slews ,,

in

a bouquet garni which

includes Parsley,

Bay

and

serve hot or cold.

Peppermint, Garden Thyme, Rosehip,

90 91.

The terms

it

contain will mar the delicate flavour of many herbs. Take about two to three teaspoons of fresh herbs (or one teaspoon of dried) to each 140ml (5 fl oz). Pour on boiling water,

will

Angelica, Bergamot, Green Buckwheat,

obtain good culinary results, and

are

these

when

not use an ordinary tea-pot

use

herbs, however, must be used in die fresh si, tie

Chamo-

to

tend

s|)k es

and

to use.

Simply pack the herbs loosely on a wire rack in the airing cupboard or any other warm, airy place out of direct sunlight for about 48 hours. When they are completely dry and brittle, store them in airtight jars made of dark glass. They

like

recommended

are

teas

Tisanes

sometimes spices

within the

of herb

and Green Buckwheat.

mile,

herbs retain most of the flavour

used

aroma and

and convenient

readily available

use to help to release their flavour. Frozen if

very best

the

but

is

formed

during

the

process

of

fermentation.

Due

to their high tannin content the heih teas include Lady's Mantle, Strawberry, Raspberry, Blackberry and Rose-bay Willow herb. The leaves should

best

75

HERBS

THE KITCHEN

IN

1

•

Angelica leaves Aniseed Anise leaves

Bergamot Borage Burdock Caraway

•

•

Agrimony

•

:

• •

(red)

• • •

•

•

•

Celery seed

•

•

Chamomile Clove pinks

•

•

•

^

G ( flo

•

rs )

1

• •

Coltsfoot

•

Comfrey Cowslip

1

1

•

Cumin

•

Dandelion Dill

Elder flowers

Fennel Hibiscus

Hops Hyssop Jasmine Lemon Balm Lime Lovage Mate Marjoram

• • • •

•

•

• •

• •

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

•

Mints

•

• •

•

• •

Mugwort

•

Nasturtium

•

•

Nettle

Orange-flower

•

•

Parsley

• •

•

Pennyroyal Peppermint Primrose Raspberry leaf

Red Rose petals Rose-Geranium Rosehip Rosemary

1

1

•

•

i

•

• • • •

• •

•

Saffron 1

Salad Burnet Savory

•

•

Sage

•

•

Sorrel

Sweet Cicely

•

•

•

•

Tansy

Thyme

•

•

•

•

•

Vervain Violet

76

•

• •

Watercress Wild Strawberry

Woodruff Yarrow

• • •

•

• •

'

,

SOUPS Left :

Most people

think ofjust the everyday

Chinese and Indian varieties when making

There are a great number ofplants, - such as Aniseed, Dandelion,

tea.

however

Lovage and Vervain refreshing drink.

-

that can

Many

make a

of them are also

medicinally beneficial, while others possess cosmetic properties.

Right: Yerba Mate (Tlex paraguariensisj being gathered in Paraguay. Once gathered, the leaves are dried on a

wooden frame

placed over afire and then pounded. The

made from the leaves contains both and tannin. Mate tea should not be prepared in advance but drunk when freshly brewed. It is an effective tonic and mild tea

caffeine

stimulant.

be collected from the time they start to unfold until they begin to flower. It is necessary to use large quantities of the leaves as small amounts will ferment only with difficulty.

Leave the

fresh leaves in the

shade

for

24 hours. The temperature should be sufficiently high to make them wilt but not so high that they dry out. Then bruise them with a rolling pin, spreading them out in thin layers. Fold the bruised leaves in a cloth. Store the cloth in a warm place 3 Fj for 24 to 48 hours; (20-45 C, 68 12 to

1

1

during

this

generate

time the leaves will start to

own

their

Finish

heat.

the

process by drying the leaves in the shade

temperature of not more than 54 C 29°F) The tea leaves should be more or less brown. Much the best way of producing satisfactory herb teas is by experiment, both with the fermented leaves of different plants and with different blends. Take about one teaspoon of the dried leaves to Pour on boiling each 140ml 5 II oz

SOUP DISHES Gazpacho

.

.

water, infuse for 3 to 10 minutes, strain and serve hot or cold. As with tisanes, a little

lemon and honey or sugar may be

added.

Some

blends are as

established

Serves 4 half a

2

1

Soak the dried peas in cold water overnight. Rinse and drain. Brown the pork or ham in a heavy saucepan adding a little oil if the meat is lean. Add the celery and onion and cook for a few minutes. Add the cold water, drained peas, ham bone and the herbs and spices tied in muslin. Simmer for about 2 hours. Remove the ham bone and the muslin bag. Taste and

1

to taste)

3 tablespoons olive oil

tablespoon superfine or castor sugar

1

4 tablespoons wine vinegar

280ml 25g salt

10

1

fl

oz

1

oz)

tomato

juice

fresh Parsley

adjust the seasoning. Serve sprinkled with

and white peppei

Parsley accompanied by fresh bread.

Peel and dice the vegetables. Gut cucumber lengthwise and remove seeds.

mix

sin^

I

.1

sieve or an electric blender,

with

vegetables

the

the

wine vinegar and a

sugar,

tomato

juice.

Add

the

making sure

sparingly,

the

the

oil

olive

little

Norwegian Caraway Soup Serves 4

oil,

of the

and vinegar

that the mixture

becomes neither kxj oily nor too sharp. Pour into a bowl, add the remaining tomato juice and seasoning to taste. Stir together and put in the refrigerator.

2

Blackberry 8 parts Strawberry 4 parts Raspberry 2 parts Peppermint 2 parts Blackberry 8 parts Raspberry 4 parts

Thyme

Serve (hilled sprinkled with Parsley.

Pea Soup Serves 4-8

2 parts

25g i5g

Rose-bay Willow herb Raspberry 4 parts

Lime

(flowers

2

pans

4 Lady's Mantle 8 parts Raspberry 8 parts

Peppermint 2 parts All parts by weight

450^ \

parts

y>£f 1

1

1

2

dried

diced

7og ib oz) jog (6 oz)

2l

70

II

oz) butter or margarine

plain flour (unbleached,

(\ oz)

(35 fl oz) good veal stock 225g (8 oz) chopped Caraway leaves egg yolk 2 tablespoons cream litre

1

salt

ground black pepper 4 poached eggs or 2 hard-boiled

eggs,

sliced

lb

OZ

( 1

enriched

2

3 Blackberry 8 parts

Mace

and pepper tablespoons chopped Parsley

cucumber

medium-sized onion green pepper 2-3 large ripe tomatoes 1-2 cloves Garlic (according 1

1

follows:

whole Allspice

piece blade

salt

at a ( 1

10 1

peas pork or

salt

(hopped celery chopped onion

oz) cold

tablespoons finely chopped

Caraway

split

water

ham

leaves

Melt the butter or margarine in a saucepan. Stir in the flour. Gradually add the Stock, stirring constantly, and bring to the

1

ham bone

boil.

1

Bay

gently for 5 to 10 minutes. Beat the egg yolk and cream together and add a

leaf

6 Parsley stalks

Add

the

Caraway

leaves

and simmer

77

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN spoonful of the soup to this mixture before pouring it into the rest of the soup. Keep the soup hot but do not let it boil once the cream has been added. Taste for seasoning and adjust if necessary. Garnish each serving with a poached egg or slices of hard-boiled egg. Sprinkle with chopped

Caraway

leaves, serve with buttered toast.

Garlic Soup Serves 6 6 tablespoons whole Garlic cloves (i oz) butter tablespoons olive oil 4 i litre (35 fl oz) chicken stock

25g

3 e gg y° lks salt

pinch Cayenne and ground

Mace

6 rounds French bread (fresh or toasted 2 tablespoons chopped Parsley

I

Heat and a tablespoon of the olive oil over a low heat for about 15 minutes. Avoid browning the cloves. Pour on the stock. Bring to the boil and simmer for 20 minutes. Peel

the

Garlic

them

in a

heavy pan

cloves

carefully.

in the butter

Beat the egg yolks with a whisk until Add the rest of the oil drop by drop. Stir a few spoonfuls of the soup

they thicken.

into the egg-oil mixture,

then add this

the saucepan Heat but do not boil. Rub through a sieve into a warmed pan or tureen. Season to taste and add the spices. Place a slice of French bread in each warmed soup bowl and pour the soup over. Sprinkle with Parsley and serve.

cream. Serve hot or chilled.

Sorrel Soup

MEAT AND POULTRY DISHES

mixture

very

slowly

to

stirring constantly.

3-5 minutes. Stir in the pureed vegetables and lemon juice. Check seasoning - adjust with a little sugar if preferred. Pour into bowls and divide the sour cream between them. Sprinkle Chives on the

Chicken Legs Hunter's Style

450g (1 lb) French Sorrel leaves 450g (1 lb) spinach 50g (2 oz) onion 40g (1^ oz) margarine 40g (i-jr oz) plain flour (unbleached,

Serves 4

225g (8 oz) button mushrooms 50g (2 oz) margarine small onion 8 chicken legs 2 tablespoons plain flour (unbleached, 1

enriched) (35 fl oz) chicken stock black peppercorns and salt litre

enriched)

lemon juice oz) sour cream

7 tablespoons dry white wine 420ml (15 fl oz) chicken stock 2 tablespoons tomato puree

2 tablespoons

140 ml (5 finely

fl

snipped Chives

Trim and wash

the Sorrel

and spinach

very thoroughly. Put the leaves into a large saucepan and cook until tender. Drain and puree in a blender or rub

through a onion and

and chop the fry in the margarine until softened and clear. Add the flour and stir to blend. Remove from the heat and stir in the stock. Return to the heat and bring to

the

fine sieve.

boil

gently,

7 £ 1

^ 1

Peel

stirring

Season with pepper and 7«

dishes.

chicken legs in the rest of the margarine until golden brown. Sprinkle the flour over the chicken and onion and fry

Pour on the wine and stock and tomato puree, salt, pepper, Chervil, Thyme and Bay leaf. Cook gently for 20 minutes or until the chicken gently.

add

Serves 4-6

1

Above: Garlic, one of the most popular kerbs of all. It is most often added to meat

salt.

constantly.

Simmer

for

^ 1

teaspoon salt teaspoon ground black pepper teaspoon chopped fresh Chervil or teaspoon dried Chervil teaspoon chopped fresh Thyme or teaspoon dried Thyme and 1 Bay leaf tablespoon finely chopped Parsley

Rinse and chop the mushrooms and fry in half the margarine in a heavy saucepan. Lift the mushrooms out of the pan and fry the chopped onion and the

them

is

the

Add

tender, stirring occasionally.

mushrooms and simmer

for

a

the

further

couple of minutes. Stir in the Parsley just before serving. Serve with boiled rice and haricots verts or a green salad.

Chicken with Rosemary Serves 4 1

chicken, about ikg (2-25 lb)

25g 1

1

(1

oz)

margarine

tablespoon chopped Rosemary or teaspoon dried Rosemary

cream 2 tablespoons tomato puree pickled cucumber, finely chopped salt and pepper 200ml

(7

fl

oz) sour

1

to 425 F (2i5°C) or Gas Divide the chicken into quarters. Place them in a fireproof dish and brush them with melted margarine. Season with

Heat the oven

Mark

7.

FISH Turkish

Lamb

Serves 4

goog

(2 lbs) best

3 large

end of neck of lamb

onions

22
4 fresh or canned tomatoes 1 green pepper 4 diced potatoes 1 teaspoon Fennel or Dill

teaspoon Sage

1

Bay leaves 2 chopped cloves Garlic 700ml (25 fl oz) stock 2

(2 oz)

50g

lard

flour

and pepper

salt

Melt the lard in a thick pan. Peel and roughly chop the onions and fry them with the Garlic until they are golden. Divide the meat into chops, coat them in seasoned flour and fry them for a couple of minutes on each side. Add the carrots, tomatoes, green pepper, Bay, Sage, Fennel or Dill, stock and seasoning. Cover the pan, bring to the boil, skim and simmer for

1

Add

1 hours.

the diced potatoes

and

chopped onions and Garlic and simmer for a further

45 minutes.

FISH DISHES salt,

Pepper and Rosemary. Roast the in the oven for about 45 minutes until the meat is thoroughly cooked and nicely browned. Mix the sour cream, tomato puree. ( lucumber and seasoning if

Above

chicken

Rosemary, Garlic and Bay leaves

required. Serve the sauce with the chicken

same time masking

accompanied by boiled potatoes and

a

Goose baked

:

in a

nay of serving

unusual

moderate oven with is

an

this bird ; this

combination of herbs brings out to the full the delicious flavour of the meat, while at the

which tends

to

the slightly fatty taste

be a characteristic of goose.

Chicken may be used instead of goose

salad.

Fish au Poivre Vert Serves 5

28o~340g (10-12 oz) plaice, flounder or any white fish fillets, fresh or frozen 7 tablespoons double or whipping cream 7 tablespoons sour cream 2 teaspoons salt

in this

and will

be just as delicious.

Chicken Paprika Serves

Goulash

1

Serves 1

25g 25g

()75g

margarine or butter

ozj

(l

oz) lard

2

chopped or sliced 4 teaspoons Hungarian Paprika 560ml 20 OZ) stock 280ml

10

(1

oz

Sprinkle chic ken pieces with

margarine and lard

1

<

1

ream

salt.

1

Melt the

covered frying pan. Add onions and cook gentk until they Stan to brown. Add Paprika and stock, bring to the boil and add the in a skillet 01

chicken. Cover pan and simmer until lender, about 1] hours. Stir the coinlloui into the sour

Cook gently

cream and for

a

few

noi bring to the boil.

made

fillets

under running cold

stir

into

tin

pan.

minutes, but do

This dish can also be

with turkey breasts.

lb

lean stewing beef cut into

\

shallow pan.

large onions, sliced

dripping heaped tablespoon Hungarian Paprika

Whip

together the cream,

and herbs and pour the sauce over the fish. Cover with a lid and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve with freshly cooked vegetables and boiled potatoes. sour cream,

salt

salt

cornstarch)

carton sour

I

")Og (2 oz)

11

teaspoons cornflour

1

cubes

3 onions,

2

frozen

water. Fold them and place them in a

salt (]

\\ teaspoons chopped Chervil or Parsley 1^ teaspoons chopped Basil

Thaw

;

or 5 chicken pieces

chopped green peppercorns

\ teaspoons

1

recipe

2

teaspoon ( larawa) seeds teaspoon Marjoram crushed cloves ol Garlic

stock

55og

Potted Shrimps Serves 4

225g (

i^ lb

Fry the onions and Garlic in a casserole or pan lot a lew minutes in dripping. .Add the Paprika, salt. Marjoram and Caraua\ seeds and cook briefly. Add the meat and COVei with stock, (lover the pan and cook in a slow oven lor at least 3 hours. Hall an hour before serving add the potatoes.

(8 oz) freshly

cooked peeled shrimps

(or frozen)

potatoes (optional) 1

iog (4 oz) butter

pinch ground Nutmeg pinch ground Mace pinch Cayenne Pepper salt

Clarify the butter by adding small knobs

of

it

to boiling

When

water

the butter has

in a small all

saucepan.

dissolved,

remove 79

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

EGG DISHES Parsley and Garlic Eggs Serves 2 2

eggs

25g (1 oz) butter j tablespoon chopped fresh Parsley 1

clove Garlic, chopped

salt

and pepper

Melt half the butter

in a

heavy-bottomed

saucepan. Break the eggs into the butter and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Leave over the heat until the whites of the egg have almost whitened and formed, then remove. Meanwhile cream the remaining butter with the Garlic and Parsley and a pinch of salt and drop this mixture in small lumps over the eggs. Serve at once. This is a delicious and unusual dish to start a

meal.

Herb Omelette Serves 2 the

pan from the heat and

let

it

cool. Lift

Above

Fennel stalks and leaves make a

:

off the solid butter, dry the undersurface

delicious vegetable dish, while the seeds are a

on kitchen paper and divide the but to into two equal portions. Heat half the butter in a frying pan to-

pungent flavouring.

gether with the spices. Add the peeled shrimps and toss them in the butter. Transfer to small pots and allow to cool. Melt the rest of the butter and pour over the shrimps to seal them. Chill before serving with hot toast.

1

boiled or left-over [l

sea-bream or porgy, about ikg (2-2|

slices

lb

Bay

fl

oz

fish

fl

oz

vinegar

oil

dry with kitchen paper. Fill the fish with Fennel sprigs or chopped Fennel root and place it on a large sheet of aluminium foil brushed with the oil. Warm the Pernod, set it alight and pour it over the fish. Season the fish with salt and fish

pepper and wrap in the foil parcel and it on a baking dish. Bake at 350F

place

C

or

Gas Mark 4 fish

for

30 minutes,

parcel after the

first

15

minutes.

Check that the fish is thoroughly cooked before serving with boiled potatoes

and a green

sea-bream haddock. If

80

is

1

:s

salt

lemon

fish

stock with the vinegar

lemon and

and the

Pour over the fish fish becomes thoroughly saturated. Refrigerate and serve with thin slices of brown bread.

and

Gut and scrape the sea-bream thoroughly to remove the scales. Rinse and pat the

180

1

peppercorns and' salt

herbs,

black pepper

'

<

salad.

not available use bass or

leave

medium-sized boiled potato tomatoes teaspoon chopped Lovage teaspoon chopped Chives teaspoon Tarragon

teaspoon Thyme teaspoon Marjoram 1^ tablespoons olive oil

stock

leaves

3 slices of

1

1

(

up the

salt

turning the

approx 45og

Place the pieces offish in a deep dish. Boil

of Fennel root

2-3 tablespoons olive 4 tablespoons Pernod

fish

lbj

280ml 10 280ml (10

12 i

clove Garlic, chopped

Serves 4

2 Clo\ es

a few sprigs green Fennel or

medium-sized onion

1

2

3

Serves 6

1

1

Soused Fish

4 Fennel lea\

Sea-Bream (Porgy) with Fennel

4 large eggs

so

salt.

that

the

and pepper

Roughly chop the onion, Garlic, potato and tomatoes. Heat the oil in a frying pan and gently fry the onion and Garlic until soft. Add the tomatoes and potato and few minutes. Break the eggs into and beat them, adding the herbs according to taste and season. Mix quickly with the vegetables in the pan and

cook

for a

a mixing bowl

cook until the underside is setting. Then finish the omelette under a hot grill.

Pickled Mackerel

Oregano Flan

Serves 4

Serves 4

4 mackerel

280ml (10 fl oz) malt or 140ml (5 fl oz) water 6

Bay

1

teaspoon Allspice

salt

distilled

vinegar

leaves

and pepper

12 peppercorns

Clean and wash the fish and remove the bones. Place in a baking dish, sprinkle with salt and pepper, add Bay leaves, peppercorns, Allspice, vinegar and water. Bake in a cool oven for about an hour. Allow the fish to cool and serve in the liquor.

Pastry i40g (5 oz) whole wheat flour

70g (2^ oz) mixed

fats

(butter or

margarine and lard) salt

Filling

x 400g (14 oz) can Italian peeled tomatoes grated Cheddar cheese 1 iog ^4 oz 1 small can anchovies 50g (2 oz) black Olives 6 teaspoons chopped fresh Oregano or 2 teaspoons dried Oregano 1

F

VEGETABLES AND SALADS whole wheat flour, salt and fats bowl, adding water to make the pastry lightly and Knead a stiff dough. chill for 15 minutes. Roll the mixture out on a pastry board and cover the base and sides of a flan case with it. Drain the tomatoes and chop all but one in half. Place the whole tomato in the centre of the case and distribute the halves throughout the case. Drain the anchovies and lay them like the spokes of a wheel across the

Mix

the

together in a

case.

Scatter

the

cheese,

Olives

and

Bake for 45 minminutes at 400" (200°C) or Mark 6. For the last 30 minC utes lower the heat to 350 F (i8o°C) or Ores^ano over the

utes,

Mark

the

for

first

15

Rosmarino

1

lb

)

spaghetti

the

pan of water. Meanwhile, melt

spaghetti

salted

in

a

large

the butter in another pan. If dried Rose-

mary

is

leaves

25mm

(i

in)

Cinnamon

stick

VEGETABLES AND SALADS

4 peppercorns 4 crushed Cardamom seeds 20-30 blanched almonds

Aubergines (Eggplants) with Herbs Serves 4

20-30 sultanas (or raisins 50-85g (2-3 oz) butter 2 2

tablespoons cooking

teaspoons

salt

(less

4 aubergines (eggplants) 3 slices of streaky bacon

oil if

salted butter

is

used, fry

it

gently in the butter for

a minute or two. Drain the spaghetti well

and toss it thoroughly in the Rosemary and melted butter before serving.

and

\\

560ml (20

j teaspoon of dried Basil and Marjoram

fl

monds and

Add

4 tablespoons olive salt and pepper

When and

stirring to prevent

it

Then add

it

has melted add

fry for

a few minutes,

Wash two

Basil

oil

but do not peel the aubergines. Cut lengthwise in each. Chop the

slits

mix with herbs, pepper and salt. Dice the bacon and fill the slits in the aubergine with bacon and Garlic. Pour the oil over the vegetable. Bake slowly in a shallow, covered dish for 1 hour. Garlic,

sticking to the base of

and and reduce the heat to just above the minimum. Cover the pan and let it simmer for 5 to 10 minutes. The water will evaporate and

Below: Spring

the rice will cook without being stirred or

following two pages.

the pan.

fresh

or

mixed

sultanas for a few minutes.

the butter.

chopped

teaspoons

Marjoram mixed

oz) water

the drained rice

the water, salt

sugar. Bring to the boil

.V>* '

2 small cloves Garlic

used 2 teaspoons sugar

1

iog (4 oz) butter

boiling,

Bay

4 Cloves

the rice and soak in cold water for about hour. Heat the oil in a thick saucepan and fry the Bay leaves. Gloves, Cinnamon, peppercorns, Cardamom, al-

6 tablespoons chopped fresh Rosemary or 2 tablespoons of dried Rosemary

Cook

2

rice

Wash

Serves 4 ('

during the first 5 minutes. Decorate the with slices of tomato, hard-boiled egg or fried onions

rice

onions hard-boiled eggs tomatoes

PASTA DISHES

45°g

disturbed in any way. Test the rice by eating a few grains, but do not lift the pan lid

(1 lb)

450g

flan.

4.

Spaghetti

Herb Rice Serves 4

M

herbs

to taste

Summer

Risotto, an Italian dish with

such as Basil, Oregano

and

Savory.

Overleaf: You can select suitable herbs for each dish you cook from the chart on the

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Alcoholic beverages

Apples

• ••• •

• ••

o o

•

••• ••

Apricots

•

•

Artichokes, globe

•

•

• •

Artichokes. Jerusalem

Asparagus Baked goods Beans. Broad

•••

••

o

••• •

•

••

•

•

• •

Beef

•••• ••

o

•

Beetroots Brussels sprouts

•

•

Carrots

• •

o

•

Citrus fruits

•

•

•• ••

o

• •

• •

Cocoa Coffee

•

•• •

o

• •

•

•• •

• •

• • •

• •

••

•

• •

•

•• •••

•

•

• •

Dairy foods

o

o

•

Eggs

•• ••

•• • •

o

Fish

Game

• •

Lamb Marinades Mayonnaise Onions Pasta sauces Peaches

•• ••

• •

o

• • •

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

• ••

•

•

•

•

•

••

•

•

•

• • •

•

•• • •

• •

•

•

Pears

o •o •

•

• • •

• •

••

•

•

Gooseberries

• •

•

Peas

•

Pickles

o

•

•

Pork

o o

•

Potatoes

•

Poultry

•

•

Salads

•

• •

Spinach

Stews

• • ••

•• • ••• • • • •o •

o• •

• •

•

• • • • • •• • •

•

• •

• • • •

•

•

••

• •

•

• •

• •

•

•

•

Swedes (Rutabagas) Sweet sauces Tomatoes

• •

•

•

• •

• • •

•

•

o

o

•

• ••

• •• •

• •

rice

Tea

••• o • • • • •

•

Salad dressing

Soups

•

•

Pumpkins Rhubarb

••

• ••O •

o

o o

o

• o

• •

• • • • •

•

•

Turnips

o

O indicates herb must be used fresh % 82

•

••

Currants

Veal Vinegars

•

•

•

•

Chocolate

Condiments Cream Cucumbers

•

•

•

Cherries

•

• •

•

•

•

Cabbages

•

•

•

•

Beans, French

Savoury

•

•

• •

• • • • •

indicates herb

may be used

•

• •

•

•

• •

• •

• • fresh or dried

• • •

•

and sometimes candied

••

SELECTING YOUR HERBS

•

•

o

••

• •

•

•

•

• ••

•••• o

Artichokes. Globe Artichokes. Jerusalem

•• •

•

Asparagus Baked goods

••o

•

• •

•

Apples

•

•

•

•

o

•

Beans. Broad

Beans, French Beef

•

•

•

Beetroots

• • •

Brussels sprouts

•

•

• •

•

•

• • •

•

Alcoholic beverages Apricots

•

• •

•

•o

• •

•

Cabbages

••

•

o

Carrots

• •

Cherries

Chocolate

•

Citrus fruits

•

•

Cocoa Coffee

•• • •

•

• • •• • •

•

• • •• •• •• • •

• • •

•

•

• •

•

•

•

o

Condiments Cream Cucumbers

o

Dairy foods

Currants

••• • • •• • o • •[• o • o • • •i

• • ••• • • •••• • ••

•

• • •• •

• •

Eggs

o

Fish

Game Gooseberries

• •

•• • • • • •

•

• •• • • • • •

•

•

• •

•

•

Lamb

• •

• •

Marinades

Mayonnaise Onions

•

Pasta sauces

• •

•

Peaches Pears

• ••

Peas

• ••

•

•• •

••••• • •• • •••• •

• • •

•

•

• • •

•

•• • • • • •

•

•

••

•

•

•• •• ••

• • •• • • • • •• • • ••

• ••

•

•

•

•

••

•

•

•

Pickles

o

• •

Pork

•

Potatoes Poultry

Pumpkins Rhubarb

• •••

•

• •• • ••

•

o•o

•o •

•

o o o

•

•

• o

•

•

••

Stews

Swedes (Rutabagas) Sweet sauces

• • •

•

••

•

•

• •

•

rice

Soups Spinach

•

• •

•

Salads

Savoury

•

•

Salad dressing

•

o •

•

Tea

Tomatoes Turnips

• •

• •• •

••• •

•

• •

•

Veal

•

•

Vinegars

83

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN Cinnamon Spinach

and cook briefly. Pour the wine into the pan and cook slowly until the mixture is bubbling gently. Peel and roughly chop the tomatoes, wash the mushrooms and halve them if they are the field variety

Serves 4

2kg (4^ lb) spinach 50g (2 oz) butter a\ tablespoonfuls cream

(button ones can be

Cinnamon

the Parsley stems.

salt

whole).

Chop

mushrooms, Parsley stalks and a the

tomatoes, Bay leaves, sprinkling of Thyme to the mixture in the

sugar

lemon rind

Trim and prepare

the spinach

and wash

several times in a lot of cold water. Place

saucepan with very

in a

left

Add

water and minutes until

little

salt to taste. Boil for 5 to 10

pan and cook uncovered for about 15 minutes. The mushrooms and carrot should be tender but refrigerator

still

and serve

Put in the

crisp.

slightly

chilled,

Horseradish Sauce 25g (1 oz) Horseradish 140ml (5 fl oz) double or whipping cream pepper and salt prepared English Mustard vinegar superfine or castor sugar

Wash, Whisk

and grate the Horseradish. cream lightly. Fold the Horseinto the cream and add the

peel

the

radish

seasonings, sparingly, to taste. Serve, with

boiled

fish, beef,

tongue or

sprinkled with finely chopped Parsley.

cheeses such as

Mint and Grapefruit Cocktail

Poppyseed Sauce

as a garnish to

Edam.

tender.

Strain

of water.

and press the spinach until free Over a low flame, melt the

Add

butter in a frying pan.

the cream, a

salt and Cinnamon to and a teaspoon of grated lemon To this add the spinach and stir

pinch of sugar and taste,

rind.

Serves 4

well. Serve at once.

1

3 fresh grapefruits

chopped

Sweet and Sour Tomato Salad

the grapefruit into small segments

in a bowl. Add a little gin, about tablespoon will be sufficient. Sprinkle with chopped mint and serve chilled. This makes a delicious hors d'oeuvre.

medium-sized onion

Herb Dredge

malt or distilled vinegar 2 tablespoons granulated sugar water

Franco's Dip

Wash and

and place in a chopped onion. Add of freshly chopped Chives and

dice the tomatoes

bowl with the a lew sprigs

finely

a few torn Basil leaves. Prepare the dres-

combining equal parts of vinegar and hot water with the sugar. Pour over

sing by

the tomatoes, sprinkle very lightly with freshly milled black

bunches of Parsley, chopped \ medium-sized red pepper, cleaned and chopped a small can of anchovy fillets, drained and chopped 2 large

ground black pepper

freshly

pepper and place

in

breadcrumbs vinegar or lemon juice fresh

Chop

olive

Mushrooms lb)

(1

a la Grecque

fairly

large onion

1

large carrot

and an-

Add enough oil and breadcrumbs to make a stiff 'dip'. Then add a very small together thoroughly.

amount of vinegar or lemon juice but not to make it tart. Season to taste.

mushrooms

1

the Parsley, red pepper,

chovies as finely as possible, and then mix all

enough

2-3 dozen Coriander seeds (according

This is delicious eaten with really good old fashioned home-baked bread. Don't to

leaves

black pepper

280ml 140ml

Chop

(

\o

(5

fl

fl

oz) white

wine

1

oz) olive oil

the onion finely

the olive oil until

it

is

lightly fry in

beginning to turn

golden. Dice the carrot and add

it

to the

onion, frying for a further 5 minutes. Add the salt, black pepper and Coriander seeds 84

tablespoon lemon juice

5 teaspoon salt

and

Grind the Fennel and Coriander seeds and mix together with the Cinnamon and sugar to taste. Add a few breadcrumbs and a very

j teaspoon Basil

Mix

a pestle and mortar. Use in sandwiches or or meat.

Score the side of a joint this seasoning in

lamb and rub

before roasting. A'ioli

Provencal Garlic Mayonnaise

4-6 Garlic cloves ground black pepper teaspoon

salt

French Mustard

y° lks

wine vinegar or lemon juice

Pound

the Garlic cloves with a pestle in a

mortar together with the Pepper, salt and Mustard until smooth. Add the egg yolks and mix well. Add the oil, drop by drop at first. If the sauce becomes too thick add a vinegar or lemon juice or a teaspoon of hot water. When the aioli has reached a firm consistency pour it into a bowl and serve chilled with fresh vegetlittle

the ingredients in a blender or with

on hot French bread or with

little flour.

of pork or

olive oil

iog (4 oz) butter or margarine 3 tablespoons finely chopped celery leaves 3 tablespoons finely chopped Chives or spring onion greens 1

salt

flour

3 e gg

Herb Butter

Thyme

breadcrumbs

2 teaspoons

sprigs Parsley

3 large tomatoes

Cinnamon sugar

1

put butter on the bread.

taste)

Bay

Fennel seeds Coriander seeds

(quantities to taste)

olive oil

them

the refrigerator. Serve slightly chilled.

3-4

Mix the ingredients in a small heavy saucepan over a gentle heat. Serve as an accompaniment to hot cooked carrots,

SAUCES AND DRESSINGS

Basil

or 3

pinch Paprika \ teaspoon salt

cauliflower or peas.

Chives

2

chopped Marjoram or

Thyme

Mint

1

6 tomatoes

450g

1

and place

Serves 4

1

fresh

2

5 teaspoon freshly

gin to taste

Chop

(2 oz) butter or margarine, melted teaspoons Poppyseeds tablespoon lemon juice

50g

400g (14 oz) can grapefruit segments or

grilled fish

ables, eggs or fish.

SAUCES AND DRESSINGS Forcemeat

Herb Sauce i

tablespoon of grated Horseradish

2 finely

chopped

shallots

a few sprigs each (or

Winter Savory, Tarragon.

i

Basil,

teaspoon of dried)

Marjoram, Thyme,

6 Cloves thinly peeled rind

280ml (10 560ml (20

Wash

and juice of

fl

oz) strong vinegar

fl

oz)

i

lemon

and remove

stalks

from the herbs. Put all the ingredients into saucepan and simmer gently for 20 minutes. Strain. When quite cold pour into bottles for storing.

Make

The

Garlic, black

:

of

artichokes, tomatoes,

and green

all

the dry ingredients together.

Add

egg and enough milk to moisten. Season with salt and pepper. This is suitable for pork, duck or veal.

Mustard Dressing

traditional ingredients

Provencal cooking

Mix

and pepper

sure they

are securely corked.

:

e gg

salt

a

Below

1

milk

water

the Horseradish

4 tablespoons grated suet 8 tablespoons white breadcrumbs 2 teaspoons chopped Parsley teaspoon powdered mixed herbs 1 \ teaspoon Nutmeg \ teaspoon grated lemon rind

olives, olive oil,

Parsley and wine and, of course, a variety of

aromatic flavouring herbs including

Marjoram, Basil and Bay.

i\ tablespoons olive or cooking oil 2j teaspoons dry English Mustard juice of j

Add

lemon

Mustard to the oil, beating until all the lumps have vanished. Add the lemon juice and mix thoroughly. The the

Above: Basil

leaves provide one of the most

distinctive flavours.

ingredients of this dressing can be varied

according

to taste. It

is

especially tasty on

a salad of lettuce alone.

Sage and Onion Stuffing 3

medium-sized onions

10 Sage leaves 1

iog (4 oz) breadcrumbs

40g 1^ oz) margarine or dripping egg yolk salt and pepper (

1

Peel the onions, put into boiling water

and simmer for 10 minutes. Just before you take the onions out, put the Sage leaves in for \ minute. Chop the onion and Sage leaves very finely and then add

the breadcrumbs, seasoning, or dripping,

and egg

yolk.

Mix

margarine together.

Pesto Basil,

washed and

Cheddar

cheese, finely

3-5 small bunches dried

25g

oz) strong

fi

grated

25g 25g

(1

oz)

50ml

Parmesan cheese,

finely grated

oz) Pine mils

1 I

(2

fl

oz) olive oil

of Garlic, finely chopped pinch of salt

2 (loves

Chop (lie (

lombine

oil.

Let

PestO

Crush and mortar.

(he Basil into very fine pieces.

Pine

is

nuts in a

pestle

the ingredients with the olive stand for 2 hours before using. used as a sauce with spaghetti. all

it

85

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN Left

Gathered from

:

-from

the plant

the

hedgerows, rosehips

Rose - can be used

Dog

make a tasty dessert soup, syrup and rosehip wine.

to

Gooseberry Fool Serves 4

as well as rosehip

gooseberries

(1 lb)

450g

6 tablespoons water 2

Elder flewer Fritters

1

i7og (6 oz) plain flour (unbleached, enriched)

25g 2

1

280ml (10

tablespoons vegetable

140ml

oil

to

white wine (or

cider) vinegar for use in salad dressings

and marinades. Pour the warmed vinegar onto the chosen herbs (560ml or 20 fl oz vinegar to 8 tablespoons herbs). Cover the container and allow to infuse for 14 days in a warm place. If the flavour is strong enough, strain the vinegar, bring to the

140ml

(5

oil for

frying

oz)

fl

lukewarm water

of the

and

Dip the flower-heads hot

ing sprig of the appropriate fresh herb.

Rosehip Soup

Cap

Serves 6 -8

in

a

cool

place.

fused.

Use

14-Og

Garlic cloves to

(5 il

oz) (35

peeled, fl

ozi

bruised

hot white

wine vinegar. Cloves, peppercorns and

Caraway after

seeds

may

also be

added. Strain

one week.

Christmas Day Pudding Serves 4 pkt raspberry- jelly (3 oz pkt gelatin (2 oz) crystallized Ginger

50g

iog (4 oz) glace cherries 1 iog (4 oz) well-drained pineapple pieces i70g (6 oz) mixed dried fruit

chopped walnuts Cinnamon and Nutmeg whipped cream (2 oz)

Soak the dried fruit in orange juice and a water overnight. Make the jelly with

little

of hot water.

Chop

Ginger and soak it in a little hot water for 5 minutes. As the jelly is about to set, pour the dried fruit and orange juice, pinethe

a tiny sprig of fresh Mint.

BREAD AND CAKES

kg (25

(8 oz) each whole wheat and plain white unbleached, enriched flours iog (5 oz) lard, rubbed in

3 litres

Rosehips (105 fl ozi water lb)

cornstarch

50g (2 02 cornflour 25g (1 oz) almonds sugar

2 teaspoons

salt

and sugar

1

1

If possible, collect the Rosehips following an overnight frost. They should be well ripened and have a good red colour. Trim off the stalks and rinse the Rosehips thoroughly. Simmer the hips for a couple of hours in the water, strain and return the

liquor to the heat.

Cream

each

teaspoon Dill seed 2 teaspoons chopped fresh Savory or teaspoon dried Savory teaspoon chopped fresh Dill weed or teaspoon dried Dill weed j 1

cream

Add

sugar to

the cornflour with a

water then whisk

it

Cook

constantly.

little

taste.

cold

into the soup, beating for

3

to

5

minutes.

Scald the almonds and remove the skins. Slice the nuts lengthwise and add to the soup. Serve with cream and sweet rusks.

5g (j ozj fresh yeast or 2 teaspoons dried yeast 280ml (10 fl ozj warm water 1

To make the

the

dough with

mix and sugar

fresh yeast,

herbs,

lard,

flours,

salt

together in a bowl. Blend yeast in the all at once. Mix to a soft dough (adding more blended

water and add scone-like flour

if

necessary so that

it

leaves the

bowl

clean.

To make

the

dough with dried

dissolve a teaspoon of the sugar in a

Ginger Jelly

yeast

on

Serves 4

until

frothy.

water

to the flours,

pkt lime jelly (3 oz pkt gelatin 4 to 6 pieces Ginger preserved in syrup,

lard, herbs, salt

top.

and and sprinkle with Cinnamon and Nutmeg. Wet a mould and turn the jelly into it. Chill and serve with cream.

Leave

Add

1

drained and sliced Reconstitute the jelly according to the instructions on the packet and allow to

When

cool.

sherry into

and leave

86

(1^ lb)

225g 1

apple, walnuts, Ginger, glace cherries it

Ginger. Pour and decorate each with

into chilled glasses

1

amount

cold fold in the cream

crystallized

yeast,

cup of

the hand-hot water. Sprinkle the dried

4 tablespoons medium dry sherry can unsweetened orange juice

half the usual

electric blender. Stir in

When

and chopped

1

50g

an

in

the custard.

Makes about 675g

sweet rusks

DESSERTS

1

into the batter

and puree

Whole Wheat Herb Bread

Popular vinegars include French Tarragon, Basil, Thyme, Marjoram, Rosemary Mint and Sage. Garlic may also be in-

the

Rinse the gooseberries. Simmer gently with the water in a heavy, partially covered pan with the chopped Mint and peeled, chopped green Ginger. Stir in the sugar. Rub through a nylon sieve or cool

oil.

castor sugar.

store

melted beaten white of in

Drain on kitchen paper. Serve immediately sprinkled lightly with try in

and pour into suitable hot, sterilized bottles, adding a decorative and identify-

and

parb

Mix

water.

boil

tightly

(flat

butter. Fold in the stiffly

egg.

)

whipping cream,

4 young Mint sprigs

Place the flour and salt in a mixing bowl. Put the egg yolk in the centre and a little of the water. Mix to a batter with a wooden spoon or fork, gradually adding the rest

eggs and Vanilla sugar

oz) double or

fl

4 pieces crystallized Ginger, chopped

Elder flower-heads

Herb Vinegars

(5

whipped

salt

egg, separated

superfine or castor sugar

Most herbs can be added

oz) custard sauce (preferably

fl

made with

oz) melted butter

(1

pinch

1

tablespoons chopped Mint piece fresh green Ginger iog (4 oz; sugar

almost

set, stir in

the

Ginger

ly

rest

of the sugar. light-

floured board. Half-fill two well-greased

loaf

tins.

(The inside of the pots may be

sprinkled with cracked wheat after greas-

Serve chilled, decorated with whipped

cream and

dough

crystallized Violets.

and the

Mix to a soft scone-like dough. Knead the dough thoroughly on a

Place the polythene bag,

in a cold place until fully set.

for about 10 minutes with the rest of the containing rubbed-in

ing.)

tins inside a large, oiled tie

to rise until

loosely it

and allow the

doubles

in

volume.

BREAD AND CAKES

Remove

bag. Bake on the middle shelf of a

hot oven at 450°F (230°C) or Gas for

Mark

8

30 to 40 minutes. Serve hot with soup

or salad

and cheese.

Above

Freshly baked bread decorated with

:

Sesame

seeds.

Sesame seeds may also be used

in

combination with Cinnamon, for example,

to

flavour bread.

Many

other herbs can be

dough. Spread the mixture out in the prepared tin and level the top. Sprinkle evenly with topping. Bake at 400°F (200°C) or Gas Mark 6 for approximately hour. 1

used as a flavouring, notably Garlic with or

Gingerbread 1

without some finely chopped green herbs such as Parsley.

iog (4 oz) margarine

i70g (6 oz) black treacle 50g (2 oz) golden syrup

Cardamom Cake

140ml

fresh

breadcrumbs

340g

(12 oz) self-raising flour

2

(5

fl

oz) milk

eggs

225g

(8 oz) plain flour

(unbleached,

enriched)

1

(2 oz) sugar teaspoon mixed spice tablespoon ground Ginger teaspoon bicarbonate of soda

1

1

This quantity

is

teaspoon baking powder

(7 oz)

3 teaspoons

granulated sugar

ground Cardamom or Cinna-

mon 1

suitable for the following

joml

90ml

(5

(3

fl

fl

oz

cream

tins;

oz) milk

(

the size of the tin.

2

i5g

(j oz) plain flour

almonds

(1

oz) flaked

(1

oz) granulated sugar

teaspoons

(unbleached,

enriched)

140ml

(5

fl

oz) milk

£ teaspoon Garlic salt 1

optional

teaspoon Poppyseeds

salt

and pepper

Grease and flour a 20cm Roll

out

the

floured board to

(8 in)

sandwich

dough on a

fit

the

tin.

lightly

Place in the

cover with a lightly oiled polythene bag and allow to rise until double in size (30-45 minutes at room temperature). tin,

Topping 25g 25g

225g (8 oz) white bread dough 225g (8 oz) onions, peeled and sliced 50g (2 oz) butter or margarine

tin.

18cm

(7 in) or 20cm (8 in) round cake two 18cm (7 in; square tins, 2.5cm deep; two 18cm (7 in) loaf tins. (1 in Using a large saucepan, warm together the margarine, treacle and syrup. Add milk and allow to cool. Beat eggs and blend with cooled mixture. Sieve dry ingredients into a bowl, add the cooled mixture and blend with a tablespoon. Turn into prepared tins and bake on the middle shelf of a slow oven 300 F I50°C) 0T Gas Mark 2 for i£ hours depending on

tins:

level

iog (4 oz) butter or margarine

200g

50g 1

1

Onion Kiichen

Cinnamon

Grease a qoog (2 lb) loaf tin and line with fresh breadcrumbs. Mix the flour and baking powder together. Cut the butter or margarine into the flour and rub in with the fingertips until the mixture resembles fine breadcrumbs. Mix in the sugar and Cardamom. Add the cream and milk and Stir well until the mixture forms a stiff

Cook

the

margarine

in

onions

Stir in the flour

Add

the

in

the

butter

or

a saucepan until just tender.

milk

stirring, boil for

and cook for one minute. and bring to the boil 1

minute. Stir

in the salt,

pepper and Garlic salt. Spoon the onion mixture onto the risen dough base and sprinkle with Poppyseeds. Bake on the middle shelf of the oven at 375°F (io,o°C) or

Gas Mark

5 for 30 minutes.

87

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN Garlic Bread i

French

85g

stick or

Vienna loaf creamed with

Soaking

Beaume

Balling

Herb and spice sugars

Time

Reading

Reading

hours hours hours hours hours

25 27 28

46 50

Vanilla sugar is made by inserting a piece of Vanilla pod into a jar of superfine or

30 32

da Y s

35

65

for use in

5

24 24 24 24 24

6

3

1

1-2

butter

ozj

^3

Day

2

cloves Garlic 3

and chunkily, leaving the base layer intact. Spread both sides of each slice with the creamed garlic butter. Spread garlic butter over the Slice

the loaf obliquely

crust of the loaf.

Wrap

the loaf in alu-

foil and heat in the oven at 400°F (200°C) or Gas Mark 6 for 10 minutes. Serve this delicious bread crusty and hot either with soups, cheese or salads.

minium

4

castor sugar. Seal the jar during storage. It

55

cakes and

60

and

Remove and

drain the Angelica (Angelica

beverages

Store in covered jars in a cool

5.

added

their original

A

syrup

petals into jars. Cool

a

boiled to soft ball

is

sugar

280ml (10

to

Use 450g

fl

oz)

lb)

1

(

of

Add

water.

a few of the leaves or the (lowers at a

time and boil (at 234°F or 94°C) for one minute. Drain using a frying spoon and transfer to a tray covered with aluminium foil. Allow to dry thoroughly in a warm

atmosphere such

more than Markf). (not

as a barely

ioo°F

1.

taining the bruised herbs, spices or flower

col-

warm oven

(38 C)

or

Gas

warm

following

brief

list

This method requires the use of a hydrometer. Use green tender young stems picked in April or May. Trim the stems and cut them into—femr (3 in) lengths.

Soak for and boil

15 minutes in cold water. Rinse

water for 5 to 10 minutes, Drain and scrape off the outer skin. Prepare a syrup by boiling 450g (1 lb) of sugar with 560ml 120 fl oz of water. (If you use a Beaume hydrometer, the strength should be 25°, or 46° until

when

in

tender.

Balling or Brix hydrometer

a

is

Grange in his book The Book of Home Food Preservation

Cyril

used.)

Complete

prescribes the following eight-

Cassell)

day sugar-boiling programme for Angelica. Each day more sugar is added and the syrup

is

boiled to the prescribed degree of

strength,

and the stems are soaked

prescribed time.

88

lor the

gives

a

possible additions to honey:

in

The

few of the

Lemon Balm

Monarda Bergamot officinalis, Borage Borago officinalis CardaCinnamon Elettaria cardamomum,

mom

.

.

(

(irmamomum zeylanicumu gium aromaticum sat/nun Fennel .

Cloves

Coriander

,

1

Syzy-

[Coriandrum

Foeniculum vulgare

.

Gin-

ger (Zingiber officinale .Mints Mentha spp Rose \Papaver somniferum petals (Rosa spp Sage (Salvia officinalis

.

Poppyseeds

.

>,

.

Savory (Satureia hortensis), Sesame seeds Sesamum indicum), and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris

.

(left)

and Cinnamon

of their It is

specific

surprising to

how many of the drinks

most and reserve

for

that

special

we oc-

although they may not always be immediately identifiable. Some of the most popular alcoholic drinks, ranging from sweet mead to mulled wines and exotic liqueurs,

derive

their

special

qualities

American iced juleps are made of bourbon whisky, sugar, Mint sprigs and ice and American cobblers and coolers are similarly flavoured with pleasantly additive herbs.

Pimms No.

1

is

decorated with

Borage officinalis and Mint Mentha spp Spices such as Cinnamon sticks (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cloves [Sysprigs (Borago .

zygium aromaticum tana cardamomum

1,

Cardamom

seeds (Ele-

and

sometimes root Ginger (Zingiber officinale are added to mulled red wines and Swedish gldgg.

Many Below: Coriander

much

with

from herbal additives.

Melissa didyma

istic

aperitif

wines owe their character-

flavours to herbs.

(right) plants. Both of these herbs can be

misia absinthium

used for flavouring hone) and mulled nine. Coriander and Cinnamon have both been used

anisum

for thousands ofyears.

Candied Angelica

and cover. Stand

place for one week before use.

sugar

casions owe their desirable taste and smell to the judicious use of certain herbs -

(

and

and newly opened flowers or buds should be good specimens young and unblemished. A sugarboiling thermometer is a useful aid in candying.

may be warmed honey clover or orange blossom Pour the warmed honey conBruised fresh herbs and spices

delicious

leaves, stems

stage (234°F or 94°C).

prize

to

in

Herbs have always provided alcoholic flavour and properties.

Additional

ouring and flavouring can occasionally be added, and the crystallized, as opposed to the candied, forms are encrusted with a surface layer of fine sugar crystals.

can be infused

for use in fruit dishes.

Mark

The leaves, stems, Mowers and buds of many herbs and fragrant flowers can be

The

puddings. Sprigs of Lemon Balm officinalis

realize just

attractively preserved using sugar syrups

be mixed with sugar

HERBS IN ALCOHOL

Herb honeys

and then dried to retain colour and shape making

Ground Cinnamon

biscuits.

Cardamom may

archangelica stems on a wire cake tray. Dry on foil-covered baking trays in a barely warm oven at about 100 F 38 C or

HERB AND FLOWER CONFECTIONS

confections.

is

(Melissa

dark cupboard.

decorative

delicious in ice cream, egg custard,

51

is

Wormwood

(Arte-

used in vermouth and

Anise (Pimpinella Pernod, bitter herbs in Campari, and globe artichokes (Cynara scolyabsinthe

in

production,

HERB WINES Mead

mus) are used in Italian Cynar.

is

flavoured with herbs such as Rosemary [Rosmarinus officinalis and spices such as i

zeylanicum), (Cinnamomum Cinnamon Nutmeg (Myristica jragrans Mace, .

Transfer to a cold place for a further two days. Strain and bottle using robust flasks. Screw the tops down firmly only when fermentation has ceased. Store for

about one week only.

not a brew for

It is

long storage.

with herbs. Creme de Menthe, for example, is flavoured with Mint oils (Men-

Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer

Kiimmel is Cumin [Cuminum cyminum) and Caraway flavoured (Carum carvi) and Green Chartreuse may contain over one hundred different plant flavours. spp

.

Aquavit

[Cuminum

Cumin-flavoured

is

cyminum) and gin

is

flavoured with Juniper

Juniperus communis).

Dandelion plants with taproot demerara or light brown sugar i5g (j oz) crushed root Ginger juice of 2 lemons liquid ale yeast

water

to 4.5I

(

1

berry leaves

Rubus

i

idaeus

Chamomile

,

nobile Burdock Arctium and leaves, Betony \Stachys Agrimony Agnmoma eupatona

(Chamaemelum

,

root

lappa)

officinalis.,

,

Dandelion Nettles

(Taraxacum

(Urtica

officinale)

Hops

dioica\,

leaves,

[Humulus

lupulus, Dock Rumex crispus< and Horehound Marrubium vulgare) leaves. Ground (

•

Ginger Zingiber <

Botanic Beer 50g 50g 50g 50g 25g

A

typical

sugar.

then bottle.

Allow

Meadowsweet

(2 ozj

Agrimony

(2 ozj

Raspberry leaves Hyssop

oz) 2!

SUgai

11)

litres (2 galls

water

ale yeast Boil the leaves in the utes. Strain.

add a

Add

water

the sugar.

ale yeast

little

and

15

min-

When

tepid

for

herb wine-makers task since equipment for fermentation and storage is readily available. A wide range of plant material may be used in herb winemaking such as Cowslip flowers (Primula

and bring

Simmer

nale

,

offici-

Elder flowers (Sambucus nigra Com(Symphytum officinale Coltsfoot

for

the boil, adding the

about

10

minutes.

Decant into a Add the lemon juice

to cool until tepid. flask.

yeast. Stir to mix. Bottle after four

Marigold Wine 2.3I (4 pts)

flowers

(

Marigold flowers

2 oranges

lemon

1.4kg 13 lb) sugar

.

root

frey

to

months, tying the corks down.

1

Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum

veris),

4.5I

(i

gall)

water

.

Tussilago farfara

Lemon Balm

,

Rosemary

I5g (j oz) baker's yeast

Rose petals (Rosa spp RhuRheum rhabarbarum Burnet Poterium sanguisorba and Bramble tips. Note that measurements in wine-making are usually by volume. Do not press the herbs down in the jug but firm them by 'bumping' the jug once or twice.

Put the flowers, the thinly pared orange and lemon rinds and the juice of the orange and lemon into a large bowl. Pour on the water which has been brought to the boil with the sugar. Allow to cool. Add the yeast. Stir thoroughly, cover and leave in a warm place for one week. Strain into a fermentation jar, cover and leave in a warm place until fermentation

Dandelion Wine

ceases. Store in a cool place for three to

Melissa

officinalis

.

(Rosmarinus |,

.

four weeks before bottling.

Dandelion (lowers 4.3I gall water 2 large oranges pts

2.3I

bottle.

J

large

lemon

V>g (2 oz) raisins 2

1

Stir

1

Nettle Beer

2

facili-

stir.

the

tates

1

1

home wine-making

and

leave for three days, stirring occasionally.

and in

barb

Betony

(1

The upsurge

Pour on Cover and

into a large bowl.

fermentation

Herb wines

officinalis).

(2 oz)

Put the flower-heads and thinly peeled

washed roots in some of the water, and add the rest of the ingredients. Ferment until most of the sugar has gone,

recipe for

is:

(2 oz)

.2kg

1

9

often used to

officinale) is

flavour the brew.

of tartaric acid will suffice).

the boiling water

Boil the

.

i5g (\ oz) yeast (preferably champagne activated two days before being added, but baker's yeast creamed with some of the sweetened must and a pinch

lemon rinds

gall)

cool

Alcoholic beverages Herb beers and ales can provide the amateur beer-maker with new experimental lines based on herbs such as Meadowsweet [Filipendula ulmana Rasp-

water

yeast

lb)

( 1

(tightly

'•4 k g (3 Ib ) su g ar

(8 oz)

225g 450g

560ml (1 pt) Elder flower-heads packed into the measure) 2 lemons 4.5I (1 gall) boiling

Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum and Ginger (Zingiber officinales Liqueurs are flavoured

tha

Elder flower Wine

kg (i\ lb) young Nettles

tops onl\

1.

tablespoons ye, 1st

6kg

(3^ lb

sugar

lemons Put the flowers into the water in a large

teaspoon ground Ginger

4.5I

water demerara or light brown sugar cream of tartar

gall)

fi

45<>g

1

lb

25g
Bring the rinsed Nettle tops, the peel

lemon and the Ginger water

in

a

large

pan.

ol

the

pan and bring to the boil. Add the orange and lemon rinds and sugar and boil for one hour. Strain, cool until tepid then add the yeast. Next day add the orange and lemon juices and raisins. Bottle. Cork loosely about a month later when fermentation has ceased.

*'

to the boil in the

Simmer

lor

20

Right: Elder flowers

minutes, strain onto the sugar and (ream another large (lean vessel. Stir and allow to cool. Add the lemon juice

variety

and yeast. Covei with linen tea towels and have in a warm place lor three days.

garnishing.

ol tartar in

in the wild.

Overleaf: The chart shows the tremendou

'

\

and may well you new ideas for flavouring and of uses fin your herbs,

89

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

• •

Agrimony Alecost (Costmary) Allspice (Pimento. Jamaica Pepper) Angelica leaves Angelica root Angelica seeds Angelica stems Anise

•

•

•

•

• • o

O

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

o

o

• o

• o

• o

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

• • • •

•

• o

Lemon

Balm.

1

•

•

Aniseed

1

•

•

•

o

• • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Basil

•

Bay Bergamot Borage

•

•

•

•

Burnet (Salad Burnet) Capers

Caraway Caraway seeds

o o •

o

o o

•

•

•

•

o o

o

•

•

o o •

o

o • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Celery

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

o

•

o

•

o

o

•

•

•

•

o

• • o

powder

Chives Chive salt Cicely seeds

Sweet Cinnamon, ground Cinnamon stick Cicely.

Clove Pinks (Gillyflowers) Cloves (whole or ground) Coriander leaves Coriander seeds Cumin seed Cumin, ground (Jeera) Curry powder

Dandelion Dill

seed, ground

Dill

seed,

whole

• •

• •

•

• •

• •

o • • • •

• •

• • • • • •

o • • •

o • •

• •

• • •

• •

• • • • •

• o •

• o • • • • •

•

•

• • • •

• • • •

•

• •

• •

• •

• •

•

•

• •

Elderberry

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

o

o

• •

•

•

• •

• •

•

• •

• •

:

• •

•

•

• •

Garlic Garlic

•

•

•

• •

•

• • • • •

•

•

• • •

•

Elderflower

Fennel Fennel seed

• •

•

Dill

• •

powder

•

Garlic salt

Geranium Ginger, ground

o • •

Ginger, root

Hops Horseradish

Hyssop

90

•

• • • • • •

Chamomile Chervil

o o •

•

salt

Celery seed

Chili

o o •

Cayenne (Pepper, Tabasco) Celery

• o

•

•

Cardamom

o

o

o

1

o

o

• •

• • •

• • O indicates herb must be used fresh #

•

• •

• • • •

indicates herb

• • • •

o

o

o

o

•

• •

•

•

• •

•

may be used

fresh or dried

and sometimes candied

USING YOUR HERBS

9'

gflfc

Wma. U*

*?.

5PH/

,v,v

vV „ -^Cv-JS »«

V

^

i^

rat-

•:i3S

.

-*-«—---"

•

w

£«fc

i

-

w

*

J

The domestic

.

and cosmetic uses of herbs

a**

i

•

^

$**

^^M The multitude

of uses

man

has found for

including medicinal, demonstrates his domestic and culinary close association with nature. plant

material

Apart from their traditional use for all man's ills and ailments, herbs have proved invaluable in many other different ways in the domestic context. They have provided shelter, floor coverings, fire, weapons and utensils; imparted colour, flavour and decoration to a great variety ol commodities; proved beneficial to health and been used to enhance man's natural

'//>

~

m

beauty.

And

it

has been since the very

IN

THE HOME

Reeds, grasses, heather and turf have all been used as roof coverings, while a variety of plants, man) of them still to be found to

be useful

home itself. Birch twigs Betula spp) still make the strongest and most effective broom or garden besom, though Heather >c"v*
and Ling long-lasting

Sarothamnus

Calluna

and

vulgaris

effective.

Koparius

Broom

received

its

employed

variety

economy and from

of ways,

bridges to buildings and furnishings, for utensils, vehicles

and decoration.

Often the vernacular names of plants provide a clue to their use. The main applications of Equisetums or Horsetails are belied by their prehistoric appearance.

of beautiful natural dyes, producing a

huh imparts

its

different plants,

ou n individual

.

formerly exported from the Netherlands. has been

known

Pewterwort.

It

will

Scouring Rush or clean pewter and form

as

a substantially effective scourer for sauce-

pans, baking utensils and surfaces.

It will

wooden kitchen

also polish because ol

its

preparation of food and washing materials

range of subtle and vibrant colours. These

garments have been dyed with

are deposited in their stalks render-

them invaluable for polishing and scouring. Dutch Rush [Equisetum hyemaU

itself

Left: Herbs form the basis of an infinite

fragrance.

a

in

com-

from being used as such. Birch bark can be fashioned into a waterproof The North American tray or basket. Indians made household dishes and trays from Birch bark, which they stretched

each of u

{Phyllostachys spp) has

to oriental

abrasive action. Several fresh Horsetails tied together form an effective whisk in the

are equally

mon name

variety

Bamboo

ing

in the

:-<

pouring.

always been basic

silica,

growing wild, have been found

zFqrZ'O,

edges

Large quantities of the abrasive material,

earliest times.

HERBS

i.

so

shape and decorated around the with grasses. It was also the Indians who used Birch bark rolls as roofing materials, and formed small rolls into funnels which could be used for into

but do not use the dried plant since fall off the stem. Plants

pieces are liable to

of a high acid content such as

Rhubarb

[Rheum palmatum or Rheum officinaL and Sorrel Rumex acetosa) can be boiled in water and used as pan cleaners, often bringing a high polish to the surfaces; but

do not leave a strong rhubarb solution in aluminium pans as it may bum a hole through the bottom. Soapwort [Saponaria known as Latherwort,

officinalis is

.

almost

also self-

<;

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES 4

Above: Soapwort, as

its

name

W,"'

implies, has

traditionally provided an effective cleansing

agent ; however,

it

has a somewhat astringent

lather.

explanatory.

It

useful

is

as

a cleaning

agent, especially for old or delicate fabrics that require gentle treatment.

The

leaves,

and to a lesser extent the root, produce a somewhat astringent green soapy solution when decocted (covered and boiled) in hot water which restores old fibres and vegetable dyes to their former strength and clarity. The green coloration soon washes out in the rinsing process. Soapwort has been specifically employed in the restoration

of valuable

and

tapestries

brocades.

Above

:

Rushlights were once the most

economical source of domestic lighting in

many

The rushes are gathered Then fat - in this case mutton fat shown being melted (left). The rural areas.

(above)

-

is

.

rushlight

(below

is

left)

dipped once only into the fat ,

and finally (below)

it is

placed in a traditional holder. One rush

CANDLES

candle will last for about an hour indoors.

Chandling has long been a home

craft, the

They provide a

simplest of candles being created from

the particular

kitchen by-products, such as beef

any wax.

fat

or

marrow bone grease (obtained after boiling). The low melting-point of tallow demands a rather larger wick and this is best obtained from rushes.

Rush dipping can be mastered with a practice. It is best to use the soft Rush

little

[Juncus

Both

effusus

grow

pasture, bogs pecially

or

Juncus conglomerate).

fairly

and

on acid

abundantly

in

damp woodland,

soils.

wet es-

After gathering,

soak the rushes for a few hours and then dry out of doors, preferably in the sunshine. Strip the outer husk

away and then

hang the pithy centre part

to dry before dipping in hot tallow or wax. Dip repeatedly, drying the tallow or wax before each operation.

When them 94

using reeds as candles, secure

safely as they are longer in length

lovely soft light

and have

advantage of not dripping

.

POT-POURRI less stable than household candles, but they have the advantage of not dripping wax. They are best contained in special holders which take several at one time and can be adjusted as they burn down. They can be burned indoors or out-

and

One

doors without excessive guttering.

candle will last approximately one hour when used indoors; outside any breeze reinforce the burning but will will

probably cause flickering. Some nuts with a fleshy kernel such as Coconut (Cocos nucifera) can be threaded onto a reed wick and burned to provide light. Though adequate, they will smoke and smell fairly strongly, however, so they should be kept for barbecues or summer evenings when this will not matter. For such festive occasions, the reeds can be coloured before they are dipped. Either

one colour may be used, or bands can be created along the length of the reed. A modest range of various tallows and waxes is available from most craft shops, but it is far more satisfying to manufacture all the raw materials from plant matter.

TO SWEETEN THE AIR and Santolina

spica)

as well

Tansy Tanacetum (

as

(Santolina chamaecy-

the tough, resilient

vulgare),

were tradition-

strewn about the house to act as sweet-smelling anu absorbent floor coverings. Their scent helped counteract the fetid atmosphere of less hygienic days. Air fresheners have always been popually

lar

because

of the

alleged

properties of certain herbs

fully

(Lonicera periclymenum)

common (Iris

salt

or bay salt

and Orris root

germanica) These fixatives are the key .

to the long life of pot-pourri.

ing

up the

common

fixative,

salt

When mak-

use twice as

much

or bay salt as Orris. Rose

petals traditionally comprise the greater

bulk, but the other ingredients invest the

mixture with a lasting individual fragrance, and any combination of attractive scented leaves, flowers and flower buds can be used. No single perfume should predominate.

There are two kinds of pot-pourri, the dry and the moist. The former is easier to make, and quicker too, but is not as enduring or as fragrant as the moist variety. The materials for both need to be assembled over a period, and this is why the recipes are intentionally flexible. Generally, the flowers should be gathered as dry as possible immediately prior to being

blown and

day when they are that

Honeysuckle

like

if, ,

there

at their

is

a time of

most fragrant,

the time for harvesting.

is

For moist pot-pourri pull apart the petals and scatter them on trays or flat boxes covered with foil, then cover with sheets of greaseproof paper or cheesecloth. If it is not too windy, dry them out of doors in a shaded position; otherwise a shed or spare room is ideal. Once the petals are limp and leathery, they can be used to

make

the moist pot-pourri.

Dry pot-pourri The

must be dried thoroughly papery but not brittle; they should still retain some colour and, of course, their scent. Drying time varies petals

until they are

moisture content of individual petals. Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus) and Roses (especially Rosa

according

rugosa,

to

the

Rosa damascena and Rosa

example,

take

(Lavandula spica) or

gallica), for

Lavender Rosemary (Rosmarinus

longer

than

officinalis)

Ingredients to choose from

Sweet rushes, evergreens such as Juniper (Juniperus communis), Lavender [Lavandula parissus),

POT-POURRI This is essentially a homogeneous mixture of dried sweet-scented flowers and leaves with aromatic spices and stabilizing agents or fixatives - the most usual of which are

antiseptic

and

their use

was promoted to counteract disease. There were many different methods some were held in the hand; others placed among linen and clothing; many simply placed in bowls around the house.

Seeds and Spices Grind very coarsely

Flowers Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus) Elder flowers

(Sambucus

nigra)

Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) Jasmine (Jasminum) Lavender (Lavandula spica) Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaha majalis) Philadelphus spp Pinks (Dianthus p/umahus)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus Rose (scented) spp

officinalis)

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)

Nutmeg

Stocks (Matthiolas) Sweet Peas (Lathyrus odoratus)

Thyme (Thymus

the following seeds and spices in any combination, in a coffee grinder. Alexanders (Smyrnium olustratum) Allspice (Pimenta dioica) Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum) Cassia (Cinnamomum cassia)

(Myristica fragrans)

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

vulgaris)

:

The talum

Sandalwood Cedarwood (Cedrus

subtle scents of

album),

Lavender flowers

(

(Lavandula

spica)

Tilia x vulgaris)

and

scattered

Lime in

a

cupboard permeate the contents and maintain freshness. Even the common custom of bringing fresh flowers into a sickroom not only delights the eye but freshens the atmosphere as well. Sweet (Asperula odorata) scattered be-

Aromatic leaves Rub leaves through them in an electric

a

sieve or grind

blender after drying Bay (Laurus nobilis)

Bergamot (Monarda didyma) Choisya (Choisya ternata) Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) Lavender (Lavandula spica)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Sage (Salvia officinalis) Sweet Woodruff (Asperula odorata) The scented-leaved Geraniums such as Pelargonium quercifolium and P.

wood

crispurn

will dissipate mustiness,

(Artemisia

drawers

fresh

abrotanum)

and pleasant, while

same time discouraging

insects.

them, however, pot-pourri al

favourite.

keep closed

is

at the

Of all

of

the tradition-

retain the

essential for a successful pot-pourri.

Gum Benzoin (Styrax benzoin and Styrax spp,) Orris root powder (Iris germanica) Storax (Liquidamber orientalis) Sweet Flag powder (Acorus calamus) Violet root powder (Viola odorata)

Melilot (Melilotus officinalis)

while sachets, pomanders, lavender bags and nosegays of dried herbs such as Pennyroyal {Mentha pulegium) and Southern-

hind books

These are substances which aroma of the pot-pourri components and help to release them slowly into the air. All are themselves fragrant materials and they are Fixatives

(San-

spp),

closed

Woodruff

Wallflowers (Cheiranthus) (Thick-petalled flowers such as Lily (Li/ium spp,) and Hyacinth (Hyacinthus spp,) are not really suitable.)

The sweet-scented Artemisias such as Artemisia abrotanum

Thyme (Thymus

vulgaris)

Verbena (Verbena

officinalis)

Note: Ground citrus peel can be added as above, or a whole Orange (Citrus sinensis) or Lemon (Citrus limon) can be stuck with Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) and immersed in the pot-pourri mixture to absorb the scent

95

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES The dry

mixed

recipes can be

as the

season progresses and, provided they are not

left

their

uncovered

fragrance

Though some

for too long, will retain

for

up

to

two years.

varieties will lose

some of

containing

coumarin, such as Woodruff Asperula odorata and Melilot Melilotus officinalis develop their

strength,

others

.

new-mown

a scent like

hay.

Dry

scented leaves and flowers you wish.

usually superior

are

because they last longer and ingredients can be accumulated over the growing season. Once petals are dry and leathery, store them in a mixture of common salt, coarsely

ground

Iris germanka Pack a layer of petals

Orris root jar.

(

|

jar, then sprinkle

6

mm

5 in

is full.

in

in the

base of the

with a generous layer of

cover the petals to a depth of

fixative, to

jar

bay salt and a wide-necked

sea salt or

.

Repeat

in layers until the

Place a weight on the top and

then cover to exclude light and air. Treat aromatic leaves in exactly the same way, harvesting them prior to the plant flowering - this is when the essential oils are at their peak. As the season draws to a close, assemble all the dried plant matter, checking that they bear no hint of mustiness.

mix pot-pourri

will

about two years. The moist varieties last longer and need not be stored in covered containers. They can be revived very quickly by adding a few generally

last

for

drops of essential

such

oils,

i

Cananga

or

odorata

as

oil

of

Ylang-Ylang Spike Lavender

Bergamot Monarda didyma

pot-

pourri can be improved by the addition of both these herbs. Use any combination of

Moist pot-pourri The moist recipes

Keeping pot-pourri The dry recipes for

.

Once the drier kind however, the mixture cannot be restored to its former fragrance. Use one of the many specially designed porcelain bowls or jars for storing potpourri. The lids of these are pierced with Lavandula spica

\.

fades,

holes or

the scent,

release

to

slits

and

sometimes there is an inner lid with a fitted cover to keep in the fragrance.

Connoisseur's pot-pourri Mix a jug full of dried Rose one handful of

and then leave (

thus

a

in

.

officinalis

,

,

Pinks

and Wallflowers

or bay

Cheiran-

and some scented

salt

Prepare wedges of citrus fruit peel by sticking them all over with Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum and allowing them to dry naturally for a few weeks.

leaves.

When

all

the ingredients are ready,

thoroughly mix the petals with the lea\ the citrus fruit and Cloves whole or grind them in an electric blender and add handfuls to equal the quantity of salt used. Add a teaspoon of Cinnamon C.innamomum .zeylanicum and another of

Add Below:

Orris.

The

dried powdered root

used with other herbs in pot-pourris and

some dry shampoos.

is

Allspice

Pimenta dioica

quarter of a 9 litre 2 gall bucket filled with Rose petals 85g 3 oz common salt 50g 2 oz fine rubbed bay salt 50g 2 oz Allspice Pimenta dioica 50g 2 oz Cloves Syzygium aromaticum

Mix

.

Then add

well

and

50g

brown sugar

oz

2

Gum

Benzoin Styrax benzoin 5g 5 oz oz Orris root Iris germanica 2 50g 2 tablespoons brandy iog

Lavender heads Lavandula

4 oz

spica

iog

Verbena

4 oz

leaves

Verbena

officinalis

50g

2

Rose-Geranium

oz

leaves

Pelargonium graveolens

Sprinkle the fresh Rose petals with the

common salt and in the

leave for three days. Stir

remaining ingredients, then place

the mixture in a stone pot. Stir every three

days

two weeks, adding a few drops of the mixture appears too dry and

for

brandy

if

lacking in scent. this will

A quick Throw petals spica

.

A

moist pot-pourri

like

have a more lingering perfume.

pot-pourri

together handfuls of dried Rose

and dried Lavender Honeysuckle Lonicera

Lavandula periclymen-

Carnations Dianthus caryophyllus um Rosmarinus officinalis and Rosemary .

.

Lavender Lavandula spica Bergamot Monarda didyma and Geranium Pelargonium spp Store in a closed

Sweet William Dianthus barbatus flowers. Ensure that you have twice the bulk of the flowers in Rose petals. Add some powCinnamomum zeylanidered Cinnamon

container for eight to ten weeks.

cum. Nutmeg

leave overnight.

a few drops of

essential oils:

.

:

.

(Syzygium

Lemon

Traditional pot-pourri 9

litre

3_L0g

1

2 gall

12 ozi

bucket of Roses

common

salt

for a

2

oz

Orris root

Iris

peel

|

,

Cloves

and some dried

Citrus limon

,

at the ratio of

month

or so before using.

Using pot-pourri

An

i

50g

Myristica fragrans

aromaticum:

about one teaspoon of the mixed powders to every two handfuls of flowers. Add a few drops of brandy and or pot-pourri reviver, and then store the mixture tightly packed

225g (8 oz) finely powdered bay salt 85g 3 oz Allspice Pimenta dioica 85g 3 oz Cloves Syzygium aromaticum 50g 2 oz brown sugar iog (4 oz) Gum Benzoin Styrax benzoin germanica

attractive alternative to putting pot-

pourri into an open container

j cupful of brandy Several handfuls of dried fragrant flowers and leaves such as Carnations Dianthus caryophyllus), Pinks Dianthus plumarius Wallflowers [Cheiranthus and Jasmine .

Jasminum). Place the Rose petals and salt in a jar in layers, then add the other ingredients and

96

.

coarsely ground

salt.

RoseDian-

the

A

petals with

or bay

separate containers, together with

little salt

Elizabethan recipe

i

Lavandula spica

mary Rosmarinus

An

Open and

room

is to be perfumed. If the pot-pourri appears to dry out too much, moisten with a few drops of brandy.

weeks. Store

for several

dried Lavender thus plumarius

salt

when

occasionally

i

common

well. Store in closed jars.

stir

into a porcelain

a

cupboard or

sachets

using

of the scraps

cutting

required,

is

to tuck

it

pomander and hang it in wardrobe You can make

of

sweet-smelling

mixture

pretty

fabrics,

light,

them to the size and shape and then embroidering them or

adding beads, lace or ribbon. Cut two pieces of fabric to shape and

,

:

SCENTED ARTICLES or two of an aromatic (Citrus

aurantium),

spied),

Patchouli

such as Neroli

oil

Lavender (Lavandula (Pogostemon

patchouli).

The most widely used herb

pillow to

promote

sleep

Hops (Humulus

one containing dried

is

and it is certainly Hops are replaced months after which they

lupulus)

effective providing the ever)' four to six

lose their strength.

Rosemary herb Mix

pillow

a sufficient quantity of herbs in the

following proportions 4 cups dried Rosemary leaves [Rosmarinus officinalis)

cup

i

Lemon Verbena

dried

leaves

(Aloysia triphylla) i

cup dried Pine needles crushed

tablespoon

i

(Pinus)

Orris

root

(Iris

germanica) 2

crushed Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum)

When

adding the Pine needles to the mixture, be sure that you make the

Note: Above dried

may

Sweet-smelling Lavender

:

and used wherever

enhance the household

-

its

plaiting

be

aroma will

corn dollies. Incorporate a narrow ribbon in a pretty colour as you work, not only to add decorative interest but to help hold the dolly

as scented

accessories to aid sleep, as a fragrant

pot-pourri or placed with clothes.

size,

them

place

together,

then stitch

facing,

all

right

sides

round leaving a

Turn

small opening for stuffing.

to the

seam allowances around any curves and cutting across corners to achieve an even shape. Tack any trimming into the seam before right side, clipping the

stitching.

Turn

to the right side, stuff

with pot-

pourri and slip stitch the opening to close.

Trim Place

the edges afterwards

among

linen

where it will remain two years.

if

preferred.

among

or

clothes

effective for

up

to

LAVENDER BAGS You

can

make

sachets

similar

Lavender [Lavandula

spica).

It

is

with

best to

gather the flowers just before they open so that they are still firm. The drying process will not alter the shape of the flowers and

you will find them easier making up the bags.

to

them to make Lavender dollies, in same way as you would make

exactly the

handle when

weave small capsule-shaped cylinders and fill them with dried Lavender flowers for an even more powerful together; or

aroma.

pillow slip of strong, closely woven cotton, otherwise your sleep might be interrupted

by

their prickly escape into the bed.

Fragrant herb pillow

Mix

i

i

cup dried Rosemary leaves and flowers

i

(Aloysia triphylla)

HERB PILLOWS an extension of the idea of stuffing mattresses with sweet-smellinggrassesand aromatic herbs. They are usually small and cushion-like in appearance and are mainly used today to add fragrance to bedclothes. Many people believe that if a herb pillow is tucked under a pillow proper or used as a neck rest, the fragrance of the herbs will encourage a deep and restful sleep; if trimmed with lace and made up in pretty prints, herb pillows make delightful bed-

(Rosmarinus

Historically, herb pillows are

room

accessories

You can

and charming gifts. any fragrant and or petals, and assemble

i

,

Lily-of-the- Valley (Convallaria majalis),

Jasmine (Jasminum)

Ground Note:

aromatic leaves them in any combination that

2

from

Oranges

The Lemon

powdered Orris

Lemons

2

Make

is

person-

is added as a add two teaspoons germanica), or Sweet

peel

(Iris

a pillow slip in a plain

OTHER SCENTED ARTICLES The number of ideas for creating other scented articles is wide ranging. Here are

cotton fabric, decorated to taste. Choose from dried petals, flower-heads

gifts

Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalLavender (Lavandula spica), Roses, Lemon Verbena {Aloysia triphylla), Thyme

and then

a separate cover in an attractive

just

a few suggestions to stimulate en-

thusiasm for making your own

and

or leaves of

Clove oranges

sneezing agent.

is),

These are surprisingly easy

and smell

so

{Thymus out so well

good that it is a pity not to remain fairly soft, try

use them. As they

vulgaris),

and

Marjoram {Origanum

Rose-Geranium [Pelargonium graveolens), enhancing their stent with spices, ground citrus peel and a drop vulgare)

home-made

accessories.

wear a mask of some sort over the mouth and nose as Lavender is a powerful

Lavender dollies The stalks of Lavender dry

(Citrus

(Citrus sinensis)

Flag (Acorus calamus) root or three drops of oil of Bergamot (Monarda didyma).

flowers from the stalks.

make

and

fixative. Alternatively,

cotton, stuff with the mixture

advisable to

citrus peel

limon)

use almost

ally pleasing.

is

officinalis)

cup other dried flowers, for example, Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum)

Hang up the stalks in bunches in a dry place for a week or so; once dry, rub the It

together:

cup dried Rose petals cup dried Lavender (Lavandula spica) cup dried Lemon Verbena leaves

i

will last well

when hung

prepare and wardrobes or

to

in

on a Christmas tree for a spiry festive atmosphere. Use thin-skinned Oranges (Citrus sinensis) preferably

and make

around the

in

fruit

working

slits

both direc97

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES - top

to bottom and left to right. These will hold the ribbon in place for hanging the finished article. Dry the Orange for a day or two above a stove or domestic boiler, then push Cloves

tions

(Syzygium

aromaticum)

into

the

entire

place and hang so that the

room

its

spicy scent

fills

Tussie-mussies The name 'tussie-mussie'

ha« been

known

touch. If you find

ally,

first

them hard to push in, with a sharp needle or

bodkin. Roll the Orange in a powder of equal parts of Cinnamon

powder (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and Orris powder (Iris germanica), then leave wrapped in the powder for two weeks. Remove the wrapping after this time, shake off the surplus powder,

Below

:

tie

A pomander

First the orange

is

makes a delightful

gift.

cut so that the ribbon can

eventually be tied on. into the

a ribbon or cord in

The

orange (below)

.

cloves are stuck

It is

then rolled in

powdered Cinnamon bark and Orris root and left to dry, wrapped in greaseproof paper, in a

warm

in

the

is

is

tied on

making an attractive and fragrant pomander (bottom). (below right)

,

Sweet Flag root powder

tablespoon

(Acorus calamus

a sweet-scented nosegay, small

to carry

travellers in

around,

its

bad odours and

carried

infection.

Collect fragrant leaves and flowers,

and

form a tiny Victorian posy-like bunch. Use a Rose-bud (Rosa sppi or a feather of Artemisia foliage as the centrepiece, and arrange the other leaves and flowers around it. Tie or bind with a ribbon and back with a paper frill or doily (or an especially pretty finish.

Give them away as presents, tuck into cupboards or drawers, or place in a small vase to decorate a dressing table.

Lavender-scented pomander beads By making up beads of herbs and (lower materials and then stringing them to-

tablespoon ground

Gum Benzoin

(Styrax

benzoin

origins being

by judges and the Middle Ages to ward off

posies

place (such as an airing cupboard or

above a stove). Finally, the ribbon

i

i

it

Lavender flowers

(Lavandula spica)

fifteenth

enough

made up

2 level tablespoons dried

multitude of different forms since the

in a

make

holes

or wrist right

through wintertime.

century when it appeared as 'tumose of flowrys or other herys'. Basic-

surface of the skin so that the heads almost

you can wear your memories of

gether,

summer around your neck

or cupboard.

2

teaspoons Sandalwood powder (Santalum album)

6 drops essence of Lavender (Lavandula spica)

3 drops essence of Ambergris teaspoon powdered Gum Tragacanth Astragalus gummifer 8 teaspoons Orange-flower water i

Lavender

oil

Grind the dried Lavender flowers to a fine sift into a bowl with the Sweet Flag, Gum Benzoin and Sandalwood powders. Mix them all together thoroughly, then add the essence of Lavender and Ambergris. Make a mucilage of Gum Tragacanth by mixing one teaspoon of the Tragacanth with eight teaspoonfuls of Orange-flower water. Then use the mucilage to mix all the ingredients into a paste. If you find the powder does not form a paste easily, add a drop or two more of Orange-

powder and

flower water.

Moisten your hands with a few drops of Lavender oil and break the paste into small equally sized pieces. Roll each one into a round, oval or cylindrical shape.

Pierce with a large needle. Either string

immediately and place in a dark cupboard or drawer for about a week, or dry the beads first and string later.

Aromatic beads i

tablespoon finely ground

level

Benzoin i

level

Gum

(Styrax benzoin)

tablespoon Orris root powder

(Iris

germanica) i

i

heaped tablespoon Sweet Flag root powder (Acorus calamus heaped tablespoon Mace powder (Myristica fragrans)

heaped tablespoon Nutmeg powder

i

(

Myristica fragrans)

heaped tablespoon dried powdered Basil (Ocimum basilicum) Syzygium aro4 finely ground Cloves i

maticum) 2

drops

i

drop

oil

oil

of

Cedarwood

|

Cedrus spp

of Spike Lavender (Lavandula

spica)

3 drops essence of Ambergris

Gum

Tragacanth Rose-water

98

(Astragalus gummifer)

NATURAL DYEING Tin (Stannous chloride)

powdered herbs and spices and blend thoroughly oil of Cedarwood, Spike the Add bowl. in a Incorporate all Ambergris. and Lavender Pass

all

the

through a

these oils into the mixture.

Make

a brightening

agent used to brighten colours. Iron (Ferrous sulphate) - usually called a 'saddening' agent because of its dulling

fine sieve

and darkening

a thick

mixture of Gum Tragacanth and the Rosewater, add to the other ingredients and stir thoroughly to form a paste. Lubricate your hands with a fragrant oil, pull off a small piece of the paste about the size of a cherry pip and roll into a ball. Before it becomes too hard, pierce with a bodkin or large needle, then thread on a

effect

on colours.

Chrome (Potassium dichromate) - deepand creates a more lasting dye. sulphate or blue vitriol - adds a Copper blue-green tinge to a colour. ens colours

Household ammonia- the clear kind-and white vinegar can also be used as mordants, providing an alkaline or acid

string.

medium respectively, as required. The chart suggests some plants suitable

have strung warming.

for dye extractions, plus the effects you can expect to obtain when various mordants are added. The acid or alkaline content of the dye-bath will affect the

Lubricate the piercing instrument and the string with oil to make both jobs easier. If the paste hardens before you all

the string, soften

by

it

fastness of the colour

Moth bags You can protect your

washed clothing and linen

by making up small bags or sachets to hang in wardrobes and scatter in drawers. The perfume will deter insects. Mix equal quantities of dried Cotton chamaecyparissus) (Santolina Lavender Tanacetum vulleaves with dried Tansy gare) or Costmary {Chrysanthemum balsamita) leaves. Put them all in a grinder or chop and pound together in a mortar. Make up as required - their effectiveness will last for about three to six months. To increase effectiveness, add a small quantity of Pyrethrum powder or, even better, Pyrethrum flowers {Chrysanthemum cine-

to a

was

:

The

use of

Tansy as an

insecticide

once essential as part of the day-to-day

running of a home.

It

can be hung up in

general guideline of

textile or yarn. to

cram

bath,

bunches and will effectively repel flies and

Spread wool -

other insects.

too

different plants to achieve the colours here. Saffron, for

shown

example, has been used

to

produce the deep, rich yellow tones. (See the table overleaf for dyeing at

home.)

to

much

the

(35 fi oz) oz) of woven

litre

i

(1

A common

resulting

failing

is

textile into the

patchy

in

material

out

in the liquid

and

to try

dye-

colouring. especially

so that the fibres are

immersed in

Sri Lanka. Their robes have been dyed with

Natural dyes are the pigments obtainable from plant matter. They are soluble in water and have the capacity of imparting colour to fibre. Fibres of animal origin such as wool and silk are essentially protein-based, while those from vegetable sources such as cotton and linen are predominantly cellulose in structure. The former take natural dyes especially well, as the structure of the fibres expands when the temperature of the dye-bath is raised, thus providing an increased surface area for the dye to permeate with colour.

is

alkaline fixed dye, for

of liquid dye for each 25g

Above

Below : A procession of Buddhist monks

TEXTILE DYES

the fabric

example, can be washed very successfully with soap which is alkaline based. Dyes are extracted from herbs by boiling or soaking; the plant matter is then removed and the textiles or fibres to be dyed immersed in the dye-bath together with the mordanting agent. Work

|

rariifolium).

An

later.

when

stir

completely constantly

ensure even dyeing.

Natural dyeing

is

not usually cheaper

and certainly not easier than using commercial dyes, but the colours are beautifully subtle and impart a delicious fragrance to woven or natural yarns.

Mordants are generally employed in natural dyeing process. These are chemical substances that combine with the dye and fix the dyestuff in the fabric or fibres, and they can also be used to control the

the colour, either by shade or strength.

The range

of chemicals suitable for

use-

mordants is as follows: Alum (Aluminium potassium sulphate) this is usually combined with cream of tartar in the ratio of three parts alum to one part of tartar. as

'.<>

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES Guide to natural dyeing Colour

Plant

Mordant

Colour

Plant

Grey

Horsetail {Equisetum

alum

Acid yellow

Pseudocyphellaria

sylvaticum)

Black

thouarsii

st

Onion {Allium cepa)

chrome (on bleached

sk

wool)

lemon yellow Coreopsis

wp

chrome and alum or

fl

rt

Onion {Allium cepa)

chrome

sk

Pale lemon

Rhododendron spp

Greenish yellow

Dyer's

tin

iron Iv

chrome

fl

{Daucus carota)

Carrot

Madder {Rubia tinctorum)

iron

alum and

Iv

Greenweed

{Genista tinctoria)

Coreopsis

tin

iron

[Fili-

pendula ulmaria)

ammonia

wp

Evernia spp Bright

Meadowsweet

Dark brown

Mordant

rt

+

Iv

chrome

chrome

Murky yellow

If

Evernia spp

wp

copper sulphate and

ammonia Chocolate brown

New

alum and washing soda

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

rt

Mid brown

Rhododendron spp

Warm brown

Madder {Rubia

chrome and

Iv

Rhododendron spp

Dark green

alum and iron and copper sulphate

Iv

iron

Pseudocyphellaria tinctorum)

rt

+

If.

alum

rt/lf

Light golden

New

{Phormium tanax)

brown

New

Zealand Flax

Carrot

Pale green

Rhododendron spp

Blue-green

Evernia spp

tin

and cream of

iron

Apricot shades

fl

+

bd

Pseudocyphellaria thouarsii

New

tartar

murky blue

and copper

Elder

{Sambucus

tin fl

+

and vinegar

and cream of

{Sambucus

Lavenders and

Elder

purple

nigra)

Rich rose purple

Umbilicana spp

chrome and cream

vulgare)

tartar

Golden yellow

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

and

fl

.

tin

Chestnut red

alum

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

alum and

Tansy {Tanacetum

alum

H. perforatum)

ft

Dyer's Greenweed {Genista tinctoria)

alum and If

tin

rt/lf

Wort {Hypericum maculatum

alum and cream of tartar

H. perforatum)

(dried)

Magenta

Dandelion {Taraxacum

soda

alum and

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

tin

Rose

Umbilicaria spp

Pink

New

wp

tin

alum and iodized

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

alum

Marshmarigold

alum

rt

ammonia and washing

wp

salt

Iv

Dandelion {Taraxacum

none

fl

officinale)

Greenwood

{Genista tinctoria)

Umbilicaria spp

wp

ammonia

alum Pink-fawn

Iv

Carrot {Daucus carota) Iv

Iv

alum alum

none

Madder {Rubia tinctorum)

Birch {Betula spp)

rt

none

fl

Rose pink

IOO

+

tin iv

Pse udoc yphellaria

Creamy yellow

rt

St John's

officinale)

Dyer's

-fbd

Madder {Rubia

ft

Coreopsis

fl

tin

none Bedstraws {Galium verum and G. mollugo) n

and

(Caltha palustris)

and vinegar

iron

Brownish red

Clear yellow

tin

rt

St John's

tinctorum)

Bright yellow

alum and ammonia

Wort {Hypericum maculatum

Red

Rusty red

alum and

Coreopsis

thouarsii

wp

Iv

Gold

vulgare)

salt

of

chrome

Greenweed

alum and

rfr

Dandelion {Taraxacum

Purple

Tansy {Tanacetum

{Genista tinctona)

none

tartar

bd

ft

nigra)

sulphate

tin

Zealand Flax

Dyer's

copper sulphate

rfr

officinale)

Orange yellow

copper sulphate iron

Iv

wp

wp

{Phormium tanax) Orange

Iv

rt

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax) Copper

{Daucus carota)

Bright green

Soft of

and copper

sulphate

chrome

brown Shades

tin

wp

rt/lf

Madder {Rubia tinctorum)

thouarsii

New

rt

+

If

rt/lf

alum

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

fl

or

aluminium soda

+ bd and washing

WRITING MATERIALS PAPER AND INK New

transformed the

techniques have

making of paper from an ancient craft to a modern industry, but the basic proremain the same.

cesses

The Chinese

are attributed with the

invention of paper in about a.d.

105,

though papyrus and parchment had been comparable forerunners. The Chinese used bark fibre and Flax (Linum usitatissimum), steeping the raw materials in water and beating them to a paste with stones and hammers to produce a sheet that was

Some 700 years Japanese perfected the process of making hand-made paper from the wood of the Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia then dried in the sun. later, the

papyrifera)

in

,

known

the fibre being

as kozo

Japan.

Many plants have fibres substantial enough to provide the basic ingredient for making paper in the home, such as Nettle (Urtica dioica), Flax (Linum usitatissimum)

and Pineapple Ananas i

sativus).

Pineapple

used extensively in the production of textiles, but the waste from this material is excellent for making paper. Woods such as Magnolia {Magnolia

fibres are

sppj

and Poplar are

also used, particularly

and

Populus tremula, P. alba

P. italica.

The

Cotton plant (Gossypium hirsutum) offers another suitable fibre. Plants of the grass family (Gramineae) which possess long, straight, conductive are excellent too. Suitable species

cells

from

range

bamboos

tall-growing

cultivated cereals

to

Common Oat

the

-

(Avena saliva), Barley (Hordeum sativum

Common Wheat

Maize

(Secale cereale),

(or

Indian corn

i^ea mays), Esparto (Stipa tenacissima) the

Danube Weed

can

all

when

was invented, pulped Left:

A

selection it,

,

and

{Phragmites communis)

be used with good

Prior to 1800,

results.

chlorine bleaching fibre

was treated

dyer's chart to facilitate the

of the right herb, or specific part of mordant which will

together with the

combine

from a

to

produce the

.

Rye

(Triticum vulgare),

specific colour required

plant.

Above:

Key skin

Iv

leaves

ft

flowers

ft

flower tops

section from the ancient

but

with a range of animal and vegetable glues during the process of sizing to prevent wetting and the penetration of the paper by inks and paints. The Chinese first painted on paper with a short stick of hardened Pine wood (Pinus spp) using a mixture of soot and glue, which was rubbed on an inkstone with a drop or two of water to produce the required con-

The Romans used reed pens, the Egyptians made use of rushes for writing, while styli of all kinds have been fashioned from wood through the centuries. Today, the best quality artist's charcoal is made from the Willow (Salix sppj. A writing ink has been made in Europe since the Middle Ages from the Bullet Gall

Oak

These are not the commonly known Oak Apples, but galls, formed by insects, which mature in August and remain on the tree throughout the winter long after the insects have left the tree. They are to be found on the Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur and Q. pedunculata), and nut.

the Sessile

St

stalks

Oak

(Quercus petraea syn.

G\

ft (dried)

dried flower tops

both commonly to be found in the scrubland, copses and hedgerows of Europe. On the whole, northern European-grown galls do not contain enough

fl+bd

flower and buds

tannic acid to

ripe fruit

a

try.

450g

(1 lb)

bruised galls

gall) boiling water I55g (5^ oz) ferrous sulphate 85g (3 oz) Gum Arabic (Acacia Senegal) previously dissolved in a few drops of antiseptic such as a five per cent carbolic acid solution, or Tincture of Myrrh (Commiphora molmol). (1

Macerate the

The

ingredients.

bottling

by steeping for 24 and add to all the other

galls

hours, then strain

and

ink

is

then ready for

use.

sistency.

root or leaf

whole plant

worth

certainly

Black ink

4.5 litres

word paper comes from papyrus.

rtllf

rfr

are

suggested in later recipes.

of the .Vile. The writing material was made from the pith of this strong, reed-like plant, and ink was applied to it with reed pens. The

root

wp

they

Alternatively try some of the scented inks

wrote

an aquatic herb which grows along the banks

rt+lf

and leaf

Egyptian

on the material they obtained from Papyrus,

or

sk

A

Book of the Dead. The Egyptians

sessiliflora),

make

really successful ink,

Lemon Verbena

scented ink

You can use this basic recipe with other herbs and flowers such as Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Lavender leaves (Lavandula spica).

\ cup tightly packed and crushed

Verbena

Lemon

leaves (Aloysia triphylla)

55 ml (2 fl oz) bottle of ink \ cup cold water Place the Lemon Verbena leaves in a small saucepan with the cold water. Bring

and then simmer for 10-30 minutes with the pan covered. Do not let the water evaporate completely; when it becomes opaque and brownish in colour, remove the pan from the heat. to the boil rapidly,

Strain the liquid, allow

add

to

a

bottle

of ink.

it

to cool,

The

then

resultant

aromatic ink

will vary in potency according to the freshness of the dried leaves.

101

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES Smoking

ingredients,

The American

Indians used to call their

smoking pipes 'tabaco'. These pipes were Y-shaped and hollow, the two points being inserted into the nostrils to inhale

smoke from burning Tobacco. So closely identified with Tobacco has smoking become that the word now describes any variety of plant matter which is smoked for pleasure.

Herbs

such as Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara) are rendered into a smoking mix(

commer-

ture by a process similar to the

production of Tobacco. This involves drying or 'curing' the leaves, and then mixing or blending them with other materials. Smoking tobacco mixtures include Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), salt, saltpetre and sugar. Herbal mixtures can be blended with other leaves and seeds. Coltsfoot tobacco is rubbed in the hands much as a pipe smoker prepares his cial

guarded

many

secrets.

of which are closely

After fermentation has

taken place, the mixture is dried and ground, and then sometimes fermented a second time to enrich the flavour even further.

Whether of

the dry or moist variety,

damp, though not damp. Throughout the nineteenth

snuff needs to be kept too

century flavours were refined to newer heights of sophistication, and today an enormous range of blends exists, and the habit is again becoming popular. Many incorporate such plants as Mints [Mentha

Jasmine (Jasminum sppj, Rose {Rosa Bergamot (Monarda didyma), Violet

spp),

spp),

odorata), Geranium Pelargonium and Carnation (Dianthus caryophylMost powders ground from Tobacco

(Viola

spp) lus).

are so fine that a moistening agent

is

required to prevent the powder blowing

away.

tobacco.

Above

nicotine

shown

Tobacco leaves drying

:

and

tar-rich tobacco has

now

been

be harmful, the traditional praclit

to

Contemporary thinking blames the smoking of Tobacco for chest complaints and cancers, but it should not be for-

As

in (he sun.

gotten that

i

of mixing and blending plant smoking mixtures has once again become popular. large

number of

the herbal

A

smoking mixtures

many 'poisonous' plants are when used correctly. The

galus gummifer), Ghatti

smoking of leaves to relieve pulmonary congestion and coughs has been recom-

latifolia)

mended

Coltsfoot.

2000 years ago, when he smoked through

since

the days of Dioscorides,

a reed.

Scented notepaper is

'British

made by

easily

sheets of paper

in a

storing several

box with

a liberal

sprinkling of either dried pot-pourri or

one of several powdered aromatic substances.

Use Orris root

(Iris

germanica),

Sweet Flag root (Acorus calamus), and Violet root (Viola odorata); or even powdered Allspice (Pimenta dioica), Aniseed (Pimpinella

momum

anisum),

zeylanicum),

teryx odorata),

folia) or

Cinnamon (CinnaTonka beans (Dip-

Vanilla pods (Vanilla plani-

Sandalwood (Santalum

album).

A

achieved by spraying; an aromatic water (Rose-water or RoseGeranium water, for example) by means of a fine hand spray, and then hanging the sheets to dry in the sun before storing.

crinkled effect

is

LEISURE AND PLEASURE The knowledge tabacum)

and

its

of Tobacco uses

(Nicotiana

derives from the

Americas where, in 1492, a party of Columbus's men reconnoitring Cuba reported seeing men carrying lighted firebrands and perfumed herbs. Tobacco chewing was also observed on the coast of

South America in 1502. On Columbus's second visit from 1494 to 1496, he noted was that snuff a derivative of Tobacco in popular use. 102

Fairly simple glues can be

foot

is

Herb Tobacco', of which

a principal

cludes Buckbean

Evebright

(

Thyme

ender (Lavandula flowers

Menyanthes

[Euphrasia

(Thymus spica),

(Matricaria

also

in-

trifoliata),

officinalis),

Rosemary

Stachys officinalis'. officinalis),

ingredient,

Colts-

Betony

Rosmarinus

(Anogeissus

colostomy bags to the body. The quantity of powdered gum to water varies according to your requirements and the gum used. Usually half a teaspoon of gum to half a cup of water is sufficient.

Several plants contain natural mucil-

and Chamomile

ages which can be used as simple gums.

recutita).

In

pleasing herbal smoking mixture

France, is

a

made up

of the leaves and roots of Arnica (Arnica folium)

Gum

and Carob Gum (Ceratonia siliqua). Karaya or Katira Gum (Cochlospermum gossypium) is especially effective and is still used in some countries to attach

Lav-

vulgaris).

tabacs des Vosges or tabacs des Savoyards

Yarrow [Achillea milleand Mallow (Malva sylvestris) can

montana).

made from

powdered gums such as Gum Arabic (Acacia Senegal), Gum Tragacanth (Astra-

quite harmless

commercially available today are based on

This

GUMS AND GLUES

Both

be used for herbal tobaccos too.

The

berries of Mistletoe (Viscum album)

and the bulbs of nonscriptus) are

the Bluebell (Endymion

examples.

In the Middle Ages small birds were caught on sticks coated with birdlime, a practice which is still carried on in such

countries as Portugal

and

Italy.

Today the

glues are obtained from the petro-chemi-

Snuff Parliament acted to 'Prevent the Mischiefs by manufacturing In

1

7 15, the British

leaves and other things to Resemble Tobacco, and the Abuses in Making and Mixing of Snuff. The bill notes that 'It is found by experience that of late Several Evil Persons have Cut, Cured, Manufactured and Sold Wallnut-Tree-Leaves, Hop leaves, Sycamore Leaves and other

Herbs, Plants and Materials resembling Tobacco.' Snuff is made by a complicated and intricate process of fermenting Tobacco with salt, Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Tonka bean [Dipteryx odorata) and other Leaves,

400 years ago one of the most effective birdlimes came from the Holly tree (Ilex aquifolium). The Holly's young bark was stripped from the tree, soaked and boiled, and the inner layer allowed to ferment - sometimes this was done by burying the material in a closed container. This fermentation produced a mucilaginous mass, which was then ground, washed and refermented, finally being mixed with a fatty substance to produce an extremely effective sticky cal industry, but

paste.

Birdlime from Holly is a useful glue in greenhouses or animals' quarters, and can be incorporated in fly papers.

GARDENING the

GARDEN AND VETERINARY

A

number of herbs can be used in garden to deal with pests and have the

Below:

advantage of not producing the chemical insecticides. The moles, Clover

Quassia

is

is

side-effects

Mole Plant

in particular

- have

a number of parts to play in the natural cycle. Some decompose to form valuable

of

repels

fertilizers; others control pests or act as

a good fertilizer , and

an excellent pest deterrent.

makes much

Plants - and herbs

and there are some plants other plant and insect without there being any known

insecticides;

It

seem

that

better sense, ecologically, to

to affect

use herbs such as these judiciously in the

life

garden.

scientific basis to their success.

COMPOST ACCELERATOR Home-made compost is a valuable asset

can be made into an accelerating material that rapidly breaks

Mix equal officinalis),

quick guide to successful gardening

Fertilizers

green manure sativa)

Clover {Tri folium pra tense)

green manure

Wrack

mulch manure

Pyrethrum

{Chrysanthemum

aphids. leaf-hoppers,

cinerariifolium)

spider mites, etc controls:

{Denis elliptica and D. malaccensis)

aphids, leaf-eating caterpillars,

mosquito

larvae

Quassia {Picraena exelsa)

controls:

mealybugs,

leaf-

hoppers, thrips. slugs

plants, leaves or

bark

box or bin

is

ANIMAL CARE Animals benefit from medicinal herbs in the same way that humans do, and there are many substances which are effective but considered too powerful for human use. Examples include some of the stronger plant purgatives and vermifuges used to expel worms. plants history

(POISONOUS)

aphids, leaf-hoppers.

{Nicotian a tabacum)

thrips. spider mites.

White Bryony {Bryonia has been used supplement horse and

sativus) skins, floor

3-4

left

on

nights

Angelica {Angelica archangelica) -

lathyrus)

planted crops

among

salad

Parsley {Petroselinum cri spurn)

ex-

for

traditionally

to

fodder to dried root of the

cattle

The

traps:

can also be used as a purgative. lice in animal coats can be treated very easily and successfully with a decoction of Walnut (Juglans regia) leaves or Stavesacre {Delphinium staphisagria) seed, soaked overnight. Pyrethrum {Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium), Derris {Derris

earwigs

disperses:

rodents

hides. It

Fleas

elliptica)

and

or

Wormwood

{Artemisia absin-

each mixed with water are also very effective. Soak the coat thoroughly with the liquid, then brush and comb well once dry. If used in large quantities, use as a dip rather than a lotion. Horseheal or Scabwort {Inula helenium) has been used in veterinary medicine in the effective treatment of sheep scabs. thium)

repels:

moles

Onions {Allium cepa)

dioica),

ample,

same plant can be used directly to polish the coat, while tanners use it to thicken

and over the garden

Mole Plant {Euphorbia

employed

supplements.

condition their coats.

root into pieces

scatter

been

food

as

repels:

hollow stem among herbaceous plants

chop

have

cockroaches, woodlice in sheds and greenhouses

scatter pieces of the

White Hellebore {Veratrum album) -

form thin

essential.

Many

Cucumber {Cucumis

to

layers, and then alternate with any green garden rubbish and soil, dampening the pile with water as it is made. Compost manufacture is greatly assisted by a warm

through

whitefly

Plant associations

whole

controls:

Nicotine

from folklore

officinale),

Yarrow {Achillea milleand Oak bark (Quercus spp). Use

folium)

post

controls:

Derris

Traps and controls

DandeChamomile

Nettle [Urtica dioica),

temperature, and a well-ventilated com-

(Fucus vesiculosus) Insecticides

waste.

{Matricaria recutita),

Lucerne

{Medicago

down

parts of Valerian [Valeriana

{Taraxacum

lion

A

to

the gardener, making use of green waste and enriching the soil. Some herbs decompose more quickly than others and

discourages: rabbits

repels:

Rose beetle repels:

HERBS FOR BEAUTY

Chives {Allium

blackspot, mildew,

The

schoenoprasum) - near Roses

aphids

reflects

Garlic {Allium sativum)

repels:

an individual. Healthy skin and hair cannot be obtained by

or Chives {Allium

aphids

Garlic {Allium sativum) or

lettuce or peas

Hyssop {Hyssopus officinalis) - near beans

the inner physical

and psycho-

logical health of

schoenoprasum)

- near

health and appearance of the skin

repels:

blackfly

cosmetic use alone and attention should be paid to well-balanced diet and adequate exercise, rest and general health. Herbal or natural cosmetics are, however,

of material

especially

if

benefit

to

the

body

used on a regular basis. 103

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

HERBAL BATHS The

scenting of water is a long practised custom, and it renders the water refreshing for bathing. The Romans threw

Lavender {Lavandula spp) into

their baths,

not only to scent the water, but to act as a

name

disinfectant. In fact, the

Lavandula

from the Latin lavare, meaning to wash. Herbal baths are taken today for one or

is

more of

They

several reasons.

stimulate

the action of the pores, relax the muscles

and soothe the

joints,

and perfume the

water.

Bath bags The best results

are to be obtained by

using a herb sachet.

A

square or circle of should be

or muslin

either cheesecloth

with herbs and tied securely. Fix the bag under running hot water, agitating and wringing it out to release the oils and filled

perfume, then allow

it

to steep in the

bath

water.

Oatmeal can be mixed together with the herbs to help soften the water and impart smoothness to the skin. Use in the proportion of twice the amount of finely ground oatmeal to the amount of herbs. The herbs can be chosen from what is available or they may be mixed according to

stimulating effect,

Some

herbs have a while various others

personal preference.

Tonic baths

Above

Herbs

astringent for oily skin

when

only yield their essential oils subjected to heat, so those rich in will

fragrant

used

sauna:

a

Elder flowers

,

flowers

(

(Matricaria

Sambuciu nigra

recu-

Lime

.

Tilia x europaea or T. x vulgaris

.

Sage leaves (Salvia officinalis Thyme {Thymus vulgaris and Verbena leavelerbena officinalis, or Eucalyptus Euca-

are relaxing.

.

|

Herbs

for the bath

Stimulating

(Ocimum

basilicum) Bay (Laurus n obilis) Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Lavender (Lavandula spica) Lemon Verbena (Aloysia triphylla) Basil

Lovage (Ligusticum officinale) — also considered to act as a deodorant

Meadowsweet

(Filipendula ulmaria)

Mint (Mentha sppj Pine (Pinus sppj Rosemary (Rosmarinus

Sage (Salvia

officinalis)

Thyme (Thymus

cataria)

Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) Jasmine (Jasminum officinale) Lime flowers T.

(Tilia x

europaea or

x vulgaris)

Vervain (Verbena officinalis)

Healing

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris) Mangold (Calendula officinalis) Mint (Mentha spp,) Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

104

to look really

Collect

is

required

when

dingy and tired will prove

new young

shoots

after

the skin tends

Blackberry invaluable.

leaves

(Rubus)

and

is

an ingredient

'

cleansers.

Bath oils Very few oils

will disperse completely in you do not want to emerge glistening from top to toe, use a specialist oil. Castor oil (sometimes sold as Turkey Red oil from the Castor Oil plant

water, so

if

Ricinus communis

disperses

and does not

and

and

leaves,

Sandalwood (Santalum

Allow to infuse for three to five minutes, and then strain and add the

bath.

1

i5°F).

warm

bath

Similar tonics are easy to

make

using

album).

teaspoonful of the

cum

officinale)

every 3-4

(1 lb)

litres

for

It

is,

quantities of various essential oils until

water Allow

you find ones which suit you. The different fragrances are supposed to affect the emotions differently, a theory which is practised by aromatherapists who use

(6-8

pts) of

30 minutes, then strain and add to a bath.

essential oils in the treatment of a

Left: This chart details the properties of various herbs which can be infused

added

to the

bath.

the skin's pores, relax muscles

number

of physical and emotional conditions.

and

the action

Bath salts You can add

and

turn the routine bath into a luxurious ex-

Herbal baths are taken

for many reasons : they stimulate

of

there-

advisable to experiment with small

of dried plant matter to

the flowers or herbs to steep in the liquid

warm

the

Aromatic oils can be used, of course. Just a drop or two will prove sufficient since pure plant oils are powerful and fore,

Allow 450g

Pour into

oil is sufficient for

some may cause headaches.

.

it

screw on the lid, shake to mix thoroughly and then store until required. Shake each time before using - one

Nettle (Urtica dioica), Dandelion (Taraxa-

or Daisies (Bellis perennis

Mix

with your favourite aromatic oil in the proportion of half a cup of Castor oil to ten drops of aromatic oil such as Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis!, Pine (Pinus spp) or a jar,

liquid to the

particularly efficient as an

of many natural' facial

dry and crush them with a rolling pin. To each 560 ml (20 fl oz) of water, add yog (6 oz) of plant matter, and then heat the two together to a temperature of 45°C

vulgaris)

Relaxing

Catnep (Nepeta

winter, for example,

(1

officinalis)

a real tonic that

is

is

leave a dirty ring around the bath.

lyptus globulus).

If it

Yarrow

when

[Ocimum

Basil

try

Chamomile

basilicum). tita

are especially effective

oils

in

:

soothe

a handful of bath salts to

The soda

base

of the

joints, and, additionally, impart a pleasant

perience.

perfume.

neutralizes the acids secreted by the skin

salts

:

SOAP perfume clings to the body and it softens even the hardest of waters at the same time. so that the

Right : Summer Savory

afterwards,

value in the home. Apart from

Mix

the following ingredients together

i40g

(5 oz)

&5g

(3

A

Bicarbonate of Soda

salads, sauces

broad beans,

Applied

powdered Orris root

to

is

of great practical its

use in

and as a complement

it

to

also has medicinal properties.

a bee sting, the crushed fresh leaf

germanica)

of Summer Savory relieves pain, and it can also be added to aromatic bath mixtures.

few drops of essential oils such as oil of oil of Rosemary or oil of

recipe can be followed very easily:

oz)

[Iris

Xeroli,

Lavender Once mixed together, pound in a pestle and mortar, and then store in an airtight tin. They will keep for about three months so long as the container

is

firmly sealed.

After-bath cologne Use this fragrant cologne rub

as

a friction

after a bath.

\ cup

- Roses (Rosa

fresh flower petals

'Take a pound of fine white Castile Sope, shave it thin in a pinte of Rose-water, and let it stand for two to three days, then pour all the water from it, and put to it halfe a pinte of fresh water, and so let it stand for one whole day, then pour out that, and put half a pint more, and let it stand a night more, then put to it halfe an ounce of powder called Sweet Marjoram, a quarter of an ounce of powder of Winter Savory (Satureia montana two or three drops of Oil of Spike, and the Oyl of ,

sppi, Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus),

Jasmine

(Jasminum

any

or

officinale

other strongly scented species. \ cup deodorized alcohol* 1 j cups very hot water 3 tablespoons ground citrus peel tablespoon dried Basil Ocimum basilicum) or Lemon Verbena (Aloysia triphyl1

la) 1

(crushed)

tablespoon Mint

{Thymus *Note: In excise

Mentha spp or

|

(crushed

vulgaris)

many

Thyme

make

difficult

to

obtain certain alcohols normally used in cosmetics. As a substitute use food-grade isopropyl alcohol which can be obtained from most chemists.

Soak the flowers in the alcohol lor one week in a tightly closed jar. On the sixth day, make an infusion of the citrus peel and herbs in the hot water, then allow to stand for 24 hours. Strain through cheesecloth or muslin; then drain the petals. Combine the two

ajar or

resulting liquids in

screw top and shake well.

bottle with a

Use a

little

whenever required.

Soap balls Perfumed or medicated balls of soap were popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries before soapmaking was industrialized. The most sophisticated kinds were made in Italy and incorporated exotic perfumes and a wide range of aromatic powders. Soap balls were made in most homes, either in the still-room or pantry, and the traditional recipes can be adapted to modern day extremely

requirements very

easily.

Use Castile or simple (unperfum* :d soap as a base. After grating it, add a variety

of perfumed

powdered

roots.

The

Ambergris and the same of

The almond cake could macaroon or

it

petals,

and

as

much

Ambergris, work all together in a fair Mortar, with the Powder of an Almond cake dryed, and beaten as small as fine flowre, so roll it round in your hands in Rose-water.' (Ambergris and Musk can be substituted by three drops of essence of oil

leaves

or

following traditional

i5g \\ oz) Plantain [Plantago lanceolata) leaves

i5g r

oz) Cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus)

(-j

5g

(2

420ml (15

(Melilotus

flowers

oz) boiling water

fl

Make an

ratafia biscuit.)

Melilot

oz )

officinalis)

of Musk.

be replaced by a

and

countries customs

regulations

Cloves, three grains of Musk,

infusion of the

herbs in the

boiling water. Allow to stand for an hour,

Modern washballs 1

then strain and use

large bar simple soap or Castile soap

cup of Rose-water (Rosa spp) drops oil of Lavender (Lavandula 3 i

when

tepid.

A

few

drops in the eyes will relieve tiredness, while it can also be used as an eye bath to soothe soreness and inflamed eyelids.

spica)

Crate the bar of soap into a suitable container, then pour the Rose-water over it. Allow the soap to stand in the liquid for 15 minutes, and then transfer to an electric blender or pestle and mortar, adding the oil of Lavender, one drop at a time. Once smoothly blended, pour the mix-

1

Cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus)

(j oz)

5g

or Eyebright (Euphrasia rostkoviana)

420ml

(15

oz) water or rain-water

fl

Infuse the flowers in the water by boiling.

Strain and allow to cool. liquid

The

add sparkle and

will

resulting

vitality

to

tired, sore eyes.

ture into a basin, then allow to stand for a

Form

by breaking off pieces and rolling them in your hands. Allow the soap to dry and harden. To obtain a smooth and attractive finish, moisten your hands with Rose-water and roll the balls into shape in the palms of your hands.

day or

so.

into small balls

BODY POWDERS The best known of all the body powders Talcum powder. The word 'talcum' from the Persian

talk,

and

strictly

powdered Hydrated Magnesium Silicate. soft greasy powder was first introduced to European toiletry in the sixteenth century.

The term 'talcum powder'

is

A quick and

includes mixtures containing

requires

(£ea

(ucumis sativus) over each eye and resting

now

used

mays),

rather

loosely,

precipitated

and often Corn starch

chalk

(light

Calcium Carbonate) and various other

in a

darkened room for five to ten minutes. For those with more time, try either of the

substances.

following recipes, noting that they have id be used fresh and stored no longer than 12 hours. Decomposition takes place aftei

toilet, face,

powdered

period of time and can cause even greater irritation to the eyes.

best.

this

is

means

This

EYE BATHS simple remedy for eye strain placing a slice of Cucumbei

is

It

is

relatively easy to

make

scented, cosmetic

a range of

and talcum

powders, either using a chemical base, a herbal material or a combination of the two the latter is often

[05

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES Frangipani (Plumeria

rubra)

Lavender (Lavandula spica) Ylang-Ylang [Cananga odorata)

Lime

(

x europaea or T. x

Tilia

Lemon

vulgaris)

grass (Andropogon spp)

Neroli (Citrus aurantium)

Rose-Geranium

(Pelargonium graveolens)

Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)

Bay (Laurus

nobilis)

Add

the essential oil to the base drop by drop and mix thoroughly, using a pestle and mortar for the best results. Supplement with powdered aromatic seeds or herbs to a proportion of two parts base to one part additional ingredients. Experiment with different aromas for the one that suits individual taste.

Foot powder Foot care

both

important,

is

for

their

health and to relieve general soreness.

This powder

and

the toes j

will

reduce friction between

so eases walking.

cup Talc

j cup Corn starch (%ea mays) \ teaspoon Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) extract

Traditionally,

known

a

powder

cosmetic

as poudre de chipre

was made by

Above

:

The

oil

be added to a dry pot-pourri

macerating Oakmoss in running water for two to three days. It was then dried and reduced to a powder. Oakmoss is now rarely available, and the most

fragrance or

common

Frangipani

plant

Orris root

(Iris

powder

bases are either

germanica) or

Corn starch

mays).

(Zjea

Chemical base: 30% French chalk;

40%

Orris root;

30% Corn

Rice flour. (These percentages refer All the ingredients

an old mixture ;

starch;

10%

(2

to weight.)

must be reduced

to as

powder as possible. Combine these chemical and herbal bases in any proportion you wish, or use them separately. fine a

Experimentation will reveal the best type powder for your skin type.

of

powdered Tonka

oz)

(Dipteryx

beans

Poudre a

la

Mousseline

Lavender

450g

described)

i70g

(6

(1

lb)

50g

50g

powdered Mace

oz)

(2

25g

powdered Cloves (Syzygium

(1

ozj

25g

(1

oz)

powdered Cassia {Cinnamomum powdered Sandalwood

talum album) Mil)

powdered Lavender flowers

(2

Gum

powdered

oz)

Benzoin

(1

fl

oz)

Lavender

oil

(San-

teaspoon Myrrh (Commi-

1

Place the mixture on an

open tray and heat at

a

oven

in the

medium

for

about

temperature.

Remove and allow to cool for ten minutes then grind very finely in a pestle and mortar or electric grinder. Press the mixand store the powder; throw away any lumps

in the sieve.

This

is

gently abrasive at

first

(until the

components dissolve in the mouth) as well as being an effective antibacterial. Use it with a soft action on the teeth with an ordinary toothbrush.

CLEANSING THE SKIN

essential oils:

Bergamot (Monarda didyma)

the skin.

450g

(1

lb)

base (chemical or herbal, as

described)

cassia)

and

sea salt

phora molmol).

4 teaspoons Sage leaf teaspoons rock salt or

Everyone knows the importance of keeping the pores of the skin unclogged and clean. This often requires more than a quick wash with soap and water, and steaming the face is the quickest and cheapest way to improve the cleanliness of

aromaticum)

25g

lb)

Simple scented powder

oz)

(1

(1

{Myristica

fragrans)

made by mixing

(Salvia officinalis), 3

(Styrax benzoin)

25ml

(Coriandrum sativum)

simple and very effective tooth powder

is

left

base (chemical or herbal, as

(Lavandula spica)

powdered Coriander seed

oz)

Tooth powder

A

resulting

base (chemical or herbal as

lb)

(1

all the ingredients together thoroughthen keep in a jar with a tight-fitting lid. Use after drying the feet thoroughly.

ture through a fine sieve

graveolens)

described)

450g

Mix

30 minutes

4 drops Neroli oil (Citrus aurantium) 4 drops Bergamot oil (Monarda didyma) 4 drops Rose-Geranium oil (Pelargonium

450g

food-

aroma

iog (4 oz) powdered Sandalwood (Santalum album)

odorata)

(or

ly,

1.2kg (2$ lb) base (chemical or herbal, as described)

50g

teaspoon rubbing alcohol grade isopropyl alcohol)

it is

iiog (4 oz) powdered Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) beans

precipitated chalk.

1

enhance the

sun-tan lotions.

starch;

Herbal base

60%

to revive

to

often used in body powders, perfumes and

1

30% Corn

of this plant, Bergamot, can

8

drops

of any

one of the following

Patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli)

Provided your skin

is

fairly

normal

-

:

CLEANSERS

Chamomile flowers {Matricaria recutita) or Lime flowers Tilia x europaea or T. x

try gently pushing out the blackheads with a tissue and clean fingertips. Steaming should unblock the pores - a blackhead is only a blockage of grease (sebum) secreted by glands under the surface of the skin, with a layer of dirt trapped on top. Excessive pressure may cause local skin damage, and the formation of spots or

vulgaris) for the best results.

pimples. If this happens, add 50g (2 oz)

Place a towel over your head, lower your face until it is just above the bowl

Burdock root {Arctium

not too dry or sensitive, with no thread veins visible - begin by making an infusion of herbs in a large bowl. Use three tablespoonfuls to two

litres

(3^ pts) of boiling

water. Choose between Sage {Salvia offici{Mentha x piperita), Peppermint nalis,

(

and allow the vapour skin.

The

to rise to

meet your

towel forms a tent that traps the

vapour, and you should allow the treatment to continue as long as you can bear the heat; ten minutes is about the right length of time. After steaming, the skin will be pink

and glowing. Splash with tepid and then cold water to close the pores, or use an astringent lotion dabbed on with cotton wool or tissues. Stay indoors for an hour or so after steaming, and do not repeat the

560ml (20 fl oz) cold water. Bring to the boil and simmer for 15 minutes. Allow to cool, strain and apply to the infected spot. lappa)

to

MASKS FOR OILY SKIN Most people have

some

at least

oily areas

of skin on their face, and blackheads and whiteheads tend to congregate where there

is

an excess of grease. Steaming

one method masks and packs,

is

of attack, but there are others

designed to clear

for

this

example, that are grease away.

Oatmeal {Avena sativa), Almond meal dulcis) and Corn starch {^jea mays) are all substances that when mixed with

Above:

Herbal butter-milk cleanser

Lemon

as a cosmetic,

No

water or tepid milk or butter-milk, and then rubbed over the face, will act as cleansing agents. Beaten egg white and/or yoghurt can be used to control grease,

treatment

Primus

for at least three days.

beauty routine should be without a lotion to cleanse the skin at the end of the day. This recipe

most

its

action, but

effective.

140ml

(5

Elder

Lime

nigra) or

or T. x vulgaris

Sambucm

flowers

flowers

(

applied

either

oz) butter-milk

fl

tablespoons

2

gentle in

is

Tilia

x europaea

{Citrus limon) juice, cider vinegar,

directly

to

the

combined with any one of

face

the

or

agents

described above, together with herbs such as

Yarrow

{Achillea millefolium),

Chamo-

A woman from Mozambique

wearing a herbal face paint. Though valued

flowers

it

also protects her skin.

{Sambucus

nigra),

Sage

{Salvia

Lady's Mantle {Alchemilla officinalis) vulgaris). Yarrow tea - made by infusing two tablespoons of dried Yarrow in a glass and a half of boiling water -- is or

especially

recommended

for clearing ex-

cessively oily skins.

.

mile flowers

Heat the butter-milk, add the flowers and boil gently lor approximately hall an hour. Leave to infuse lor two hours. Strain before using;: apply to the hue with cotton wool and remove all traces of dirt, grease and make-up with gentle movements.

{Matricaria

recutita),

The

Elder

action of a face pack rids the skin of

impurities by drawing

Below

own

to

:

An

oatmeal face pack

draw

out impurities

is

from

used on

the skin, or

as a binding agent in combination with other cosmetic herbs.

its

It

them to the surface. and stimulates the

also tightens the skin

circulation, thus encouraging the skin to

glow. The use of masks on drier skins should be undertaken with care. Although they can humidify the skin and restore natural oils, masks must be blended carefully to fulfil these functions.

Fragrant cleansing lotion 420ml (15

fl

oz)

warm Rose-water

handfuls dried Rose petals

2

preferably

Rosa gal I a a

5g

I

Mix

i/iboz the

Gum

Benzoin

si run benzoin

warm Rose-water

Rose petals

with the dried

an earthenware jar. Leave to infuse for one to two hours, and then strain off the liquid. Leave a day or so before adding the Cum Benzoin. Use to in

cleanse the skin as

in the

previous recipe.

Blackheads Blackheads are a problem even on a unblemished skin. If rubbing

relatively

Tomato Marrow iC.ucur-

the affected spot with a slice of {

Ly copersicon

esculenlum) or

bita pepo var. ovifera)

and then rinsing

There are a wide range of herbs and that can be utilized for making packs for the face and neck. Milk, yoghurt, egg white or egg yolk, Oatmeal {Avena sativa), honey or Fuller's earth are all spreading or thickening agents, though fruits

in

tepid water does not work, give the face a steaming treatment as described, then

simple treatments exist such as rubbing the skin with fresh Cucumber {Cucumis sativus) or Strawberry {Fragaria

quite

vesca).

The

usual

method

for using a face

mask

back the hair or protect it in some way, lie down on a bed or lean back in a chair and spread the pack over the face and neck. Avoid the skin around eyes and lips as these areas are too delicate to be stimulated in this way. Raise the level of your feet above your head, then rest for is

to fasten

10 to 15 minutes. The mask should then be washed away using tepid water and tissues

or cotton wool. 107

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES The most renowned gentle common Cucumber. It

Right

:

of all

is the

astringent

favourite

fruit.

also

(Fragaria

vesca),

provides a quick remedy for eye strain slice

-

and soothing

Peach (Prunus

Water Melon

a

of Cucumber placed over each eye has a

cooling

Incorporate Strawberry

apple

(Citrullus

(Ananas

Pine-

Cucumber

and

sativa)

persica),

lanatus),

(Cucumis sativus) with or without the white

ejfect.

of an egg and reduce

Astringent

all to a pulp in a blender or pestle and mortar. The flesh of the fruit should be as smooth as possible. Spread over the face and neck, relax for a few minutes, then wash off.

mask

for oily skin Blend together equal amounts of Tomato juice and the pulp of a Lemon. As an alternative, you can steep the Tomato juice in the pulp of the cut halves of the Lemon, and then scrape away the

NOURISHING THE SKIN

combined pulp. The end result is exactly the same, whichever method you use.

Some skins require when exposed to

Splash the mixture on your face, paying particular attention to the greasy areas,

weather. All the recipes that follow are for

then wash off with tepid water after the

sensitive or has a

Egg white and cucumber mask Egg white is renowned for tightening the skin and temporarily firming away lines and lifting sagging skin. It works most

Mix 2 i

i

Yeast face

as 'orange-peel' skin.

together:

1

egg whites

1

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) teaspoon Lemon juice [Citrus

1

limon)

5 teaspoon Peppermint extract x piperita

teaspoon

50%

rubbing alcohol

1

1

(or

isopropyl alcohol) ice

with

the egg whites, then blend together

all

the other ingredients in an electric

blender. Anything

left

over can be stored

your refrigerator. Dab the mixture on to your face and leave for approximately eight minutes. If there is an excessive tingling effect before this time, remove the pack with tepid water and tissues or cotton wool and splash the skin once more with tepid water afterwards, or omit the alcohol. in

MASKS FOR DRY SKIN It is not advisable to use any drying treatment on skin that is either naturally dry or ageing. Egg white is particularly

damaging, since it dries on the face and becomes a powerful astringent. Use fatty substances such as egg yolk as a spreader, and incorporate such agents as Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) or Wheat

germ

(

Triticum vulgare)

oil,

Almond

(Pru-

nus dulcis) or Linseed (Linum usitatissimum)

Other ingredients such as Apple Malus spp) juice, Peach (Prunus persica) or Pear (Pyrus communis) juice, mixed with ground Almonds (Prunus dulcis) will help oil.

revitalize the skin to secrete

100

by stimulating the pores

more natural

oils.

mask

are well

known

for their healing,

1

tablespoon brewer's yeast teaspoon Comfrey infusion (Symphytum

(35

fl

teaspoon sugar \ teaspoon tincture of Benzoin 1

Mix

teaspoon Marigold infusion (Calendula teaspoon skin

this

oil

oil

thus annuus),

Avocado

oil

(

can be a favourite

or Sunflower

proprietary

Olea

oil

(Helian-

(Persea americana),

europaea)

or

(Styrax

almonds with the Rose

the

water

or rain-

mixture resembles a fine paste. Then filter through fine muslin. Add sugar and a few drops of tincture of Benzoin (Styrax benzoin) and bottle ready until the

for use.

Peanut

(Arachis hypogaea) oil

Combine

litre

benzoin)

teaspoon milk or yoghurt

Olive

ground almonds ozj Rose-water or rain-water

4-Og (1^ oz)

teaspoon honey

officinalis) 1

cubes

Whip

oil

Almonds

officinale)

(Mentha

i

i

Almond

skin.

nourishing and soothing effect on the skin and were used extensively in ancient Greece for facial and hand creams.

powerfully on. ageing, oily skin with large

known

drying effect of

the

If your skin is tendency to blemishes, do not use before seeking medical advice.

on

use

allotted time.

pores

normal

nourishing, especially

Cucumber

honey with a few drops of very hot water. This will thin the honey down and make it easier to use. Blend in the yeast, then add the milk or yoghurt and the herb infusions. Stir until it becomes a thick paste. Pat your face with the oil, and then spread a layer of the paste. Allow to set for approximately 15 minutes, then wash off with tissues and splash with tepid water. the

This

is

oil

also cooling in effect

and

is

an

excellent protection against sunburn.

You

will

2 ripe 1

need

Cucumbers

litre

(35

fl

(Cucumis sativus)

oz) cold water

(35 fl oz) rain-water dessertspoons glycerine \ teaspoon tincture of Benzoin 1

litre

2

(Styrax

benzoin)

Cut the Cucumbers

into

small

pieces,

For dry

including their rinds. Put them in a pan with the cold water. Bring to the boil

ing

gradually and simmer

Oatmeal

facial

skins, Oatmeal makes a nourishand somewhat bleaching base when mixed with a favourite flower water -

Rose-water, Elder flower-water, for example. Work the ingredients into a paste, then pat onto the face and neck. Allow to dry for up to 15 minutes, then wash off with tepid water or clean off with tissues and pat with a damp face flannel.

When

a jelly bag. water,

This

is

a recipe to try in the height of

summer when

there

is

a glut of your

cold,

glycerine

the

20 minutes.

mix with the rainand tincture of

Benzoin. Apply to the skin as required.

Cold cream

A

of this applied every night before

little

sleep will feed

Fruit sundae special

for

Strain and squeeze through fine muslin or

70g 25g

(2-j (1

340ml

and

revitalize

your

oz) spermaceti

oz) fresh (12

fl

beeswax

oz) sweet

Almond

oil

skin.

HAIR CARE 40ml (i£ 40ml (ij 40ml 1| 1

fl

oz) glycerine

fl

ozj

Rose-water

fl

oz)

Cucumber juice

Melt the spermaceti in a double boiler with the fresh beeswax and the sweet Almond oil. Stir continually with a wooden spoon or spatula. Once the ingredients have melted and amalgamated, add the glycerine, Rose-water and Cucumber

Anti-wrinkle lotion Drop 15 to 20 Poppy (Papaver rhoeas) petals into 280ml (10 fl oz) boiling water and allow them to infuse for approximately ten minutes. Filter or strain and then allow the liquid to cool belbre bottling.

Use night and morning;

is

it

especially

kind to dry skin.

Cocoa-butter neck smoother

juice.

the

until

Stir

cream

is

quite

cold.

Note: Cold cream derives its name from the very fact that it is stirred until it is cold. It is at the point when it sets that it

becomes ready

1

cream recipe

50g (2 oz) fresh beeswax 435ml (i-jj fl oz) Almond glycerine 25ml fl oz 25ml fl ozj Rose-water io drops Rose essence 1

(

1

(Theobroma

cacao) 1

tablespoon lanolin

j cup

W heat germ

oil

(

Triticum vulgare) or

or

mays)

Peanut

\Arachis

hypogaea) oil

4 tablespoons water (optional)

iog (4 oz) spermaceti

1

tablespoon Cocoa butter

Corn (£ea

for use.

Alternative cold

1

Melt

all

three

oils in

a double boiler until

oil

completely dissolved. (The addition of water makes the cream easier to spread.)

for

Allow to cool, place in jars and refrigerate. Shake before use. The mixture may be cloudy but this in no way impairs the power of the cream.

any

other

fragrance preferred)

ducts have classified the general public into three categories: those with dry,

greasy or normal hair. The herbal trichologist, however, claims that all hair is normal - normal to the individual that is and that dryness and greasiness should not be treated as an isolated condition, but as part of a larger problem. Anyone who feels they have severe problems with their hair, either with an excess of oil or hair that

their action.

On

the other hand, a natural

always leaves a certain amount of grease, dirt, on the hair. By modern standards, of course, this would not be considered clean enough. The first step towards using herbs for hair health is to get a good shine - nothing else may be necessary. Make an infusion

Below

then bottle until required.

lating the circulation.

substance, keratin,

Night cream Use this very rich and nourishing cream every night youthful and

to to

keep your skin looking help smooth out

contains lanolin which

is

a

lines,

h

waxy substance

obtained from wool grease and is used widely in cosmetics lor its moisturizing effect on the skin.

beeswax

2 teaspoons

2 teaspoons lanolin

4 teaspoons Almond oil Prunus dul
Benzoin (Styrax benzoin capsules teaspoon Wheal germ (

(

1

oi

of Rosemary (Rosmarinus

through the use of a variety of herbal

recutita

preparations.

favour.

Hair

is

warmed distilled water, then allow both liquids to cool. Mix them together, then beat in the Wheat germ oil. Note: Add infusion of Comfrey Symphytum officinale) or Marigold Calendula t

officinalis) to assist cell

regeneration.

It

of a re-

The majority of proprietary herbal hair products have a synthetic basis, an attractive perfume, delightful packaging and a pretty name. However, purely herbal shampoos, among other things, have been made in the past, and even today herbalists still base their range of hair cosmetii s and medicaments on completely natural substances. Apart from shampoos, you will find that they stock hair and scalp conditioners, rinses and dyes. If you make them yourself, you will derive far more satisfaction and save money, too.

to

dioica),

Nettle

{Matricaria

or any herbs you particularly Measure 560ml (20 fl oz) of water

each 25g

( 1

oz) weight of herb. Boil the

water. Place the herbs in a suitable container such as a jug or basin

Although hair

:

the condition cells.

The

(right)

.

is

composed of a dead

health depends upon

of the scalp and underlying diagram shows a hair in the

top

and frightened' The bottom diagram shows how a

normal position itnc hair

its

and pour the

is

(left)

produced from the

follicle.

Shampoos certain plants which contained soapy sub-

stances called saponins.

and Almond oil in a double boiler until they have melted and combined. Dissolve the borax the beeswax, lanolin

in the

made up

cannot be

a dead substance

Urtica

officinalis),

Chamomile

Pure herbal shampoos of the past relied on oil

Triticum vulgare)

Warm

Throughout the centuries, man has improved the health and beauty of his hair

protein called keratin.

shampoo

and therefore

juvenated. No amount of wishful thinking will bring it back to life, though massage will encourage healthy growth by stimu-

HAIR HEALTH

so dry that the

ends are badly split, should consider their general health. Greasy hair can be associated with diet, while those with dry hair should look first to their shampoo: it could be far too strong. Synthetic shampoos leave the hair unnaturally clean, the acidic balance of the hair being upset by

Melt the spermaceti, beeswax and Aloil in a double boiler. Pour into a basin and mix with a wooden spoon or spatula. Leave to set in the refrigerator. Pound for 45 minutes in a mortar, or blend in an electric mixer until it turns into a thick white cream, add the glycerine and Rose-water. Blend again for two to three minutes to emulsify the cream. Add the Rose essence and mix again for one minute. Refrigerate until it solidifies, and

mond

is

One

of

the best

an attractive flowering perennial bush called Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis). This type of shampoo produces very little foam and gives dry astringent wash. It was last produced commercially in 1930. Those with greasy hair will find a decoction of Soapbark sources of these substances

is

.1

(Quillaja saponaria) very effective.

Manufacturers of commercial hair proIO()

domestic: and cosmetic uses Left

An

:

An

Indian lady displays the palms of

lotion can be derived

with Henna. Henna was also used

Pyrus cydonia). Measure 50g Quince seed and boil in 280ml

dye

to

(

nails red.

last

rinse for deliciously scented results.

Even

would be white wine, white or

better

cider vinegar.

An

Rosemary

Rosmarinus

can also impart shine

to hair. It

has the advantage of acting as a mild anti-

Steep the spikes

septic.

water

in boiling

lor

is

ill-advised

Chamo-

of

parts

recutita

.

Rosemary

officinalis;,

Nettle

.

millefolium

Place 25g a container

root

was

also used as a

teenth century.

Wheat

(

Triticum vulgare)

whiten wigs and in 1748, the year of the Great Famine, a quarter of a million pounds weight of hair

and

lichens

were used

powder was used

to

to

indulge fashion while

These are usually acidic taining

Lemon

(Citrus

limon).

Aloysia triphylla).

designed

to

Verbena

rid

officinalis:

the

hair

To

\

of the

common

Urtica dioica:,

a non-volatile

Below

:

the hair

called

oil

Herbs were powders

the

only herb contains

It

apigemn u Inch

so

essential constituents for

much

in

vogue in

elaborate coiffure probably contained

powdered Orris

root

and Rosemary

leaf.

.

1

and then

c

and

ssels

lustre.

make an

stinging strain

in-

Nettle

and

cool.

encourage healthy growth.

so

The

stimulant plant Jaborandi Pilocarpus microphallus from Brazil was once the most

^^^ELj< :

'

1

popular herbal scalp conditioner and hair restorer, but it is no longer considered safe enough to use. If a massage is preferred, take equal quantities of herbs such as Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Nettle Urtica .

1

Chamomile and Yarrow 'Achillea

Matricaria

dioica.

recutita

millefolium), or

any

of those previously mentioned, and steep in

560ml 120

of Sunflower

oz

fl

^

Place in the sun-

oil.

encourage the release of Note the results for future

reference.

They

oils.

1

Lemon are

all

of residual

made from the juice of all citrus fruits, though Lemon is the most popular. Lemon has traditionally been used, along with vinegar, in a final rinse to remove scum", so allowing the hair to shine with a

10

is

reallv lightens fair hair.

the scalp to dilate the blood

to

vinegar.

or

Rinses for use after shampooing can be

1

and

condition the scalp,

the herbs'

the natural acidic balance of the skin.

Add

which

and Henna [Lawsonia

nigra

Chamomile

.

Elder berries

dry shampoo.

con-

alkaline after shampooing, or to restore

natural lustre.

Sambucus inermis

recutita.

light if possible to

in reaction,

Verbena Verbena

Matricaria

eighteenth-century Europe. This lady's

usual way. Use as a final

in the

(Helianthus annuus)

Hair and scalp conditioners

mile

then strain

them

most of the populace starved.

coastlines.

similar kind of preparation can be used as a

Apply

Powdered Orris

pean

boiling water over them. Steep until cool,

mary

sweet-scented hair powder in the eigh-

less

1

fusion

then out again.

add

oz of the mixed herbs into and pour 560ml 20 (1 0/. of

purchased in the form of a white powder, ground from Orris root {Iris germanica), Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), RoseQuassia officinalis) chips (Picraena exelsa), and each designed to remove grease from the hair by absorption. Brush it into the hair, and

a

.

Achillea

light hair

more Chamomile, and for dark hair Chamomile and more Rosemary.

rinse for general health

or

Horsetail

.

and Yarrow

For blonde or

.

Rosmarinus

Urtica dioica

or timed, try a dry shampoo. These can be

(Rosmarinus

include Kelp Fucus vesicuseaweed found on many Euro-

this recipe to

rinses tor

equal

Equisetum arvense

occasion where hair washing

much mucilage as possible is squeezed through. The liquid will jellify and set when cold. Apply either hot or warm, as preferred. You can also adapt as

dull hair, turn to those stalwarts

officinalis

of illness or an unexpected

making sure

press through muslin,

Chamomile

Salvia

eases

and

Brightening and lightening For three quick and brightening

,

In

oz

commercial natural hair cosmetics. Another pleasant rinse is one made by Fennel Foeniculum vulgare), and Lime flowers 1 da x europaea or T. x vulgaris together with some Sam

muslin or cheesecloth. Allow to cool. Mix the infusion with your usual shampoo and wash your hair in the normal way.

fl

losus

Matricaria

30 minutes. Strain through

10

30 minutes, then strain and cool. Use as a rinse as required. Rosemary, incidentally, is one of the major herbs added to

gathering

to steep for

of

oz)

(2

of water for 15 minutes. Make up the quantity of liquid as it evaporates. Strain that

infusion of

officinalis

boiling water over them. Allow the herbs

based setting from the Quince

naturally

excellent

her hands which have been delicately painted

a teaspoonful to your

Setting lotions Vegetable sources can be used to encourage the hair to curl, or at least to hold a curl in place once it is set. Gum Tragacanth, an exudation from an Asiatic plant. Astragalus gummifer, setting

lotions

is

and

used as the basis for as

certain hair conditioners.

Sodium

Alginate,

a

weeds, has been used

commercial setting

an

additive

More

derivative to

of sea-

provide a basis

lotions.

in

recently.

for

;

m

4ltm

v V

v

*

r

i

m *7i <M * ^ tI9 ^^ 5

fe

1

4T"

HAIR COLOURS hair

light

gives

a

yellow tone.

lighter

Dves containing quick-lime, of a similar nature to the depilatories, were used by

Roman women

as

bleaches, often with

To make

disastrous results.

a

Chamomile

make an

infusion from 50g (2 oz) of the herb to 560ml (20 fl oz) of water. rinse,

Steep, strain

and use

made

Romans as

.

a pack

grey hair and, used in this way, will impart a bluish hue. You can either buy Elder berries pre-dried, or gather your for

own between September and November when they are ripe and before the birds get to them. Make up an infusion and add a pinch of

brightness.

And

and alum

salt

so,

Use

additional

for

Henna

to

(

Lawsonia

brown

spp). For those of you with light

through red, dark brown Henna is the perfect herb

to black hair

condition

to

highlight and give shine to your hair

Weigh out 25g

(1

Henna

oz) of

type will do - and

make an

history, but

is

what they have, make a strong Rosemary (Rosmarinus officin- or preferably the oil - and rub into

leaf- any

Excessive

or dryness should be rebeing associated with general

oil

as

health. Dandruff, however, is the flakingoff of the top layer of skin on the scalp. Its cause can also be linked with diet, climate, environment and stress: any one of these factors or several in combination. Useful remedies include massaging Olive oil or Sweet Almond oil gently into

the scalp to soften

could

use

an

alternatively you

it;

infusion

of

Chamomile

Marigold (Calendula mixed and whipped into a officinalis) cream (cold cream) for this. This is then (Matricaria recutita) or

applied to the scalp. An itchy scalp is a

common complaint. This is usually associated with stress rather than with any physical cause. An infusion of

Chamomile

smells delightful

and

is

(Matricaria recutita

a

weak

sedative, as

well as soothing the scalp

itself.

can also be attributed

lice.

Itching

Vinegar rinses are often effective in the removal of nits (the eggs of the louse that cement to

themselves to the shaft of the hair. Altern-

an infusion of Poke Root (Phytolacca decandra), Quassia chips Picraena exelsa) or Juniper berries Jumperus communis; can be used to rinse the hair; then atively,

(

comb

beards to a youthful blue-black. is an integral part of the Eastern culture. Arabic women are given a sack of Henna on the eve of their wedding with

Herbs tend to have a slow colouring effect, and none act directly as a bleach. Commercially produced hair dyes and colouring

rinses

are

products and were teenth century.

first

coal-tar

by-

used in the nine-

A large range of synthetic

organic dyes are rinses

on

based

now

available,

(Lawsonia spp) was used to render

brown hair auburn and to help mask greying strands, while acting as a marvellous conditioner at the same time. It is easily absorbed, the colour being assimilated through the cuticle of the hair into the cortex.

(Salvia officinalis) has in

dead

in

Henna,

while a hennaed beard has great religious significance for Muslims.

The powdered leaf gives a hair when mixed with

rich red tone

water. It is applied for two to three hours and has to be maintained at a regular temperature; to

cling film or silver

quality of the

foil assist in this.

Henna and

The

the colour

imparts to the hair depends on and country of origin. Persian

its

it

source

Henna

is

producing a deep rich red;

Below: A branch from the Egyptian Privet or Henna tree ( Lawsonia inermisj, the powdered leaf of which provides Henna which has traditionally been used as a colouring agent for both hair

and body.

fl

oz) for

and the several

months. Use as a final rinse. Powdered Rhubarb root (Rheum officinale) will add attractive golden tone to light brown or fair hair. It should be made into a pack mixed with hot water and applied to the hair for 30 minutes; but care must be taken as it will dry the scalp. Another

remedy which is effective in masking grey or white hair is to crush Black Walnut leaves and husks (Juglans nigra). Soaking in water will result in a dark brown stain that will add tone to grey or white hair. Other recipes can include Marigold (Calendula officinalis) traditional

petals to brighten blonde hair, (

Quercus

robur)

for

a

reddish

Oak

bark

tone and

Alkanet (Anchusa officinalis) for a lighl pink lor those who want that colour. Many other herbs (and spices) have been tested over the years for their colouring properties and found to be effective in varying degrees. These include Woad (Isatis

tincloriaj,

There baldness have been sought

their

Berber

Certain

patterns.

embalm

needs to be strong

iog or 4 oz to 560ml or 20 process repeated weekly 1

Turmeric

lor

intricate

families

been greatly recom-

ticular, has antiseptic qualities that repel

Cures

in

the past to disguise greying

hair, but the infusion (

colour hair and

herbs and spices to

and Chamomile Matricaria recutita) were popular. Neither penetrate the hair shaft, however, and such sources are therefore used as colouring rinses and shampoos rather than as direct dyes. Sage

mended

to

which they make a thick paste to colour the hair and decorate their hands and feet

the finest,

The Romans used

tinctoria)

was used

false

available. Before

became commercially

reng,

Henna

Colouring and dyeing

campechianum), Saffron -Crocus

r.

shoots, called

alis)

out the corpses. The procedure should be repeated after two weeks, and again two weeks later. Quassia, in parli(

Mummified remains from Egyptian tombs show that a mixture of Henna and

years.

Henna

sativus)

garded

is the powdered leaf of Egyptian and has been in use for over 5000

Indigo (Indigo/era

colour their hair, of which Saffron (Crocus

Problem hair

privet

protect

infusion ior a

final rinse.

Henna

infusion from

Henna

as a final rinse.

briefly,

accept that there

a rinse

from Elder berries (Sambucus nigra

These were used by the

to

the scalp four or five times a week.

as a final rinse.

Grey hair can be coloured with

we have no magic cure for hair loss which can be for any number of reasons. For those who require a potion to and pursued through

favourite

Logwood (Haematoxylum sativus)

and

Curcuma no doubt, however, that the colouring agent is Henna. longa).

is

1

1

t

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES Right:

A

Herbal

oils

modern perfumery

thousands ofyears ago are the

France.

in

which were prized and used still

employed by

most exclusive perfume manufacturers.

Ranged

Lavender, Oak-

in this laboratory are

moss, Patchouli and Neroli. There are four oils from

methods of extracting the

plants

distillation, maceration, absorption

and

enfleurage.

Egyptian Henna gives more orange reChinese is the cheapest, being of

sults;

inferior quality.

Another major virtue of Henna, makit even more versatile, is that it can be mixed with other organic substances to coffee, wine. eggs, modify the colour lemon juice and onion skins are modern ing

may

variations. Traditionalists

preler to

experiment by adding Indigo shoots

(for

reng), Walnut husks (darkening), Lucerne (Medicago sativa) (darkening), Catechu (darkening), the extract that is so rich in tannin

nut (Piper

from Acacia

betle)

catechu, or Betel

PERFUMERY

(reddening!.

To henna your hair, select your variety, then weigh out the Henna powder. For a head of short hair, 70g (6 oz) will be sufficient. Shoulder length hair or longer will require 2253 (8 oz). For further 1

The word perfume comes from

the Latin

meaning 'through smoke". This is probably derived from the custom of making burnt

sacrificial offerings to the

those times, as practised by the

gods

<>!

Romans

conditioner; a glassful of red wine, or

and Egyptians. The latter were especially generous in using perfumed oils, and the Greeks followed the tradition, so gaining an understanding of the many herbs and

ground

plants in

or

benefits

to

colouring,

the

affect

a

modifying agent should be selected. An egg will act as a secondary and nourishing

cum)

coffee or Cloves (Syzygium aromati-

will

result

colour; while

variations of

slight

in

Lemon

juice (Citrus limon)

or vinegar will aid the release of the dye, so

increasing

the

colouring

Have

effect.

ready a couple of old towels, a plastic bag, a saucepan, a pair of rubber gloves and set aside a couple of hours of your time. Mix the modifying agent with the Henna and sufficient water to mix to a thick

creamy

then

set

paste.

Heat

to boiling point,

aside to cool slightly.

the scalp, rub vegetable

To

protect

into the skin

oil

to act as a protective barrier. Wearing rubber gloves, apply the Henna. Do this thoroughly by making numerous partings

from one side

to the other or

to the front or vice versa.

from the back

Wrap

in cling film to seal in the

the hair

Henna and

maintain a warm temperature. your head in a towel and sit in a place to 'cook'.

The

Wrap warm

longer you leave

it,

the stronger the colour, so only increase the length of time after you have experi-

mented with leaving

it

for, say,

one and a

water runs shampoo. Your hair then quite clear and will glow with colour, and it will shine as never before. I

12

until the

part of the Medi-

Europe.

The numerous

delights of perfumery from Europe during the Middle Ages, though Charlemagne tried hard to recreate the luxury enjoyed by the Romans by using sweet-smelling plants

disappeared

and

scenting

streets for the

public

fountains

in

the

peoples pleasure.

and early eleventh Avicenna brought the art of making Rose-water from Persia, and the Crusaders brought back phials of Rosewater from Asia together with many other In the late tenth

centuries,

strongly scented products.

By the fourteenth century, it was customary to offer perfumes to guests in any noble house. They were offered after meals for freshening the hands and fingers after eating - without implements of course. During this period, alcoholic perfumes were being tried in Europe and quickly found favour. 'Hungary water' was particularly

half hours.

Wash thoroughly

own

their

terranean world. As a result, the Romans spread this knowledge to other parts of

teenth

century,

senteur pour

publiques festivals.

successful. les

embaumer

herbes les

By the et

plantes

six-

de

eaux des fontaines

were commonplace

in

France

for

There are four methods of extracting oils from plants: distillation, from whole plants maceration, absorption, and finally, expression of rind essential

.

or skin

which is a process known as which combines maceration

i

'enfleurage'

and absorption. Distillation This is a steam-assisted process, whereby the plant material is placed in containers above water vats so that the steam carries some of the oil away and forms a condensate containing the essential oil. Because many of the oils in plants are to a greater or lesser degree water-soluble, the

distillate

distilled.

is

skimmed

off

and

re-

Plants that cannot be treated by

the steam distillation process are treated

with various substances (mainly alcohols

which, acting as solvents, remove oils, and break down pigments

dissolve fats

and other

cell

components.

Maceration This is literally the steeping of flowers and herbs in water to release the essential oils.

Absorption This method

involves the plant

absorbed by

fat

oil

being

or grease, traditionally

either tallow or lard.

It is

used for plants

which continue producing oils after being picked like Jasmine [Jasminum spp and Tuberose [Polianthes tuberosa) and plants whose oils would be damaged by steam or whose odour would be altered by steam. water or volatile solvents.

The

usual

on both

method

is

to

spread the

fats

sides of a sheet of glass held in a

PERFUMERY and then

to

spread

fresh flowers over the grease every

morn-

frame called a

"chassis',

represented bv Tobacco

of days. The chassis are hours in a darkened room. stacked 24 the fat or grease this period, Over absorbs the flower oils and becomes iming for a

number

for

pregnated with their perfume. The resulting scented grease is called a 'pomade'. The quality of the pomade can be recognized by the number attached to it.

changed 20 times, the pomade is known as 'Pomade 20* if changed 30 times, 'Pomade 30' and so on. Originally they were used in their greasy

now usual to extract the pomade by means of from the perfume form, but

it

is

alcohol, the resulting scents being called 'Extrait 20' or 'Extrait 30'. If the alcohol is

than evaporated, an

called 'absolue de

A

residue

oil

left

is

pomade'.

simpler method involves immersing

176F)

45 -80

from

ranging

ature

for several hours.

The

C

1

13

resulting

pomade

is

and sometimes

20'

may

'absolue'

plants are

known

an

be produced as already

nique

for

rinds or

a relatively simple tech-

is

extracting the peel of fruit

oils

from the

and other plant

The matter is subjected to mechanical pressure and grinding to release the oil. A more traditional method involves pressing the whole fruit into a sponge, which is then wrung out to yield

make

to

Add

at

15 drops

of essential

oil to

and shake the

560ml (20

bottle.

fl

oz) of

The most

water

are Rose-water, Orange-flower water

Lavender water, and

all

and

three of these can

be used to scent the body directly and as an ingredient for many other cosmetic products. The more complex perfumes depend on blending carefully measured amounts of oil with pure alcohol. Pure alcohol, however, is not for sale to the

and isopropyl alcohol (which is itself somewhat scented must be used in the making of toilet waters.

storing.

25ml

(

fl

1

Orange-flower essence

oz)

Citrus sinensis)

4.5I

1

gall) distilled

1

water

public,

Mix

the two together

at least a

week.

and allow

to

age for

You can make Rose-water

same way.

in exactly the

Eau de Portugal 420ml

(15

fl

oz)

proof alcohol

45

(isopropyl alcohol)

20ml (f fl oz) essence of Orange 6ml (5 fl oz) essence of Lemon ml re fl oz essence of Rose 25 ml I fl oz) essence of Bergamot 1

)

1

oil

Lavender water Mix 25ml

(i

oz

fl

oil

of Lavender

Lavandula

all

bottle.

the

ingredients

The mixture

together

and

stores well.

spica)

840ml

30

fl

Ancient 'spice' perfume

ozj isopropyl alcohol

Shake the ingredients together in a large bottle and leave to settle for about 48 hours. Shake well again. After a further 48 hours the liquid can be put into small bottles with tight-fitting lids.

This

is

not really a 'perfume' at

was traditionally known

all,

but

it

as such. It has a

splendid spicy scent. 2 cups Rose-water (Rosa spp) i5g (j oz) bruised Cloves

(Syzygium

aromaticum)

Hungary water 1

tablespoon fresh Mint leaves [Mentha

1

table-spoon fresh

marinus

10ml

2

2-3 Bay leaves (Laurus 2 cups wine vinegar

Combine

spp)

i

Classifying perfume odours Perfume is classified according to one or more identifiable odours, and these fall

and leave

store for a week,

(Monarda didyma)

50ml

oil.

Cover well and

versatile

materials.

the

the ingredients together

all

shaking each day. Strain into dark bottles which should have tightly fitting lids for

1

'Pomade

as

sold as such; or

explained.

Expression This method

are the toilet waters.

—

then filtered off and the immersion repeated up to 20 times. In this case, the

Mix

to soak.

Orange-flower water

The simplest fragrances

home

general

plant matter in molten fats at a temper-

\icofiana tabac-

.

category.

If the flowers are

;

I

Clover [1 njolium pratensei and sweet grasses. Oriental scents usually combine woody, mossy and spicy perfumes, with Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and Balsam Myroxylon spp) being considered in this iini

fl

4

Rosemary

leaves

Ros-

officinalis

oz, alcohol fl

grated peel

oz of

isopropyl alcohol

Rose-water

Orange and Lemon

nobilis)

the Rose-water, Cloves, chop-

ped Bay leaves and vinegar, and boil. As it reduces, add water to make up the quantity. Strain and place the liquor aside in a well-sealed jar for several weeks or

more

before using.

into

six categories: floral scents from plantssuch as Rose Rosa spp Lily-of-theValley (Convallaria majalis j, Jasmine Jas.

minwn spp;, Gardenia (Gardenia oide.s);

spicy scents that include

{Myristica fragrans),

mum

zeylanicum

lus);

woody

Cinnamon

jasmin-

Nutmeg Cinnamo-

Clove Syzygium aromaticum) and Carnation (Dianthiu caryophyltalum album)

)

,

Sandalwood Sanand Cedarwood (Cedrus spp stints like

:

mossy scents such (Evernia

from Oakmoss (now very ran

as those

fmrpuracea)

.

Herbal scents are considered not so powerful and pungent, and these are Right

:

Women

in

France at the beginning

of this century sorting thousands

oj rose

petals in preparation for the manufacture 0/

perfumes.

13

/

V

jut

/

<***

r>'

!

4*

•

"%

,;^

•3P"

&fc -

.

> >

i

.

mi 6-^ly

:,-•;

\Jgr 13/ <:

Cultivation,

:

collection

and

preservation

I

of herbs

H

£&C s2*r

_*

.

ft

< :-_=,-_-~

Herb gardens were traditionally attached to monasteries and provided substances for the treatment of ailments, and flavouring for food, and often the colour and the scents of monastic life as well. Over the

warm,

centuries herbs have been relegated to garden plots, then retrieved for their oldworld charm and associations, forgotten again, and now in the twentieth century

which would form a of perennial weeds and with good drainage is an essential factor of any site selected for herbs, unless a bog-type herb garden is being planned. Shaded shrub borders and rock gardens do not usually make suitable sites, except

they are enjoying a revival of interest. In

decorative value most of them fail to reach acceptance, bul used in conventional herb

which

been exclusively designed, there is an appeal redolent of ancient atmospheres in which an illusion of simple antiquity can be

garden

settings

have

achieved.

Herbs were first used decoratively in Europe in the sixteenth century, where the practice began of growing herbs in

tected

air on a site adequately profrom prevailing winds, but not

still

shaded. If the land slopes, a south or south-west facing slope is preferred, and without a hedge or wall running across the base of the slope frost

pocket.

A

soil free

range of herbs such as Thyme, pinks, violets, Sedums and Arnica that like the sharp drainage of the rock work. A level site is normally best, or perhaps a site on two levels with a refor

the limited

taining wall between the two to

example, ferns, Pellitory and Centranthus.

modate,

for

accom-

Feverfew,

knot gardens. But the progression of horticultural practice the finer achievements

immense

of the art of cultivation, and the influx cil new decorative plant material

superseded the lowly herbs. Household economy has continued to know and to need these plants however unassuming

though main of them appeal

to be.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SITE Herbs are undemanding plants, then stamina is good, and their natural appeal can be strong. Most are at their best in 1. 1 1 1 :

A

t

of the season herb this which includes Chervil

the height

borders, such as

and Mint, provide an array of both and decorative plant material

useful

Preparation of site Time is well spent in first

clearing a pro-

posed site thoroughly of perennial weeds and even fallowing (backsetting) if time allows. The crop of eager weeds that appear following soil disturbance can then be eradicated before the herb seedlings and young plants are introduced. Ideally the soil should be fertile, but not

too

rich,

and some form of moisture-

retaining material will probably need to

be added but not food material such as artificial fertilizer.

Humus can be provided in the form of compost made from garden and kitchen waste and forked in to improve the soil in Thus both texture and composition. adequate moisture and warmth are en-

"3

CULTIVATION Left

:

The gardens of the

sixteenth century

provide excellent blueprints for the design of a formal herb garden today. The simple outline

of the beds

is

important and the

relationship of one bed to the others should be carefully considered.

sured. Leaf mould, spent hops, peat or animal bedding straw may also be used to produce humus - they are all organic in composition and gradually break down to encourage a friable (crumbly well-drained soil. Lightly fork or hoe in the material to the surface of the soil and the frosts will do the rest. If this kind of soil improvement cannot be achieved or if the soil is very light or dry and chalky, the gardener must be content to grow those plants that will tolerate a dry, baked soil such as Rosemary, Thyme, Marjoram, Sage. Broom and pinks.

be removed, the soil

site levelled

and the top

then replaced.

Paths As with all workable gardens, the herb garden is best served by well-constructed paths which will give a firm, dry access. Gravel,

concrete,

paving or bricks

all

provide these requirements and the choice

dependent upon the cost and availability of material and labour. If beds are to be marked out in turf, where the turf is

will finally

well laid

provide the paths,

it

should be

and established before beds are

cut out.

Levelling

On a site of any considerable size levelling

Marking out the beds

has to be carried out properly, especially

The

where two levels are envisaged, and the work has to be done before any planting

out on paper, then measured carefully on

starts.

On

a small

site,

the surface level

can be corrected by forking and raking and there are no difficulties in keeping the top soil on the surface. Where there is a marked discrepancy in existing surface levels, the top soil of the entire area has to i

if,

outline of beds should

first

be drawn

to the site and marked out with pegs and cord - and, even at that stage, again considered before proceeding. Sufficient

space should be allowed between beds so that

when

there will

plants spread towards the path still

be enough room for easy

passage with wheelbarrows and

tools.

CLASSIC HERB GARDENS Left and overleaf: Based on the principles of classic design, this herb

garden indicates the

immense range of available material. Paving adds simplicity to the overall design and affords ease

of maintenance. Repetition of

planting patterns ensures unity and allows the design to be used within a

The key

small area.

(overleaf) shows which plants

may

be used, taking into account their relative

habits of growth

and

colour.

This plan can

be adapted to meet the requirements

smaller

site,

of a

as shown on page 123.

"7

CULTIVATION Key to Herb Garden ground plan

Bed 1

A

Bed

Bergamot

or

Oswego

tea (red)

Lamb's Lettuce or Salad

Cowslip Lovage Salad Burnet Sorrel

Cotton Lavender (border)

61

62 Corn 63 64 65 66 67 68 Bed 69

Bed B

Chives (border)

Chamomile Annual Clary Sage Lavender Rose (red. scented) Violet

Golden (wild) Marjoram Clove Carnation Cotton Lavender (border)

8 Purslane

Bergamot or Oswego Tea (pink) Fennel

Cowslip

Rue Lavender Parsley (border)

Vines (on the Dergola)

Bed C 16 Woodruff 17 Wild Thyme (border) 18 Bird bath or tub of plants

Bed D 19 Golden Marjoram

70 Vervain 71 Bush Basil 72 Lavender 73 Violet 74 Rose (red. scented) 75 Wormwood 76 Clove Carnation 77 Oregano or Garden Marjoram Left-hand border

78 Bay 79 Violet 80 Foxglove 81 Sweet Woodruff 82 Morello Cherry (on 83 Common Mint or

(border)

French or Pot Marjory

Common

Sage Cowslip Tansy Lady's Mantle

Sweet Cicely 26 Tarragon 27 Juniper Bed E 28 Pinks (border) 29 Purple Sage 30 Lavender 31

I

Lady's Mantle

32 Mallow 33 Hyssop 34 Juniper 35 Bush Basil 36 Clove Carnation Bed F 37 Pinks (border)

84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

Lilv-of-the-Valley

Morello Cherry (on wall)

Lemon Balm Periwinkle

Foxglove

(borders)

94 95 96 97

Scented Pelargonium Lavender Myrtle

Lemon-scented Verbena Right-hand border

98 Hop

(in

angle of

pergola)

99 100

Violet

101

Juniper Apothecary's Rose

102 103 104 105

(pink)

Spearmint Ivy (behind fountain) Apple Mint Foxglove

92 Rosemary End beds and terrace 93 French Marigold

Wormwood

Narrow-leaved Sage

wall)

Rue

Elder

Chervil

Winter Savory Borage Rose (on wall) Florentine

Iris

Honeysuckle

(in

arbour)

106 Jasmine (mixture of yellow and white) Common Thyme 107 Florentine Iris Common Sage 108 Rose (on wall) 109 Southernwood Bed G 48 Lemon Thyme (border) 110 Woad Curry Plant Pot Mangold

111

Bush

112 Myrtle 113 Fig (on wall) 114 Rue 1 1 5 Tree Germander

Basil

Clove Carnations Narrow-leaved Sage Rose (red or pink. scented)

Service area

Hyssop

116 Marrows and Courgettes

Pot Marigold

Golden Sage Lavender Bed H 58 Woodruff 59 Wild Thyme (border) 60 Sundial or tub of plants

i

18

Catmint

Juniper

117 1 18 119 120

Rhubarb Onions

121

Lettuce

Comfrey French Sorrel

122 Garlic 123 Espaliered

fruit

(on wall)

SELECTION OF PLANTS

Above:

A

Hardwick

traditional garden at

Hall, Derbyshire. Height tripods upon

is

garden

provided by

which honeysuckles or jasmine

SELECTION OF PLANTS grow mm is

for

herbs to

indeed for any plant, a suitable environment. In the w ild state

own

plants seleet their

location

and often

indicate the type and condition of the

soil,

the drainage and the intensity of light. Observation will thus suggest which plants can be expected to flourish in. or at least tolerate, a

given situation. While the

demands of herbs

are lew

often thrive without results will be far

<

can

the)

attention,

more rewarding

requirements are

basii

,iiid

much

il

tin

some

out

<

On

essfully, as

(

(anied

subsequent judicious thinning is always possible. Small plants. such as Thyme, Pennyroyal, and Chamomile used perhaps as an edging, need to be planted more losely. be

can be grown.

The primary requirement

being planted for immediate effect, closer planting needs to

is

decorative

strong or rich

soils

be produced than on

.1

more growth poorer

can be expected to establish themselves more The table overleaf indicates the easily. arly, if plants like the soil type the)

requirements ol a number ol plants, and man hing a plant to its needs in a selected position greater success can be achieved. The ultimate size of a plant should be (onsidered in proportion to the b\

size ol the hei

b garden.

onsidered befon

starting to plant.

The type of garden

Number

The second major decision herb garden that is required.

When

of plants

a sp.ne has

been cleared, and the Selection ol plants has been made, a decision has to be taken as to whethet a short or

long-term

effect

is

required. In

general, ten plants per square metre one plant per square foot with the exception .

ol all

but the tiniest plants, will give inter-

est in

the

first

yeat

and subsequent

and

effei

years.

will

soil; simil-

I

in

When-

the

se<

the

ond herb

to

representative 01

collection

drawn

1

frequently sufficient to buy

each of perennials such as Rosemary, Mint. Tarragon. Lovage and Lemon Balm and propagate them to build up the necessary stock. Many herbs are stem rooters and soon form clusters of roots along their runners and stems, so that new plants can be obtained quite quickly by separating these from the parent plant. In this

wav

it

will take

two or three years

establish a reasonable stock of plants

to foi

an interesting herb garden. There is the that losses can be replaced, the general plan can be amended, and should any plant prove not to Incompatible with its position, no great loss

added advantage

the garden

Annuals like marigolds. Dill, Basil. Borage and Summer Savory need to be raised from seed each spring. Some will

it

to

be

a

medicinal,

Once

these

the plan

(

gained by haphazard planting; l<>i effect and foi usefulness herbs need to be considered with (are.

It is

plant

Is

an be acquired and an begin. There is nothing to be

up, the plants

planting

one

to

is

made and

decisions have been

achieved.

is

the sort ol

ol

scented plants.'

way, but often the most buy plants so that an immediate air of organization can be quickest

expensive,

is

be de< orative or utilitarian? Is

culinary

Stocking the garden

The

sustained.

seed themselves, but often

appeal

at

where general need

to

the-

seedlings

the other end of the garden, so effect

is

important they w

ill

be transplanted as soon as they

are sufficiently established to be able to

cope wnli

change. Biennials, such as foxgloves, Verbascum and Angelica do tin

1

19

CULTIVATION not flower until the second season after sowing, but once established they provide generations of seedlings.

Market

stalls

and garden centres are the and there are

best sources of herb plants, also a

Buy

number

of well-run herb nurseries.

and ensure that they are free from insect and fungus attack. They should be well grown and sufficiently hardened off, if bought during the early the best plants

A

well-grown plant

be shortjointed, of good texture and colour and spring.

will

ought not to be in flower. Buying from herb nurseries and farms may mean buying by mail order, but most establishments have their reputations at stake and

SMALL HERB GARDENS

are careful to dispatch clean stock. Doubt-

places.

ful

specimens ought always to be returned.

A stock of plants can also be made up of from other gardens each plant a reminder of a friendly visit. This exchange of plants is one of the most traditional ways of making a plant collecsnippets

and

gifts

tion of individualitv

and

interest.

Moist situations

Box (clipped)

Acorus Bergamot

Valerian

Sedum

Bistort

Sempervivum

Comfrey

Hyssop (clipped)

Thrift

Meadowsweet

Lavender (dwarf)

Thymes

Mints

Lungwort

Violet

Wall Germander

Veratrum Watercress Yellow Flag

(last

1

walls an d paving

Blessed Thistle

Pennyroyal

Borage

Pinks

Chervil

Chamomile

Sedums

Feverfew

Sempervivum Soapwort Thymes Wall Germander

Coriander Corn Salad

Alchemilla spp.

Catmint

Hyssop Lavender (dwarf) Pellitory

real

Thyme and Lemon

Thyme, Houseleeks, Chamomile, Chives. Dwarf Lavender and Feverfew are ideal for

trough or sink gardens. Containers in a

wide range of shapes and sizes are obtainable from garden centres; alternatively, very attractive herb gardens can be estab-

Larger plants like Lavender. Rosemary, Rue and Sage can easily be included in the scheme for containers, such as stone jars, any large pot or even an old bucket, by growing rooted cuttings and

Cumin

Florence Fennel Marigold Marjoram, sweet or knotted Nasturtium

pruning and cutting back. Many herbs can be kept in check simply by nipping off shoots as required for the kitchen. A good

Purslane Savory. Summer

to leave the

trick

is

Left

By

Poppy

Sunflower

Dill

them when they grow out

of proportion to the scheme or b\ judicious

year )

Anise in

adequate light, Small plants like

either replacing

Annuals Basil

Planting

sometimes, unlikelv requirements are and space for their roots.

The only

and birdbaths.

Sweet Cicely

Catmint Chives Feverfew

Parsiey

and,

such as wheelbarrows, drinking troughs

Front of the border. or edging plants

Marjoram, golden

confined

in

lished in all sorts of disused containers

Selection of herbs for the garden

Pinks Santolina (clipped)

The undemanding qualities of manv herbs make them ideal plants for growing

:

selecting plants appropriate to a

situation, a greater degree

of success can be

assured. Plants that normally soils, for

Flax

rooted cuttings in their

grow on

example, will thrive best

garden with sandy or well-drained

Hedges Box Hyssop

Biennials (last 2 years)

Lavender Rosa gallica

Alkanet Angelica

Caraway

Woad

Alexanders

(common) officina

lis

Rosemary Rue

Chalky soils Calamint Chicory Chives Hound's Tongue Juniper Lavender

Lemon Balm Lily-of-the-Valley

Marjoram Mignonette Mullein Periwinkle Pinks

Rosemary Sage Salad Burnet

Alecost Alkanet (evergreen) Arnica Artemisias

Bay Bergamot Bethlehem Sage Bistort

Chenopodium Chives Coltsfoot

Light soils

I

Below : Balance of design

Melilot

borders

Mullein

front of larger ones and restricting the

Parsley

numbers of plants.

Perennials (continue year after year)

Santolina

Lavender

Lemon Balm Liquorice

Lovage Lungwort Marjoram, pot

Marjoram (wild) Mignonette Mints Pinks

Rhubarb Rose Rosemary Rue Sage

Alkanet

Marjoram

Cowslip

Borage

Marjoram, pot

Broom

Melilot

Daphne Dyer's Madder

Bugle

Mugwort

Elder

Chervil

Elecampane

Chives

Rosemary Sage

Garlic

Savorys

Hound's Tongue Hyssop Lavender Lemon Balm Lemon Verbena

Southernwood

Fennel Gentian

Tarragon

20

English

Mace

soil.

Foxglove

Santolina Savory. Winter Sorrel

Sweet Cicely

Tarragon

Helichrysum

Thymes

Thymes

Jasmine

Wormwood

Wormwood

Juniper

Yarrow

is

in

light

in a

one-sided

achieved by keeping small plants in

SMALL HERB GARDENS and sink the whole pot below the soil and then as the plants grow both pot

pot.

level,

and plant can be replaced. A variety of containers can be maintained in this way.

Window-boxes This method of replenishing pots can also

adopted for window-boxes, though good effect and considerable success is

be

possible

the

when

soil in

plants are

the box.

grown

directly in

The boxes should be

10 to 12 about 25 to 30 centimetres inches deep and be filled with a moisture-

retaining potting compost, such as

John

Drainage is provided by a layer of rough material, such as broken brick rubble, clinker or gravel, being Innes Xo.

2.

spread over the entire base of the box. which is then covered with about two centimetres an inch of rough peat and then

with

the

potting

compost.

This

ensures that the roots of the plants have food, space

and drainage.

Dampen and

firm the compost before planting

and

in

the spring put in rooted cuttings or small

plants

which were cut back

autumn and have

in the

previous

started to break into

growth. Most plants can be connew growth constantly to encourage a bushy growth. The fresh

fined in size by nipping

plants selected should be the smaller ones

or smaller-growing cultivars varieties

Lavender mints.

Chives.

cultivated

thvmes. cuttings of Sage, and and Rosemary, the smaller

Parsley. Selfheal,

Tarragon.

Marjoram.

scented-leaved geran-

iums. Dill and Mignonette are

all

well

suited to box cultivation.

Patios and balconies

Above: Low-growing herbs or rooted

patio and roof any other plants, depends upon the proper selection of container and of plant material which must be suited to the size and position of the area. A simple effect is always more successful than an elaborate one. Troughs

Success with herbs gardening, as with

along

base

the

of

in

patio

screens

are

and the plants benefit from some shelter, but adequate light must be ensured. Boxes or troughs which are raised

effective

or attached to balustrades or walls with firm brackets

and hooks are probably the

most successful. Hanging baskets, cither of the conventional bowl-shaped kind used for

summer

display or country baskets,

and garden

trays lined with grey or black

plastic

prevent

to

leaking,

can

maki

delightful tiny herb gardens to decorate

balconies and rooi (gardens. The) require regular attention and occasional replen-

ishment with new effei

plants to maintain the

1

B,i\

is

one

oi

the most popular choices

cuttings

of larger ones can be assembled in an Here Angelica, Chives,

attractive container.

Sage and other culinary herbs have been tucked into a decorative bowl, which

is

small

enough

to

be carried from one part of the

garden

to

another.

for patios

and balconies and

clipped to a formal shape.

it

It

is

usually

is

best to

purchase these already trained, and with care they can be expected to last several years. Cold winds are the chief enemy of these potted trees and they appreciate being taken into a porch or light hallway, or even a conservatory during the winter. in all I

but the mildest

districts.

he golden rule for container-grown

plants is to try to keep the compost evenly clamp, not overwatered - which leads to sourness - and not parched. As most small

herb gardens are grown for summer effect and usefulness, watering will be the major task, for it is during the summer months that (Ik \ require the most water. 12

1

CULTIVATION A

Right :

Herbs

for

troughs and containers

small culinary border can be

contained in a run of j or 4 metres (about

Borage Catmint

half repeated, where a longer

Coltsfoot

There

10

Chamomile

to 1

5 feet)

is

,

the design being repeated, or

nothing

to

site is available.

be gained by

making

border deeper, as culinary herbs need

to

the

be

Chives readily accessible.

Clary

Lemon Balm

In the house

Lily-of-the-Valley

Lungwort

Rooted

Mint (round-leaved kinds) Pulmonaria

decorative

Rosemary (rooted cuttings) Sage (rooted cuttings)

vation.

window-boxes

pots

and

Alternatively,

as

for

window-

Fennel 1 2 Rosemary 3 French Tarragon 4 Angelica 5 Sage 6 Golden Marjoram 7 Lemon Balm

8 Sorrel 9 Mint

10 Thyme Savory 12 Chives 13 Parsley 1

pots.

Basil

Seed can be sown early

Black Horehound

Broom

in

containers

boxes or patio troughs, many plants can be cut back and once the fresh growth starts and the plant has recovered, they can be transferred to indoor cultivation in

Violet

for

grown

provide the best method of starting plants for indoor culti-

Thymes

Herbs

cuttings

in the

year for

and Clary, while nasturtiums and marigolds can be sown in either spring or autumn. Plants of the Parsley, Cress, Purslane

(seedlings)

Chives Corn Salad Catmint (small divisions)

can be purchased from garden centres and maintained as room plants provided that they are judiciously pruned from time to time. A large bowl decorated with several small pots of herbs sunk among pebbles, or covered with peat, makes a most attractive, aromatic bedside garden for an right size

Clary

Geranium (scented-leaved) Hyssop Lemon Balm Marjoram Mignonette Nasturtium Parsley

invalid.

Rosemary (rooted cuttings) Rue (rooted cuttings) Sage (rooted cuttings)

When grown

in the kitchen, plants

such

are

grown

for culinary use, they are best

treated like the remainder of the kitchen

garden, and planted in rows. easier to

It is

then

run the hoe along to keep the bay and to harvest the crop as

weeds at and when required.

LARGE HERB GARDENS The name

'herb garden' conjures up a

tranquil plot sheltered from troublesome

winds, bathed in sunlight and fragrant

with delicious scents. All the denizens are humble plants of ancient cultivation,

which have no need of flamboyant flowers

Savory Tarragon

Mint, if cut back and potted up to confine their roots, will provide a long succession of fresh shoots for the cook.

Violet

Good

some knowledge of

as

light

is

essential

and watering must

never be neglected.

Herbs to plant

in a

garden

for the

blind

Scented and textured leaves Alecost Angelica

Bergamot Chamomile Feverfew

Lavender

Lemon Balm Lily-of-the-Valley

Meadowsweet

(for treading)

Rosemary Rue Sage Southernwood Sweet Cicely Tansy

Thymes

(for treading)

Wormwood

122

it

is

When

plan-

necessary to have

the plants themselves requirements and their effect when fully grown. A herb garden can be formal or informal, there are no salient requirements, but one of formal design has an added atmosphere of authenticity because the herb gardens of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were formal plots - usually

kitchens,

Whatever the details of the design, some form of shelter is needed to enclose the garden; this can be a hedge of Broom. Rosemary or roses, or a dry wall, with Lavender, Hyssop, or Artemisias growing

square. (for treading)

Geraniums (scented-leaved) Hyssop

Mignonette Mints Pennyroyal

difficult to generalize in

ning a herb garden their

about plants however, because atmospheric conditions vary so widely from one kitchen to the next. As the plants cannot be expected to thrive simply because they are indoors, the right conditions have to be provided for them. It is

grown

to advertise their presence.

Small herb borders

A

square metre (about 10 square

feet)

of

suitable soil can be transformed into a tiny herb plot, but, again, proportion

is

most important. Small plants grouped together will flourish provided they are not in a draughty passage way or in a shaded corner under dripping trees. A plot so small would usually be used to provide fresh culinary herbs and could well support as much as two clumps of Chives, two plants of Thyme, two of Marjoram, one of Winter Savory, a patch of Mint with its roots confined in an old, deep biscuit tin to prevent it from becoming invasive, one plant of Tarragon and at the back a small Sage bush. Where small herb borders are virtually part of the vegetable garden and the herbs

along the top. Best of all, but seen all too infrequently is a walled garden, where Clematis, honeysuckles. Jasmine and other sweet-scented plants can scramble up the walls. The accompanying plans suggest a roses,

simple treatment

to

achieve formality.

Restraint in planting few kinds of plants rather than an extensive range will ultimately give the best result. Further, careful thought needs to be given to the central feature of a formal garden - proportion obviously being the main consideration for this is what gives each herb garden its individual character. Choose a container-

KNOT GARDENS for a cook's

Herbs

choose a tree such as Hamamelis, Sambucus or Prunus for the central feature, or make an arbour which can be covered in

garden

Alecost Angelica

Garlic

Basil

Lovage

Bay

Marigold

Bistort

Borage

Marjoram Mint

Caraway

Nettle

Elizabethan knot gardens The Oxford English Dictionary

Chervil

Oregano

knot garden as

Chicory Chives Coriander Corn Salad

Parsley

Rosemary Sage

Cumin

Savory

Jasmine, hops, Ivy and "roses. If authenticity is desired, a knot garden should form the central attraction.

Lemon Balm

defines

flower bed laid out in an - the term was first used in 1494. Designs can be complicated or relatively simple. They are usually symmetrical, and as they are intended to be looked down upon, they should be formed of low-growing plants like thymes, pinks, violets, chives, savories, marigolds, mar'a

intricate design'

Purslane

Dill

Shallot

Fennel French Sorrel

Tarragon

Thyme

jorams,

Lungwort and Feverfew. The

design of each bed needs to be outlined

grown Rosemary to

be brought

or

Bay which

will

need

into a frost-free place in

with Box, Santolina, Feverfew or Dwarf Lavender planted closely to form a firm

Box

severe weather) or a sundial, birdbath.

line.

fountain, beehive or statuette surrounded

choices because they are both evergreen

Rue -

by Lavender or Rosemary or

as

evergreen they will give an air of permanence. In a larger garden. these are

all

Below : This plan, for a garden,

is

culinary herb

based upon the central part of the

plan for a large herb garden which on page

i

ij.

The

is

shown

central feature can be a

sundial or bird bath, for example.

Bed D 1

Thymes

Bed in

variety

2

Pot Marjoram

3 Sage 4 Eau de

Cologne Mint 5 6 7 8 9

Bed

Angelica Chives

Sweet Cicely Tarragon Parsley E

10 Thymes 1 1

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

in

23 24 25 26 27 28 29

designs can be copied, or individual schemes may be composed, but it is best to keep designs simple. The design should be drawn on to squared paper, scaled and then drawn out on to the ground. An original design can be executed

simpler central

alternating squares like a chess board. All

paved and each one of the 'white' squares is filled with one kind of plant - so there might be the 'black' squares are

Marjoram

in one,

Mint

in another,

Parsley in a third. Repetition

is

and

attractive

form of garden, but the taller plants such as Fennel and Angelica ought to be avoided. An even simpler central bed can be

in this

made on

the cartwheel design,

where the

rim and spokes of the wheel are picked

Lemon Balm Lovage Apple Mint

Poppy Basil

Bed G 30 Thymes 32 33 34 35 36

Cumin

Parsley

Winter Savory Apple Mint

and can be clipped. The site on which the knot garden is to be made must be level. Traditional

much

formed on the traditional chequer board design, where a central paved area is broken up into a series of

Chives

Purple Sage

Basil

favourite

variety of very

features can be

Purslane

Parsley

Fennel

are

Central beds

A

F

31

Spearmint

Santolina

then diagonally from the centre. On the paper doily principle, a pattern can be made by cutting away pieces. Once the design has been transferred to the ground and the outlines of the beds formed by planting Box or whatever has been chosen, the 'colouring' can begin, and the final effect planned. Two or three years are needed for the knot to become effective and, apart from clipping and replacement planting, or attention to annuals, the upkeep is not arduous.

19 Thymes in variety 20 Golden Marjoram 21 Summer Savory 22 Parsley

variety

Lemon Balm

or

quickly from a square piece of graph paper, folded first into two, then into four,

in variety

Corn Salad Pot Marigold

Rosemary Narrow-leaved

Sage 37 Sorrel 38 Sweet Cicely 39 Bowles' Mint

Bed H 40 Pennyroyal 41

Thrift

123

CULTIVATION A

/,
wide variety of design of knot

gardens can be achieved, but the basic concept must be one of geometric symmetry.

In their Elizabethan heyday the patterns had

names such as

delightful

cink-foil, trefoyle,

crossbow and flower-de-luce, and were often formed

of intricately twisted designs.

Today simpler patterns

are preferred, but the

use of compact plants

achieve the general

effect

to

cannot be over-emphasized.

must be chosen and

A

level site

the smaller the area the

simpler the design must be.

Some

spaces can

be filed with shells or coloured pebbles to

provide a permanent foil for a range of plants,

Crossbow ; 2

i

fine knot ; 4

New

New

knot ;

3

Curious

knot for a perfect garden;

j Flower-de-luce ; 6 Trefoyle ; 7 Flower of Deluce ; 8 Good pattern for a Quarter of herbs. out in clipped Box or Santolina or per-

GXmm mmw.

haps even Golden Marjoram and each space is filled with a different herb. Again, the taller growing kinds should be avoided as this destroys the design. For the best results, select plants

of different colours.

Informal herb gardens not imperative to have a geometricplanned garden and where the right environment is available an informal herb garden can be very attractive. Visually such a garden is more successful if the L'mbelliferae tribe are excluded because they become untidy and many of them

It

is

ally

seed themselves very easily.

bank may be transformed by working on two levels, or a sheltered

An

existing

corner

with a roughly triangular

filled in

is a winding grass two borders of mixed planting. 'See page 126. The only essen-

Most

bed.

path

am'

successful

between

tial

feature in the choice of site

not

overhung bv

and drip from the

trees,

is

that

it is

because both shade

trees discnuratjrs rjn

>\\

1

h.

Growing herbs commercially Before

starting

commercial

to

gjrow

herbs on any

scale several lactors

need

to

be considered. Apart from enthusiasm, capital

and

a suitable

site,

thought must

be given to labour, selection of crops, and the market

plants or

-

whether

embark upon

and. above

all,

to

market

fresh

large-scale drying,

to the relationship

between

acreage, yield and profit. Undoubtedly,

markets are the most important single crop has

factor, for the destination of the

be assured, and the choice of crops is in turn dependent upon the market demand. to

bunches of herbs going to market is the whole harvest destined a distillery? Are herbs to be disposed of

Are

fresh

regularly, or for

fresh or dried, retail or wholesale?

long will 124

it

How

take to establish a paying crop

?

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION

of fresh material should yield 450 grams lb of the dried herb, and the harvest

Some experience of herb growing is necessary because the bulk of the harvest could easily be lost - a

of fresh material will vary with crop,

good case

Three and a half kilograms eight 1

lbs

1

and

season

situation.

Prevailing

soil,

local

ditions vary widely.

growing several different

for

Above:

A

reconstruction

of a renaissance-

style knot garden at Villandry, France.

Clipped Box forms some oj outlines others.

the

shapes and

Such patterns are the basis oj

sorts of plant.

modern knot gardens and are often symbolic.

PROPAGATION AND GARDEN MAINTENANCE

typical

There are several ways

plant.

conditions differ, but reasonable averages to

expect are up to 500 kilograms per half (half a ton per acre) of say,

hectare

Angelica or Caraway Seed and three to four tonnes per half hectare or acre of fresh Mint. Lavender bushes in their prime would probably yield a tonne of

should be clean plants.

all

known

cuttings, layers or divisions

plants.

visor\

used

con-

method of producing new

is

ensure health of the

Starting with seed

Many

Whichever method of propagation it

to

as vegetative propagation, or b\

Advice should be sought from appropriate government departments and adprevailing local

a supply

namely from

seed, the sexual

as

which

stock and to select only and not deformed parts of the Knives, pots, boxes and compost

pest-free

of plants can be maintained or increased,

flower-heads.

services

in

and

is

essential to use onl\ diseasc-lree

herbs can be grown from seed.

Some produce

their

own seeds quite easilv.

while others need to have special climatic

125

CULTIVATION and some

conditions,

with

readily

progeny

their

not

is

will

hybridize so that

relatives

necessarily

good.

the

The

annuals and biennials, or plants cultivated as such, have to be raised from seed, and the time of sowing depends upon the hardiness or frost-sensitivity of each kind of plant. Once the ground has warmed up in spring, seed-sowing can generally begin

An

can be made where greenhouse or frame protection is available, and seeds can be sown in pots, boxes or flats, pricked off, hardened off and later planted out. This earlier sowing out-of-doors.

earlier start

does not bring forward the harvest appreciably,

but the method can prove con-

venient in a late spring for such plants as

where the ground has not been prepared for seed sowing or if it is one in which a good tilth the texture of cultivated surface soil) cannot be achieved. Notable exceptions to spring sowing are Basil, or

Cowslip, Chervil,

Woad, and Angelica.

These seeds need to be sown as soon as ripe to produce a crop of fresh young leaves in late spring. Obviously where winter conditions are unfavourable to

5m

seedlings, as in mid-continental gardens,

cannot be followed. Selfhowever, will sometimes germinate quite quickly with the melting snow. General rules for seed sowing include covering the seed lightly with soil, and sowing thinly cither in rows or broadcast scattered In either instance. the resultant seedlings will need to be thinned out to allow adequate growing this

practice

sown

seeds,

.

space.

Parsley

seed

is

notoriously

slow

to

germinate, but watering the seed drill with boiling water immediately before

sowing seems

to

encourage germination.

Vegetative propagation Perennial plants with good clump-forming or shrubby habit can be propagated by cuttings or division or both. made of hard or soft wood, according to the type of plant, or can be stem cuttings, root cuttings or leaf cuttings. In each case an entirely new plant is formed and each new plant will resemble the parent plant in every way. Broadly speaking, cuttings of such evergreens as Lavender, Rosemary, Santolina and Rue can be taken in spring and struck in a frame, or. if made with a heel of old wood, in open ground in July. (This requires tearing the cutting away, bringing with it a small slip of old wood from the base. Cuttings are always best made from non-flowering shoots with the base leaves removed. Trim the stem cleanly below a node ^the point at which a leaf stalk joins

either

Cuttings can be

126

Plan for a decorative herb garden

Number

Key 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Eucalyptus gunnii Lavender. Mitcham Foxglove

of Plants

Catmint Chives

6-1 2

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

6

21

Brooms

1

7

12

Rosemary

3

Alchemilla

5

Bergamot

3

Lavender. Dwarf Munstead Mint, Bowles'

6

Rosa gallica officinalis 10 Artemisias 11 Eau de Cologne Mint 12 Golden Thyme

Number

Key

of Plants

Golden Marjoram Costmary Pinks

Marigold Papaver somniferum Foxglove

6

12 8 6

25 18 8

12 2

6

15 24

The chart on pages 1 32-1 39 gives information on each plant

further

PROPAGATION Left: Plan for an informal decorative herb garden for early to midsummer. The planting

scheme for the border can be repeated if a greater length is required. Unity of design

is

achieved by repetition, rather than by introducing a number of new ideas.

Right : The simplest way perennial plant

is to

to

increase any

divide the whole

crown

autumn. Thus two or more

in spring or

pieces, complete with roots, are obtained

(see far right)

from

one plant.

Each piece

can be set out separately and will eventually

form a new

plant.

the stem), dip the tip of the cutting into

rooting

powder and plant firmly

in

a

cutting compost or a sharp sandy compost. Where space is limited and pots not available, the base of several cuttings can be packed around with dampened sphagnum moss and firmly folded into a polythene strip, rolled up and held firmly in place by a rubber band or string until the roots have formed. Increasing stock by cuttings is the only way to perpetuate a specially good form

proprietary

of a plant or a variegation of leaf or

some

other desirable characteristic of growth. It

is

by cuttings that the non-flowering

forms of those plants

like

Box, Santolina

and Bay which are clipped, resulting

in a

certain lack of flowering, can be increased.

The

clippings

themselves usually

make

adequate cuttings.

perfectly

Perennials like Mint and Tansy which

form good root-stocks can be divided or even torn apart. Each runner with a shoot on it forms an 'Irishman's cutting' and behaves as a rooted cutting.

Division Division of clumps

is

a

little

more demand-

and is best carried out when the plant is dormant. Divisions can be made of perennials, and plants that have become thin in the centre of the clump, or too large and bulky. The whole crown of the plant is lifted from the soil, and divided by two forks plunged amid the growth back to back and pulled apart to break up the clump each of the resultant pieces will eventually bear roots and some growth buds. Replant the pieces in fresh ing

ground, ensuring that the depth of planting

is

at least as

crown was planting

is

deep

lifted

for

was before the division. Firm re-

as

it

vital.

Layers are used as a method of propagation for such plants as Sage in the herb garden, when an old and bare branch is

pegged down roots will form at a point in COntad with the soil. This shoot can be severed and forms an entirely new

plant with the same characteristics as the

parent plant.

Some

plants layer naturally,

Strawberry and the Raspberry. (The Raspberry is said to form 'tip roots' and the Strawberry layers are called like the

runners.)

ing to the habitat available

and

their idio-

syncrasies catered for. Basil, for

example,

likes to be watered at midday, not in the evening as most plants prefer; Parsley, apart from demanding great patience from the gardener, prefers a humid soil to a dry one otherwise it w ill soon run away to seed, and Marjoram likes to be left alone during its long seedling stage. Some perennials dislike winter dampness and low temperatures. It is not the freezing temperatures themselves that are responsible for winter damage, but the fluctuations in temperature and the early morning sunshine on frozen plants. A mulch of dry peat, leaf mould, sawdust or r

Management The to

of the herb garden

general rules of garden upkeep apply

herb gardens although

many

herbs are

and remarkably tolerant. Weeds need to be kept down, of course, and old flowering shoots and dead constitution

of strong

or diseased material removed.

The

latter

must be burned and not incorporated into the compost heap as many disease spores survive, or even flourish, in the warmth generated by decaying materials. Herbs do not require a rich soil, so there is no need to apply fertilizers. Generally known as the plants a

fillip

Artemisia

and generally encourage

Bay Box Geranium

'artificials',

The

essential oils of

herbs represent their ultimate value, and is known about the shortterm effect of chemical fertilizers on the composition of the plants themselves. Herbs, in any case, often produce larger quantities of oil when grown in poor soils. Garden compost, a so-called organic

insufficient

added

to the soil

and forked

into

the surface is far more suitable to herbs and will generally improve the quality and texture of the soil. Herb lawns such as non-flowering Chamomile and prostrate

Pennyroyal benefit, however, from a

summer

Cuttings

these give

a spurt of growth.

material,

Propagation requ rements of selected herbs

late-

(scented-leaved)

Rosemary Rue Sage Santolina Savory, Winter

Hyssop

Thyme

Lavender Mint

Verbena.

Lemon

Divisions

Alchemilla

Bergamot Catmint Chives

Lungwort Marjoram Mint

Elecampane

Periwinkle Sweet Cicely

Iris

Tarragon

Lemon Balm

Thyme

Lovage

application of fine peat.

Many minor

problems in the management of herb gardens can be eliminated by

Seed Angelica

Lemon Balm

Basil

Borage

Marigold Marjoram, sweet

individual requirements such as watering,

Caraway

Parsley

protection from wind, and companion-

Chervil

Parsley.

Clary

Purslane Savory, Summer

growing plants compatible with prevailing conditions and noting the plants'

few plants like to grow in solitary confinement. Many theories have been

ship

promulgated for plant associations, but recent experiments have shown that some have little or no scientific justification. Plants respond best when selected accord-

Corn Salad

Hamburg

Dill

Sorrel

Fennel

Verbascum

Foxglove White Horehound

Woad

[27

CULTIVATION a polythene cover will protect

any

sus-

ceptible plants in cold weather.

Pests and diseases Garden pests, such as greenfly and blackexample, are particularly troublesome on Valerian and Nasturtium and may be cleared by spraying with a pyrethrum or quassia decoction or with soap solution. These sprays, particularly quassia, can also be used against caterfly for

and leaf-hopper.

pillars

Diseases need to be considered a

more

little

carefully, for their long-term effect

is always more serious. Rusts affect mints and violets and the most effective treatment once the disease has got a hold is to

wood shavings among the autumn and set light to them.

Various leaf spots attack Parsley, pinks, Lavender, Peony and Raspberry. The affected part should be cut away and burned, or if it is summer the plants can be sprayed at three-weekly intervals with

Bordeaux mixture.

rietary fungicides are available in spray

form but to

to

for

immediate use and are

many growers

anything that use them.

effective,

of herbs, being opposed

is

not natural, prefer not

:

Aphids

or greenfly

and

blackfly

feed on a wide variety of plant by sucking the sap

and

thus causing deformity to the

whole plant. These

insects thrive in

warm

weather. (See the table on page 103 J or

how

information on

to

soil,

preferably a

right

:

There

is

each selects a single type of host plant. This

shows

the effect

of rose

euchronatumj

;

rust

the rust

violets will be either

(Thragmidium which attacks

Puccinia

Puccinia aegra, while that will be Puccinia menthae.

violi or

selecting mint

and

land

habitats

flourished.

plants, especially those of limited toler-

trouble.

ance

environmental

factors, have been number. The opening up of the landscape in this way and the building of motorways, however, has created new habitats, sometimes relatively temporary ones, where the more ubiquitous plants have colonized. Herbicides, known and used since the to

restricted in

a good crop of leaves is assured. Lavender, especially, tends to become leggy after a few years so a supply of rooted cuttings should always be ready to fill in the gaps left when old plants are removed. When Sage has become straggly and bare of growth at the base of the bush, soil can

that

of the plant.

mound around the base The bare growth should be

buried and the

tips

of

growth

left

truding. These will soon form roots

pro-

and

can be severed to be used as fresh plants, eventually replacing the mother plant.

control insect attack.)

a range oj rusts and

World War

of mechanized

revolution

the

one, the fungus can be discouraged. Soil treatment with a weak formalin solution (one part formalin to 50 parts water used at the rate of 2.25 litres to 930 square centimetres or half a gallon to a square foot) will usually clear up the lime-free

COLLECTING FROM THE WILD Below

II

in which useful plants Hedges have been removed in England on a vast scale to allow for a longer, and therefore more economical, field run, taking with them the shelter, shade, drainage and microclimates of field verges and hedge bottoms. Many

the mint beds to fresh

be built up into a

Below

transport and industry. Since

troyed innumerable hedgerow and wood-

Renovation

burned off and the

the last 130 years with the development of

by moving

Short-lived plants are best replaced so

affected shoots are

North America has under-

Occasionally a root rot such as black root rot can attack mints, but

plants in

The

gone

parts of

drastic changes, particularly during

chemical agricultural practice has des-

scatter straw or

spring growth should be rust-free. Prop-

many

now

from once was. Perhaps only 150 years ago the \greenman' roamed the countryside gathering herbs to sell, upon which country people depended for It

is

not

as easy to collect herbs

their wild state as

it

any and every ailment. The endemic flora of Europe generally, as well as that ol

years of this century,

early

employed mainly

for

have been

weed control

since

about 1946 when synthetic plant regulator factors such as MCPA and 2.4-D were introduced. The results appear to show that whereas monocarpic annual species of plants which die after flowersuch as annual grasses and sedges, ing have been severely reduced in number. the perennials remain and the dicotyledonous annuals have even increased in distribution. This is perhaps most notice.

Tat Hen

able in Chenopodium album

and

Goosefoot

Stellaria

media

or

Stitch-

wort). In short, susceptible species have

reduced

been

immune

and the distribution of

species has.

if

anything, notice-

ably increased. The devastation of any habitat affects plants directly, but the insect bird

life it

life

and

the

supports are affected indirectly.

Food chains are then radically altered, bringing about a change in balance of the entire habitat. Pollution of sites in con-

widespread devastation, especially

trast to

water pollution, tends to affect animal

more

easily

than plant

effluents, detergents

example, take their

life

but sewage

life,

and sheep dips, for toll more slowly on

aquatic plant life. Industrial effluents, including highly toxic by-products, are habitually disposed of into rivers,

fre-

quently changing not only the chemical content of the water, but the temperature of the whole watercourse. Excessive water pollution problems

many

exist in

now

far

parts of the world and are beyond redemption. The water of

some of the Swiss

128

lakes will hardly support

The Great Lakes

life at

all.

where

nitrates drained from

of America, farmland are

$

;

POLLUTION Right: At Cranborne Manor. Dorset, a small collection of thymes has been made and on the old fashioned chequerboard

set out

design.

Each space

thyme. This

with a different

is filled

herb garden provides a

little

riverside retreat complete in itself,

simplest form

and

is the

of herb plot.

overabundant, have the same problem. Some plants have their own solutions to adverse conditions. The perennials often resort to vegetative survival, and others

have built up a tolerance. At

first

perhaps

only a tiny percentage ol seedlings was able to survive, but over several generations a resistant strain

built up.

is

Other plants, however, pilv where toxic amounts metals

present

are

live

quite hap-

of.

say. salt or

the

in

mine workings, where ore

is

Old

soil.

sometimes

exposed, support a number of colonized plants. The plantains and grasses colonize

newly disturbed subsoils in this way most noticeably. For centuries man has carved his way over the surface of the earth and nature has always obliterated his traces if left unchecked. But the present level ol

destruction

now

exceeds man's early vital role of

far

activities

and ignores the

plants in

the great circle of

life.

Their

photosynthetic powers are life-giving processes and not infrequently when surface plants have been removed, inland lak<

made

are

It

landscape.

to 'replace' the

was man, therefore,

excursions

in

his

countryside

the

into

early

which

began from the industrial towns of the

declining

nineteenth century

particularly in west-

prohibits the uprooting of any wild plant.

who

started the wholesale

be uprooted or collected only by the owner of the land or anyone acting with his permission. This is of immense

ern Europe

ravaging of plant

life.

Collection of prim-

and cowslips

roses, bluebells

initially pro-

Plants

plant

species

importance

subsequently

roads

needed

for

larger, to the clearing of the

Violet,

Valerian,

grew ever road verges themselves, therefore continuing the deas

nudation. The verges were originally cleared by scythe, which took only enough for

good hay and encouraged the regener-

ation of the grass.

The

scythe has now

been replaced by expensive sprays which not only clear the verges but destroy plant

Man in his disregard of nature has brought about a very serious state of

life.

affairs, not

only

in

plant

life

but in

many

but

may

vided relaxation, but this led to the clearing of tracks to make roadways which led,

Britain,

in

random

no longer can of any plant such as Comfrey,

its

roots

made

Bistort.

Rampion

or

Collecting leaves, seeds or flowers from

makes

several

demands on

the

herb collector. Apart from the general rules for harvesting, the plant

must

first

be identified correctly, and then only harvested from localities in which it is relatively abundant. Cleanliness is difficult to ensure grit may be removed by washing, though this defeats the objective

when

natural resources.

of trying to harvest

Conservation, restoration and reconstruction of natural sites, however, have begun. The iq68 Clean Air Act has been

dry. But toxic sprays, atmospheric pollu-

responsible for reducing the

smoke haze

England which reduced the

rate of photo-

synthesis in plants.

The Conservation of

Wild Creatures and Wild Plants A( 1975

riot

only

in

provides

protection

I

oi

for

tion

from

heat.

artificial

Both the gathering and are

frequently

made

simply by the humidity.

prevailing

lower

drying

processes

easier

to herbalists, for

collection be

Dandelion. the wild

dried out-of-doors without any form of

the plants are

by traffic and aeroplanes, and drift chemical crop dressings are all

potential dangers.

Wild plant collecting is easier in most Europe than in England simply

parts of

because of -the greater distribution of plants. The plants can VCT) often be

HARVESTING AND DRYING The

exercised in cultivation can be forfeited by incorrect harvesting or inadequate drying. When the part of the plant used is the root, harvesting is carried out at the end of the growing

care

easily

season,

the

mature and

autumn, when the root is

storing as

much

is

food as

possible. Seeds, too, are harvested

when

end of the season. Knowing the moment to harvest the leaves - or in some instances the entire herb itself is an ability that comes only with experience. The general rule is to take leaves from the plant just before the flowers are fully open ripe at the

this

is

the time

when

the active principles

of the plant are of the best quality.

timing can be

critical

The

and care must be

exercised to take only the part of the plant

required and not so much of it as to impair the metabolism of the whole plant. Take only from clean and representative plants

[29

CULTIVATION Left

:

Herbs may be dried by hanging them

in loose bundles

Storing Label each

along a line in a shaded,

five days.

Material

when it snaps thumb and finger.

between the

easily

dry

is

Fresh material should not be introduced into the chamber before the drying process is complete.

Drying in bulk The same rules apply where herbs grown

in

where an equable temperature of 32' to 34°C (90 to 95°Fj can be maintained together with some form of ventilation to

and gather on a dry day when the dew has

Keep one kind

of plant material

separate from another and label

amounts

pick

mediately, for

it.

Lastly,

that can be handled imif they

are

left for

an hour or

two, they will deteriorate with the result-

ant

loss in

value.

Domestic drying Few households can

keep the air circulating. The objective should be to remove the moisture-laden air while maintaining the temperature so that the herbs can be dried evenly and quickly. As the moisture from the atmosphere may be reabsorbed if the temperature falls (or if fresh material is added .

frames. These allow the air to

and can

easily

be stacked if battens are

drawn

large quantities of plant material, racks

against direct sunlight and a continual

can be constructed, so that the trays can be stacked. The dried material obtained will be about one-eighth of the weight of the harvested herb.

temperature of 25°C to 34°C (75 to 95°F) can be achieved, perhaps by using an electric convector heater. Attics under a warm roof, airing cupboards, warming drawers of domestic cookers, or even a warm conservatory or garden shed (if it can be shaded) all provide conditions suitable for drying herbs. Ideally, spread

provided

with

legs

or

if

there are

Rubbing down Once down

and windows left open is ideal. Small amounts can be dealt with satisfactorily by picking the leaves from the stalks, and crushing the leaves with a

is to dry change the condition of the leaves rather than the chemical content. The temperature in the drying chamber should be 32 to 34°C (90 to

them

briskly to

95°F) before the plant material is introduced, and this needs to be maintained for the first 24 hours of drying. Subsequently the temperature may be reduced to 25 to 8o°F) to complete the process, which should take from three to 2 7°C

130

(75°

to

size

compare it with its various relatives. There are large herbaria at the Natural History Museum, London, and at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, and at the Linnean Society, London, which houses the herbarium assembled by Linnaeus. His widow sold it to Dr (later Sir) James E. Smith, a founder of the Linnean Society of London. The collec-

trying to do

it

There

is

no point

out-of-doors, for if there

in

be

lost.

A

kitchen or out-house with

rolling-pin or in a coffee-mill.

should be discarded. riddle

the

at

London,

is

The Kew Herbarium was founded by Sir William Hooker and considerably enlarged by the work of his

Joseph Hooker, and is rich in A large herbarium at Le Jardin des Plantes in Paris is based upon the collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrieu and of Auguste de St Hilaire. There are other important collections in Europe in Vienna, Leiden, Uppsala, Copenhagen and Florence. In the United States of America the chief son,

Sir

colonial flora.

is

A

fine

Harvard University, at the New York

at

A

personal herbarium

Plant specimens can be assembled as a satisfying

hobby, or

an extension

as

to

one's interest in herbs. Essential equip-

stalks

ment includes: a notebook and pencil, a hand lens which magnifies up to 10 times, an Ordnance Survey Map and either an

sieve or

old-fashioned vasculum or a series ol large

The

mesh

are

is

the slightest breeze most of the material will

tion

collections

the door

is

museums of any have extensive classified collections. There is an obvious advantage in being able to consult a specimen at any time of the year, and perhaps at the same time to dens and natural history

formed by Asa Gray, and Botanic Garden.

frequently.

plants

herbarium or hortus siccus is a collection of plants dried and preserved for use in plant identification. Most botanic gar-

process should be carried out in a

well-ventilated place.

The moisture content of most more than 70 per cent. The aim

bags are

A

the dry herbs are cool the rubbing

and leaves in a single layer in flat boxes or lids, or on trays or sheets of wrapping paper or newspaper, and during the first day or two turn over the material the shoots

Plastic

light.

collections.

in

circulate

the curtains can be

the

to

obviously unsuitable.

wooden

be brought

room

if

exposed

Natural History Museum, based upon eighteenth- and nineteenth-century collections, including those of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Joseph Banks, and also houses several modern

to

wedged between them. Where

ideal

herb and store separ-

should be placed high up. Plant material for drying in bulk is best handled on trays constructed of plastic mesh, nylon net or hessian stretched over

any new material that has

provide a special room suitable for drying herbs, but a spare is

in

THE HERBARIUM are

bulk for drying, but the provision of suitable drying conditions is more difficult. Enough space has to be provided to deal with the amount of material likely to be ready to handle at any one time. Some form of wooden shed can be used

gone.

sort of

an

airtight container so that moisture cannot be reabsorbed. Wooden boxes or screw-top jars of darkened glass provide the best containers, because the essential oils in herbs will deteriorate if

ately

draught-free place.

useful for the final refinements,

plastic

bags

especially for culinary herbs.

portable

Treat only one kind of material at a time and wash the utensils each time before dealing with another plant, or else the aroma and flavour will be adulterated and your effort wasted.

number

with

flower

wire fasteners,

press

to

give

the

addition to the place

a a

The map

of

of tie-on labels.

considerable importance for practice

or

together with

grid

it is

is

accepted

reference in

name when recording made on

the locality for a plant. Notes are

.

DRYING HERBS

•

A

Above:

hortus siccus

or collection

pressed plants mounted onto paper

-

of

known

is

as a herbarium. Pressed specimens of various

mounted together for

trefoils are

comparison (left)

.

Space

is

included for

information on name, date found and location.

the labels as to location, variation in plant

after insertion,

open up the press and

re-

A

modern herbarium

sheet

(

right)

Arrangement of the herbarium

arrange the more tractable material such

The

no confusion will arise by the time the specimen reaches the flower press. A portable, or even temporary,

as the petals.

plant press used out-of-doors ensures that

for

the plants are pressed absolutely fresh.

the process

paper or card folders, and when a has been collected they should be kept in a cupboard or metal cabinet where dust can be excluded and room temperature maintained. Some

features

and any other point of

special

interest, so that

The time paper

will

herbs take to dry varies.

need

to

The

be changed especially

succulent specimens, and sometimes

be purchased from

may be hurried by keeping the an airing cupboard or even in the sunshine. The paper may have to be changed at intervals of 6 to 12 hours, and

equipment

the pressure increased relative to the dry-

presses in

A

plant press

Special firms

presses can

supplying

naturalists'

and from some department

home-made

stores,

but

presses are equally effective

and can be made to any size. Sheets of absorbent drying paper are piled together with

wooden boards

or metal sheets at the

top and bottom. These can be strapped or

clamped together

to

hold the papers and

plants firmly in position during the drying process.

brushed

The

material to be pressed

and

is first

examined, identified and then arranged on a sheet of paper in such a way as to display its form as clearly as possible. Leaves and flowers need to be carefully flattened - a small paintbrush is useful for this. Take a second sheet of paper and hold down one edge firmly on top of the sheet with the plant. Slowly roll the top sheet down, taking care clean

closely

not to disturb the specimens.

A

few hours

ness of the specimen.

when feel

the specimen

cold

when

sheets are usually assembled loosely

in large

is

Drying is complete crisp and does not

held to the cheek.

It

should

number

large

of classification authoritative system should be followed, such as the Bentham and Hooker which is still standard in many herbaria. Scatter moth balls with the collection to

ward

off insect attack.

Overleaf: The following table will enable you

then be mounted on sheets of good cartridge paper, about 43 cm by 28 cm (17 in by 11 in), with all the relevant inform-

to select the

ation added.

It is good practice to write on a label which is stuck to the lower right-hand corner of the paper. Essential information includes: name, date, place (and grid reference) of collection and some note about the habitat. Mounting the specimens can be done in one of several ways, either by gluing them directly to the paper, or by stitching steins and leaf margins to the paper, or by placing several gummed strips over stems, leaf

Abbreviations

this

Sp

spring

ESp

early spring

ES

A

summer summer late summer mid-late summer second summer end of summer autumn

and leaves to hold the plant permanent position.

stalks

in

to the

herbs you wish

conditions ofyour

S

LS

M-LS ss

EndS

to

grow according

site.

early

W

winter

LW

late winter

AT

anytime >:!'

CULTIVATION SELECTING AND GROWING YOUR

OWN HERBS

HERB

TYPE

SOIL

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

Achillea millefolium

perennial

well drained, tolerates

30-65x30 cm

tolerant of

most

(12-26x12

very damp, rich

50-1 40 x 90

cm

bogs, ponds, rich moist

(20-56x36

ins)

soils in full

(Yarrow)

Acorus calamus (Sweet Flag, Rush. Calamus)

perennial, aquatic

Ajuga reptans

perennial

damp, loamy

or dry

10-30x30 cm (4-12x12

(Bugle)

Alchemilla vulgaris (Lady's Mantle)

perennial

Allium cepa aggregatum (Tree Onion. Top Onion)

bulbous, perennial

Allium sativum

bulbous, perennial

ordinary, well-drained

30-45 x 15 cm (12-18x6 ins) (grow

fertile,

well-drained

bulbous, perennial

ground cover full

sun

full

sun

rows)

rows)

15-30x 15 cm

and loamy

rich

tolerant of most; useful

30-60 x10 cm (1 2-24 x4 ins) (grow in

Allium schoenoprasum (Chives)

sun or shade

15-30x15 cm (6— 12x 6 ins)

(Garlic)

sun

ins)

almost any except waterlogged

in

most

ins)

(6-1

2x6

ins)

useful for edging

(forms

clumps)

Anethum graveolens

annual

(Dill)

most acidic

soils,

but

20-90x60 cm

not too light

(8-36x24

full

sun

ins)

Angelica archangelica

biennial treated as

not too

(Angelica)

short lived perennial

acid

150-240x90 cm (5-8x3 ft)

back of border where is cool and moist

Anthriscus cerefolium

annual, sometimes

moist, light, well-

40x30 cm

prefers

(Chervil)

biennial

drained soils with

(16

rich, slightly

x12

it

some shade.

Mid-border plant

ins)

added compost Artemisia absinthium

perennial

(Wormwood)

Artemisia

perennial

deeply dug clays

65-110x40 cm (26-44x16 ins)

most

120x50 cm

most

soils: prefers

soils

(48x20

dracunculoides (Russian Tarragon) Artemisia dracunculus (French Tarragon)

perennial

Artemisia vulgaris

warm,

rich

60-90x40 cm

and

officinalis

sun

full

sun

(24-36x16

perennial

most moist

90-1 80 x 40-50 cm (3-6 ft x 16-20 ins)

back of border or mid-border plant

perennial

dry.

90x30 cm

full

sun or some shade.

sun; seen to best

soils

sandy

(36x12

(Pleurisy Root.

Borago

full

ins)

well-drained

(Mugwort)

Asclepias tuberosa

back of border or can be used as screen

annual

(Borage)

ins)

ins)

well-drained poor, dry

60 x 40 cm

full

soils

(24x16

effect

ins)

when

planted on

low wall Calamintha

officinalis

perennial

chalky

soils,

30-35x50 cm

dryish

(12-14x20

(Calamint)

ins)

dry. not too

shaded

(forms

clumps)

Carum

carvi

(Caraway)

132

biennial

most well-drained

soils

65x25-30 cm (26x10-12

ins)

full-sun.

mid-border

ACH-CAR

PROPAGATION Sp

division

division of rhizome

Sp.

FLOWER

good

pink or white

light.

Tolerates

S

drought

Sp

seed

EXTRA DETAILS

only flowers

A

grown

in

when

greenish-yellow

S

water

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

grey-green, feathery, aromatic

leaves before flowering S

sword-like, plentiful, stout, smelling of

rhizome

ESp.

A

tangerine

whpn division

A

Sp.

space 30 cm (1 2 ins) and allow to run together for ground

Sp

seed

apart,

rnishprl

blue; rarely pink or

deep green

white

reddish-purple

S

to

whole herb

S

whole herb

S

cover

Sp ES under glass

division

spreads

seed

needs control

bulbils

Sp. S.

A

not shaded

Sp.

seen

cylindrical,

LS

whitish-pink

A

Sp-MS

drills

seedlings should not be disturbed in first year

rose purple

do not

yellow

plant close to

blue-green

flattish. spiky,

when

Sp

seed, in

pale green, fluted

A

Sp.

bulbs seed

ES

yellow

rarely

bulbs, broken into

cloves

fairly rapidly,

Sp

S

leaves

LS

LS

bulbs

bruised

grassy,

MS

odorous

bulbils

in

clumps

soft spikes, aromatic

Fennel. Protect from

AT

leaves

AT

leaves

seed

LS

A

wind seed as soon as ripe

grows

Sp

shade, produces softer

leaves

stems Mature plants cannot be transplanted

seed

seed,

sown at AT

3

week

intervals

better in light

maintain a succession of

young

plants

yellowish

M-LS

soft, fern-like,

aromatic

root

white

S

fern-like, dark green,

Do

Sp

stems

Sp. S

LS

A

aromatic

leaves before flowering AT

feathery, silvery-green,

shoots

not transplant division

A

Sp.

stem cuttings seed A division

A

Sp.

LSp-ES

seed

division

support

in

back

A

in

LS and cut

greenish-yellow

S

Give mulch cold sites

cover

in

really

sunny sheltered

Sp. S

aromatic

greenish-white

S

pale green, willowy

leaves

AT

greenish-white

S

glossy, dark green,

leaves

AT

position

Sp

cuttings with

heat

ES

sunny sheltered up every 2-3 years Cut back and mulch in really

some

position; Divide

Sp

aromatic

W

division

Sp.

cuttings

S

seed

Sp.

A

dry

MS

cuttings

S

division

Sp

seed

dislikes

shade

brownish-yellow

Sp

division

seed

A

in drills

soil

bright

only a small seedling may be transplanted Readily self-sown

orange

S

blue, pink or white

S

dark green above, silvery beneath, feathery, aromatic

whole herb

S

narrow, alternate on

leaves

short stems

rootstock

rough, green, aromatic

flowers and leaves

AT

pale green, light and

flowers and leaves

AT

AT

A

MS blue, fragrant

ES

fragrant

Sp. S.

A

prefers cool site

not transplant

Do

white

SS

soft green, feathery,

seedheads

aromatic

leaves

S

AT

rootstock of

1

st

year

'33

CULTIVATION HERB

TYPE

SOIL

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

Chamaemelum nobile (Roman Chamomile)

perennial

well-drained

15-35x10-15 cm (6-14x4-6 ins)

full

Chenopodium album

annual

50x300 cm

most positions

(Fat

dryish, rich soils

(20 ins x 10

Hen)

Cichonum intybus

perennial

most

(3-6

Cimicifuga racemosa (Black Cohosh)

perennial

Convallaria majalis (Lily-of-the-Valley)

perennial

most

fertile,

ft

sunny position

x 22 ins)

90-270x90 cm (3-9x3 ft)

loamy

rich,

ft)

90-180x55 cm

soils

(Chicory)

well-

drained soils

some shade

sun. or

Useful as lawn

woodland

rich

25 x 10

cm

front of border or

(10x4

ins) (spreads

among bushes

slowly)

Conandrum sativum

annual

fertile, light to

average

Crocus sativus (Saffron Crocus)

bulbous, perennial

Cuminum cyminum

annual

and well-

light, rich

x

cm

30

well-drained

light,

30 x

1

purpurea

perennial, evergreen

biennial

well-drained, calcareous

fertile,

well-drained

(Foxglove)

Foeniculum vulgare

perennial

perennial

well-drained

light,

(Alehoof)

Helianthus annuus (Sunflower)

Hyssopus

officinalis

annual

perennial, semi-

(Hyssop)

evergreen

Inula helenium

perennial

(Elecampane)

Juniperus communis

perennial, coniferous

most

cm

5

light

full

sun

likes

120x40-50 cm (48x16-20 ms)

full

plant,

sun

sun. but tolerates

shade sun. sheltered from

c~

full

ins)

wind

10x30 cm

will tolerate

(4x12

hedge

ins) (spreads)

shade of

(3-10x3ft)

back of border, allow much space, full sun

60x20 cm

sunny

(24x8 ms)

results

90-1 80 x 90 cm

needs sun; plant at back of sunny border

soil,

and moist

(3-6x3

dry.

calcareous

up

up

well-drained

sheltered,

good edging

ins)

to

to

ft)

780x780 cm

(26x26 perennial, evergreen

sun

(8x8

rich

ft)

often less

1200x1200 cm

(40 x 40

(Bay)

full

20x20 cm

any

preferably

sheltered,

ms)

90-300x90 cm

soils

(Juniper)

Laurus nobilis

height

40-120x60-90 (16-48x24-36

fairly rich

(Fennel)

Glechoma hederacea

in

ins)

(12x6

Dianthus caryophyllus (Clove Pink)

protected situation,

sunshine needed, mid-border plant

ins)

30-45 cm (12-18

drained

(Cumin)

Digitalis

60

(24x12

(Coriander)

ft)

often less

situation for best

banks in sunny good drainage

sheltered spot, free

from wind and

good container Lavandula angustifolia

perennial, evergreen

(Lavender)

Ledum groenlandicum

perennial, evergreen

(Lovage)

'34

90x60 cm

poor

soils

(36x24

wet.

rich,

sandy or

perennial

fertile, acidic,

prepared

well-

ins)

ins)

frost,

plant

not too exposed,

(bushy)

up to 90 x 90 cm

(36x36

peaty

(Labrador Tea)

Levi stic um officinalis

chalky, well-drained,

spot,

(forms

prefers

full

sun

some sun

or shade on bogs or swampland,

mat)

not too dry.

90-210x90 cm (3-7x3 ft)

Some shade

or full

sun

CHA-LEV PROPAGATION division

Sp.

cuttings

S

A

FLOWER

best when a patch of plants are grown

white daisy

together.

Sp

seed

EXTRA DETAILS

Keep

S

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

pale green fern-grass

whole herb

very soft mid-green

shoots

jagged, green

root leaves

S-LS

soil

moist around young plants

mealy-white

Sp

seed

Sp.

division

seed

Sp

seed

Sp

A

S

SS

clear blue

yellowish-white

division

Sp.

division

A

S

2—5 wide

leaflets

Sp

A S

A

rootstock

A takes time to establish

can be grown

itself,

in

white, sweetly-scented

mid-green, upright

whole flowers, ES

fern-like, green, smells

seeds

unpleasant just before seeds ripen

leaves

grass-like

stigmas

thread-like, slightly

seeds

ES

plant

pots

may require support. Do not transplant

seed (slow to germinate, but usually high germination)

corm

S

seed

Sp

pinkish-mauve, sometimes white

M-LS

End S

AT

Sp divide every 3 years

water well

in

drought

mauve

A

pinkish-white

S

A

End S

fragrant

pipings or layering

pink, white and combined arrangement

S

grey, clean, spiky in

flowers

S

leaves

ES

shape

of these colours, very

M-LS

fragrant

protect 1 st year seedlings from frost

Sp. S

seed

division

seed

Sp

give

enough space, and

A

sow

in

Sp.

division

Sp.

A

SS

magenta

mid-green, wrinkled, soft

yellow

S

succession

ground cover, allow space, but it may need

bluish

thread-like, strongly

leaves

aromatic

seed

green, marbled with

ES

silver, slightly

S S S

leaves

aromatic

control

may need support

Sp

seed

Sp ES

division

cuttings

seed

A

or

Sp

Replace every 4-5

Sp

division

seed

cut back

bright yellow

MS

bluish-mauve, pink or white ES-LS

End S

green, roughish

seed

dark green, bushy, aromatic

flowers and shoot

when

years Sp.

A

replace every 3 years

bright yellow

MS

large,

mid-green

A

Sp.

leaves before flowering Sp roots

cuttings

tips,

available

A

greenish-yellow

useful as container

very difficult

LS

cuttings

creamy-yellow

ES

S

A

dark green

berries

when

smooth dark green

leaves

AT

grey, aromatic

leaves flowers

S

short oblong

leaves

AT

strong green, deeply cut. aromatic

leaves

prickly,

ripe

plant out-of-doors,

withstands clipping

AT

stem cuttings seed Sp

Sp

seeds layering

S

division

Sp.

A

.ion

Sp.

A

seed

Sp. S

regular pruning

mauve, fragrant

suit evergreen borders. but requires shade

cream

disappears below

yellowish

ground spot to

W. mark the ensure no other in

Sp

MS

MS

MS

S

roots

A

seed

LS

plants are too close

«35

CULTIVATION HERB

TYPE

SOIL

Melissa officinalis

perennial

warm, not too

dry,

poor

perennial

very moist or aquatic

(Water Mint)

Mentha

citrata

POSITION

60-90x40-60 cm

full

(24-36x16-24

(Lemon Balm)

Mentha aquatica

HEIGHTxSPREAD

biennial

15-90x1 5-20 cm

will tolerate

(6—36 x 6—8

suitable as a

ins) (spreads)

35-45x15-20 cm (14-18x6-8 ins)

moist and rich

(Eau de Cologne Mint)

sun or some shade

ins)

shade,

bog plant

full

sun or some shade

full

sun or some shade

(spreads)

Mentha

x piperita

perennial

(Peppermint)

Mentha pulegium

perennial

moist, for

good

results

50-60x20 cm

add moisture-retaining

(20-24x8

material to

(spreads)

all

soils

ins)

0-30 x 20 cm (4-12x8 ins)

fertile

1

(Pennyroyal)

can tolerate shade

(spreads)

Monarda didyma

perennial

moist,

and very

fertile

Add manure

(Bergamot)

70x30 cm

good

(28 x

some shade

2 ins) (forms

1

light,

but tolerates

clumps) Myrrhis odorata

perennial

(Sweet Cicely)

Myrtus communis

perennial, evergreen

90 x 15

cm

moist

(36 x 6

ins)

well-drained

300

well-drained,

fertile

and

x

150 cm

(10x5

(Myrtle)

Nasturtium officinale

perennial, aquatic

(Watercress)

very damp, rich in

Nepeta catana

perennial

soil,

or

shallow water

fertile,

well-drained

(Catmint. Catnep)

1

(bushy)

ft)

0—60 cm

(4-24

in

length

slight

shade

needs

shelter, dislikes

wet

full

soil

sun or some shade

ins)

50 x 40 cm (20x 16 ins)

mid-border plant tolerant of

most

situations

Ocimum

basilicum

annual

light,

well-drained

45x15 cm (18x6

(Basil)

Origanum majorana (Sweet Marjoram)

perennial, usually

medium

grown

alkaline

(10x4-6

Origanum onites

perennial

dry. light

50x20 cm

as annual

rich,

dryish and

25 x 10-15

cm

with good

rich, fertile

grown

tilth

(12-20x8

Portu/aca oleracea (Purslane)

annual

light

25 x 20 cm

as annual

(10x8

ins)

ins)

perennial

light,

calcareous

(Salad Burnet) perennial

Reseda lutea

perennial treated as

(Mignonette)

annual, evergreen

Rosmarinus (Rosemary)

perennial, evergreen

136

sunny position

most

soils

moderately calcareous

rich,

light, well-drained calcareous

good edging plant, grow in rows

sunny spot (forms

mat)

officinalis

sun

requires

30-50x20 cm

biennial, usually

(Parsley)

officinalis

full

ins)

Petrose/inum crispum

Pulmonaria (Lungwort)

sun

(20x8 ms)

(Pot Marjoram)

Potenum sanguisorba

full

ins)

in herb border or kitchen garden

30 x 25 cm

needs damp, grassy

(12x10

surroundings

ins)

20x20 cm

front of border, tolerant

(8x8

of

ins)

shade and shrubs

90x20 cm

mid-border

(3x8

prefers

ins)

60-120x180 cm (2-4x6 ft)

full

plant,

some shade

sun.

good

for

hedges; prostrate form provides useful ground cover

MEL-ROS PROPAGATION stem cuttings Sp.

division

seed

Sp. S

EXTRA DETAILS

FLOWER

spreads, needs tidying

creamy-white

needs confining, otherwise spreads and

mauve

MS

A

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

light green, wrinkled, very fragrant

leaves

S

A

ES.

division of runners

during growing season

is

division of runners during growing season

MS

shining green, aromatic

leaves and shoots S.

A

invasive

MS

lilac-mauve

needs confining, otherwise spreads

roundish, green to

leaves and shoots

brown- purple- bronze

S.

in

A

dry situations,

aromatic division of runners

needs confining.

during growing season

otherwise spreads and is

division of runners

during growing season

MS

lilac

dark bronze-purple ranging to black in dry situations, aromatic

invasive

may need may need

MS

mauve

confining protection

in

Sp.

A

divide regularly as

centre tends to bare.

seed

A

LS.

Cut back

requires acidic

Sp

root cuttings

red

S

grow in

ES

creamy-white

soil,

deeply dug. Very easily self-sown

white

often needs wall

MS-End

protection and shelter

layering

MS

from winds

division

W

clean water to

deep green, sometimes

leaves and shoots

variegated, creeping,

S.

dark green, strongly

leaves and flowers as

fragrant

required

S

grow

in

S

root

leaves

Sp. S

light green, smallish

leaves

S

berries

A

dark green, shiny,

S

white, very small

A

dark green, soft and fern-like

cuttings of

plentiful,

non-flowering shoots

flavour

Sp. S.

A

A

cuttings, with heat

S

A

aromatic

severe winters division

leaves and shoots S.

AT

whole shoot

pungent

A

division

Sp.

A

blue spires

Sp.

seed

under glass ESp ES

outside

Sp.

seed

Sp

seed

Sp.

warmest spot

available

S

S

green, triangular,

pink

S

soft,

mid-green,

fragrant

cultivated

A

A

cream

soft,

shoots before flowering Sp

leaves

AT

pungent tender and not widely

ES seed stem cuttings division

green-grey. aromatic

S

A

seed

purplish or whitish

long period for germination, assist by

creamy-white

S

SS

leaves before flowering S

soft green, fragrant

leaves before flowering S

crisp, curled, bright

leaves

S

leaves

S

leaves

AT

green, fragrant

pre-soakmg seed seed

Sp

ought

to

be thinned

yellow

S

light green,

with

seed

Sp

division after

seed

immediately

Sp.

A

smooth

sheen

green

reddish-green

S

pretty, dark

appreciates some shade and moisture

pink and blue

Sp. ES

rough, silvery marks on dark green

leaves

does not transplant

spires of reddish-yellow

mid-green

whole

successfully

S

rosette

best

flowering

sown

a

in drills

in

basal

Sp. S

plant

S

which

withers before flowers arrive

cuttings layering

S S

withstands clipping

pale mauve-blue

may

ES. often

suffer in cold,

exposed, windy

W

Sp.

highly aromatic, grey-green, narrow

leaves as required

sites

'37

CULTIVATION HERB

TYPE

SOIL

Ruta graveolens (Rue)

perennial, semi-

most

evergreen

soils not

damp

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

50-70

full

x 60 cm (20-28x24 ins)

sun; will tolerate

some shade

(bushy) Salvia officinalis

perennial, evergreen

90x90 cm

dryish

rich,

(Purple Sage)

Salvia sclarea

(36 x 36

biennial or perennial

and well-drained

light

(Clary)

Sanguinaria canadensis (Blood Root)

perennial

Santolina

perennial, evergreen

loamy

rich,

light,

well-drained

chamaec yparissus

allow space, prefers

(bushy)

ins)

full

sun

90x30 cm

will tolerate a little

(36 x

shade

1

2 ins)

20x30 cm

cool, moist

(8x12

woodland, under shrubs

ins)

40-60 x 40-60 cm (16-24x16-24 ins)

good edging

30-90x30 cm

mid-border or grassy bank, spreading

likes

plant,

sunshine

(Cotton Lavender)

Saponaria officinalis (Soapwort.

perennial

dampish

fertile,

(12-36x12

ins)

Bouncing Bet) Satureia

montana

perennial

light,

perennial

ordinary

15-40x15-40 cm (6-16x6-16 ins)

well-drained

(Winter Savory)

Stachys

officinalis

(Wood Betony)

Symphytum

officinale

perennial

perennial

full

(6-36 x 10

shade

moist, fertile

50-90x30 cm

tolerant of shade, likes

(20-36x12

dampish situations

some

loam

or sand, moist

light,

well-drained

Thymus citriodorus (Lemon Thyme)

perennial

light,

well-drained,

slightly acid

ins)

full

some

sun or semi-shade

ins)

25x20 cm (10x8

(Wall Germander)

ins)

120x90 cm (48x36

perennial

sun. tolerates

15-90x25 cm

soil, likes

(Tansy)

Teucnum chamaedrys

sun. front of border

humus

(Common Comfrey) Tanacetum vulgare

full

needs good drainage, base of wall or in paving

ins)

at

10-20x25-30 cm (4_8x10-12 ins)

full

sun; carpet-forming,

needs paving or front of border position

Thymus serpyllum (Wild Thyme)

Tussilago farfara

perennial

perennial

light,

most

well-drained

soils

(Coltsfoot)

5-10x20-40 cm (2-4x8-16 ins)

full

(creeps)

of border position

20x10 cm (8x4 ins)

dry banks, under shrubs

sun; carpet-forming,

needs paving or front

where

it

can become

naturalized

Valeriana officinalis (Valerian)

perennial

Valerianella locusta

annual

rich

and moist

(54x12-16

rich

(Corn Salad)

Verbascum thapsus

biennial

dryish, fertile, chalky

perennial, evergreen

well-drained

(Periwinkle)

shaded borders

ins)

10-20x15-25 cm (4_8x6-10 ins)

90-180x25 cm (3-6 ftx10

(Mullein)

Vmca major

135x30-40 cm

edge

of herb

bed or

kitchen garden

full

sun. back of border

ins)

5-40 x 90 cm (6—16 x 36 ins) 1

good

for planting

on

banks

(spreads) Viola odorata

(Sweet

138

Violet)

perennial

well-drained, previously enriched, moist soil

10-20x5 cm (4-8x2 ins)

some shade, moist banks

RUT-VIO PROPAGATION LS

cuttings

seed

Sp

layering

FLOWER

needs pruning back every 2nd year

yellow

does not

S S

cuttings

EXTRA DETAILS

like

windy

S

mauve-purple

S

sites

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

grey-green, small, aromatic

leaves

grey (some forms variegated or purple),

flowers and bracts

S

S

pungent Sp,

division

seed

A

mauve-blue, rather S

division

keep moist

after

when young

white or pinkish

Sp

stem cuttings layering

A

division

A

cut back in Sp. Withstands clipping

S

yellow

S

S seed (slow)

S

lift

division

Sp

division

Sp.

and divide plants

Sp

each

A

bushy

AT

leaves

leaves and shoots

pale green, soft

roots

S

A

M— LS

white or pink

small, dark, aromatic,

S

leaves

Sp. S.

leaves

S

leaves

LS-S

leaves

Sp. S

A

enduring subshrub

every 3 years. Cut back

layering

A

A

soft green, aromatic

S

rose-pink

Sp

A

division

root cuttings

division

Sp.

Sp.

Sp.

A

A

trim in

stem cuttings

cuttings

S

division

Sp.

remove flowers promote leaves

to

rampant spreader, needs chopping back, confining and sometimes supporting

A

A

division

large,

rough and

stiff.

pale green

yellow buttons

S

dark green, fern-like

pungent

blue-mauve

Sp

LS-S

blue and pink

S

dark green, shiny,

(decorative plant)

bushy growth

S

trim

back each year

pinkish-mauve

S

A

minute, dark green, aromatic

leaves and shoots

grey-green, minute, aromatic

leaves and shoots

dark green, felt-like, grey underneath

flowers leaves

green, shiny

rootstock

pale green, smooth,

leaves as required

S.

A

A

layers

cuttings

S

division

Sp.

trim

back each year

S

pink

A

S

A

layers

division

A

invasive,

root cuttings

seed

rhizome

lobed

coral-like, grey

pink or white, sometimes with red

Sp

stem cuttings

seed

solitary leaf stem,

growth

marks

seed

leaves

leaf

flowering

seed

S

dark green, broad

variable

Sp

Sp.

Sp.

A

A

division of rootstock

needs to be

yellow - appearing

confined

before leaves

divide and replant

pinkish-white

LW. ESp

LS

ESp Sp

A

every 4 years

A seed

Sp.

A

sow

in drills,

make

successive sowings

mauve used

seed

Sp.

A

lighten

heavy

soils

S

Do

allow to flower

not

if

for salads

strong yellow

roughly spoon-shaped, rosette

SS

growth

felt-like,

silver-white

before sowing cuttings

S

division

Sp.

can be invasive, keep

A

runners ESp seed (slow) Sp division

it

leaves

stem

mauve-blue

ES

shines, dark green

within bounds

violet

Sp

dark to mid-green

S,

A

A

(decorative plant) leaves

Sp-S

flower

Sp

after

flowering

139

'

*****A\' '/-

*r-

»*«> ff-

*'

«

'

.

>-"'* ..

§ •

jf'jjf

Reference section I y«V

te-*4 '.«V

.

The

-1

of 420 of the most important herbs, each illustrated with a photograph or drawing and with its characteristics and constituents described in full. The enormous variety and extent of the powers of plants is amply demonstrated in these entries. The practical information included gives ideas on how to cultivate those herbs that interest you, together with a concise indication of their uses, whether culinary, medicinal or otherwise. Once again, however, we must stress that the medicinal use of plants requires expert knowledge. In this respect, the book is a reference work rather than a guide to practical application. Under no circumstances should readers use the information iu these pages for home treatment without first

taking expert advice.

The

cultivation section states whether

is found in the wild state (as most are), or whether it is found wild only as an escape from cultivation, and also gives details of commercial and horticultural cultivation where applicable. Re-

the species

'*

J»=

-

V

lists

the parts of the plant,

commonly

together with their uses, most

employed.

In

necessary to

list

some

cases,

it

has been

different parts of the plant

for different uses, as the effects of different

parts of plants can vary widely

-

to the

extent of being contradictory.

The naming of herbs

often causes prob-

We

have used the Latin botanical names of the plants (the most accurate system), followed by the preferred common name in bold type with some of the alternatives. The Latin names have particular significance, and it is as well to lems.

know how

they are

made

up.

The

follow-

example is of a relatively complex name, as the herb is a hybrid, although ing

the principles apply to

Mentha x LABIATAE

all

other species:

piperita var. citrata (Ehr.) Briq.

Bergamot Mint Eau

de Cologne Mint/

Orange Mint In this example, Mentha indicates the genus and piperita the species; (Ehr.) stands for Ehrhart which is the name of the botanist

who

first classified

the species

and

and, in addition, those closely related

accepted reclassification - thus without brackets. Originally this plant was classified by Linnaeus simply as Mentlm piperita, but it was then reclassified by Ehrhart as Mentha x piperita var. citrata; the x indicates

varieties

species that are cultivated as medicinal or

economic plants

for the

same purpose

as

the species in question are also mentioned.

Left:

A mass

the wild. the

of different herbs

growing

in

Many

of the herbs described on following pages over 420 species -

can be collected easily and put >

-

which arc of greater horticultural importance have been noted, lated

V7

-

-J

Each entry

following pages include a detailed

list

•

-

oj different uses,

to

a variety

which include culinary,

medicinal and cosmetic.

the

Briq. (the abbreviation of Briquet)

name

that the plant

is

a cross between Mentha

spicata

and Mentha

means

that this

is

is

of the person responsible for the

is

aquatica,

and the

'var.'

a variety of mint which

not sufficiently distinct to be classified as

a separate species. Labiatae indicates the

family to which the plant belongs.

'

1'

ABI-ADI Abies alba Mill,

pinaceae

Silver Fir This conifer was once the source of 'Strassburg Turpentine', first described in detail by Belon in

De

in the

now

Arboribus coniferis (1553).

London Pharmacopoeia and the

rarely collected,

It

was retained

until

leaves,

1

788. It

is

buds and

fresh resin are only used in folk medicine. Description Coniferous evergreen tree to 50

m

trunk straight, branches brownish and pubescent;

leaves simple,

needle-like,

glossy

and

dark green above, rounded at apex; to 3 cm long. Monoecious, the male cones small; female to 16 cm long, erect, becoming reddishbrown, with deciduous scales. Appearing late spring to early summer.

Native to central and southern Europe; mountainous regions from 400-2000 m altitude. Introduced elsewhere.

Distribution

Cultivation

especially

and

Employed

Wild.

horticulturally,

the cultivars Columnaris,

Compacta

Pendula. Dislikes polluted air.

Constituents Oleo-resin

comprising turpentine; provitamin A.

essential oil; a sugar, abietite;

Uses

(leaves,

occasionally)

fresh

ant; carminative.

of bronchitis, flatulent colic.

resin,

oil

of turpentine

Antiseptic; diuretic; expector-

Employed

cystitis,

The

in the

treatment

leucorrhoea, ulcers and

oil is

an

irritant

and can be

applied externally, diluted, as a rubefacient in neuralgia. externally,

1677. It was included in the London Pharmacopoeia of 72 Description Moderate sized tree, 9-12 m high; until

Contra-indications

The

and may

should only be used cause skin reactions. oil

1

1

trunk short, not straight, 1.5-2 m thorny branches; light

in girth;

straggling

feathery

rough, dark grey-brown bark; pale

foliage;

yellow flowers. Distribution

Indigenous

ma; common plains of

to eastern India,

Burma, forests of tropical Not cultivated; trees

Cultivation

Bur-

of Ceylon,

in hotter, drier parts

east Africa. felled

and

processed. Constituents Astringent action

due

Not cultivated;

trees incised

and

collected early winter.

mainly of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of arabic acid (arabin). Forms a mucilage in water. Uses (dried gummy exudation from stems and branches; Soothing for inflamed tissue. Used in mouth lozenges, cough mixtures, emulsions. Highly nutritious taken as gruel. Adhesive. Constituents Consists

L acanthaceae

Acanthus mollis

red, catechol.

Bear's Breech Brank Ursine The specific name, Acanthus from the Greek akanthos, ake meaning thorn, anthos meaning flowers) occurs frequently in Greek and Roman

and strained extract of heartwood dark brown solid mass

Powerful astringent, useful tions of throat, as

a

Used

gargle.

inflamed condiused diluted treat diarrhoea and for

gums and mouth; to

and boils. Wood for posts, heating and charcoal. Catechu and bark for tanning and dyeing.

externally for ulcers

Acacia Senegal

1

L) Willd. leguminosae

Gum Arabic Acacia Gum/Gummi When

the Egyptians brought

Gulf of Aden

acaciae

gum from

in the seventeenth

century

the B.C.,

they called it Kami and used it mainly for painting and as an adhesive for lapis lazuli or coloured glass. Theophrastus mentioned Kami, in the fourth

142

Cultivation

gum

Indigenous to east and west Africa. Arabia and India.

in

catechu-

to

chips, forming very

leguminosae Catechu Black Cutch/Kutch This herb was known as Cacho or Kat and was an important export from India to China, Arabia and Persia in the sixteenth century. It was introduced to Europe in the seventeenth century from Japan. The dark brown extract was not recognized as a vegetable substance

Common

tannic acid. Also contains quercetin, catechu Uses (boiled

Acacia catechu (L) Willd.

flowers yellowish, fragrant; corolla white. Distribution

Gummi

century

B.C.,

and Celsus

called

it

century B.C. Arabian physicians at the medieval school of Salerno used it and it was liable for customs duty at Pisa and Paris. It reached London by via Venice. Gum Arabic is still used 1 52 pharmaceutically. acanthinum

in

the

first

1

Description

Low

tree,

3-6

m

high,

bending grey

branches, grey bark leaves pale green, smooth ;

;

ABI-ADI writings referring to different prickly plants.

periods. Stimulates gastric secretion.

The

Fresh herb in salads.

beautiful leaves stimulated designs for the

of columns

decoration

classical

in

Greek

oblong dark green and leaves

undulating margins, 30-60 cm long; stems straight to 150 cm high; white or lilac pink flowers on spikes,

with

glossy,

summer. Distribution

Native of southern Europe.

Now

widely distributed. ordinary soil prefers deep sun or partial shade. Propa-

Cultivation Tolerates

loam, either

full

;

gate by division in spring or cuttings, or seed, in spring. as

house plant

Uses

autumn;

May

root

be cultivated

in large pot in full light.

Crushed leaves once used

for

burns and

scalds.

Hops

in

for greasy skin.

was an ancient herb of the East mentioned in the Bible in the book of Exodus. It was probably introduced into Russia by the Mongolians in the eleventh century, and into Poland by the thirteenth. At the end of the sixteenth century it was widely distributed by the Viennese botanist Clausius. Description Hardy, vigorous, aromatic perennial; much branched rhizome, 3 cm thick, bearing sword-shaped leaves with wavy margin, m high and 15 mm wide. Small flowers Acorus calamus

Ching' sticks. Contra-indications Large doses produce headaches and vertigo. Snuff; tobacco substitute.

'I

Aconitum napellus L ranunculaceae Aconite Monkshood/Blue Rocket/Wolfsbane This lethal herb was widely employed as an arrow poison by the ancient Chinese and its generic name comes from the Greek akontion meaning a dart. Napellus means 'little turnip' - a reference to the shape of its tuberous root. Aconitum napellus was an important herb among the thirteenth-century Welsh physicians of Myddvai but was not introduced into medicine

and

L compositae

Yarrow Weed From

Milfoil/ Wound wort/Carpenter's

ancient times

this

herb has been associ-

wounds and the stemming of blood-flow, hence the generic name; Achilles, for example, was supposed to ated

with

have cured A.

healing of

the

his

millefolium

warriors with

its

traditionally

has

Hardy herbaceous perennial;

Description

leaves.

had a wide

medical use.

Aromatic perennial, far-creeping stoloniferous herb; erect furrowed stem, 8-60

also

m

AW<

'''/

essen-

biennial as roots produced one year,

tially

flower the next; stem erect reaching 150 cm; leaves dark green, glossy, 3-8 cm wide, divided flowers 2

cm

(summer and autumni

violet

blue,

high, helmet shaped, in terminal clusters.

Indigenous to Alps and Pyrenees; mountainous districts of northern hemisphere.

Distribution

Prefers moist soils in shade.

Root division daughter roots are stored then planted mid-winter Cultivation

Description

is

1

generally until the eighteenth century. Achillea millefolium

Sedge/Myrtle

Flag

Cosmetic cleanser

Hardy perennial;

L araceae Calamus Sweet Flag/Sweet

Acorus calamus

substitute

brewing.

architecture. Description

Can

cm high; white or pinkish flowers early summer to autumn and slightly hairy bipinnate leaves, 2-10 cm long, divided into fine

sown

leaflets.

Constituents

in

garden

in

autumn;

in a

warm

in moist

selected

place and

loam. Seeds

spring flower in 2-3 years. Attractive decoration; blue, white and violet

cultivars include Blue Spectre, Sparks Variety.

Sedative and toxic action due to

Widespread in temperate zones; native to Europe; on all but poorest soils. Cultivation Increase by division spring or autumn. Grows in any soil in sunny position. Distribution

Constituents

and Uses

Volatile

oil

Distribution

parts,

and urinary

including flowers)

antiseptic.

Combines with

Only

Elderflowers and Peppermint for colds and

Of use

flowers in water.

Constituents Bitter,

hypertension and coronary thrombosis, dysentery and diarrhoea. Fresh influenza.

long.

to central Asia, eastern

zones, in

Diaphoretic; antipyretic; hypotensive; diuretic

Indigenous

Europe; now native in northern temperate marshy regions. Cultivation Needs moist soil and frequent watering, best by water margins. Divide clumps early spring or autumn, cover well.

containing azulene;

a glycoalkaloid, achilleine.

(dried aerial

summer), on inflorescence 4~8cm

(early

in

aromatic, volatile

oil; bitter

principle, acorin.

Uses (dried rhizome) Carminative; vermifuge; spasmolytic; diaphoretic. Stimulates salivary

leaf alleviates toothache. Regulates menstrual

and

gastric glands. Slight sedative action

on

central nervous system. Best used in flatulent

dyspepsia. Beer flavouring and liqueur. Candied rhizomes used as sweetmeats. Young leaf buds in salads.

colic,

Insecticide; powder repels white ants. Perfume additive similar to orris root. Toothpowder, hair-powders and dry shampoos.

Snuff. Contra-indications

Oil

of acorus

has reputed

carcinogenic properties.

alkaloid, aconitine.

Also contains picraconi-

Adiantum capillus-veneris L polypodiaceae Maidenhair Fern Venus Hair The generic name Adiantum is from the Greek

tine and aconine.

word

Uses (dried root tubers, whole plant fresh or

repels water

dried

wet environment. The specific and

j

Sedative; pain

killer; antipyretic.

used for feverish conditions, ally for neuralgia

and

now

only extern-

"

S.

To

names

POISON-

be used only by medical personnel.

unwetted, since the foliage

and the

plant's natural habitat

refer to the hair of the

fine, shiny,

sciatica.

Contra-indications All parts intensely (

Once

adiantos or

pudenda

is

a

common after the

black petioles. This was once the

most important herbal ingredient of a popular cough syrup called Capillaire which remained

'43

ADO-AGA divided into 3 leaflets. Distribution Native to Europe, naturalized in eastern North America: often near habitation.

hedgerows.

Wild;

Cultivation

vigorous

too

for

garden

cultivation, although A. podagraria variegatum

used for edging. dried herb, fresh root and leaf Diuretic: sedative. Traditionally taken as a drink for gout and sciatic pains. Boiled root and leaf in is

Uses

hot poultice applied to joints.

Young

leaves

fresh

cooked

spring

in

as

vegetable: taste similar to spinach. Used in salads.

L hippocastanaceae

Aesculus hippocastanum

Horse Chestnut was the

Aesculus

but

the

classical

of the

origins

uncertain:

name

of an oak tree

common name

was used extensively

it

are

in the East

and horse fodder: alternatively the may have differentiated it the edible Sweet Chestnut, Castanea

as cattle

prefix

from

'horse'

sativa.

Deciduous

Description

tree

up

to

very resinous buds, bark smooth in use until the

Some

nineteenth century.

10-40 cm tall; petioles thin, delicate, black and shiny. Leaves ovate to narrowly triangular, finely pinnate, pinnules fan-shaped and toothed: sori reddishbrown on the underside of leaf tips. Distribution Native to Great Britain, central and south Europe. Now world-wide in temperate and tropical regions. Especially near the sea, in caves, wells, on damp walls; cliffs, on chalky soils; but also to 1300 m altitude. Description

Cultivation

loam and

Perennial

fern

Wild. Cultivated as a pot plant in leaf mould mix: requires moisl

atmosphere. Propagate by division. Constituents Mucilage; tannins; gallic

white or double flowered varieties are

cultivated.

cymarin. Valuable heart tonic, not cumulative and less toxic than Digitali-. Dilates coronary arteries. Not widely used due to irregular absorption. Vermifuge. Constituents Glycosides, including

Uses

dried herb

Contra-indications

POISONOUS

Aegopodium podagraria

The name

Weak expectorant: bechic: weak emmenagogue: weak diuretic. Principally employed in chest complaints such as respiratory catarrh, and coughs. Once used in the treatment of both pleurisy and asthma but with little effect in the latter.

herb

Description Perennial

in

suits rockeries.

144

in

and the

ancient times, from

.

Distribution

Native

Cultivation

Grows

Constituents

in

many soils:

often self-sown.

arin: tannins. i'ses fresh seed without seed-coat, branch bark Tonic; narcotic: antipyretic. Bark employed traditionally in intermittent fevers.

Combined

of constituents

action

strengthens

and

arteries

thrombosis.

Seed

extract

rhoids. Fruit

mash

for cattle

Contra-indications

wide.

soils in full

Balkan peninsula: now

Saponin: aescine: flavones; coum-

Seed

veins,

of seeds preventing

relieves haemorand sheep fodder.

POISONOLS. To

be

used by medical personnel only. Aethusa cynapium

moist

to

widely cultivated.

solitary,

L umbelliferae

Fool's Parsley Lesser Hemlock

sun or

sunnv position. A. vernalis A. annua cannot be transplanted.

shade: flowers best

very

umbels of white flowers summer 2-7 cm wide; leaves 10-20 cm long with stalks, sub-

garden.

Grows

seed.

weed with creeping root20-40 cm bearing

Central and south-east Europe. Occasionally wild in temperate zones: can be in the

green, containing

stock; hollow stem reaching

Distribution

Cultivation

on erect conical

spiny,

vegetable.

blood the herb sprang. It is still retained in several European pharmacopoeias. There are two varieties, A. vernalis with yellow flowers and A. annua with red flowers. Description Perennial herb. 10-30 cm high; sparingly branched, leaves numerous and

grown

brown

yellowish,

fruit

Greek aigos meaning goat; podos meaning and podagra the Latin for gout. In the Middle Ages it was cultivated as a pot herb or

L ranunculaceae

cm

or

foot

False Hellebore Pheasant's Eye/Spring Adonis Ox-eye The name is derived from the legend of Adonis, who was killed by a wild boar and from whose

terminal, rich yellow. 3-6

pink

inflorescence:

L umbelliferae

suggests both the leaf shape

the

essential oil.

early spring

white,

Herb Gerard acid:

fresh, or dried, leafy fronds occasionally

divided: flowers

and becomes scaly: leaves subdivided into 5-7 leaflets, 8-20 cm long: flowers early summer

Ground Elder Goutweed/Bishops-weed/

minute quantities of an

much

high:

sonnel only.

specific use of this

Adonis vernalis

in

m

small amounts: to be used by medical per-

sugars; various bitter principles: capillarine:

i'ses

even

35

when young

Known

in

—w

to

Dog

Poison

sixteenth-century apothecaries as

apium rusticum.

this

is

a highly poisonous herb.

;

ADO-AGA as

indeed the

common names

when

required

suggest.

Care

orthodox western medicine, the use of Buchu was learned from the native Hottentots by the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope. It was first introduced to Europe in 1821. Until

is

collecting edible plants from

the wild. Fool's Parsley, for example, can easily be taken for an edible Parsley.

Annual, flimsy looking, rarely more high, thin, hairless, hollow stem leaves triangular, segments ovate, pinnatifid: umbels of white flowers (summer 2-6 cm wide with 3 or 4 long pendulous bracteoles. Distribution Native to Europe; common, widely distributed; weed of cultivated ground. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Toxic principle an alkaloid, cyno-

recent legislation most of the leaf production

Description

than 30

cm

was used States.

is

still

used by herbalists and Originally classified as

African tribesmen. Barosma betulina Bergius Bartl. & H.L. Wendl. Description A small shrub 1— 1.5 m high bearing smooth rod-shaped branches with leathery, |

glossy,

long, 5

pale yellowish-green

mm

-

1

cm

wide.

leaves

Young

cm

1-2

twigs and

toothed margins of leaves have conspicuous

pine.

Uses

United

as a cordial flavouring in the

Buchu

Stomachic; sedative. Once gastro-intestinal complaints of chil-

dried herb

used for

dren, convulsions,

summer

Contra-indications

Very

amounts

pain,

cause

glands.

confusion

oil

flowers.

Cape province of South Africa: mountain-sides and hillsides on dry soil.

Distribution

diarrhoea.

POISONOUS.

White

Wild plant; cultivated on hillsides. comprising up to 40° diosphenol; limonene and menthone. Uses dried leaf) Urinary antiseptic; of use in cystitis and urethritis. A weak diuretic. Used to flavour brandy Buchu brandvV Used as a blackcurrant flavouring. Black South Africans use the leaves mixed with oil as a body perfume.

Small

Cultivation

of vision,

Constituents Volatile oil

vomiting.

L agavaceae Century Plant Agave/American Aloe Agave americana

rtfV

from the Greek for admirable, after the appearance; the common name refers to the mistaken belief that it flowers only after a hundred years' growth. In many tropical countries the Agave provides one of the cheapest and most effective cattle fences availAgave

mm

pulp and brown seeds, 2 wide. Cultivation Wild: cultivated particularly

in

Ghana. pungent resin. Hot and pepper) pepper substitute.

Constituents Essential oil; (

ft!

seeds

Stimulant.

condiment: used

as

Traditionally used in veterinary medicine.

able.

Agathosma

betulina fBerg.

Pillans.

rutaceae

Bucco/Short Buchu/Round Buchu the tew indigenous plants ol southern Africa to lincl a place in both traditional and

Aframomum

melegueta Rose,

monocotyledon, eventuflowering after 10 years or more, after

Description Succulent al lv

Buchu One ol

is

plant's

which

although frequently leaving Leaves are very thick, 5-20 cm wide, long, grey, smooth, and spiny-edged. Flowers to 3 cm long, pale it

dies,

suckers at the base. 1

12m

zingiberaceae

Grains of Paradise Melegueta Pepper/ Guinea Grains

The name

Melegueta is derived from the am ienl African empire ol Mellc which extended ovei the Upper Niger region. It was originally transported from the African west coast across

the deseit

to

porta on

the

Tripoli

coast.

It

served as a spice

in

and was one of

the ingredients ol the spiced

medieval European cuisine

Known as grana parmh n was imported from distant lands, it was sold at Lyons in 1245. At the same time the Welsh physicians ol Myddvai called it grawn wine,

hippocras.

because

it

Paris'.

Herbaceous reed-like plant, 2.5 high, long leaves producing delicate waxlike, pale purple flowers, succeeded by pearDescription

1

rn

shaped

scatlet fruit, 6

tO

cm

long, enclosing

I

I

1

AGR-ALL m

yellowish on horizontal branches of a 6-12 tall stalk.

Constituents Tannin; volatile oil; combination is anti-inflammatory,

resin.

The

antibiotic,

from the Indonesian for tree of heaven, a name first given to another species. The alternative

Distribution

astringent.

common names

ally

Uses (dried flowering plant) Mild astringent;

misnomers,

possibly diuretic. Used for acute sore throats, chronic catarrh, children's diarrhoea, cystitis,

varnish (or copal) material.

Native to tropical America, especiMexico. Introduced and established in southern Europe, India, central and south Africa,

and elsewhere.

Cultivation

On

arid

soils.

Wild. Cultivated as an ornamental

or hedge plant in tropical countries; propagate

;

agave

gum

saponoside; cutin; hecogenin, a sapogenin sugar, agavose. Uses (fresh or dried leaf, juice, root,

emmenagogue;

Purgative;

diuretic;

;

a

gum)

insecti-

cide; counter-irritant.

Wide

folk-medical use in tropical countries,

brown indehiscent winged

wounds. The

yields a yellow dye.

vomiting. Description

is

fermented

to yield the

Mexican

alcoholic drink, pulque.

Powdered leaf employed as snuff; root used in washing clothes. Used for fencing in tropical countries. In veterinary medicine it is only used as a purgative.

Agrimonia eupatoria specific

name

Perennial grass; long jointed, diabranching, yellowish rhizome 1-3 meter; erect glabrous stems; bright greenishwide; small purplish grey leaves up to 15 flowers in spikes appearing mid-summer to

fruit called samara. Chinese native. Naturalized in eastern North America. Cultivation Wild. Introduced horticulturally to

Distribution

urban areas as a shade-tree due to its rapid growth, and resistance to pollution and disease. Easily grown from seed. Constituents

Fixed

oil

;

volatile oil

;

gum

;

oleo-

mm

mm

autumn. Widely distributed Europe; naturalized in United

early

Distribution

native States

of

and

Steeples/Sticklewort

of this herb refers to Mith-

who

radates Eupator, ancient king of Persia,

was renowned

and

Description

L rosaceae

Agrimony Church The

gramineae

Grass troublesome weed to gardeners, Couch Grass has played a long and important role as a medicinal herb, and was promoted by Dioscorides and Pliny. European country people still drink it as a tisane and it is one of the plants eaten by sick dogs to induce

well-known

particularly for external application to burns

juice

'varnish' tree are

A

and contusions.

The

and

Couch Grass Twitch Grass/Witch

whole plant

as a lotion for

Agropyron repens (L) Beauv.

and oxalates;

phloionolic acid; oxalic acid

'copal'

the tree does not provide a

Rapidly growing deciduous tree reaching 10-20 m; leaves 30 cm-i m long, subdivided into 11— 14 oblong, lanceolate or ovate, gland-bearing leaflets 7.5-1 1.5 cm long. Flowers small, greenish in terminal panicles 10-20 cm long followed by reddish-

and externally

from seed or suckers. Constituents (leaf) acrid volatile oil

as

as a herbalist.

'Agrimony'

is

a

corruption of the Greek word argemon, a white speck on the cornea of the eye. This herb was

once famous for the healing of wounds, and it was an ingredient of eau de arquebusade, used to treat wounds, from the fifteenth-century word for musket or arquebus. Still used in European folk

medicine.

downy, red30-60 cm high; compound pinnate leaves, up to 20 cm long. Flowers (summerautumn) yellow, 5-8 mm wide and numerous. Distribution Throughout Asia, Europe, North America; common on roadsides, waste-ground, Description Perennial herb; erect

dish stems,

hedgebanks. Cultivation Wild, but easily propagated by root division in autumn. Tolerates varying conditions.

troublesome

in eastern states.

Australia and S. America.

Northern Asia,

Weed

of arable and

^jfr^yj;

Wild

plant.

'. Constituents

resembles

Triticin inulin)

;

(a

carbohydrate which

sugar;

inositol;

salts

of

potassium; mucilage; acid malates; a volatile oil with antibiotic properties. Uses (dried rhizome) Diuretic; urinary antiseptic. Useful in cystitis. Underground parts

once used

'..V 146

m

and

glycosides.

Uses

wasteland. Cultivation

resin; sugars; oxalic acid; possibly alkaloids

as cattle food.

(fresh

root

and stem bark)

hoea.

unpleasant causing nausea, is vomiting and debility, and is therefore no longer employed.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seingle

Ajuga reptans

Bugle

ornamental. The medicinal value of the bark in France in 1859. Ailanthus is

dried

The remedy

simaroubaceae Tree-of-Heaven Copal Tree/Varnish Tree Introduced to England in 1751 from Nanking in China, and then in 1800 to the United States where it rapidly became a popular was discovered

or

Emetic; cathartic; antihelmintic; astringent. Formerly used in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, asthma, epilepsy, palpitations and as a douche in gonorrhoea and leucorr-

L labiatae

Common

Weed One of

the

or Creeping Bugle/Bugle

common names

of Bugle

is

the

Carpenter's Herb, which reflects its original importance as a plant used to stop bleeding. Known to apothecaries as 'bugula' the herb is rarely used today, but it possesses other

AGR-ALL properties which as yet have not been fully

considered more effective although

researched.

been proven. with

Perennial

Description

leafy

or

stolons

runners; basal spatulate leaves form rosette; stem square, hairy on two sides and bearing

6-12 small blue flowers

in early to late

summer.

Occasionally white or pink flowered mutants. European native; introduced Distribution

Common on damp ground in loamy

elsewhere. rich

soil,

in

nutrients.

Mixed

woodland,

meadows. Wild plant; horticultural and variegata.

Cultivation

purpurea

Constituents

Tannins;

unknown

varieties

digitalis-like

cm

high;

diameter divided into 5-7 silky beneath, glabrous above; small yellow-green flowers in clusters on branched, erect, thin stems. Flowering from mid-summer until early autumn. white

leaflets

Prolonged use

in

and excessive

menstruation.

Used

in veterinary

medicine

for

diarrhoea.

and

Mountain ranges of Europe and

Distribution

styptic.

mountain pastures of northern Europe. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Similar to Alchemilla vulgaris

(Lady's

tinctoria Tausch. boraginaceae Alkanet Dyer's Bugloss/Spanish Bugloss

Alkanna

Although several colouring plants are now called Alkanets, Alkanna tinctoria probably was the first to be used. Its name is derived from the Spanish alcanna which came from the Arabic al-henna, the well-known Henna dye. Alkanet means the 'little alcanna'. It was exported

Mantle but

Uses (dried leaves) As for Lady's

considered more effective.

(dried whole herb)

Astringent; bitter;

Formerly used to stop haemorrhages; for coughs, and ulcers. Thought to aromatic.

possess heart tonic qualities.

.

10-12

Mantle).

substances. Uses

cm

leaves 3-7

and

plant) Astringent

relieves discomfort of menopause

Perennial herb

Description

has not

this

rosaceae Lady's Mantle Lion's Foot This is an example of a herb which acquired Alchemilla vulgaris agg.

a

r\

2

\M.

#-*sT# 1

4i

K

1

Alchemilla alpina L rosaceae Alpine Lady's Mantle

The

historical

associations of Alpine

Mantle are similar vulgaris.

reputation

to

those

far

greater

than

therapeutic

its

action would have suggested. Although un-

Lady's

of Alchemilla

Traditionally the alpine species was

known by

ancienl classical writers

it

became

important northern European magical plant on the discovery that ovcrnighl dew collected in the funnel-shaped folds of its partly closed nine-lobed leaves. To alchemically minded sixteenth century scientists dew was strongly magical, and so in turn was Lad\ 's Mantle. Hieronymus Bock emphasized this In an

ascribing the

name

Alchemilla or

the

'little

magical one' to the herb. Description Perennial herb, 10 50 cm hii^h. branched stems bearing lew round or rcniform leaves 3-8 cm in diameter, with 7 it lobes;

mm

flowers not prominent, 3 5 in diameter, greenish-yellow, in terminal panicles; tippet flowers small

spring

early closely

the

and without petals. Appearing to mid-autumn. At least {

1

1

related species are aggregated iindei

name

Northern Europe and mountainous areas of central and southern Europe. Prefers deep loamy moist soil in meadows, pastures, open grassy woodland, paths. Calcifugous. Cultivation Wild plant. Distribution

Tannins.

Unknown

anti-inflam-

mators substances. Action anti-diarrhoeal. Uses

(dried

leaves,

rarely

Pentaglottis

Description

dried

flowering

and

sempervirens,

Alkanet, Anchusa

Thick root up

reaching 30

narrow

the

Common

cm

long with

officinalis.

to 10

purplish root bark, bearing

cm

high;

numerous

stalks

leaves are long

somewhat

alternate,

hairy,

and

many

around root crown. Attractive funnel-shaped, purple-blue, sometimes white

clustering

or yellow, flowers; appearing late early

summer

to

autumn.

Distribution Central

and southern Europe-. At

roadsides, dry sandy Cultivation

soil.

Calcifugous.

Wild plant.

Constituents

Possibly an alkaloid poisonous to

mammals. Uses (root, root bark) Not used medicinally.

Used variously

Alchemilla vulgaris).

Constituents

from Spain, Germany and France for centuries as a dye for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use. It was also used by victuallers. It is now often replaced by the Evergreen Alkanet,

colour

is

as a colouring agent.

A

red

released in oils and waxes but not in

water. Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) (,ki<

11

1

Cavara & Grande

ERAS

Garlic Mustard Hedge Garlic/Jac k-by-thchedge A common European herb which has nevei

'47

ALL-ALO Shallot, formerly A. ascalonicum L, with this

Allium sativum

and numerous cultivars of A. cepa now exist, including some bred to crop within a limited range of day-length and temperatures. The unusual top Onions, (Egyptian or Tree Onions) were recorded by Dalechamp in 1587, and are usually grown as herb garden

Garlic

species

When late

present

they

are

greenish-

summer.

Probably native to central Asia or Now world-wide.

Distribution

Cultivation Cultivated plant, or wild very rarely.

Numerous

which are now submajor characteristics into

cultivars exist

divided according to 3 groups: the Cepa group, the Proliferum group, the Aggregatum group. The first group

of the crushed plant. Description Garlic-smelling biennial or peren-

reaching 30-100 cm; stem erect, simple. Leaves thin, pale green, petiolate, coarsely nial

cordate above, reniform beneath. Flowers small white, 6 diameter, in a false umbel; appearing mid-spring to mid-summer.

crenate,

mm

Distribution

European

native. In

open waste-

land, moist woodland, on well-drained nutri-

ent-rich

soil.

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

grine,

in

oil;

a

heteroside,

water yields the aglycone,

and

cuts or

in small quantities as a salad herb, boiled, or in

seed can be taken as a

condiment.

L liliaceae

Onion The Onion

has been in cultivation for so long country of origin is uncertain and it is now rarely, if ever, found wild. The plant is recorded in the works of the Chaldeans, Egyptians and Greeks, and as that

its

early as a.d. 79 Pliny described in detail and the varieties to be used.

its

cultivation

Columella in a.d. 42 introduced the word from which the common name is derived. Modern classification groups the unionem

148

juice)

Antibiotic;

the stem. Description Perennial or biennial; sub-globular

bulbs consisting of 8-20 cloves

partial bulbs pink-white skin. Several erect, long pointed leaves 1-2.5 cm w ide,

surrounded by flat,

to

15

cm

silky

long arising from base or crown.

Unbranched stem

spathe

7.5- 10

of

rose-white

greenish

or

flowers,

warm climates.

Prefers rich, light, well-drained

soils.

Cultivation

This plant has been grown from

the Mediterranean to Central Asia for centuries. Several varieties exist including small cloved and giant forms, and white, pink, or

mauve skinned

Flavour varies from

forms.

sweet to nutty, mild

to strong.

cloves in spring or preferably

dry 4

soil, in

cm

autumn

a sunny position, 15

cm

Essential

oil,

disulphide and

B2

allyl

comprising mainly propyl disulphide;

C; antibacterial subI and II:

vitamins A, also

in rich,

apart and

deep.

Constituents allyl

Plant individual

stances comprising allicin, allicetoin colds,

often

mm

antispasmodic; hypoglycaemic. Useful in the treatment of coughs,

and

long,

displaced by sterile pinkish bulbils 4 long. Distribution Asian native; introduced in all

diuretic; expectorant; hypotensive; stomachic;

cm

pointed, bearing apical, small, dense umbels

Bi,

an enzyme

,

alliinase.

expectorant; weak anthelmintic; weak fungi-

of use externally to relieve pain from

Allium cepa

fresh

is

level.

neuralgia, and rheumatism. Leaf may be used

The crushed

bulb,

The common name

duces the blood pressure and the blood-sugar

vulnerary; stimulant; rube-

dilute poultice, applied to ulcers

sauces.

(fresh

soldiers.

derived from the Anglo-Saxon leac meaning a pot-herb and gar, a lance, after the shape of

sini-

abrasions, cleans and aids healing; undiluted, is

Uses

,

Roman

were

allyl

facient; expectorant; diuretic.

it

,

garlic cloves daily to sustain their strength as

Uses (fresh bulb) Antibacterial: hypotensive;

Uses (fresh, or dried flowering plant occasion-

A

;

has been cultivated in the East for cen-

turies

Re-

isothiocyanate. ally) Antiseptic;

culinary

the Shallot, usually sterile but producing a crop of bulbs at the base and grown from these in early spring or late autumn. All onions prefer a very rich, deep soil. Constituents Similar to those of garlic also containing glucokinins; pectin; flavonoid glycosides; vitamins A, B,, B 2 B 5 C, E; nicotinamide.

bronchitis, laryngitis

plant.

Essential

which

common

Onion and its members have single bulbs and are usually propagated from seed sown in spring or autumn or from sets sown in summer. The second group contains the Tree Onion and its members produce swollen bulbils in the inflorescence, and are propagated from these bulbils in late spring or late autumn, or by division every 3 years. The last group contains contains the

as A. officinalis Bieb., the generic name derived from allium or garlic after the smell

flavour of the cloves develops best

and was widely employed medicinally by the Egyptians and Romans. The slaves that constructed the pyramid of Cheops were given

south-west India.

known

warm

most of the

is

It

appearing

is

in

The

is one of used dailv climates of the

flavourings and

120 cm, characteristically with 4-6 aromatic,

bulbils.

Also

cooking

world.

of the onion family,

Description Variable biennial or perennial to

white, small, numerous, in rounded umbels,

medically.

in

member common

in sunny countries, and may be rank when grown in northern Europe.

and hollow scape. Flowers sometimes absent or replaced by

much importance

the most

novelties.

cylindrical, hollow leaves

been of

Garlic, a

L liliaceae

gastro-enteritis.

Used externally as a local stimulant, on cuts, treat acne, and to promote hair growth. An important vegetable and flavouring.

cide. to

sion

Employed and

in the

treatment of hyperten-

arteriosclerosis; as a carminative

an expectorant

in

and

bronchial catarrh. Provides

protection against the

common cold, amoeboid

-

ALL-ALO dvsentery, typhoid and other infectious diseases. Garlic also increases the flow of bile and

was once used as an inhalation treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Wide culinary use; both fresh and cooked, the fresh juice

in the

when

the flavour varies.

vinegars and

Employed

in butters,

aroma

Parsley reduces the

salt.

on the breath. Contra-indications

May

be slightly irritant to the

skin.

Allium schoenoprasum

L liliaceae

Chives Chives is the only member of the onion group found wild in both Europe and North America, and although used for centuries was not cultivated until the Middle Ages. It cannot be dried with any success but may be quickfrozen and stored.

with blood led to the tradition that

larity

Perennial in clumps; small bulbs

Description

Alders was unlucky.

felling

The

tree

is

an

dark

inhabitant of wet environments and coinci-

diameter, green leaves, 20-30 cm long, 2-3 bearing in the summer an inflorescence of pink

was as a support under bridges or buildings. Venice is largely constructed on Alder posts.

produce

grass-like

cylindrical

hollow

mm

purple flowers in a compact spherical capitulum. Distribution Native to cool parts of Europe: introduced and naturalized in North America. Tolerates a wide range of conditions from dry. rocky places to stream banks, damp grassland or

and wood edges. Cultivation Wild but cultivated commcrcialK

dentally

main

its

use

Medium

Description

sized tree or large shrub,

reaching 25 m; leaves stalked, obovate, 5-10 long, downy veins underneath, sticky when unfolding: small flowers appear before leaves

cm

in early spring;

female catkins referred to as

in autumn. North Africa, Europe, parts of Asia. Introduced and locally naturalized else-

'berries'

almost spherical, formed

Distribution

where.

Prefers

moist,

swampy

sites

beside

Wild plant; cultivated commercially and the Caribbean. Grown as a house

Cultivation

in Africa

plant.

Barbaloin and isobarbaloin, formaloin; 'amorphous' aloin; aloe-emodin resin volatile oil. Action on large intestine largely due to purgative effect of Constituents

ing

'crystalline'

;

;

aloins

and aloe-emodin.

Uses (the brownish crystalline solid, resulting

from drying the liquid which exudes from cut L sed normally in combination with carminatives to prevent griping.

leaf blades! Purgative.

T

Fresh juice used

burns.

to heal

Contra-indications Excessive use induces

haemor-

rhoids.

streams. Cultivation

Wild plant.

Bark,

Uses

Aloysia triphylla Britt.

Tonic, astringent. Bark

leaves

decoctions once used as gargle and for external inflammations. Formally used in bitters. I

sed as a wool dye, the bark produces reds

blacks,

young shoots yellow,

the

fresh

and

wood

pink and the catkins green.

Once

L

A. perryi

Baker A.ferox Miller

LILIACEAE

Aloes Curacao/Socotrine/Cape

One

ol

history.

the

most important crude drugs of

Aloe vera

is

still

extensively used in

modern medicine. Known and horticulturally in northern Europe and America. Variable in form depending on environment. A large leaved type exists.

ander the Greal

Chinese chives A. tuberosum

Socotra

«

1

flavoured and has

flat solid

is

larger,

<

1

1

OS user-

leaves. Propagate

to

the Greeks at

as early as the fourth century B.C., a legend claims that Aristotle requested Alexleast

and

to

1

onquer the inhabitants of produced Aloes

the island which

install

Greeks.

the

In

tenth

century,

lis sowing seed in mid-spring, or by division ol clumps in spring or autumn. An excellent

however, Moslem travellers reported that Socotra was still the only place cultivating

decorative edging plant

Aloes.

Constituents

Very

for

similar

herb gardens. to

garlic

Allium

Uses

{

fresh or quick-frozen leaf)

Used only

lor

culinary purposes, (hopped in sauces, soups. salads

and

Curacao or Barbados Aloes were London druggists in 1693, and Cape

offered by

Aloes were exported

sativum).

as a garnish.

Description

Several

I

he

derives

from

an

old

Germanic word meaning reddish-yellow. sm< e the trunks change from white to reddishvellow alter felling.

A

lili-

flesh)

margin and producing woody branching

m

betulaceae Common Alder Owler

common name

of succulent

leaf blades, usually prickly at the

Alnus glulinosa (L) Gaertn or

species

1780.

aceous plants forming clusters of very tip; stemless or

Alder English

first in

supposed colour simi-

stems; from 45 cm- 15 tall, bearing erect spikes of yellow, orange or red flowers. Appears most of the year. Distribution Natives of dry,

and

This South American plant was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards and was once used to give a lemon scent to fingerbowls at banquets. The former botanical name Lippia citriodora

HBK

and the common name reflect the lemon scent of the plant's leaves. Lemon Verbena's modern generic name, Aloysia comes from the name Louisa, after Maria Louisa, wife of King Charles IV of Spain. Although half-hardy this herb makes a good indoor plant, as well as providing attractive and aromatic stems and foliage for flower strong

extensively used by tanners.

Aloe vera

verbenaceae

Lemon Verbena

Tannins.

Constituents

sunny areas of south

east Africa; naturalized in north Africa,

Spain, Indonesia and the Caribbean islands

arrangement. Description Aromatic shrub to 3 m, but rarely more than 1.2— 1.5 m in cooler northern temperate zones. Branches striate and scabrous, bearing whorls of 3-4 leaves which are entire, 5

7.5

cm

long, short-petioled, glabrous,

lanceolate and dotted on the underside with oil-bearing

glands.

Flowers

mm

lavender, small (6 or terminal panicles.

white

or

pale

long) in axillary spikes

Native to Chile and Argentina; widely distributed in tropical zones. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticulturally and as a greenhouse plant in temperate zones. Half-hardy in cool temperate countries and Distribution

requires

frost

and

against a south

wind

facing

protection;

wall

on

light,

plant well-

drained soil; protect with straw and cut back at the end of the growing season. Propagate from woody cuttings in early summer or from seed sown under glass in early spring.

1

l'i

ALP- AN E recorded by Ibn Khurdadbah in 869 who listed it with Musk, silk and Camphor as an article of trade from the Far East. It was commonly used in the Middle Ages as a culinary spice with Cloves, Nutmeg and Ginger. The plant from which the root came was not described until 1870, when it was named after Prosper Alpinus the sixteenthcentury 'teacher of drugs' at Padua University. Description Perennial rhizomatous herb of flaglike form; stems reaching 1.5 m, covered with long narrow lanceolate leaves; bearing racemes of orchid-shaped flowers, white and veined

rhizome 3-9 cm long, 2 cm thick; pleasantly aromatic when dried. Distribution South China, tropical south-east red;

comprising mainly

Uses

(fresh

dried

or

leaf)

Antispasmodic;

stomachic; aromatic.

As a

tea

it

is

Also galangol; galangin; kaempferide.

Of use in

flatulent dyspepsia.

Once used

for seasickness. Snuff for catarrh. Culinary spice. Vinegar and cordial manufacture; brewing. Popular in east European, Russian and Indian cuisine.

nausea, indigestion, flatulence, palpitations,

Althaea

Marshmallow used

be

flavouring in cakes,

sparingly fruit

as

dishes

a lemon and sweet

officinalis

Sweet Weed/Schloss Tea/

Althea

The name

is

well

known

as a confectionery

;

the

was a soothing paste

containing the powdered root. The plant has a long medicinal and culinary history; the

The

Romans

dried leaf

is

employed

in

pot-pourris and

perfumery. Contra-indications Prolonged use or large internal dosage may cause gastric irritation. oil

used

is

in

Alpinia officinarum

Galangal

Hance zingiberaceae

East India Root/Galans;a

was introduced into European medicine by the writings of the Arabic physicians Rhazes and Avicenna; it was first

This

150

root

level to

Constituents

30%

keep cool. mucilage comprising glucosan and xylan; responsible for demulcent action. Also sucrose; lecithin; phytosterol; asparagin.

Externally as poultice for leg

gastric ulcers. ulcers.

Powdered

ingredients in

and then

fried

pill

root used to bind active manufacture. Roots boiled

with butter, or young tops eaten

in spring salad.

Althaea rosea (L) Cav.

and

considered

in the

it

a delicious vegetable,

ninth century the

Emperor Charle-

magne promoted its cultivation in Europe. Today it is widely used both in folk and modern medicine. Description

1-

1.

with

25

m 3 -5

petioles;

Erect

hardy

perennial

reaching

high; stem and leaves hairy, latter lobes

or

5-petalled

undivided white

or

and

pink

Malvaceae or Garden Hollyhock

well-known and widely distributed it first reached Europe from China in the sixteenth century, after which it was used both as a medicinal herb and a pot-herb. Turner gave it the name Holyoke in 1548 indicating the blessed mallow, and a

decorative garden plant

scented sachets.

The

light soil if

below root

Now

L Malvaceae

original pate de guimauve

foodstuffs, or in drinks.

autumn. compost introduced

or division of root-stocks in spring or

Succeeds on

Hollyhock Common

of benefit in the treatment of

vertigo.

Leaf may

autumn.

Uses (dried root, 2 years old; le-aves, flowers)

Similar to Ginger. oil,

until early

Moist places throughout Europe from Norway to Spain; temperate parts of western and northern Asia; Asia Minor, Australia, and eastern North America. Prefers saline areas, salt marshes and damp land near to sea or estuaries. Often wild. Cultivation Wild and commercially cultivated. Propagation by seed sown spring or summer, Distribution

Demulcent; emollient. Relieves inflammations of mouth and pharynx, and gastritis and

Uses (dried rhizome) Carminative, stimulant. Essential

clustered in leaf axils,

summer

Wild; grown commercially. Constituents Essential oil and resin, both stimulant.

Constituents

in diameter,

in late

Asia, Iran. Cultivation

citral.

3-4 cm appear

short

flowers,

Lyte

in

1578 called

it

the 'beyondsea rose'.

Description Tall biennial

producing

in

second

m

year spire-like, hairy, flowering stem up to 3 tall; iarge, rough, long-stalked 5-7 lobed leaves, in the axils of which are

formed flowers, up to 10 cm in diameter on short peduncles. Colour from pale pink or yellow to purpleblack. Flowering mid-summer to late autumn. Distribution Cultivation

Native of China.

One

Now

widespread.

of the oldest cultivated plants;

;

ALP- AN E from seed. Tolerates most soils. Mucilage; volatile oil; tannin and anthocyanin pigment. Uses (dried double purple flowers) Antiinflammatory, emollient, mildly purgative. Used as tisane for chest complaints or as a mouthwash. Colours wine. easily raised

Anacardium

Constituents

Cashew Nut

L anacardiaceae

occidentale

Although only the nut or kernel

known

tropical

this

tree

and products, and

variety of uses

widely-

is

provides

wide

a

is

of some

in Africa

and

Spreading attractive evergreen

tree

importance

in native

medicine

the Americas. Description

Amaranthus hypochondriacus

L amaranthaceae Amaranth Love-lies-bleeding/ Red Cockscomb This herb is one of a number of Amaranthus

reaching 12 m, bearing alternate oval leaves 10-20 cm long, 3-10 cm wide, and scented panicles 20 cm long of yellow-pink flowers each

which have been taken into horticultural cultivation. Most were native to tropical countries where they are predomin-

receptacle

species or varieties

antly coarse looking plants usually used as pot-herbs.

The name

amaranton

meaning

Greek

derives from the 'not

since

fading'

the

crimson flowers do not fade with the death of the plant, and thus the plant came to symbolize

The

immortality.

bright red colour led to the

1

cm

across.

Flowers followed by fleshy edible (cashew-apple)

enclosing

partly

kidney shaped nut. Distribution Native to tropical American zones

and

naturalized

cultivated

in

tropical

countries. Cultivation

Commercially

in groves

and occurs

infrequently in the wild. Constituents Protein: niacin;

magnesium;

iron;

anacardic acid: cardol. stems up to 30 cm long, thinner branched ascending stems bearing opposite leaves, ovoid and spotted black on the under-

square

with purple centre, appearing in leaf axil from early summer to early autumn. There are two varieties of Anagallis arvensis, one red and one blue. Distribution Widely distributed in temperate zone, especially Europe. Found in loamy soil side; scarlet flowers, often

single, long-stalked,

with

high

content;

nutrient

vegetable and

cornfields; rare on wasteland.

Saponin.

Constituents fully

Use

Active

principles

not

understood.

(leaf,

whole herb,

Once

diaphoretic.

phobia,

fresh or dried). Diuretic,

used

depression

in

hydro-

epilepsy,

following

liver

disease,

dropsy, and rheumatic conditions. Leaves once

used

in salads.

Cosmetic herb

'pimpernel

as

water' for freckles. Contra-indications

POISONOUS;

there

is

evi-

dence the plant causes anaemia. Leaves can belief that the plant stopped

all

kinds of bleed-

part of the seventeenth-century school ol

ing

thought known as the Doctrine of Signatures. annual to 2 m; i<< t. upper parts branched; leaves dull green, spotted with purple, 3 15 cm long, 15 to I.75 cm wide, on thin petioles; the small Description Tall glabrous

<

mm

greenish or usually crimson flowers, borne on erect terminal clusters, to 20 cm long, appeal

summer.

in late

Uses

nut,

Nut or kernel content Tree bark once

tree bark, fruit)

malarial fevers and fresh shell removes warts and corns. Juice from fruit made into wine and spirit. Milky secretion from incised tree makes indelible marking ink. Non-drying lubricant oil from nut. Ammonium salts of resin form hair dye. Contra-mdications Oil from fresh shell strongly

used

in certain

juice

vesicant,

Native of tropics and American central states. Prefers waste-grounds, ultivated fields.

oil.

nutritive, high protein

1

ausing skin

blisters.

Distribution

(

Wild or grown horticulturally from

Cultivation

seed

sown

Constituents

in ipring.

Mucilage; sugars.

Uses (dried flowering herbi Astringent. in

diarrhoea. Externally as wash

as gargle for

swelling,

Young

lor

Oftue ulcers;

ulcerated mouth; to reduce

and

also as

leaves of

douche

lor

Amaranthus

tissue

leucorrhoea.

species widely

used as a vegetable.

The

related A. retrofiexus (L) oner used as

alternative

Content.

made

It

soap,

to

was

due

to

high

an

saponin

also used as a vegetable; seeds

into flour.

Anagallis arvensis

L primulaceae

Scarlet Pimpernel Pool Mans Weatherglass This is an interesting herb which merits modern research. It was held in high esteem from the time of the earliest Greeks until the nineteenth century and is now rarely used, even in folk medicine. Evidence suggests that it is of benefit in melancholia and diseases of the brain; its Latin name derives from the Greek 'to delight", a term given to the herb by common name is Dioscorides; another 'laughter bringer'.

and

close

Description

if

The

flowers are sensitive,

rain threatens.

Annual herb; prostrate creeping

cause dermatitis.

L ranunculaceae

Anemone alpina

Alpine

Anemone

Previously classified botanically as Pulsatilla

Schrank. and Anemone acutipetala Hort., herb formerly enjoyed only local European

alpina this

folk-medical

use,

either classical or

and

is

not

mentioned

in

modern works.

Description Perennial on thick rhizome; stems reaching 10-40 cm, soft-hairy. Leaves large,

long-petioled, ternate then 2

pinnate. Flowers with 6 sepals, solitary, 5 7.5 cm wide, white tinged with violet; appearing mid-spring to early

summer.

Native to the mountains of Europe. Introduced elsewhere.

Distribution

Cultivation

Wild.

Hegi, which is

The

subspecies sulphurea (L)

characterized by yellow flowers, lound in alpine collections. Propagate by is

division or root cuttings in

autumn

spring; or from seed as soon as Constituents

it

is

or early

ripe.

Protoanemonine; anemomne.

Uses (whole, dried flowering plant) Irritant;

anodyne. Formerly used in the treatment of toothache alterative;

•5

1

AXE-APH petioles reaching 30

cm

kidney-shaped 3-lobed

leaves, green above, reddish-purple beneath.

cm in diameter, born on hairy scapes reaching 40 cm; from mid-winter to early autumn. Distribution North temperate zone; mainly in moist deciduous woodland, preferably calcareous, with loamy soil. Cultivation Wild plant. Propagate by division soon after flowering; in sheltered position on ordinary soil with good drainage; or from seed gathered and sown in mid-spring. In shade. Seed dispersed by ants. Constituents Mucilage; tannin; sugar. Action Light blue flowers, 4

singly

Fresh

Constituents

ranunculin. This

plant

contains

glycoside,

converted via protoaneanemonine on drying. Action due is

monine to anemonine.

to

Sedative; analgesic;

Uses (dried aerial parts

nervine;

some

Used

spasmolytic.

headaches,

for

skin eruptions, earache, painful condi-

tion of reproductive organs.

Employed homeo-

and

also for menstrual

pathically for measles pain.

POISONOUS

Contra-indications

when

fresh.

Dried herb should only be administered by medical personnel. Overdosage causes violent gastroenteritis

and convulsions.

uncertain. Fresh leaf contains the poisonous

protoanemonine. Uses

Anethum graveolens

Demulcent:

dried leaves and flowers

pectoral; tonic. Tisane used for liver congestion,

kidney, gall-bladder and digestive dis-

Of use as syrup

orders.

Distilled

for

coughs or bronchitis.

water once used

Contra-indications

in large doses.

pain, but

due

to

its

toxicity

it

Contra-indications

POISONOUS;

not be taken

name Easter.

Anemone hepatica

L ranunculaceae

Liverwort This delicate looking herb possesses individual flowers which last for little more than one week but which in that time have the ability to double in length. Its name comes from the heparatos

meaning

liver: in folk

used for treating the Description Small perennial; is still

root-stock:

almost

medicine

is

much branched produces

still is

respected

grown widely

its

beat". it

in

as a

and has been

in

it

is

and

a constituent of gripe water

still

common name

is

is

The

derived from an old Indo-

shaped

to

1

m

with spindle-

tall,

root, bearing usually

one

stalk: leaves

specitn

Gerard

flowers at traditional

decorative

plant.

Erect,

Description

5-40 cm

soft,

hairy

perennial

herb

high, with bi- or tri-pinnate leaves

appearing as rosette after solitary flower formed: flowers hairy, dark blue-violet, 6 petals, 3 -5 cm long, from late spring to mid-

summer.

liver.

evergreen;

It

medicine, and

Kidneywort American

Greek

'to

called the herb Pasque Flower as

internally.

it

meaning

Pulsatilla

Seed

in the Bible

use as a medicinal herb from the earliest times;

belliferous plant,

Legend maintains- that anemones only open when a wind is blowing, and the Greek word anemos means 'wind'. Certainly this very attractive hairy plant waves about in the slightest breeze, a fact reflected in

has fallen into disuse.

mentioned

is

European word meaning 'to blossom". Description Aromatic annual; typically um-

Anemone Pulsatilla L ranunculaceae Pasque Flower Windflower

and rheumatic

Dill

L umbelliferae

Dill

often included in children's medicines.

for freckles.

POISONOUS

Weed

Dill Dill

on

Wild on dry, sunny, calcareous throughout Europe. Introduced elsewhere. Prefers well-drained chalky oil. in dry. Distribution

slopes

warm

situations.

Cultivation

Wild

plant. Cultivated by division

of rhizomes after flowering or seed sown in

shallow tray in spring. Other horticultural varieties are alba

and

rubra.

feathery,

leaflets

of

consisting

linear;

numerous

terminal yellow

umbels

flowers

in

mid-summer. Distribution

W ild r

Asia.

countries.

Origin southern Europe or western in cornfields of mediterranean Now widespread garden herb.

Tolerates most Cultivation

soils.

From

seed sown in spring; easily

cultivated. Constituents Oil of Dill comprising,

d-carvone:

d-limonene: some phellandrine. Uses

(dried ripe fruit,

fresh

or dried leaf

.

Carminative: stomachic: slightly stimulant. Excellent as Dill water for digestive problems in children, especially flatulence.

Pickled cucumbers, flavouring for soup, sauces,

cakes,

pastries.

Dill

vinegar.

fish,

Most

important in Scandinavian and central European cuisine. Perfumes soap.

1^2

.

AXE APH Angelica archangelica

L umbelliferae

Angelica European

Now

best

known

or

Garden Angelica

as a decorative confectionery

the candied green stems, Angelica an important ingredient of liqueurs and aperitifs. It does not appear to have been used until the fifteenth century, soon after which it acquired a reputation as a plant which gave

made from

is

also

protection against evil and the plague.

European Christianized names hints

origins

north

planfs

tion with early

at

The

and

its

deep associa-

its

Nordic magic.

Description Biennial or perennial: if latter last-

up

ing

to

4 years; from 1-2.5 m m gli, stem cm thick, bearing few triangular

hollow, to 6

deeply dentate leaves to 90

cm

long.

Large

numerous greenish-white flowers, mid-summer to early autumn. Distribution Native to northern Europe or Asia. Introduced and cultivated elsewhere. Common garden herb; prefers damp meadows,

spherical umbels of

river banks, waste-grounds. Cultivation

Seed rapidly

loses viability;

sow

as

mid-autumn in deep moist soil. soon Transplant following autumn to m apart, or as ripe in

1

transplant offshoots from 2 year old plants to

name Antennaria comes from

botanical

was not important even

species

cine, but

the

pappus resembles antennae. This

fact that the

much

use

is

made

in folk

medi-

of it in dried flower

arrangements. Various related species, however, have been used more than the species dwica for example, an American relative. (•naphalium polycephalum classified as

dwica previous!}

Gnaphalium dioicum was a favourite

remedy

Indian

A.

for

mouth

and the

ulcers,

Chinese herbalists use G. multueps

Wall,

to

treat coughs.

20 mi high, on single unbranched erect or 5 decumbent stem. Spatulate basal leaves in .1

rosette to 8.5

cm

and tomentose

long, white

beneath, green and glabrous above. Linearlanceolate stern leaves. Flowers

",

dense terminal involucre, which

nun long is

woolly

l

m

apart.

Volatile oil and derivatives ol coumarin which stimulate digestive se< retions, control peristalsis and increase appetite. Also bitter principles; sugar; valeric and angelic Constituents

dried rhizome

1

and

roots, seeds, fresh leal

Aromatic; stimulant

sterns

;

carminative.

islands;

to

pasture,

light

25OO dry

m

altitude,

Cultivation Constitui

I

an in 11 essential :

The combined

oil

;

Once

Wide

bronchitis and bilious conditions.

and

portant constituent

confectionery ol

use.

Im-

liqueurs such as Bene-

soils.

resin

;

a bittei

action promotes the

Stimulates appetite; of benefit in bronchitis, anorexia nervosa, bronchia] catarrh. culinary

on

How ol bile-. / a dried flowering plant Astringent; chole(in weak diuretic 1

in

;

.

used

irr

mixtures

lor

the

treatment ol Mav be used

diarrhoea, and as a throat gargle.

Antennaria dwica (L) Gaertn.

compositae

Cat's Foot

Cudweed

I

In-

down)

this plant

I. lie

Everlasting

leaves

being

and woolly involui re led as Cotton Weed;

known

Anthriscus cerefolium (L] Hoffm. mbei.liferae Chervil Garden Chervil Although this is an important culinai v herb in is not widely grown or used outside France that country. It is however one ol the best herbs lor growing in boxes, and will supplv fresh leal throughout the winter if it is sown \

it

to its

to

Middle

East,

Russia, the Caucasus. Cultivated in

temperate climates. degree of moisture.

Prefers

Cultivation Easily cultivated

light

south

warm and soil

with

from seed, lightly

permanent site, early to mid-spring or autumn. Rapid germination and soon runs to seed. May be sown in boxes lor

soil

at

w inter supplv Volatile

Constituents

oil;

stimulates the meta-

bolism. fresh leaf before flowering

us

poultice

applied

to

Stomachic.

painful

Mainl) used lor culinary purposes; plement most dishes.

will

joints.

com-

Aphanes arvensis agg. rosaceae Parsley Piert Breakstone Parsley

common name

is derived both from a resemblance to Parsley and from the old French perce-pierrc signifying a plant which grows through stonv ground. The Flemish botanist De L'Obel suggested in 1570 that although the herb was not widely used by was commonly employed by the herbalists, poor to 'break' stones in the kidney or bladder. Todav it is one of the most highly respected

The

superficial

it

plants used in the treatment of kidnev Stones.

branched stem up to wedge shaped; insignificant flowers 1.5-2 mm in diameter borne in axillary clusters; appearing from late s|)i int; until late autumn. Description

20

di( line.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses lust stimulate and then paralyze the central nervous system.

Native

Distribution

I

Wild plain.

fits

mm

Warm

woodland and

thickets; prefers poor, porous, sand) dry

principle.

,k ids

and

Aleutian semi-dry

herb

produced mid-summer.

in

White male flowers and pink female appear early sum ma to early autumn. I> Native to central and western tribution Europe, United States and the North Pacific

greenhouse. sweet-smelling

reaching 70 cm high, with pale green delicate leaves, deeply segmented. Stem slightly hairy; in diameter, in flat umbels, flowers white, 2

.11

base

warm

Annual

pressed into

Description Stoloniferous. dioecious perennial.

60

regularly in a Description

cm

Annual;

tall;

Distribution

parts of

leaves,

thin

3-5

lobes,

Native British herb,

Europe on bare

soil

in

common

in

dry places.

cornfields, wasteland, walls, gravel pits. CalciIllgOUS.

'53

API-ARC L ranunculaceae Columbine European Crowfoot

winter. Strong smelling.

Aquilegia vulgaris

Southern European native. Wild in marshy and salty soils in Africa, Europe, South and North America. Cultivation Wild plant.

Columbine is from the Latin columba meaning dove. In the Middle Ages it was referred to as aquilinae and ackeley after the Latin aqmla

Constituents Volatile oils; apiol.

meaning eagle - both terms

Distribution

Uses

dried

or

(fresh

plant,

appetizer; carminative. Strong diuretic juice used.

Once recommended

in

referring to the

Tonic;

seeds)

if fresh

treatment

of rheumatism, excess weight, loss of appetite.

Decoction of seed beneficial in nervousness. Dried leaf may replace celery for soups, sauces, and stocks, although it has a stronger taste than Celery.

Apocynum cannabinum

Canadian

L apocynaceae

Hemp Hemp

Dogbane/Black

Indian Hemp This was one of many North American plants introduced to settlers by native Indians. No longer used in medicine. Description Perennial to 2 m high, stems erect, branched only at top, bearing ovoid leaves

Cultivation

Constituents

Wild plant.

An

flower shape.

The

astringent principle.

Uses (dried leaf

and

flowers) Diuretic;

demul-

the

Considered most effective when freshly collected and dried in the treatment of kidney stones, bladder stones or painful urination.

in the

cent.

was provided by

somewhat

this

day

from

leaves sessile. Leaflets 3-lobed, crenate. Flow-

celery flavour

ers

palates,

few to many, nodding on long peduncles,

violet-blue or white, 5 early summer.

was a

Romans. The Celery we eat today was developed initially by Italian gardeners on the plain of the Po. Description Biennial with bulbous fleshy root, producing branched angular stem 30 cm - m high in second year. Leaves opposite, 10-15 cm long, dark green, dentate with fan-shaped leaflets; small grey-white flowers in sparse compound umbels from late summer to earlyfavourite of the

Distribution

Native

to

cm

diameter; appearing

Europe. Naturalized in

eastern North America, and introduced else-

where. In mixed woodland, mountain forest on rich calcareous soils to 2000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Frequently grown as a garden ornamental, especially the double-flowered cultivars Alba Plena and Flore Pleno. Propagate

1

by seed or by division Constituents

lipid;

with

hairy lower surface,

to

7.5

cm

long;

flowers small, whitish-green in terminal clus-

followed by thin double pods 10-15

ters,

long. Flowers late

summer. Root up

to 2

cm

m

long.

North America, near streams, open ground, forest borders, in gravel or sandy soil. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Apocynamarin, a cynotoxin: symarin; apocynin and derivatives; phytosterols. Distribution

Action of a

heart

stimulant,

dilates

Uses

an uncharacterized alkaloid. (Root, flowers and leaves) Antiseptic;

astringent; weakly sedative.

No longer employed internally; once used in homeopathy to treat nervous conditions. Only the root may be used, externally, for the treatment of ulcers. Contra-indications POISONOUS. Seeds may be fatal to children. Most parts have a similarly poisonous effect as Monkshood (Aconitum napellus L).

Medical use only.

renal

L leguminosae

Arachis hypogaea

rhizome, roots, bark) Diuretic; powerful emetic; laxative. Used in folk medi-

Peanut Ground-nut

(dried

worms and fever. Powerful heart stimulant. The fibrous bark employed as substitute for hemp in cine in North

America

to

treat

manufacture of nets and twine. Contra-indications

tion

needed

POISONOUS;

in usage.

in spring.

Cyanogenic glycoside: vitamin C;

arteries.

Uses

•54

741, but fell

Stout perennial with pubescent stems branched at the top; 60-80 cm tall. Basal leaves long-petioled, biternate, upper

wild herb, which although

bitter to present

1

Description

graveolens L umbelliferae Celery Wild Celery/Smallage all

of

nineteenth century A. vulgaris

official use.

Apium

Until the seventeenth century

herb's antiscorbutic effect was recorded in

Wurttemberg Pharmacopoeia

Although the Peanut is now one of the best known and universally grown edible nuts, it was not until 1840 that Jaubert, a French colonist of

Cape Verde, suggested

greatest cau-

its

importa-

an oil seed. The first to mention the plant was Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes who lived in Haiti from 151 3 to 1525 tion into Marseilles as

API-ARC and reported the mani - a

mon names

that Indians widely cultivated

name

for Arachis

still

such

Gypsy's Rhubarb, Pig's

as

Rhubarb and Snake's Rhubarb

used in South

refer to this.

America and Cuba. Description Annual herbaceous legume, 25 50

widely employed in folk medicine for skin problems, and cultivated commercially in

cm

Japan

tall;

pairs

Still

stems slightly. hairy; leaves consist of 2

of leaflets,

oval.

5

cm

long.

Yellow

for use as a vegetable.

Description Biennial or short-lived perennial to 2

m;

m

cm

5

thick hairy stems. Vertical roots

Large leaves, ovate and petiolate with undulate margins. Small tubular flowers 1

long.

red to purple, consisting of disc florets only, in

cm

spherical capitula of 3-5

diameter. Fruit

surrounded by hooked bracts (burr). Appearing late summer to mid-autumn. Distribution European native. North America. Prefers weedy sites and roadsides, on loamy, nitrogen-rich

soil.

Wild plant; cultivated commercially from seed in Japan. Cultivation

Inulin;

Constituents oil; resin;

bitter

principle;

Uses (root, fresh or dried - from plants;

volatile

several antibiotic substances.

fruits,

the

rarely

Diuretic.

Of

Increases resistance to infection.

year

first

leaves)

use in

various skin diseases, especially psoriasis and

eczema. Stalks, before flowering,

may

be eaten as salad

or boiled as vegetable.

same way and eaten.

Stalks are candied in the

flowers possess long calyx tube; after flowering

the latter possessing strong antibiotic activity

the stem bearing the ovary elongates, bends

against the

towards the ground and forces the young pod beneath the soil. Pod oblong, 2.5 cm long, containing 1—4 irregularly ovoid seeds. Distribution South American native. Widely cultivated, especially Africa, India, China, and America.

Uses (bark, root, leaves, fruit! Antiseptic; anti-

Mycobacterium

inflammatory; astringent; diuretic. May be used to treat diarrhoea and biliousness, and possibly of use in arteriosclerosis. A decoction provides an excellent antiseptic wash, gargle or poultice. Formerly employed

mown

in certain

flower has

drinks or preserves such as marmalade.

of the glycerides of 4 fatty acids. Uses (seed, oil expressed from seeds) Nutritive

bark was once used

in leather

wood provides good

quality charcoal, and

the seed

Unknown

is

substitute

in the

wild state;

:

an important foodstuff. Used as a for

olive

oil.

Employed

in

kidney and liver complaints. The weak diaphoretic properties.

Fruit can be used with discretion in alcoholic

suitable for turning

tanning.

The The is

and marquetry.

Arctium lappa

ERICACEAE

Bearberry Uva-ursi/Mountain box This herb's common name comes from

L compositae

1

recent

research

shrub;

to

Trailing 15

cm

green,

leathery,

A

Small

flowers,

Known

from which chara< teristica the name is derived. It also resembles Rhubarb, and several com-

diameter.

and early Arabian physicians, but never widely employed; it deserves modern investigation, however. Arbutus is an ancient name, while unedo is from to

Dioscorides

the Latin phrase unum edo or

I

has

shown

that

it

possesses

effective antiseptic properties.

Greater Burdock Beggar's Buttons/Lappa herb with dock-shaped leaves, and fruiting heads covered with hooked spines or burrs,

the

Greek arkton staphyle signifying 'bear's grapes'. It was used in the thirteenth century by the Welsh physicians of Myddvai, described in detail by Clusius in 1601, and officially recognized to be of medical importance in 763 bv several German physicians working in Berlin. Although use of the herb declined,

L Ericaceae Strawberry Tree Cane Apples

Arbutus unedo

as angelica.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L) Spreng.

Description

the

manufacture of soap.

root cooked

bacteria.

on a large scale commercially and horticulturally in tropical and subtropical countries. Constituents Peanut or arachide oil, consisting

(Cultivation

Chopped

or

creeping

evergreen

high, forming mats of dark

ovoid leaves 1-2 white or pink in

cm

long.

terminal

12, followed by red fruit of 5 mm Appearing early spring to mid-

clusters of 3

summer.

eat only one,

supposed unpleasantness of the fruit. Description Erect evergreen shrub or tree 3 10 m tall. Young bark reddish. Leaves alternate, petiolate, serrate, oblong to obovate, shiny above, 5 10 cm long. Flowers creamy-whin or pinkish, urceolate, in nodding panicles 5 cm long, appearing late autumn to mid-winter, followed by scarlet, warty berry. Distribution Native to south Europe, eastern France and Ireland. Introduced elsewhere. In damp situations often in woodland. Cultivation Wild, locally abundant. Crown hortirulturally in warm regions on welldrained soils; requires wind protection. Propagate by seeds and cuttings of half-ripened wood in autumn under glass; also by layering. (Constituents Tannins; arbutoside; ethyl gallate, after the

»55

ARE-ARN Cool regions of northern hemis-

Distribution

phere. In coniferous woodland, moors, alpine

mats, on porous acid humus-rich Cultivation

Wild

Uses

soils.

Arbutin and methylarbutin. which produce antiseptic substances related to phenAlso flavonoids: tannins: gallic and egallic

-

fruit

ripe

or

taenicide.

unripe

dried leaves

fically

Diuretic: antiseptic. Speci-

used in kidney and bladder infections. for bronchitis and urinary in-

medicine.

Chewed

nut.

with a

little

Contra-indications

Used for leather tanning. Ash coloured dye. Grouse feed. Added to smoking mixtures.

use restricted to veterinary.

Contra-mdications Prolonged use results in con-

Birthwort Birchwort The fact that the herb was

Areca catechu

L arecaceae Betel

Areca

is

also

constituent

Nut known as

of the

the

combination

lime and a Piper BetU

continence.

and

made from

as a masticatorv in

lips

Areca Nut

human

in

urinary tract disorders, and for the expulsion of tapeworms. Use now restricted to veterinary

Once used

stipation.

Astringent

Once used

Dentifrice, using the charcoal

acids.

Uses

one of which resembles pilocarpine:

stimulant:

plant.

Constituents

ol.

alkaloids,

also areca red.

leaf.

Stains

teeth red.

Toxic

in large doses:

medical

L aristolochiaceae

Anstolochia clematitis

at

one time con-

Nut since it is a chewing mixture

Betel

"betel"

is a widespread habit in the East. The mixture consists of Areca. a little lime and leaves of the Betel plant Piper betle As earlv as 140 b.c. Chinese conquerors of the Malayan archipelago returned with samples of the Areca palm and nuts, which became known as pin-lang after the Malay word, pinang. for them. Asians chew small pieces of the nut to sweeten the breath, strengthen gums and

which

.

rhomas Johnson Serpentarv was introduced European medical usage via the London

into

Pharmacopoeia of 1650. and as late as 1741 rTrov was praising its effectiveness as a remedy for rattlesnake and rabid dog bites. A century after this it was only being used as a diaphoretic, and then often in combination with Cinchona bark. It is now seldom used

improve digestion. Elegant palm: straight smooth trunk 12-30 m high. 50 cm circumference. Description

Numerous feathery leaflets 30-60 cm long, upper confluent and glabrous. Flowers on branching spadix. male above and numerous: female usually solitary and below. Fruit ovoid 5 cm long, orange or scarlet, in bunches of up

even

sidered important in childbirth

Maritime Malaysian native; cultivated in India. Ceylon. Malaya. Burma. East Africa. Introduced into American tropics as an

by

its

common and

derived from the Greek

and

locheia

is

emphasized

Latin names. Aristolochia

meaning

aristos

meaning

is

best

childbirth. William Tur-

gave the herb

ornamental. Prefers coastal sites. Cultivation Collected from wild, and cultivated

ner, the father of English botany,

in coastal areas.

herb has not been subjected to modern investigation and is rarely employed. Description Perennial on long rhizome: stem erect or slightly twining to 50 cm high: heartshaped dark green leaves with long petioles. Flowers axillary. 3 cm long, yellowish-green appearing from early summer to mid-autumn. Distribution Europe and temperate North America. Japan. In thickets, vineyards, weedy edges of fields, in warmer situations on

Constituents

Tannin:

gallic acid: oil:

gum:

four

its

common name in

calcareous

soil.

Cultivation

Wild

the sixteenth century.

The

plant.

which

is

similar to

colchicine. Uses

dried root-stock, entire fresh flowering

Diaphoretic: emmenagogue: oxytocic: Once used in rheumatism and gout. Juice from stems once used to induce childbirth. plant

stimulant.

L aristolochiaceae Virginia Snakeroot Birthwort Serpentarv The earliest belief concerning this herb was that it would give protection from poisoning. Specimens from Virginia were growing in London in 1632. and were described by Aristolochia serpentana

=,6

25-40 cm high, with branched stems bearing heart-

shaped

pointed

leaves

7.5

cm

long:

roots

brown flowers arising singly on short stalk coming from the stem base. Distribution East Central and southern United fibrous. Dull purple to

States: in shady woods. Cultivation

Wild plant.

Constituent^ Essential oil: resin: aristolochine.

Stimulating tonic: dried root-stock Uses diaphoretic: anodyne: nervine: once used for treating snake bites.

Used

in early stages of in-

Small doses stimulate appetite. Contra-indications Large doses act as irritant, and cause vomiting and vertigo. Respiratory fectious diseases.

paralysis

may

also occur.

Armeria maritima

Mill.

\\ illd.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Constituents Aristolochine.

I

medicine.

erect, slightly

to 100.

Distribution

in folk

!> inption Perennial herb

Thrift Sea Pink Sea Pink now belongs to the genus Armeria which consists of at least 100 closely relau d species and many more subspecies and varieties which are often exceedingly difficult to differentiate. This genus was formerly called Statice A. maritima was known as Statice armeria L and is closely related to the Sea Lavender genus known as now Statice but called also once Limonium. The American Sea Lavender Limonium vulgare Mill, has similar antiseptic properties, but like Thrift

it is

now

very rarely

used for medicinal purposes. Thrift has most widely been used as an edging

ARE-ARN Arnica montana

L compositae

Arnica Mountain Tobacco When grown at high latitudes such

in

as

Arctic Asia or America, a form of this herb

produced which

is

leaves; although this

Vahl

is

characterized by narrow

was once renamed by

as Arnica angustifolia,

it is

really a variant

form of Arnica montana. The herb was known by Matthiolus and other botanists, and was widely used in sixteenth-century German folk medicine. Largely as the result of exaggerated claims by a Viennese physician, it enjoyed short-lived popularity among the medical profession in the late eighteenth century.

Aromatic perennial with creeping rhizome, producing a basal rosette of 4-8 downy leaves 4-7 cm long in the first year. Flowering stem usually unbranched, hairy, 30-60 cm high, with only 1-2 pairs of opposite leaves. Flowers golden-yellow, daisy-like, appearing mid-summer to early autumn. Distribution Central and northern regions of the northern hemisphere. Prefers sandy acid soils, Description

humus, in a sunny position. Root division in spring; or seed sown in spring in cold frame and transplanted in early summer. Seed may be slow to germinate, occasionally as long as 2 years. Wild rich in

resemble, and armoracia. the

to

Roman name

Radish which cannot be identified

for a wild

with certainty as Horseradish. Gerard gave the

herb

present

its

was known

common name,

but before him

English as Red Cole or Redcol. plant appears to have been

plant in formal gardens, and from the six-

it

teenth to the eighteenth centuries few species

Certainly

were

more popular in Scandinavia and Germanv and otherwise did not find much use in western Kurope until the middle of the

as

popular

purpose.

for this

Description Grass-like perennial

woody

on branched

forming basal rosette of narrow (3 mm) linear, -nerved (occasionally 3-nerved), acute or obtuse, fleshy and glanduroot-stock

1

2-15 cm

lar leaves,

Flowers stalked, white),

downy

rose-pink

mm

8

corolla

globular heads,

long, ciliate at the edges.

occasionally

for

diameter,

in

dense

cm diameter, on leafless, 20-55 cm tall. Appearing

1

.5-3

scape mid-spring to mid-autumn. Variable in form. Distribution Native to Europe, Asia and North

America; on dry sandy somewhat acidic soils lills and in sandy turf, coastal salt-marshes. mountain pastures to 1400 m altitude. Cultivation Wild; frequently found growing in dense evergreen masses. Propagate from seed sown in spring on light, dry, well-drained soil, in full sun or partial shade; or by division ot <

the

seventeenth moutarde

irritation.

May

Rarely used, even

in folk

medicine.

be employed hortic ulturally as an ex-

cellent, low,

evergreen edging plant for formal

arrangements. rusticana

Gaertn, VI

<

v el

Scherb.

Horseradish Linnaeus gave Horseradish the botanical name, Cocklearia armoracia, aftei cochleare, an obsolete name for a spoon which its leaves were thought

in-

troduced and cultivated elsewhere; tolerates most dampish soils.

Wild

Cultivation

and

ally

plant. Cultivated

hortic ulturally.

division in spring OT

Constituents Polyacetylenic oil;

tile

flavones;

unknown s\

in vola-

phulin;

inulin;

substances acting on the circulatory

stem which

and

compounds

arnicin;

later

initially

raise

it.

lower the blood pressure, Also substances which

increase biliary secretion. w

\

dried

Stimulant;

flower- heads,

diuretic;

dried

rubefacient.

rhizome) is an

It

and kidneys, and hence only of use externally - in bruising, sprains and dislocations. Homeopathic doses are effective in epilepsy, seasickness and possibly as hair growth stimulants. Used as a gargle for treating inflammations of the throat. Contra-indications POISONOUS: can be toxic if taken internally. Repeated external use mayirritant to the digestive tract

cause skin irritation.

commerci-

Propagate by root

autumn, planting at -,<»-< in and thin

intervals, or sou seed in early Spring I,

in

1

Grows

watei

vigorously.

Fresh

which

is

by the

root

contains a glycoside.

decomposed in the presence enzyme myrosin, producing

ally] isothioc

oil

antibiotic substanc

yanate; vitamin

Stimulant; rubefacient

Uses (fresh rool

C.

:

es. :

weak

diuretic.

taken

he

M.i\

intern. dlv

as

svitip

,1

bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, coughs,

she eel

Most

on boils or rheumatism.

root in

widely

used

especially in sauces fish,

lor

and

lot

to

Applied externally

stimulate' digestive organs. .is

CRUCIFERAE

mid-autumn. European native;

to

South-east

Distribution

poultice

Armor acia

leaves,

Appears mid-summer

mustard

an antiseptic

high on stout.

c

oi

as

basal

1

plant, but protected in parts of Europe.

/

m

1.5

m high bearing lusters <>l white flowers and. beneath, ste-m leaves with short petioles

Uses (dried flowering plant; Antibiotic; anti-

cause dermatitis or local

as

cm long and 5 cm 30-100 cm long, coarse-, lanceolate with dentate margins and long petioles. Erect flowering racemes 50 cmlarge

thick:

obesic Once used it) the treatment of obesity, certain nervous disorders, and urinary in-

may

it

it

tapering, lleshv taproot to 60

sinigrin,

it

and druggists knew

Description Perennial to

action due to plumbagone.

Cannot be employed

century.

de\ allemands,

Constituents

poultice as

The French called

Raf)hanu\ rusticanus.

clumps, replanting every 2 years, 25 em apart. Constituents A napthaquinone, plumbagone; mineral salts comprising mainly iodine, bromine, and fluorine; mucilage. Antibiotic

fections.

in

Cultivation

as

a

rubefacient

culinary

purposes.

and vinegars; complements

poultry, and beef.

Contra-indications

May

be

vesicant

to

some

skins; large- internal doses pie>diiec tion ot

inflammathe gastrointestinal mucosae.

'"»:

ART-ASA Artemisia abrotanum

Southernwood

L compositae

Lad's Love/Old

L compositae Tarragon Russian Tarragon

Artemisia dracunculoides

Man

In common with other members of the Artemisia family this is a strong-smelling herb which has the ability to repel insects. For this

reason

it

was

called garde robe

Unlike French Tarragon the flavour of this variety improves as the plant ages, although never

by the French

achieving

dracunculus.

dracunculus

the

delicacy

of Artemisia

The Latin name is derived from meaning 'little dragon' after a

herbalist's description of the coiled serpent-like root.

Artemisia was the Greek

who was regarded Artemisia

as

name

for

Diana

the discoverer of the

group of herbs. Russian Tarragon

is

also called Artemisia redowskii. Description Perennial

1

.5

m

high with erect,

branched stems bearing smooth, pale green entire leaves 3-6 cm long, and clusters of greyish-white woolly flowers in late summer. Distribution Asia and Siberia. Introduced elsewhere.

and cultivated as garden sown under glass in mid-spring or in the open in early summer. Root division in spring or autumn; cuttings in spring. Hardy during winter and tolerates any soil. Cultivation

Wild,

plant. Seed

Constituents

Essential

oil

identical

to

Anise,

largely lost during drying.

Uses (dried or fresh herb) Fresh herb promote^ appetite.

who

used it to protect clothes from attack by moths. It was also considered effective against infection and employed in nosegays by court-

and herb wines. Both absinthe and vermouth obtain their names from the plant, the latter

room and jail officials. The name Southernwood is derived from the Old English suthernewudu meaning a woody plant from the south,

of the

since

is

it

a native of southern Europe. At one

time herbalists considered the herb an aphrodisiac,

which

led to the

common name

Lad's

Love. Description Perennial

subshrub

to

90

cm

high

with branched feathery grey-green leaves 6 cm long, finely divided and somewhat downy.

Flowers very small, inconspicuous, yellowishwhite, in loose panicles, appearing late to early

summer

autumn.

Southern European native; introduced and widespread in temperate zones as garden plant. Naturalized in North America. Cultivation Easily propagated from young, green cuttings in summer, or heeled cuttings from old wood in autumn. Prefers full sun and light to medium soil with added compost. Needs hard clipping in mid-spring to prevent Distribution

straggling growth.

May

Constituents Essential oil,

in

German Wermut which was also the name Wormwood. The herb contains several substances which may

origin of the English

adversely affect the body

high hairy stems bearing highly aromatic bipinnate and tripinnate leaves covered in ;

down. Flower-heads 3-4

mm

diameter, with

grey-green bracts and numerous minute yellow florets, appearing late summer to late autumn.

Europe, North America. Widely introduced garden plant. Found

Distribution Central

Asia.

on waste-ground, especially near the

warm

sea, in

regions.

Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by seed sown outside in late spring, thinned to 30-60

cm

apart. Often slow to germinate. Cuttings

taken in summer; root division in spring or

autumn.

slight shade.

powder mixed with treacle to treat worms Used in aromatic baths and

taken in excess

this reason it produces some of the strongest, and most dangerous, alcoholic drinks. Description Perennial undershrub 0.75-1 m

mainly absinthol.

children.

if

(including the hallucinogen, santonin) and for

not flower.

Uses (dried whole plant) Stimulant; emmenagogue; antiseptic; antihelmintic. Once used as a

being an eighteenth-century French variation

Prefers

medium

soil

in

full

sun or

Bitter principle and volatile oil which stimulate secretions and promote appetite; also a glucoside; resins and starch: antihelmintic action due to santonin. Constituents

poultices for skin conditions.

Uses (whole flowering plant, leaves) Anthel-

Leaves discourage moths.

mintic;

Stems yield yellow dye. Foliage used

in floral

decorations.

L compositae Absinthe/Green Ginger Several species of absinthium are mentioned by Dioscorides, and many of them were employed for the removal of intestinal worms. Although one of the most bitter herbs known, it has for centuries been a major ingredient of aperitifs Artemisia absinthium

Wormwood

158

antipyretic;

antiseptic;

stomachic.

Used to aid digestion, stimulate digestion or for abdominal colic. The tincture was formerly used in nervous diseases. Used in liniments. Used in vermouth, in absinthe, as a tea, and for stuffing geese. Some countries ban its use

Similar uses to French Tarragon

in wine.

L compositae Tarragon French Tarragon An essential component of French

Contra-indications Habitual use causes convul-

plants

sions,

causes

restlessness

vertigo,

delirium.

and vomiting. Overdose cramps, intoxication, and

Artemisia

dracunculus) but of inferior flavour.

Artemisia dracunculus

cuisine,

French Tarragon are difficult to obtain and almost as difficult to maintain. Even under ideal circumstances the of the

'true'

delicate flavour of this varietv tends to revert

ART-ASA coarser flavour of Russian Tarragon.

to the

Similarly unless

it is

dried carefully an inferior

product results. The common name is derived from the Arabic tarkhun, via the Spanish taragoncia.

cm

Perennial 90

Description

high with slim,

branched stems, bearing smooth, dark shiny entire leaves 3-5 cm long, and clusters ol

erect,

greyish-green or white woolly flowers, appearing

mid-summer

Distribution

where

as

to late

summer.

Southern Europe. Introduced elsegarden plant or for commercial

cultivation. Cultivation Cultivated commercially in Europe and the United States. Cannot be propagated from seed. Divide roots in spring or autumn or

Renew

take cuttings in spring.

every 3 years

from young cuttings. Protect in warm situation during winter, especially when young. Prefers a richer soil than Russian Tarragon, and may

Can be grown

require the addition of peat.

indoors as a pot herb. Will not tolerate wet

soil.

Constituents Essential oil.

No modern medicinal

Uses (dried or fresh herb

use - formerly used in toothache.

promotes appetite. Widely used as flavouring

The herb

leaflets. Flowers brownish-yellow to numerous, small, arranged on panicles and appearing late summer to mid-autumn. Distribution Asia. Europe. Naturalized in North America. Common on various soils,

toothed

red,

especially for salads,

steak,

if

they are nitrogen-rich. In waste-

hedgerows and near rivers and streams. Cultivation Wild and cultivated. Seed sown in spring. Root division spring and autumn. Grows quickly and needs restricting in gardens. A variegated form also exists.

white

Constituents Volatile oil; resin; tannin; a bitter

spring to early summer, followed by scarlet

lands,

principle, absinthin,

which stimulates diges-

flowering shoots,

(dried

emmenagogue. Used

Diuretic;

leaves, as

roots)

an aid

in

irregular menstruation, lor lack of appetite,

and weak of

digestion. Chinese

employ

the cones

the leaves imoxasi for rheumatism, in the

therapeutic method

Used

as a

A

tea.

known

as

moxibustion.

culinary herb for stuffing

duck or other fatty fish or meat. Repels flies and moths. Leaves may be used

geese,

for

flavouring and the clarifica-

tion of beer.

Contra-indications

Large prolonged dosage

in-

jures the nervous system.

butter, vinegars,

and

is

best

known

for

its

use

with chicken.

Used

in

some perfumes and

liqueurs.

late

and western Europe, north Found in porous

Africa, introduced elsewhere.

loamy

soils,

in

warm damp

sites,

hedgerows,

woods.

Wild plant.

Cultivation

an unstable skin and which is largely broken down on drying; starch; gums; saponin; sugar. Aroine,

Constituents

mucosa

irritant,

(fresh

dried

or

strong

Diuretic;

dried

leaves,

purgative;

tubers)

no longer em-

ployed internally. Bruised fresh plant applied

Formerly used

preserves, pickles, shellfish, lobster, herb

Flowers appear

fruits.

Uses in

tobaccos.

fish,

(spathe).

Distribution Central

tion.

Uses

bract

in rheumatic pain. Used homeopathically for sore throats. Well-baked tubers are edible, nutritious and

externally

harmless.

Root starch, after roasting or boiling, and then drying and powdering, produces an arrowroot substitute used for starching.

Arum maculatum L araceae Cuckoopint Lords and Ladies/Arum Because of the obvious sexual symbolism of the

Contra-indications All

erect spadix of this attractive plant, almost

POISONOUS.

all

European common names have some sexual connotation. Even Dioscorides suggested that the herb was an aphrodisiac. It may have been for this reason that large quantities of the

parts of fresh plant are

its

Artemisia vulgaris

L compositae

Mugwort An

Felon Herb/St John's Herb ancient magical plant, deeply respected

throughout Europe, China and Asia, and once known as the Mother of Herbs (Mater Herbarum). It was one of the nine herbs employed to

demons and venoms

repel times.

Although used

especially beer, the

in

pre-Christian

to flavour drinks,

common name

is

and

derived

from the Old Saxon muggia wort meaning 'midge plant' after its ability to repel inset ts. Description l,ie
pubescent perennial; grooved with reddish-purple colouring, angular, reaching 1.75 in. Leaves 2.5 5 cm long, dark green above, whitish and downy on

strips

the

underside;

pinnate

or

bipinnate

with

tubers were processed and sold as a foodstuff in

the eighteenth

The herb was

and nineteenth

centuries.

and root was employed to starch ruffs in the sixteenth century, even though the practice often caused blisters on the hands of also called Starchwort,

starch obtained from

those

who

used

it

it.

Description Perennial plant arising

from ovoid tuber 3 cm diameter; arrow-shaped leaves to 25 cm long, plain dark green or with dark brown-purplish spots. Flowers occur at base of purplish club-shaped spadix which is enclosed in characteristic 15-cm long leafy greenish-

Asarum canadense

L aristolochiaceae

Wild Ginger Canadian Snakeroot As the name suggests the root-stock may be used as a substitute

Ginger. American herb was an effective

for root

colonists

found

stimulant

when taken

the

as a tea,

and American

Indians believed a decoction of the root-stock to

be an effective contraceptive.

Description Stemless ginger-smelling perennial,

with round, fleshy root and branched, hairy, root stalks each bearing 2 kidney-shaped leaves, dark green above, pale green beneath, to 20 cm wide. Flowers single, bell-shaped. dull brownish-purple, appearing close to the

ground

summer. Canada

in

Distribution

and

northern

United

•59

ASA-AVE 1

1

yV

A

.J A -

'

,

.

Aspalathus linearis (Burm.

appears early summer to early autumn. Distribution Europe, Siberia, Caucasus; in woods and shady sites. Introduced elsewhere in temperate zones as a garden plant. Cultivation Wild plant. May be propagated by

leguminosae

J!

';

autumn;

root division in

careous

K f^

surface or leaf mould. Single purplish flower

*-

?

fekL

BP^^Mw

and

^P>

States, Russia,

moist shaded Cultivation

leaves) Emetic; purgastimulant in small doses.

Produces copious mucus flow if taken as snuff. Once an ingredient of tobacconists' 'head-

Far East. In rich woodland on

as

an important medicinal herb,

employed

sites.

Wild plant.

Constituents Volatile oil

L asclepiadaceae Pleurisy Root Butterfly Milk Weed Once officially recognized and included in the United States Pharmacopoeia and long used

Asclepias tuberosa

''

resin a bitter principle

;

;

in

is

still

European and American

folk

it

medicine. Appalachian Indians made a tea from the leaves to induce vomiting during

asarin; sugars; alkaloid.

certain religious ceremonies. Several species of

Stimulant; tonic; diuretic; diaphoretic; carminative. Tea used in flatu-

Asclepias

Uses (root-stock)

lence

and indigestion. Thought

to exert direct

influence on the uterus.

May

be used as a substitute

for root

Ginger.

Oil used in perfumery.

Dried root used Contra-indications

headaches.

Large doses cause nausea.

Numerous

in dry,

was called medicine by Dioscorides. Herbalists of the Middle Ages it

name

another herb which was probably a true cyclamen. Sixteenthcentury apothecaries joined the names and described the Hazelwort as Asarabacca. Most

members

warm

climates

tea.

Commercial exploitation

now gaining

in

of the tea,

which

is

popularity in Europe, began in

the early twentieth century after successful experiments to improve seed germination and cropping techniques. Description

Shrub or shrublet, decumbent or

m. Branches bearing thin (0.4-1

erect to 2

wide), glabrous leaves, short,

leafy

shoots in

1.5-6

cm

long,

the leaf axils.

mm and

Small.

bright yellow flowers, often with violet tinge:

followed by

1.5

cm

long pod.

as

i

m;

fleshy

cm

long and darker green abo\

<

.

erect, beautiful

North American native; common sandy or gravelly soils on roadsides. Cultivation Wild plant propagate by division Distribution

nut-shaped Rowers

asaron

given by Dioscorides

in

fermentation process necessary to obtain the

orange-yellow flowers in terminal umbels appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn, followed by long, narrow seed

An inconspicuous herb with

bacc/iaris, a

and shoots which develops,

leaves

white root-stock supporting few stout hairy stems, bearing hairy alternate, lanceolate

pods.

incorrectly called the plant

grown

are

Description Attractive perennial to

Asarum europaeum L aristolochiaceae Asarabacca Hazelwort/Wild Nard

and cyclamen-shaped leaves, and introduced into

1772.

colour

attractive garden plants.

leaves 5 -15

as snuff to relieve

Thunberg when he visited the Cape in The common name derives from the red

together with a distinctive aroma, during the

Uses (dried root

'ST

Rooibosch was traditionally used by South Bushmen and Hottentots and its popularity was noted by the botanist Carl

African

of the

clearin' snuff.

-

Rooibosch Red Bush Tea

loid; sugars; resin.

tive; sternutatory;

I

R. Dahlgr.

Constituents Volatile oil; bitter principle; alka-

i

tiM

prefers moist, cal-

humus and shaded.

rich in

soil,

fil.j

to

of the family Aristolochiaceae are

climbing woody plants from South America. Description Herbaceous perennial bearing 2 kidney-shaped, leathery, long-stalked leaves on short pubescent stems. Inflorescence arises from thick root-stock and flowers on soil

of root-stock in spring. Constituents Glycosides, including asclepiadin;

resins; volatile oil.

Uses

dried

root-stock

Diaphoretic;

anti-

spasmodic; carminative; expectorant. Specially of use in infections of the respiratory tract

such as pleurisy. Powdered roots used as a poultice on open sores.

Young

seed pods and root-stock

may

be boiled

and eaten. Contra-indications

Very large doses cause

rhoea and vomiting. vomiting.

Wfe£

Fresh

leaf tea

diar-

causes

South African native; especially in Cape, on well-drained, sandy but

Distribution

western

moisture-retaining, non-acidic Cultivation

soils.

Wild. Cultivated commercially

South Africa from seed sown 10 late

winter

or

early

spring

seedlings transplanted in

mid

in

mm

deep

in

in

seed-beds:

or late

summer

10-20 cm tall. Later trimmed to promote branching. Plantations replaced every

when

6 or 7 years. Constituents

Vitamin C; tannin (1-3%); min-

eral salts; quercitin:

unknown

substances.

fermented young leaves branches) Anti-spasmodic: tonic. Uses

(dried

and

Of benefit in vomiting, diarrhoea, and other mild gastric complaints. Clinically untested but traditionally is considered of use in certain allergic disorders - especially milk allergy. 160

ASA-AVE as a hot or cold beverage: also used as a culinary herb, and as a flavouring

Mostly employed

and the Tea

This attractive low-growing herb which is frequently found carpeting beech woods makes useful ground cover in shady places or beneath

baking.

in

Asperula odorata L rubiaceae Woodruff Sweet WoodrufT/Waldmeister

Asparagus officinalis L liliaceae Asparagus Garden Asparagus/Sparrow

first definite report of its use is found in Grand Herbier (1504) printed in Paris. The herb was known by various names during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries including Strygium, Strychnon, Solanum somnijerum.

the

Grass

Known

Sperage or Sparrow Grass in the the Garden Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis subsp. officinalis) has been cultivated as a delicacy for over 2000 years. It became an 'official" medicinal herb due to its as

century,

sixteenth

and

laxative herbalists

it

and some

properties,

diuretic

claimed

also increased the libido.

Europe Asparagus grows The name is from Greek word meaning 'to sprout".

In parts of eastern

wild and the

is

eaten by cattle.

Description Perennial with short root-stock 5

cm

producing in spring the young fleshy shoots which are eaten as a vegetable. If they are left, they mature into many branched stems 1-3 m high which bear insignificant leaves in the axils of which are clusters of cm needle-like modified branches cladodes long. Small bell-shaped whitish-green flowers appear in cladodc axils early summer to midlong,

1

h was

roses in formal beds,

widely used

fragrant herb in earlier times as

as a

develops,

it

branched stem 50 200 cm

from

Strong scent it

many

which

quadrangular 1

-n

5

cm

smooth,

high. Leaves in

oi i>. dark green, lam eolate, 3 cm long, rough-edged small white funnel-shaped flowers appear on long stalks earl) summer to midsummer. Plant has a Strong characterise

whorls

smell.

Introduced elsewhere; cultivated in United Prefers porous loam) soil, rich in

States

mixed woodland. Wild plant: ma) he propagated seed sown in late miiiiiiii'i to earl)

1

m

(

orange berries

wide

a

<>n

iaIK

Produc-

scale.

tion of the vegetable requires 3-year-old plants.

7.5

<

years. Seed

]j

last

deep.

in

loam

1 iii

\

sown

position.

/

rich

subspecies

\

found wild.

also

141

1

m

:

phoretii

;

laxative,

bordei

in

tannin.

used

oumaiiii

foi

for

biliary obstructions.

fresh

due foi

item to

Diuretic; dia-

high fibre content

treatment

goul and rheumatism. ulinar) use as a vegetable.

oi

tonic.

Sonne

ol

anticoagulant drugs. Tea relieves

stoinai h pains.

dropsy,

ized

I

In

fla\

oui ing.

perfumery and pot-pourris, and

linen.

for

si

cnting

Repels insects.

Contra-indications

dizziness

with

smooth.

leafy,

tall

Native

ally

Europe, Asia; natural-

to

soils.

Wild

plant.

Widespread commercial

ultivation from seed or by root division.

Hyoscyamine; atropine;

Constituents

other alkaloids inainlv

sv

traces of

Action

root-stork.

in

autonomic nervous

to these affecting the

stem. root-stock and leal

Uses

Reduces

Employed

secretions.

Narcotic mydriatic ;

:

and sudorific gland

salivar)

treatment of biliar)

in

Formerly used in nervous diarrhoea and enuresis. Used iii heart anyth-

and

intestinal colic.

as

Externall)

a

liniment

gout

in

or

rheumatic inllainmation.

a delii ions tea

ied in cei tain w ines as a

to dilate the pupils.

Perennial

and introduced elsewhere. Found especiin woods and wasteland on calcareous

mia.

Flowers and leaves make

who

black berries.

sedative.

a dried herb Carminative; diuretic;

Once

Herba used

plant

on thick creeping root-stock. Leaves dull green, unequal sized pairs to 20 cm long, bearing solitary bellshaped purplish-brown drooping Mowers 3 cm diameter in the axils. Appearing midin summer to earl) autumn, followed by shin)

due

s.

Coumarinic ((impounds which coumarin as tin plant dies down: also

Contra-indications

All

ONOUS;

to

supei

v

only

pans extremel) be

POIS-

under medical

used

ision.

Large quantities can produce

and symptoms of poisoning.

Atropa belladonna

young

Once recommended 1

foi

root division after flowering. Ideal

resin;

ai id

root,

•

\\ ide

deep

Oil

Volatile oil; glucoside;

\tituentt

lannii

is

[ate spring,

in

seeds per hole

open

A. officinale subsp. prostratui

Con

undei planting

1

commen

Wild plant; cultivated

and horticultural!)

sand)

hei h

I

Coasts and sand) areas; woods and

hedges; Great Britain to Central Asia. Cultivation

Bids

01

diametei

iii

Distribution

water of it

Description

i

tituents

01

a distilled

Cultivation

autumn,

the

called

first

donna after the practice of ladies

Cultivation

release

red

who

Venetians

nutrients, especially in

from ripe

oi

nightshade".

Distribution

Alma

North

Europe,

Asia.

Distribution

fruit

apothebeing translated as 'deadly Matthiolus stated it was the it

Description Perennial with creeping root-stock

.1

slender stems arise.

summer. Bears

mortale. the latter - the for

billa

dried.

for this reason

m

name

ol new mown hay: was one of the main strewing herbs tor home and church floors. The Latin name asperula refers to the roughness of the w heel or ruff-like leaves.

when

•

and Solatium caries'

I.

soi

aw eab

hi, saliva L gramineae Oats Croats One ol the do/en members I,

1

ol

the grass family

Deadly Nightshade Dwale

which together provide the staple

Although a plant with such powerful sedative and poisonous properties was undoubted!)

ol

widel) used for sinister purposes,

it

cannot he

identified with certainty in classical writings,

the

Latin

world's

name

Description

population.

most

diet for

Avena

the

is

old

lor the plant.

Annual

tufted erect grass,

high, with broad leaves

\

nun

1

1

cm

t.25

m

wide,

i6i

BAL-BRY word meaning

'to reject' since

normally

is

it

rejected by cattle. Although the plant

is

of some

now grown

medicinal value, it is gardens only because it

is

in herb regarded as one of

Whorls of

flowering.

to late

typical

labiate

Appearing mid-

axils.

and bark

leather. Fruit

of the eastern hemisphere.

Wild

by

root

division in mid-spring or sow seed in late spring, later thinning to

40

cm

herb sedative: antiemetic; especially used to counteract vomiting during pregnancy.

hairs.

derived from A. fatua, A. sterilii or .1. barbaja. which originate from southern Europe and

Widespread commercial cultivaoften found "lowing wild, having escaped

Cultivation

from cultivation. Constituents Starch; protein; gluten: albumen; salts; /

r&s

gum

L berberidaceae Barberry European Barberry Sowberry A useful shrub cultivated in medieval times

Berberis vulgaris

near monasteries

east Asia.

tion;

flowering

dried

oil;

tocopherol.

(dehusked seed, starchy seed endosperm

Nutritive;

antidepressant;

use in depressive stales

and

thymoleptic. in

general debility

;

highly nutritious.

was used

It

dyeing, and as a medicine, and

its

in

delicious

berries were used lor jam. jelly

sweets.

Now

relegated

to

and candied hedgerows, it is

becoming scarce. Barberry is a host plant of the wheat rust and long before plant diseases were understood

()l

and churches.

farmers

accused

the

plant

ol

'blighting' wheal. /),

to 2.5

m

tall,

L labiatae

Betula pendula Roth,

betulaceae

Silver Birch

able time: Birch bark

is

to

poor, the tree has

man

for a consider-

have been found in Mesolithic excavations and North American Indians still use the bark for domestic purposes. The tree has also long been considered magical and reputedly has the ability to repel enchantment and evil. Its employment as a form of whip or 'birch' predates the Roman lictors

rolls

who used Betula species in the fascis they Now widely grown horticulturally as

carried.

an attractive garden

tree.

Deciduous tree to 20 m high: white bark, smooth and peeling in horizontal strips. Pendulous slender branches bearing resinous, rough and scaly glands. Leaves bright green

Description

to

cm

7

long, irregularly serrate, heart-shaped

triangular.

Flowers consist of male and

female catkins.

greyish beneath with 3 sharp spines at the base.

northern Europe, the mountainous parts of southern Europe and Asia Minor. Also found in Canada and the northern United States.

Black Horehound Stinking Horehound

Flowers small, yellow,

This generally unattractive herb is distinguished only by its strong and objectionable odour, which caused Turner in 154H to describe it as the 'stynkyng horehound'. Dioscorides gave the plant the name ballote which is probably derived from the Greek

late spring

oblong

to

in

(lusters

appearing

mid-summer, and followed by

scarlet to purple fruit.

Distribution

naturalized

Native from Europe in

Distribution

I

to East

Asia:

eastern North America. Prefers

olerates

Cultivation

Common

all soil

Wild

types plant.

throughout central and

and

situations.

Grown

Constituents Volatile oil: a

horticulturally.

saponin: a flavonoid

:

deciduous woodland on chalk) soils. Once common in hedgerows but becoming scarcer due to infection by black rust fungus

antiseptic action, thus used in urinary tract

disease.

infections.

light

Cultivation

[62

for use in curries.

bearing rod-shaped branches tinged yellowishcm long in (lusters. red. Leaves obovate 2.5 |

Ballota nigra

and and eaten with

for wool, linen

into jelly

mutton, candied and pickled

\

Ered deciduous shrub

w ription

made

Although birch timber nevertheless been of use

apart.

Constituents Flavonoids.

Uses

dye

as a yellow

soil.

Propagate

plant.

liver diseases.

used in the manufacture of tooth-picks

Distribution Natives of

Cultivation

a eultigen possibly

and other

gall-stones

much

nitrogen-rich, moist, rather loose

is

1

Wood

autumn.

temperate Europe and Found on wasteland, hedgerows and on walls; prefers

lemma without

atropur-

var.

Constituents Alkaloids comprising berberine, oxyacanthine and chelidonic acid. Fruit rich in vitamin C. Uses root bark, stem bark, ripe fruit Cholagogue; specifically used in the treatment of

purple flowers borne in

Distribution Avena saliva

include

varieties

Strong smelling perennial with angular branched hairy stems, 40-100 cm high, bearing heart-shaped leaves, crenulated, 2-5 cm long, opposite and often turning black

summer

spreading;

Horticultural purea.

after

1

early

the traditional herbs. Description

5-30 cm long, flat and scabrous. Short ligules. Terminal panicle 15—25 cm long, open and

autumn; seed sown in late autumn; or cuttings taken in autumn and planted in sandy soil.

of suckers in early

spring or early

Wild plant. Propagated by layering

resin.

Uses

dried young leaves

rheumatism.

Formerly

Diuretic, with mild

used

for

gout

and

BAL-BRY made from the bark. The tree made into birch wine and vinegar. Birch wood seldom used commercially as timber; but employed for broom handles.

A

narrow or lobed with

beer can be

sap

bright

small,

is

serrate margins. Flowers

yellow,

twig-like

in

racemes,

appearing mid-summer to early autumn. Seed dark reddish-brown in colour, in smooth pods.

Whole of Europe except far north northern Africa, Asia Minor, China, western India, North and South America. Cultivation Wild plant; formerly cultivated commercially on a wide scale - this now restricted to southern Italy, Sicily, Ethiopia. Seed sown in drills in spring preferably on rich

Bark once used as candles and the oil extracted from it was used to cure leather, and also in medicated soaps for skin conditions.

Distribution

L compositae Bur-Marigold Water Agrimony The herb is unrelated botanically to the common Agrimony and it scarcely deserves the name marigold with its inconspicuous brownBidens tripartita

;

soil.

Glycoside

Constituents

(comprising

sinigrin)

yellow flowers. Flies and insects are repelled

and an enzyme (myrosin) which react

when

presence of water

the herb

burned. Description Erect annual 15-60

cm

high, with

smooth or downy branched stems; leaves 5-15 cm long, opposite, dark green, mostly with 3 or sometimes 5 leaflets. Flowers brownish-yellow, inconspicuous, somewhat drooping. Late summer to mid-autumn. Distribution European native. Common on soil.

Wild

Cultivation

sown

plant.

Propagate from seed

in spring.

dried flowering herb

Uses

alternate, rough leaves, hairy on both surfaces. 3-1 cm long and up to 2.5 cm wide, usually without petioles. Bright blue, drooping starshaped flowers 2 cm wide appear from early summer to mid-autumn on sparsely flowered racemes. Distribution Native to mediterranean region; naturalized and introduced elsewhere; found 1

Constituents Volatile oil.

Astringent: dia-

to

Mainly used as a rubefacient poultice for rheumatism, local pain and chilblains. Added to hot water as a foot bath. Used as an ingredient of the condiment Flour of Mustard.

banks, in ditches, near ponds. Prefers

river

muddy

in the

form allyl isothiocyanate (or essential oil of mustard) which is responsible for the smell, taste and inflammatory action of mustard. Also contains proteins; mucilage; and non-volatile oil. Uses (seed, leaves) Stimulant; irritant; emetic.

is

Young

leaves occasionally used in salads.

Contra-indications

May

Should

sparingly

used

be

tender

blister

skins.

when taken

in-

ternally.

garden escape. Wild plant and prolifically selfThrives on ordinary well-drained

especially as Cultivation

seeding.

Sow seed in shallow summer.

in full sun.

soil

drills in

late spring or late

Mucilage;

Constituents

tannin;

volatile

oil:

various mineral acids. Active principles not fully

understood,

and

diuretic

they

but

act

as

mild

a

sudorific.

dried flowering plant, fresh leaves) Mild

Uses

diuretic; once used

for

kidney and bladder

inflammations. Used externally as a poultice on inflammations. Taken as a tisane for

rheumatism Said

and

for

respiratory

infections.

stimulate the flow of milk in nursing

to

mothers.

Candied flowers used for cake decoration. Fresh leaves and flowers added to salads, and phoretic; antihaemorrhagic. Formerly used in a variety CX(

1

ol

pt for

A weak

now

condition*, but

rarely

antihaemorrhagic purposes. dye is obtained from

yellow

used

the

officinalis

1

iptions of

i<

(

to bees,

its

bright blue star-shaped flowers are

alwa\s covered with the msec is. Description Annual 01 lometimei biennial herb, with ere* hair) stems to 60 m, bearing ovate, 1

Roots

lips.

<

Brassica nigra (L) Bla< k

Koch cruciferae Mustard

word

lie plant, howe\ ei, does not lend itself Well is often mechanical harvesting as 2 3 m

1

it

height,

As

a

and readily sheds

result

has

it

its

almost

when

seed

completely

lliiissiia

juncea

which

is

burning must' since the French ground the seed with grape must.

cucurbitaceae

less

lo 01

originally

;

varying

shapes,

generally

to

grow luxuriantly:

root-stock

is

Mandrake

similar

in

since the enor-

appearance

to the

legendary Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) and was once used as a substitute lot it. Bryony toots carved into human form were often used as

shop signs

In

English

herbalists

the

in

eighteenth century. Description

Climbing perennial arising from

large while tuberous root 75 thick.

1

of

meaning

mous

been

much

bruein -

another name, tin wild vine, emphasizes the vigorous growth of the annual stems which rapidly covet hedgerow shrubs. The herb is also called English

Description Much branched annual 3 m high. smooth above and slightly hairy below grass-

leases

acq.

lo

ripe.

pungent. The word 'mustard' is thought derive from the Latin mustum ardens,

green

]

in

Brown

replaced with the shorter Juncea or

Mustard

Bryonia dioica

White or Red Bryony/ English Mandrake The common name is derived from the Greek

I

the historical dest

Borage refer to the herb's abilities to bring happiness and comfort and drive away melancholia. Even Pliny (ailed the plant euphrosinum because it made men joyful and merry. Certainly it was widely used in a variety of alcohol dtmks, and it is still a vital ingredient <»l summer wine ii|>s. As Boi aye is very attractive all

me

Hie powerful flavoui of old- fashioned Mustard was due largely lo its content of Black Mustard.

L boraginaceae

Borage Bun age Almost

w

flavour wine.

Mustard

flowers.

Borago

fresh flowers used lo dec orate

Long

stein.

cm

I>ran< liing

long, 7.5

neai

the

cm

base

leaching 4 m tall, and supported by coiled tendrils. Leaves palmate, 5-lobed and rough. Male plants beat pale green flowers on long

163

BUX CAP Box woods were widespread in Europe but the for the wood - which is twice as hard as oak - led to extensive felling. Close clipped Box hedges make excellent edgings to formal

demand

herb gardens.

Slow growing evergreen

Description

m

tree

or

bark greyish, leaves dark green above and shiny, pale beneath, oblong 1-3 cm long. Flowers minute, yellow-green in axillary clusters appearing mid-spring to early shrub, 2-7

tall;

A

sandy

soil

taken

autumn. Mediterranean native; widely distributed in Europe and Western Asia; introduced elsewhere. Prefers a well-drained and chalky or loamy soil. Cultivation Wild plant. early

Distribution

1

parabuxine,

buxine,

parabuxonidine oil; tannin. Uses (leaves, woodi Not used medicinally; but formerly used for syphilis and as a sedative A volatile oil from the wood was once used in the treatment of epilepsy, piles and toothache. Perfume once made from the bark. Leaves and sawdust were formerly used to dye hair auburn. Box wood is as durable as brass and is therefore used in instrument manufacture. Leaves once used as a substitute for Hops.

Resin

Constituenti

comprising

bryonin; tannin; volatile

and Uses

oil;

or

employed rarely used

to

dried

allay

due

to

its

root

coughs

glycoside

other glycosides

alkaloids. Purgative action fresh

the

due

to resin.

Irritant; in

once

pleurisy,

now

violent purgative action.

Berries of use as a dye. Contra-indications All parts

POISONOUS.

Contra-indications

died

from

Jord. labiatae

Calamintha

ascenden.1

Calamint Mountain Balm

Mountain Mint

An am

ient medicinal herb which once had such a good reputation as a heart tonic that it

was named after the Greek lor excellence kalos. Although an 'official' herb of the Middle Ages it now has no place in either orthodox or medicine. Hairv

Buxus sempervirens L buxaceae

arising

Box Box Tree

high;

164

have

Common

Description

Although once used for medicinal purposes the slow growing and somewhat peculiarly smelling Box Tree is now mainly sought after for its timber which is used in the manufacture of chess pieces and turned boxes. At one time

Animals

eating the leaves.

folk

perennial;

stems

from creeping root-stock, leaves

(dried

may

leaves

herb

flowering

An

infusion

is

Diaphoretic;

a useful tonic.

The

be used as a poultice for bruises.

peppermint flavoured tisane can be made from the leaves.

in spring.

Alkaloids :

to

Constituents Volatile oils.

or limestone.

Constituents

appear early summer

late spring.

Uses

in

berries; both plants

summer

Distribution

expectorant.

Wild plant. Cultivated from cuttings

long. Typically labiate flowers,

to early autumn. European native; prefers dry woodland and waste places on chalky soil. Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by cuttings of side-shoots taken in spring; seed sown in early spring: root division late autumn and

ing late

Native to Europe, North Africa, western Asia. Cultivated widely: prefers chalk Cultivation

female plants bear greenish flowers in umbels of 2-5 on short stalks and single red

cm

pale purple, in dense whorls of 10-20, appear-

summer. Distribution

stalks;

ovate, 2-3

stalked,

toothed

to

and

square,

30 cm broadly

officinalis L compositae Marigold Carden Marigold

Calendula

This well-known garden plant is probably one of the most useful of all herbs. It has valuable medicinal properties, yields a yellow dye, and

can be used purposes.

as a culinary

It

herb and

for

cosmetic

has been used in the Mediter-

ranean region since the ancient Greeks, and it was known to Indian and Arabic cultures before the Greeks. The botanical name comes from the Latin calendulae or calends meaning 'throughout the months', which was intended to emphasize the very long flowering period of the Marigold. Description Annual; biennial rarely; branching, angular stem to 50 cm; leaves oblong or lanceolate, hairy on both surfaces, 5-15 cm flower-heads large, yellow or orange, tubular florets absent double-flowered appearing mid-summer to late autumn. long:

.

Mediterranean native; distributed throughout the world as a garden plant. Cultivation Not found wild. Tolerates any soil in full sun, although prefers loam. Seed sown mid-spring, but once established is generally Distribution

self-sown. Constituents Volatile oil; a

yellow resin; calen-

all of which and promote wound healing.

dulin saponins; a bitter principle; ;

aid bile secretion I

es

entire flower-heads, individual florets,

rarely the entire flowering plant

Cholagogue:

BUX-CAP styptic; anti-inflammatory:

vulnerary; anti-

emmenagogue.

septic; possibly

ulcers,

and some inflammatory

treatment of kidney and urinary diarrhoea. Frequently included in cleansing mixtures such as acne remedies. May possess a weak sedative action. Can be used as a tea substitute.

skin

Used externally for treatment of leg and in conjunctivitis as an eye lotion. Petals are substitutes for Saffron, and may be added to salads and omelettes or used to colour cheese and butter. Young leaves added to salads. lesions.

Cannabis Recorded in the fifth century B.C. in the Chinese herbal Rh-ya but now subject to considerable nedical and legal reappraisal. Hemp has long been of economic importance to man. John Gerard described it in the sixteenth century as the Indian Dreamer. C. sativa L is considered now to be synonymous

and cosmetic preparations, and

as a hair rinse.

Yellow dye obtained by boiling flowers. Calluna vulgaris (Li Hull Ericaceae

Heather Ling

A common

herb long used

European

in

L cannabaceae

Cannabis sativa

Hemp

Petals are also used as tea. in skin

in the

infections,

tract

ulcers,

Used

glaucoma, spasmodic cough, neuralgia,

thma and migraine. Stem fibre provides 'hemp' for rope, sail-cloth etc. Seed is a bird-feed, and source of a drying

Of use

Specifically of use in inflamed lymphatic nodes,

duodenal

Uses (fresh flowering tops) Antiseptic; diuretic; astringent.

with C. indica L. although the herb

folk

is

variable

in constituents and appearance dependupon region and method oi cultivation.

ly

i

m

tall.

Leaves grey-green,

latei

reddish, verj

mm

appearing

late

summer

Native

to late

autumn.

Europe, Asia Minor. eastern North America, On

Distribution

to

Introduced to acidic sandy soils. 01 peal bogs. In woodland, dry hillsides, mountainous distrit is. to 2500 m altitude.

lanceolate, toot lied.

panicles

flowers in

sessile leafy spikes 2

Distribution

introduced

i

small, sessile, overlapping in 4 tows. Ffowei long, pink in terminal one-tided rat emes,

">

countries.

Native

in

j-

cm

40

23 c

1

<

m

long. Male-

and western Asia

in altitude

.

tropical

can

be

1

.11

cultivated

Last

.

man) countries il

In

only with a government

pei mit.

Bush.

pickled in wine vinegar, have been used as a

condiment for at least 2000 years, and have been known as either capparis or

always

Dioscorides suggested a medical use them, but the) have never widel) been used for anything except culinary purposes. The best known substitute lor capers is pickled, gi

1

in nasturtium seeds.

Description Straggling spiny

shrub

leaves tough, roundish e» oval 2

spines

2

in

high;

cm

long,

1

5

the base.

at

White or pink single flowers 2 .5 cm long with 4 petals, and numerous purple stamens hanging below them, appearing from early

.

Wild and cultivated commercially, in temperate regions lor oil) seed anil fibre Soviet Union and central Europe, for example- and in tropical regions lor the- drug Cultivation

\inea. India.

Physical

illegal.

is

Capparis spinosa L capparaceae Caper Caper Bush The unopened flower buds of the Caper

with short petiole and

long. Variable.

to central

5000

female

long;

man) temperate and

to

To

7. 5

tops

personality. Medical use only.

lor

Coarse strong-smelling dioceious m (all. Leaves long-petioled thin, alternate, palmate; 3 11 leaflets, narrow-

flowering

as a narcotic (marijuana).

and psychological effects, ranging from change in blood pressure and impotence to hallucination, vary enormously depending on

(capparis.

cm

Dried

oil".

smoked

Contra-indicatwns Possession

ing

Description

whose generic name is from the Greek meaning to sweep, alter the use "I n^ branches in brooms. Description Evergreen subshrub from 5 cm

illegally

both

annual, go

medicine

'hemp-seed

oil,

as-

autumn and

to earl)

Distribution

Ah

ie

Mediterranean region and North

a to the

Cultivation

climates

Ma\

be

summer

lasting onl) 24 hours.

Sahara.

Wild plant; cultivated

when grown

the in

bush

is

often

greenhouses

in

in

warmer

spineless

.

temperate

zones.

A

tivars exist lor

cannabinone, comprising various compounds; pharmacological action probably due to isomers <>l tetrahydrocanna-

in summer most successfully rooted with the help of mist propagation (requiring very high humidity).

stone

binol.

Constituents

Constituents

Cultivation Wild.

soils.

under

Numerous

horticultural cul-

rock-garden use. Dislikes limePropagate by young wood cuttings

glass.

Uses

and fumarit acids; arbutin; tannins; an oil, ericinol; a resin, ericoline; llavouoid glycosides, quercitrin and myricitConstituents Citrii

rin;

carotene.

The combined

dominant!) antiba<

terial.

action

pr<

fibre,

flowering (

resin,

seed, oil, female

lops

(lie

and male dried

latter

erebral sedative; narcotit

;

onl\

analgesii

rarel) ;

anti-

spasmodic. Mielie mal US4 and attitude to the drug varies according to country. ( lonsidered e>l benefit in

Cuttings

Caprit acid, which develops on pn kling the buds, and which is responsible for

th<

Uses

1

I1.11

actei

istii

unopened

flavoui

llowei

buds

Numerous

culin-

ary uses caper sauce, tartare sauce, vinaigrette, buitet, in Liptauei cheese, and as a garnish :

wilh hois d'oeuvres.

fish,

meat and salads.

1

(i ,

CAP-CAS Capsella bursa-pastoris (L)

Medic, cruciferae

Cultivation Wild in parts of South America and southern India; cultivated elsewhere. Constituents Capsicin; capsicain; alkaloids; vitamin C; palmitic acid.

Shepherd's Purse Shovelweed In almost all European languages the common names of this herb allude to the strange shape of the

fruit,

which are very similar

from the

belts.

The Latin name

to the purses

Uses

commonly hung

or pouches which were once

also simply

means

fruit

antiseptic;

Stimulant:

rubefacient.

and

spas-

Used

in

improve both the peripheral circulation and digestion. Occas-

flatulence,

case of the shepherd".

'little

ground

(dried

molytic;

colic

to

Shepherd's Purse can be found growing in Greenland at sites where it was introduced by

Norsemen iooo places

years ago.

It

was, and in some

¥

extensively eaten as a spring

still,

is

vegetable.

3g

»ji^

*

1*1

V

l

..

••,

'

-

Ai

pungency, and the plants are grown commerand subtropical countries.

cially in all tropical

Some

varieties grow in the cooler parts of Europe and America. Chili is dried and ground to form Cayenne Pepper; it is also blended with several varieties of Capsicums, herbs and spices to make Chili powder. Although the origin of the cultivated varieties is

uncertain, experts believe

all

come from one

original species. For this reason the botanical classification

of

muddled, and

C.

these

plants

annuum

somewha'

is

often described as

is

C.Jrutt Kens.

Herbaceous annual or biennial:

Description

30 90 cm high; leaves 2.5 12 cm long, acuminate, often narrowing towards the petiole: white flowers, solitary, 5 cm wide,

mm

or

Annual,

Description

or

generally

biennial;

smooth or slightly hairy stem, branched, to 50 cm; arising from basal rosette of dentate or variable leaves. Upper leaves entire and narrow. White flowers 2.5-4 mm diameter, in loose racemes appearing throughout the year, and followed by triangular shaped fruit called

much

varied

in

larger.

Fruit from

1

30

1.5

cm

long,

colour (yellow, brown, purple, often

bright red Distribution

,

in

shape and degree of

Grown

in

tropical

all

fleshiness.

and sub-

Distribution

Europe and America. Not found in wild state, but closely related to the Bird Pepper (Capsicum microcarpum (D.C.). Seed sown under glass in early spring; later transplanted. Best sown in pots or under glass in cool climates to ensure

common weed

ripening of

siliculae.

Widespread in temperate zones; on gravelly, sandy or loamy soils, especially those which are nitrogen-rich. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Choline; acetylcholine: and other amines acting as vasoconstrictors and haemostatics. Uses

(dried

plant;

fresh

Anti-haemorrhagic; the herb acts

plant)

as a vaso-

and is therefore of use in certain haemorrhages especially profuse menstruation.

during

to

assist

childbirth.

cabbage

in

many

Capsicum annuum

Chili

contraction of the uterus

Spring

leaves

eaten

as

countries.

L solanaceae

Peppers Capsicum/Sweet Peppers

All species of Capsicum are of American origin

and were unknown before 1494 when Chanca, the physician to the fleet of

second voyage

to

the

Columbus

West

Indies,

described their use by the natives.

in his

briefly

Today

there

are scores of varieties in cultivation, ranging in

shape,

166

size,

colour,

flavour,

and degree of

as a liniment in neuralgia or

Weak

infusion of benefit as throat

gargle.

Large doses are an extreme

Contra-indications

Cultivation

irritant to the gastro-intestinal system.

fruit.

Capsicin; capsaicin: alkaloids: vitamin C; palmitic acid. Uses (fresh or dried fruit) Spasmolytic: nutriConstituents

tive

and stimulant. Aids digestion; of

use in

Mainly employed

as

a

condiment and

a

Cardamine pratensis

Lady's

Smock

L cruciferae

Cuckoo-flower/Bittercress

Lady's Smock is one of the first wild flowers to appear in spring, and is characteristic of moist meadows in Europe and America. It is rich in vitamins and minerals and was formerly cultivated and used as a common salad herb, often being found on market stalls. It has, unfortunately, now fallen into disuse. Cardamine is an ancient Greek

name

for Cress,

and

refers to

its

national

supposed heart-benefitting properties. Description Slender erect perennial on short root-stock, to 25-50 cm. Leaves pinnately subdivided, consisting of 3-7 segments, oblong or cm long. Basal leaves broader and rounded, form a rosette. Pale lilac or white flowers, 4 attractive petals cm long, in terminal racemes appearing spring to early summer, and followed by 2.5 cm long fruit pod. Double flowers

came from Cayenne

occasionally occur.

vegetable.

constrictor

Thought

employed

rheumatism.

tropical countries;

diarrhoea. flowering

ionally

Capsicum frutescens L solanaceae Tabasco Pepper Cayenne Pepper

Cayenne was classified as C. minimum by Roxburgh, but is generally known as C. frutescens. It is the species which is used medicinally, and it is still included in many pharmacopoeias. Traditionally it in French Guiana. Description Perennial shrub to 2 m; trunk becoming woody, 7.5 cm diameter. Leaves various, usually elliptical, 2

cm

long; flowers

mm

cm wide. white in groups of 2 or 3, 5 Fruit small and oblong. Distribution Tropical and subtropical countries. 1

1

1

Distribution

Native

in

temperate

zones

of

northern Europe and America: prefers loamy soil saturated with water, beside streams, in damp meadows and moist woodland. Cultivation

Wild plant; once cultivated. May when ripe, on damp

be raised from seed sown,

CAP-CAS loamy

mustard Uses

Known

soil.

Constituents

Vitamins, especially C: minerals:

oil.

fresh leaves, flowering tops

nutritive. Infusion

may

Stomachic:

be taken

promote

to

the appetite, or in indigestion.

Eaten raw

added

cooked as vegetable; Flavour similar to Watercress.

in salads, or

to soups.

France as Barometre because it approach of rain. Description Stemless or short-stemmed perennial to 5 cm on taproot. Bearing oblong 30 cmlong pinnate leaves, divided into numerous spiny segments. Flower-head large (to 12.5 cm) solitary, creamy-white, composed entirely of disc florets: appearing late summer to midin

closes at the

autumn. Distribution

Native to south and central Europe. meadowland, on poor, dry,

heathland.

In

stony calcareous

soils

in

warm

positions to

Commercially and on a wide scale. especially in Germany and Holland. Tolerates most soils: sow late summer for seed harvesting the following summer. Constituents Volatile oils, which prevent flatulence and promote secretion of gastric juices. Uses (ripe fruit, young fresh leaf, fresh roots) Carminative: aromatic. Of much benefit in horticulturally

Constituents Essential oil: resin: tannins: inulin:

and

antibiotic substances, carlinoxide

carlin-

dried root

Cholagogue: diuretic;

Young

The decoction may

added

in

in

stomachic tonic.

be used to clean

as flavouring.

to salads: root boiled as

vegetable.

such as Kiimmel.

to flavour liqueurs

Cassia angustifolia Vahl.

and urine retention: complaints such as acne and eczema;

benefit in dropsy

liver disorders, or as a

leaves

anti-

bacterial: vulnerary: stomachic.

skin

lack of appetite, diar-

indigestion,

flatulent

Used

ene.

some

plant.

cultivated

Seed has wide culinary use

Wild plant.

Cultivation

Uses

waste-grounds.

Wild

Cultivation

rhoea. Safe to use with children.

2800 m.

Of

Europe: very widely distributed and naturalized. Prefers

wounds

or

an antiseptic gargle. Used in veterinary medicine to stimulate appetite of cattle. Contra-indicatwns Purgative and emetic in large as

doses.

leguminosae

Senna Tinnevelly Senna Senna

well-known

is

for

of constipation,

cases

its

effectiveness in

and the herb

is

still

by inclusion in most national pharmacopoeias. It was first brought into medical usage by Arabian physicians of the ninth century when the best sort was considered to come from Mecca. Another species. recognized

officially

Cassia acuti folia, provides the slightly inferior

L

mbelliferae Caraway (ai aw a \ Seed Both the common and Latin names of this herb Stem directly from the ancient Arabic word for its seed karau iya, w Inch are known to have been used b\ man as medicine and as flavouring since the earl) Egyptians. ( araw av cultivation is mentioned in the Bible, and the seed has been

Carum

carvi

1

.1

Found sites -

Carlina acaulis (

L COM POSITAE

years,

trline Thistle Du.nl Thistle

Carina Charles

possibh,

is

a

kimj

army from more certainh his

derived

who

acaulis

means

it

die remains of food at Mesolithic

has thus been widely used for 5000

and

n

1-

-nil extensively

use as a flavouring

from

the

traditional!)

the plague with

among

name

protected

this

'stemless'.

plain

:

/>

and

Typical

cription

as a

<

cultivated for

arminative.

umbelliferous

biennial:

lowed by erect slender brani bed 00 (in bearing lew pinnate leaves stem jo and umbels oi numerous minute whin- (lowers. Appearing mid 10 late summer, linn when -1

\i-.n

lol

1

ripe

late

summer

to late ainiinin

5

',

shrub or undershrub

to

cm

with pale erect angled branches. Leaves subdivided into 4 8 leaflets, oval-lanceolate, smooth. 2.5 6 cm long, 7 8 wide; flowers 75

mm

on erect racemes, small, yellow, numerous. Followed 1>\ fruit, 13 17 broad. D iiihution Native to Arabia and Somaliland: introduced in southern India, especially Ma-

mm

M\ sore and

dura.

Tinnevelly.

Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated in

rosette ofbipinnate or tripinnate feather) leaves in in

'Alexandrian senna". Description Perennial

India,

and

commercial!) Arabia and

to a lesser extent in

Somaliland. <

onstituents

ally rhein,

netin

:

Anthraquinone

derivatives, especi-

aloe-emodin, kaempferin, isorham-

also beta-sitosterol

:

kaempferol myric) :

1

nun

long, oblong, strongl) ribbed. Distribution

Native

to

mid-East, Asia, Central

,(,7

CAS-CEP Purgative action due to anthraquinone substances acting on lower bowel wall and nerves Auerbach's plexus) in alcohol and resin.

(

the wall. (dried

Uses

fruit,

dried

Cathartic.

leaflets)

Widely used alone or more commonly

com-

in

bination with aromatics to treat constipation.

May

be taken as a tea with

Ginger or

slices of

Coriander Seed. Contra-indications

constipation or

Not

be

to

used

spastic

in

Large doses of the

colitis.

leaf

Caulophyllum thalictroides CL) Michx. BERBERIDACEAE Blue Cohosh Papoose Root Eighty years ago this herb was included in the United States Pharmacopoeia and was considered worthy of detailed study and use in obstetric and gynaecological conditions. American Indian women drank an infusion of the root for two weeks prior to childbirth, which was usually comparatively painless. The herb is also called Blue or Yellow Ginseng. Its

now

cause nausea, griping pain and red coloration

use

of the urine.

Description Erect perennial to

fagaceae Sweet Chestnut Spanish or Eurasian

pinnate:

was

the

classical

name

restricted to herbal medicine.

m on contorted branched root-stock; stem terminated in large sessile tripinnate leaf. Other leaves 2 or 3

Castanea sativa Mill,

Chestnut Kastanea

is

this

for

which produces the largest and best nuts only when grown in a mediterranean climate. These nuts, once known as kastana, arc now called marones and traditionally make the attractive tree

1

leaflets being oval, usually 23 lobed, 2.5-10 cm long. Flowers 6-petalled, yellowishgreen (occasionally purplish appearing late spring to mid-summer on peduncle arising

best stuffing for turkey.

common

Tree to 30 m; thick dark brown corrugated bark with spiral fissures: large buds

the

Description

4-5 10

mm

25 above,

long, coarsely serrated, dark green

light green and Flowers (catkins) 12 20 late

spe< ies such

wide, ovoid; leaves oblong-lanceolate

cm

glabrous

cm

beneath.

1

Distribution

cm

3 nuts, 2.5

Native

bun

for

food.

Best

Tannin;

Asia,

south

Leaves

m.

propagated

thickets

gum:

and roadsides. Wild plant.

Cultivation

Constituents

Active principles unknown.

root bark cholagogue; diaphoretic.

b\

Emetic;

dried

Uses

diuretic:

Used formerly in biliary obstruction, to promote menstruation and to treat skin cancer.

fresh leaf was once whooping-cough, and formerly employed as an

Attractive orange fruits used in flower arrange-

Uses (nuts) Nutritive.

was

8

to

ovate to ovate-lanceolate,

resin:

taken as a decoction

bark

long,

1

albumin;

alkaloids.

the

rarely used

numerous, greenon terminal racemes 10 cm long, followed cm diameter. by orange-yellow seed capsules, Distribution Canada and United States from Quebec to New Mexico. Prefers dense moist

grafting. Constituents

Twining shrub

cm

12.5

Now

medicine.

ish,

Europe and North Africa. Introduced into America and Europe. Tolerates most soils. prefers deep sandy loam. Cultivation Wild plant; widely grown and hundreds of varieties now exist, some of which are cultivated

as trellis or wall covers. in folk

serrated. Flowers ver\ small,

wide.

western

to

grow

")

related

orbiculatus are useful plants to

.is (..

even

l)i scription

long, appearing

spring to early summer, followed by a

enclosing

plant found growing beside roads in

American Appalachians. This and

The

ments.

in

L compositae Cornflower Bluebottle Bachelor's Button Once common in cornfields but in parts Europe now becoming much rarer because Centaurea cyanus

antipyretic.

Nuts boiled, roasted, ground into flour, and used in pates, tarts, bread and soups. Good quality timber obtained from the tree.

of of

methods; the Cornflower gained its name by the translation of the apothecaries' term for the drug "flosfrumenti'. Before the sixteenth century it was called Blue Bothem or Bluebottle. Both this and another growing in the mounspecies C. montana L tainous areas of Europe, are considered excellent eyewashes for tired eyes. Tradition maintains they are most effective for blue evePlantago while a completely different plant major (the Greater Plantain is believed to be

changing agricultural

from base

upper

of

leal.

Fruit

1

cm

diameter,

blue-black. Distribution

United States and Canada; especi-

woodland and mountain glades. Wild plant. Constituents Saponin; green-yellow colouring ally in moist

Cultivation

matter; resins; starch;

salts:

stances acting on voluntary

unknown

sub-

and involuntary

muscle - especially the uterus. Uses dried rhizome and root Oxytocic. Once used to facilitate childbirth and treat chronic rheumatism. Also used in fevers but only weak diaphoretic action has been shown. |

Powder is irritant, especially to mucous membranes. May cause pain to fingers and toes. Contra-indications

Celas'rus scandens

brown eyes. Annual herb on

best for

20-90 cm high;

leaves grey,

linear-lanceolate, usually

7.5-15

cm

wiry stem

downy,

alternate,

than 5

mm w ide.

less

long. Bract fringes silvery. Flowers

capitulae 2.5-4 cm wide, bright blue (occasionally white, pink or pur-

on large ple).

solitary

Only

summer

Bittersweet

Distribution

of the spindle-tree family and a

erect

Description

False Bittersweet American or Climbing

A member if)M

L celastraceae

.

disc florets present.

to early

Appearing mid-

autumn.

Native to south and east Europe, naturalized in parts of North America. Intro-

.

CAS-CEP ingredient of vermouth.

stems

erect,

cm

cm

high:

to

form

Basal rosette of elliptic leaves

inflorescence.

mm

8-20

wide; stem leaves shorter, linear, oval, glabrous with 5 veins. cm long, borne on Flowers sessile, pale red, 1-5

long,

Unknown.

Constituents

annual 2-50 glabrous, branching

Description Biennial or

Uses (fresh leaves

and

No medical

root-stock)

use.

Used

cooked

in salads (bitter),

as a vegetable.

Root-stock used in soups. Attractive garden plant.

1

corymbs of 6 10 flowers. Appearing late to mid-autumn. native; Distribution Central European distributed from western Europe to western

Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich.

apical

summer

introduced

Siberia:

elsewhere.

dry

Prefers

woodland and roadsides. Wild plant. Cultivated commercially on a small scale in North Africa and central Europe. Seed sown in spring or autumn. Constituents Glycosidic bitter principles and related compounds which stimulate gastric and salivary secretions. slopes,

Cultivation

.

Constituents Sterols:

cyanin: cyanin chloride:

dried (lower-head

Uses

astringent.

A

Diuretic: tonic: mild

may

decoction

be used as an

in eye inflammation and fatigue. A blue ink was formerly made horn the (lower

eyewash juice.

Flowers used

in

pot-pourris.

Centaurium erythraea Rafn.

Centaury Lessa (

ientui

!hiron

who

suffering an arrow

named

after the

wound. The plant

called Gentian since

it

is

also

has similar properties

Hue Gentian Gentiana hum and is used (or the same purposes. It was considered I luck\ plant b\ some ol the Celtic peoples nl Europe. Centaur) v\as widel) grown in the M Ages, and it is si ill used toda) as an to the

i

<

I

(

i

I

<

Important constituent of gastric herbal in bitter herb liqueurs.

L

Centranthus ruber

drug's effectiveness

current inclusion in

is

in

court

emphasized by

its

national pharmaco-

all

poeias except the Chinese.

Small straggling shrub on creeping

Description

fibrous roots initially

smooth becoming en-

teas;

DC

1

valerianaceae

Red-spurred Valerian Fox's

Brush The Red-spurred Valerian has none of the medicinal properties of the closely related Both Valeriana officinalis 'official' Valerian l.'Miii and Linnaeus classified the herb botanically as Valeriana ruber, and Gerard (ailed it Red Valerian or Red Clow Basil. .

I

centaui treated himself with the herb after is

The

who

his success to the

used

in:

leases

mate

entire,

sessile,

Centaur)

688 sold the secret of of Louis XIV. 1

effect.

Description Perennial

Centaur)

j

Common (

QENTIANACEAE

Common

01

a Parisian physician called Helvetius

Aromatic: bitter; stomachic. Stimulates appetite and bile secretion: of benefit in weak digestion. Widely used as a tonic. Has an insignificant antipyretic

Red Valerian

fragasin.

Ipecacuanha - known as poaya in its native and long used there for medical purposes - did not reach Europe until 1672 and was not botanically identified until 1800. Its use for dysentery was proven and promoted by Brazil

dried flowering plant

Uses

duced elsewhere. Found especially on wastegrounds on porous nutrient-rich soil. Cultivation Wild plant becoming rare or less common Widely cultivated horticultural!} from seed sown in spring on sunny site.

RL'BIACEAE

Ipecacuanha

on wood) based stems to

lam

to

eol.ile

occasional!)

IO

toothed

Cttl

long,

al

base

nun wide, red or pink, the corolla is tubular and spurred al the base. Appears hue Flowers

5

spring. Distribution

old walls, Cultivation use.

A

Europe

cliffs,

<

sites.

Wild plant: limited horticultural

white variety,

Propagated

south-west Asia: prefers

to

halk)

In

root

C. rubei var. albus, exists.

division

in

spring

or

autumn.

banded

and annulated

larged

.

Stem con-

tinuous with root-stock, smooth, green, angu-

30 (in, bearing few opposite, ovate, entire Flowers white in heads on terminal solitary peduncles, appearing late winter to earl) spring, bears clusters of dark purple lar to

leaves.

berries. Distribution

elsewhere.

Indigenous

to

brazil; introduced

Grows in clumps in moist and shady

forests.

Cultivation

Wild plant; cultivated in Brazil, Burma. Alkaloids comprising mainly eme-

India (Bengal), Malaysia, Constituents 1 1

ne and

<

ephaelinc. together with psychotrine,

melliN l-psv< hotline glyi oside;

and

ipecac nan hi 11

emelaiiiiiie. ;

Also a

Starch, ipecacuanhic

acid.

diied ioot

Emetic; powerful expectorchronic bronchitis. Prevents cyst formation in amoebic dysenterj Useful in acute dysentery and as a diaphoretic. 1

ant.

I

sed

in

acute and

i6g

CER CHI Dangerous in large doses as it whole gastro-intestinal tract, causing serious vomiting and diarrhoea. Powder irritates skin and mucous membranes causing violent sneezing and coughing. To be used by medical personnel only. Contra-indications

the

irritates

cactaceae Night Flowering Cereus Cereus grandiflorus Mill,

Although many cacti provide food and drink, comparatively few are proven effective medicinally. One exception is the Night Flowering Cereus which is characterized by its exceed-

and beautiful scented

ingly large

commonly grown

flowers.

The

house plant. Description Perennial succulent shrub; stem 5 or 6 ribbed, simple or rarely branched, 1-4 cm diameter, dark green, prickly. Flowers white. plant

is

as a

terminal or lateral, very large 20-30

diameter. hours,

They bloom

and

in the

cm

evening,

die. Fruit ovate, scaly,

last

in

6

orange-red.

Distribution West Indian native; tropical America, Mexico. Cultivation Wild plant: grown horticultural!) as a house plant in sharp, sandy soil. Constituents

stances.

Resins; alkaloids;

The method

unknown

of action

is

not

sub-

dry, sandy

fully

Cultivation

Commercially grown in central Europe. To ensure double flower-heads, prop-

understood. I

ses

fresh

or

dried

flowers,

young stems

agate vegetatively by root-stock division in early spring. fruits rare, apical, 1

cm

rounded,

rust

coloured

to

diameter.

Abundant

Distribution

high northern

in

tudes, especially coniferous forests,

lati-

mountain-

ous parts of central Europe. North America. Also in Antarctica. Cultivation

Wild plant. mucilage, comprising lichenin

Constituents 70",,

and

which

isolichenin.

acts as a

demulcent:

L Ach. parmeliaceae

Moss

This is not a moss but a lichen and it has long been used as a foodstuff in the cold northern countries where

entire

plant Demulcent; mild weak antituberculous agent.

dried

it

flourishes.

It is still

employed

and

acid.

Spasmolytic;

flower-heads

dried

Uses

Excellent in

Whole herb used Used

in

beer manufacture.

Centra-indications

vomiting and vertigo.

be ground and

made

into flour lor baking

Chamaemelum

nobile (L) All.

compositae or Double

Chamomile Roman, Common

to lighten hair.

Excessive

This is one of the best known of all herbs and has been in continuous use from the time of the Egyptians who dedicated it to their Gods until today when it is widely available prepacked in tea bags. Its name derives from the Greek chamaimelon meaning 'apple on the ground' since all parts of the herb are strongly

cultivated and

.

purgative properties. Description Lichen, consisting of erect dichotomously branched, curling thallus 3—12 cm

of yellow-white ligulate

high; upper surface olive-brown or grey, paler lower surface with depressed white spots:

Distribution Indigenous to southern Europe: introduced and widespread elsewhere: prefers

Description Aromatic perennial to 30 cm with creeping root-stock, low growing, hairy stems, branched and supporting leaflets divided into

almost entirely 15

mm-3 cm

wide, born singly on long erect stems.

mid-summer

to

produces

found on waste-ground near to habitation is yet another herb once

indicates that this

florets,

dosage

Chelidonium majus L papaveraceae Greater Celandine The fact that Greater Celandine is commonly

Chamomile

many segments. Flowers consist

men-

vomiting and nausea. flatulent dyspepsia taken as tisane.

dyspepsia,

May

apple-scented.

170

spacings. Succeeds even in part shade. comprising azulene.

tiglic acids, anthemal. anthemenc. Action antiseptic: anti-inflammatory: anti-spasmodic. Improves appetite. Also inositol, and a bitter glvcoside, anthemic

esters of angelic

Stimulates appetite. Specifically of benefit in debilitating diseases associated with vomiting.

medicine largely because of its nutritive properties, although Linnaeus recommended its general use in medicine for pulmonary diseases. It was once called 'muscuscatharticus" which suggests wrongly that it possesses in folk

oil.

tren-

cm

soil

struation,

bread or boiled in milk. Edible jelly made by boiling soaked plant to remove bitterness.

Iceland

Volatile

Constituents

15

secretions. Uses

Cetraria islandica

2.5 sq.m., planted at on any free-draining

clone

100 plantlets cover

sedative; carminative. Relieves painful

bitter

tonic; nutritive;

cases of dropsy.

The non-flowering

eague' ideal for lawns;

organic acids, including fumaroprotocetraric acid, which stimulate gastric

also

Cardiac stimulant: increasing the force of myocardial contractions. Used in cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure. Once used in

sun.

soil in lull

From

mid-autumn.

now

forgotten.

It

is still

used

in

medicine however, chiefly for liver problems, but no longer for its traditional ability to improve poor sight. Dioscorides called the herb chelidonion from khelidon - a swallow since it was supposed to flower when swallows were migrating. Description Perennial 30-90 cm high; stem branched, slightly hairy, leaves pinnateK finely hairy or glabrous, with 5-7 ovate or oblong leaflets crenated or toothed, blue-green underherbal

neath: flowers yellow, 4-petalled. 2-2.5 cm diameter, appearing early to mid-summer.

Followed by erect thin green capsules 3-5

cm

long. Distribution

Native

to

Europe, naturalized in

eastern North America, introduced elsewhere.

:

CER-CHI laxative; anthelmintic.

Used

tinal disorders as a tonic.

Of benefit in anorexia,

constipation

indigestion,

Once used

as

an ointment

in

general intes-

and

of piles.

calcium, vitamins

iron,

in

and C.

B,

cholecystitis.

to relieve irritation

Rich

Constituents

(fresh

Uses

common

young

medicinal

Xo

Nutritive.

seed)

leaf,

use,

although mildly laxa-

tive.

Seed can be ground and used as flour. Leaf eaten as cooked green vegetable or raw. It is more nutritious than spinach or cabbage. Produces a red to golden-red dye. Can be used as animal fodder. Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelmintium

L

CHENOPODIACEAE

American Wormseed Mexican Tea to Mexico this herb has become thoroughly naturalized as far north as

Although indigenous

New England, and Europe cluded but

in

1732.

in the

it was introduced into Mexican Tea was once in-

United States Pharmacopoeia.

now restricted to American

is

folk

medicine.

Strong smelling annual reaching .25 m, branching profusely from ground level

Description 1

leaves alternate, oblong-lanceolate.

long:

flowers

leafless spikes

Found on waste-ground, wood

edges, paths

and walls primarily near habitation. Wild plant. Propagate by

Cultivation

Fat root

di\ ision in spring.

Constituent Acrid

orange coloured latex con-

taining several alkaloids, especially chclidon-

and

ine

chelerythrin;

chelidoxanthin;

principle,

bitter

a

malic and chelidonie

citric,

Hen White

attractive plants,

bladder

and

bladder.

Hen and

from dried

flowering

Cholagogue;

narcotic;

or

Irrsli

{

latex)

plant,

fresh

purgative:

included

Description

cholecystitis. Fresh juice

formcrU

POISONOl v

side-effects include sleepiness, skin irritation.

respiratory

tract

irritation

causing

violent

coughing and dyspnoea. Urine stained bright yellow.

May

auSC

<

iili


often

seed from

fatty

L scrophui.ariaci w

to late

Distribution America, especially tropical central America; widelv naturalized. On drv waste

sacrificed in

Denmark

111

kin<;

were eaten nineteenth (.'.

album was

ol

Tollmund

meal

too

B.c

Annual to m consisting ol short, reddish, branched stem, bearing bluish1

green lanceolate toothed variablc-si/ed leaves, and mealy white inflorescence. Flowers small, greenish-white,

in

clusters,

appearing mid-

mid-autumn. Distribution European native; found genous weedy places, often one ol

summer

to

plants to appeal cm disturbed Chelone glabra

Good

the closely related

in the ritualistic last

Man.

and

summer

main of which

Century, and the

of biliary duct and gall bladder, such as gall

used externally on warts tra-indications Large doses

Pigweed

or

Chenopodium bonus-henricus neolithic times until the

antimitotic. Principally used in inflammations

stones

late

edible plants, for example-, spinach and beet.

Henry

gall

appearing

cm

12.5

arranged on

1500 species of rather unare important

includes

species

Fat

as

Common

small,

autumn.

Goosefoot family from the Greek khenopodwn meaning goose foot which is the shape of the leaves of sonic

smooth

such

Goosefoot

The Chenopodiaceae

acids; saponin. Acts as an antispasmodic on

muscle,

L chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album

greenish,

Cultivation

in

nitro-

the

first

soil.

Wild plant.

Turtle-head Balmony

swamp

This beautiful

flowers he, id

plant possesses odourless

whose shape resembles

chelom

is

that ol a turtle's

(.reek lor tortoise

.

It

has long

been a favourite toni< in North American folk medicine, hut has not been scientifically

examined. Description

Perennial

to

i

.-,

m: stem

erect

smooth, square, bearing opposite, sessile 01 shortly petiolatc dark green slum leaves, ( m long, narrow and pointed, somewhat 7 serrate. Mowers white or rose-linked. 2.-, cm i

-,

long, in terminal oi axillary spikes

law

h

lumma

to

Appearing

mid-autumn.

and previously cultivated land. alum Wild plant.

places Cultii

Constituents Volatile I

a

fruit,

entire

chenopodium flowering

oil.

plant

Anthel-

roundworm and hookboth humans and animals.

mintic, especially lor

worm, and used in Tea from leaf reported to stimulate milk How and to relieve pain .liter childbirth. Main use as the- source of chenopodium oil lor incoi poration into

anthelmintic preparations.

Contra-indications

POISONOUS.

Large doses

cause vertigo, deafness, paralysis, incontinence, sweating, jaundice, and death.

North America from Newfoundca.iv Found cm low wet land to Florida and ground, stream margins, wet forests au<\

Chionanthus virginicus L oleaci u Fringe Tree Snowdrop Tree/( )ld Man's

lhi< k'

Heard

tribution

I

Cultii iitum

Constituents I

•

Wild plant.

No

dried

\ll

analysis available.

flowering

plan)

lelei

Cholagogue;

the to

flower,

common names its

I01

ol

this bcaulllul

spectacular appearance

which reason

it

1

when

1

c<

in

has of course been

7'

CHO-CIM Description

Hardy aromatic perennial 5-15 cm long,

leaves ovate

to

1

m;

finely serrate, often

with pair of small lobes at the base; greyishcm broad, yellow, button-like,

green. Flowers

appearing

1

late

summer

to early

autumn.

Asian native; naturalized North America, Europe. Tolerates any soil;

Distribution W'estern in

sunny position. Wild plant; once widely cultivated as a garden plant. Propagate by root division spring or autumn, or by seed sown in spring. It cannot be raised from seed in cool climates. prefers

Cultivation

If

grown

in the

shade

will not flower.

it

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses fresh and dried leaf Stomachic. Rarely used medicinally; an ointment once used as a salve in burns and stings. 1

1

Wide culinary uses; including flavouring home-made beer,

spring salad, soups,

cakes,

poultry.

Formerlv a cosmetic water was made from the widely cultivated.

From

a distance the flower-

ing tree appears to be covered with snow,

leaf.

and

name chionant/iu.s is from the Greek meaning snow flower. The Fringe Tree belongs to the

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir

the

same family

as the olive,

lilac,

jasmine and

dried

Deciduous shrub or tree to H m; leaves smooth or downy, oblong or oval, 7.5-20 cm long, opposite. Flowers delicate, fringe-like, numerous, white, 2.5 cm long, on long stems, in panicles 10-20 cm long, Appearing late spring to mid-summer and followed l>\

Formerly used

ovoid drupes (berries).

Native to North America from Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. Found in woods and thickets, on rich moist soils.

Wild plant; cultivated

as

ornamen-

tal tree.

Saponins;

Constituents

phyllyrin;

lignan

a

glycoside. Uses

Antipyretic; stimulant.

bark,

root

fresh

bark

trunk

cholagoguc; hepatic infusion once used as a general

diuretic;

An

tonic after debilitating disease, especially of

hepatic origin.

Of

tions, cuts, ulcers

benefit in skin inflammaand bruises when applied as

Chondrus crispus (L) Stackh. gigartinaceae

Carrageen

Irish Moss Moss is unimportant medically and is not mentioned at all in classical writings. It was briefly promoted in 1831 by Dr Todhunter in Ireland, but it attracted little attention and is now largely of use in the food and cosmetic Irish

industries.

seaweed, yellow-green purplish-brown when fresh, white to yellow and translucent after drying. Thallus (fronds) 10-30 cm long, arising from subcylindrical stem, becoming flattened, curled and someDescription Cartilaginous to

times bifid. Fruiting bodies (cystocarps) small, oval,

appearing on the branches of the

Distribution Coasts of north Atlantic

thallus.

Ocean on

mainly rocky shores. Cultivation Wild plant; collected in Ireland, Brittany and Massachusetts. Constituents Mainly mucilage; proteins; iodine. W hen Irish moss is boiled, the soluble subr

172

Once

gelatin

substitute in

jell)

used for dressing cotton, stuffing matfining beer,

colour thickener

feeding cattle, and as a

cinerariifolium

is

is

the

source

of the

best-

natural insecticide, pyrethrum, which

renowned

for

its

possession of an extremely

rapid paralyzing effect and toxicity to a wide

range of insects. It is non-toxic to mammals, however. For this reason it is used as a spray to kill

the vectors of certain insect-transmitted

diseases in aircraft. Recent

work has shown weak antibiotic

that the flower-heads possess

in (loth printing.

although the herb is not used medicinalK Description Herbaceous perennial 30-75 cm tall with slender, hairy stems; leaves 15-30 cm long, petiolate, oblong or oval, subdivided into linear segments. Flowers solitary on long slender peduncles, white, appearing early activity,

L compositae Alecost Costmarv Bible-leaf Mace The most obvious characteristic of this

Chrysanthemum balsamita

herb is

is its

known

Herb. The

in several

common

aroma by Greek word kostos; to

.

ancient

pleasant balsam-like scent from which

this

languages

as the

Balsam

English names also

their incorporation

refei

of the

was an old Asian herb used in perfumery which had a similar odour to C. balsamita. Alecost is famous as the preeminent Middle Ages agent for flavouring and preparing

a poultice.

as a

C.

known

coughs.

.1

it

(dried

to treat

nutritive.

manufacture; as an emulsif) ing agent for codliver and other oils; in the [bod industry as suspending and gelling agent. tresses,

Distribution

Cultivation

mosth

I'sed

Demulcent;

plant

Uses

fleshy, purple,

Pyrethrum Flower Dalmatian Pyrethrum

stances extracted are called carrageenin.

forsythia. Description

Vis.

compositae

ale.

kostos

summer

to early

Distribution

autumn.

Indigenous

to parts

of Yugoslavia

;

CHO-CIM and adjacent

coastal islands: prefers littoral

zones but also found inland including

dried

Uses

moun-

leaf,

dried flowering plant) Bitter;

20 cm, remove

side-shoots

all

and

leaves

and

stack in dry sand in the dark. For coffee sub-

aperient; tonic.

tainous areas.

An

Wild plant. Cultivated commercially in Japan, Kenya, South Africa, parts of central Europe. Propagation by seed sown in autumn, thinning out in the following mid-

general tonic and to promote menstruation.

Brunswick or Witloof. White and pink horticul-

Once used

tural races also exist.

grease.

spring.

Employed

Cultivation

Constituents

I

and

chrysanthine and chrysanthene;

all

I

and

II,

Small

(dried

pyrethrin

II

:

No

and powdered flower-heads

as a

moth

the

'cuts"

lead to allergic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis

Chrysanthemum parthenium

L Bernh.

COMPOSITAE Feverfew Featherfew There is evidence that Feverfew was used as a general purpose tonic in previous ages, its common name being derived from the Latin Jebrifugia meaning a substance which dri\es out fevers. The old herbalists' term 'febrifuge' - from the same stem - has now been replaced with the medical description, antipyretic, but strangely the herb is rarely employed in folk medicine to treat fevers. It is an attractive, robust and vigorously growing garden plant. Description Perennial, sometimes biennial, to 90 cm; much branched with yellow-green,

repellent.

Uses (fresh

*S|r

to the

like the

% V'^ %

mid-spring.

soil.

Double-downed

variet)

•

W^^&S*

mid-autumn. Distribution South-east European native; introduced elsewhere. Prefers dry sites on an) l>\

lactones!

salts; lipids;

bitter

principles

chiefly

lactucine

employed

root)

as

little

an aid

Diuretic;

weak

tonic:

use;

formerly

in jaundice,

and may

medical

protect the liver from the effects of excessive coffee drinking. Increases glandular secretions slightly.

Root roasted and ground

as a coffee substitute

or additive; can be boiled or baked, or used as

Forced leaves used as a winter salad you ig leaves added to summer salads. Leaves produce a blue dye. Contra-indications Excessive and continued use may impair function of the retina. flour.

Linnaeus described

*J JtffLCx. A^J

*

•

to

root

earl)

mineral

and P;

Black Cohosh Black Snakeroot/Bugbanc

1

Wild plant, propagated cuttings and seed sown in

K

leaf,

Of

laxative.

1

well-drained

Constituents Inulin; sugar;

Cimicifuga racemosa (L) Nutt.

nut

mid-summer

of the varieties Magdeburg and

RAM NCLLACEAE

s( ented pinnate leaves, tin3 leaflets exceeding 7.5 cm long. Man) Bowers, 2 cm wide consisting of yellow disc florets, white ra) florets, in tight clusters, appear

strongl)

stitute, use roots

vitamins B, C, (sesquiterpenoid

Arabians - used the blanched leaves as a salad, a custom continued to this day on a commercial scale in Belgium and horticulturally throughout Europe. Sometimes the blanched winter salad leaves are known as Endive, which is derived from the Arabic word hendibeh: the specific botanical name comes from the same source. Dickens in his Household Words described the extensive cultivation of 'chiccorv' in England for the root which was ground and roasted to be used

and asthma.

to

grown

horticulturally. <

food

to

L compositae

who -

Egvptians,

cockroach, domestic fly and other pests. Contra-indications Prolonged human contact

division,

added

Chicory Succory Wild Succory The use of Chicory can be traced back

medicinal action; used only as a non-toxic

Cultivation

mild sedative.

as a

quantities

Cichorium intybus

also

possess

insecticide for control of the bedbug, mosquito,

may

of benefit in indigestion, as a

and lactupicrine.

insecticidal properties. L'ses

is

comprising the keto-

Pyrethrins,

esters cinerin

infusion

onstituenti Volatile oils.

.is

,1

(

St

>*

1

1

In

Deep rooted m; stem bristly or

.11 11

-in. ill

cm

30-100 creamy-white flowers with numerous long stamens, on a terminal raceme; appears early summer to leaflets,

jr.j

j

cm

long,

early

long. Inflorescence

consisting of foetid,

autumn.

Indigenous to Canada and the United States, especially Massachusetts, Ohio, Indiana and Georgia. Prefers rich open woodland and cleared hillsides. Distribution

eastern

offer substitute.

perennial

Description 1.5

this herb in his Materia Medica of the eighteenth century as Actaea racemis longissimus, but it was first called Christophoriana canadensis racemosa by Plukenet in 1696. It is an American herb, introduced into medical practice in America in 1828 by Garden, and used briefly in Europe from i860. Now only employed by Anglo-American herbalists of the Physiomcdical school. Description Graceful perennial 1-2.5 m h'gh on thick, gnarled, blackish root-stock bearing smooth, furrowed stem with alternate leaves subdivided into 2-, 3- or 5-ovate, toothed

Ins.

I

hair)

reaching

bearing

rigid

fpper parts practit ally leafless with

bract-like

lowei

leaves;

leaves

entire,

broadly oblong or lanceolate, partly clasping and bristl) beneath, flowers in large capitula ol 4 cm diameter, azure blue and ((insisting only ofra) Hotels. Appearing from late nimmei

to

mid-autumn. Flower-heads lose b\ inidd.i\ European native; introduced else(

Distribution

where; naturalized roadsides, (

.in oils

,1

held

ncl

in

edges,

On

the United States.

on

nitrogenous.

(

al-

alluvial toilt

Wild plant; widely cultivated hortiand commercially. Seed sown 111 well-manured soil from lai" spring to midsummer, thinned to 15 20 Cm apart in midsummer to late summer. Forced blanched salad heads best obtained from the variety M itloof: lift the root in late autumn, shorten to Cultivation

cultural!)

'73

CIN-CIT Wild

Cultivation Constituents

presence of small pits (scrobiculi

plant.

Resins and salicylic acid, both act-

ing as anti-rheumatic agents; isoferulic acid; phvtosterols; alkaloids; tannic acid; 3 uniden(A resinoid impure

fied crystalline alcohols.

mixture, cimicifugin,

produced by adding

is

tive.

;

Anti-rheumatic;

root-stock)

(dried

Uses

mild expectorant

;

emmenagogue

;

uterine cramps.

Large

doses

in

mountainous and

irritate

m. Wild plant; mostly cultivated com-

Cultivation

Particularly effective in acute stage of

Contra-indications

Grows only

Africa.

cultivated from 1500-2500

a

seda-

rheumatoid arthritis, sciatica, and chorea. Apparently most successfully used in females, and acts specifically on the uterus, easing nerve

and may cause abortion.

centres,

East

regions, most valuable species being found

tincture of cimicifuga to water.

bitter

at the vein

on underside of leaf. Distribution South American natives, occurring exclusively on the western side of the subcontinent. Also Java, Ceylon, Burma, India,

axils

mercially in Java. Constituents 20 alkaloids including quinine, cinchonine, cinchonidine. and quinidine: a

cinchona red: starch: wax: fat: cinchotannic acid; quinic, quinoic and oxalic glycoside;

acids. I

m

dried

bark

stem

Antipyretic;

bitter

tonic: stomachic. officinalis L rubiaceae Cinchona Quinine Tree/Peruvian Bark The Spanish conquerors learned of the

More

Cinchona

pyretic properties of

anti-

Cinchona Bark from

employed

tin

common

material themselves, considering

Powdered

:

it

extremely

was introduced into Spain in 1639, and promoted throughout Europe bv the Jesuits who gave the powder to those suffering from fever. Medical opinion varied as to its safety, but by 1677 it was introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia. About 12 species oi Cinchona are now used as sources of the bark, which is mainly employed lor the isolation oi quinine, once used as an antimalarial agent. Description The Cinchonas ate evergreen trees from 6-25 m tall; reduced to shrubs at the It

limits of their habitat.

irritant to the

Leaves extremely vari-

pure

its

form. Useful astringent throat gargle. Tincture

inhabitants of Peru in the sixteenth century it is not certain, however, that they used the powerful.

more

slowlv absorbed and

gastro-intestinal tract than quinine in

quinine

for

preventative treatment of the

cold: orthodox medicine for the relief

bark

emplovs

still

of muscle cramps.

used

astringent

in

tooth-

Used internally

powders.

Ma\

be used as a red dye

May

teria.

lor fabrics.

cause

vomiting; prolonged usage can cause cinchonism, symptoms of which include deafness and blindru Contra-indications

rarely

for sedation in hys-

Commonly employed

externally as a

counter-irritant in inflamed rheumatic joints, fibrositis.

and neuralgia. Small doses stimulate combination with

respiration. Often used in

other substances.

Cinnamomum camphora LAURACEAE

Nees

et

Eberm.

(Contra-indications

Camphor Tree Laurel Camphor The Camphor Tree was mentioned Chinese

sixteenth-centurj

Large internal doses toxic

to

children, causing respiratory failure.

herbal

in

the

kang-muh and earlier b\ Marco Polo

Pun-tsao-

the end

.it

Cinnamomum cassia Blume lauraceae Cassia Bark Tree Chinese Cinnamon Cassia and Cinnamon are confused in

earlv

of the thirteenth century.

The camphor product was certainly known

^Cj>

before this and was regarded as one of the most

yfy.

and valuable perfumes; it is. however, not certain whether this camphor was derived

rare

from

(..

camphora or from Dryobalanops aromatica,

Sumatran tree. In 1563 Garcia de Orta w rote that Sumatran Camphor was so superior and costly that none found its way to Europe. Certainly Camphor was known in European

a

medicine by the twelfth century since the German abbess Hildegarde used it as ganphora.

Dense topped evergreen tree reachand occasionally even taller: trunk

Description

ing 12 m,

enlarged at base. Leaves camphor scented, alternate, acuminate, smooth and shiny above,

cm long. Yellow flowers appearing early summer. Indigenous to China and Japan:

whitish beneath. 5-12 in axillary panicles

Distribution

introduced elsewhere. Flourishing in tropical and subtropical countries up to an altitude of 750 m. Cultivation

Wild plant: introduced horticultur-

allv.

able but often bright green, obovate or lanceolate

from 7.5-50

cm

long, finely veined with

crimson, traversed by prominent midrib, and

borne

on

a

brown

Flowers

Constituents

very

terpineol.

landrene.

on panicles. The useful species are differentiated from others by presence of curly hairs bordering the corolla, by its mode of capsule

Uses

dehiscence

r

74

from

below

upwards

and

bv

distillation of

Camphor, white

oil

24-40-

of

Cam-

phor, both comprising safrole, acetaldehyde.

fragrant, small, deep rose-crimson, clustered

petiole.

Obtained bv

year-old wood.

eugenol,

(Camphor;

oil

cineole,

of

d-pinene,

Camphor

phel-

Weakly

antiseptic; stimulant: carminative: mild ex-

writings, and it is probable that the terms were sometimes used to describe different grades of

same

The

spice

pectorant; mild analgesic: rubefacient; para-

the

siticide.

called kwei in the earliest Chinese herbal bv

or closely related plants.

is

.

CIN-CIT Shen-nung

2700

B.C.

.

It

reached Europe

times via Arabian and Phoenician

traders,

and

is

frequently

inferior substitute for

used

still

as

an

India. Jamaica, Cultivation

cultivated

also cultivated

in

com-

prises largely

dried

Uses

cinnamaldehyde. bark) Aromatic:

carminative:

astringent: stimulant.

Used

as a

nausea

in

powder

and Cinnamon,

or infusion in flatulence

a similar

manner

to

sometimes replaces. May be used alone or in combination to treat diarrhoea.

which

it

antiseptic:

bark:

volatile

as

a

used

in

Limited use

in

spice:

cordials.

oil

perfumery. amara L Link RL'TACEAE Bitter Orange Seville Orange Bigarade Known to the early Greeks, this was probablv also the first orange grown in Europe in about the twelfth century. The Sweet Orange was Citrus aurantium var.

until the mid-fifteenth century.

The

the

total

cription

io

m

tall,

in conserves,

and

for flavouring.

Burm. rutaceae

limun.

of the Lemon was with Arabian knowledge and plants, and probably started in the thirteenth century in Spain or Sicily. Numerous varieties

European

carried

now

cultivation

out

exist.

Small glabrous tree 3-6

Description

stout

stiff

thorns;

leaves

m

pale

high,

green,

5-10 cm long, on narrow margins. Flowers 8-16 mm long, white inside and pink outside, clustered in the axils. Sour fruit 7.512.5 cm long, light yellow, oblong to ovoid oblong

short

elliptic-ovate,

to

petioles

terminating

with

very

in a nipple.

Native to Asia; wild Cultivated commercially especially terranean countries. Distribution

is

to

in in

India.

Medi-

Wild plant: extensive horticultural and commercial cultivation. Cultivation

Constituents

Citric

acid:

pectin;

hesperidin;

B and C: citral; citronellol; d-limonene; phellandrene; sesquiterpene. vitamins

European

I 'ses

exceeded, and for yean large quantities had to be burned. Dt

Orange-

is

The Lemon is a household fruit today, but it was unknown in ancient Greece and Rome. The wild Lemon is probably a native of northern India, and is known in Hindustani as hmu or ninbu, which passed into the Arabic

with

1

with such success that

used in India as a

used to flavour medicines. Employed in perfumery.

Citrus Union

until 1275, when il which ii was indigenous was documented by an Arab writer. Ka/wini. The Portuguese occupied Ceylon in 5 [6 mainly to obtain supplies of Cinnamon, and the Dutch began its cultivation there in 1770

demand was

flower water

Lemon

an intestinal stimulant and astringent treat vomiting and nausea.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum \ees lauraceae Cinnamon Tree Ceylon Cinnamon Cinnamon was considered by the ancients as one of the most important aromatic spices available and is mentioned in the Old Testament in the same context as Myrrh. Olibanum. gold and silver. It is doubtful, however, whether the species C. leylardctan was known not mentioned as a product of Ceylon

is

Aromatic:

oil

as

known

vaseline

in

oil

Used

not

before the thirteenth century, since the spirt

Neroli

preventive against leeches. Leaves and flowers

Used dried

Widely employed flavouring and in

com-

Aperitif:

antispasmodic; sedative; cholagogue; tonic; vermifuge.

astringent: stimulant: carminative.

to

Constituents Volatile oil: resin: tannin: lignin:

Uses (flowers, leaves, fruit, fruit rind

in infusion act as sedative stomachics.

whose action is carmalso tannin and mucil-

age.

mercially.

bassorin: colouring matter. Oil of Cassia

and

inative

Uses

of China:

and

Seychelles,

Wild plant: cultivated commercially

Constituents Volatile oil.

summer. Native

southern Ceylon,

in coppices.

mm

China and Burma. Cultivation Wild plant:

the

Brazil,

in in

other tropical countries. In forests to 1000 m.

Cinnamon.

m. white aromatic bark and angular branches: leaves oblong-lanceolate 7.5-10 cm long, on long petiole. Flowers small on slender 6-8 slender panicles. 7—12 cm long, appearing Distribution

and Malaya; cultivated

India

Description Attractive evergreen tree to 7

early

Native of Ceylon, wild

Distribution

in

classical

far

A.

fresh

stimulant

Medium-sized evergreen tree 6.5 with thi< k. smooth and pale bark:

fruit,

tonic;

scorbutic; ;

dried peel, juice, refrigerant:

o\\)

Anti-

carminative;

aromatic.

Fresh juice employed as a household remedy

<>i rarely alternate, hard, long and 4 7.5 cm wide, ovate Of ovate-lanceolate, shiny above and palei beneath. Numerous yellowish-white flowers, dis-

leaves 7

g

20

opposite

cm

agreeable odour,

in silky loose

than leaves on long

pedum

panic

Irs

longei

les

Bittei

Orange

is

usuall) onl)

lood and perfume industi Description

employed

in the

\

Glabrous evergreen

tree

to

8

m;

brain bes spiny. I.
Flowers fragrant, white or pink. -mule or few; followed by 7.5 cm diametei globose orange to reddish fruit. Asian native. Introduced and Distribution naturalized in south Europe, Florida, United States and else w here.

winged.

axillary,

Cultivation

Used 1

.11

Wild and cultivated commercially. lor the Sweet Orange. l.asiK

as slot k

led

from seed.

Constituents

volatile

oil.

flowers fruil

Oil

and

ol

neroli. a

rind

complex

Volatile

oil

vitamin C; comprising limonene to 90% Havonoids; bittei compounds including naringine.

•75

CLA-COL for the

common

cold;

as a carminative,

Lemon

oil

and the peel

was once used employed

is still

Cultivation

Wild; cultivated commercially by

inoculation of rye plant heads with

artificial

as a bitter.

the fungal spores.

The

Constituents

widest use is for culinary purposes as a flavouring agent and as an antioxidant.

Used

for

cosmetic purposes as astringent, skin

tonic, in scents.

Claviceps purpurea (Fried.)

Tulasne

number

of alkaloids; carbohydrates; lipids;

quaternary ammonium bases; sterols; dyes; amino-acids and amines. Six isomeric pairs of alkaloids have been isolated, including ergocistine, ergotamine, ergocryptine, ergocornine,

Most are deriva-

ASCOMYCETES

ergosine and ergometrine.

Ergot Ergot of Rye Ergot is best known as the cause of a serious and spectacular human disease characterized by symptoms of hallucination and madness. It is now known as ergotism and arose in epidemic

tives of lysergic acid or iso-lysergic acid

proportions throughout Europe from at least

century and lasted until called by a variety of disease was 8 6. The 1 names the most common being Ignis sancti Antonii or St Anthony's Fire, and was eventuas early as the sixth 1

be caused by eating flour or bread containing a high proportion of the Ergot fungus. It was found to be of obstetric value in the 1550s by Lonitzer of Frankfurt and is retained to this day in many pharmacopoeias, including ally discovered to

the British, French

and German.

Ergot is the dried sclerotium, or resting stage, of a fungus which develops in the ovary of the rye plant [Secale cereale (L)), and other grasses belonging to the genera AgropyDescription

largely

is

due

;

action

to these alkaloids.

haemostatic; circulatory stimulant; emmenagogue. Most effectively employed as a preventative against post-partum haemorrhage and as a stimulant to arrest bleeding in menorrhagia and metrorrhagia. Also used in neurology. Uses

Large doses may induce pregnant women. Increases blood pressure. To be used by medical personnel only.

abortion

in

Cnicus benedictus

L compositae

brittle.

Internally

whitish-pinkish in the

to

The

galactagogue.

Carduus sanctus or carduus benedictus Blessed

Thistle

is

still

the Sacred

cultivated

as

a

medicinal herb in certain European countries and has long enjoyed a reputation as an effective remedial plant. At one time considered a

and

Mixed with wine

Young leaves heads eaten

to

used

make an

to

it

in the

aperitif.

be eaten in salads, flower-

manner

of Artichokes,

and

root boiled as a pot herb. Contra-indications

Large doses strongly emetic.

L palmae Coconut Palm

Cocos nucifera

A well-known

tree of

enormous economic and

nutritional importance in tries.

many

Many parts of the palm

the fruit or coconut

tropical coun-

are exploited, but

most useful: for this have been bred which produce 100 to 200 coconuts each year. The generic name Cocos is from the Portuguese

reason cultivated

is

varieties

monkey ^ means nut-bearing. Palm tree to 25 m trunk usually one side and regularly ringed with

monkey,

as the nut looks like a

Description

curving

:

to

Leaves in a terminal crown, very on a yellowish petiole which is deeply embedded in loose fibre surrounding the trunk: deeply pinnate and pendulous. Flowers followed bv ovoid nuts 20 cm long, usuallv in bunches of 10 to 20. Distribution Native to Malaysia and Polynesia; widely distributed throughout tropical zones. leaf scars.

long

j

m

In coastal situations or occasionally inland.

Wild. Widely cultivated commerci-

ally.

white

autumn.

comprising

Constituents

Oil,

trimyristin,

trilaurin,

triolein,

tries in

capric and caproic acids.

fields.

Uses

cure-all

its

use

now

is

generally restricted to

inclusion in herbal tonics. Cnicus

is the Latin Safflower which was once the name

name

for

given

to the thistle family.

Description

70

cm

;

on each

cm

Thistle-like

branched annual

to

leaves lanceolate, dentate, with spines tooth, dark green, white-veined,

5-15

long. Flowers partially concealed within

spiny bracts, yellow 3-4 cm wide, and appearing mid-summer to early autumn.

Mediterranean native; naturalized United States; introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most soils. Cultivation Wild plant; cultivated commercially. Easily raised from seed sown in spring or autumn, preferably on well-manured soil. Distribution

in

.76

infusion

said to act as a

is

flowering tops were once

tripalmitin;

edges of rye

principle,

used to treat worms.

Cultivation

producing counareas or years of high humidity and at

weak

a

as

stimulates the appetite

Distribution In all the cereal

then often

bitter

(ace; nucifera

1

with a faint odour. Appears

Used

diaphoretic.

for

Blessed Thistle

rum, Alopecurus, Anthoxanthum, Avena, Brachypodium, Calamagrostis, Dactylis, Hordeum and Triticum. The sclerotium externally is dark violet to black, usually 3 cm long and 5 mm broad, fusiform, often tapering towards both ends, 1

a

oil;

aids digestion.

dried fungus) Uterine stimulant,

Contra-indications

or

which

Uses (dried flowering plant) Tonic; emetic:

Extremely complex, containing a

on the uterus

Volatile

Constituents

cnicin,

oil,

also

the

the

glycerides,

tristearin

and

glycerides of caprylic.

kernels, seed, leaves, sap

Nutritive:

;

CLA-COL The seed is sometimes used as an anthelmintic in tropical countries. Fractionated coconut oil (containing medium chain anthelmintic.

triglycerides

is

used

in

certain

for

diets

forms exist; grown indoors as a house plant. Constituents Caffeine (1—2%), acting as a stimulant upon the central nervous system; volatile oils; colouring matter; tannin: traces

conditions such as cystic fibrosis and steator-

of theobromine and

rhoea where patients are unable to absorb normal fats completelv. The oil is used as an ointment base, and in

Uses freshly roasted

massage creams and certain medicated shamAlso

poos.

used

in

sea-water

and

soaps,

isomer, theophylline.

culinary use of the kernel as a food and

long,

Distribution

estuary

Wild plant: cultivated in West and the West Indies. Constituents Caffeine (1.5%), combined with kolatin in the fresh state, and unbound when

Taken

Africa, Java, Brazil

as a general tonic stimulant, especially

useful in narcotic poisoning.

ployed as a flavouring agent

in

Decoction empharmaceutical

dried; also theobromine; kola red; fat; sugar;

Very wide use

as a beverage, for colouring

and

and and

starch.

and the apical bud or 'cabbage' of the

confectionery manufacture.

pressive.

Contra-indications Excessive intake may cause insomnia, muscle tremor, restlessness, palpitations and tachycardia.

ted

eaten as a delicacy.

employed

in

The fermented

palm wine and

sap

is

manufac-

spirit

ture.

Leaves are extensively used in basket, mat and rope manufacture; the husk fibre from the nut is similarly used in coconut matting and rope. Coffea arabica

Coffee

L rubiaceae

Common

or

Arabian Coffee

The Coffee plant forms wild forests in parts of the Sudan and Abyssinia and for centuries the berry has been eaten raw by natives as a stimulant.

The

habit of drinking Coffee probably origin-

ated with the Abyssinians, from

whom

the use

north-west African coast,

sites in forests.

Cultivation

flavouring

is

to

Leone and the Cameroons. Introduced elsewhere. Prefers coastal and

flavouring, particularly in Indonesian cuisine; tree

Native

especially Sierra

diuretic.

preparations.

formerly in margarine.

Wide

its

ground kernel Stimulant

4-5 cm and consisting of cotyledons 2-5 cm long.

long, containing red or white seeds

purposes,

liqueur

in

Uses

Stimulant: anti-de-

(dried cotyledons)

employed in debilitated, exhausand depressive conditions; in melancholia, anorexia and migraine. Particularly

A

flavouring

for

drinks,

soft

Cola acuminata fBeauv.) Schott et Endl.

creams and wines. Used

STERCL'UACEAE Cola Nut Kola Goora Nut The Cola Nuts commercially available consist of the cotyledons, fleshy and white before drying, obtained from the 5 to 15 seeds of the large fruit of the Cola tree. Fresh Nuts are seldom found outside Africa. where they are consumed raw before meals to promote digestion. They are also considered to improve the flavour of food.

cola-type beverages.

A

red dye

is

in the

cordials,

ice

manufacture of

obtained from the Cola Nut.

Colchicum autumnale

L

Autumn Crocus

Colchicum/ Meadow

liliaceae

Saffron

The Autumn Crocus plant known since the

early Greeks

not introduced

medical practice until

quite

recently.

into

Most

a rare

is

of

the

example of a which was ancient

and

medieval writers, except the Arabic physicians, considered Colchicum too poisonous to use, although it did appear briefly in the London Pharmacopoeia from 16 18 to 1639. Its modern use derives from the research of Wedel 718) and Storck (1763) on the treatment of gout, for which purpose it is retained to this day in many countries. 1

Description

Perennial;

solitary

pale

purple

on 20-cm long white 'stalk' which is actually an elongated corolla tube, appearing in the autumn from a corm 15 cm flower, 6 petals

of Coffee spread into Arabia.

Rauwolf, the botanist, mentioned Coffee

for

1573 when travelling in the Levant, and Prospei Alpinus described it more

the

fully in in

time

first

1

591

Venice

.

at

in

European

!offee

(

drinking began

the beginning of the seventeenth

century, and was fashionable

in

England In

1652 and France In 1669. It is thought that all the Coffee now exported from Brazil and the West Indies stems from the propagation of a single plant introduced to the Celebes in 1822.

Evergreen

Description

shrub

m

5

3

high,

with a single main trunk, later developing others bom this; leaves dark green and initi. ilK

glossy, thin, opposite, 7 2 cm long; 2.5 wide, abrupt 1) a< uminate with a point

inn

1

1

long. b\

White

5

nun

star-like flowers, fragrant, followed

2-seeded deep red berr)

beans

15

mm

long. Distribution

Native

to

tropical

Africa;

earl)

introduc tion to Arabia. Introdui ed to tropic al countries, espe< ially abundant in the America Prefers jungle conditions

and

partial shade.

Wild and extensively cultivated commercial!) in plantations, often under Cultivation

artificial

shading.

Horticultural

variegated

Cola Nuts, the

Congo

dc

sc

ribed as colla were lust seen

b) Fathei Carli in 1667.

The

in

dried

product does not contain the same properties as the fresh Nut, and most ol it is used in soli drinks.

It

is

still

used

in

lolk

medicine

as a

stimulant. Dest ription

leathery,

Evergreen tree to 15 acute-,

long; yellow panicles,

entire,

flowers

ol

m high;

obovate, 15

calyx tube green.

mm

10

leaves

20

diameter,

Fruit

to

i

-,

cm in

cm

below

ground; 6 stamens,

lane eolate leaves

30

cm

long

3 first

styles;

appear

fleshy, in

the

following spring, and enclose the seed-filled

brown capsular fruit by mid-summer. Distribution European native; prefers deep clay and nutrient rich loam in damp meadows and leu woodland Wild plant; cultivated from seed

Cultivation

Collected

in late

Constituent

summei.

Several

toxic

en

from coims. largeh

alkaloids,

'77

COM-CRO colchicine

to

gum;

starch;

which sugar;

its

action

fat;

tannin.

is

due; also

corms, seeds) Anti-rheumatic. Used to relieve the pain and inflammation of acute gout and rheumatism. Contra-indications All parts highly POISONOUS, causing diarrhoea and sometimes death. Only to be used by medical personnel. (dried

Uses

and mouthwash in inflammations of mouth and pharynx. Tincture is applied to

a gargle

Constituents Several alkaloids, chiefly confine,

the

to

ulcers.

body

Stimulates natural resistance of the

in septicaemia.

in

the earliest times as a constituent of

perfumes, unguents and incense, the modern name is directly derived from the old Hebrew

and Arabic word mur, meaning

The

knew

ancient Greeks

liquid form called stacte

found, but

is

thought

to

which

is

a

no longer

be a natural exudation

Myrrh tree or a closely related species. Myrrh was highly prized in the Middle Ages and is still used as a mouthwash and in folk of the

medicine.

drine; paraconine;

antispasmodic.

constituent of some tooth-powders.

Used

medicine

veterinary

in

wound

for

treatment.

Once used epilepsy,

in incense,

and when burned

repels

all

parts of this

of conium; conic acid.

oil

A

i

Anodyne;

sedative;

in neurological conditions

mania and chorea, and

such as

in ancient

times externally to treat breast tumours. Never

mosquitos.

employed today, not even in folk medicine. Although cooking is said to destroy the toxic

Conium maculatum L umbelliferae Poison Hemlock Mother Die

constituents, this herb should never be eaten.

Hemlock Hemlock principal,

bitter.

Myrrh and

of

toxicity of

attributed; also methylconiine; cony-

Uses (unripe seed, fruit

Myrrh Gum Myrrh/Myrrha Used from

is

dyspepsia.

Employed Commiphora molmol Engler burseraceae

Small doses effective

which the intense

plant

is

if

best

known

historically

the

and

especially the

POISONOUS.

seed, are intensely

not the only, ingredient of the

Athenian State poison used execution

Contra-indications All parts,

as

among

for,

method of Thermanes,

as a

others,

Phocion and Socrates. Dioscorides introduced it as a medicine mostly for the external treatment of herpes and erysipelas, and both Pliny and Avicenna considered it effective in the treatment of tumours. The old Roman name

Convallaria majalis

L

liliaceae

Lily-of-the- Valley

A

flower which

is

May

Lily

frequently found in country

gardens and which was shown as early as the sixteenth century to possess strong therapeutic action. It was known as lilium convallium to sixteenth-century apothecaries. Like the Foxglove, with which it shares similar heartherb did not previously enjoy wide medicinal use. Today, however, it is assisting properties, the

an important drug

in

some national pharma-

copoeias. Description Perennial fragrant plant

10-20 cm

high producing annually a pair of oblong-oval petiolate leaves 10-20

cm

long, 3—7.5

deeply ribbed longitudinally:

cm

wide.

510 bell-shaped

mm

wide, borne on leafless white flowers 10 peduncle, appearing early summer, and fol-

lowed by round, red berries containing 2-6 seeds.

Native to Europe, East Asia, North America; introduced elsewhere. Prefers damp, calcareous, porous soil in woods, in some alpine Distribution

locations, often forming dense areas of growth. Cultivation

Wild: introduced horticulturally.

cultivated races bearing larger flowers. Propa-

gated by root division in the autumn: prefers some shade may spread rapidly.

Low

Description

2.75

m

stunted bush or small tree to

high; trunk thick and bearing numer-

ous irregular, knotted branches and smaller stout clustered branchlets, the latter spreading at

right angles

Few

spine.

and terminating

leaves,

1— 1.5

cm

in

a sharp

long, at ends of

for the herb was cicula, a term found in tenthcentury Anglo-Saxon works.

The poisonous nature

of the

warmer

colder climates than

cm long, minute, the terminal obovate-oval, narrowed at the base, entire,

however, always be treated poisonous plant.

1

glabrous.

Description

Gum discharged through after

wounding.

Distribution soil in

'

si's

On

basaltic

Wild plant.

Constituents

I

Arabia; Somaliland.

very hot areas.

Cultivation

35%

the bark naturally or

Oleo-gum-resin, comprising 25-

resin. 2.5

6.5%

volatile oil, 50-60°,,

gum.

dried oleo-gum-resin/ Carminative: an-

tiseptic;

mildly

expectorant;

diuretic;

dia-

Erect

biennial

as a

It must, dangerously

herb,

smelling of

ones.

mice, arising from a forked root, and reaching 1.5 m; much branched, stems speckled and purple towards the base. Foliage dark and finely cut, 2-4 pinnate, glabrous; umbels of small white flowers appearing mid-summer to

mid-autumn. Distribution European native; extensively distributed in temperate zones. Found in weedy places

especially

phoretic.

streams or

Astringent to mucous membranes, and used as

Cultivation

178

varies

Hemlock growing in London was harmless, and others maintain that it is less poisonous in

short wart-like branchlets; trifoliate, the lateral leaflets

plant

considerably. Carpenter in 1850 claimed that

field

in

moist,

warm

edges in loamy

Wild plant.

soil.

sites

by

.

COM-CRO Cardioactive glycosides cardeno-

Constituents

similar to foxglove glycoside, especially

lides

convallatoxine.

convallo-

convalloside,

also

and convallotoxoside;

toxole

a

saponoside,

juices. Bruised seed

Cardiac tonic: emetic:

flowers)

Root can be cooked and eaten

diuretic.

The

Regulates heart action in a similar manner to the Foxglove and is considered to be safer and

used of

Seldom

effective.

as

applied externally as a

is

poultice to relieve painful joints in rheumatism.

convallamarine. Uses (dried

Mostly used to prevent griping caused by other medication, such as Senna or Rhubarb. Chewing the seed stimulates secretion of gastric

used

outside

eastern

all

as a vegetable.

seed

is

action

coronary arteries. an adaptogenic agent. flow in

It

improves blood appears to act as

Of

employed

myocardial weakness, arteriosclerosis, paroxysmal tachycardia, and angina pectoris. Pro-

European countries.

condiment,

Flowers provide a perfume base. Dried ground roots were formerly an ingredient

confectionery

May

Combined

stituents.

specific

is

world.

The

Constituents

probably the most widely flavouring herbs throughout the

leaf

fresh

Wild plant. Often planted as hedge. Flavone glycosides; catechins; saponins; vitamin C; several unidentified conCultivation

in baking, as a spice or

and

liqueur manufacture,

in

in

be added to pot-pourris.

Uses (fresh or dried fruits)

Hypotensive.

use in hypertension associated with

longed treatment is necessary. Liqueur once manufactured from the berries. Timber formerly used for small boxes.

of snuff. Contra-indications

POISONOUS. To be used

by

Crataegus monogyna J acq.

The Coriandrum sativum

L umbelliferae

Coriander Cultivated for over 3000 years Coriander

is

mentioned in all the medieval medical texts, by the Greeks, in the scriptures, by early Sanskrit authors -

and even

in the

rosaceae

Crithmum maritimum

Hawthorn May/Whitethorn

medical personnel only.

who

called

it

kustumburu -

Egyptian Ebers papyrus.

Its

botanical

name

Samphire

of Hawthorn, Crataegus,

comes from the Greek meaning strength which describes the strength of the wood, while the plant's common names in several European languages refer to the fact that bush producing fruit, the haw.

this

a thorny

is

of the Hawthorn's previously considered powerful magical properties are now for-

some people

feathers,

still

Samphire,

Sea Fennel

Samphire has long been rocks of

its

collected from the

natural habitat for shipment in

urban areas or for local use. was also grown as a kitchen

barrels of brine to

Surprisingly

it

Gerard described its cultivation in 1598 England, and Quintyne described it in France in 1690. The English particularly herb.

Much

gotten, although as with lilac

L umbelliferae

Peter's Cress/Rock

in

and peacock's

refuse to bring the

flowers indoors.

Medicinally the herb is very important and is used in orthodox Eastern and unorthodox Western medicine lor the treatment widely

ol

h) pei tension.

I),

scription

Shrub or small

ing branches with thorns

glabrous, lobed, 1

i.-,

ij

(in

broad-ovate

mm—5 cm across,

tree to

cm

i.-,

or

m: spread-

long; leaves

obovate,

deepl)

flowers

long: clusters

in


ol

",

white 12;

20

Stamens with red anthers: appearing earl) summer to mid-summer followed by ovoid scarlet false fruits Oi 8

globose, u Distribution

in, h

eat h

Europe.

c

10

mm

ontain

North

1

diameter, substony

Africa,

fruit.

western

Asia: introduced in other temperate /ones. In

hedges and open deciduous woods.

name bug, insc(

is

derived from

since

koris,

Greek

the

smells

plant

the

foi

StTOngl)

oi

bedthe

and

pickles.

It

for inclusion in

sauces

was cultivated in American 1821, but is now rarely seen

gardens from an) w here. Description Bushy, aromatic, perennial, umbelliferous plant reaching 30 cm; smooth, blight green and much branched on woody base, fleshy and somewhat spiky leaf segments, and greenish-yellow llowc-rs appearing mid-sum-

tS.

Small glabrous solid-stemmed hard) annual plan) from 30 rel="nofollow"><> cm tall on thin, pointed root, lowei leaves pinnate, clefi and Description

.1

•

lobed, the upper bipinnate and finch, dissected.

compound umbels

oi white and from mid-summei to early autumn. Followed b) brownish orbit ulai fruit with an unpleasant smell before the) ripen, then becoming spi< \ and aromatic.

Small,

favoured the seed pods

flat,

reddish flowers appeal

mer

to

mid-autumn. Numerous bracts and

bracteoles. ( iteming upon rocks on the southern European Atlantic seaboard and on the shores

Distribution

ol

several mediterranean countries.

Cultivation

Wild plant, may be grown horticul-

tural^ on well-drained soils. Constituents Mineral salts: oils;

volatile

oil;

iodine; vitamin C.

Indigenous to mediterranean and Caucasian regions; now widespread weed in many temperate zones. Prefers dry soil and lull

purposes as a boiled spiced pickle, as a salad, a buttered vegetable or as a condiment. Said lii

sun.

stimulate the appetite.

Distribution

Cultivation

Unknown

in

(

later.

(

rei

mination

Volatile

Constituents

coriandrol,

I

1

'

ai

di ied

may

oil,

be slow

1

ipe

fi

yl

0-pinene, aldehyde.

uits, leal

minative; stimulant.

young leaves

Used

for

culinar)

and

rooi

L iridaceae Saffron Crocus Saffron The Saffron Crocus has been considered an

Crocus sativus

importanl trade item from the

.

comprising borneol,

d-pinene,

geraniol, and de<

fresh

the wild state, culti-

vated commercially and horticultural^ throughout the world. Seed sown in late spring 01 earl) summei in drills 3 m deep; need thinning

Uses

terpinene,

earliest

times,

and has long been employed as a medicine. dye, perfume and ondiment. Its earliest name was probabl) the lebi ew carcom. It was cultivated in main countries and exported from Persia and India to China .is <

1

Aromatic

.

'7')

CRO-CYP Europe from the Middle Ages. The Romans Cumin seed in the same way that

in

used ground

we it

use Pepper. In the last 300 years, however,

has been discarded from European cooking

and

is

now

chiefly used in Indian cooking.

Description Slender, glabrous,

cm

annual herb 15

high; stems branched above; leaves with

few

divisions

filiform

sparsely

flowered

mm-5 cm

15

umbels,

white

long;

or

rose-

coloured with simple involucral bracts, appearing late spring. Fruit 7

mm

long, bristly.

Indigenous to Egypt and the mediterranean. Widespread distribution. Tolerates most well-drained soils in sunny situaDistribution

tions.

Wild plant. Cultivated on North African coast. Middle East. India. Malta and China. Seed sown in late spring in sandy soil

Cultivation

in

warm

a

or in the greenhouse.

situation,

Thin

out.

Keep

free of

harden

off

and plant 20 cm apart.

weeds.

4 ",,. which comcumaldehyde, terpencs. cuminic alcohol. pinenes; also fatty oil and pentosan.

Constituents Essential oil. 2.5

prises

Uses

ad. 1280

Yuen dynast)

early as the

the Chinese called

it

i;5<>H

Commonly

Sa-fa-lang.

Records suggest the Saffron Crocus was cultivated in Spain in the nintli century, in Frame. Italy and Germany in the twelfth, and in England by the fourteenth. Such was the standing of the drug that severe penalties were suffered by those who adulterated Saffron: Hans Kdlbele, for example, was buried alive in Nuremberg in [456 with his impure drug. Typical crocus, producing blue. Description lilac

or purple fragrant flowers in the

arising from a

corm

3

cm

in

diameter.

autumn Numer-

The but

into disuse from then until 1812

fell

English medical officers the

in

temperate zones. Prefers sunny,

Cultivation

Now unknown

vated

the

in

in

the wild. Culti-

mediterranean.

Middle

East,

India and China. Propagation by corms planted in rows 10-15 cm apart in late Persia,

cm

Indigenous

south-west India, and

manv

parts of the East.

China and south

cultivation in

Constituents Fatty oil

following

the

Malabar Burma.

60%;

oil

palmitic,

I

sedative.

No

longer used medicinally except to colour

medicines.

Formerly considered an aphro-

coast,

garden

comprisstearic,

myristic, lauric, acetic, butyric, formic, oleic,

The

responsible for the vesicant activity.

;

m

1

and

linoleic is

oil

valeric.

croton-resin, a lactone,

expressed from seed

active con-

which

is

also

Powerful cath-

artic; counter-irritant; vesicant; rubefacient.

Formerly administered as a purgative to mental patients: now rarely used internally and only for extremely obstinate violent

disiac.

constipation.

Employed in many culinary dishes both for taste and colour and in some liqueurs. Cannot be used to dye fabrics as it is readily

great

water-soluble.

irritant:

care,

May

irritant in gout

be used externally with

diluted

in

form,

as

a

counter-

and neuralgia.

Powerful gastro-intestinal capable of causing death. May induce

Contra-indications

severe external blistering. Croton tiglium

L euphorbiaceae

Croton Croton Seed from Croton Seeds

is one of the most known, and should never be used by non-medical personnel. The seeds

Oil

violent purgatives

were described

first by Christoval Acosta in 1578 and called pinones dt Maluco. They were regarded as 'official' in the seventeenth century

180

veterinary medicine.

Commercial

glycoside, picrocrocin: crocin. the glycoside of

dried stigma Stomachic antispasmodic

in

Asia.

croton

acids:

as a

tiglic,

ses

perfumery.

in

Wild and cultivated

Cultivation

ing

Tavoy

stituent

r

in

employed

long. to the

Constituents Oil 8-13",,: essential oil: a bitter

I

used

India reintroduced

summer.

the colouring matter crocetin.

oil is

Oil chiefly

and

cordials.

Inconspicuous flowers in erect terminal racemes 7.5 cm long, appearing earl) summer. Brow n. capsular. 3-celled fruit, each contain-

plant in

sites.

in

when

for pickling,

and

Small tree or shrub to 6 m with lew branches bearing alternate, smooth ovale 01 acuminate leaves, dark green above, paler beneath and with a strong, disagreeable odour.

Distribution

well-drained

in curries,

into medic inc.

oil

ing a single seed 1.5

widespread

used

Description

blood-red style branches.

from Asia Minor, now

Stimulant, carminative.

also for flavouring liqueurs

ous narrow, linear leaves to ("> em long, greygreen. Yellow anthers longer than filaments, Distribution Originally

dried ripe fruit

Useful in diarrhoea and dyspepsia.

:

Cuminum cyminum L umbelliferae

Cumin Although indigenous

to the

upper regions of

the Nile, the seeds of this herb ripen as far north as

Norway. The fructus cumini or Cumin seeds

were known and.

later.

prophet Isaiah. Dioscorides. Thev found wide use as early as the

L zingiberaceae Turmeric Turmeric root or rhizome Turmeric was once much more highly esteemed

Curcuma longa

than it is today; it fell into disuse in the Middle Ages having previously held a position at least equal to that of Ginger to which it is closely related. Dioscorides called it cyperus, and in the sixteenth century it was known as crocus indicus.

and curcuma. Several types exist of which Bengal Turmeric is considered the best

turmeracke

for

dyeing.

The yellow

robes

of Buddhist

.

CRO-CYP monks were It is

dyed with

often

Description

it.

similar to another ancient spice.

(C. zedoaria Roscoe

well-known

in the

.

which

is

Zedoary

today even

less

West.

1 all

large ovoid

large, lilv-like. in tufts to 1.2

m

long: oblong-

lanceolate blades tapering towards the base, long petiole. Pale yellow flowers, clustered in

dense spikes 10-15 cm long: peduncle 15 cm long and enclosed in a sheathing petiole. Pale green bracts. Appears late spring to mid-

summer. Native

Distribution

to

south-east

Asia:

dis-

and introduced elsewhere. Prefers humid conditions and rich loamy soils. Cultivation Wild and cultivated in many tropical countries; propagation by root division in autumn. tributed

Volatile

Constituents

oil

5-6",,:

a

terpene.

colcurcumen: starch 24%; albumen 30° ouring due to curcumin or diferuloyl methane. dried rhizome Aromatic, stimulant. Uses Employed in eastern medicine externally for bruising and internally in certain blood disorders, to relieve catarrh, and in purulent :

opthalmia.

A pharmaceutical

Main

is

use

a

as

colouring agent

colouring agent.

condiment and culinary and Piccalilli.

in curries

1-

Thistle-like

perennial

usually

leaves large

and deeply

pinnatifid.

tall,

Mice

some

in

kunoglosson.

Large capitula with enlarged fleshy receptacle, broad involucral bracts and numerous purple flowers, appearing mid to

today,

late

spiny.

summer.

Distribution Native to North Africa in most temperate and subtropical zones. Preferring well-manured, moisture-retaining soil, rich in :

humus.

is

It

but

is

lingua cams

homeopathicallv

Annual or biennial herb with unpleasant smell, reaching 30 90 cm; bearing grey leaves covered with silky hairs, the lower Description

cm

30

to

long, lanceolate to ovate, stalked, the

upper generally without

Wild only as an escape: a close the Cardoon C. cardunculus Cultivated commercially and horticulturallv either from seed or preferably from suckers arising from the root-stock, retaining a portion Cultivation

of

.

of the parent plant.

The

cm

rich moist soil 75

'heels' are

planted

Flowers dull diameter,

stalks.

red-purple, occasionally white,

relative

early

The and the Greek. rarely used in folk medicine occasionally employed still

parts of western England.

medieval name was

greyish, green above, whitish beneath: very

rarely

perennial herb arising from rhizome with sessile cylindrical tubers, orange coloured within. Leaves very Description

m

1.75

1

cm

arranged on branched cymes 10 25 cm long. appearing mid-summer. Distribution European native; on light dry grassy soils, wood fringes, walls and ruins, in particular near to the sea.

in

apart in late spring or

summer. Give plenty of water, some

may

protection in cold weather

be required.

Optimal cropping is reached in the third and plants should be replaced in the

year. fifth

season. Constituents

Cynarine, a bitter aromatic sub-

stance: polyphenols acidic substances: flavonoids;

tannins:

.im at

enzymes

several

catalases. peroxydases,

1

j

including

narase, oxydases,

and

orbinase; also provitamin A. The combined lion

is

and stimulant

diuretic

liver cell

to

regeneration and action. Uses

fresh

leaves,

receptacle,

gogue; diuretic. ( )l proven v .due in jaundice,

Chola-

root

er insufficiency

li\

:

anaemia and liver damage caused l>v poisons. Stimulates and .lids digestion; anti-civ speptic

.

Considered sclerosis.

to In-

prophylactic against arterio-

A major

constituent of proprietary

Wild plant

Cultivation

Two

Constituents

cynoglossine and

alkaloids,

consolidine; essential

oil; resin:

tannin; gum.

dried root, dried whole herb, fresh leaves

/ 'set

Anodyne; demulcent.

w

soothing

Effective

sedative

in

and

coughs

diarrhoea. Administered internally and as a poultice

lot

haemorrhoids.

nan

oti<

Formerly

con-

and prescribed in combinawith Opium. Henbane, and aromatic

sidered tion

a

herbs.

The bruised I'sed

bites. 1

1

1

1

may be tubbed on homeopathic medicine

leal

in

insect as

a

till e.

<

Contra-indications

caution

:

Incompletely studied theraused with

and therefore 10 be may ause dermatitis.

peutically

c

Cypnpedium pubescens Willd. orchidaceae Lady's Slipper Yellow Lady's Slippei \c

Cynara scolymus

L compositae

digestive tonii

Artichoke (.lobe Auk hoke he Globe Artichoke is not only a delicacy, but an important medicinal herb whf< h was known I

tO the me<|ie\ Its

name

1. iniiie.

is

,1]

Aiabic

|>li\ si< 1,1ns

as al-Uiaisuj.

from the Latin 011111111 derived from the similarity oi Cynara,

involucral spines to the dog's tooth.

It

.1

eaten

receptacle

blanched central

as

leal stalks

a

delicacy;

the

may be cooked

as

vegetable.

I

\

(

Root

Cypripedium was included in the United St, ites Pharmacopoeia a century ago, and was considered

Flower-heads employed

in floral

tin

Cynoglosswn

has

Hound's Tongue

officinale

L boraoinai

t

that Us leaves look like a

however, more

ol

(loss's

mice, and

tongue

is

used

vi

Gipsv Flowei usual names ol (his hetb relei

to the |a< :

it

I

smells.

called Rats

that It

time

worthy

of further

has continued I" be used to

the present day in folk medicine lor the

decorations.

purpose

All tin

at

investigation.

01

proven remedial effe< tl on the liver. The plant was one ol the (.reek ultivated garden herbs. and itill enjoys wide hortii ultural use. c

Fleshy

-

and

it.

thai as a

same American Indians have always

sedative.

It

has been called

I

he

American Valerian, and was introduced to European medicine by Rahnesque in tin eighteenth Description

1

entury. Perennial

orchid

on

fleshy

root-

le?

I

DAP-DIG

mm

long: strongl) fragrant

rose-violet, 10

15

and appearing

in sessile- clusters

of 2 5 along previous year's branches before leaves develop.

Appearing stock producing several 5 20 cm long, manynerved, acuminate, alternate leaves; on glan-

dular hairy stems 10 cm-i

m

high. Flowers golden yellow, spotted magenta-purple, with lower lip forming the shape of an inflated sac: appearing early to late summer. The plant is variable in distinctive,

cream

dull

to

shape and degree of fragrance. Distribution Native to eastern United States.

late

winter to early spring: followed

by red berries. Distribution Native to Europe and Western Asia; introduced elsewhere. Found in deciduous mixed woodland and on rich calcareous

soil.

Wild. Cultivated as garden plant. Propagate from cuttings taken in early summer. A white variety, D. mezereum var. alba West, Cultivation

is

in existent

1

An

acrid resinous poisonous sub-

especially the north; prefers shady areas, moist

Constituents

meadows, bogs, woods, rich soils. Cultivation Wild plant: cultivated in eastern Europe. Very closely related

stance, mezerine; a glucoside,

confused

often

with.

pubescens

Willd.i

pubescent

Correll

commercially Constituents

as

is ,

C.

(,'.

and

to,

calceolus

named

also

parts of

I-

.

(..

calceolus var.

and both orchids are know

n

tannin; gallic acid.

Uses

bark, bark

root

sudorific

;

Former!} used internally as an alteram e in the treatment of venereal, scrofulous and rheum-

resins;

2

The combination of these

vesicant

in

Now

skin complaints.

Uses

root-stock

Effective in

and

An

Sedative: spasmolytic. specifically used for anxiety

Bark applied

certain ulcerative skin conditions.

root constituents,

which are not water-soluble, complex known as cypripedin.

e.

externally as poultice as a counter-irritant or

form

a resinous

Alterative: stimulant:

vesicant; rubefacient.

atic conditions, or as a purgativ

Lady's Slipper.

Volatile oil; glucosides;

daphnin; also

coccognin.

Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and

fatal: not

be taken internally.

nervous headaches. Formerly taken in sugar water to promote sleep. Contra-indications Large doses may cause hallucinations. Fresh plant may cause dermatitis.

Datura stramonium L solanaceae Thorn Apple Jimson weed

The Thorn Apple

is

indigenous to the shores

un-

Caspian Sea, and was distributed throughout Europe by the end of the first century a.d. It is doubtful whether the Greeks or Romans used the herb, but it was traditionally smoked by Nubians for chest complaints. Gerard the herbalist cultivated the plant in London in 1598, and Storck 17621 introduced stramonium into wide medicinal use. It is now

to

Arabian physicians

sidered

of

similar

as

use

was

little

as

the

substance.

euphorbium, from Euphorbia resinifera. if

known

as daphnoides

botanists

It is

the Greeks used the plant, but

certain

it

of great

was known mazariyun and con-

and

and

herbalists.

it

thymelaea to medieval

Tragus

I

1546; called

mezereum germanicum.

Description Perennial

m: bearing on

erect

deciduous shrub; to 1.25 branched stem, alternate.

oblong or oblanceolate leaves, 5-7.5 cm long: leaves thin and glabrous. Flowers rose-pink or

182

Near East: naturalNorth America, and throughout Europe: on waste-ground, roadsides, forest edges, walls, preferring porous nitrogen-rich soil in sunny situations. Cultivation Wild: cultivated commercially in Europe by seed sown in late spring. Constituents Alkaloids, comprising mainly hyoscv amine, hyoscine, atropine, whose action relieves spasms of the bronchioles during asthma. dried leaves Antispasmodic; narcotic: Uses anodyne. Of benefit in bronchial asthma, either as a tincture or smoked in the form of a cigarette. Also controls muscular spasm and salivation in Distribution Native to the

ized

in

postencephalitic parkinsonism.

May

be ap-

plied externally as a poultice to reduce local

pain. (jintra-indications

POISONOUS,

hallucino-

genic.

used in folk medicine. and unpleasantly scented

Description Strongly

annual, from 30

L umbelliferae Wild Carrot Daucus is the old Greek name still

of the

It

cm

Daucus carota

excellent horticultural herb.

to

decorative use in herb gardens.

prickly capsules. 5

long.

only employed homcopathically for some

neurosis associated with insomnia, hysteria or

Daphne mezereum L thymelaeaceae Mezereon Spurge Olive An attractive winter-flowering shrub

autumn: followed by

cm- 1.5

m

high: erect and

straggly, bearing glabrous or pubescent, ovate

and petiolate leaves 7.5-20 cm

long, broad

and

with irregular acute lobes. Flowers 5-8 cm long, erect, funnel shaped, terminal and white or pale blue. Appearing late

summer

to late

to

be found

in the

for a

wild plant

hedgerows of Europe,

1

DAP-DIG medicine. Carota

the Latin

is

name

few or scattered, blue or purple, growing in

and same

as food

and which has long been of service

for the

plant.

Several subspecies

developed by

the root crop being

exist,

German

horticulturalists in the

sixteenth century from D. carota ssp. sativus.

Both

and D.

this

carota ssp.

carota

are used

medicinally.

on

Description Erect biennial

cm

compound: segments long.

cm

Constituents Volatile oils

an upward curving spur behind the corolla.

which are responsible

Appearing mid-summer. Distribution European native: introduced in other temperate zones especially on chalky, loamy soil in weedy places, compost sites, and

medicinal use, although tonic cordials were made from a conserve of

White flowers

diameter,

tall;

solid, striate or

Cultivation

leaves pinnateh

Larkspur

pinnatifid, lobes 5

in

compound umbels

mm

sown

37

D.

plant. ajacis.

The common garden Propagated from seed summer.

in early

Delphinine;

Constituents

or convex, with usually one

flat

Wild is

cm deep

1

unknown

Uses (seed, flowering plant

blackish-purple flower in the centre, appear

mintic, anti-parasitic.

mid-summer.

Formerly used internally

Native to Europe, west Asia. North Africa: prefers semi-dry, sandy, or stony

ditions,

Distribution

soil

A

Cultivation

common

Wild

plant.

Wild

B vitamins:

and pubic hair

may

salts.

Contra-indications

employed

to

destroy

POISONOUS.

Diuretic antilithic. Specificin

Dianthus caryophyllus

the

agent

for

bever-

wine cups, cordials, and vine-

gars.

The

fresh flowers decorate soups, stews, sauces,

and open sandwiches. A syrup, prepared by steeping petals in a hot sugar solution has culinary applications.

scented

pot-pourris,

to

sachets, cosmetic products.

Foxglove

L scrophulariaceae

Common

Foxglove fame and importance in medicine in the last two centuries, the Foxglove does not seem to have been described by Greek and Roman physicians, nor did it have a classical name. Fuchs in 1542 first called it digitalis after For

all its

the finger-like

:

treatment of urinar\ stones; often in combination with other antilithic remedies. Weakly anthelmintic. Decoction dI the seed may be employed in flatulence and stomach acidity, as may Carrot juice. Contra-indications Do not drink excessive quantities of Carrot juice, as it induces hypervitally

be applied

be prepared from the fresh petals.

Useful garden ornamental.

dried herb

as a flavouring

Digitalis purpurea

may

parasites.

Blue ink

Mainly used

Dried petals added for a variety of con-

an alkaloid daucine; vitamin C; potassium f 'set

substances.

Purgative, anthel-

strong tincture of fresh seeds

human

carrot.

Constituents Volatile oils: carotene:

the flowers.

only certain effect being violently

its

externally to head

of the

relative

for the clove-like scent.

No

salads,

purgative.

near to the sea.

Uses (fresh flower)

ages, liqueurs,

cornfields.

ridged stem 30 to 100

Pink derives from D. plumarius. comprising eugenol,

sparse terminal racemes and distinguished by

L caryophyllaceae

considered

Clove Pink Gillyflower/Carnation true Gillyflower gilly was the Old English

until

it

of

siiape

its

but he

flowers,

and

a violent medicine,

was not

it

William Withering investigated 776-9) of Foxglove tea in Shropshire for (

1

The

the

July and was so named probably because ol appearance in July), is rarely seen in gardens today, having been replaced b) the more show) but Ear less aromatii Carnations. Its

dropsy that the hei b entered wide medical use. The common name probably derives from the

use

aminosis A. Delphinium consolida

Larkspur A member

L ranunculaceae

Field or Forking Larkspui

oi the Buttercup family and the Northern European equivalent <>t tin historically much more well-known Delphinium Staphiswas known to agria (L), or Stavesacre, whil li

the

Rom. ins

as Staphisagria or herba pedicularia.

lirn is no evidence dial the specific name of Larkspur refers to an) power ol consolidating wounds, which docs not. It is probabl) a I

it

pre-Linnaean name referring to the consolidated petals. Like Stavesacre, it is effective against skin parasites. /> ,11/1/11,11 Annual herb reaching m, arising from slender taproot. Stem glabrous, forking 1

and

diffuse, bearing petiolate

divided, simple leaves ]

|

and

sessile.

(in long.

And)

Iloweis loi

its

name

spe< ilu

reflects the old

loin

loi

Cloves,

m vop/tyllon,

1

I

>,

;o

1

1

1

1

jit

m

1

mi

to

1

Minli

bi a ii( lied glabrOUS pi ten 111. high; stems hard with consph u-

m

1

1

i

~,

night, rose-purple 01 while:

.11

summer

to eat

ruins.

(

Description

appear

late

autumn.

in a

2

Biennial,

to ovate-lanceolate,

stalked

perennial;

downy arising

01

sessile.

Stem

and

stem leaves short-

rarely

branched and

bearing a one-sided raceme 30 4.0 cm long. \tti.K nve purple (lowers, often spotted internally;

appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn. Western European native, prefer-

Distribution

ring acid soil in

:.ih

areous.

Cultivation

Wildylanl and widel) cultivated commercially. All modern horticultural ( larn.11 ions derive from D tatynphyllus: the modern

occasionally

rosette; radical leaves lout;. Stalked

ovate

Native to southern Europe and open sunny position on old walls,

Cultivation

'fox-music' after

m. Leaves rugose and

In

Distribution

India.

lv

01

the shape ol an aiK ient musical instrument.

reaching

OUS nodes, bearing thick linear leaves 7.5 2.5 in long, obtuse and keeled. Flowers 3 (in in diameter, 2 pet stem, very fragrant especiall)

Anglo-Saxon 'foxes-glew'

Now

<

ultiv

sunny situations on rough land.

ated widely.

Wild: veiv widel) cultivated both commercial!) and horticulturally. any gar-

M

den variants var.

mui iilniu.

exist; var.

(

iniipanulnlii. var. nihil,

Propagated

from

seed

which

[83

DRY-EPI should be sown in late spring.

aspidic acid; volatile

Echinacea angustifolia

oil.

DC

compositae

Uses (dried rhizome, frond bases, apical budsi

Purple Coneflower Black Sampson

toxin, gitoxin,

An

on

Poultice

This stark and attractive herb is one of several outstanding examples of plants deserving modern examination. The United States Dispensatory stated a century ago that the

Constituents Several glycosides

including digi-

and gitaloxin, which act directly muscle increasing the output in patients with congestive heart failure. Uses dried leaves Cardiac tonic. heart

Acts as a cardio-active diuretic in conditions of oedema due to heart failure.

May

be used externally as a poultice

may

removing tapeworms.

be applied externally

to

aid

tissue healing.

Contra-indications

To

be used under medical

supervision only: large doses

may

cause blind-

Only

to

be

Squirting

Cucumber

Elaterium Fruit appropriately named herb both from the

It

was formerly

folia.

An

point of view of its action, as a strong purgative,

tacle,

Dryoptens filix-mas (Li Schott

hedgehog.

POLYPODIACEAE

and from its violent method of seed dispersal which involves ejaculation of the contents of

Male Fern

the ripe fruit to a distance of 10 m. is

name

it

It

an effective remedy for tapekills and expels from the intestines. It is, however, an irritant in large doses and must be used only by those medically trained. It

was well known

to the ancients,

a constituent of secret

and was

'worm remedies'

ol

also

The

generic

derives from the Greek meaning expel. was certainly well-known to Theophrastus and Dioscorides who described the manufacture of Elaterium, and it was cultivated throughout Europe in the sixteenth century. of Elaterium

Constituents

are

now mostlv

classified as Brauneria angusti-

but the present generic

used by medical personnel.

The Male Fern worms which

and

claim.

Ecballium elaterium (L) A. Rich cucurbitaceae

POISONOUS.

tincture increased resistance to infection,

the experience of folk medicine supports this

ness or death.

to aid

healing of wounds. Contra-indicatwns

effective agent for

name

reflects the

shape of the sharp-pointed bracts of the recepthe

after

Greek

meaning

echinacea,

Coarse perennial reaching 45 cm. Leaves sparse, lanceolate to linear; 7.5-20 cm long, entire with slender petioles. Flower-head solitary on stout terminal peduncle, consisting of spreading ray florets 3 cm long, purple or Description

rarely white, florets, also

earlv

and

3

cm

long conical erect disc

mid-summer

purple. Appearing

to

autumn.

the

eighteenth century, particularly those made by German apothecaries. Frederick the Great

purchased the secret of one such mixture his

for

personal use.

Other fernSj however, seem to be equally or more effective as taenicides; Dtyopteris spinuKuntze, for example, is twice as losa O. effective as Dryopteris jilix-mas.

Perennial fern on dark-brown rhizome 20 50 cm long, 10 cm diameter; foliage growing in a crown, fronds arranged spirally, 60 cm to 1.5 m high. 2-pinnate, obDescription

long-lanceolate in outline, leaflets alternate,

subdivided, and with rounded segments. Sporesori. greenish white, later brown, appear from summer to autumn. Distribution Widespread in temperate /ones, to

bearing

1600

m

altitude.

Cultivation Constituents

Wild plant; extensive!} collected. Oleoresin iilicin and related taeni;

cidal substances; desaspidin; albaspidin: flav-

employed toxicity

for

scientific

research

into

cyto-

.

A

and roadsides. Cultivation Wild

plant.

Leaves triangular-ovate, downy. 7.5-10 cm long, with sinuate margins. Flowers 3 cm diameter, followed by an ovoid-oblong fruit, 4-5 cm long, rough-haired due to a covering of numerous short, fleshy prickles, green becoming yellowish when mature. Contains a

division in spring

and autumn.

mass of oblong seeds and bitter succulent pulp, which is forcibly ejected up to 10 m. Distribution Mediterranean native; preferring dry. sandy soil in sunny situations. Cultivation Wild and cultivated commercially

caemia;

to a limited extent.

This

Cucurbitacins B. D. E. and I. The action of cucurbitacin B is that of a powerful hydragogue - purgative; also cytotoxic. dried sediment, elatarium. deposited in L 'st

reserved for Lycopsis arvensis, nor

Description

coarse, fleshy, trailing perennial,

lacking tendrils and borne on a thick white root.

Constituents

i

the juice

to patients suffering

from

dropsy as a purgative, especially those with kidney complaints. The preparation is verj variable from season to season.

Propagated by root

Constituents Resins, sugars,

acids

and inulin which

pharyngitis,

salts, fatty

Antiseptic, digestive.

remedy

tonsilitis.

useful

mineral

act in combination.

Uses (dried root-stock

Particularly effective

for boils, acne,

abscesses

externally

and

and

septi-

internally.

Dilates peripheral blood vessels.

L boraginaceae Viper's Bugloss Blue Weed Echium vulgare is

known echion.

not a true Bugloss. that term being

to

is it

the plant

Dioscorides as the Viper Plant

-

Nevertheless, medieval proponents of

the Doctrine of Signatures noticed that the

brown stem

Purgative.

Once administered

184

Distribution Native to central and southwestern United States; on dry open woodland

snake's skin, viper's head.

pustules

It is

parts of America, use.

looked

and that the seed regarded

and

is

rather is

as a

like

shaped

weed

in

a

like a

some

of doubtful medical

DRY-EPI Horsetail, primitive in evolutionary terms.

has been used for thousands of years

in

It

the

East in the treatment of bronchial asthma, and yet

today the herb

included in only the and Chinese pharma-

is

British, Indian, Japanese

copoeias.

Other species used clude E. It is

sinica,

for the

E. equisetina

same purpose inand E. nebrodensis.

rarely available commercially.

shrub

Description Tufted, rigid

high on

woody gnarled

15

cm- 1.2 m

stem. Green ascending

smooth and striate, with leaves reduced to small sheaths at branch nodes, 2 long. Bearing 2-3 male spikes of 4-8 flowers, branchlets

mm

and

solitary female spikes of 1-2 flowers; latter

followed by ovoid, edible red Distribution

Rough

Description

Stem

tall.

hairy biennial. 30 -90

and branched with

erect

brown

arising from white or

oblong

pustules. Leaves

linear-lanceolate.

to

I

mm

15

with

long,

long,

nfloreseeiH

buds pink, flowers blue

loose, flower

purple,

cm

13

5

or with short petiole- only.

sessile,

cm

hairs

stiff

1

to violet-

longer stamens.

Appears mid-summer. Native

Distribution

porous or stom

lighl

Europe and Asia: on

to

soils,

or semi-dry

grass-

Cultivation k

I

1

Wild plant. Traditionally

ultivated

dins.

l;.ii

1)

<

Wild plant. Commercial cultivation Asia and the

tropical countries in

Americas. Volatile

oil

3

8",,

.

comprising

terpinene and terpineol; also cineol; starch:

gum: yellow colouring matter. Uses dried fruit and seed Carminative. Employed in flatulent dyspepsia, to griping caused by

I

ill

and (

1

osmetic

in

some mixed

mild tonic infusion is useful in nervous headaches or the common

Also used

in

mulled wine

Persian.

scented domestic articles, and

Formerly

one

employed

Eoi

Elettana

\i

Lesser

Cardamoms

ideally with a

to

1

plants

venom.

in

urticaria,

enuresis,

in the treatment ol serum myasthenia gravis. A commercial source of the ephedrine

Contra-indications

Not

to

be used

in

patients

suffering from hypertension, coronary throm-

Epigaea repens L Ericaceae Trailing Arbutus May Flower Gravel Plant

The botanical name

reflects the fact that this

:

1

Wall.

Stapf.

\i

Ephedra Ma-1 luang Eph< dra a Gymnosperm and is

hence, like the

Greek meaning upon earth and repens meaning creeping. Also known as Moss Beauty the

because of the attractiveness ol its small, pink, scented (lowers.

rust leaves

and

Ma ton

var. miniscula

Cardamom

thrive

mean temperature e,is\

respected

bronchial asthma and hay

employed sickness, and

also

\i

1

Cardamom forest

most

the treatment of vipers'

cardamomum

ZINOIB1 H

As

the

oi

Anti-asthmatic: stimulant. in

aromatic plant clings very closely to the damp mi issy hanks of its natural habitat epigaea from

purposes.

Ephedra gerardiana

EPHEDRA*

cold.

dried stem

spices.

simple

treating

mm long.

bosis or thyrotoxicosis. in

ollee. espei i,dl\

Limited use foi

pic kles.

fruit, 10

dry temperate regions

alkaloids. allay

purgatives, and to flavour

A Savouring agent and

Uses

Primarily of use lexer:

Constituents

cuiries

Tannins; an alkaloid. dried herb Weak diuretic; weak diaphoredc.

Constituents

A

main

other medic ations.

land.

in

in

to the

of the alpine Himalayas at altitudes 22504500 m; also China. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly ephedrine. to which the hypertensive and bronchodilatory action is due: pseudoephedrine, benzyl methylamine: ephidine.

tropical countries. Cultivation

Native

oi

rainfall ol 3 5 in

<

1

;

ultivate 01 harvest,

the) are not

.

and

The best type

are expensive.

mountain and

shad)

in

mean

foi

is

reason

this

Malabai

the

ardamom, and others of good quality are My ore, Ceylon, Aleppi \and Madras Seed pods from related members ol theGinget family are frequently offered ^ Cardamom, especi(

Amomum

ally

EUttan was

cardamon L, but they are inferior.

Malabai name

tin

Description Perennial arising

for the plant.

from

fleshy

thick

rhizome bearing from 8 20 smooth erect grei n items to 2. 7 m. Leaves alternati oblonglanceolate, sheathed, $0 60 cm long, 7 5 m <

wide

On

a

[0 \-i

Flowers arising from neat the item base long peduncle, arranged in panicle ,1

60 Med I

<

m 1

hillsidi

in

and are followed

b)

.111

OVoid

.i|)sule.

Distribution

India:

long,

Indigenous rich

Wild

moist in

to

forests

south

and

and 111

Burma. Introduced

wooded in

othei

I

B5

EQU-EUO Description Fragrant prostrate evergreen branching shrub, spreading to 50 cm diameter on the ground; with hairy, rounded stems of rust colour, arising from tangled red-brown

fibrous roots. Leaves alternate, oval to orbicular 3-7.5

cm

long, 1-3

hairy beneath.

The

cm

wide, entire, and

apical or axillary inflores-

cence consists of pink, deep rose and occasionlong, appearing allv. white flowers 15

mm

mid-spring

to early

summer.

Native to central and eastern North America, on rich, damp, acid soils in shady protected sites. Cultivation Wild plant; may be propagated easily by layering any part of the stem. Constituents The glucosides urson, ericolin, and arbutin; formic acid; gallic acid; tannic acid oil,

ericinol: the

combined

action being antilithic and antiseptic.

whole dried plant,

Uses

fresh leaf

Urinary

Although rarely used, even in folk medicine. this is one of the most effective remedies for urethritis,

bladder stones

prostatitis,

and particularly acute catarrhal

cystitis.

Horticulturallv the herb offers useful fragrant ground cover in shady situations thriving with

some protection and

little light.

L equisetaceae Horsetail Bottlebrush/Shave Grass Horsetails have an almost prehistoric appearance, and indeed have hardly evolved since the coal seams were laid down. They were known to medieval apothecaries as taudo equina, and were an article of trade from the Middle Ages

Equisetum arvense

the

until

eighteenth century,

being used to

pewterware and woodwork. The herb has continued in cultivation in some eastern European countries and plays a useful role in polish

folk

medicine.

producing 20 cm shoots with

4-6 sheaths

in the spring;

and are shoots 20-80 cm

the shoots die after the spores are shed,

then followed by green sterile decumbent, bearing whorls of segmented solid lateral branches at each node. long, erect, or

in

Silicic acid and water-soluble compounds: saponins: phytosterol; flav-

Constituents silicic

onoids; aconitic acid: traces of the alkaloids. nicotine, palustrine

and palustrinine.

dried sterile stem, fresh juice

Uses

genito-urinary

duced and naturalized elsewhere. Common on dry, weed-covered roadsides, walls, dunes, waste-ground: preferring warm, light, sandy soil, but tolerating most conditions. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Volatile oil, comprizing mainly a terpene, acting as a styptic: also gallic and tannic acids, acting as astringents.

Diuretic:

astringent:

weak

whole dried herb,

Uses

The

effective as a

mouthwash in aphthous ulcers or and can be used as a douche in leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. Also employed in prostatic disease, enuresis and incontinence.

The

gingivitis,

associated

may

Dried stems

oil

Astringent

:

tonic

diuretic: styptic.

anti-haemorrhagic. be applied externally to aid the healing of wounds, sores or ulcers; the tisane is

A poultice may

was formerly employed treatment of a range of urinary and renal disorders; it appears effective in diarrhoea. tisane or tincture

in the

and relieves and has been haemoptysis, haematemesis, and

soothes

oil

employed

in

throats

sore

swollen

glands,

haematuria.

be used to polish pewter or

woodwork. Employed in

cosmetic

strengthen finger

nails.

Eruca vesicaria ssp. saliva

preparations

to

Mill.

Thell

cruciferae

Rocket-salad Rocket Although described

as a

'good salat-herbe b\

L compositae Canadian Fleabane Erigeron canadensis

The Canadian Fleabane has received almost unwanted weed with

universal abuse as an

commend

to

little

it

beside

extraordinary

powers of survival and distribution. Originally from cistern and central North America, it was introduced into Central France in 1653, became naturalized in that country within 30 years, and rapidly spread through Europe. Asia.

Australia

and

several

of

the

Pacific

Islands.

The Latin name

indicates not only

its

original

home, but also its hoary appearance; from the Greek erigeron signifying "old man in spring". Description Annual with stiff, erect stem from 8 too cm tall depending on soil type. Very leafy and varying from sparsely hairy to glabrous;

on thin creeping rhizome, long grey-brown, simple,

Description Perennial

fertile

Wild plant: limited cultivation

Cultivation

eastern Europe.

fine

antiseptic; diuretic; antilithic.

cystitis,

moist waste-ground.

vulnerary:

Distribution

and an aromatic

European native; abundant on

Distribution

\

1

all

leaves sessile; basal leaves obo-

ate-lanc eolate. stem leaves lineal -lanceolate. 4

cm

long, entire. Inflorescence in terminal

mm

panicle, capitula small, cylindrical, 3 5 diameter. Ray florets whitish, disc florets pale

yellow;

appearing

late

summer

to

early

autumn. Distribution

North

American

native:

intro-

John Gerard and

in

almost continuous cultiuntil the seventeenth

Romans

vation from the

from the Latin name eruca was seldom

century. Rocket

via the Italian diminutive ruchetta

grown

in north-west

Europe

after 1800. It

is,

however, still an important and useful salad in Italy, Egypt and France, and deserves wider use.

Description

Half-hardy annual, 30-70

much branched. Upper long

petioled,

large-toothed

cm

cm

tall;

leaves sessile, lower

or

pinnatifid.

creamy-yellow or whitish, with purplish veins; appearing mid to Flowers

late

to

3

long,

summer. Native

Distribution

and western

to

mediterranean region

Asia. Introduced horticulturallv

elsewhere. In waste areas or on cultivated land in

warm

positions.

Cultivation

Wild.

Grown

as

a

salad

herb,

especially in south-east mediterranean, south-

ern France and Italy. Propagated from seed

186

;

EQU-EUO sown

in spring or

may run

to seed in

autumn on

moist

rich,

summer. Harvest

soil;

leaf within

8 weeks and keep cutting. Cultivated herb is milder flavoured than the wild plant E. vesicaria L.

Constituents Essential oil; heterosides.

Uses (fresh

young

leaf

and

Tonic; mild

stalk:

stimulant; stomachic.

Only used

as a constituent of

mixed

salads.

L umbelliferae

Eryngium maritimum

Sea Holly Eryngo

The

striking prickly nature

and

coastal habitat

herb led to it being named, quite obviously, as Sea Holly. In fact, unlike most herbs, it has few other names, and Eryngo is a popularization of the old generic term eryngium of this

which

The

signifies a thistle-like herb.

and

plant's virtues

shoots can be boiled and eaten in the

Erythroxylum coca Lam. ERYTHROXYLACEAE Coca Leaf Coca was well-known

in pre-Columban days and revered as a magical plant: small bags of the leaves have been found in the graves of Incas. It is still widely employed as a means of maintaining endurance by South American peoples, and is cultivated commercially for

The

cocaine extraction.

name

Small hardy shrubby

Description

but pruned to

m

2

refers to

tree to 5

m

in cultivation; leaves oval

4-8 cm

long, 2.5-4 cm wide, glabrous and with prominent reddish-brown midrib Fruits projecting as a small apex apiculus entire,

uses centre mostly

on

.

red or reddish-brown.

roots have been given aphrodisiacal qualities,

Distribution

why

generic

the bright red colour of the fruit.

the sexual organs; even the extremely long a fact explaining

same way

Asparagus.

as

they enjoyed widespread

Peru and Bolivia. Introduced

Taiwan and Indonesia. On

to

steep valley sides in

century the tree has become well established

and

as a source of timber, oil, shade,

as a

means

drainage in Africa, the Americas, Southern Europe, and India. The name is derived from the Greek eucalyptus meaning a of

soil

well

and a

and

since the sepals

lid,

petals fuse

forming a cap. which resembles a well with a lid.

"Globulus" or

globe' signifies the

"little

shape of the fruit. Di upturn Tree reaching 70 m. Trunk smooth si

and grey or bluish following natural bark:

leathery,

leaves

loss

of

glaucous,

lanceolate,

and usually opposite; covered with oil-bearing glands. Flowers, 4 cm wide, either single or 2 3 on short flat peduncles. whitish, sessile

followed bv 3-cm wide

fruit,

surrounded by

WOOdy receptacle. Native

Distribution in

Europe

sale in

foi

250

well-drained, light, humus-rich

ears.

y

and glaucous biennial or perennial, much branched plant. on

m

i.-,

bushes 30

forming hemi-spherical high. Leaves fleshy, very stiff and

long root,

cm

deeply veined, ovate,

broad, spiny

appearing mid Distribution

On

s.i iir

K

j-lobed,

to

5

cm

long,

and long-petiolate. Flowers

spherical umbels.

where.

bluish

Attractive

Description

^

cm diameter, summei

in

pale blue.

to late

European native; introduced elsehhI dunes and ideally requirinj

saline soil.

Wild plant sometimes ulti\ ated on and propagated b\ loot division in the autumn, 01 From seed sown in the autumn. <

:

light soils liortii ulturalK.

Constituents I

fresh

Saponins; unknown substances. 01 di ied rool Aromatic; tonic;

diuretic. I

he herb was formerly

considered

genito-urinary irritation and

ol

use

infei tion, espei

m i-

inflammations of mucous membranes painful urination. The powdered rool

known

longer

soil.

in

wild

state;

commercially in South Amenta. and Indonesia. Propagated from fresh seed sown in shaded humus-rich seedbeds and planted out 2 m apart. The cultivation of this herb is subject to worldwide constraint.

applied

externally

.is

,1

poultice

aids

tissue

regeneration

On.

Constituents

cineol; also pinenes; sesquiterpene alcohols;

most importani being o< .one; also innamyl-cocaine, /- and /J-n uxilline cocatannic a< id vitamins; proteins; mineral salts. Several

alkaloids,

the

1

1

:

Usa The as

;

Stimulant tonic.

fresh or dried leal leal

is

(

hewed

lime or the ash

ol

in

1

oiiibinat ion with a

little

certain Chenopodium species

general stimulant, to reduce fatigue, allay


of hunger, to relieve gastric pain, nausea, and vomiting, and as .1 cerebral and must ul, 11 stimulant.

feelings

Contra-indicatiom

.in

incorporation

in

sweet dishes.

Young

flowering

.11

Eucalyptus

oil.

comprising

chiefly

omadendrene; cuminaldehyde.

Uses

oil,

occasionally

Antiseptic; deo-

leal

dorant; stimulant; counter-irritant. Widely used in proprietary medicines external application antiseptic purposes.

cough

in

in

Vapour inhaled

Gum

Eucalyptus

Tasmanian Blue

Eucalyptus

indigenous

most successful

am

e ,iiid

d 1st

1

1

bron-

Occasionally taken internally in small doses on sugar lor catarrhal inflammation of chitis.

the respiratory tract.

Limited use

in

perfumery; leaves included

in

dry pot-pourris.

Employed

in

veterinary medic ines.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses toxic, leading to

delirium, convulsions and death.

I

myrtaceae

he genus

to relieve

catarrhal colds and chronic

Euonymm europaeus L celastraceae Spindle Tree European Spindle

Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

ol trees

for

burns, colds, and for

Dangerous; hence not obtain-

able

I

importanl culinary flavouring, the roots being parboiled and candied prioi to i-

cultivated

extensively

Taiwan,

ally local

and

Cultivation Wild; and grows rapidly.

cultivated

Constituents

s,

Cultivation

No

Cultivation

Australasia; introduced

to

semi-tropical countries.

in

() |

300

terms is

oi /•,.

herb

specit

which the 'ion. nun import'

globulus. In the last

is

also

Evonymus

described

as

ree

EvonymUS

and

Euonymus niiopaea. Its common name is derived from the Dutch practice of spindle and peg manu1.1c inn from the strong wood. Description Deciduous shrub "i small tree 2 6 europaeus,

to Australasia ol

In lion 1

consists

This

europaea

1

187

EUP-FER Cultivation

Constituents

Wild plant.

A

glucoside, eupatorine; also tan-

gum;

nin; volatile oils; resin; acid. Diaphoretic action

glucoside and volatile Uses

(dried

sugar: gallic

probably due

to the

oil.

flowering

plant

Diaphoretic.

Although the cold decoction is tonic and stimulant in small doses and emetic in large, the

widest use

is

for

the

common

cold or

similar feverishness, taken as a hot infusion is

m

tall;

somewhat bushy. Young

twigs square-

divided

sate, dentate,

ovate or oblong-lanceolate, 3 8 autumn. Pale green flowers, up to 6 in axillary panicles, appearing early to mid-summer followed by attractive, deeply 4-lobed, red-orange or pink capsule of diameter. 15

florets

cm

summer. European native, found on damp calcareous soil which is rich in nutrients. In marshes and fens or less frequently in mixed deciduous woodland. Cultivation Wild plant. May be cultivated by root division in the autumn, but only on moist

mm

Distribution

Native

Europe and western

to

Asia.

In open woodland, clearings, hedgerows, close

on deep moist loam.

to water,

Cultivation

Aldenhamensis and Burtonii are used as garden ornamentals. Tolerates most positions and soils. Raise from seed in spring and from hard-

wood

cuttings or layering in

Constituents

tonic

summer.

lipids; tannins; cardio-

including

heterosides

euonoside,

to

due; organic acids and several pigments including physaline

which the esters;

Vitamin C; toxicity

is

and phyllorhodine. Uses (dried seed and

fruit, fresh leaves;

Emetic;

purgative; insecticide; cholagogue. Effective

when used

mid

to late

Distribution

Eupatorium purpureum

soils.

Wild. Several cultivars including

externally against scabies,

Constituents

iron

:

Tannin;

resins; volatile oil; inulin;

bitter principle.

herb Cholagogue; diaphoretic; emetic; expectorant. In small doses the herb acts as a bitter tonic 01 Uses

dried

aperitif suitable for those disposed to biliousness or constipation. Often other remedies as a tonic. In

huge doses

it

is

laxative

L compositae Boneset Thoroughwort Although

it

is

a

less

imposing herb. Boneset is Root as it possesses

other skin parasites.

similar chemical constituents.

Eupatorium cannabinum

This herb played a role in the American domestic economy during the nineteenth century at least equal to that now enjoyed by hot lemon tea in the treatment of coughs and

Hemp Agrimony

colds. It

not

to

be

used internally.

L compositae Water Hemp An attractive plant which in some parts of England is called Raspberries and Cream leaves

are

Cannabis saliva

similar

L

and old botanical

hence

to its

those

of

common,

Cannabina aquatica

more

effective. It

was

first

Hemp Latin,

cm

names.

It has not, however, been employed in the manufacture of rope or cloth, and no longer enjoys wide use. Description Perennial on woody base, reaching 30 120 cm. Stems erect, downy, bearing petiolate. oblanc eolate. basal leaves and ovate or lanceolate branch leaves. Most leaves sub-

188

certainly

introduced into Europe in 1699. Description Perennial herb reaching from 50 cm to 1.5 m; pubescent stem which is stout and cylindrical, branched above, bearing 10-20

because of the appearance of its flowers. Its

is

long lanceolate leaves united

at the

base

around the stem; dark and shiny green above, cotton-like beneath and fine-toothed. Inflorescence of 10-16, small white or. rarely,

blue

flowers,

on a dense corymbose cyme.

summer

mid-autumn. North America from Florida and Texas; prefers open

Appearing

late

Distribution

Indigenous

Dakota marshy

to

regions.

to

to

L compositae

Gravel Root Joc-pve Weed This enormously tall North American herb with its mass of purplish-white flowers makes such a splendid sight when in flower that it has been given the name Queen of the Meadow. Indians used the plant for dyeing and to induce perspiration to break a fever, uses which were quickly adopted by European settlers. Still used by British and American herbalists. Description Perennial of a variable nature, reaching from 75 cm 3 m high, but typically

Eupatorium perfoliatum

closely related to Gravel

POISONOUS;

combined with

and emetic.

pediculoses (head, body or pubic), ticks and Contra-indications

it

effectiveness.

3 leaflets. Flowers in cymose each with 5 6 mauve or whitish and 10 purple involucral bracts, appear-

capitula,

ing

its

into

stemmed. Leaves blue-green, opposite, decuslong, yellow-red in

practically unequalled in

,

EUP-FER and

tall

graceful.

Stem

rigid, generally

wide. Flowers small, numerous, crowded on

hollow

tinged with purple above the nodes, bearing leaves, in whorls of

creamy

Flowers

roughish

vanilla-scented,

oblong-lanceolate

1

tinged

often

Native

Distribution

purple, arranged in clusters of 5 or 10 on very numerous dense terminal compound corymbs. Appearing late summer to mid-autumn. Distribution North American native: preferring rich calcareous woodland soils, either dry or

India: intro-

tropical

to

duced and naturalized

with

in

most tropical and

subtropical countries.

moist.

Wild plant: may be propagated by root division in late spring or autumn.

globose cymes; followed by 3

celled capsular fruit.

2-5 leaves, 30 cm long.

white,

cm diameter

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

An

mid-summer

altitude.

Wild plant: cannot be cultivated

Cultivation

plant.

easily as

ill-defined glycoside

and alka-

to late

it

is

a semiparasite on certain grass

species requiring a close physical association

loid: phytosterol: melissic acid: euphosterol:

with the grass roots, from which

tannin; a phenolic gallic acid; sugar.

nutrients.

dried

Uses

Cultivation

flecks. Appears from autumn. Distribution European native, on poor meadow land and turf. Calcifugous, and found to 3000 m

purple stripes and yellow

quercetin;

substance:

Constituents

flowering

Expectorant:

plant

Tannin:

resin:

obtains

saponin: volatile

aucubine. The Qombined anti-inflammatory for mucosae.

glycoside,

a

oils:

it

antasthmatic; anti-amoebic.

action

flavonoid.

Chiefly employed in the treatment of intestinal

L'ses

euparin: an oleoresin, eupurpurin. is produced by pouring the tincture into cold water - it has

amoebiasis; also effective in bronchitic asthma and laryngeal spasm since it causes relaxation

tory; weakly astringent; weak vulnerary. Almost exclusively employed as a mild eye

of the bronchi by central depressant action.

lotion for use in conjunctivitis. Also as a nasal

The

douche

in

sinusitis.

Externally in poultices to aid

Constituents

Resin: volatile

same action

the

a

oil:

as that of the

whole

root.

dried root-stock Astringent tonic: diure-

Uses

latex

applied externally

is

Contra-indications

caused by excess uric acid. Hence also useful in gout and rheuma-

intestinal irritation,

tism.

Euphrasia rostkoviana

The

stones

.

L euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Asthma Weed Euphorbia hirta

The Spurge familv species

<

Eyebright

is

the best

known

to treat eye conditions.

of

Although

herbs used its

name

is

thousand must <>i the

known

as

euphorbium

in

honoui

egetable dishes.

second century a.d.. a tax was levied on drug in Alexandria, and it was used by the Arabian physicians of the Middle Ages who called it hiltit. The thirteenth-century Welsh Physicians of

Myddvai considered

portant medicinal substance:

oi

from the Latin purgatoria, the purging herb. The diied latex of E. resinifera ,

is a strongly foetid brownish gum. name. In small quantities, however, it gives food a particular flavour and has long been used as a condiment by Indians in

its

the

used

purgatives Berg.

umbelliferae

In the

example, is used in Ethiopian arrow The common name for the family

indicates the widest use lor Euphorbias, that

and

wound

constituent of herbal smoking, mixtures.

hence

\

action to extremel) poisonous. E. heptagona

poisons.

colds

Asafetida

all

1

its

head

healing.

A

Ferula foetida Regel

1000 species of the genus Euphorbia exude an ,i( id milky latex which ranges from irritant in (L), for

catarrh,

nasal

Asafetida

onsivt^, o| se\ rial

worldwide;

distributed

Hayne

SCROPHULARIACEAE Eyebright Meadow Eyebright

pink or red textile dye.

fruit yields a

the

Large doses cause gastronausea and vomiting.

Specifically of use in the treatment of renal or

urinary calculi

in

treatment of warts.

stimulant; antilithic; anti-rheumatic.

tic;

fresh

is

(dried flowering plant) Anti-inflamma-

i",

Euphorbus, physician to Juba II died a. d. iM was used continuously item ancient times until the last century. Asthma Weed, however, is one oi the lew spei us still considered safe to

2

m

stoc k

1

it

now

an imrarely

Herbaceous monoecious perennial,

high, bearing large bipinnate radical

and developing

leaves,

.

is

Europe.

in

Description

oi

it

j

(in

thick

covered by coarse

at

a

fibres.

usually produced in the

massive fleshy rootcrown, which is

the

The inflorescence is year of growth on

fifth

use.

pimn Annual. [5 50 cm high ; stems ereci />, covered with still yellow hairs, considerably branched. Leaves dark green above, palei beneath, obov ate-laiu eolate. .11 ui> and den,

1

1

.

tate;

opposite,

1

l

(in

lout;,

j

mm

i.j

cm derived from the Greek meaning gladness, it appears unknown to ancient physicians priot to the Middle Ages when it was introduced by Hildegarde. The How 11 certain!) gives the appearance of a bloodshot eye. Apothet aries knew the plant as ocularia

and

ophthalmica,

retained to this da\ classified

it

and

in folk

its use has been medicine. Linnaeus

as Euphrasia officinalis, but his

type

mixture of a number ol is, therefore, an ambiguous

jpeciei consists of a species. E. officinalis

name which

has no standing. Only Eyebright

species possessing glandular hairs

on the calyx

have medicinal value. Small attractive annual on erect, branched, stems From 30 cm high,

Description

usuall)

",

bearing opposite, ovoid, down) and crenate senate leaves 0.5 cm long, and spikes ol (in long white flowers in the axils ol upper 1

1

leaves. Calyx and leaves (lose to the inflorescence heat glahdulai hairs; flower also has

[89

FER-FRA m

a 2.5-3

high, to 10

cm

naked, flower-

thick,

ing stem. Flowers yellow in umbels appearing

mid-spring.

Native

Distribution

eastern

to

western Afghanistan, on rocky

Wild plant; the

Cultivation

Persia

and

is

collected

commercially from plants which must be

at

Constituents Volatile oil :

D

ferulic

o

(10%);

acid.

resin

The

(50%

volatile

:

oil

contains terpenes. disulphides and pinene. and responsible for the therapeutic action.

is

dried oleo-resin-gum, obtained by inNervine stimulant;

L'ses

Distribution Cultivation

Indigenous

Wild

gum

May

plasters for application

A

A

condiment commonly used

as

an ingredient

and vegetable

dishes; also with fish.

Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. et

Buhse

MBELLIFERAE

Galbanum ingredient of the

incense used by the Israelites plant product Chelbenah.

and other

It

is

who

called this

obtained from notably F.

species of Ferula,

by collecting the milky-white tears of gum-resin which naturally exude from the stem, or by severing the plants root crown. Ferula is from the Latin, to strike. Both Hippocrates and Theophrastus mentioned its medicinal properties, and Pliny called it bubotuon. It was known b\ the Arabic term, kinnafi. to the physicians of the School of Salerno. Previously imported from Persia, but rubruaulis

now

Most widely known medicinally as a folk remedy for constipation: taken as syrup of figs. Senna. Once used externally as a for boils

and

ulcers.

culinary use in confectionery, in jams, and used to flavour some coffees. May be used in

home wine manufacture.

remedies.

be

on

incorporated

in

ulcers.

constituent of incen-e.

L Maxim rosaceae Meadowsweet Queen of the Meadow Queen of the Meadow is this herb's modern common name, and it seems to

Filipendula ulmaria

been the more popular Ficus carica

L moraceae

languages.

It

Fig

Common Fig Known to the Romans

plant

as ficus, figs were valued by the ancient Hebrews, and. with the vine, signified peace and plenty in the writings of the scriptures. The plant was so extensively cultivated that even in Pliny's time several different varieties existed, of which the best was considered to be that flourishing in Caria in Asia Minor; hence the modern botanical

dominate

as a food

Meadowsweet

is

is

in several

European

when

certainly apt. for

fully established,

a low-lying

may

it

most have the

completely

damp meadow.

from the was once used to flavour mead. Botanically. the herb was classified by Linnaeus as Spiraea ulmaria since is

simply

earlier 'meadwort', since

the

fruit

consists

derived

it

of small

spiral

achenes

classification F. carica.

Galbanum was an important

this

nutritive.

demulcent poultice

60

effective in hysteria

of Indian sauces, pickles, Worcestershire Sauce,

I

resin

ing expectorant, often in combination with

powerful antispasmodic; expectorant: carm-

colic.

Grape invert sugar, gum. sucrose. and dried fruit Mild laxative:

used in chronic bronchitis as a stimulat-

inative.

conditions,

fresh

\\ ide

other

and some nervous and in bronchitis, asthma and whooping-cough. Once employed in infantile pneumonia and in the treatment of flatulent

.

_'o

cision of living root-stock

Very

Uses

tives like io",,

semi-hard gum-resin obtained from L'ses stem or root crown Stimulant; expectorant.

Once

Constituents

Also used in combination with stronger purga-

to Persia.

plant.

Constituents Volatile oil

least 5 years old.

gum

m

thin flat fruits.

hillsides.

resin

Umbelliferous perennial on solid reaching 1.5-1.75 high, bearing greyish tomentose leaves, yellow ish-white flowers in flat umbels appearing in mid-spring, and Description

stem

Boiss.

.

either

onlv from the Near East.

Charlemagne promoted its cultivation in Europe in the ninth century, and today is still an official plant in the British Pharma-

central it

copoeia. Dtscriptwn Deciduous tree to 9 m. much branched, soft-wooded, with large rough leaves, 10-20 cm long, broad-ovate to orbicular. 3—5 deep lobes and pubescent beneath: forming mass of attractive foliage. Leaves entire in some cultivated forms. Flowers uniquely. hidden within a hollow fleshy receptacle isyconus) and therefore never visible. Receptacle 3—7.5 cm long, single, axillary and often pear-shaped, or variable. Appearing early

summer

Distribution

to

mid-autumn. to Mediterranean

Indigenous

<\>Z

re-

gion, widely distributed. Cultivation Wild several forms grown for fruit, shade and ornament, of which the best is the variety Brown Turkey. Easily cultivated in full sun: to ensure good harvest, root growth must :

be severely restricted by planting in 50 cm diameter pot. sunk in the soil. Propagate from cuttings.

twisted together. This generic name has been immortalized in the word Aspirin meaning. from Spiraea because it was from the flowerbuds of Meadowsweet that salicylic acid was first discovered in 1839 - and from which .

Aspirin was later synthesized.

herb 60-120 cm tall aromatic root-stock. Stems erect, reddish, bearing alternate, acute, ovate leaves, irregularly pinnate with 2-5 pairs of leaflets. 2-8 cm long, glabrous above and whitish and tomentose beneath. Faintly aromatic flowers Description Stout perennial

on

thick, pink

mm

5-petalled. white or cream, small 2-5 with numerous long stamens, in dense but irregular paniculate cymes on glabrous stems: appearing mid-summer to early autumn. Distribution European and Asian native. Intro-

'9°

.

.

FER-FRA duced and naturalized

in

North America.

On

wet. nutrient-rich, but not too acidic, sandy or

loamy soils near streams and rivers in fens, marshland or wet woodlands, to iooo m altitude.

Wild, often growing

Cultivation

profusion in

in

sown

suitable habitat. Propagate from seed

in

spring or from root division in spring; thin or

cm

plant to 40

shade

partial

apart.

A damp,

rich soil in

required; water well in dry

is

weather. Constituents

Tannins

io°„

:

zoate:

also

methyl ben-

ethyl

including

glycosides

flavonoid

also

!

heliotropin.

vanillin,

salicylate;

com-

volatile oil

prising, salicylaldehyde (to io°

spiraeoside; salicyclic glycosides, comprising

gaultherin and spiraein; vitamin C: sugars;

mineral

salts.

dried flowers, dried root-stock Antipyretic: anti-rheumatic; astringent: weak anUses

tispasmodic; diuretic; antiseptic.

The

root

employed

is

specifically

the

in

treatment of diarrhoea, while the flowers are of benefit in influenza, fluid retention, rheumatism and arthritis. They are probably the most effective of all plant remedies for the treatment of hyperacidity and heartburn. Useful therefore in the control of peptic ulcers

and

The

gastritis.

infusion also has an effect in

certain urinary tract infections.

Formerly used

A

mead and wine

in

cups.

black dyestuff has been obtained from

May

be used

tin-

copper mordant.

plant, using a

scented articles.

in

?i^m:^ a Propagated in any soil except heavy from seed sown in autumn. Remove flower-heads if seed is not required. Different iai is produce seeds ol varying flavour. Constituents Volatile oil. comprising mainly anethole and a No fenchone, d-pinene, limonene, dipentene, phellandrene and anisic acid. Carminative action due to the oil.

Description

whitish fungus with yellowish spots and pores;

Uses

Foeniculum vulgare Mill,

lmbelliferae

and dried leaf, oil, dried ripe fruit, tools Carminative: aromatic; weak

fresh

rarely

Fennel Sweet Fennel The appearan< c <>l dried Fennel

diuretic

rather like coarse,

prevent

both the

leal, w hi< h is rumpled hair, gave rise to and botanical names brmu 1

common

derived from the Latin foeniculum,

me, mint;

has been used

It

for

purposes

culinary

at

foi

2000 years, and was formerly prized more succulent stems than foi > seed, which oin 111011U employed. Special the pan now

least for is

it'-

i

t

<

have been developed supplying swollen bulbous stalls bases Finnocchiooi Floreno and foli Fennel large stalks Carosella

varieties

.

decorative purposes

.

I

Sweet Fennel. It is traditionally considered one of the best herbs to use with fish dishes. I),

Hauls biennial

criplian

cultivated

stem.

-<>

oil

is

and

flatulence

on ion-

pi

added

lac

an

as (111

pinnately

hunger.

Thought use:

colic

Once

to aid in

;

aids

used to

slimming.

haves traditionally

to

2

or perennial, often

annual:

m

compound

erect

blue-green

high, bearing fine, leaves,

;

ecu

PORAC1

s

mid-summer

mid-autumn.

Distribution

Native

to

mediterranean region,

introduced and naturalized

in

othei

prefers wasteland on well-drained

places;

soil in

sunn)

ations.

and extensively grown horticulturally and commercially in all temperati Cultivation Wild,

Bresadola

whole fungus) Astringent;

c

remedies

and

Boletus

officinalis

Fries.,

Ungulina

officinalis.

Owing

known

as PolvpOTUS

hunts

J acq.

and

to the difficulty

<>l

lassihe ation

identified

a

as

Inis was used more frequently and jumenst\piic agent in fresh wounds. I.

/•'.

is

onlv occasionally available, is

known

as

used as a cigar lighter. <

1

used

as

an

ingredient

of the

Tincture

anti-

Warburg's Fever Tincture, a ompound medit anon whose om position was published in 1875 by Dr Warburg after years ol recy. The fungUS is not an edible mushroom, is now vet v and lately used. fiiiiutlii/i (

or

<

•

1

it

excess

used

as

source

the

which was used

of crystalline

1

for similar

medical

flavouring in

as a bittei

Large doses cause vomiting

//
una

veSCO

ROSACEAE

I.

Wild Strawberry Wood Strawberry Numerous varieties have been developed

since

Strawberry began in the early sixteenth century, but it was this species which was gathered wild from the woods of Kurope for centuries. I'raga was the Latin name, and probably refers to the fruit's cultivation

ol

the'

fragrance.

ause of its bitter taste F. officinalis was oik used to flavoui confectionery and it was also I')'

diarrhoea,

and purgation.

cil the fungus group, it cannot be with certainty in ancient writings and probably the related species l-mm fomen-

c

treat

to

levers.

Contra-indications

vi

This fungUS has also been

bitter;

confectionery

Agaricus Purging Agaru

Amadou, and

turning grey-brown. Appearing

Vittadini

officinalis

autumn.

Riconoleic acid; phytosterol; agar-

Formerly employed Fomes

decidua

Larix

in early

Formerly used in compound antipyretic mediines, and either alone or in combination with

purposes.

ol

(

1

Uses fdried

nervous

stem.

especiallv Larix

DC.

europaea

L.

purgative.

agaric in

s\

Lain spp.

acid: agaricol: resins.

ANo once

tarius

1

Constituents ic

Growing on various

plant.

Formerly collected

liqueur inanulac ture and as a condiment. Contra-indications Very I. nee doses disturb the

\

1

.

lactation

m long, on broad and lasping Small yellow dowers, on large umbels 5 20 rays, succeeded by fruit, bluish

filiform, to

often

Led.,

sibinca

othei

in

Wild

species of Larch

he boiled and eaten as a vegetable; seed used

petioles.

I'.,

intestinal

fleshy,

soft,

Russia, in larch forests. Cultivation

garnish fish, and are added t<> salads, soups. sauces ,uicl pork dishes. Rooi and stalks 111. iv

tarius

to

purgative medication to

allavs

tation.

almost

1

to

and

griping

shaped,

variably

to 50 cm long and 30 cm wide. The surface is dry and marked by irregular furrows; it has an aroma of flour. Distribution Southern Tyrol and French Alps to

Mill.

.

h< Bronze Fennel seed flavour also varies considerably from the Bitter or Wild Fennel and the less bittei Saxon or German Fennel to the Sweet Roman or

for

The

mild stimulant.

:

All parts of culinary

little lia\.

A

/ones.

clay,

Description Perennial 5

woodv runnels. pale

25

Leaflets ovate,

beneath,

Lateral leaflets

Flowers white,

silky,

-,

mm

on

tall,

long,

stout,

rooting

bright green above,

toothed,

sessile, 1

cm

producing

toot-stock,

1

6

cm

Ions;.

terminal, short-stalked

diametei

erect, ^

10

per peduncle; appearing early to mid-summer, followed hv led 01 white ovoid, false fruit.

191

FRA-GAL European pharmacopoeias.

Fraxinus ornus

Small tree or deciduous shrub to 6 m; usually 1-4 m. Branches supple, smooth, erect towards the base, young branchlets redbrown at the tips, later darkening to greyblack. Leaves alternate, acute, entire, or sometimes undulate, obovate to oblong, 3-4 cm long, dark green and shiny above. Flowers small, bisexual, greenish, borne in umbelliform cymes. Appearing late spring to midsummer; followed by globose fruit 7.5

Manna

Description

mm

diameter, red then black or blue-black.

Native to Europe, Central Asia, North Africa; introduced and naturalized in eastern United States. On acidic, often heavy Distribution

open, damp, deciduous or coniferous to 1000 m

soils, in

woodland, especially near streams, altitude.

Cultivation Wild. Commercial plantations are being established in Eastern Europe. Collected commercially in Russia. Holland. Poland and Czechoslovakia.

L oleaceae

Flowering Ash According to the Bible. Manna was the substance miraculously supplied to the Israelites during their progress through the wilderness to the Holy Land, and the name has been applied to several substances both real and imaginary, thought to provide spiritual nourishment. Prior to the fifteenth century. Manna was imported from the East and its provenance is uncertain, but from the middle of the sixteenth century most Manna was the dried sugary juice obtained by incisions in the bark of the Flowering Ash grown for the purpose in Sicily and Calabria in southern Italy. Now rarelv obtainable in Europe. Description Ljeciduous tree 10-20 m. Rounded in shape, and with great variation in leaflet and fruit shape. Leaves 20-25 cm long with 7-1 1

Anthraquinone glycosides, comproduced during drying and

Constituents

prising frangulin

|

frangula-emodin, frangularoside. chrysophanic acid, an iso-emodin; also tannic acid; bitter principles; mucilage. Purgative action due to the presence of storage

.

emodins, Native to Europe, western Asia, North America. In woods, scrubland, preferably on moist, somewhat calcareous soils; to 800 m altitude. Cultivation Wild plant. Propagate l>v transplantation of daughter plants produced on

which

act

on the large intestine

Distribution

causing

runners.

Uses (12-month old stem and inner branch bark Purgative; choleretic. Almost exclusively used in the treatment of constipation, often in combination with other remedies. Very small doses may be used to stimulate bile secretion. Once applied extern-

Tannins;

(leaves)

Constituents

flavonoids.

Organic acids; vitamin C; mucilage;

(fruit)

(fresh

Astringent;

fruit,

root-stock

leaves,

antiscorbutic;

diuretic;

rarely tonic;

laxative.

The root decoction was formerly used to treat gonorrhoea, and as a diuretic; it also acts as a weak, bitter tonic. Leaf and root-stock can be used to treat diarrhoea, while the fruit is laxative.

The

dried leaf can be used as a tea substitute.

Contra-indications Strawberries

may produce an

allergic response.

Frangula alnus Mill,

rhamnaceae

Alder Buckthorn This medicinal plant

is

so

named because

it

bears a superficial foliage similarity to the Alder [Alnus glutinosa (L) Gaertn. |, with which it

shares a predilection for wet environments

and because it has the same purgative qualities as Rhamnus catharticus, which was known as cervi spina

(buck's thorn) to the early apothe-

caries.

The

ally to aid the healing of

Contra-indications Fresh

wounds.

bark contains anthrone

glycosides which cause severe catharsis, emesis

sugars. i'ses

peristalsis.

quite thornless Alder Buckthorn does not

appear

to

have been used

until the

beginning

when the Italian Pierre Crescenzi introduced it. German physicians were to make most use of it in subsequent

and cramps.

The

fruit

is

POISONOUS.

usually ovate or oblong, somewhat pubescent. Flowers dull white, on numerous

leaflets,

dense feathery panicles, 7.5-12.5 cm long appearing early to mid-summer, and followed by linear or lanceolate

fruit 3

cm

long.

Native to southern Europe and western Asia. Introduced into central Europe, Distribution

North America and elsewhere. Cultivation Wild, and cultivated as an ornamental tree and for commercial purposes. Constituents Various sugars, chiefly comprising mannitol. mannotriose. mannotetrose and dextrose: also mucilage; aesculin and fraxin. Laxative action due to fraxin. Uses the yellow-white saccharine exudation obtained by bark incisions during the flowerMild laxative. Exclusively of ing season service as a gentle laxative for children and pregnant women, taken in quite large dosage either alone or in combination with Rhubarb. Nutritive and therefore useful during convalescence. Contra-indications

May

cause flatulence.

of the fourteenth century

years.

Since

it

sagrada collected

[92

has

similar

properties

Rhamnus purshiana D.C. locally,

it

is

retained

Cascara but can be

to ,

in

several

Fucus vesiculosus L fucaceae Bladderwrack Kelp Although commonly called Kelp,

this

is

are

somewhat

larger algae.

seaweeds long used both as

a term

w hich one of several food and medicine.

usually applied to species of Laminana. It is

FRA GAL stimulate the regeneration

the ability

to

some nerve

cells.

ol

reaching 10-20 cm tall: and glaucous. 7 mm wide, fleshy, ridged, on bulbs growing in compact

Description Perennial

leaves linear basal,

less than 25 cm bearing single flower: outer segments white. 15 mm—3 cm long, inner segments

masses. Pedicel slender, usually long,

white and green. Appearing early spring. Distribution Native to central and south Europe.

Caucasus: introduced elsewhere. Prefers

to the

humus and

rich in

soils

mixed

nutrients in

deciduous woodland.

Wild plant; cultivated

Cultivation

garden

as a

plant and found as an escape. Propagate by division

autumn.

the

in

Hook

Elwesii

Alkaloids,

Constituents

A

form.

giant

G.

exists.

chiefly

in

the

bulb,

comprising tazettine. lycorine. galanthamines.

and sometime-

as a

cheap manure. Iodine was

discovered by distillation of Fucus

first

rarly nineteenth

century, and

tor

in the

about

this

in

wax.

It-

common name

is

derived both from the typical bladder-like air vesicles

word

on the thallus, and from an ancient something which is driven

signifying

ription

<

Perennial seaweed consisting

yellowish thallus. 18

fast

:

ol

a

branching, brownish-green or

thin, leathery,

Wood)

mm

wide and

m

i

long.

attached to rocks l>\ dis< oid holdmargins entire, midrib broad and distinct, stipe

running the length ol the plant, along which air vesh les arc borne in pairs. Terminating in strong

globose

ovoid receptacles Distribution

fructifications ;

cm

Common

in

consisting

ol

length.

west Scotland,

Norway,

and North America; attached to ro( ks. (.ultr, ation Wild plain collet ted commen ially Constituents A gelatinous substance, alum:

.

;

mannitol: iodine: a volatile oil: ^-carotene: zeaxanthin: various inorganic substanc i

dried

whole plant

Anti-obesii

;

anti-

hypothyroid. Spe<

wispy

grey-green

iIk ally ol

effective

obstruction leading

with hypothyroidism.

A

decoction

is

ol

assoi iated

the

whole

plant ma\ be applied externally rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis.

lush

An

excellent source ol purposes; one ol tin

manure

for horti<

in

ultural

commercial sources of

mm

ers 8

emanations in the ground, and that its smoke when burned repelled evil spirits Both its common and botanical names derive from the I. aim word lor smoke, probably because ai a

cm

1

long,

pinnate,

1.2

cm

Flow-

long, pinkish-purple, dark

tips, borne in racemes 5 7 em long, appearing mid-summer to late- autumn.

red at the

Distribution Furopean native: naturalized in America and parts (l Asia. Common iii weedy .mas gardens, fields, vineyards, rarely |

r

,1

loamy Wild plant.

ornfields. Prefers

c

soils.

/

\,

Emetic.

bull)

s

plant

Flic-

is

benefit in a range of conditions characterized

fumarine; tanacid: lumaric acid: potassium salts.

nervous

by

nic

poliomyelitis.

chic; tonic

Laxative; stoma-

flowering plant

diiecl

I

;

weak

diuretic

sidered

ol

benefit in arteriosclerosis.

he Rowers produceyellow wool dye. Dried leaves may be added to smoking mix,1

tures.

Gaianthus nivalis

Snowdrop lie

Galega

The

POISONOl L amaryi

i

S

is

well

I

lor

example.

SONOUS.

rDACi

known

L papilionaceae French Lilac ol Coat's Rue to promote the

officinalis

Rue

ability

reflected in

'-"w

some animals, is much as 50% its name galega from the Greek for iii

The most

effective galactogenic preparaan infusion of the fresh plant. i>n Attractive bushy perennial to /> m on hollow stem bearing leaves consisting ol 11 17 oblong or oblong-ovate glabrous,

milk.

is

1

mm

u

Bulbous Violet

Snowdrop

)

milk, by as

tion

Centra-indications

degeneration,

Contra-indications P(

Goat's

c

various

ol

tissue

.

hiefly employed in the treatment ol -km complaints including eczema, exanthema and dermatitis. Also once- con-

Formerly

used medicinally, but in

rarely

Europe a preparation known as has been promoted as being of 'ni valine'

eastern

Constituents 7 alkaloids, chiefly

I

including

but today

petiolate, with lanceolate leaf segments.

ronate, as the hisl llowei

flowers

leaflets 1

cm

1

long

cm

\

in

Purplish-blue

long.

racemes

slightly longei

and its name gaianthus is derived from the Greek meaning milk llowei aftet its snow-w hite appearance. It is verv rarely mentioned in the herbals and

than the leaves; appear mid-summer to midcm long redautumn and are followed by

has

Asia:

ol

the belid thai H aiose not Iron) seed but Iroin

of intestinal

to skin diseases,

/) cription Annual: variable in form, the stem being erect, bushv or trailing, from 15 70 cm

alginates

Fumaria officinalis L fimariaceae Fumitory Much legend surrounds this herb,

look

used.

rarely

is

it

conditions

in

I

use in obesity whi< h

leaflets

times Fumitory was con-

the earliest

sidered

Cultivation

on north-west Atlantic

coastlines, especially

I

the

lon^: leaves grey-green

ashore. I)

From

y>

years most commercial supplies of Iodine wen-

obtained

distance-

smoky.

the year,

never attracted attention as being medicinal use except fol a poultice ol c

rushed bulbs which

in

may be applied

1

xt<

ol the

ma

llv

cases of frostbite, Recent research in Europe,

however, suggests that the plant

may

possess

;

brow

)

n pods.

Distribution

Native-

to

Europe and

introduced elsewhere.

moist positions

Prefers

western slighth

in fields.

Wild and occurs as an esc ape from garden cultivation. (,. officinalis var. albifloui Boiss. has w hite How ei 5, and G. o\]n innlis v ,n Cultivation

193

GAL-GEL Brande

Queen

1788

in

who was

the apothecary to

of most benefit in the treatment of various skin

and

it

was originally introduced

medical recipe for the treatment of fever. 'Angostura bitters' no longer contains extract of angostura bark, this having been replaced by Gentian root. Angostura is the former name for Ciudad Bolivar, a town in Venezuela. Description Small tree 4 5 m tall. 7.5 12.5 cm in diameter, the trunk being straight, irregularly branched and with a smooth bark, covered externally with a yellowish-grey corky as a

smooth

and

divided

petiolate.

arranged

scented,

alternate

glossy,

into

oblong, [jointed. 4

cm

3

leaflets

and

which are

long. Flowers strongly

in

terminal

pedum

led

racemes. Distribution Tropical South America, especially Venezuela. Mostly abundant in mountainous

and

varie-

districts.

gated leaves. Propagate by division of roots in spring or autumn, planting in deep soil. Alkaloids, chief!) galegine and Constituents

chief!)

('specially in the seed

pai inc.

tannic

;

a glucoside, galuteoline;

saponin;

acid;

vitamin

C;

bitter

ses

dried flowering plant, seeds

Galacto-

gogue; hypoglycaemic diuretic; diaphoretic. ;

A

tea of Goat's

action

and

Constituents

Volatile

is

Rue

has supportive antidiabetic

used to promote milk flow

women and animals. The fresh juice clots milk and may

in

both

be used

in

cheese-making.

glucoside: alkaloids.

stem bark

Stimulant ionic. South America locally in

cm in length. Leaves prickly, cuneate. whorls of 6 or 8-. coarse-haired on the leaf margins. Flowers very small, white, or greenish-

ing 120 in

cm long inflorescences borne on and extending longer than the leaves. Distribution European native: prefers moist nutrient-rich loamy soils, in weedy sites, particularly field and garden edges and

white on 2-3 leaf axils

Cultivation Constituents

Uses

Wild plant.

A

glycoside, asperuloside.

dried flowering plant, freshly expressed

Vulnerary; weak diuretic. Used externally to treat wounds and ulcers, and internally in painful urination associated with cystitis; in enlarged lymph glands, and in psoriasis. The herb reduces body temperature and blood pressure slightly. Also employed juice

homc-opathic

allv

The dried plant

may

roasted

provide

seeds

be drunk as a tea. and the

an

excellent

coffee

Galium verum

L rl'BIaceae

Ladies' Bedstraw

combination with sliced Lemon and sugar, Angostura bitters was used for hiccups. Formerly an ingredient of some commercial

The pleasant honey scent of the flowers and aroma of the dried leaves and stems made this an admirable herb for stuffing mattresses in medieval times. It was commonly mixed with brae ken or some aromatic or flearepelling herb for this purpose. Dioscorides knew it as gallon or the milk plant, and it was used throughout Europe from the time of the

acts as a fish poison.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses cause diarrhoea.

Galium apanne L rubiaceae Goosegrass Cleavers Clivers

Many

of the

common names

in the distribution of the plant via

which assist animal coats.

The Greeks

meaning

also by the globular seed capsules

man

called

it

philanthropon

because the leaves and

fruit cling to

love

the

Cheese

Rennet Yellow

Bcdstraw hay-like

Greeks

refer to the cling-

ing nature of the steins of this common weed of roadsides and hedgerows, a character shared

94

habit,

Once- considered a valuable tonic, and used in lexers iii preference to Cinchona Bark. In

Angostura Cusparia Bark First used in 1759 in Madrid by Minis. Angostura was introduced into England by

Annual herb with straggling

the trailing, quadrangular, rough, stem attain-

for

bitter liqueurs.

rutaceae

Description

substitute.

diarrhoea and dysentery.

dyspepsia, chronic

The bark Galipea cuspana St Hilaire

oil;

angosturine; a bitter substance, cus-

Employed

principles. I

Wild plant.

Cultivation

Uses

conditions.

hedgerows.

layer.

Leaves

flowers

has been widely used in folk medi-

teenth century Angostura was considered an

by Dr Siegert

lias lilac

It

cine for centuries, generally being considered

effective tonic,

Hartlandii (Hort.)

clothes.

Charlotte. Until the end of the nine-

until the

1800s as a

means

of

curdling

GAL-GEL milk

cheese manufacture. A perennial herb

in

with

Description

decumbent somewhat woody

or

erect

round

stems,

with 4 prominent edges or almost square. glabrous, slightly branched and from 20-80 cm tall. Leaves white and slightly hairy on the underside, recurved, bristle-tipped, in whorls

mm

wide. of8-i2, linear, 1.5-2.5 cm long, 12 wide, smelling of honey, on Flowers 2-3 terminal panicles, golden-yellow, appearing

mm

summer

to mid-autumn. European native; now a weed in the eastern United States. On semi-dry or dry

early

Distribution

grassland.

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

saponin: an enzyme,

Constituents Silicic acid;

rennin.

Weak

dried flowering plant

Uses

diuretic:

styptic.

Formerly employed as a diuretic for dropsy and in epilepsy. Applied externally to wounds and some skin eruptions.

therapeutic value, but

Strong decoctions curdle milk when boiled. and may be used in cheese manufacture: the

mild evacuant since

herb also colours cheese a greenish-yellow. A rd dye can be obtained from the lower stem.

promotes

Mnsisis

salicylate.

from before

methyl

produced

was formerly obtained

It

young birch th.it was il

now

of Wintergre en

oil

synthetically

oi

trees

Betula

tenia

largely .

and

isolated from the Winter-

green plant. Wintergreen was once mentioned in the United States Pharmacopoeia but has tievei iv

it

much medical

attracted

widely used

Gaul tier,

Di

afta

Quebec

about

in

stems and ereci

bearing

1

.1

physician

is

named

practising

in

still

shrub with branches to

1

<

",

mi,

him

5

oil oi

gaultheria

01 oil oi

winter-

obtained by distillation ol the leaves and omprises chiefly methyl salicylate, and an alcohol, a ketone and an estei 1

Usa

An

Stimulant; astringent; tonic;

leaves, oil

aromatic

< ;

ounter-ii

inliision

oi

1

throat gargle, as

.1

may be used

dou< he and

foi

as

,

(

headai Iks

lie oil is readily absorbed by the skin and is employed in various aches and pains, including rheumatism, ft is occasionally used internally as .in emulsion against hookworm. Leaves may be used as tea substitute I

.1

he

flavouring agent preparations. I

oil

is

a

medic

it

,i|

and made

many

fungi

it

to cultivate

and

identify

responsible

for

human and animal

Today most

of the

for this

by

revolutionized possible

of the bacteria disease.

Agar produced is employed purpose, and although Japanese Agar various

species

Gelidium

oi

is

various dental

Agar

from either Chondrus enspu^ 01 combination of the two, the New Zealand variety from Pterocladia lucida, and Australian from Gracilaria conBritish

is

Gigartina stellata or a

fervoidts.

t

I

nited Slates.

on poles driven into (he sea bed. ol

onstituents Chiefly .1

sulphuric ester

also a ti,u

1

oi

c

omposed

<>l

,1

boh v di ale and mineral salts.

ol a cat

protein,

nun salt, complex;

,d<

greyish-white

Uses

dried

strips

obtained by drying the liquor resulting

At;, ii •;

translucent

,kI\

Unlike gelatine Agar-Agar has no nutritive

ic

e.

oil

may

irritate

;

Yellow Jessamine Yellow Jasmine Root Gelsemium

name

the

is

of

derived from the Italian Gelsomino the- true Jessamine or Jasmine. It

was introduced early

to

medicine accidentally

in the

nineteenth century after a Mississippi

planter mistakenly took a tea

made from

plant to cure bilious lexer. The

first

the

were

tests

made

in 1852, and it eventually entered the United States Pharmacopoeia, and the British Pharmaceutical Codex. Until quite recently it was used in various mixtures lor migraine treatment, but it is toxic even in quite small doses and now seldom used. /), upturn Perennial evergreen vine to 10 m on woody purplish-brown rhizomes stem slender, woody, bearing opposite lanceolate to ovatc;

1

01

cm

lanceolate,

short-petioled

lout;, entire,

shiny dark green above, and paler

leaves

2.5

to

beneath. Flowers yellow, 2.5 4 cm long, highly fragrant, 6 on axillary or terminal cymes, appearing from mid-spring to mid-summer. 1

Native to southern United States, Mexico, Guatemala; in moist woodlands. Cultivation Wild plant; sometimes cultivated Distribution

as

cover,

or

in

greenhouses.

Propagate from cuttings or from divisions

ol

root-stock in the late spring. Constituents Alkaloids: gelsemine,

c

must not be used internally without

The pure

stabilize

Gelsemium sempervirens Ait. loganiaceae

horticulturally

Wild marine pi. mi: collected commercially and sometimes encouraged to grow

Cultivation

(

and thus

to

,i

seaweed to 25 cm long; ha II us develops from a persistent basal the portion each growing season, is cylindrical 01 flattened, pinnately subdivided and ofa tough consistency. The spherical fruit appear in the late autumn and winter months. Distribution Gelidium amansu Km/.. G. elegam Kutz. and G. polycladum Sond. are found in the maritime zones of Japan and G. cartilagineum Gaill.) in the maritime zones ol South Africa Description Perennial

from boiling the seaweed for ') liouis In the presence ol dilute sulphuric acid) Bulk laxative emulsion si.ibih/i

ContTO'indicationi

skin;

in

1880s

bacteriological research

and

itant

the leaves

and

bacteria the

considered the finest and has the greatest gel

is

11

of in

strength, other seaweeds also provide Agar;

Arbutin: ericolin; urson; tannin;

al-,

Koch

used

purifiers.

cm tall. cm long,

and shin) above, palei beneath, petiolate and apiculate; whin- flowers 7.5 mm long, solitary and drooping, appearing from the leal base in mid and late summer, and followed l>\ scarlet berries 7 nun in diameter. Distribution North American native, from Newfoundland to Georgia. On poor soils. Cultivation Wild plant. <

cultivation

Robert

Also

,i

the

for

creeping

glabrous

a volatile oil

the

made from

the top oval leaves,

al

h

750.

Evergreen

Description

attention, nor

in lolk traditions,

Gelidium spp. rhodophyceae Agar-Agar Japanese Isinglass The use of Agar as a semi-solid medium

peristalsis.

in

emulsions of other laxatives. Mostly employed as the basis of bacteriological culture media, and as a thickening agent in some foodstuffs, both commercially and domestically. Employed as the physical base for certain air

Gaultheria procumbens L Ericaceae Wintergreen Checkerbcrrv Mountain Lea

Most commercial

absorbs water

intestine, increases the faeces bulk,

i

i

used medically as

it is it

sempervirine

and gelsemicine; phytosterol; resin; fixed oil; emodin monomethyl ether /3-methylaeculetin. Action largely due to the alkaloids which ;

depress the central nervous

swem.

Sedative; rhizome and roots nervine. Formerly employed in the treatment of neuralgia, sic k headac he, menstrual and rheumatic pains and pat in ulai ly migi aine and trigeminal neuralgia. A perfume can be Uses

dried

195

GEX-GLE tall. Bearing glabrous or pubescent forked branches and 1.5-3 cm l° n Ei oblong-elliptic or

oblong-lanceolate,

nearly

alternate,

glabrous, simple leaves. Flowers 15 golden yellow, in racemes 3—7.5

appearing mid-summer

to early

sessile,

mm

long,

cm

long,

•

*^Bk^

*J^

4W

~i

B Ai

5£

^-V\

1£ j

^^l^H^rSEva

autumn, and

followed by long narrow pods.

Native

Distribution

to

Europe and western

Asia: naturalized in North America.

Intro-

duced elsewhere. On dryish loamy or sandv -oiK in light woodland, pastures, heaths and meadows. Cultivation Wild plant.

The

Constituents

yellow

h^mJ3

alkaloids, sparteine, cvtisine

and methyl-cytisine: a Havone. glycoside,

genistein; a

The

luteolin.

combined W^^L

action weakly cardio-active and vasoconstric-

^

tive.

(lowering plant, -red-, leaves Emetic; purgative; diuretic: weakly cardio-active. u

(

>

Formerly used

rheumatism and

dropsy,

and purgative:

a- a diuretic

as

a

The young bud- may

L

dyspepsia.

pan- POISONOl double vision, giddiness, respiratory depression and death. Gelsemium i- more strongly depressant than Hemlock. All

toxic effects include

dye.

appetite,

Not to be used internally during pregnane) or hypertension.

eating.

L gentianaceae

In

material

known,

centuries

as

a

i-

and

bitter

1

the most bitter plant

been

has

used

Several

tonic.

L legimino-u Dyer's Greenweed Dyer's Broom A- the common name suggests this herb was an important dyeing plant, and was often combined with Woad to produce a green wool dye.

Europe and North America have been employed for the same purpose, and it i- not certain which of the European species was known to the Greeks.

It

i-

which

closely in

related

the

Genista, but unlike

weed does not qualities and

to

Sarothamnus

Middle Ages was tin-

now

called

plant Dyer's Green-

possess verj is

scoparius

itself

strong medicinal

mainly employed

in

homecraft dyeing;. Description Perennial

trate or

decumbent,

herbaceous shrub, prosm. usually 30-50 cm

to

i

name

(rutin-. King of Illyria

Some

since.

Di

167

b.c

for

cleaning wounds.

in veterinary

medicine

is

used as a bitter prepara-

L geraniaceae American Cranesbill Wild Geranium The specific name of American Cranesbill

.

is

derived from macula meaning spotted, since the leaves

become blotched with whitish-green is from the Greek crane after the beak-like shape nl

they age. Geranium for the

plant- survive as long a- 50 years.

Herbaceous perennial

scription

reaching 60

taproot

thick

180

i-

the

Geranium maculatum

word

however,

powder

he fermented root

who. according to Dioscorides, introduced the herb to medicine. It has been widely employed ever

gentiana,

stimulates

tion in alcoholic drink-.

when

he

it

improve appetite.

derived from

I

doses

for

other

Gentiana species native to

Genista tinctoria

small

and should be taken an hour before

Formerly used externally to

Gentian Yellow Gentian Yellow Gentian root

fc

particularly useful in anorexia associated with

also used as a

Contra-indicatiom

m k!m

Acts as a tonic on the gastro-intestinal system:

aper substitute. The (lowering plant furnishes a yellow-green

Gentiana lutea

'"

j

1

salivation.

be pickled and used as a

Contra-indications

the flowers.

jL

v-

''

prophylactic

1

made from

^ |j^^

in

against hydrophobia.

cm

to

1

10

cm on Stem-

long.

-imple and erect, glabrous, bearing oval. 5 7 veined, shiny leaves 30 cm long and 15 cm wide: lower leaves on -hort petioles, upper leaves sessile. Bright yellow flowers. 2.5 -3

cm

peduncles in 3-10 flowered axillarv clusters, appearing late summer to early autumn on plants at least 10 years old. Distribution Native to Europe and Asia Minor: introduced elsewhere. Common in mountain

on

long,

pastures,

long

and

on calcareous

wooded mountain forest-, which are porous but often

thinly soils

moist. Cultivation in

Wild and cultivated commercialh

Eastern Europe and North America.

Unsaturated lactones gentiopicroamarogentine and gentiopicrine. which are partially or totally converted depending Constituents

sides

upon

.

the

method

glvcosides. gentiin oil:

to

the

bitter

volatile

sugars: mucilage: tannin.

The combined bile

of drying

and gentiamarine:

and

its

action stimulates secretion of

release from the gall bladder.

dried root, and dried fermented root Cholagogue; choleretic: stomachic: promote-

4

v->

GEN-GLE the fruit; hence also the herb's common names. This was a favourite herb of the American Indians, once official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, but now restricted to folk

medicine. Description

stem

Erect hairy perennial to 60

solitary,

stout rhizome.

Some

are long-petioled. 15

cm

2.5-4

forking,

leaves opposite, 7.5-

wide, 5-lobed, deeply incised and cut at

end,

the

leaves arise

Stem

cm

on from root and

occasionally

but

cm

hairy.

Flowers rose-purple, large. cm long peduncles, 2-3

wide, on 2.5

pubescent, reddish stems to 45 cm. Leaves opposite, palmate with 3-5 leaflets with deeply cut divisions, on long petioles, deep green

and

mm—

cm 1 red tinged. Flowers pink or rose, 5 wide, in pairs or peduncles arising in terminal axils. Petals

Appear

have

early

3 longitudinal

summer

white

stripes.

autumn.

to late

Native to North America, Eurasia and North Africa; common on rocky soils, walls, mixed and deciduous woodland edges, preferring moist and nitrogenous soils. Cultivation Wild plant. Distribution

flowers arising in the axils, appear late spring

Constituents Volatile oil; tannin; a bitter sub-

summer. Distribution North American native. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Tannic and gallic acids, 10—25%, which produce astringent action; oleo-resin.

stance, geraniine.

to late

Uses

dried

rhizome

Astringent;

styptic.

Useful in diarrhoea, in haemorrhage of the

upper gastro-intestinal tract, haemorrhoids, peptic ulcers and aphthous ulcers. Formerly recommended in dysentery and cholera. Used as a douche in leucorrhoea, as a gargle for sore throats, and in the powdered form externally to stop

wound

bleeding.

L geraniaceae

Geranium robertianum

Herb Robert Red Robin A common herb in Europe and

an old medi-

plant which was once official in tin Middle Ages, and ascribed to St Robert or Pope Robert, hence the medieval name lierba sanctu ruperti. It is probable that the plant was commonly associated with magic and goblins

names

it

t

rellcc ted in

the range ol

has been given in various

countries.

Still

used

in folk

European

medicine

in

mam

parts of the world. /)>

tcription

|

Of most

plant

diuretic: sedative.

use externally for treatment of skin

and

eruptions, stomatitis, bruises

The

dried

plant,

weak

may

leaves

erysipelas.

be chewed or used as a gargle

inflammations of the mouth and throat. Formerly used in diarrhoea and applied externally as a poultice to relieve inflammations: also used as an eyewash. in

01

dec

smelling annual

01

umbent. glandular-

Glechoma hederacea

Ground Geum urbanum L rosaceae Avens Herb Bennet Wood Avens Avens is also known as Herb Bennet

names which derive

Ivy

Gill

L labiatae Over The Ground/Field

Balm In the second century a.d.

or

directly

Ground

the use of exes,

and

it

is

Galen was aware of

Ivy for treating inflamed

probable that the herb was a

Irom the medieval name lurba bent dicta from the Latin meaning the blessed herb, since the strongly aromatic roots were thought to drive

remedy from the The plant was also employed to impart flavour to it and

away

keeping qualities. Glechoma was used much earlier than hops were, being widely employed

evil spirits.

For

this

and

it

I

In

reason amulets of the herb were worn,

was

also kept in

botanical

name

popular

folk

reflects

the

roots'

is

also

Distribution

Native

form.

naturalized

in

is

1

;

<

mm

European

Distribution

common

native:

wood

wasteland,

<

iillr,

glycoside

in

Pubescent perennial, strong-smeldecumbent stems which form a dense mat. Leaves hairy. Ions; petioled and rotund or renilorm to 4 cm wide, coarsely crenate and deeply cordate at the base. Flowers in clusters of 3 borne in the Description

ling with Ions; creeping or

_>

terminal

leaf axils,

mid-spring

damp

to earl)

bluish

or

pink,

appear

summer.

to Europe, north Asia: North America. Common on grassland in open woods and ten wood-

prefers moist

soil.

Wild plant.

iilmn

Volatile

Constituent

eugenol,

its

edges, hedgerows,

mixed and deciduous woodland; nitrogenous

improve

known

old English

thickets,

to

as Alehoof or Tunhooffrom an word for the herb. hofe. and from the process of mashing and fermenting the brew know n as tunning. It

from the Greek meaning to produce an agreeable smell. The fragrance is unfortunately lost on drying. It is rarely used toda\ e\ epi in lolk medicine. Description Perennial herb on clove-smelling rhizome 2 cm thick, bearing 7 cm long, richl) branched down) stems to 30 cm. Leaves 3-lobed, the terminal leaflets largest, irregular, renate 01 dentate: upper leaves palmate and sessile. PaleyelloH flowers, 5-petalled, 5 7 diameter, in loose open panicles, appearing earl) summer to late autumn. Variable in geum

scent:

earliest times. in clarifying ale

until the early 1600s.

homes. also

(

Unpleasantly

biennial, on erec

flowering

fresh

|

Benedict's herb:

cinal

in earlier times, a lac

i'ses

Styptic: astringent:

the

oil,

geoside

comprising

being

lattei in

mainl)

combined

as

a

the fresh plant: tannin;

bitter print iples.

Uses

dried

rhizome,

Astringent: styptii

matoi Useful ioiik

;

fresh

flowering

plant

hitter: tonic; anti-inflam-

\

in

to

diarrhoea, and as an aromatic bittei

promote appetite following

illness.

wounds to reduce inflammation, and employed as a gargle lor sore gums or in Applied

to

halitosis

The dried rhi/ome was formerl) substitute for Cloves;

used as

a

used as a pot

herb

in

broths and soups, and hunt; with clothes to repel moths.

Also used tO flavour

ale.

i<)7

GLY-HAM land, preferring moist, nitrogenous

Essential

Constituents

oil;

tannin;

a

bitter

compound, glechomine.

Formerly mostly used

to soothe coughs,

and

as

gentle stimulant tonic following digestive

once applied externally as a the treatment of bruises, contus-

disorders. Also

poultice for

and

ions,

sore eyes.

Taken

as snuff to relieve

headache.

Used

as a tea

and

known

Glycyrrhiza glabra

ales.

L leguminosae

Liquorice has been used medicinally for 3000 years and was recorded on Assyrian tablets and Egyptian papyri. It was known as Scythian

Theophrastus

to

commonest

varieties exist, the

and

glycyrrhiza

and

the

old

names

radix dulcis reflected the sweet

taste of the roots.

corruption of the medieval from glycyrrhiza. Now grown on a wide scale, it docs not appear to have been cultivated in Central or Western Europe until the fifteenth century, and il was first introduced to the Pontefract district of England by the Dominican Black Friars.

Liquorice

is

a

gliquiricia, itself

Glycyrrhizin

3o"

starch

:

20 -30 lilac-blue loose racemes 10 15 cm

Inflorescence

cm

long

in

of

Appearing mid to late summer, followed by reddish-brown pod, 1-2.5 crn on gDistribution Europe to West Pakistan. On deep sandy rich soils, preferably in river valleys. Cultivation Wild plant, although rarely wild in central and western Europe and more common in eastern Europe. Introduced to temperate long, arising in leaf axils.

'

.comprising

of glycyrrhizic

protein; fat; resin; asparagin:

volatile oil; saponins.

Demul-

inflammatory. in coughs and bronchitis, and in the treatment of gastric ulcers: also has a mineralocorticoid action in treatment of Addison's disease. Once used as an eye lotion for use on inflamed eyelids. Used as a sweetening agent and flavouring in pharmaceutical preparations, and once in the powdered form as a base in pill manufacture. Used to flavour some beers such as Guinness. Large quantities are employed in tobacco flavouring some tobaccos contain io° n Liquorice in snuff" manufacture, and in confei .

tionery.

Root

pulp incorporated in insulating mill mushroom compost. Contra-indications Large doses may cause sodium retention and potassium loss leading to water board, and

retention, hypertension,

headache and short-

ness of breath.

As

its

name

L compositae

Low Cudweed

Everlasting

indicates.

Marsh Cudweed

derives

from

the

Latin

is

an

name

uliginosus

meaning of marshy places. Gnaphalium is from the Greek gnaphalon meaning a flock of wool, from

its

woolly appearance. has never achieved wide use even

The herb folk

medicine,

Constituents Volatile oil; resin; tannic acid: the

combined action bemg

antiseptic

and

astrin-

gent.

dried flowering plant

i'ses

septic; antitussive;

weak

aphthous

Astringent; anti-

diaphoretic.

and mouthwash

in

quinsy and tonsillitis. Also of benefit in diarrhoea, pharyngitis and laryn-

A

gitis.

ulcers,

may

poultice

be applied externally to

cuts, bruises or ulcers.

Once used

in

smoking mixtures.

L Malvaceae Cotton Cotton Root The plant has been cultivated in India Gossypium herbaceum

since

the earliest times as a source of Cotton fibre,

and

its

botanical

name

name

gossypium

is

the ancient

Cotton-producing plant. The method of cultivation was introduced to China and Egypt from India in about 500 B.C.. and in 1774 G. herbaceum was taken to the United States. This species of Cotton is also called Levant Cotton: many other species and varieties are employed today in cotton manufacture including American Upland Cotton G. hirsutum L Chinese Cotton G. arboreum L and Sea Island Cotton {G. barbadense L Latin

for the

.

and is rarely mentioned in Although it possesses useful

it is still

The species G. peruvianum was probably grown in Peru before Cotton was cultivated in Egypt. Description Herbaceous annual, in warm climates biennial or perennial, forming a subshrub to 1.5 m with branching stems, hairy or occasionally glabrous, bearing reticulate, coriaceous and cordate leaves, with 5-7 acute and lanceolate lobes. Flowers yellow with purple

mm

in

classical writings.

properties,

acidic,

.

inhabitant ofwel situations; the specific uliginosum

autumn. European native. On damp, sandy soils - especially wet heathland. Cultivation Wild plant. to early

Specifically used as a gargle

dried root-stock, dried extract

Uses

Marsh Cudweed

1

salts

flavonoid glycosides, liquiritoside and isoliquiritoside; sucrose and dextrose 5-10'

Gnaphalium uliginosum

reach 8 m. Erect stem bearing 4 7 pairs of leaflets 2.5 5 cm long, ovate, glutinous flowers

5—10%

acid;

may

1

on primary taproot

beneath.

are var. typica

var. glandulifera.

Constituents

Herbaceous perennial. 50 cm .5 m 15 cm long which subdivides into 3—5 subsidiary roots 1.25 m in length and several horizontal stolons which Description tall,

Several

Of value

as Gill tea.

Liquorice Licorice

root

Distribution

in early winter.

cent; expectorant: laxative: spasmolytic: anti-

to clarify beers

Drunk

3-4-year-old plants

calcium and potassium

vulnerary. a

wide, with brown bracts, and overtopped 4 by the terminal leaves. Appearing late summer

Persia,

and Tonic; diuretic;

fresh flowering plant

i'ses

mm

and extensively cultivated in Russia, Spain and India. Propagated by root division in autumn: roots harvested from zones,

soil.

Wild plant; a variegated variety is grown horticulturally as ground cover. Propagate by division in the autumn. Cultivation

long 3-4 celled centre, followed by 18 capsule containing about 36 seeds covered with greyish trichomes. lint. Distribution Originally native to East

and now

rarely used.

Description Annual, 5-20 cm tall, with woolly, ascending or decumbent stems, much branched at the base: bearing narrow, spirally arranged, simple, oblong, woolly leaves 1-5 cm long. Small flower-heads in terminal clusters, vellow.

»k

to

Indies,

Arabia and Asia Minor: prefers

and loams, especially alluvial soils. Wild plant: widelv cultivated in United States, India and Egypt. Seed sown in rows 1-1 .5 m apart, later thinning to 30-60 cm rich sands Cultivation

apart; manure applied in early stages of growth, and plants are treated as annuals to prevent insect and disease attacks. Constituents root bark acid resin: dihydroxy

benzoic acid: salicylic acid: fatty acids: ceryl alcohol; betaine; sugars; phytosterol: phenolic •

,

^

_*^^^^>^*'

mm

Sjimg

substances. (root

i'ses

bark,

Formerly used

in

rhagia. Cotton seed oil for

^pmHo*

seed

oil

Abortifacient

emmenagogue.

\J0\ 4fu

the treatment of metroroil

is

used similarly to olive

external applications, but internally as a

oil have been administered intravenously in cases ol severe nutritional deficiency, or where nitro-

lubricant cathartic. Emulsions of the

gen-free diets are required.

Seed once used

«iK?

.98

j

£X

The The

oil is

seed

as a food.

employed

in soap manufacture. trichomes are a major source of

GLY-HAM Flowers

cm

1.5

vellowish

white or pink, with tube on short peduncles;

long,

corolla

appear singly

from

in leaf axils

summer

late

to

autumn.

early

Distribution Native to southern Europe: introduced to north and west Asia and North America. On marshy fields, in ditches, peat

bogs, river-banks, beside slow-flowing or stag-

nant water. Prefers wet calcareous stand summer drought.

but

soils,

will

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

cardeno-

Constituents Cardio-active glycosides lides

and gratiotoxin;

gratioline

i.

bitter

a

principle.

flowering

dried

Uses

Emetic:

root

plant,

cathartic; cardiotonic diuretic.

Formerly used

as

purgative and

violent

a

emetic, and as a diuretic in dropsical conditions.

and

Also in liver disorders such as jaundice Many other uses have

as a heart tonic.

been ascribed

cotton fibre.

No

Contra-indications

part of the plant should be

used internally without medical advice.

to the plant. Still

Highly toxic and drastically

Contra-indications

purgative. Large doses Gratiola officinalis

used homeo-

pathically.

may

cause death.

L scrophulariaceae L zygophyllaceae

Hedge Hyssop

Guaiacum

Hedge Hyssop belongs to the same family as Foxglove and possesses similar cardioactive

Guaiacum Wood or Resin Guaiacum Wood was first exported

was introduced to northern Europe in the Middle Ages and used as a purgative; its employment has been described as 'heroic' since it was so powerful, and. indeed, it was probably responsible lor several deaths. Nevertheless it was described as Gratia or Gratia Dei meaning thanks-be-to-God in appreproperties.

ciation of

its

It

After the sixteenth it

has recentl)

(

entut\

its

use dec lined, but

been introduced into homeo-

pathic practice. Description Perennial,

on white, scab, creeping

rhizome, from which arise erec or decumbent, square, simple or o< asionally brant lied stem1. eaves to 35 cm. opposite and decussate. t

<

sessile, finely

1

Wood,

The

achieved

-en. He. glabrous, and Lanceolate.

known

then

considerable

a

lignum

as

reputation

1

vittu,

the

in

sixteenth century tor the treatment of 'Frenche

pockes' or syphilis.

method

success

Its

was possibly due

administration

of

:

patients were

Wood

given massive doses of the

Taken

arthritis.

from the island of St Domingo in the Carribean in 5 after Oviedo had learnt of the drug guayacan from the local inhabitants.

to the

effectiveness.

officinale

decoction,

wrapped up in bed and shut in a hot room. In 193a it was demonsti ated that raising a patient's body temperature to |.» C was

as a hot decoction

it

is

mildly

when

diaphoretic; also useful in sore throats

applied as a lozenge.

Guaiacum

used as a colour

test to

detect the presence of oxidizing agents

which

will

turn

it

tincture

is

blue.

The hard wood was once used ture

of such

bowling alley

The

resin

edible fats

articles

in the

rulers,

manufacand

pulleys

balls.

employed and oils. is

as

as

an antioxidant

for

tightly

partially

Hamamelis virginiana L hamamelidaceae Witch Hazel A well-known garden ornamental and source

s\philis

of the distilled commercial preparation also

.1

effective method of destroying the bacterium. Guaiacum Resin was introduced to the London Pharmacopoeia in (677, but the drug was gradually relegated to

being merely a constituent of the proprietary blood-purifying mixtures ol the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries known as Compound

Mixtures,

Uterative

combined

often

which had DO

sars. ip. 11 ilia,

with

syphilis

in

effect

known as witch hazel. Forked Hamamelis branches were employed as divining rods by water diviners in North America, and Indians brought the medicinal virtues of the plant to the notice of European settlers. Hamamelis w.is included in the United States Pharmaco-

treatment. I

>

1

n />!

mi

1

reaching

Low to medium sized evergreen tree m; trunk covered with greenish-

18"

brown furrowed bark; ovate very obtuse

and

a 2 -celled

capsule-shaped

Distribution Native- to

coast

leaves

fruit.

Carribean

South Aim in

o|

pinnate with Blue flowers

leaflets, in pairs.

a;

islands, north

especially on arid

plains. Cultivation

Wild

and exported wine h

commercially

wood

or as the resin

eithei as the

extracted by heating the

is

Resin

Constituents

and

plant. Collected

/)-guaiai onii

10",,

vellow

,

;

20

25",,

ai id

,

jo ,

logs.

comprising

%-

guaiaretic acid

guaiaCU acid; guaiac -ft-resin guaiai vanillin; guaiacsaponin and guaiacsa-

ponic ac id

;

;

guaiaguttin.

heartwood. resin Focal stimulant: irritant; mild laxative; anti-inflammatory. Formerly frequently prescribed as a preventaUses

tive in

srW

kJ5$Lr*

gout and

in the

ran

treatment of rheumatoid

199

H ED-HIE poeia of 1882. and the leaves are

still

included

Peduncles long, thickening towards the

some national pharmacopoeias today. The name hamamelis is from the Greek words for apple and together, since the flowers and fruit are produced at the same time.

volucre. Flower-heads 7.5

Small tree or spreading shrub, from .5 2.5 m tall, stem usually single and to 10 cm in diameter. Bark smooth and brown. Leaves elliptic to obovate 7.5-12.5 cm long, coarselv crenate-dentate, downy pubescent when young. Flowers bright yellow externally, brownish-yellow inside, 2 cm long, strap-like, appearing in the late autumn when leaves have

ray florets are chrome-yellow

in

The

central disc

Grown

volatile oil, to

which

13 to

15%

a

ethyl alcohol

added.

is

tringent

;

As-

haemostatic.

Once employed

sprains, as distilled

A

is

the diluted tincture. Very dilute

witch ha/el

constituent

may

be used

proprietary

of

in

eye lotions.

haemorrhoid

ointments and cosmetic preparations ally as an astringent.

specific-

must not be confused with the tincture made from hark or leaves; the latter may be extremely astrin-

may

Hedera helix

cause disfigurement to the skin.

L araliaceae

Ivy Common Ivy/English Ivy The Ivy has never been widely accepted as having great medicinal value, vet it was once

much

respected as a magical plant protecting

and symbolizing

against evil spirits

fidelity.

was also dedicated to Bacchus, possibly It because an infusion of the leaves in wine was considered an effective preventative and treatment for drunkenness. For the same reason an Ivy bush painted above tavern doors symbolized the good quality of the wine served therein. No modern work has been undertaken to test ancient belief.

this

Some

Ivy plants

Description

may

Woody

means

reach more than 500

evergreen perennial, climb-

of adventitious roots

reaching great heights. 5 lobed,

3

2

cm

Young

long:

veins

to

and often

leaves usually

margins entire or nearly

from triangular-ovate 18

varying reniform. and from

often

so.

light-coloured.

I'pper leaves and those on fruiting branches unlobed, narrowly ovate. Flowers small, green-

j

i

)<

1

diameter

autumn on

to late

followed

:

garden

a

Russia. Hungary. United Mexico. Argentina and parts of Africa. horticulturally in sunny position from

-own

in late

spring to early

summer

they

10-year-

black, globose.

l>v

mm

t>

fruit.

Europe; widely naturaltemperate /ones and very common, although rarer in coniferous woodland. Distribution Native to

ized

in

Wild

Cultivation

extensively

plant;

grown

horticulturally with approximately 40 foliage

forms recognized. Saponin.

hederacoside

hederegenine.

vonng

Once

leaves

used

Antispasmodic.

internally

treatment

the

in

<>l

whooping-cough, neuralgia, rheumatic pain, bronchitis. The berries, though toxic, were considered an effective purgative. Leaves may be applied externally as a poultice fol some skin complaints, sores and rheumatic formerly

pain. For toothache the

with a

decoction

lilac k

gummy

mouth may

leaves

ol

were- formerly resin

the

plugged with the

produced

varnish was made' from the

be rinsed

vinegar;

in

bv

the plant.

gummy

A

resin.

The whole plant is POISONand should onlv be used externally. The berries mav cause blisters and the leaves

brown. Seed contains an unsaturated fixed albumin: lecithin: betaine: cho30°

he-stnut

Contra-indications

c

OUS

Constituents oil

:

dermatitis.

potassium nitrate: potassium carbonate; tannins: a flavonic glycoside,

L compositae Sunflower Common Sunflower The aptly named Sunflower is well-known

quercimetrin.

line: plant contain-

Helianthus annuus

the-

source of a fine salad

commercially

in several

other purposes. the

plant

is

Mexico where

Its

most it

is

oil.

and

is

cultivated

countries for this and

origins are uncertain, but

probably

indigenous

called chimalati.

seed, often

field as

growing the plant

to

American

Indians have long cultivated the Sunflower its

in the

for

same

maize.

was once believed that growing Sunflower near to one's home gave protection against malaria, which may be explained by the fact that an infusion of the flowers has weak insecticidal properties.

Robust annual from 30 cm to 5 m tall: stems erect, sometimes mottled, rounded and rough, bearing opposite leaves below and Description

alternate long-petioled. ovate, acute or inate leaves above. 10

cm

wide.

30

cm

seed,

Uses as

It

years of age. ing by

appearing mid

ish,

old plants

decayed teeth

Contra-indications Distilled witch hazel

gent and

seed

Uses

haemorrhages from the rectum, nose and uterus; now externally in the treatment of haemorrhoids and varicose veins. Distilled witch ha/el is applied to bruises and in

as

should not be transplanted. Several hybrids exist including some with double heads, and with colours ranging from a dull white to

Constituents

bark, leaves, flower-bearing twigs

Uses

found

often

:

Rumania. Bulgaria.

North American native; common in damp woods from Nova Scotia to Nebraska and Georgia. Cultivation Wild plant; cultivated horticultural^ as a hardy garden ornamental; prefers lime-free soil and flowers best in the open,

<>l

the

.

escape. Cultivated commercially, particularlv

Distribution

consists entirely

Wild

Cultivation

and profuse

It

brownish-purple and

sun.

in full

States.

flower-bearing twigs.

is

Distribution Native to Central America and western North America: introduced and widespread in many countries: tolerates most soils

fallen.

:

in-

diameter,

to 35 cm in diameter in cultivated forms, appearing late summer to early autumn.

1

although can be grown in semi-shade. Tannin, comprising hamamelitannin bark 6%, leaves u ",, gallic acid; calcium oxalate; and traces of volatile oil, saponin and flavenoid pigments. Leaves also contain phlobatannin. Distilled witch hazel is prepared from witch ha/el brush, the young

in

and up

Description

Constituents

cm

15

acum-

long and 10-20

llowei-

seed

oil.

occasionally

leal

and

Nutritive: expectorant: diuretic.

Formerly the seeds were considered useful

in

and bronchial infections: and leaves and flowers were used in malaria. Used externally on bruises, and a homeopaihically prepared tincture is employed in constipation. Sunflower oil is widely used in foodstuffs as a salad and margarine oil, and pharmaceutical^ as a substitute for olive or ground-nut oils. Seed is roasted and eaten, used as a Coffee substitute, ground into meal for cakes and soups. Unopened flower buds are boiled and eaten with butter in the same way as treating coughs

Artichoke-. It has excellent burning qualities and

used

in

old-fashioned

oil

may

be

lamps.

Leaves provide animal fodder, and when dried mav be used as a substitute for cigar tobacco.

Seed receptacles and paper manufacture.

stalk pith

may

be used in

HED-HIE Helleborus niger L ranunculaceae Black Hellebore Christmas Rose

Helleborus

the classical

is

name

for a closelv

and was a the White Hellebore and

related species Helleborus orientalis.

term also applied

to

other Hellebores by the Greeks.

Many and

of the Hellebores have similar actions,

L and

several species such as H. viridis

Green and Stinking Hellebores respectively, were employed by herbalists in the Middle Ages - largely for their

purgative

but also in the treatment of

effect,

certain skin complaints. Outside their use

is

now

homeopathy,

confined to horticulture.

Perennial

Description

an acid flavouring at least as early as 1774; the calices being the parts used. It is now being

generic name, Heracleum

after

(hence robust-

its

used in other parts of the world, and ally

popular

is

especi-

Switzerland where it is called used in wines and sauces.

in

stems bearing hairy, large (15-60 cm), pinnate to palmately lobed leaves. Flowers white in umbels of 5-15 cm diameter, appearing midsummer to mid-autumn. Variable in form. Distribution Native to Europe, northern Asia,

karkade and is Other parts ot the plant are used medicinally, and the stem yields an excellent fibre known as rosella hemp. Description Bushy annual reaching 2 m, forming a broad growth by branching at the base. Stems reddish and almost glabrous. Basal leaves undivided and ovate; stem leaves 3-lobed, 7.5-10 cm wide, lobes 2.5 cm wide and crenate. Flowers borne in the leaf axils.

western North America, in woodland, niass-

solitary,

have long been used both

ness; related species

human and animal

foodstuffs. Particularly

favoured by Scandinavian peoples. Description Stout, erect biennial or perennial

50-200 cm

tall,

with ridged, hollow

r

cm: on slowly

30

to

its

as

foetidus L, the

H.

L umbelliferae

Heracleum sphondylium

Cow Parsnip Hogweed A common weed, dedicated to Hercules

creeping, tangled, blackish-brown root-stock.

The

true stem does not rise

above ground:

basal leaves have long petioles, are leathery

and evergreen, serrate, and deeply divided into 7 or more oblong leaflets. Flowering stem simple or occasionally forked, bearing single white or purplish flowers cm wide, appear-

38

ing mid-winter to mid-spring.

European native; especially southand central mountainous regions. In mountain forests, open woodland, on stony, Distribution

ern

humus-rich, calcareous soils only. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as a garden plant.

Propagate by division of root-stock, or from sown as soon as ripe, in the open or under a cold-frame. Well-drained shad) positions on seed

chalky

soil

include

are ideal. Horticultural varieties

var.

Constituents

Hayne

Altifolius

Wheel: both have large

A

and Potters

flowers.

cardenolide, hellebrigenine; sap-

onosides, comprising helleboreine and

borine; also protoanemonine.

helle-

The combined

action of the cardenolide and saponosides 1

I

dio-active

ai >

and purgativ

diird root-stock

Powerful hydragogue

cathartic; cardio-ai n\< •: <

)n< <

used

lo< al

heart tonic; local anaesthetic

irritant.

emmenagogi

purgative;

a

ai

is

<-.

;

abortive and

in

many other onditions. Now obsolete ex< epl in homeopathy which employs a tincture foi

land. roadsides, cm nutrient-rich, moist

treating

10

1

<

ei

|>s\

tain

The powdered stituent of sn<

*

1

hoses.

was once zing powders. root-stock

Contraindications All parts

duces

ii

applied

1800

m

Cultivation

pro-

plex

altitude.

long ovoid

Distribution Native to tropical Asia;

sphondrin;

Pimpinellin;

bergapetene,

oil;

com-

a

furo-coumarin

a

to

which the photosensitization is due. young shoots, seed. Ira\cs Stimulant:

lo< all\

stomachic

ol

the

gastro-

I

emmenagogue; mild

hypotensive;

:

aphrodisiac

Leal

remedies

in

used

Once

used to treat

The

bomeopathically.

seeds have a substantiated aphrodisiacal action.

used

Young in

Sudan and Mexico. Needs a

Wild, and cultivated commercially Ceylon, Egypt, Asia and Mexico. Can be grown horticultural!) from seed sown in the Cultivation

shoots can be cooked and eaten, 01

European

certain cast

beers.

Young

and eaten iaw Percutaneous photosensitizand possibl) permanent purple

tituents

i<

;

dried

l'u\

laxative

Used

ation

as

blisters

pigmentation

may

follow ingestion or handl-

A

light.

1

Hibiscus sabdariffa

L Malvaceae

is

the old Latin

introduced

to

I

ci

name

;

Africa and Asia as a cough remedy, dressing and diuretic Mostly employed

in

.

an acid flavouring

foi

this

a

I

1

.1

plant

Jamaica and used

as

for sauces,

jams,

jellies,

and chutneys.

pleasant tea which can also be used as a red

olout ant

Hieraaum Jamail

weak

antiscorbutic.

drinks, wines, curries

ing ol juice with subsequent exposure to sun-

Roselle Sudanese Tea Red

and phytosterolin. young calices Diuretic;

also glucosides

wound

.1-

Red and white lorms also exist. Organii acids, comprising tartaric,

citric, malic and hi hist acids; red pigment comprising gossipetin and hibiscin vitamin C;

sterna are peeled

Hibiscus

I

in

Contra-indications

which w

introduced

tropic a environ-

ment.

combination with othei

hypertension.

Now

epilepsy.

to

fruit.

early spring. benefit in

ol

is

and almost sessile: consisting ol red calyx and yellow corolla and followed In .'-cm

Wild plant.

Constituents

POISONOUS;

inflammation

con-

mucous membranes, and of the skm

violent

intestinal

a

soils.

I01

othei hei

pilosella

l>

teas.

L oompositae

Mouse-ear Hawkweed Mouse Bloodworl Ihe botanical name I In nil nun from the is

Greek

lot

hawk

alter the tradition thai

hawks

201

HOR-HYO considered

was a sacred grain. Besides

it

many

food and medicine,

its

use

from the early Egyptians have enjoyed beer obtained from fermented Barley. The Greeks and later generations grew a closely related species. H. distichon L, which itself was the parent of as

many

civilizations

other cultivated lorms.

annual grass, to 90 cm wide, short and tapering.

Description Stout erect

mm-2 cm

leaves 7

The terminal

spike

is

7.5-10

cm

long, erect or

occasionally nodding, topped by

many

long,

stout beards. Distribution

Temperate

H. vulgare

Cultivation

is

cereal crop.

a cultigen derived from

an oriental wild grass, either H. spontaneum Koch or H. ischnatherum 'Schulz. Wide commercial cultivation. Constituents Starch (75-80",, 1; proteins; fat; vitamins B and E; mucilage. Uses (seed, germinating seed Nutritive: demulcent. Barley water is a soothing preparation for inflammations of the gastro-intestinal system, and a nutritive demulcent in conj

I.

Cooked Barley

valescence. for sores.

The germinating

is

a useful poultice

grain contains an

hordenine. whose action resembles ephedrine and it is thus of use in bronchitis. A well-known cereal with many culinary uses in soups and stews. alkaloid,

improved it

for

belief, herbalists

some eye complaints, but

largely fallen into disuse.

Mouse-Ear

from

is

auricula muris,

it

apothecaries'

Flowers indistinct,

term

strobilus

summer

being a description of the shape

on creeping

autumn. Very variable in form. Distribution European native; introduced other temperate zones.

On

warm

to

Uses

Weak

diuretic;

used

in

the

treatment

Humulus of liver

and diarrhoea. Possesses weak antipyretic action and was used in the treatment of intermittent fever. The powdered enteritis

lupulus

L cannabaceae

diameter;

appear

late

Bine

The

Hops revolutionized brewing

use of

since

enabled beer to be kept for longer, yet although the plant was grown by the Romans Hop gardens were not widespread in France

it

gargle.

eleventh century, but the English only intro-

and

Germany

duced Hops

L gramineae

and

tenth

Hops were famous

in the

until

as a

the

ninth

replacement for traditional Alehoof and Alecost) in

bitter herbs (such as

Barley Big Barley/Bere/Six-rowed Barley

the sixteenth century. Pliny called the plant

Barley was the

lupus salictarius or 'willow

first

cereal crop to be cultivated

use has been traced back to Neolithic

The Egyptians their goddess

believed Isis,

it

was

intro-

while the Greeks

Wild:

cultivated

(5%

:

commercially,

bitter principles; resin.

(dried female strobilus

Young

centuries. Bavarian

vulgare

situations.

|

Mild sedative:

treatment of certain prostate disorders.

Hops Hop

herb arrests nose bleeds. Various claims have been made for its effect in eye conditions. Possesses antibiotic action, and is an effective

202

in

mid-autumn.

weak diuretic; weak antibiotic: bitter. Employed alone or in combination with other herbs as a soporific in insomnia and restlessness. Aids nervous indigestion and may be applied externally to ulcers. Once used in the

Wild plant.

Uses (dried flowering plant)

times.

greenish-yellow catkins,

in

tannins

dry waste-ground,

astringent; cholagogue; antibacterial.

duced by

in

and Chile. Propagate from cuttings taken in the early summer. Constituents Volatile oil (0.3—1%) comprising humulone, cohumulone, adhumulone, lupulone, colupulone, adlupulone and xanthlumol

an umbelliferone; antibiotic substances.

its

tall.

especially in northern Europe, United States

Constituents Volatile oils; tannic acid; flavones;

and

cm

2

to

Cultivation

dry grassland, rocky screes, preferring moderate sunshine and tolerating most soils.

Hordeum

rough-

m

Native to northern temperate hedgerows, thickets, alder, willow and osier groves, on damp humus-rich soils in

zones;

leafy runners,

forming a basal rosette of hairy leaves, 4 7 cm long, entire, oblong, white or grey on the underside; leafless stem. Flowers usually solitary, occasionally 2 4, reaching 10 40 cm high on hairy or bristly scape; flower-heads consist ofcapitula of ray florets only, sulphur yellow, appearing early summer to mid-

disorders,

:

to 6

Distribution

Description Perennial

Formerly

perennial

stemmed and twining clockwise

the female enclosed in a conical inflorescence

of the leaves.

Cultivation

as a kitchen herb.

Dioecious

and long-petioled.

employed has now

The common name

the

Hops were once grown Description

Leaves opposite usually 3-, sometimes 5- or 7-lobed, broad terminal lobe, coarsely serrate

their vision by using the plant's sap.

Beeause of this early

humele.

wolf

after

its

habit

of twining tightly around willows and other its damp natural habitat. Humulus is a medieval latinization of the Anglo-Saxon term.

trees in

shoots

and male flowers may be eaten

in salads.

The

oil is

used in some perfumes.

Stems once used in basket and wickerwork. Most widely employed in brewing. Hydrastis canadensis L ranunculaceae Golden Seal Orange Root; Ground

Raspberry Golden Seal was once common in the damp shady forests of North America and was used both as a dye and a medicine by the Indians. It entered the United States and British Pharmacopoeias as a treatment for uterine mucosa inflammation, and was so extensivelv

HOR-HYO

methods of commercial cultivation. Now it is a very expensive herb which still finds consider-

over-secretion of these membranes, while therapeutic doses aid in catarrhal conditions. The powdered root-stock was once used topically on mouth ulcers and as a snuff in

able use in folk medicine.

nasal catarrh.

America

collected in

the twentieth century

The name

Hydrastis

is

that by the beginning of it

was necessary

to devise

derived from the Greek

meaning water-acting after its effect on mucous membranes.

the

Low

herbaceous perennial from 15-30 cm tall; on knotted, gnarled, tortuous, sub-cylindrical rhizome which grows horizontally or obliquely and is 1-6 cm long and 4-15 thick, yellowish-brown outside and bright yellow internally. Flowering stem erect, subcylindrical, hairy, bearing two sessile, rounded, doubly-serrate leaves reaching 20 cm wide, each consisting of 5-9 lobes. Occasionally a single 24-cm wide root-leaf arises on a tall petiole from the root-stock. Single flower, wide, greenish-white, without petals. 7.5

mm

mm

appearing late spring to early summer followed summer by raspberry-shaped, inedible :

in late

berry.

Native to Canada and eastern United States; in shady woods and the edges of woodland on rich moist soil. Cultivation Wild, and becoming rarer. Cultivated commercially on damp humus-rich soil under artificial shading from root buds or divided root-stock; planted 20 cm apart in Distribution

early

autumn.

Constituent Alkaloids, hydrastine

berine

2%

.

canadine

trace

1

;

3% fixed

.

beroil;

volatile oil; resin: starch; also mineral salts.

dried root-stock

Bitter toni< stomachic; smooth-muscle stimulant; nervine stimulant ;anti-haemoi rhagic jhypoglycaemic. Used internally in atonic dyspepsia, anorexia or gastritis. Also in dysmenorrhoea and due to the menorrhagia. Its main action alkaloid hydrastine is on mucous membranes I'ses

;

laxative-;

especially

those of the uterus.

conjunctivitis,

Large doses

A weak as

infusion

is

employed

and

eardrops,

root tea

as

acts

mouthwash. was formerly drunk

antiseptic

The

secretion of Description

cause

in

an

as a tonic.

Produces a yellow or orange cloth dye. Contra-indications

A

Constituents

which

side,

heteroside (saponosidej, asiatico-

is

antibiotic

and

also assists in the

formation of scar tissue; triterpene acids, including indocentoic acid; a glycoside, indocentelloside; an alkaloid, hydrocotylin; resin; pectic acid; vitamin C; a bitter compound, vellarin; tannin (9° ); sugars; volatile oil. Uses (fresh or dried

plant)

Diuretic

tonic

;

purgative.

POISONOUS in large doses;

not to be used in pregnancy.

Used in India and Africa for 'blood-purifying' purposes in venereal conditions and tuberculosis. The active principle, asiaticoside, appears to exert a direct effect on the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae) involved in leprosy

L umbelliferae Indian Pennywort Centella, Indian Water Navel Wort Indian Pennywort was employed traditionally in the Indian and African continents as an important treatment of leprosy, and modern research has now shown that the plant does possess some action against the leprosy bacteria.

around the bacterium), and also assists scar healing for which purpose it is used

The herb

as a

Hydrocotyle asiatica

is

called

brahmi

the

in

Indian

Ayurvedic medical system which still employs it. In Europe it was last mentioned in the French Pharmacopoeia of 1884. attributed

Hydrocotyle

is

medicinal

properties

recently

attracted

one

attention

is

general beneficial tonic effect;

remains

many

with

and

this,

formerly

Also

ointments.

used

in in

fevers.

in

rheumatism and gastric complaints, including dysentery. There is some evidence it may act general tonic.

Used

Africa as a snuff.

in

Contra-indications

POISONOUS.

narcotic, producing vertigo

Large doses and possibly coma.

other

which has its supposed however,

Hyoscyamus niger

L solanaceae

Henbane Henbane

has a long medicinal history which

runs from the Assyrians to the present day, and

be proved.

to

waxy

(possibly by dissolving the protective

coat

Description Slender trailing umbelliferous plant

which derives from the sedative, analgesic and

with reddish prostrate stems, rooting at the

spasmolytic properties of the leaf's powerful

nodes, from which also arise

constituents. At various times

cm

1

-3 petioles to

bearing glabrous, entire-, or crenate, cm cupped, orbicular-renilbrm leaves, 7 long. Flower-heads hear ; or (> reddish, sessile 15

tall

1

",

Bowei

s.

Indigenous to subtropical /.ones Ceylon, southern Africa, southern United States. Malaysia. Also found in eastern Europe. On marsh) sues to a 600 m Distribution

Mich

as

India.

altitude. Cultivation

has been con-

and

an ingredient of witches' brews. Its name Hyoscyamus comes from the Greek meaning hog bean, a term which is still retained in some areas. The herb has had several other names including Symphoniaca, Jusquiamus, Henbell, Belene, Hennibone, and

Hennebane. Strongly

Description

Wild plant.

it

sidered as a love potion, a magical herb,

smelling,

coarse

erect,

annual or biennial: the former less robust and shorter than the biennial form which reaches 50 cm on a stem covered with long, jointed 30 hairs. Leaves pale-green, ovate-oblong, coarsedentate, hairy and slightly sticky, 5-30 cm ly long. Flowers on short stalks in leaf axils, or 1

terminal unilateral panicles; funnel-

sessile in

shaped,

cm

4

3

long,

yellow-brown or cream,

marked with purple veins, particularly at the petal base. Appearing late summer to earl) autumn (annual or early to mid-summei usually

|

biennial

,

Indigenous to Europe; widely throughout Eurasia and introduced to North America, Asia, Australia and Brazil. On waste-ground and roadsides, and in well-drained sandy or chalky soils. Cultivation Wild and cultivated, or collected, on a small scale. Seed sown in sunnv position in Distribution

distributed

summer

carl)

biennial

(annual)

and

.

the

soil

or

early

kepi

autumn

moist

until

germination. Alkaloids, hyosev amine, atropine

Constituents

and hyoscine sedative I'ses

1

ac lions

fresh

or

to

which the narcotic

and

aie due-.

dried

leaves,

Sedative; anti-

spasmodic analgesic. Formerly used in a wide range- ol neivous 01 painful conditions which required sedation ;

203

HVP-ILE An

alcoholic extract of the flowers dyes

silk

and

wool a violet-red, but does not colour cotton. Contra-indications If eaten by light-skinned animals, the herb may cause photosensitizaleading to sw elling of the face, generalized

tion,

skin

of

irritation

unpigmented

areas,

and

possible death.

Hyssopus

L labiatae

officinalis

Hyssop The genus Hyssopus

consists

of this single

and the herb's common name is practically identical in all European languages. Hyssop is a very ancient name and can be traced back almost unchanged through the Greek hussopos to the Hebrew esob. Whether Hyssopus officinalis is in fact the Hyssop frequently referred to in the Old Testament is doubtful, however - this was probably a marjoram - and how it came to be given the biblical name is not known. The herb was once much respected as a medicinal plant being mentioned by Paulus Aegnita in the seventh century, and was also used both for cosmetic and strewing purposes. Gerard 1597 described 3 varieties and Mawe species,

17781 6 varieties.

and analgesia, but due it is

now

to

poisonous nature

its

generally only employed internally

in

homeopathic dosage; it is retained, however, in several South American and European pharmacopoeias as an aid in spasm of the urinary tract, or

to alleviate the

griping caused

by strong purgatives. Oil of

may

Henbane

or a poultice of the fresh leaves

be applied externally

to relieve

rheumatic

pain. Contra-indicatiotu

POISONOUS. To

be used

Hypericum perforatum

L hypericaceae

St John's Wort John's Wort has been closely associated with supposed magical properties since the Greeks gave it the name hypericon. This indicated that St

The

oil

and

it

enough was believed

glands

to drive

away

evil

to purify the air.

when crushed

certainly release

a balsamic odour similar to incense. In addition the yellow flowers turn red

when crushed

due to the release of the red fluorescent pigment hypericine - and this was undoubtedly an important factor in the development of the folklore which surrounds the herb red signifying, of course, blood. As St John was beheaded, and the herb is in full flower on St John's

Day

(24 Junej,

it

became known as Wort

herba Sancti Ioannls and, later, as St John's

- the herb of St John. Besides the magical attributes which predate Christianity, Hypericum has real and effective medicinal properties and it is still widely used in European folk medicine. Description Perennial; rapidly spreading from many long runners produced at the base. Stem erect with 2 raised edges along its length, branched at the top, reaching 30-60 cm; bearing oblong or linear leaves 1.5-3 cm on Sopposite, entire, glabrous, and marked with '

204

spots.

Flowers 2-3

cm

flowered terminal cymes, appearing late sum-

mer

to

mid-autumn.

Distribution

Native

temperate

to

zones

oi

Europe and western Asia; naturalized in the Americas and Australasia. In open situation-. on semi-dry soils of various sorts, but particucalcareous

long, covered with fine hairs at the tips. Leave-

wide,

sessile

mm

cm

linear to oblong, 2.5

long and 4-9 so, opposite and

nearly

or

Wild plant. May be propagated by autumn, and efforts are being made cultivate it commercially.

mm

tomentose. Blue flowers 7.5-15 one-sided whorls in leaf

soils.

axils,

cm

long in terminal

the

long; appear late

Cultivation

inflorescence being 10

division in

summer

to

white forms occasionally occur. Distribution Native to central and southern Europe, and temperate western Asia: intro-

Constituents Volatile oil, called red oil: resin; a

Common

the smell was strong

oil

wide, yellow, consisting of 5 petals dotted with small black oil glands, and carried on many

larly

only under medical supervision.

spirits,

numerous translucent

Hyssop has had a mixed iortune as a culinary herb due to its strong flavour, and is now mostly employed for decorative purposes especially as a low hedge in herb gardens. Description Aromatic perennial subshrub with erect branched herbaceous stems 20-60 cm

red pigmented glycoside, hypericine; a poly-

phenolic flavonoid, hyperoside; tannin

whole herb and i6° carotene; vitamin C. in

/

the

(fresh

r«

or

in

flowering

dried

8-9%

the flower

plant,

;

fresh

weakly diuretic; sedative; anti-inflammatory: anti-diarrhoeic; cholagogue; antidepressant; antiviral; flower, fresh leaves) Vulnerary;

antibiotic; astringent.

Many virtues have been ascribed to this plant ranging from the antipyretic and anthelmintic properties reported by the most ancient writers, to

modern

Certainly

suggestions of antiviral activity.

when taken

internally

the

herb

stimulates both gastric and bile secretions, and is

effective in irregular menstruation.

It

has

been shown to improve the blood circulation and to be of use in some conditions characterized by neurosis and disturbed sleep pat-

one of the most

effective agents for assisting

in the healing of wounds or

burns when applied

externally, especially

where nervous

tissue has

been damaged;

also applied to

haemor-

rhoids and

Violet, red, pink or

North America. On rocky, calsunny situations. Cultivation Wild in native habitat: occasionally wild elsewhere as a garden escape. Cultivated commercially in Europe. Russia and India. Wide horticultural employment as an ornamental; propagate by seed sown in spring, root division in spring or autumn, or cuttings

duced

into

careous dry

soils in

taken in late spring or early summer. Plant out cm apart in full sun on well-drained light

30

soil,

and

Replace

clip occasionally.

after 4 or

5 years. Constituents Volatile oil

(0.2-1%

glycoside, diosmin; tannin

Uses

\

:

a flavonoid

8

dried flowering tops, fresh leaf

Tonic;

stomachic; expectorant; carminative; sedative:

weak diaphoretic: weak

diuretic: astrin-

gent: mild spasmolytic.

employed in bronchitis and the improve appetite and to common stimulate gastric secretions; and as a gargle to

it

is

The

cold;

soothe sore throats. perspiration and

plant contains an has been patented as a possible food preservative. Leaves once used

weak.

as a salad herb.

A

antibiotic

autumn.

Specifically

terns. It is

to early

bruises.

which

cuts or bruises treat

may

The herb

around the

eyes.

hysterical conditions,

constituent of

also

reduces

be applied externally to

some herb

but teas.

Once used

to

action

is

its

HYP-ILE The plant was not called Holly until the seventeenth century, previously having been -

known

as

Holy Tree and

name

holen.

the

Quercus

ilex),

name Ilex was the Holm or Holly Oak

botanical

Its

name

ancient

the

for

while aquifolium

meaning point and

\.ji

Holme;

earlier as

being derived from the old English plant

latter

from the Latin well-known

is

leaf after the

shape of its leaves. Description Evergreen shrub or tree usually 2-5 m, occasionally to 12 m tall; with manv spreading glabrous branches forming an oblong-shaped plant. Leaves shiny, leathery, ovate or oblong-ovate, 4-7.5 cm long, margins wavy and spiked with 6-mm long spines, shortpetioled. Small unisexual or bisexual, dull white, scented flowers produced in axillary clusters on previous year's growth, appearing

mid-summer.

early to

Native

Distribution

Europe and widely

to

dis-

tributed from western Asia to China: intro-

duced elsewhere. Common in deciduous woodland, less so in mixed or coniferous woodland: on most soils but preferably humus-rich, acid, moist well-drained types.

Wild. Cultivated horticultural!} for

Cultivation

decorative purposes and as hedging: avoid planting in frost-prone

be used to flavour meats

oil

distilled

employed

from the flow trine; tops is liqueur and perfumery

the

in

industries.

Ilex aquifolium

Holly

Bark:

tannin;

pectin:

substances.

pigment.

yellow

a

ilixanthine.

or soups.

The

unknown

theobromine:

ilicine;

may

Small quantities

sites.

Leaves: tannin; a bitter substance,

Constituents

L aquifoliaceae

Common

Holly'English Holly

Although Holly is no longer considered of any importance medically, it has retained an important role

in

the traditions associated with

Christmas and in northern Europe red HolK berries and branches are symbolic ot Christperhaps representing drops of mas-time blood and a crown ol thoi as

/

a

[eaves

Once used and

ployed

in

diuretic: tonic.

the treatment of fevers, bron-

rheumatism.

chitis

Wood

weak

Antipyretic: in

em-

Occasionally

diarrhoea, and as a tonic tea.

used

for

engraving.

and

purgative

are

Berries

Contra-indications toxi<

Ilex

par aguariensis St Hil. aquifoliaceae

Mate Verba Mate/Paraguay Tea/Hervea Mate has been taken

as a refreshing stimulant

American inhabitants

tonic drink by South

long helm, the Jesuits

orded the habit in the Although in many South Amei .in ountries it is drunk more frequently than any other beverage, 'Jesuits' tea' as it was rei

sixteenth century. 11

liisi

(

1

become known

ailed has only recently

Europe

an alternative

.1-

to

in

Indian or Chinese

tea.

/>

Evergreen shrub or tree

ptiot

to 6

m.

often kept low in cultivation; branches glab-

rous bearing glossy, obovate. crenate-scrrate. short-petioled, alternate leaves,

to

\

cm

long:

Rowers white and axillary, followed rounded, reddish 7-mm diameter fruit. Distribution

Brazil.

Argentina.

Chile,

In

Peru,

Paraguay; frequently in mountainous areas. Cultivation Wild, and cultivated commercially in Paraguay. Con tituenti Caffeine (0.2 2",, chlorogenu :

acid

to

bromine

ib",, '

:

add; theo-

neochlorogenii

atei hols; the

<

ombined

ai

tion being

I01111

Uses

dried leaves

Tonic; nervine; diuretii

;

itimulant.

Almost entirely employed

manner ol

ol

as a tonii

Indian or Chines*

,m\ undesli able stimulant

effi

1

tea in the

but devoid

tea. 1

Ilex verticillata (L) Gray aquifoliaceae Black Alder Winterberry/Feverbush North American Indians were the first

this attractive plant for

to use

medical purposes and

was once included in the United States Pharmacopoeia; it was also used homeopathically. Other remedies have now replaced it, even in folk medicine, and it is rarely found in use as other than a garden ornamental. It was formerly classified as Prinos verticillatus L. The specific epithet verticillatus means whorled or clustered around the stem, after the arrangement of the flowers and fruit. Description Upright and spreading deciduous it

shrub 12-3

m

ta "-

with thin obovate, oval or

ILL-IRI acuminate, serrate pubescent on lower veins; petiolate and alternate. Flowers dioecious, white, small, in groups of usually less than 10. on short peduncles in umbels, appearing in oblanceolate,

4-7.5

leaves,

acute

cm

to

long,

and

leaf axils in late spring

early

summer.

Followed by bright red globose berry in

7.5

mm

diameter.

American native, from and Wisconsin; introduced elsewhere. Usually in woodland thickets on wet. marshy, rich soils or beside rivers and North

Distribution

Canada

to Florida

lakes. Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated as a garden ornamental for its attractive berries which remain until mid-winter on the bare branches. Requires rich soil in damp, preferably shadv. site.

Constituents

resins;

Uses

Tannins

unknown

(fresh

(to

5%);

bitter principles;

substances.

bark,

rarely

1

60 1, but even

to flavour tea

in

it

1694

when

was rare

The Latin name

in

and

A

fruit. It

is

also classified as

closely related species

which

anisatum

/.

cm

large, to 7

in diameter, solitary or

bose, yellow, the ray florets

that

religiosum

/.

L

.

Siebold

or Japanese Star Anise, which in the East is sometimes found as an adulterant of the Chinese Star Anise, has poisonous leaves and fruit due to their content of sikimitoxin. This plant is called the 'mad herb' in China, but in

corymnumerous, long,

and arranged in a single row. appearto mid-autumn. Distribution Native to central and southern Europe and north-west Asia, naturalized in

slender,

ing

L

mid-summer

nited States: introduced elsewhere.

On damp

it is revered and used at funerals. Fruit of the plant cannot be used, and may be distinguished by their lack of aniseed smell, unlike the Chinese variety.

Japan

Description

Small tender evergreen tree or shrub

5 m; leaves aromatic, alternate, entire, shiny. 7.5 cm long, elliptic and acuminate: to

magnolia-like attractive greenish-yellow soliunscented flowers with many petals.

tary,

dried

bark,

fruit

Followed by 4-cm wide. 8-rayed consisting of one-seeded

The bark may be employed

collected

as

an infusion or

decoction in the treatment of diarrhoea, or as a tonic following severe diarrhoea or feverish complaints. It aits as a carminative and

promotes both the appetite and the digestion. Due to its astringent action it was once used externally as a wash in skin complaints sik h as

The

means

illicium

it

entices from the very pleasant scent of the tree

Astringent; antipyretic; bitter; tonic.

herpes and ulcers.

Dutch used

the

Europe.

berries possess slight

antihelmintic and laxative action, but should not be used as the effective dose is slightly toxic.

they are

requiring aniseed flavour. It has long been used as a spice in the East, but was not seen in Europe until 1588 when Candish brought a sample from the Philippines to London. Clusius first described it in

which are

when green, and then sun-dried woody and reddish-brown.

until

Distribution Indigenous to south and southwest China and north Vietnam: introduced elsewhere. On well-drained soils, frequentlv

above a 2500-m altitude. Cultivation Wild and cultivated in south China and parts of eastern Asia. Prefers sheltered sunny situations on well-drained, moistureretaining

soils.

anethol:

8o-o,o

to

fixed

10",, oil;

.

comprising

sugar:

resin:

tannin.

dried

Uses

fruit

soils near ruins probably because they were once cultivated near monasteries, etc. or .

Constituents Volatile oil Illicium verum Hook. f. magnoliaceae Star Anise Chinese Anise The oil obtained by steam distillation ot the fruit of Star Anise is now an important substitute for expensive European aniseed oil. and is widely used in commercial preparations

star-like fruit

follicles

Carminative; slightly stimu-

lant; mild expectorant.

employed as an aniseed flavouring and as a carminative for digestive disorders. Used in cough remedies as an expectorant and considered to benefit the bronchial mucous membranes. Used in the East as a spice, particularly with duck and pork: added to tea and coffee in China. The oil is of commercial importance as an aniseed flavouring for drinks and liqueurs.

roadsides and woodland edges.

Wild. Limited cultivation in central Europe: on rich moist soil from seed sown in spring or by division of root-stock in autumn. Plant in semi-shaded position at back of the Cultivation

Chiefly

border.

agent,

Constituents

Inulin

4"

:

essential

oil.

com-

prising a mixture of lactones, chiefly alanto-

lactone: resin; a complex camphor, elecam-

pane camphor: mucilage. dried root-stock

Uses sive:

Bactericidal: antitus-

expectorant; tonic: weak cholagogue.

Almost exclusively employed

in the

treatment

of respiratory disorders, especially bronchitis,

coughs, and catarrh. Also used to promote

L compositae Elecampane Scabwort

an aromatic

Once

Inula helenium

appetite as

Elecampane

treatment of skin diseases and in veterinary medicine for the same purposes -

employed

used

medicine cough remedies and has always been popular both as a medicine and a condiment. Its use as a flavouring in sweets continued until the 1920s, and it was is still

in folk

as a favourite constituent of

it

acts as

hence

its

other name, Scabwort.

is

Formerly candied and eaten

as a

sweetmeat:

used in the flavouring of certain sweets.

employed

Still

Much

central Europe.

names, but helenium is from Helenus. of Priam - a somewhat obscure association - while elecampane is derived from the ancient Latin name inula campana via the French enule-campane. It was commonly used both by the early Anglo-Saxons and Celts as well as by the Greeks and Romans: the Welsh

The herb

strongly antibacterial.

traditionally cultivated in herb gardens.

controversy surrounds the origin of the

tonic.

in the

in

some wines and liqueurs

in

plant's

the

son

called

it

marchalan in the thirteenth century.

Description Tall attractive perennial to 2

m; on

15-cm long taproot. Stems hairy,

erect,

thick

bearing large, alternate, elliptical leaves to cm long and 15 cm wide, velvety beneath, hairy above, dentate-serrate, the lower leaves

45

petiolate. others partly clasping.

206

Flower-heads

Iris foetidissima

L iridaceae

Stinking Iris Gladdon Scarlet-seeded Iris Most Iris species possess substances in the fresh root-stock which act as purgatives, and when purging was a popular form of medicinal treatment Stinking Gladdon was commonly used.

The name Gladdon is derived from meaning a little sword after

gladiolus

of

its

the Latin the shape

leaves: while the term stinking

is

an

inaccurate description of the roast-beef smell of

its

crushed leaves.

Description

Slow growing perennial on slender

ILL-IRI should be considered a variety, florentina, of others consider /. florentina is a /. germanica ;

synonym /.

some feel it rs a true own, pure white, variety -

of/, spuria, while

species with

its

florentina var. albicans.

The white

Florentine Iris became associated with Florence in the early Middle Ages, and the plant's cultivation there was described by Petrus de Crescentiis in the thirteenth century. It is still

represented on the heraldic arms of the

used as a powerful purgative. It is now rarely used even in folk medicine. Used as a bitter flavouring in certain liqueurs.

Widely employed as a violet scent in the perfume industry, and as a fixative in pot-pourri manufacture. May be used in some tooth powders or dusting powders.

on stout rhizome bearing 45 cm tall, 3-4 cm wide, sword-shaped leaves, and flowering stalk reaching 60 cm-i m. Terminal flower-head usuallv 2-flowered. sessile: the flowers unscented. white tinged with violet and with a yellow beard, or pure white

root-stock

may

be

powdered root-stock cause vomiting. Tlu powder

may

city.

Fresh

Contra-indications

violently purgative. Large doses of the

cause allergic reactions.

Description Perennial

Iris versicolor

L iridaceae

Blue Flag Flag

Lily

common American

and beardless. Appearing early to mid-summer. Variable in the form and colour of the flowers. Distribution Native to southern Europe; natur-

herb which was employed by both the Indians and early settlers as a remedy for gastric complaints. It was once included in the United States Pharmacopoeia and is still believed in folk medicine to be a blood purifier in eruptive skin

alized in central Europe. Persia, north India:

conditions.

introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most welldrained soils, but prefers sunny, stony, dry.

In some places the plant is known as Liver Lily because of its particular effect on that organ. The herb may be a hybrid between the closely related /. virginica (L) and another Iris. /)- Hiiption Perennial bog plant on thick branched creeping root-stock bearing erect, stout, coarse stem 30 cm— 1 10 cm tall, and sword-shaped leaves 20 cm-i m long, 15

hilly situations.

Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commerciallv in India and Egypt. Propagate by

Italy. Persia,

division of root-stocks in late spring or earlv

autumn, planting in deep, sunny position.

rich,

well-drained

Blue Flag

is

a

mm

soil in

horizontal rhizome; producing 60 90-cm tall branched stems which bear glossy dark green, narrow (3 cm) leaves, 30-45 cm long. Leaves remain during winter, and are sometimes

Flowers

variegated.

inconspicuous,

purple-

grey with purple veins, beardless, appearing early to

mid-summer and followed by 4-5-cm

long capsule containing scarlet-red

globose

seeds.

Native

Distribution

to

North Africa, west and

south Europe. Prefers rich moist

soils

bv rivers

or ponds in a semi-shaded position. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticultural!) bv

root-stock

division

spring

late

in

summer. Requires humus-rich wet Constituents I 'ses

)ik e

(

ate ot

Off

earl)

soil.

Acrid resin; unknown substances.

Purgath

fresh root-stoc k

c.

used as a purgative by drinking a macer-

lush root

tli<-

No

in ale.

longer employed

inc-dic ally.

Chief!) cultivated tor the

use'

Bowel capsules and seeds arrangements. ripe

of in

its

alti.n

dve

dried (lowei

germanica v ar. florentina Dykes iridaceae

Iris

Orris Florentine Iris In Greek word iris means I

the

rainbow

used to describe the variable coloiiiiny

members Orris, dct

tive

ot this iv eel

term

ol

the

genus.

dire*

for

,u\<\ is

the

llv

from

11 is.

is

the desc rip-

violet-scented,

powdered

rOOt-StOCk which has been used in perfunieiv since

and

Egyptians

the

Several spec iesoi hybrids ol /.

Onis

ol

germanica

winch

L

f

the

.ire

ancient

used as the some

most

especially

Greeks.

/.

e

important are nermanun vat

Lamk. and /. florentina L. Due- to the variation and hybridization of this group, some authorities believethat /. florentina L is not a distinct species and

florentina

Dykes),

/.

pallida

Constituents

Essential

ing myristi<

oh di

H v

.11

nl

.1

and

ini;

.11

nl

* > i

85%

0.2%

0.1

I

ketone, none-, w

slot

compris-

aye: resin

;

hie h

develops mi

tannic acid: starch

ide.

;

yellow,

2

appearing early

to

Formerl)

used

treatment

ol

in

mixed

remedies

foi

(resh

juice

places on peaty

the

was one

apsule.

Distribution North-east

chest complaints such as bron-

and asthma. The

c

e

peduncles,

mid-summer, followed by

;

.

marked with

6 per plant, on short

globose, leathery

dried root-stock Stomachic; diuretii .110111,1111 weak expee tenant. Uses

hills

w

in

Attrae live blue or violet Mowers,

sugars.

c

1

I

and methyl myristate

North America;

in

wet

soils.

limn Wild plant. Constituents irisin;

An

acrid

volatile oil;

resinous

substance,

fixed oil; starch;

tannic

207

ISA-JUN acid: an unidentified alkaloid.

dried

Uses

leaves

root-stock;

on the stem

persist

Purgative;

for

weeks.

European native: introduced

Distribution

On

else-

humus-rich, well-drained chalky

diuretic: sialagogue: emetic.

where.

Chiefly employed in eruptive skin conditions

waste places in sunny situations. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in western Europe

caused by a sluggish gastro-intestinal system

and constipation. bile and

saliva,

It

stimulates

gastric

the

secretions,

flow of

acting

particularly on the liver and pancreas. Leaves

Propagate from seed sown in sunny position on well-drained, very rich soil, in late summer. Thin to 40 cm apart bv transuntil the 1930s.

applied externally on bruises.

planting in early spring.

Large doses cause nausea, vomiting and facial neuralgias. Handling the

Seeds itself readily, but acts as a short-lived perennial if the unripe flower-heads are re-

Contra-indications

plant

may

moved.

cause dermatitis.

Indigo

Constituent*

L cruciferae Woad Dyer's Weed

Woad was

cultivated as the source of a blue

Europe and was only superseded 50 vears ago by indigo, which was first extracted from subtropical Indigo/era dvestufffor over 2000 years

developed by fermenting

lea\

Isatis tinctoria

in

species. is an ancient name for a healing herb, which was described bv Dioscorides as being an excellent stvptic. Doubtless the habit adopted by ancient Britons of painting their

Isatis

bodies with a paste of the leaves served the dual

fermented leaves, rarely fresh leaver Uses Vulnerary styptic. Once employed externally to stop bleeding and assist in the healing of wounds and ulcer-. Too poisonous and astringent to be used internalK. Traditionally the source of a blue dye obtained bv fermenting, drying and refermenting the crushed leaves, and adding lime-water to the :

product.

final

POISONOUS.

Contra-indication*

Not

be

to

used internally.

purpose of frightening their enemies and heal-

wounds of battle. The herb is now mainly

Jateorhiza palmata Mier-

ing the

of historical interest,

although a- its blue colour is more permanent than Indigojera indigo it is in demand l>> homecraft d\> Description Biennial from 45 cm to 130 cm tall: produces in the first year a rosette of entire or toothed, oblong or obovate leaves from which arises stout, erect stems branching near the top. bearing lanceolate to linear glaucous sessile

mfm-permaceak

Calumba Colombo Calumba remains

favourite

a

tonic

for

the

treatment of gastric disorders in Africa and India, and retains a place as a bitter in some European pharmacopoeias. In East Africa it is

known

kalumb

as

or

koamua and

been used as a treatment

for

has long

diarrhoea and as

The Portuguese introduced

it

to

Europe

in the

seventeenth century when it was considered an antidote to poisons, but it was generally

numerous, in 45 cm wide panicled racemes, produced in earlv to mid-summer. and followed by pendulous black seeds that

neglected until Percival promoted

very

cm

long

at the

was valued

Sua

it

in

to increase the intestinal

the blood pressure.

Used

An

tone and lower

excellent bitter tonic.

yellow dye.

as a

and in 788 it was included in the London Pharmacopoeia. Lamarck first described the plant in 1797 and called it Menispermum palmatum. B\

/)

1

781

it

criptum

Tall

at

dioecious

kilo

1

twining perennial

Annual stems herbaceous, membranous, alternate, palmate-lobed. long-petioled leaves, and insignificant greenish-white flowers, which are followed by a moon-shaped stone contained within a globose drupe. Male flowers in fleshv tuberous root.

hairs

and bearing

cm

panicles 30

L jlglandaceae Butternut White walnut Oil-nut

Juglans cinerea

The walnut family

derive their generic name.

Juglans, from the Latin Iovis glans

177

vine: often reaching the tops of trees. Large large,

meaning

the

nut of Jupiter after the ancient belief that the gods ate walnuts.

Most of the names of this tree, in fact, refer to nut. for example, butternut. Oil-nut and

its

Lemon

nut. indicating both the oily nature

and shape of the fruit. This species is described as both white and as J. cinerea after the light colour of

its

bark, the botanical

name

being

derived from the Latin cinereus meaning ashcoloured.

It

is

thus distinguished from the

closely related black walnut. J. nigra. Oil from the nut was once used as a strongly

flavoured seasoning in America.

long.

Indigenous to East Africa, especially northern Mozambique: introduced elsewhere, for example. Brazil. In forests. Cultivation Wild. Some small-scale cultivation Distribution

Tree from 12-30 m tall: bark light deeply furrowed with broad rid, branches pubescent, bearing 11-19 opposite Description

grey,

com-

5-12.5 cm long, irregularly serrate, acuminate, short-petioled and oblong lanceoFlowers in drooping catkins. Fruit late.

3 yellow alkaloids, columbamine. jatrorrhizine. palmatine: bitter

elongated, pointed. 4 cm long in groups of 2-5. externally sticks and strong smelling, contain-

in East Africa.

Volatile

Constituents

prising

oil

0.07—1.15%

,

mainly thymol:

principles,

chasmanthin and a lactone, columand

bin: traces of the sapogenins. diosgenin

krvptogenin: mucilage: starch. Uses

dried

root

Stomachic:

bitter

tonic.

Chiefly employed as an aqueous infusion

in,

vomiting during pregnancy or atonic dyspepsia associated with hypochlorhydria. In Africa is it used as a remedy for diarrhoea and dysentery, and in India as an antipyretic and anthelmintic.

208

alkaloids present in the root have been

a general tonic, as well as being used as a dye.

base and 4 cm long near the flowering top. Small yellow flowers,

leaves. 10

The

shown

leaflets.

'

ing an edible nut.

North American native, from New England to Georgia and Maryland. Introduced elsewhere. In rich damp woods or close to rivers, on well-drained soils. Distribution

Wild. Fixed oils: a complex resin, called juglandin. containing nucin. inner root bark: ripening fruit. leaseUses Cathartic: anthelmintic: sveak rubefacient. Cultivation

Constituents

ISA -J UN The bark was formerly used as a domestic remedy for constipation. The oil from the fruit was employed to remove tapeworms. It is now rarelv used even in folk medicine.

Ripening fruit can be pickled. The sap produces a syrup similar

to

maple

mixture applied to the head! Both the green walnut husks and fresh leaves have been used as a brown hair dye for centuries, remaining as the main constituent of proprietary hair tints until the beginning of the twentieth century.

Root bark, leaves and wool dve.

fruit

provide a brown

of varieties exist, and the

is variable. Tree to 30 m: bark Usually 7 or 9 glabrous leaflets. entire, acute, oblong-ovate. 5-12.5 cm long. Male flowers in drooping catkins appear late spring to early summer. Indistinct female flowers followed by almost globular, glabrous fruit singly or in groups of 3. Distribution Native to western Asia, south-east Europe. China and the Himalayas. Introduced

form of the

hyoYocarbons

terpene

limonene

sesquiterpenes

cadinene. elemene

.

a-pinene.

comprisina; /?-pinene.

oc-caryophyllene.

bitter substances, alcohols,

.

and a monocyclic cyclobutane monoterpenoid. junionone; resin sugar 30-33 10% ;

A number

Description

syrup.

0.5—2%

Constituents Essential oil

tree

silverv-sjrev.

organic acids. dried

i'ses

fruit, leafy

branchlets

Antiseptic:

diuretic: stimulant: carminative: rubefacient.

Used

internally as a urinary antiseptic, speci-

promotes gastric secreappetite. Applied externally to relieve rheumatic pain, to counteract alopecia, as a styptic and to wounds. Used homeopathically and in veterinary medicine. fically in cystitis: also

and improves

tions

the

elsewhere. In open woodland.

Widely cultivated

Wild.

Cultivation

for

its

timber. Constituents

A

Fixed

Fruit:

oils:

vitamin

C.

compound, juglone: hydrojuglone: tannic acid: unknown substances. Leaves:

bitter

Tonic: astrinweakly hypogly-

dried leaves, fresh fruit

Uses

anti-inflammatory:

gent:

caemic.

wide range of and used both internally and externally. Also emploved homeopathically for the same purposes. Ripening fruit can be pickled. The ripe nuts are of commercial importance. Oil expressed from the nuts provides a cooking oil. and is occasionally employed in non-drying; artists Leaves considered of benefit eruptive

skin

in a

conditions,

paints.

Timber used

in furniture.

Leaves yield a brown dye.

L cipressaceae iommon Juniper Juniperus 1^ the classical name lor this Juniperus communis

Juniper

Juglans regia

Walnut I

L

ji

Persian

his tree

gi.andaceae

Walnut

hears the

both because

oi

its

name

meaning royal, appearance and source of timber Theophrastus a-

regia,

attractive

its historical importance as a and food. It was known to karuon, and Plim who believed it entered Europe from Persia first dew ribed the use oi

(

considered


especially

derived

from

suggested that the green husk- be boiled with

Geneva

as the

lead,

lor

ashes,

dyeing white hair oil

and earthworms,

and

the

a ipice,

it

an important

still

is

Berries are

used

to

and

flavour meats, gin

Once used as a spice and substitute pepper, and when roasted as a coffee

liqueurs. lor

substitute Contra-indications

or

when

Not

be used in pregnane)

to

the kidneys are inflamed.

flavouring lor certain preserved meats, liqueurs

and

brown He

the shells

variable

and widely distributed plant ol the northern temperate zones, which has remained in use from the Greek and Arabic physicians to the present day. Although no longer generally

turn,

gin.

an

The English word gin is of Hollands was first ailed which, in

abbreviation

-.pirit

c

stems from the Dutch jenci>> meaning

Juniper. ()nl\ kilogram 0! the berries is used to flavour over 100 lures gin. /> cription Variable, from a dense procumbent 1

(

sin

ub

to a

needle-like,

\2

5

m

tall

13

evergreen. Leaves

tree-;

mm

long,

spreading from the bran< Flowers upper siniaci

>i

in

hlets.

whorls

ol

^.

bluish-white on

indistinct,

axillary,

dioecious, greenish-yellow, appeal late spring to

earl)

summer: followed

diameter blue-black,

fleshy

.

b\

10

7.5

Mediterranean also An in Norway to Soviet Union, west Himalayas, North America. On moorland, open coniferous lon-sts and Distribution

Native

mm

3-seeded berries.

10

region;

north-

Juniperus sabina L cipressaceae Savin Savin lops

5a\

in

ary

has a lone; history as a stimulant veterin-

drug

in

wounds and toxicity,

used as a

lowed b\

distributed

Ivbamtti

tamariscifolia

cv.

prostrala

:

its

\l\

humans.

laic-

sprint;

fol-

mm

Native to central and south Europe lie mi the Caucasus to south Siberia North America. ( )n sunny mountain

Distribution

moun-

Cultivation

communis

to

diameter brownish-purple, j-seeded berries on pendulous pedil els. 7

Also

J.

lor

to the

has never been w

yellow, dioecious, appearing

slopes.

Gard.,

it

Due

Evergreen shrub, usually lowgrowing and of spreading habit, to 1 m tall: sometimes a small tree, to 7.5 m. Young leaves Opposite, acute and pointed: older leaves scale-like, adhering to branchlets, closely bright green. Flowers indistinct, greenish-

Wild Berries collected commercially. Other forms may be used, foi example, communis ssp. nana Syme, J. communis ssp. / 11

of animals.

Description

tain slopes.

Be|s~«

ulcers

however, medicine

heaths,

Cultivation

Europe, and was applied

in

Wild,

drown

horticultural!)

which purpose Ait. and fabina

hedt^e-plant, for

Laws, are also used

/'.

as

a

J. tabina var. var. variegata

LAC-LAV Constituents Volatile oil

(1-4%), similar

to that

of J. communis; tannic acid; resin. Uses (young green shoots) Powerful uterine stimulant; emmenagogue; irritant.

Now only used externally, with care, as a stimulant dressing for blisters, wounds, ulcers, and to remove warts. Employed in veterinary medicine. Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and occasion-

Causes severe gastro-intestinal irritation, haematuria and hallucinations. To be used only under medical supervision. ally fatal.

weak,

was used

it

an adulterant of true

as

opium and entered the Edinburgh and other European pharmacopoeias as a cough suppressant. The common Garden Lettuce, (L. L), was also once used as a source of lactucarium, but by breeding out the bitterness of this salad herb modern cultivars only contain a trace of the complex.

sativa

Strongly smelling biennial,

Description

pro-

ducing a rosette of obovate, undivided leaves 12-30 cm long in the first year, and an erect stout, cylindrical, pale green branched stem to 1.5 m high in the second. Stem-leaves dark green, clasping, scanty, alternate, ovate-oblong.

Numerous

flower-heads, arranged in panicles, pale

short-stalked,

summer

appearing

yellow,

late

mid-autumn. Distribution European native. On dry nitrogenrich soils, in wasteland and hillsides. Cultivation Wild. Formerly cultivated on a to

small scale.

Lactucarium,

Constituents

comprising

bitter

substances (lactucine, lactucopicrin, lactucic acid); crystalline substances

(including lac-

caoutchouc;

sugar;

tucerin);

traces

of

a

mydriatic alkaloid; and other substances. Uses (dried latex, dried leaves occasionally] Mild sedative; mild hypnotic. Formerly used as a constituent of remedies

employed

L compositae Wild Lettuce Greater Prickly

May

Lactuca virosa

Lettuce

be used

in

Contra-indications

and a closely related species L. scariola L, was cultivated on a small scale in western Europe as the source of lactucarium the dried latex which In the nineteenth century

in the

this,

treatment of irritable coughs. insomnia or restlessness.

The

latex

is

very irritant to

the eyes.

Lamium album L labiatae White Dead-Nettie Blind

Lapsana communis

This

in 1799.

often found growing close to or

Although

its

action

as

a

sedative

is

fairly

not a true nettle, nor

is

related to the nettle family, but

it

botanically

album does

/,.

bear a superficial similarity to nettles and

fact that

generic

it

reflects the

does not possess any sting, while

name Lamium

is

is

among them.

The common name Dead-Nettie

its

from the Greek word

shape of the plant's flower. historically, but nevertheless a useful medical plant particularly for menstrual problems. for throat after the

Not of importance

20-60 cm tall, spreading by underground stolons; stems rigid, square, bearing opposite, decussate, stalked or sessile, Description Perennial

downy, deeply dentate, nettle-shaped leaves, 4-6 cm long. Flowers off-white, usually 5-8 (or occasionally to 16) in axillary whorls, the calyx consisting of 5 long, toothed projections.

Appearing early summer to late autumn. Distribution European native; introduced elsewhere. in

On

sunny

rich soils in waste places, preferably

positions.

Cultivation

Constituents

Wild. Traces of essential

mucilage;

oil;

tannic acid; flavonic heterosides, (kaempferol,

potassium salts; histamine; ramine; and unknown substances. isoquercitin)

;

Uses (flowering plant) Astringent

;

ty-

expector-

ant; diuretic; vulnerary; anti-inflammatory.

Useful internally in

cystitis,

leucorrhoea and

particularly metrorrhagia; as a bowel regulator,

it

can be used to treat either diarrhoea

or constipation in respiratory or nasal catarrh. ;

210

L compositae

Nipplewort

Nettle

exudes from the cut surface of the plants stem. It was introduced to medical practice in 1771 by Collin and called 'lettuce opium' by Coxe

is

externally to wounds it is both and healing. It may also be applied to haemorrhoids and burns. Young leaves may be boiled and eaten as a green vegetable, or added to soups.

Applied

styptic

In

the

papillaris

sixteenth

century

this

by the apothecaries,

was

called

after the Latin

meaning nipple, since the herb was employed to treat cracked nipples a use which may originally have been

papilla

traditionally

LAC-LAV by

suggested

nipple-shaped

the

unopened

i"

I

with similar composition comprising mainly cineol.

j,

flower buds.

leaf,

In some parts of Europe ointments made from the fresh juice are still used for this purpose.

Uses (berries, leaves,

Annual 20 cm- 120 cm; stem

Description

much branched near

hairy.

the top, bearing three

types of alternate leaves, the lower lyre-shaped, and petiolate, the upper small,

the middle oval

and

sessile

entirely of ray

arranged

Flowers

lanceolate. florets,

composed

yellow, in small capitula,

in panicles,

appear early summer

to

From Europe

in thickets, to

an

Employed

antiseptic.

stimulant

in

A

flavouring in some liqueurs. Most widely used as a culinary herb

freshly

dried

leaf).

Can be used

i^the

both

in

m

an 1800

wood

edges,

altitude.

Wild.

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses

as

liniments in veterinary medicine.

northern Asia: humus-rich moist

naturalized in America. On on wild or cultivated land,

Cultivation

and

to

soils

and

expressed from berries)

Antiseptic; stimulant; stomachic; weak insecticide. Formerly used to stimulate digestion. Once used externally to relieve rheumatic pain

savoury and some sweet dishes and confections.

mid-autumn. Distribution

oil

to that of the

leaves,

(fresh

juice)

fresh

Laxative;

vulnerary.

Traditionally used externally to treat cracked nipples or to promote the flow of milk from the

Considered

breast.

useful

constipation

in

associated with liver problems. Supposed, but

May

unproven, antidiabeti" agent. to wounds Young radish

be applied

or cuts.

flavoured leaves eaten in salads,

or boiled as a green vegetable.

Native

Distribution

mediterranean region;

to

widely distributed in southern Europe; intro-

L lauraceae

Laurus nobilis

Bay Tree Sweet Bay/Sweet

duced elsewhere. Often on poor, well-drained

This

soils.

Laurel an ancient aromatic plant, once dedicated to Apollo, and for thousands of years it was considered to be a powerful antiseptic. It is a vital ingredient of the genuine bouquet is

garni. Its botanical name emphasizes the respecl with which the ancients held the plant: laurus from the Latin meaning to praise, and nobilis meaning renowned or famous. This was the leal used to make the victor's crown ol laurels in classical tunes and the tree was once called the baccot lauri or noble berrv tree, from which bv direct association with the victor's (Town the- modern French

educational term barralaureat

derived.

is

Evergreen tree to [5 m; with gre) shiny bark. Usually grown as a bush to 1 m. Leaves leathery, dark green, shiny above, Description

lanceolate

to

oblong-lanceolate,

em

7.",

3

Constituents Volatile oil,

t<

1

dark purple berries. introduced

mountain

elsewhere;

Minor and Europe; in

sheltered

sunny

l.issiliecl

and is which

as

/..

vera

DC

and

closely related to is

it

however,

/..

/,.

inferior

oil,

Chaix.,

officinalis

lati/olia Yill.

sometimes confused. which is also called

ail

the

This species has also been

traditional herbs. (

of

The /..

with

latter,

spun

I.

called spike lavender

and

ies

,ue not clear-

probable that French Lavender has been used longer lor medicinal

Iv

Uses

dried flowers; rubefacient;

differentiated

it

is

prevent vertigo and fainting. Mav also he used as ,111 antiseptic

ai

The

horticultural varieties were developed

and

Constituents

prising

<

;

cineol,

e>il

1

eugenol,

bittei principles,

Many

3%), comterpenes;

berries)

(at

(25

omprising glyceryl laurate; volatile

oil

although

I

L.

angustifolia

entury.

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but some- of these are now difficult to obtain. in the

Description

Aromatic perennial subshrub

cm; on woody stem. Leaves

to

as a in

mild

gastric

in

5 long, the smaller often clustered in axils,

grey-green

and tomentose.

grey-blue,

b

mid-summer

to

usually

mm long, in spikes on 10-20 cm long; appearing early autumn.

15

peduncles from

Flowers

to

lotion lor

cuts. oil is used as an insect repellent; to mask unpleasant odours in ointments; in perfumery

as a flavouring agent.

Dried flowers are employed sachets,

moth

repellents

in

scented pillows,

and pot-pourris.

80

opposite, entire,

very narrow, lanceolate or oblong-linear, 2

cm

autumn.

Heaves) Volatile

geraniol,

tannii ae id

\o%

or early

medicine internally

to counteract rheumatic pain, or embrocations. Lavender oil vapour is traditionally inhaled

popular Strewing and cosmetic herb from

summer

antispasmodic;

diuretic.

employed

least the twelfth

late

in folk

weak

disturbances characterized by flatulence. Externallv the oil is stimulant and is occasionally

Cultivation

on rich soil; or in tubs filled with rich soil which should be ke-pt moisi and protected in winter. Propagate from cuttings in autumn, or by layering ol lower branches in

used

Still

of lavender] Carminat-

sedative;

sedative and cough suppressant, or

on

frost-free sites,

oil

antiseptic; stimulant;

a

Wild plant. Grown hortic ulturally commercial scale as a garden ornamental, especially in Holland and Belgium. Plant hushes in late spring or mid-autumn, in sunny

comprising an alcohol, a hydroxveou-

tonic

purposes,

a

early

acetate;

linalyl

ive-;

was

valleys on rich soils.

in spring,

ole; geraniol.

vi

Lavender English Lavender One of the most popular and well-known

In classical writings these spec

Distribution Native' to Asia

long taken

marin, hcrniarin eucalyptol; limonene; cineLavandula angustifolia Mill. LABIA!

produces

mm-diame

and

linalol,

oil.

",

cm

hardwood cuttings taken between spring and late summer.

or

summer and

1

in

germination may be slow). Or

apart

use green cutting, 10

|

by

cm

45

long. Flowers small, yellowish, in groups ol 3 in the leaf axils, appearing late spring to earl)

followed

Wild. Cultivated commercially

Cultivation

southern Europe. Very wide horticultural use as garden ornamental. Propagate from seed sown in pans in late spring, later planting out

Lavandula dentata

L

i.abiatae

Fringed Lavender French Lavenclei This best

is

one

of the least

grown indoors

hardy lavenders and

is

or as a winter flowering pot

plant under glass. Its

botanical

name

ive fern-like leaves

dentata refers to the attract-

which

arc

quite different

21

l

LAV-LEV from those of English Lavender. The aroma of being a Fringed Lavender is also different sweet blend of Rosemary and Lavender. Description Aromatic perennial, usually shrubby from 30-80 cm tall; leaves 3-4 cm long, green or grey, pubescent, pinnately dentate, truncately toothed. Deep lavender flowers, 6-15 long on small, long pedlinear, light

mm

uncled spikes, 7.5-20 cm long, appear winter. Distribution Native to the mediterranean region as far east as Malta; introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally as a garden plant in warm climates, and as a greenhouse or indoor pot plant elsewhere. Propagate

For

the hardier L. angustifolia Mill. Description

Perennial subshrub, 30

Leaves linear, narrow, hairy, entire, greygreen, 1.5-4 cm l° n g- Flowers 3 long, dark purple, specked with orange, in short wide spikes on 3 cm long peduncle. Flowers surmounted by attractive purple bracts onethird or one-quarter the length of the spike; appearing mid-spring to early summer. Distribution Native to the mediterranean regtall.

mm

ion; also the

Canary

Islands,

Turkey and Asia

Minor; introduced elsewhere. In coastal on sandy soils.

sites

*

from cuttings in sandy, slightly alkaline soil; prune to prevent straggling growth or cut back to produce a bushy plant. Requires full sun and feeding occasionally with liquid manure if

grown

m

cm-i

**"

I'

in pots.

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses (dried flowering plant, dried leaves) Cultivated as a winter-flowering ornamental. Dried flowers and leaves used in floral arrange-

ments "nd

in scented sachets

this

reason

it

has long been used to dye the

and hair - and the Berbers colour both corpses and young babies with the dye, as well as using it in marriage cerenails,

hands,

feet

still

monies.

The shrub now

has a

very wide

and commercial henna varies greatly in composition and quality - often being adulterated with Lucerne leaves or powdered Acacia catechu, Catechu. The variety distribution

now

considered

finest for use as a hair

dye

Green Henna gives the deepest red tones and is made from young shoots, while so-called 'compound henna' consists of inferior leaf and synthetic dyes. The comes from

botanical

Persia.

name

Lawsonia

is

named

Surveyor-General of North Carolina, burned to death by Indians in 1712.

after the

who was

Shrub to 6 m with glabrous branches bearing greenish brown, opposite, shortly petiolate, oblong or broadly lanceolate leaves, 1.5-5 cm on g> I_2 cm wide. Small highly scented, white, light red or deep red flowers to 7.5 diameter in a corymbose terminal panicle, followed by spherical fruits diameter. 7.5 Variable in form. Distribution Indigenous to Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and Australia; naturalized in tropical America; introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally as an ornamental and cultivated commercially for the leaves, mainly in India, Egypt, China, Description

'

mm

and pot-pourris.

mm

Morocco and

Iran.

Constituents Fats; resin;

*«-j

mannitol; volatile oil; lawsone (henno-

fixed oil; a yellow pigment,

tannic acid or oxynaphthochinon). Uses (dried leaves, dried green shoots, dried

'

<E

folk

cultivated indoors as a pot plant; requires a soil, full

sunlight,

and

occasional feeding with liquid manure. Constituents Volatile oil.

^^^^

Uses (dried flowers, dried leaves, dried flower-

ing plant) Antiseptic; antispasmodic; carminative; vulnerary; stimulant; insect repellent.

L labiatae French Lavender Spanish Lavender

Lavandula stoechas

This

is

the lavender species

known and

which was

best

Romans and Arabs - usually an antiseptic and sweet-smelling. herb for inclusion in bath and other washing water. The generic name lavandula is derived from the latin lavare meaning to wash. Like L. dentata, the scent is somewhat ba'sam-like and a mixture of Rosemary and Lavender. It continued to be used medicinally (known as ancient Greeks,

as

Flores

stoechados,

sticadore

or

stoechas

arabica)

and was even included in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1746. Gradually, however, it was replaced by until

2

I

2

the eighteenth century,

Formerly used in a wide range of complaints; only employed in southern Europe as a mild sedative, antiseptic and remedy for nausea and vomiting. The flowers may be used

now

possibly most widely used by the

in conserves.

Dried flowers and leaves employed such as sachets.

in scented

articles

Lawsonia inermis

for the treatment of leprosy in African medicine; the powdered leaf has also been

used to treat intestinal amoebiasis.

Wild plant. Grown horticulturally as a garden ornamental in warm countries, and occasionally in cooler temperate zones in very warm protected sites. May be propagated from seed sown under glass in spring or from cuttings taken in spring or summer. Also Cultivation

dry, sandy, well-drained

twigs) Astringent; stimulant.

Used

L lythraceae

Henna

Mignonette Tree/Egyptian Privet Henna, or Al Kenna as it is called in Arabic, has played an important role in religion and

mysticism in the East for centuries. The red colouring produced from the leaf was considered to represent the fire and blood of the earth, and to link mankind with nature.

Most widely used

as a hair, skin

and

nail dye.

LAV-LEV arranged in whorls of 6-12 in leaf axils; appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn. Distribution European native; introduced elsewhere. Usually rare or localized on wasteground and roadsides near ruins. On welldrained, light, calcareous soils in sunny situations.

May

Wild.

Cultivation

be propagated by root

mid-autumn

division in

or late spring. Sell-

seeds easily.

Tannic

Constituents

acid

leonurinine;

alkaloid,

essential

;

oil

glucosides;

a

The combined

principle, leonurine.

an

;

bitter

action

is

sedative.

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Sedative; antispasmodic; emmenagogue; cardiotonic; hypotensive; slightly astringent. Formerly used in the treatment of bronchitis, diarrhoea, asthma, and rheumatism. Now considered of benefit in amenorrhoea and

and

dysmenorrhoea,

useful

specifically

in

tachycardia.

May

be of use in anxiety. Employed homeo-

pathically. Contra-indications

pregnant women name Motherwort.

Ledum groenlandicum Oed. Ericaceae

to treat

Labrador Tea Marsh Tea (synonym L. lalifolium named after Greenland where it

Its

Jacq.j

cardiaca,

It is

is

heart,

in profusion.

rarely used today, perhaps because of

American War

its

during the of Independence it was one of

narcotic

slightly

but

qualities,

several herbs used as a substitute for tea.

Labrador Tea may be grown horticullurallv exposed

cold, wet,

A

sites.

closely related

called

plant, L. palustre

Marsh Tea and has

Description

in

L

also

is

similar properties.

Evergreen shrub

to

90 cm; bearing

aromatic, alternate, entire leaves 3-5 cm long petioles. Leaves folded back at the

on short

edges, green above

Flowers small

and

and rust-coloured beneath.

(to 12

- hence

from

while

the the

Greek generic

kardiaca

term,

meaning

May

be cultivated

in

Koch umbelliferae

Parsley

With its interesting and unusual flavour Lovage has a wide culinary potential, but it is not widely used except as a soup flavouring.

Greeks, who called it ligustikon, chewed the seed to aid digestion and relieve flatulence - a

The

medicinal use which was promoted in the Middle Ages by Benedictine monks. The common name is derived from the fact that in many European countries the herb had a traditional reputation as a love

aphrodisiac. tion

of the

The

Ligusticum,

once grew

or

a corrup-

in

after

abund-

ance.

Glabrous aromatic perennial on

petiolcd, ovate-cuneate, to 3-pinnate leaves,

70 cm long and 50 cm wide near the base, smaller at the top. Flowers small, greenish yellow, in umbels 5—7.5

mid-

Tannic acid; arbutin;

summer, followed by

cm

wide, appearing

7.5 mm long oblong fruit.

Southern European native; naturMinor and eastern United States; introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most soils except heavy clay.

comprising ledol

;

mineral

Formerly added

to

sails

Once

beer to increase

12-* its

in-

toxicant properties. Contra-indications

use of the tea

may

alized

resin: essen-

used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Now rarely used as a tea.

Evidence suggests excessive cause delirium or poisoning.

in

Asia

Very rarely wild, and then usually garden escape. Gultivated commercially on a small scale in central Europe, and widely as a garden herb. Seed sown as soon as ripe or in spring in well-manured, moist, but welldrained soil; transplanting 60 cm apart. Also propagate by root division in autumn or Cultivation

as a

Leonurm cardiaca L labiatae

spring,

replanting 5

Motherwort

reached

in

Leommii

species

from

of the world, which include

various /..

parts

(ibiricus,

L.

L. demmutus and /.. helerophyllu\. been shown in animal experiments to possess hypotensive and sedative properties.

glaucescens

,

have-

European species L. cardiaca has the- same properties and was used smce the early Greeks he

it

charm

Stem stout and hollow, bearing large dark green long-

cold wet

Uses (leaves, fresh or dried) Astringent.

I

name

earlier

Liguria, Italy, where

is

Distribution

Constituents

Several

name

botanical

stout fleshy root-stock to 2.20 m.

autumn. tial oil,

Lovage Love

Description

on thin pedicels in terminal clusters; appearing in spring. Distribution Native to Greenland and Ganada. In sphagnum bogs and wet peaty soils in colder parts of the northern hemisphere. Wild.

is

from the Latin leo or lion and the Greek oura or tail, since it was thought that the tall, leafy stem resembled a lions tail. Once commonly grown in herb gardens but now rare, even in the wild. Description Strongly smelling erect perennial 90-150 cm tall; on stout stem, square in section, branching below and hairy. Leaves pale green beneath, darker above, long petioled, serrate, the lower leaves deeply palmately lobed, the upper leaves less deeply 3-Iobed. Flowers pale pink to purple, very hairy, small.

mm wide), scented, white,

situations; propagate by root division in

name

Leonurus,

carried

Cultivation

May cause contact dermatitis.

its

Levisticum officinale

action on the heart led to the specific

This aromatic herb,

grows

for anxiety

Constituents

3-5

cm

deep.

Full

size

is

years.

Essential

oil

comprising mainly

jimbelliferone and butyl phthalidine; resin; starch;

sugars;

tannin;

gum; vitamin C;

coumarin. Uses (dried root, fresh or dried plant, seed)

Diuretic; stomachic;

emmenagogue;

expect-

orant.

213

LIA-LOB Formerly used as a diuretic, in the treatment of rheumatism and migraine, and for bronchial catarrh. Of use in flatulence and to promote

chapmannii, also called Blazing Star, contains a

the appetite.

substance

Sometimes employed externally

to treat

still

some

root

L.

A

callilepis).

related

species,

L.

which has been shown

(liatrin),

to

possess anti-cancer properties.

simple skin problems.

The powdered

found as a horticultural plant, sometimes

called

Nearly glabrous erect perennial on stem 30 cm-2 m, bearing alternate linear, punctate leaves, 30 cm long and 10 wide. Flowers dark blue, 4-8 diameter, in groups of 5-13, in dense spikes 40 cm long, appearing from early to late autumn. Distribution North American native from Massachusetts to Florida and Arizona. On rich, damp meadow soils or near marshes. Cultivation Wild. May be propagated by root Description

was once used

as a pepper.

tuberous

root;

mm

division

mm

early

in

manured, damp

spring, soils.

A

planting in wellwhite variety alba

exists.

Constituents

Coumarin; unknown substances.

Uses (root, fresh plant) Diuretic; antibacterial.

Formerly used

in

New England

as a treatment

for venereal diseases, particularly

The decoction

is

gonorrhoea.

of use as a gargle for the

treatment of sore throats.

Powdered

root

and

leaf

may

be employed in

scented sachets and pot-pourris.

The leaf was once used to flavour tobacco. The powdered root and leaf may also be used Once used

as a diuretic, but

it

is

rather too

as

an insect repellent.

strong for this purpose.

The herb may

Leaves once employed as a tobacco flavouring. Largely cultivated as an attractive late flowering garden herb, and as a source of vanilla-

a

scented leaves for use in pot-pourris.

Lovage Sea

hardy

Ligusticum scoticum

The

leaf

may

be used as

a'

flavouring in soups,

sauces and salads, and as a vegetable; the seed

and with meat.

in biscuits

Young

stems

may

Stems and leaf

stalks

eaten in the same

origin,

be candied like Angelica.

way

can be blanched and as celery.

Contra-indications Large quantities should not be taken by pregnant women or by people suffering from kidney disease.

while spicata refers to the spikes on

which the flowers are carried. Although now rarely used medicinally

it

is

sist for weeks. This species possesses coumarin

which

is

responsible for

its

in

its

leaves

attractive scent.

Glabrous perennial on thick tuber-

Description

ous root-stock, to 1.2 m. Leaves alternate, clasping, narrow, entire, spoon-shaped and fleshy to 25 cm long. Flowers bright purple on spikes 35 cm long; appearing early to late

autumn. North American native. On damp meadows and open woods.

Distribution soils in

Cultivation

Wild. Propagate by root division

in

early spring. (

Constituents

Coumarin; unknown substances.

Uses (dried root, fresh or dried leaf) Diuretic.

214

is

so called because

larly collected

ceased

to

be of medicinal or culinary import-

ance. Description

Coarse

perennial

to

60

cm on

Stem red below, bearing dark green, long stemmed, ternate leaves with branched

Liatris odoratissima Willd. compositae Deer's Tongue Vanilla Plant Deer's Tongue, so called because of the shape of its leaves, is one of 40 species in the North American Blazing Star or Liatris genus. The group is difficult to classify botanically due to hybridization between species, but is characterized by attractive flower-heads which per-

L umbelliferae

Parsley

it was particuand used as a culinary herb in Scotland, where it is known as shunis. North American Indians also ate it, peeling the stem and eating it raw. Because of its viatmin C content, the plant was also popular with sailors and fishermen suffering from scurvy. It was once cultivated, but has long

This herb

compositae Blazing Star Dense Button Snakeroot The botanical name, Liatris, is of unknown Liatris spicata Willd.

be employed horticulturally as

late flowering plant.

root-stock.

LIA-LOB few segments, 3-5 cm wide, toothed on upper half only. Flowers yellowish white, in umbels,

and stems may be eaten raw as a as a vegetable. Stems can be candied like Angelica, and they may also be eaten in the same way as celery. The seed may be powdered and used like

Flax has been described in detail in all the classical writings of the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans, and was promoted in northern Europe first by the Romans and later by Charlemagne; Irish linen manufacture, however, was not reported until a.d. 500. Description Thin annual, branching at the base, from 30-130 cm tall; stems erect, usually glabrous with narrow, sessile, linear or lanceolate alternate glaucous green leaves, 3-5 cm long, and marked with 3 veins. Flowers 5-petalled, blue or occasionally white or red, 3 cm diameter, on erect terminal panicles, appearing mid to late summer and followed by globose capsules somewhat longer than the calices. Variable in form depending upon variety and environment. Distribution Originally Asian widely distributed through temperate and subtropical zones, often as escape from cultivation. Especially on well-drained wasteland in sunny

Pepper.

situations.

appearing

late

summer

early

to

autumn,

with prominent ridges. Distribution Sub-arctic Atlantic coasts; occasionally inland. Especially on rocky shores followed by

and

fruit

river estuaries.

May

Cultivation

Wild.

fresh seed,

and grown

be propagated from

in

damp,

slightly

shady

situations. Constituents Essential oil,

comprising umbelli-

ferone; starch; vitamin C. Uses (root, fresh plant, seed)

Diuretic; aro-

matic; carminative. Once used medicinally as an aromatic flavouring and in the treatment of rheumatism.

Young

leaves

salad, or

The

cooked

root

was formerly chewed

as a

tobacco

Bath water

may

be scented by the root.

Cultivation

Unknown

seed

it.

century,

but was charged with one of his patients with

after poisoning

Cutler examined

and

its

anti-asthmatic proper-

was introduced to medicine in 1829. It is now rarely used. The generic name, Lobelia, is after the Flemish botanist Matthias de L'Obel (1538-1616),

ties in

181

3,

the herb

British

in the wild state.

grown

for

England, Argentina, North (United States, Morocco, USSR), (United States, USSR, India,

(Holland,

Africa), oil

Linum usitatissimum L linaceae Flax Linseed Flax has been of exceptional economic importance to man and has been grown since 5000 B.C. It was used by Mesopotamians and and by early Egyptians who wrapped their mummies in cloth made from it. Unknown in the wild state, it is thought to have been derived from the Pale Flax, L. bienne

murder

;

Different cultivars are commercially

substitute.

nineteenth

and fibre Middle East). Some varieties are biennial. Seed is sown in drills in late spring or early summer, on dryish, well-drained soils. Constituents (seed) Fixed oil (30-40%) comprising the glycerides of linoleic, linolenic and other fatty acids, and stearic and palmitic acids; mucilage

(6%) a cyanogenic glycoside, linamarine; vitamin F; pectin; other nitro;

genous substances. The laxative action to the oil and mucilage content. Uses

(stem,

seed,

seed-oil,

is

powdered

due oil-

exhausted seed) Laxative; demulcent; antiinflammatory. Seed is of value internally as a mild laxative; it is sometimes combined with other anti-inflammatory medicinal plants for the treatment of respiratory and gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders. Both the seed and powdered seed may be applied externally as a poultice to relieve pain

and heal skin wounds, certain skin conditions and suppurations. Seed may be roasted and eaten, and unripe capsules can be eaten raw.

The

oil

has been

used for culinary purposes. in

It is of importance and varnish manufacture. Fibre from stems is very widely used in linen and

paint

the

cloth manufacture.

Although linseed

oil

injlata refers to

the

way

in

which the seed

Description Hairy, erect, somewhat angled stem from 20-70 cm, branching near the top, containing an acrid latex, and bearing oval or ovate-lanceolate, alternate, sessile, toothed leaves. Flowers pale blue externally, often violet within, small

(4-6

mm

long), irregular,

on loose terminal spike-like racemes; followed by 2-celled capsule which inflates to a cm 1

long oval, glabrous structure.

Native to North America from Georgia. Introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Propagated from seed sown on the surface of rich soil, in the autumn. Constituents Alkaloids (0.3-0.4%) comprising, Distribution

Labrador

to

lobeline, lobelidine, lobelanine, isolobelanine; is

rarely used internally

as a purgative in

humans,

ary medicine for

this

Exhausted seed pulp

while

capsule inflates during ripening.

it

is

used in veterin-

purpose. is

also lobelic acid; inflatin; resin; fat; fixed oil;

caoutchouc (India rubber). In small doses the

combined action

utilized as cattle foddei

dilates bronchioles

and

re-

laxes bronchial muscles.

Uses (dried fruiting plant) Expectorant; antiLobelia injlata

L lobei.iaceae

Indian Tobacco Lobelia Indian Tobacco is so called because it was formerly smoked by North American Indians to relieve asthma and related conditions Mill,

by selection and cultivation.

Today

several cultivars exist,

seeds which are used for

oil

small seeded types which are cloth manufacture.

some with large and the used in linen and

extraction,

Early settlers used it for a wide variety of complaints, and some early American herbalists considered it almost a panacea. Samuel

Thomson, who was an important physiomedical particularly

school

of

figure in the

herbal

promoted Lobelia

in

medicine, the

early

asthmatic; emetic; diaphoretic. Of benefit in chronic bronchitis with associated dyspnoea and in bronchial asthma.

Formerly used to induce vomiting and in the treatment of whooping cough, croup and tetanus. May be applied externally to relieve pain and irritation caused by rheumatism, bruises, bites

and certain

Contra-indications

skin conditions.

POISONOUS- may be fatal.

Large doses cause purgation, vomiting, conmedullary and respiratory depression.

vulsions,

215

LON-LYT Lonicera caprifolium

L caprifoliaceae

only because of the yellow colour of the moss's spores, but also because they burn brightly in a

Perfoliate Honeysuckle Honeysuckle receives its common name from an old habit of sucking the sweet honey-tasting nectar from the flowers, while this species most common in southern Europe - is also called perfoliate because its upper leaves surround the stem. Now widely used as a climbing or hedge plant. Description Climbing deciduous shrub. Stems glabrous to 6 m. Leaves opposite simple, oval. to cm long, green above glaucous beneath; 5

similar

Appearing early

to

to

powdered sulphur.

generic name, Lycopodium, means fox or wolf foot - another illusion to the shape of the plant.

This and closely related species, such as L. selago L (the Fir Club Moss were once widelyused medicinally, especially in North America and continental Europe. The use of the spores in treating wounds, which was introduced by German apothecaries in the seventeenth century, continues to this day in several .

the upper 2 or 3 leaf pairs united at their base forming a cup (connate). Flowers fragrant, pale yellow, 4-5 cm long, corolla not glandular, borne in terminal whorls of 2-3. Bracts large.

manner

The

parts of the world.

Procumbent evergreen perennial

Description

moss, reaching at least 100

mid-summer and

cm

long: rooting

along the branching stem which

hence

trees

The

its

sixteenth-century or Lonitzei

relets

Lonicera,

German

thin

and

name Woodbine.

alternative

name.

generic

is

to

.1

physician, Lonicei

.

deciduous Climbing, twining, shrub: stems to 9 in. Leaves opposite, simple. ovate to oblong-ovate, 4 7.5 cm long; dark green above, often glaucous or pale beneath; Description

upper leaves not united. Flowers fragrant, yellow, glandular,

borne

peduncled.

terminal

j

-,

cm

Bracts small.

clusters.

Appearing mid-summer

to

long, corolla

many-flowered,

in

mid-autumn and

followed by red berries. Distribution

Native

to

Europe, western Asia

and

North Africa; introduced elsewhere. Especially on porous sandy or loam soils, in mixed woodland. Calcifugous.

followed by orange berries.

Native to central and southern Europe and western Asia: introduced elsewhere. On well-drained loamy soils. Calci-

propagate from woody cuttings taken in early autumn and rooted in peat and sand mix or by

fugous.

layering in late

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticulturally propagate from woody cuttings taken in early autumn and rooted in peat and sand mix or by

Constituents

Distribution

;

layering in late Constituents

summer.

Uses

flowering plant

Diuretic:

antiseptic:

emetic; expectorant. Similar actions to Honeysuckle

L

L.

periclymenum

POISONOUS

berries.

Ex-

horticulturally:

summer. The

varieties

oar.

are garden plants. Mucilage: an amorphous gluco-

var. Belgica

flowering plant

Diuretic:

antiseptic:

internally

for

con-

several

ditions;

but now recommended

external

use as an application for skin in-

only

for

POISONOUS

berries:

ex-

is the taller growing of the two common European honeysuckles, and may live for 50 years. It is often found bound tightly around

This

2l6

Distribution

World-wide distribution on acidic

erous woodland and grassland, especially

spores

Fixed

ilavatus,

is

It

which

it

(50% compris-

lycopodium

oleic

whole muscus

carries.

has also been called vegetable sulphur, not

plant

in

phytosterin:

acids:

2%

acid; a carbohydrate, pollenin

so called because of the club-shaped

fruiting bodies

oil

ing glycerides of palmitic, stearic, arachitic

sporonine: lycopodic acid

L lycopodiaceae Club Moss Stags-Horn Moss Club Moss, known to apothecaries as

in

mountainous districts. Cultivation Wild plant.

and

ternal use only.

Lycopodium clavatum

L caprifoliaceae Honeysuckle Woodbine

1

.

Constituents

fections.

ternal use only.

Lonicera periclymenum

mm

narrow, pointed, bristled leaves, 3-5 long. Spores yellow, minute, carried in large numbers in yellow-green cones, usually or 2 rarely 3 which are borne at the ends of stalks extending from aerial branches, to 15 cm long. Spores ripe from early to mid-

or silica-containing soils; on moorland, conif-

expectorant; emetic; slightly astringent. used

densely covered with bright green, smooth,

autumn.

side: salicylic acid; sugars; invertin.

Contra-indications

.

Contra-indications

Aurea and

Formerly

side; salicylic acid: sugars; invertin.

Cultivated

:

Uses

Mucilage: an amorphous gluco-

Wild.

Cultivation

addition

:

hydrocaffeic

45 to

the

above,

contains alkaloids (0.12% comprising clavatoxine, clavatine and lycopodine. Uses ^spores ient;

Vulnerary; haemostatic: aper-

weak antispasmodic.

LON-LYT Tannic acid;

Wild.

in the treatment of inflammatory disbladder kidney, liver and Use now incontinence. urinary in and orders,

lycopine; flavone glycosides.

Constituents

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant; Sedative;

lycopine; flavone glycosides.

confined to its external application as a soothing dusting powder for wounds and in skin irritations such as in eczema. Also em-

anti-haemorrhagic; cardioactive; antithyroi-

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Sedative;

ds.

Formerly used internallv

is

ployed homeopathically. Hypoglycaemic action has been demonstrated experimentally. It was also used to coat pills to prevent their adhesion when stored. Once used as a basis for medicinal snuffs and as a vehicle for the application of powdered herbs

Constituents

uses

have been ascribed

may

be used internally. The if introduced to

L labiatae Gipsywort Gypsyweed Called Gipsywort because

More

stained

skin

their

weed. it

was supposed

with

the

herb.

certainly the plant has been of use as a

Although quite closely related to the mints this herb lacks aroma almost entirely. Description Perennial on creeping rhizome. Stems erect, simple or branched from 30-100 tall;

bearing opposite, shortly petiolate,

ovate-lanceolate to elliptic leaves up to 10 long.

Weed

Lower

leaves

pinnate,

mm

crenate. Flowers, 3 dotted with purple,

upper

cm

leaves

diameter, white and

numerous, in dense whorls in upper leaf axils. Appearing late summer to mid-autumn. Distribution Native to Europe, western Asia: introduced to North America. On many soil types, but especially those which are flooded: river margins, marshland and ditches. Cultivation

Wild.

is

Tannic acid;

essential oil; a bitter,

L labiatae

Virginia Bugle

Weed

is

in

the

diabetes.

Lythrum salicaria L lythraceae Purple Loosestrife Spiked Loosestrife This is still popular in European folk medicine,

was

name, Lythrum,

very similar to the

the latter half of the nineteenth century effectiveness

Action the same as that of L. europaeus. It has also been employed in the treatment of

thiolus thought

Weed

action was investigated originally in

Its

dic; hypoglycaemic.

and was once used in tanning leather. Pliny described a purple-red Lysimachia which Mat-

,

cloth dye for centuries.

cm

Lycopus virginicus

Bugle

which

linen.

European Gipsywort (also known as Gypsyweed and is itself sometimes called Gypsy-

Lycopus europaeus

gypsies

fresh juice provides a black dye,

Virginia Bugle

a flame.

it

gland.

permanent on wool and

ignite explosively

herb;

haemoptysis and other forms of haemorrhage including menorrhagia. It is a sedative, as it reduces the pulse rate in conditions involving an overactive thyroid

The

powder may

to this

has been used in the treatment of tuberculosis,

to the

only the spores

Cultivation

anti-haemorrhagic; cardio-active; antithyroi-

Many

Still

nose and ears. employed in firework manufacture. Contra-indications The whole plant is toxic;

essential oil; a bitter,

treatment

and

its

of internal

blood after

its

is

this species.

The

generic

derived from the Greek for

haemostatic properties. Salicaria

refers to the Willow-like (Salix

appearance of the

means willow)

leaves.

somewhat downy perennial 50-175 cm tall, on creeping rhizome; stem square and branched at the top. Leaves mostly Description Erect,

haemorrhages and other conditions led to its inclusion in the United States Pharmacopoeia. It is

now

This

rarely used outside folk medicine.

species

Gipsywort

[L.

is

slightly

europaeus)

more

active

than

when used medi-

cinally.

Perennial

Description

Stem

from

15-60

erect, glabrous or nearly so,

stolons

the

at

base,

cm

tall.

producing

and bearing ovate or

oblong-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, coarsely

Flowers whitish, sometimes heavily marked with purple, small, in loose axillary whorls; appearing late summer to serrate

leaves.

\\

f:

/*#•&

*

HP B TOf

mid-autumn. North American native; from Labrador to Florida and British Colombia. Distribution

On

rich,

espei iaIK

damp soils, in shady situations. marshy land and moist forests.

opposite, cordate below, lanceolate above to 10 cm. Flowers purple in whorled clusters tall,

leafy

summer

to

on

terminal spikes; appearing mid-

mid-autumn.

Native to Europe and western Asia, Russia. Introduced and naturalized in other

Distribution

temperate zones. In reed-beds, ditches, 1500

m

to

altitude.

Cultivation

may

fen-

beside stagnant or flowing water;

land,

Wild. Horticultural cultivars exist:

be propagated by seed or by division in

spring.

pectin; essential oil; Constituents Tannins; provitamin A; calcium oxalate; a glycoside,

The combined action is antibacterial and haemostatic. Uses (fresh or dried, whole flowering plant) vitexin.

Astringent; haemostatic; antibacterial; tonic.

An

excellent

cleanser,

gargle,

and of benefit

douche in

and

wound

diarrhoea or gastro-

intestinal disorders such as mild food poison-

ing Rapidly stops bleeding. Once used

in

diluted form as an eye-wash.

217

MAH-MAR Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh.) Nutt.

Description

BERBERIDACEAE

biennial.

Usually

pulled

Stem hairy, erect or decumbent, branched, 30-150 cm tall; bearing tomentose,

it out of the ground. Certainly Mandrake, like Henbane and Belladonna, was an ingredient of witches' brews and

after

reniform leaves, 4

McMahon.

round-cordate, long-petioled diameter, with 5-7 crenate lobes. Few pinkish-violet flowers, 4 cm diameter, 5-

poisons, but

Bernard The herb was introduced into

Europe

1823,

petalled, in clusters in leaf axils; appearing

in many European pharmacopoeias until the nineteenth century, and an official homeopathic preparation was

Mountain Grape Barberry This is known as Mahonia American

the

in

aquifolium

horticulturalist

and

is

now

often

grown

because of its attractive foliage and fruit. Description Fast growing evergreen shrub to 2 m: leaves consisting of 5 9 ovate leaflets 2-7 cm long, dark green and glossy, lighter beneath. Flowers yellowish-green, heavilv scented, in terminal racemes. Bears purpleblue smooth berries. Distribution

Indigenous

early

perennial,

or

cm

summer

to

mid-autumn.

Native

Distribution

Europe, western Asia,

to

North America; on porous nutrient-rich soils, especially hedge banks, field edges, and wasteland; in sunny situations. Cultivation Wild. Once grown as a garden plant propagate from seed sown in late spring, ;

to

mountainous regions

later thinning to 75

cm

of British Columbia. Distribution from British

Constituents

Mucilage;

Columbia

vitamins A,

B p B 2 C.

to

occasionally

Oregon. Introduced elsewhere.

apart. volatile

tannin:

oil;

Roman

employed It

it

was

also used

physicians

as

an

by the Greek and anaesthetic and

in early surgery.

continued to be included

introduced

in 1877.

Perennial on thick, branching, tuberous root; practically stemless. Leaves reaching 30 cm long, ovate and undulate, basal or nearly so, dark green. Flowers greenDescription

ish-yellow or purplish, 3 cm long, single or clustered within the leaves; appearing mid to

and followed by orange, globose, many-seeded fruit. Distribution Native to Himalayas and southeastern mediterranean region. On poor thin, sandy soils in full sun. Cultivation Wild plant. Rarely cultivated hortilate spring

,

fleshy,

culturally in historical gardens or in botanic

drug collections. Requires warm situation and winter protection in north Europe. Propagated from seed sown as soon as

ripe, or

by

division. Constituents Alkaloids, including atropine, sco-

polamine and action

is

hyoscyamine,

to

which the

due.

dried root, fresh leaves rarely

Sedative;

hallucinogenic; purgative; emetic; anodyne.

No

Cultivation

plant and

Wild

now

plant.

Cultivated as garden

I

h

1

and flowers, occasionally Demulcent; anti-inflammatory; laxat-

dried leaves

temperate /ones. Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly berberine, berbamine and oxyacanthine. Uses dried rhizome and root Used in digestive complaints and for skin diseases especially psoriasis. Combined with Cascara uigrada for

roots)

use in constipation.

Externally

naturalized

in

ive: slightly astringent.

Useful

in

system.

Taken

irritation for the

of the

gastro-intestinal

treatment of coughs and

bronchitis.

Large doses are gently purgative.

may

be used as a soothing poultice.

supposed sedative effect is unproven. Leaves were once cooked as a vegetable; and seeds and capsules known as cheeses may be Its

Malva

sylvestris

L Malvaceae

Common Mallow

I

The Common Mallow was once

highly res-

pected as a medicinal plant and foodstuff, and from the days of the Romans was cultivated as a garden herb. In the sixteenth century it was given the all

name

omnimorbia,

- probably because of

its

meaning

a cure-

gently purgative

eaten raw in salads.

Mandragora

qfficinarum

L solanaceae

Mandrake Mandrake

is

the most

commonly

action; a practice which in itself was thought

those obsessed with magical rites

body of disease. The common name Mallow is from the Latin malva for soft and emollient, after the feel, and

ritual

to rid the

examby

and

orgiastic

with which some hallucinogenic and narcotic herbs became closely associated in the

dark ages.

was protected by the early Greek

properties respectively, of the leaves.

It

For medicinal purposes it has largely been replaced by the more effective Marshmallow.

who invested

218

cited

ple of the former abuse of medicinal plants

ful

collectors

the root with such fictitious

attributes as the ability to

kill

a

harm-

man who

longer used medicinally owing to

its

high

MAH-MAR The

toxicity.

leaves were once applied ex-

had

ternally to ulcers, while the root formerly

wide application in the relief of pain, treatment of nervous disorders and

in the as

an

Brazil to Mexico. Introduced to Africa, India

tall,

and south-east

leaves 1.5-5

Wild. Cultivated commercially by harvest time and replanting a

Cultivation lifting

it

Asia.

at

portion of the rhizome that has buds on

aphrodisiac. Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and danger-

ous; not to be used internally or externally.

it.

Starch small quantities of gum and

Constituents

;

Uses (starch, occasionally rhizome

Nutritive:

demulcent.

Arrowroot was first noticed on the West Indian island of Dominica at the end of the seventeenth century, and it was subsequently grown in Jamaica where it was employed both as a source of starch and as a poison antidote.

mm

Appearing

nutlets.

mid-summer

mid-

to

autumn. Native to southern and central Europe, North Africa, Asia; introduced elsewhere, often widespread. On dry grassland or pastures, field edges and wasteland, in warm Distribution

fibre.

Maranta arundinacea L marantaceae Arrowroot Maranta Starch

bearing wrinkled, dentate, ovate, opposite cm l° n g; tomentose beneath and long-petioled. Flowers whitish, 5-8 long, numerous in axillary whorls; followed by-

The powdered rhizome was applied to poisonous bites and wounds in some tropical

situations.

Wild. Cultivated commercially on a

countries.

Cultivation

Of

small scale by root division in mid-spring.

benefit as a soothing food-stuff following

diarrhoea or illness. Once employed in pill manufacture, and in barium meals for X-ray of the gastro-intestinal system. It may be candied as a sweet. It can also be used in cooking as a thickener. vulgare L labiatae White Horehound White Horehound has been used

Marrubium

remedy from present day.

is

still

as a

cough

included in the

an expectorant, and it remains a popular domestic and folk medicine. Wherever European emigrants have travelled they have taken this plant and grown it in herb and cottage thus

generic name. Pliny

and

mon name hunt

widely

distributing

Marrubium, was

first

it.

is

The

used by

refers to the bitter taste; the

meaning

com-

derived from the Old English a

downy

cm

thinning to 30 in

May

in late spring,

apart, or from cuttings taken

summer.

Constituents Tannins; volatile oil, comprising marrubiol; mucilage; resin; sterols; a bitter principle, marrubin; vitamin C.

Uses

Austrian and Hungarian pharmacopoeias as

gardens,

grown from seed sown

(dried

flowering

dried

plant,

leaves)

Expectorant; emmenagogue; weak diuretic;

the time of the Egyptians to the

The herb

also be

liar

plant.

Description Faintly aromatic woody perennial, almost entire plant is woolly. Branched near

the base; stems erect, nearly square,

30-60 cm

spasmolytic; weak diaphoretic.

Useful

in

specifically

many in

respiratory

bronchitis

disorders,

but

and coughs. Pro-

motes bile flow and stimulates the appetite. Considered of benefit in disorders of the gall bladder and stomach, and acts as a stomach tonic. Formerly used to treat menstrual pain. Possesses for

some weak sedative

action, suitable

use in conjunction with other herbs in

nervous tachycardia. May be applied externally to minor cuts and certain skin conditions. Laxative in large doses. Leaves may be used powdered as a bitter condiment, or whole as a tisane and in the

manufacture of the confection, Horehound candy.

The common name is thought to be derived from the fact that a pouliii e ol it was applied to arrow wounds. Its Brazilian name, however, is araruta, which may indicate a different etymological origin

Supplies of Arrowroot

from Jamaica

at

first

reached Europe

the beginning ol the nine-

it was being grown and by 1858 Maranta was a commer-

teenth century, but by 1840 in India,

cial

The

crop

in

generic

Georgia,

name

is

in

the

alter

B.

United States. Maranta, six-

teenth-ceniury Venetian botanist and physician; arundinacea relets to the reed-like shape

ol

the plant.

Although it is still used, it was much more popular before tin- 1914 1918 war. Description Herbaceous perennial on creeping rhizome and fleshy tuben; stems 60 mii 3 m tall,

thin, reed-like,

oblong,

and

4

petiolate,

to

cm wide

branched, bearing ovateglabrous,

ing around the stem.

on long thin

1

-,

30

cm

long

leaves; the petioles sheath-

pedum

Few

small, white flowers

les.

Distribution Native to tropical

America, from

219

MAT-MEL L compositae

Matricaria recutita

Wild Chamomile German or Wild Chamomile was previously called

M.

Chamomilla, but in botanical terms

not a true chamomile and

it

sometimes called Sweet False Chamomile. Although now is

also

it is

considered slightly inferior to Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) - even its aroma being somewhat less pronounced - there is no certainty

tions

promoting bile and gastric secreand increasing the appetite. In large

doses

it is

disorders,

German Chamomile

which of the chamomiles was meant

by the chamaimelon of Dioscorides. Today both

and M. recutita are used for similar The name, Matricaria, is either from the root word mater meaning mother

emetic.

Promotes sweating and

common

cold; a

weak

Although

formerly used to treat painful menstruation, it is not very effective. May be applied as an antiseptic douche; used

aphthous ulcers; applied to haemorrhoids; or used as a poultice or compress for cuts, bruises, ulcers and skin as a gargle for

C. nobile

disorders.

purposes.

A

or from matrix, the Latin for

Employed as a tisane. Widely employed as an

womb,

after

its

use

used to treat the

is

infusion acts as a tonic.

flavouring

in

alcoholic

certain

drinks.

anti-allergic agent in

female complaints. Description Aromatic glabrous annual to 60 cm stems erect, much-branched, bearing 2-3 pinnate leaves with almost filiform segments. Flower-heads pedunculate, single at branch-

shampoos, and

apices. Flowers to 2 cm wide, ray florets (10-20) white; disc florets yellow; receptacle hollow and conical. Appearing early summer

Medicago sativa L leguminosae Lucerne Alfalfa The name, Medicago, is derived from Medea

for treating

let

cosmetic preparations.

A

constituent of

some

liquid

and dry hair and lightens

lotions. Highlights

fair hair.

in

North Africa where this important plant was thought to have originated. Certainly the Arabs have used Lucerne fodder for centuries to feed their horses, and it has been in cultivation for so long that, like Flax, it exists in

The

many

plant

Europe

when

different forms.

was

not

known

until the seventeenth

in

north-west

century however,

The

vated.

nutritive

Lucerne has few traditional medicinal gation has shown that

field, it is

uses

but recent investi-

of great nutritional

importance and contains, for example, four times as much vitamin C as citrus juice, measured weight for weight. Description Glabrous perennial 30 cm-i m; on deep, thick taproot; much-branched stem often forming dense bushy growth. Leaves pinnate, with 3 denticulate leaflets to 3 cm long, obovate-oblong. Flowers 1.5-3 cm on g> '

on axillary racemes, appearing late summer to mid-autumn; followed by pubescent spiralled seed pod. Distribution Originally native to mediterranean violet-blue,

mid-autumn

or sometimes later. Indigenous to Europe, northern Asia, naturalized in North America; widespread on wasteland, farmland and in gardens. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated and collected commercially in central Europe. Propagate from seed sown thinly in the autumn, or with to

less

success in the spring.

Constituents Volatile oil (0.3-0.

75%) compris-

(chamazulene),

azulene

ing

farnesene,

a-

bisabolol, sesquiterpenes, palustrine, quercetol,

methoxycoumarin,

salicylic acid;

tane;

fatty

furfural

acids

to

also apigenin

and flavonic

The anti-inflammatory a-bisabolol,

spasmolytic

;

choline; phytosterol; triacon-

but

action

antiseptic action

due

action

also

due

to

heterosides.

due mainly chamazulene; is

dicyclic

to

to several

ether;

components.

Uses (dried flower-heads) Anti-inflammatory; antiseptic;

antispasmodic;

carminative.

Of

great benefit as an aromatic bitter for gastric

220

Uses (fresh or dried leaf, occasionally seed)

was given the name lucerna meaning lamp, after the bright shiny appearance of the seeds. The specific name sativa means cultiit

outside the veterinary

Distribution

substance, coumestrol.

region

and

western

Asia;

naturalized

in

North America. Now worldwide in distribution, especially on dry, light or chalky soils. Cultivation Wild as an escape. Many strains exist and the form of the plant depends on the variety grown. Very widely cultivated as fodder and for commercial purposes. Seed sown in late spring after risk of frost has passed, preferably on calcareous loam, which is free of weeds and prepared to a fine tilth. When grown commercially, seed is usually inocu-

Nutritive; diuretic; anti-haemorrhagic.

seed was once used by Indians as an

abortifacient.

Of

benefit

as

a

tonic

and

herb; an infusion taken regularly

promotes appetite and leads to weight inA very rich source of vitamin C, when

crease.

used fresh.

May

be applied

externally

to

aid

wound

healing.

Used

The

as a beverage.

leaf is

employed

as a salad herb, or

cooked

as a vegetable.

The

sprouted indoors and eaten as a and amino-acids. Of considerable veterinary importance as a food-stuff; in cows it increases milk yield. One of the major commercial sources of chlorophyll; also a source of vitamin K,. seed

is

rich source of vitamins

The

seed provides a yellow dye. Formerly used

as a diluent to adjust the strength of powdered

medicinal plants such as

Digitalis.

Melaleuca leucadendron L myrtaceae Cajuput Tree Punk Tree

lated

Cajuput oil is extracted by steam distillation from the leaves of a number of related Australasian trees or shrubs, all of which are members of the Bottle Brush group. Melaleuca leucadendron is the most important commercial source. The characteristic flowering spike with its numerous long creamy-white stamens led to

drine;

meaning white from the Greek for black and white, after the trunk and bark colours of one of the species. The word Cajuput is derived directly from the local Malaysian name kqyu-puti which means white wood - another reference to the colour. The oil was first noticed by Rumphius in the

with a specific nitrogen-fixing root nodule bacterium to ensure growth. Replace after 5-7 years. Very drought resistant. Constituents Protein (16%) fat (3%) vitamins C, B p B 2 D, E, K,; provitamin A; several mineral salts, including potassium, calcium and phosphorus; choline; trimethylamine: betaine; alfafa saponin; an alkaloid, stachy;

;

,

a

bitter

principle;

a

hormonal

the specific tree,

name

leucadendron

while melaleuca

is

MAT-MEL seventeenth century

late

who

described the use

of the plant by Malaysians. Lochner, a physician to the German Emperor, and von Wittneben, promoted its use in the early eighteenth century particularly in Ger-

many, where it was called Oleum Wittnebianum. Description Large tree with spongy, shiny and branches usually pendulous, oblong tapering strongly-veined

bark;

peeling

bearing

1.5-2

leaves,

cm wide and 5-10 cm

long.

Flowers creamy white, small, with numerous stamens extending 15 mm, borne on terminal spikes to 15 cm long, which themselves terminate in a tuft of leaves; followed by brown

Medic, leguminosae

Melilotus alba

White Melilot White Sweet

ointments

Clover/

Bokhara Clover This is the taller of the common melilots and although of little benefit to man directly it is of great importance as an agricultural fodder crop, honey plant and cover crop for green manuring. Spoiled White Sweet Clover may sometimes cause cattle poisoning due to the presence of large quantities of dicoumarol, which delays blood coagulation and leads to severe, often internal, haemorrhage. Evidence suggests the cultivated races of the herb have

terpineol, 1-pinene, aldehydes, including those

lower concentrations of dicoumarol. Description Sweet smelling erect, branched, annual or biennial from 1-2.5 m ta ^- Stems ribbed longitudinally, glabrous, bearing pinnate leaves with oblong, denticulate leaflets 1.8-4 cm l° n g- Flowers white, honey-scented, small (4 long), numerous, on long thin, erect, terminal racemes; appearing midsummer to early autumn and followed by

of benzoic, valeric and butyric acids.

small pods.

capsules.

Native to Australasia and Malayintroduced elsewhere in tropical situations,

Distribution sia

;

swamps.

especially

Wild. Limited cultivation; propa-

Cultivation

mm

gate from cuttings. Oil

Constituents

Uses

comprising

and

leaves

occasionally

(oil,

cineole

(60"

ulant; rubefacient; antihelmintic; expector-

treatment of oil

Of

and

for the

some

Used externally

in

oils for

rheumatic pain;

in various liniments;

and

scabies;

treat

to

in

cavities

to

relieve pain.

A

tea

Oil

is

and

is

also

All

essential

is

now made commercially.

of commercial

importance

as

a

flavouring for cheese and tobacco and was

once used in beer manufacture. Its botanical name, Melilotus, means honey-lotus or honey clover,

The

and

reflects the

sweetness of its nectar.

hay-like smell of the substance

coumarin

develops only when the plant is dried, and it was for this aromatic property that Common Melilot was once used as a strewing herb.

Known

to the apothecaries as corona regis, or it is

not

now used

very widely.

cm; stems

Flowers yellow, honeylong) borne on long, racemes, appearing mid-

leaflets.

narrow

axillary

summer

to early

mm

autumn.

Coumarin and

related substances,

released on drying; a glycoside, melilotoside;

the leaves.

leaves repel insects.

Contra-induations in

It

Constituents

made from

used only

botic preparation

Distribution

stimulant-rubbing tooth

officinalis

Eurasian native; naturalized in North America. Especially on nitrogenous wasteland, embankments and fields. Cultivation Wild plant. Collected commercially.

digestive dis-

orders.

(L) Pall, leguminosae Melilot Yellow Sweet Clover This member of the Laburnum family (which is also called Wild Laburnum) is a very old medicinal plant from which an antithromMelilotus

Common

denticulate

removal of roundworms.

benefit internally in

and

honey plant.

scented, small (4-6

is

excreted via the lungs), as a gastro-intestinal antiseptic,

greatest importance as cattle fodder,

glabrous or pubescent, ribbed, erect or decumbent, branched. Bearing trifoliate leaves, and obovate or oblanceolate, 1-2 cm long,

ant. in the

skin

antibacterial ac-

Formerly used homeopathically.

tivity.

Of

weak

Description Straggly biennial to 130

Carminative; antispasmodic; antiseptic; stim-

Formerly used internally

promote the healing of

the kings crown,

twigs)

chronic bronchitis and tuberculosis (the

to

complaints. Possesses

fixed oil; melilotic acid. oils

Uses (dried flowering plant) Aromatic; carminative; expectorant; antithrombotic; anti-

should be

very small quantities.

spasmodic; antibiotic. Formerly used in a wide range of conditions.

Native to Asia and Europe. NaturNorth America, especially the eastern

Distribution

alized in

introduced

varieties

states;

weedy wastelands, nitrogenous herb,

M.

Hubam

soils in

alba

sunny

var.

elsewhere.

In

on stony and

situations.

An annual

Wild.

Cultivation

especially

annua

variety of this,

Coe,

also

called

developed as a droughtresistant, high weight yielding fodder and honey yielding crop, is grown worldwide from seed sown in spring. Clover,

Constituents

Coumarin and

related substances;

occasionally dicoumarol (melitoxinj

Dicoumarol

acts as a vitamin

K

;

fixed

oil.

antagonist,

thus reducing prothrombin synthesis which

delays blood coagulation. Uses (cured fresh plant, occasionally flowering plant;

Nutritive; aromatic; stimulant; vul-

nerary.

Rarely used medicinally, but used in Central as a stimulant. May be employer! in

America

22

1

MEL-MEN May be taken regularly to help prevent thrombosis; also to treat bronchial catarrh and flatulence. Externally applied to wounds and skin inflammations

on inflamed

eyes.

and can be used with care

The

seeds possess antibiotic

activity.

Formerly used

in

herb beer; flowers and seeds

used to flavour Gruyere cheese, snuff and

smoking tobacco. May be employed

some meat

in

dishes, for

Native to southern Europe; mediterranean region; central Europe; introduced

Distribution

and widespread on nutrient-rich

soils in

;

required

clothes.

comprising

Large doses are emetic.

common

sunny position. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated commercially and horticulturally from seed sown in mid to late spring (slow germination) or by root division in spring or autumn. Prefers rich, moist soil in sunny position with some shade; some shelter

example, rabbit. Limited cosmetic use where hay-like aroma is required. Repels moths and is used to protect Contra-indications

northern temperate zones,

in

often as a garden escape. Especially

to frost.

in cooler climates, as

A

variegated form

Constituents (fresh plant)

it is

susceptible

exists.

Essential oil (0.1%)

citral, linalol, citronellal

aniol; tannins

(5%

;

and

ger-

a bitter principle; resin;

succinic acid.

L labiatae Balm Lemon Balm/Common Balm

Melissa

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, occasionally flower-

officinalis

Although Balm has been cultivated in the mediterranean region for over 2000 years, it was for almost half this period considered important only as a bee plant, and until the fifteenth century was known as either melissophyllon, Greek for bee leaf, or apiastrum, Latin

bee plant.

for

modern botanical

Its

name, The Arabs introduced

Melissa, reflects this early association.

specifically of benefit in

and

it

bites.

medicinal herb anxiety or depression,

it

as a

has been used as a sedative or tonic tea

Balm

ever since.

has frequently been incorpor-

ated in proprietary cordials or liqueurs, and

its

name The

de

popularity in France led to

Balm

its

an abbreviation for balsam sweet aroma, but this aroma is rapidly

France.

is

alter

its

lost,

together with

value, on drying

much

and

of

its

therapeutic

storing.

Description Sweet-smelling perennial, on slightly

oil) Carminative; diaphoretic; antispasmodic; sedative. Of use in aromatic waters or as a tea for the treatment of minor gastric disturbances, nausea and headaches. Also used in conjunction with other remedies to treat nervous tachycardia and restlessness. Some hypotensive action. Fresh leaf is soothing when rubbed on insect

ing tops,

Oil once used alone as a diaphoretic, but

is

slightly toxic.

Wide

culinary potential where delicate lemon

flavour

is

common

required.

An

important constituent of several liqueurs, including Benedictine and Chartreuse. Useful in wine cups and cold drinks. Taken alone .1.1

tisane.

A useful bee plant. May be used in pot-pourris, in

herb mixtures

for

herb pillows, and aromatic baths.

hairy square stem, branching near the top,

from 30 80 cm. Leaves opposite, petiolate, ovate,

greenish-yellow,

dentate,

to

7.5

cm

dentate or crenate-

long;

lemon

scented.

mints, although in the Middle Ages

L

1

Flowers

which

is

sometimes

and rather

lilac

florescence, 4

species hybridizes readily with other mints,

this.

producing a large array of varieties.

Distribution

mid-autumn.

It is

This

strong-smelling and not as pleasant as most

rarely

2

many

in

cm

Appearing

2-6 cm

long.

diameter, with usually only

late

Native

1

summer

to

to late autumn. Europe and naturalized

On

northern temperate zones.

beside

soils,

crisp;

or red, in rounded terminal in-

axillan whorls of flowers beneath

Flowers whitish, occasionally pinkish or yellow; small (0.75-1.5 cm long) in scanty axillary clusters; appearing late summer to

in distinct varieties.

of

oil

Spearmint. Description Strong-smelling perennial; variable in form. Angular, glabrous or pubescent, much-branched stem to m, on stolons. Leaves opposite, serrate, decussate, ovate, petiolate,

plant

related Mentha spicata

used as a commercial source of

is

Mentha aquatica L labiatae

to exist

The

as a strewing herb.

Water Mint A very variable considered

then called menastrum/ was used

Water Mint

streams,

in

ditches

and

wet on

regularly flooded land. Cultivation

Wild.

May

be propagated by stolon

division in spring. Plant in water or keep very

wet.

(poco oil, to 0.85 linalol comprising menthofuran. acetate, holine; limonene, L-carvol; also betaine; succinic acid; glucose; menthyl pentose; dotConstituents Volatile oil

•

ricontane; aquaticol; tannins. fresh herb, occasionally root bark and i'ses i

oil)

Carminative; antispasmodic; cholagogue;

slightly astringent.

Of benefit

as a

warm

infusion in disturbances

of the gastro-intestinal system, particularly diarrhoea, and intestinal spasms. Also useful in the treatment of the

common

cold

and

in

painful menstruation. In Africa the root bark is

employed

in the

treatment of diarrhoea and

colds.

May Mav

be taken as a tisane. be employed with discretion

in

scented

articles.

Once used

as a strewing herb.

Contra-indications

222

Large doses may be emetic.

MEL-MEN Mentha x

piperita

L labiatae

Cultivation

Peppermint Peppermint herbs, but

1696

when

is

it

now one

was not

of the best

known of all

definitely recorded until

the botanist, Ray. published a brief

description of a pepper-tasting mint which

had, near to that date, first been observed by Eales in Hertfordshire, England.

Dr

In his Histona plantarum

1

704 Ray

called the

mint Peper-mint or Mentha palustris, and although the latter correctly refers to the marsh-loving nature of the plant, no satisfactory explanation can be given for his erroneous

an escape, and seldom

as

cially

and horticulturally

in

many

commer-

parts of the

autumn and cm deep. Water

world. Divide stolons in

replant

M. odorata, is therefore rather more accurate than the present one, which suggests only a lemon

scent.

Very aromatic decumbent, glab-

Description

well in 30 cm apart, 5 ordinary garden situations; replace after 5 years. Does not breed true if raised from seed. comprising Constituents Volatile oil (to 2°

cm tall, on overground leafy stolons. Stems branched, bearing dark green, purple-tinged, smooth, ovate or

menthol (50%), menthone, menthyl isovalerate, cineole. jasmone, phellandrene. amy!

rounded dense terminal spikes or in upper leaf axils, appearing from mid to late autumn. Distribution European native, naturalized else-

;

alcohol, acetaldehyde. cadinene; tannins; bitter

compounds.

Uses

(fresh

or

dried

plant,

oil)

Aromatic

rous perennial from 30-60

elliptic, petiolate leaves

where.

On

rich,

stimulant; carminative: antiseptic; antispas-

partial shade.

has nevertheless been retained. Pepper-

modic; anti-inflammatory: cholagogue. May be employed in a variety of gastrointestinal disorders where its antispasmodic, anti-flatulent and appetite-promoting actions

Cultivation

mint's medicinal value was soon recognized

and within 25 years of its description the herb was included in the London Pharmacopoeia it is still retained in many national pharmacopoeias.

Botanically

the

herb

represents

a

hybrid

between M. spicata and M. some authorities is thought to

exist as

varietal forms called Black

(forma rubescens

and by two main

aquatica

.

and White forma pallescens) Peppermints. Description Aromatic perennial on root-stock producing runners. Stem square, erect, somewhat branched above, slightly hairy, either purple Black Peppermint or much less so White Peppermint from 30 cm m tall; 1

,

deeply dentate leaves. 1 8 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Flowers mauve (occasionally white 1

irregularly

spike 3—7.5

arranged on a conical terminal cm long; appearing late summer

mid-autumn. European Dative; widelv distributed and often naturalized. In sunn) 01 to

Distribution

partially shad) conditions on rich

damp

hedgerows, ditches and

found neat

habitation.

it

is

also

soils;

moist

soils

in conditions of

cm

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses (fresh or dried leaves)

Used sparingly

in

Not used medicincold

tisanes, jellies,

drinks, or salads.

May

be employed

in a

range of scented and

cosmetic articles.

L labiatae

Mentha pulegium

Pennyroyal Pudding Grass

required.

Well-known culinary

uses.

Also employed to flavour some liqueurs.

The

oil

may

cause allergic

reactions.

Mentha x piperita LABIATAE

Mauve

deep.

ally.

Contra-indicatwns

l° n §-

Wild. Cultivated horticulturally by

headaches and agitation. Used in conjunction with other remedies for the common cold. Both the herb and the oil may be used externally in baths to treat cuts and skin rashes. Wide cosmetic, dental and confectionery use of the oil where a mint flavouring or cold-taste is

cm

division of stolons in spring; planting 5

are required. Particularly useful in nervous

variable. Bearing petiolate green or purple-

green, lanceolate, or ovate-lanceolate, acute,

1.5-4

flowers in

common

description of the plant's taste; the

name

Wild only

established permanently. Cultivated

Ehr.

var. citrata

Bergamot Mint Eau

Briq.

Pennyroyal was held in very high repute for centuries throughout Europe and was the most popular of all the members of the mint family, being used both for a wide range of medicinal purposes and in various ancient

many

ceremonies.

regarded as the originator of its name is derived from pulex meaning flea, since both the fresh plant and the smoke from the burning leaves were used to eradicate Pliny

de Cologne Mint

( hrange Mint This mint is one of the most attractivelv scented of all herbs and should occupy a place in every herb garden. The aroma is. however,

somewhat intangible and

it

is

variously des-

cribed as lemon, orange, bergamot, lavender

and can <\c ( k>logne mint the latter being (he most widely used. Its former botanical name,

is

pulegium which

the insects.

This association with fleas has been retained in

botanical name given to the plant by Linnaeus. Before his scientific classification the

the

superficial

appearance and unusual aroma of

the herb led to

it

being considered as a tin

inc.

was an old French name for thyme and this plant was designated the royal thyme heme puliol royali and thus the corruption, Pennyroyal. The modern French name is la menthe Pouliot from puliol. Although long considered an abortifacient, it has been found Puliol

that

tltis

cllcct

dose of the

oil

is

usually only possible with a

which

is

highly toxic and leads

kidney damage. The plant can therefore be used as a flavouring agent, but only when the concentration of pulegone does not exceed 20 mg in kg of the to irreversible

1

product being flavoured. The American Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides final

I.

Pers.) has similar properties

Description

Aromatu

perennial

and

uses.

with

much

blanched prostrate 01 erect stems to 30 cm on overground runners. Leaves dark tall; green, slightly hairy, petiolate. oblong 01 oval innate 01 senate, 0.8 2 cm long. Flowers mauve-blue, in rounded dense axillary whorls, along upper halfol the stem. Appearing late summer to early autumn. Distribution Native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia; introduced elsewhere. On nutrient-rich, moist hut sandy soils. Prefers sunny situations. Cultivation

Wild.

Commercial

cultivation

223

MEN-MOR Grown

limited.

horticulturally; the prostrate

form as a lawn (var. decumbens) or for aromatic ground cover. Sow seed in late spring under glass

cool

in

zones,

planting out

early

in

is

more

fore

employed

Bowles Mint (also sometimes incorrectly called Apple Mint) is a hybrid between this species

and M.

protect from hard frosts. Propagate also by

rotundifolia

autumn

or spring, or from

summer. Constituents Volatile oil (0.5-1%) comprising a ketone, pulegone (80-90%), to which the action is largely due; also menthone; /?-

cuttings taken in the

far

kitchen.

summer on open, friable, loamy soil 15-20 cm apart. Keep well watered in dry weather, and root division in

and mav theremore widely in the

subtle than most mints

be

spicata,

but

'Bowles

is

known

usually

Variety.

An

variegated form of Apple Mint

grown

as a

Description

is

as

M.

attractive

commonly

garden ornamental. Aromatic pubescent perennial on

margin deeply serrate, to 6 cm long. Flowers pale lilac, on cylindrical, irregularly flowered terminal spikes 5-10 cm long, appearing early autumn. Distribution Native to southern Europe. Widelv curled,

damp, shady sites near habitation. Cultivation Wild. Very widely cultivated commercially and as a garden plant. Propagate from stolon division in the autumn; plant 5 cm naturalized, especially in

caryophyllene; methylcyclohexanol; iso-menthone; tannins. Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Emmenagogue; antispasmodic; carminative.

May

be used

in

minor

Vi

gastric disturbances,

and menstrual

flatulence, nausea, headache,

leafy stolons, bearing erect,

somewhat branch-

ed, thin stems to 90 cm. Leaves green, white

and velvety beneath, sessile, oblong to round. crenate-serrate, 3-10 cm long. Flowers white, (team to pink, on dense irregularly flowered, somewhat pointed terminal spikes, from 3 o cm long; appearing early to mid-autumn. Distribution European native; widely naturalized; on damp soils in ditches and waste places. Cultivation Wild. Widelv cultivated horticulturally.

common

of benefit at the onset of the

Fresh leaves irritations

may

and

it is

it

stolon

division

in

acts as a rube-

facient.

May

be taken, weak, as a tea (Organy tea). Formerly used as a flavouring in puddings.

ries

Mentha spicata L labiatae Spearmint Garden Mint/Pea Mint Spearmint was formerly known as Mentha viridis L; the specific name viridis meaning green emphasized the bright green colour of

The modern

botanical name, and the

the herb.

The

may

shape of both the inflorescence and the leaves. In the sixteenth century the plant was called Spere mynte and even then, as today, it was the most commonly used of all mints. The Romans were responsible for its distribution throughout north and west Europe. Besides important culinary and flavouring uses it is still retained in the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia for its medical use.

been used

as a

Contra-indications

genito-urinary uterine

May

Somewhat tract

in

irritant

possibly

movements; not

nancy, or

it

has

to

the

dye plant.

to

causing reflex

be used in preg-

kidney disease.

cause contact dermatitis.

224

on

rotundifolia (L)

its

It

reflect the

spear or spike-like

Aromatic nearly glabrous perennial underground stolons. Stems erect, square, somewhat branched, from 30-60 cm tall. Leaves smooth and green, opposite, almost sessile, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate and Description

Huds. labiatae Apple Mint Round-leaved Mint Apple Mint is so-called simply because aroma is a combination of mint and apples. Mentha

for

used as a flavouring agent in

oil is

and

garnishing and general toilet-

and confectionery.

Menyanthes

trifoliata

Buckbean Marsh

L menyanthaceae Trefoil/Bog Bean

is the old Greek name for an and distinctive herb, common loand sometimes extensive in shallow water

Mmyanthes attractive

common name,

In the eastern mediterranean region

use in sauces, jellies, hot

and

Not used medicinally. Many culinary uses, including meat and fish, egg dishes, fruit dishes, jellies, hot and cold beverages, sauces and vinegars. Once used in confectionery manufacture. fresh leaf)

sachets.

repellent.

Wide culinary cold beverages, flavouring.

drawer

be used in cosmetics as an insect

Uses (fresh or dried leaf, oil Carminative; aromatic; antispasmodic; weak emmenagogue. Similar uses to Peppermint.

The

Useful in scented articles, particularly clothes oil

Volatile oil comprising menthol, carvone, limonene; vitamin A; tannins.

autumn.

cold.

be applied externally to skin

insect bites, as

by

true. Constituents

Constituents Volatile oil; tannins.

Uses

pain. In combination with other remedies

Propagate

deep and water well. Replace after 4 years. Rarely grown from seed since it does not breed

leafy

cally in

many

cooler parts of the northern hemis-

Greek name means flower of the month, which reflects not only the duration of its beautiful shaggy flowers, but also its beneficial effects on menstrual pain. At one time Buckbean was considered in Germany to be a panacea and was used to treat many ailments from gout to scurvy and rheumatism. The Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Scots also phere.

Its

particularly favoured this bitter tasting plant. It is

now

generally considered to be a useful

substitute for Gentian Root.

The common name, Bog Bean,

is

less

than 200

and is derived from the German Bocksbohnen meaning goat's beans, which in English became Buckbean. Description Glabrous, aquatic perennial on years old

black, creeping, thick horizontal root-stock;

bearing alternate, basal,

trifoliate leaves

with

pale prominent midribs, sheathing at the base.

MEN-MOR on petioles the base

to

25

cm

high. Petioles thicker at

and surrounded by

bracts. Leaflets

obovate or oblong, entire, sessile, terminal, 4-7.5 cm long, dark green. Flowers white; pinkish or purplish externally with shaggypetals, 15

on

mm long,

long

scapes;

10-15 per terminal raceme appearing early to mid-

summer.

as a garden ornamental for its combination of orange scent and attractive flowers. It is called Bergamot because of its scent which resembles

Bergamot orange. Several now exist of which the best-known that of a

varieties is

Cam-

bridge Scarlet; other types are salmon, rose, purple, or white in colour - but the wild, red .U. didyma

is

the most aromatic.

times root and

agogue; expectorant.

May

be

used

less

ing Iceland and Greenland. In ditches, fresh-

century Spanish medical botanist Nicholas de

skin problems.

water marsh and bog, reed-beds and meadows which are always wet and consist of acidic, peaty soils.

Purple Bergamot

America

zones, from North

temperate

northern

Wild plant. May be grown as a pond or bog plant by division of root-stock in spring or autumn. Constituents A glycoside, menyanthin; bitter Cultivation

principles,

loganine,

meliatine;

sweroside,

flavone heterosides; inulin; vitamin C; cho-

malic acid. Uses (dried leaves, occasionally dried whole plant Bitter tonic emmenagogue stomachic. line; resin;

;

;

I

The

fresh plant

tic.

Now

was formerly used

of greatest

benefit

as a cathar-

intestinal tonic; stimulates gastric

secretions,

and hence promotes

a

gastro-

and

biliary

as

appetite.

a direct beneficial effect on the liver;

it

It

has

is

of

Monardes, and

is

closely related to

\M.

fistulosa

L)

Wild or which is

Oswego Tea - and which has long been used by American Indians for medicinal purposes. Oswego derives its name from the Oswego River district near Lake Ontario in the United States where the herb grew in abundance and from where most supplies originally came. After the Boston Tea Party, 1773, a protest at the tea duty imposed on the colonies, Oswego Tea replaced Indian tea in also called

many American

households.

Aromatic, usually glabrous perennial from 40-100 cm tall; stems erect, acutely quadrangular, bearing opposite, serrate, ovate to ovate-lanceolate dark green, often redtinged, leaves to 15 cm long. Flowers scarletDescription

red,

4-5 cm

relieve

to

nausea,

vomiting and, with

headaches and

success,

chial catarrh

to

tea

colds.

It

is

also

taken internally and by inhalation of the water vapour (pouring on boiling water) for bron-

to Siberia includ-

Native

a

as

flatulence, menstrual pain,

Red Bergamot belongs to the Monarda or Horsemint genus, named after the sixteenth-

Distribution

Carminative; stimulant;

oil)

weak diaphoretic; weak emmen-

rubefacient;

and sore throats. Formerly used externally as an ointment

May

be taken as a

tea,

for

and used sparingly

in

salads.

Useful

a

in

wide

very

range

of

scented

articles.

Once an ingredient of The oil is sometimes used Morns

nigra

hair in

preparations.

perfumery.

L moraceae

Common Mulberry Morus and morarius were the classical Latin names for the Mulberry and come from the Latin verb meaning to delay after the tree's

Mulberry

Black or

bud formation until had passed. The Greeks knew both moron and sukamnos - from its sweet-

habit of delaying spring the cold weather it

as

ness; the fruit being only slightly less sweet

than the sweetest

fruits

known

to

them, namelv

long, usually in solitary terminal

whorls, with slightly hairy calyx. Appearing late

summer

to mid-autumn. North American

native, from Ontario to Georgia: naturalized in South America. On moist nutrient-rich soils preferring shade but tolerating full sun: especially deciduous woodland. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated throughout the world as a horticultural plant; occasionally wild as an escape. Many horticultural forms exist Propagate from seed sown in spring or by root division in spring; succeeds best on lighl soils and may be a vigorous grower. Cut back each autumn and replace after 3 years. Constituents Volatile oil comprising compounds related 10 thymol; tannic acid. Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant; someDistribution

grape and cherry. Until the fifteenth nigra was important as a medicinal plant, and its leaves were used for silkworm rearing, but after this date it was mostly the

fit;,

century

M

.

replaced by the oriental species

M.

alba L.

The tree is now becoming quite scarce in parts of Europe. Description Bushy tree to 10 m; branches dark coloured, ovate-,

value in amenorrhoea, and possesses some antihelmintic activity. The root has been used externally to treat obstinate skin complaints.

serrate,

Leaves once used

lout;,

in

brewing and baking and

may

be taken as a tonic tea Leaves used as a tobacco substitute.

Contra-indications

Not

to

be used

ma\

cause-

numerous, consisting of 2 stigmas. Fruit to 3

in

the-

treat-

vomiting and diarrhoea

Bee Baim/Oswego

BergamOl has become

wicle-K

cm

purplish red.

Native

to

western Asia, Persia and

/ones.

I

e

ea ultl\ ale-el

Wild. Cultivated as a fruit-tree in protected from cold winds and Propagate from cuttings taken in early

Cultivation

areas that frost.

Reel

variable, flowers unisexual

green perianths and Distribution

Monarda didyma L i.abiatak

Red Bergamot

somewhat

catkins; the female,

the Caucasus; introduced to other temperate

tneni of diarrhoea. Large closes ol the whole-

plant

bearing thick, alternate, cordatecm long; margins

pointed leaves, 5-20

arc-

by layering Requires a loamy

autumn. Slow grow-

spiint; or

in

ing.

soil in

Constituents

(fruit)

warm

Sugar (lO%);

position. malic-

acid

225

MYR-MYR (2%); pectin; gum; vitamin C. Uses (fresh fruit, root bark and occasionally helmintic.

by grey, waxy, spherical, -seeded berries. Appearing late spring to mid-summer. Distribution North American native, especially on the East Coast from New Jersey to Florida.

Until recently the leaves were employed in the Balkans as an hypoglycaemic agent for use in diabetes. The root bark was formerly used as a cathartic and to remove tapeworms. Once used to colour medicines.

On poor, sandy, well-drained soils, but frequently near swamps or marshland. In coniferous woodland and thickets near the sea. Cultivation Wild. Constituents (berries) Myrica wax, comprising

Now

glycerides of palmitic,

leaves) Nutritive; laxative; antipyretic; anti-

employed as a food, and in the home manufacture of wines, jams, and conusually

1

and myristic

stearic

;

serves.

(root bark)

May

acid; an acrid resin, myricinic acid; an astrin-

be used as a dyestuff.

gent resin; Myrica

Wax

cerifera

L myricaceae

starch. Action largely

and common names of this fragrant North American plant indicate the fine yellow or light green wax (strictly an edible fat) which is produced on the berries as they specific

(root

fresh

leaves)

Astringent;

weak diaphoretic;

tonic; sialogogue. Principally

gargle,

sore

douche and poultice

throats,

May

colitis,

East Coast of the United States and was used in

feverish conditions.

mem-

soap and candle manufacture. Related

and medicinal

purposes; in South Africa, for example, M. cordifolia L is both a source of berry wax and a valuable anti-diarrhoeic remedy. is

now unused

M.

cerifera

employed

in the

leucorrhoea

or myrica wax, was once widely collected on the

bers of the Myrica genus are used throughout

diarrhoea,

the

as a

treatment of

and

be used internally

common

ulcers

res-

mucous cold and

for

Powdered bark formerly

taken as a snuff in the treatment of nasal may be chewed to promote salivation, aid gingivitis, and reduce toothache. Once taken as a tonic tea. Wax used in candle and soap manufacture. Contra-indications

some proprietary domestic

cause flatulence.

Large

emetic;

doses

may

late to lanceolate, acute leaves

3-7.5

cm

long.

Flowers consist of short, conical or globular scaly catkins, either sterile or fertile; followed

acidic soil in a shady position.

Uses

I

(

Myrtle or Myrica wax;

berries;

M.

similar to

cerifera

(Wax

Myrtle),

leaves)

volatile oil.

berries'

wax, occasionally leaves and

bark) Aromatic; insecticide. Formerly used externally to treat scabies.

may

be employed with discretion

as a spice in soups

and

stews. Berries

can be

similarly used.

Leaves formerly flavoured beer (Gale beer),

and may

also be used as a tea.

Wax may

be used in the manufacture of aromatic candles. Roots and stem bark dye wool yellow. Repels fleas and may thus be used in scented sachets.

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

myristicaceae

Mace Nutmeg The

early history of the use of Mace (the outer covering of the seed of the plant; and Nutmeg (the seed itself) is not known with certaintv. but it is improbable that these spices were

L myricaceae Bog Myrtle Sweet Gale Myrica gale

century, however, both

Bog Myrtle was once one of the many important herbs used in northern Europe to flavour beer, and was both widely collected and

were obtaining them from the Far East, and they were known in Europe by 1191. In that year they were one of several fumigant strewing aromatics used in the streets of Rome during

protected by law.

the coronation of

The

herb's ability to repel

and destroy

insects,

such as fleas, led to the now obsolete common Flea Wood, and the plants' domestic employment in mattresses and linen drawers. Small quantities can be used as a flavouring in

name

Emperor Henry VI. Around 1300 an Arabian writer, Kazwini, had named the Molucca Islands as the source of both materials, but it was not until 1506 to 151 2 that the Portugese took possession of the Islands

and began a

spice

monopoly which was

branchlets reddish and growing almost vertically, bearing grey-green oblanceolate, glan-

be continued by the Dutch and English until the beginning of the nineteenth century. recognized for centuries that It has been moderate doses of Nutmeg cause a feeling of

dular-pubescent, aromatic, obtuse leaves 3-6 cm long. Brown and yellowish-green uni-

unreality and visual have now been shown

sexual flowers borne in dense apical catkins to

alkaloidal constituent, myristicin,

meat

dishes.

Description

15

mm

Deciduous shrub

to

to

1.5

m

tall;

long; appearing late spring to early

summer, and followed bv numerous small

226

damp,

Constituents

used by the Greeks and Romans. By the sixth Indians and Arabs

cold cures such as Composition Powders.

Fragrant perennial evergreen (occasionally semi-deciduous or deciduous) dioecious shrub (1-3 m) or evergreen tree (to 10 m), much branched with pubescent, somewhat rough branchlets bearing glandular, entire or occasionally serrulate oblong-lanceo-

a

catarrh. Small pieces of bark

outside folk medicine except as

Description

suckers, by division or from cuttings. Requires

Dried leaves

wax, occasionally

pectively.

a constituent of

to

berries'

bark,

Uses

ripen. This substance, called bayberry tallow

the world for various domestic

due

the resin content.

Myrtle Bayberry/Candleberry

Both the

Volatile oil; tannic acid; gallic

gum;

Distribution Native to north-west Europe; north America as far south as Virginia; Asia. Introduced elsewhere. Especially in thickets on wet heathland or fens. To 600 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from

Aromatic

acids lauric acid unsaturated fatty acids, ;

flattened berries.

illusions.

to

These

effects

be caused by a proto-

which

psychotropic with structural similarities mescaline - found in the Peyote Cactus.

is

a to

MYR-MYR Description

Tall,

bushy, glabrous,

dioecious,

m. Leaves yellowish, evergreen tree to coriaceous, petiolate elliptic - or oblonglong, lanceolate, 5-12 cm long. Flowers 6 in axillary umbels; followed by nearly globular or pear-shaped, red or yellow, pedunculous fruit which splits on maturing to release the ovoid seed (Nutmeg) surrounded by a scarlet aril (Mace). Distribution Indigenous to the Molucca Islands; introduced and widespread in the tropics. Frequently on volcanic soils in shade 12

mm

appearing early large (2-2.5

cm

mid-spring; followed by

to

ridged brown

l° n g)

Distribution European native. Introduced to some temperate regions, locally naturalized.

On

grassy

in

soils,

mountainous regions;

hedgerows, often in shady sites, but

prefers

tolerates full sun. Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially on a

small scale in Western Europe, and elsewhere as a

mid

garden herb. Propagate from seed sown in or late spring on well-drained, but humus-

rich, soil in partial

shade; transplant to 45

cm

Cultivation

Wild; now cultivated

in East

and

bearing glossy dark green, opposite, entire, 3-5 cm long and dotted with transparent oil glands. Petioles short. Flowers pure white, but often rose coloured, very fragrant, 5-petalled to 2 cm wide, numerous golden stamens; on long thin pedicels in pairs in leaf axils; appearing mid to late summer and followed by 12-mm diameter acute, ovate to lanceolate leaves,

bluish berries. Distribution

Outside the tropics may be grown as an in humusornamental hothouse plant, enriched soil with high ambient temperature and humidity. Propagate from woody cuttings in a peat and sand mix. (kernel)

Volatile

Asia,

summer, under glass in a sand and peat mix. Usually slow growing in cool regions. malic acid vitamin C.

Constituents Volatile oil

resin; tannic acid;

;

citric

;

acid

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried fruit, dried

(5—15%)

oil

comprising eugenol and iso-eugenol; fixed

to mediterranean region growing to 800 m altitude;

Native

introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as a garden plant against south-facing walls in all except the warmest south European sites. Requires full sun and well-drained, medium rich soil. Propagate from woody cuttings, taken in

Zanzibar, Brazil, Ceylon and India. Trees first produce seed in ninth or tenth year of growth and may last 80 years. Indies,

Constituents

Aromatic evergreen shrub 1-3 m taller. Highly branched,

and western

and high humidity.

West

Description

high; occasionally

fruit.

flower-buds,

oil

fresh

flowers,

occasionally

oil)

(25-40%) yielding nutmeg butter and com-

Astringent; antiseptic. Rarely used medicin-

prising myristic acid (60%), oleic, palmitic, and linoleic acids; also terpineol,

ally,

borneol and terpenes. Action mainly due to volatile carminative. Uses (seed,

aril,

occasionally

aromatic; stimulant.

Used

oil]

corrhoea,

acting as a

Carminative;

the

reduce flatulence, aid

improve the appetite and to treat diarrhoea, vomiting and nausea. Both Mace and Nutmeg may be used in a range of sweet and savoury food-stuffs. Mace is less strongly aromatic, and Nutmeg particularly complements milk and cheese dishes. The oil is employed as a flavouring agent and in some rubefacient liniments and hair lotions. digestion,

Contra-induations

was once used as a douche in leuand it was formerly employed internally for psoriasis and sinusitis. The fresh fruit juice has been used as a drink to stimulate infusion

oil,

I

in small doses to

POISONOUS.

n.m

Us.

apart. Taproots

may

be

lifted,

corns.

The

Constituents Essential oil, / 'ses

root,

established.

comprising anethole.

and weak

fresh or dried leaf, occasionally seed

(

Weak

diuretic; tonic: hypotensive;

antiseptic. Rarely used medicinally.

Once an

ingredient of wound-healing ointments.

used as a sugar substitute

and

They may

in

name

responsible for the botanical

meaning perfume, and grant, while

many

of

aroma

myrrhis

meaning fracommon names are

odorata

its

prefixed 'sweet' because of the taste of the

Until the sixteenth century Seseli,

a

name

first

is

used

although not necessarily

leaf.

was known as by Dioscorides

it

for

this

particular

A

honey plant.

useful

An

in

anise flavouring used in certain liqueurs.

Myrtus communis (Lj Herm. myrtaceae Myrtle Common Myrtle

Myrtle is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, the writings of ancient poets and in the works of the Greeks and the Romans, to whom it was known as myrtos. Myrtus is directly derived from this old name, while communis means It

common.

was almost certainly because the aromatic

species.

leaves

Description Strongly smelling hirsute-pubescent

pudenda

perennial on stems 60-100

aphrodisiac, and carried by Israeli brides, lor

pale beneath,

grooved,

cm

tall.

hollow, branching Leaves bright green,

soft, thin, 2

or 3-pinnate to 30

long, with oblong-ovate,

cm

narrow-toothed segments. Stem-leaf petioles sheathing. Flowers small, white, in umbels 5 cm diameter, 1

added to roast pork for the minutes of cooking. Fresh flowers once added to salads. Formerly used in the manufacture of toilet water called Eau d'ange. leaves can be

final 10

tart fruit dishes.

salads.

aniseed-like

be crushed as pepper-

also be

Sweet Cicely

Its

may

same way

sweet conserves

Roots were once boiled, cooled, and eaten

sidered a useful plant.

as a spice in the

May

Myrrhis odorata (L) Scop, umbelliferae

Sweet Cicely was once cultivated as a pot shrub in Europe. It is among the first garden herbs to emerge after winter and is almost the last to die down, and it was therefore con-

and used

of the stomach. fruit

be used as a sugar substitute by diabetics. Fresh leaf and chopped green seed may be used in salads; leaves may be boiled as a vegetable or added to soups.

Myrrh

mucous membranes

Dried flower-buds and

may become rampant when

possibly epileptiform convulsions.

the

cut into sections

each having a bud, and replanted 5 cm deep in either spring or autumn. Often self-sown and

Even moderate doses overstimulate motor cortex causing disorientation, double vision, hallucination, tachycardia, and sparingly.

British

but a leaf decoction may be applied and haemorrhoids. An

externally to bruises

lauric

Venus,

bear

a

resemblance

to

the

female

that Myrtle has been dedicated to

that

it

has

been considered

as

an

example, at their weddings. Every part of the shrub is highly scented and in southern Europe it is used in a number of

home-made cosmetic

recipes.

•227

NAS-OLE Nasturtium

officinale

R.Br cruciferae

Nepeta cataria

Watercress Watercress is so common that its valuable medical and dietic values are often forgotten, even though for centuries it was an official medicine. Nasturtium is from the Latin nasi distortion

or

tortium

pungent

of the

nose,

after

its

taste.

Description

Aquatic perennial, either floating

Although

Catmint

freely

rooting,

terminal leaflet largest. Flowers small, white, in pedicelled racemes,

appearing early sum-

mid-autumn. European native; world-wide introduction and widespread naturalization. In ditches, streams to 2500 m altitude. Cultivation Wild, and world-wide commercial cultivation as a salad herb. Easily propagated by stem or root cuttings, taken at any time and to

Distribution

rooted in water. moist garden

soil

May be cultivated in rich, with frequent watering, but

pungency then

the

Constituents

amide a ;

herb possesses what

cats

and

many

con-

aroma,

it is

commonly Cats frequently damage

for this

reason

used to stuff toy mice. the plant in gardens, which is unfortunate since their attractive light grey foliage and long persistant flowers are suitable for formal displays.

with

this

by

relished

succulent

mer

alba L nymphaeaceae White Water Lily

Nymphaea

sider to be a disagreeable mint-like

stems; leaves dark green to bronze, entire, ovate, or cordate; pinnate when older, the

creeping

or

L labiatae

Catnip Catmint/Catnep

now

very rarely used for medicinal

purposes even in folk medicine. It was once used by hippies as a mild hallucinogen. Description Strongly smelling, branching, pubescent, erect perennial

40-100 cm

mid-autumn.

and calcium.

many

an excellent cough remedy when mixed be eaten raw or cooked and as a delicious soup.

Native to Europe, East and West Introduced and often naturalized in other temperate zones. On moist calcareous soils, especially road or railway sides, hedgeDistribution

Asia.

rows, in open situations.

May

be propagated from rooted in a peat and sand mix under glass or by root division in

Cultivation

Wild.

cuttings taken in

summer and

spring or autumn.

comprising thymol, and nepeacid; also tannic acid. Antispasmodic

Constituents

Volatile

oil

carvacrol, nepetol, nepetalactone talic

action due to the

oil

content.

Uses (dried - or occasionally fresh - flowering

Antispasmodic; anti-diarrhoeic; carstomachic; weak emmenagogue. The tea is of benefit in the treatment of a number of gastro-intestinal complaints but plant

minative;

particularly infantile colic also of value in the

and diarrhoea.

common

It

is

cold, irritability

and delayed menstruation. Externally it may be applied to cuts, abrasions and bruising. Combined with ground Cloves and Sassafras bark it was formerly applied to aching teeth. Leaves may be used with discretion as a flavouring (mint-like in sauces, and as a mildly

stimulant

tea.

Once smoked

may

to relieve chronic bronchitis

-

cause hallucinogenic effects. Contra-indications A mild hallucinogen when

but

this

smoked.

228

first \

.

modern

odorata

Aix

similar,

but

American White Pond properties and uses.

Lily:

is

the

fragrant,

more it

has

herb with stipu-

mm

America; introduced elsewhere. On rivers, ponds to 800 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as an ornamental aquatic. Propagate in spring from rhizomes planted under water not deeper than 50 cm. In cold situations the flowers and leaves are much reduced in size. A red variety, N. alba var. rubra Lonnr. is the parent of most water lily hybrids in cultivation. lakes,

with hone\.

May

retained as the

derived from the niloufar and Sanskrit nilotpala - terms used for the Indian Blue Lotus.

1

aphrodisiac, purgative and asthma remedy.

summer

still

common name was

branched, rhizome. Leaves reddish when young, later dark green, smooth and shining. Flowers white, 20-petalled, 5-20 cm diameter, stamens numerous and golden. Appearing mid-summer to early autumn, followed by 5-40 diameter obovoid fruit which opens under water. Distribution Native to Europe and North

countries including use as a contraceptive,

is

French Arabic

round or heart-shaped, floating leaves 10-30 cm in diameter; on horizontal, black,

pyretic; stomachic; irritant.

It

name Nenuphar

late,

volatile oil

from

Nymphaea is from the Greek nymphae meaning water nymphs, while the pre-sixteenth century

Description Perennial aquatic

to

,

attributes

indicating their possession of similar chemical constituents.

summer

Uses (leafy stems) Stimulant; diuretic; anti-

Numerous medicinal

The Chinese have coincidentally used two other members of the family Nymphaeaceae - Nelumbium nucifera Gaertn. and Euryale

similar

mm

comprising phenylethylisothiocyanate; minerals including manganese, iron, phosphorus, iodine

and some related plants may depress sexual activity.

Leaves 3-7 cm long, coarsely serrate, whitish beneath, grey-green above, ovate or oblong-ovate, petiolate. Flowers white, dotted with purple, or purple, 6 long, in crowded terminal whorls and spiked axillary whorls. Appearing midtall.

increases.

;

posed anaphrodisiac qualities of this attractive aquatic herb, it is now considered that N. alba

ferox Salisb. - for precisely similar purposes is

Vitamins A, B 2 C, D, E; nicotin-

glucoside, gluconasturtin

Although controversy surrounded the sup-

Constituents

Alkaloids,

especially

nupharine;

tannins as nymphaea-tannic acid; a cardenolide, nymphaline; mucilage. L'ses

rhizome, occasionally seeds

Weak

as-

tringent; antiseptic; antispasmodic: anaphrodisiac.

NAS-OLE A

may

decoction

throats, a

douche

be used as a gargle for sore in leucorrhoea, and extern-

ally for ulcers or,

much

an eye-

diluted, as

wash. Rarely used internally but acts as a sedative cardiac tonic, and is considered of benefit in spermatorrhoea. Once taken to

reduce libido. Well-cooked leaves once eaten as a vegetable. Fresh root once used as a soap substitute. Provides a dark brown dyestuff.

horticultural cultivation as a culinary herb.

Propagate from seed sown in early summer, or frost danger, on moist, well-drained,

after

medium-rich

soil

Varieties exist

in full sun.

with somewhat different aromas. Constituents Essential oil comprising mainly estragol (present also in French and Russian also eugenol, lineol and linalol: Tarragons sometimes thymol; tannins; basil camphor. Antispasmodic and other actions due to the oil ;

content.

Ocimum basilicum L labiatae Basil Sweet Basil Basil was introduced to Europe from the East in the sixteenth century as a culinary herb and

Uses (fresh leaf Antispasmodic: galactagogue; stomachic; carminative; mild sedative. May be employed in a wide range of simple gastro-intestinal complaints; particularly for stomach cramps and vomiting. Its weak sedative action may be used in the treatment of

nervous headaches or anxiety. Mainly used for culinary purposes salads,

meat

and

fish

in soups,

particularly

dishes;

compatible with tomatoes. Dried powdered leaf once taken as snuff. Basil oil, obtained by steam distillation, is used as a commercial flavouring and in perfumery as a substitute for mignonette scent. Oenothera biennis L onagraceae Evening Primrose Evening Star

Evening Primrose ha. ecently received attenfrom pharmaceutical concerns who dis-

tion

covered that

it

of reducing

is

not comparable with the flavour

<>l

leaves

from the garden Several lorms

freshly picked

are in cultivation, including

lettuce-leaved

.1

and the flavour varies with the volatile content; one type has a peppermint-like

variety, oil

taste.

and the smallet Hush Basil originally from Chile Ocimum minimum I. make excellent pot or window-box herl>s, and can only be grown indoors in cooler, temperate Both

this ipei ies

.

climates in wintei is

an

abbreviation

ol

Greek for kmglv herb. A related plant, Ocimum sanctum I., is still considered kingly or holy by the Hindus Description Much-branched aromatic annual ',<>

bo

phuton.

cm

tall,

with glabrous entire or slightly

serrate ovate leaves

reddish

in

purplish,

3-5 em

lout;

;

often slightly

Flowers small, white, or whorls of 6 flowers on open

colour. in

terminal racemes. Appearing

mid-summer

to

mid-autumn. Distribution

Native

to

southern

Middle East Naturalized and some Pa< ifx Islands. where in subtropical zones.

or

clotting

astringent; vulnerary; anticoagulent.

attack.

applied externally as a poultice or in ointments

This is an American native introduced to Europe in 1619 via the Padua Botanic Garden, and is now well established in parts of Europe.

eruptions,

has never been extensively used even in folk

medicine.

name Oenothera is of uncertain provenance may come from an older Greek plant name which signified that its roots were eaten I

In

but

it

to promote the appetite lor wine. As late as the nineteenth century in Germany, pickled 0. biennis roots were still eaten as an aperitif.

The

less

St, 11

is

emu />

well-known

common name Evening

derived from the

phosphorescent

that

tact

the petals

annual,

in

Asia,

parts

ol

Introduced

Iran,

Africa else-

Rarely wild. Cultivated commercentral and southern Europe, North

ed reddish, rough stems

to

1.25

m

bearing

alternate, lanceolate- to ovate, entire-, shortly

petiolate

leaves

4

cm

long.

Mowers

verj

parts of the plant

L oleaceae

Olea europaea

The Olive

is

well

known from

frequent refer-

ences in the Bible and in the writings of the to

whom

it

symbolized

peace.

varieties

much-branch-

all

Olive

cm

It

has been in cultivation for

and

for

now

reason

this

exist;

more than 3000

many

some providing

different oil

and

others the large fruit so frequently used in

and with

salads

The

drinks.

ancient Egyptians called the plant bak,

Romans knew

cm diameter, yellow, erect on fragrant, 3 i-petalled. opening in the evening.

while

spikes,

meaning

Appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn. Distribution North American nativeIntroduced and naturalized in Europe. In wastelands especially on dry, sandy or stemv soils

important commodity which may be extracted from the fruit. Description Evergreen tree usually to 8 m, and occasionally to 12 m. Branches pale grey, thin, thornless, bearing opposite, entire, lanceolate or oblong leaves, dark green above and lighter beneath; cm long. Floweis fragrant, numerous, off-white, borne on short panicles in leaf axils, followed by dark purple fruit

-)

such as railway embankments Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from seed sow 11 as soon as ripe, usually in late- summet in .

a

permanent

sunn)

position. Tolerates most soils in a

position.

varietie-s

cially in

hairy forms.

Ana, and in subtropical America Wid<

be eaten hot or cold; are edible.

years

arise-

be

the

producing, cm thick yellowish conical root. rosette ol obtuse basal leaves to 60 diameter, from which

May

treatment of minor wounds or skin and used internally for coughs, colds, gastric irritation and intestinal spasm. A direct effect on the liver is suspected but not proven. Young roots can be boiled or pickled, and can in

(.neks and Romans,

light at night.

Biennial, or occasionally

upturn

Cultivation

Africa,

compound capable

of blood

compressed

The common name basilikon

rate

substances,

whole plant Tannins; mucilage; resin; bitter principle; potassium salts. i'ses (fresh whole plant, fresh root, seeds) Antispasmodic; nutritive; demulcent; weak

thrombus formation, and hence possibly acting as a prophylactic against some forms of heart

It

popular with cooks who utilize it- vw eet, pungent flavour. Unfortunatclv the dried herb

is still

possesses a

the

unknown anticoagulant

exist

Constituents

Readily

self-sown.

Several

including large-flowered

and

the

Unsatutated

lam

acids;

as olea

from oleum

375

clrupe-

)

1

,5

Distribution

seed)

it

after the large quantity of this

oil,

4

cm

Native

long. to

mediterranean region,

introduced elsewhere-.

229

OPH-OXA Wild only as an escape. The wild parent of the Olive is considered to be Olea europaea var. oleaster DC, which may be differentiated by its thorny branches, wider leaves and smaller fruit. Cultivated commerCultivation

and domestically on a wide scale in the Peninsula, North Africa, southern France, Greece, Italy and the Middle East. cially

Iberian

by

Propagated

grafting

from

or

suckers;

fruiting begins in the second year of growth. (fruit) Oil (to 70%) comprising mainly glycerides of oleic acid, also glycerides

Constituents

of palmitic, stearic, myristic and linoleic acids; protein; mineral

salts,

particularly calcium;

A

organic acids; vitamins (nicotinamide or B3). Uses

occasionally

fruit,

(oil,

B 2 and PP

B,

leaves)

fresh

Nutritive; demulcent; mildly purgative; antiseptic;

The

weakly astringent. used internally as a physical laxative

oil is

in chronic constipation,

and

flow of gastric secretions

as

reduces the

it

has been used to

it

oval leaf blade which sheaths the stalk of the fertile spike the latter usually 2-5 cm long and ;

above the leaf blade. Spores ripen early to mid-summer. Distribution Europe, North Africa, Asia and America. On grassland, pastures, scrub and rising

as a perennial in

fens.

Wild

Cultivation Constituents

hardy annual

plant.

Unknown.

warm

Uses (fresh leaf, fresh juice) Vulnerary.

later thinning to 25

and

glass

plant

cm

40°

Annual Marjoram

acid.

for

peptic

Externally

ulcers.

it

may

be

applied as a liniment or embrocation for a variety of purposes, particularly as the vehicle for

more

The

active substances.

leaves possess antiseptic activity

been used

in a decoction for

They may

also

wound

and have

treatment.

have some antipyretic and

hypotensive activity.

For medicinal purposes the oil should be extracted by the cold press' method to retain ;

its

many

has been cultivated in Europe

centuries for

its

culinary and medi-

cinal value. Majorana or maiorana

name

The fruit is of considerable commercial importance

in the food industry.

The

oil is

of culinary importance and

is

also

used in soap manufacture.

L ophioglossaceae botanical

names

refer to

the distinctive shape of this small fern's leaves

glossa

meaning snake and meaning tongue. Once famous as a Greek

ophis

wound-healing herb

it is

now

only of historical

on small, yellow, fibrous tall. Stem solitary, arising from root-stock crown, round, hollow and succulent, expanding at 5-10 cm above ground level into broad, leathery, concave, Fern,

root-stock; to 20

230

cm

septic.

Useful in most simple gastro-intestinal

dis-

minutes of cooking.

shape of the spherical, clustered is one of the most important of all western culinary herbs and its

use in meat flavouring

German name

is

emphasized by the

orders,

Employed

May

as a tisane.

be used in domestic cosmetic waters, and

scented articles.

Wurstkraut or sausage herb.

aromatic perennial (usually grown as an annual or biennial), 30-60 cm tall, with square, branched, tomentose stems; sometimes occurring as a subshrub. Leaves

small and

or toothed, petiolate, opposite,

insignificant,

cm

l° n g-

white

to

Flowers pink,

in

3-5 per cluster. mid-autumn. Distribution Native to North Africa, Middle East, parts of India. Introduced and naturalclustered

Appearing

ized

late

in

spikes,

summer

south-west

in

region, central

On

interest.

Description

Weak

antispasmodic; carminative; choleretic; aromatic; weak hypotensive; anti-

knot-like

spherical

common and

the

or dried flowering plant)

(fresh

flower spikes. This plant

elliptic, entire

Adder's Tongue

from

Uses

expectorant;

and an excellent digestive aid. Similar external uses to Oregano (Origanum vulgare). Very wide culinary use; particularly in meat dishes, but must be added only in the last 10

greyish-pubescent, 0.75-3

Both the

a very old

unknown derivation by which the plant was known when first introduced to Europe in the Middle Ages. The common name Knotted Marjoram refers to the unusual of

j;

Description Spicy

active ingredients.

Ophioglossum vulgatum

is

borneol and other terpenes (to mucilage; bitter substances; tannic

terpineol,

Also classified botanically as Majorana horten-

treat

apart; or raise under

when hardened off. oil (to 2%) comprising

out

Constituents Essential

it

zones;

Europe and

North America sow seed in late spring or early summer, on medium-rich, finely prepared soil,

L labiatae Sweet Marjoram Knotted Marjoram/ Origanum majorana

Moench.

temperate

sensitive to frost. In north-west

Formerly an ingredient of wound healing ointments, and once used internally for the same purpose. Not used today.

sis

regions or as a half-

cooler

in

to

Africa,

mediterranean

Europe and North America.

dryish or well-drained, nutrient-rich

sunny

soils,

positions.

Cultivation

Wild. Impermanently established in

commerEurope and the

parts of central Europe. Cultivated

America, central mediterranean region. Grown horticulturally cially in Asia,

Origanum

onites

L labiatae

Pot Marjoram This

is

also

from the

known as Majorana onites Benth. name onitin used by Pliny in

classical

first century. This species was not cultivated very widely in north-west Europe or America, and was only introduced to Great Britain in the eighteenth century. Pot Mar-

the

joram

is

inferior to

Sweet Marjoram and

is

now

only cultivated as an alternative in areas too cold for 0. majorana, or where the decorative

perennial variegated variety

is

required for

ornamental purposes. Description Aromatic perennial on erect tomentose

or hirsute stems to 30

cm

tall;

leaves

tomentose and usually ovate, 0.75-2.5 cm long. Flowers small, white to pink, in numerous ovoid spikelets arranged in a serrate, sessile,

OPH-OXA

Appearing

cluster.

summer

late

mid-

frequently bushy, on horizontal root-stock, to

May be used to flav

Europe,

75 cm tall. Leaves glabrous, opposite and decussate, entire or obscurely toothed, petio-

to

autumn. Distribution

Native

to Sicily, south-east

Syria and Asia Minor. light

well-drained

hillsides.

Prefers

sun and

full

open positions and

soils in

upper

leaves

Wild. Cultivated in cooler climates

or corymbose clusters,

terpenes; also bitter nibftancts; tannic acid

altitude.

i

Not used medicinal purposes. Employed in cooking as a substitute For Swcd Marjoram, although its flavour is inferior. Variegated forms may be used as garden ornamentals.

Far

On

East.

but

gravelly

dry,

usually

nutrient-rich

especially

positions;

clearings

hedgebanks,

cm

apart.

southern

Italy.

The nature

composition and

the in

of both the volatile

some extent the plant's appearance depends on where it is cultivated. I he southern European product is far more pungent and bears little resemblance in flavour

oil

to that I

to

from the cooler north.

Essential

name Origanum is from the Greek and ganos meaning mountain glamour, or

joy ol the mountain, appearance and aroma

plant; vulgare Description

after ol tin

tin

attractive

bushy flowering

means common. hairy aromatk

l.ini

(to 15",,

to

2000

m

oil

(0.5%) comprising

origanene, carvacrol; bitter

,

Uses (dried flowering plant, occasionally

oil)

Expectorant antiseptic; antispasmodic; carminative; tonic; stomachic; anti-inflammat;

ory.

Useful

specifically

for

gastro-intestinal

or

respiratory disorders; particularly coughs as-

sociated with upper respiratory tract infection,

and

colic or indigestion.

all\

in

May

be used extern-

where an Weakly sedative

baths, inhalants or poultices

antiseptic action

he generk

oros

woodland

forms exist including a

Several

principles; tannic acid; resins.

in

L oxalidaceae

Sorrel Irish Shamrock Oxalis is from the Greek for sour, after the taste of this small attractive herb which contains quite high concentrations of oxalic acid and its salts. It was cultivated from at least the fourteenth century as a major sauce herb, but it was displaced after the introduction of the unrelated French Sorrel (Rumex scutatus L). DescriptionSlemless perennial on scaly rhizome,

variegated form with golden leaves.

Oregano Wild Marjoram Although Wild Marjoram is now cultivated commercially in some parts of the world, most particularly

;

cultivated

thymol

from the wild

The Rouge) once used

commercially in North America. Propagate from seed sown in late spring on warm site, later thinning to 30

Constituents

and

or

warm

in

(

Collected commercially in

Wild. Italy,

Origanum vulgare L labiatae

collet ted

mm

calcareous soils

and peripheries, roadsides;

Cultivation

region,

6-8

on short spikes appearing late summer

mid-autumn. European native; also in Iran, Middle East and Himalayas. Introduced to

southern

still

Wood

to

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant

mediterranean

Oxalis acetosella

rose-

Distribution

for

supplies are

long,

long, bracteoles purple, borne

semi-hardy alternative to 0. majorana: from cuttings in early summer, root division in spring or autumn, or from seed sown cm deep in light, dry soil in late spring crimination may be slow or poor). Variegated forms exist. In very cold positions grow in pots and keep in a cool greenhouse during winter. Constituents Essential oil (to i%), comprising as a

cm

Flowers

reddish.

often

purple, sometimes pink to whitish,

Tolerates most conditions

Cultivation

pointed, broadly ovate 1.5-4.5

late,

as a tisane

our beer.

is

required.

and of some benefit

in nervous headaches or Aids digestion. commercial and domestic ulmary use as

irritability.

Wide

a flavouring, especially in

<

meat dishes and

stuffings.

perennial,

Oil and herb used in (osmetic industry.

231

PAE-PAP reaching 5-8 cm. Pale green leaves composed of 3 obcordate leaflets on long petiole. Flowers 5-petalled, white tinged with purple veins and yellow flecks at corolla base, solitary on long

appearing

peduncles;

spring

late

to

early

summer. Europe, north and central Asia, Japan; introduced elsewhere. On acidic, humus-rich moist soils in mixed or deciduous woodland shade, to 2000 m. Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated by root Native

Distribution

to

status

of P.

Western

officinalis

folk medicine,

declined

rapidly in but the herb is still

especially so.

Only

to

be used by medical

personnel.

retained in Chinese traditional medicine today.

Panax pseudoginseng Wallich araliaceae

on thick, knotted, dark, root-stock, producing stout succulent stem 60 cm- m tall. Leaves biternate or ternate, with ovate-lanceolate leaflets, 3 cm wide, dark green above and lighter beneath. Single red, or occasionally pink or whitish, flower: large and

Ginseng

Description Perennial

1

and composed of 8

Ginseng is so well known in both the East and West that it has become the most widely used of all medicinal herbs. The Koreans and Chinese have employed it as a panacea for This

centuries.

is

reflected

weakly antipyretic.

The word

Ginseng

Once used

elsewhere.

Schin-seng,

meaning man

division in spring. Constituents to

Oxalic acid and potassium oxalate, taste is due; mucilage vitamin C.

which the

Uses

i

fresh

;

and

leaves

root-stock)

internally as a spring tonic (es-

pecially in Iceland), in fevers,

alcohol consumption.

Now

an external application scabies,

and

of the leaves

Diuretic;

as a gargle.

may

be used

and

after excess

principally used as

treatment of Small quantities only for the

in salads or sauces.

Large quantities are POISONOUS. To be avoided by those predispose <1 to gout, rheumatism or renal calculi. Contra-indications

Paeonia

officinalis

L paeoniaceae

Peony Common Peony The Peony was first used very early in medical history and is named after Paeon, the physician of the Greek gods.

included

in

many

Known

as paeonia,

it

was

very early medicinal recipes

and one, accredited to Pliny, combined this herb with Mint (Mentha spp.) and Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum L) for the specific treatment of both kidney and bladder stones, which, it was claimed, the mixture would dissolve. After the sixteenth century the medicinal

petals

Propagated by division of root-stock in early autumn or from seed sown in spring on deeply-dug, well-manured soil. Once established, it must not be moved. Wild.

in

its

botanical

name, Panax from pan meaning all, and akos meaning remedy. It was so highly prized in the Orient that not only did emperors monopolize the rights to harvest the roots, but wars were

and 5 petal-like sepals, to 20 cm diameter. Appearing early summer to early autumn* Distribution Native to southern Europe from France to Albania, and western Europe. Widely introduced as garden ornamental attractive

fought over them. is

derived from Jin-chen or root or like a

man,

human

Benzoic acid (5%) 1-asparagin; an alkaloid; a ketone, paeonol a

shape of the root. In commerce various grades exist depending on shape, age and colour. Red Korean Ginseng is one of the most expensive and sought-after types, and Ginseng production in Korea is carefully controlled by the government. The wide range of effects on human physiology claimed by Chinese physicians have only

heteroside.

The

recently

stimulates

uterine

Cultivation

Several forms plena

exist,

and Rosea

Constituents

essential oil;

including Alba plena, Rubra

plena.

;

alkaloid

is

vasoconstrictive:

may

and

contractions,

increase blood coagulation. Uses dried root-stock Vasoconstrictor; antispasmodic; diuretic; sedative; emmenagogue. Formerly used specifically in the treatment of both renal and gall-bladder calculi. Also once

used for a variety of other conditions including (hose of a nervous origin, gastric disorders,

varicose

veins

and haemorrhoids.

effective in the latter condition, but

May

now

be

rarely

used. Contra-indications

POISONOUS,

the

flowers

after the peculiar

been tentatively acknowledged by WCstern pharmacologists who have created a new term, adaptogen, to explain the normalizing effect of the active ingredients.

Panax pseudoginseng was formerly C.

ginseng

A.

Mey and

P.

classified as P.

schinseng

Nees.

Russian scientists claim that another member of the Araliaceae family, Eleutherococcus senticosus or Siberian Ginseng, possesses similar adaptogenic properties to Ginseng. A related species, Panax fruticosum L, is used in some Polynesian Islands as both a food and medicine. Description Perennial 60-80 cm tall on aromatic, frequently bifurcated, spindle-shaped root-stock; bearing persistent fleshy scales at

stem base. Single erect stem, unbranched and reddish, bearing whorl of 3 or 5 palmate leaves, the

leaflet

finely

thin,

acuminate, 8-13

cm

yellow, small, few,

serrate,

gradually

long. Flowers greenishin

single

terminal ped-

uncled umbel; appearing mid to late summer and followed by bright red drupe-like berry on elongated peduncle. Distribution Native to China Manchuria and Korea. In damp, cool, humus-rich woodland. Cultivation Wild, but becoming rare. Cultivated

on an increasing scale commercially in Korea and China, from seed and carefully selected seedlings, by a complex horticultural procedure involving specially prepared seed-beds, transplantation and shading. Harvested up to 9 years after planting. Constituents Volatile oils, comprising sapogenin

central nervous panaxin; panax acid: a (with hypoglycaemic activity glycoside, panaquilon (acting as a vasocon-

and panacen (stimulating the system ginsenin 1

;

a

saponin,

;

strictive stimulant); ginsennosides; phytoster-

hormones; vitamins B and B,: mucilage; several other substances; all combining to produce a complex total effect.

ols;

T

Uses (dried root) Tonic; adaptogenic. in a very wide range of conditions, but

Used

particularly of benefit where increased mental

232

PAE-PAP and physical

efficiency

the patient

exposed

is

is

required, or where

and external

to internal

phvsiological stress factors

-

such as ageing,

surgery or disease.

Large doses may cause deand nervous disorders. Do not combine with any herbal remedies con-

Contra-indications

pression, insomnia

China

taining iron, or with Indian or Camellia spp.

teas

.

North American native from Minnesota. Exclusively in cool, humus-rich woodlands. Cultivation Formerly wild. Now extremely rare. Cultivated commercially in the same way as

Principally used as a colouring agent for medi-

to

to

Panax

pseudoginseng

Tonic; adaptogenic. Similar Panax pseudoginseng Wallich.

Uses (dried root to

L papaveraceae

Papaver rhoeas

Corn Poppy

This has the same general properties

Corn Poppv as

Panax

Oriental relative, and from exported to China by Canadian Jesuits, until the end of the nineteenth century it was so heavily collected that it is

pseudoginseng,

1718,

now

when

its

first

unknown

practically

in its

natural wild

Most supplies are today cultivated in Wisconsin and exported to the East some probably return to the United States and Europe fraudulently described as the more expensive Chinese or Korean root. There is evidence that any North American little Indian tribes beside the Chippewas or Ojibwas used the herb to he same extent as the Chinese. habitat.

;

t

Perennial

Description

aromatic,

12.5-45

occasionally

cm

bifurcated,

ta "

on

spindle-

shaped root-stock, bearing thin scales at stem base which are shed during growth. Stem

unbranched and reddish, bear-

simple-, erect,

Field Poppy/Flanders

Poppy

have been collected

petals

for

this

species,

its

being

action

Description Slender erect

cm

branched annual

hairy stem bearing deeply pinnate,

;

5 cm diameter, solitary, deep red with purplish flecks at the base (occasionally to

white), on long peduncles. Appearing earl) to

summer, followed by ovoid capsule. Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America and introduced elsewhere. In fields, arable land, on roadsides, late

Distribution

especially

1

700

after

soils

m

soil

disturbance.

or loam, in

warm

On

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild

plant.

Constituents (flower)

Pigments comprising

adine, rhoeagenine

in single

in long.

Flowers pink, small, lew,

terminal, peduncled umbel; appear-

late- summer and followed by a cluster of red drupe-like berries on elongated peduncle.

ing

either

positions; to

minate. 8

c

90

sessile,

anthoc yanins, mecocyanin and cyanidol

g

to

short leaves with lanceolate segments. Flowers

chalky

;

tin

mu-

cilage; traces of the crystalline alkaloids, rhoe-

Uses

and wine.

Seed

is

sprinkled on bread, biscuits and cakes.

Poppy seed

oil

is

used in cooking.

Papaver somniferum

L papaveraceae

The abuse

of this medicinal plant and its products has caused considerable human misery and a great deal of governmental effort has gone into controlling its cultivation

and distribution. America and other nations have recently attempted to dissuade Turkish farmers, for example, from cultivating it on so large a scale, for it presents a formidable problem of drug abuse - and is therefore an extremely lucrative crop.

similar.

ing whorl of 3 or 5 palmate leaves; the- leaflets obovate, thin, coarsely serrate, abruptly acu1

as a

colouring agent since at least the fifteenth century, and were employed from the earliest limes as a medicine. P. dubium L is often substituted

cine

Opium Poppy

Wallich.

American Ginseng

irritable coughs.

chitis

Quebec

Panax pseudoginseng. Constituents Similar

Panax quinquefolium L araliaceae

and particularly

Distribution

fresh,

dried

and rhoearubine. flowers

rarely;

Sedative;

The Opium Poppy of

however, provided the

killers,

times. Extraction of the achieved by cutting the green capsule with a small sharp implement and scraping ofF the soft material which will exude within the following 24 hours. Opium syrup was particularly advocated in

since

the

opium

earliest

or latex

is

the treatment of coughs by an eleventhcentury Arabian physician, Mesue, and as late as the seventeenth century this preparation was still widely known as Syrupus de Meconio Mesuae. I

he plant's specific

name

somniferum

means

sleep inducing. Description

Of

m

;

pain

all

substance

antispasmodic diaphoretic. benefit in colic, anxiety, tonsillitis, bron-

has,

morphine ~ a which has not been artificially synthesized and opium which has been employed in medicine in the eastern mediterranean, the Middle East and western Asia,

greatest

tall;

Glaucous annual from 60 cm 1.25 rigid, seldom branched and then

stem

233

PAR-PET only at the base, sometimes slightly hairy; bearing glossy, cordate, unequal, coarsely leaves

7.5-10

cm

10-25

dentate leaves,

usually clasping.

cm

l° n g> tne upper Flowers 4-petalled,

wide, entire, of variable colour;

pink or purple markings. Sometimes red or purple. Appearing late summer to early autumn and followed by usually white or lilac with

ovoid, glabrous, then woody, capsules.

Native to Middle East, south-east Europe, western Asia. Introduced elsewhere. On shallow loamy or chalky soils in sunny situations; especially wasteland as escape. Cultivation Cultivated plant, especially in Turkey, India and China. Occasionally wild as an Distribution

Panetaria diffusa Mert.

& Koch

urticacae

Pellitory of the Wall Pellitory This plant has been used for centuries and was described as a medicinal plant by Pliny and as a vegetable by Theophrastus. It is commonly found on ruins and old walls, hence its name parietaria from the Latin paries meaning a wall. As it was a favourite of the apothecaries and herbalists - who used it almost exclusively for urinary complaints - it was formerly an official herb and therefore

cm

12% morphine;

Opium

oil)

of cough, and

now

morphine and other infusion

capsules of the ally to sprains

Poppy was once applied externand bruises.

Ripe seed (which does not contain harmful

may

on bread and

be used in curries or sprinkled The seed oil provides two

cakes.

products: a culinary

oil

(olivette),

and an

Dried capsules arrangements. Contra-indications

dried

flower

DANGEROUS. To

be used

are

used

only by medical personnel.

234

in

To be avoided by hay fever one of several species shown to rhinitis

and possibly hyper-

pneumonitis.

L passifloraceae

species are

predominantly of sub-

United States for its effective sedative and has been retained in certain national pharmacopoeias; it is also a popular folk medicine and constituent of some proprietary herbal sedative preparations.

Passion-flower, from the Latin, passiflora,

named

is

of sulphur.

supposed symbolic association between the anatomical and numerical arrangement of the flowers and the elements of

Description Perennial with reddish, hairy stems.

the crucifixion.

Pellitory contains an unusually large quantity

erect

and spreading or sometimes decumbent

cm

Leaves alternate, petiolate, entire, ovate to lanceolate, mostly acuminate, softly hairy. Flowers greenish, unisexual, female terminal, male lateral; appearing mid20 75

summer

artists' oil.

is

properties,

Narcotic

alkaloidal

effective

in the

the source of purified pain-killing

much more

complaints. This herb was introduced in 1867

alkaloid

made from powdered

is

American origin, and several have been employed traditionally for a variety of

has traditionally been used in

is

fresh plant

tropical

the relief of pain, diarrhoea and certain forms

substances)

The

Passiflora incarnata

lecithin.

An

pyelitis.

Passion Flower Maypop

(seeds) Oil (to

Uses (dried latex, ripe seeds, seed

drugs.

in the treatment of cystitis, with or without bladder stones, and less frequently in

Passiflora

content, and

sedative.

Employed

sensitivity

(capsules)

25%

Demul-

Uses (dried or fresh flowering plant cent; diuretic.

cause allergic

At least 25 alkaloids mainly comprising morphine (0.1-0.3%), also codeine, papaverine, narcotine, meconic

60%);

Sulphur; tannic acid; bitter principotassium and calcium salts; mucilage. Diuretic action due to the presence of potassium salts and flavones. Constituents

Contra-indications

apart.

acid, thebaine, narceine. (latex)

in mid-spring, plant in

soil.

ples; flavones;

sufferers; this

Seed is mixed with 4 parts of sand and sown from mid-autumn to late spring; thinning to 25

Divide root-stock

cracks with peaty

than the dried herb.

classified as P. officinalis L.

escape. Possibly derived from Papaver setigerum and developed by centuries of cultivation.

Constituents

walls.

to

Distribution

tall.

mid-autumn. European native. Beneath or

on strong, woody, climbing by means of axillary tendrils. Leaves serrate, 3-lobed, cordate, petiolate, 7.5-12.5 cm long. Flowers Description Perennial vine

hairy stem 6

cm

m tall,

wide, appearing early to late

cm

700 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. May be grown on low stone

Distribution

To

to 10

and followed by

crevices of old walls; occasionally in hedge-

rows.

m

attractive, white, with pink or purple calyx,

4-7.5 in the

after the

in

summer

edible, yellow, ovoid fruit 5

diameter.

Introduced

Native to

to

southern United States.

Bermuda and

elsewhere.

On

PAR-PET New

Zealand, Australia, North America and elsewhere. In deep nitrogenous or calcareous soils on wasteland

loamy, nutrient-rich soils in full sun. Cultivation Wild. Occasionally cultivated; the

commercial sources of the edible passion

Uruguay and introduced

fruit

and meadows. To 1000 m. Cultivation Wild plant. Extensive commercial

or Granadilla are Passiflora edulis Sims, or less

commonly

P. ligularis Juss. P. caerulea

L

is

the

most common species grown as a climbing shrub in warmer temperate zones. Constituents (fruit) Ascorbic acid; flavonoids; citric and malic acids; amylopectin; fixed oil. (flowering plant) Alkaloids comprising harmine, harmol, passiflorine; a cyanogenic

cultivation for the edible root, especially the cultivar

P.

var.

sativa

spring and

lift

root in

(0.03% ); pectin; marin, bergaptene Uses

and flowering

effects

employed

are

in

The

fruit

is

in

commercial

drinks

in

vitamin

C

furo-cou-

.

aromatic;

Diuretic;

and

to

promote appetite.

may

be cooked and eaten. Root extract to flavour schnapps. Contra-indications May cause photodermatoses; gloves should be worn when handling leaves. tops

employed

and some

Pelargonium graveolens L'Herit

geraniaceae

Fresh leaves can be added to cakes before baking; to sweet fruit dishes, and cold summer

Rose Geranium Pelargonium

countries. Contra-indications Sedative.

To

be taken only

under medical supervision. *

Pastinaca saliva

L umbelliferae

Parsnip Wild Parsnip The Parsnip fa fourteenth-century name was once a major

Roman

word

pastus for food.

It

was largely replaced by the Carrot in the eleventh century, probably because of dangers it

for related

In the rose-scented geranium group the species most commonly cultivated in temperate gardens and homes is P. graveolems. Other species which are grown commercially as sources of oil of Geranium include P. capitatum. P. radens and

dishes.

and these may be employed for similar domestic and culinary purposes. Almost all scented Geraniums - or more correctly Pelargoniums are South African natives. They were introduced to England from Gape Province in 1632 but were largely

scented articles, and cosmetic bath prepar-

P. odoratissimum:

foodstuff being called

pastinacea after the Latin

of mistaking

%

a

Principally used as a root vegetable; the leafy

various

tonic

refreshing,

edible,

(to 0.2

root)

leaf,

oil;

Traditionally employed in urinary disorders as a diuretic,

neuralgias.

employed

(fresh

seed in

nutritive; mild sedative.

tops, fruit)

Antispasmodic; sedative; anodyne. Principally of benefit in the treatment of nervous tachycardia, anxiety and insomnia; also used in certain types of convulsion or spasmodic complaints such as epilepsy. Its

anodyne

Sow

autumn.

essential

heteroside; flavonoids; passiflortannoid; mar-

Ehrh.

hortensis

soil.

Constituents (root): Protein; starch;

acugin. Uses (dried fruiting

saliva

Requires deeply dug loamy

but poisonous species

of the Umbelliferae family.

unknown

Thick-rooted biennial. 50 120 cm tall, with hairy, robust, grooved Stem becoming hollow. Leaves pinnate or bipinnate with ovate or oblong, sessile, toothed leaflets j 10

was recognized by the French. Oil of Geranium is an essential ingredient of certain perfumes lor men, and some of the hnest qualit) used lor this purpose nines from Rhodesia and Reunion. Pelargonium is derived from the Greek for

Description

cm

long. Greenish yellow flowers in ompound umbels appearing mid to late summer. Distribution

(

Eurasian

native.

Naturalized

in

until

1847

when

their potential in

perfumery

i

stork's bill alter the fruit's shape.

Bushy aromatic perennial, becomm. Leaves long-petioled, hairy. lobed, circular to cordate-ovate, margins

5

7

1

dentate. Flowers 2.5 sessile or

nearly

so.

cm

oil

of importance in the perfumery

is

and

industry,

wide, pink, unseented,

on short-peduncled, dense

is

often used as a substitute for

may

Dried leaves ations.

An

attractive house plant.

thought to resemble the shape of the Butterbur leaf. In French the plant is known as chapeau du diable

devil's hat.

The common name Butterbur may le.iv

was once wrapped

i's.

1685 Schroder described several preparations from this plant for use against the Plague: they included the juice extracted from the root; an alcoholic extract; the fresh leaves

On

folk

soils in lull

sun.

loamy

medic

Widely cultivated as house plant. Cultivated commercially in the warmer louth-west mediterranean region, central and southern Africa and Reunion. In coolei temperate /ones grow as tender perennial, sinking pots in the garden during the summer, .1

bringing plants indoors before threal of

pinkish

reeping,

hollow,

purplish

flowers

appear

flowers

are

1

,i<

a

.

Mm,

are

1

oil,

or dried leal, oil Aromatic; N01 used medirinallv in Europe: in

the roots oi certain Pelargonium sp<<

employed

in

the treatment ol diarrhoea.

h-s

.

Male and

stems.

violet

emes, but the former are

and the

7

female

both

plants;

different

pinkish

date and roundish.

Volatile

-

on

comprising mainly geraniol, also linalol, geranyl tiglate, citronellol, eitronella lorminate and iso-meni hone.

I,

(fresh

from the whole

only seldom used in

Semi-aquatic perennial on thick, rhizome Flowers appear before the leaves, from mid-spring to early summer, on 10 40 cm long, stout, scaly, c

short-stalked,

Uses

now

inc.

propagated from cuttings taken in Hi summer and Struck in a peal and sand mix. Several cultivars exist, and the aroma varies from lemon to apple. host. Easily

astringent

oil distilled

is

Description

Cultivation Wild.

Constituents

indicate

in these large

In

elsewhere.

well-drained,

Schcrb.

Butterbur Bog Rhubarb The botanical name is derived from the Greek petasos, meaning a large Greek hat that was

plant. Butterbur

dryish,

May &

Gaertn.,

Petasitcs hvbridus (L)

C.UMPOS11AE

South African native. Introduced

Distribution

.mil

be employed in a variety of

and (lowers; and an

umbels.

oil

of Rose.

that butter

Description

ing woody, to

The

12

latter arc

on

spike-like

mm wide and mm wide

3-6

and long-stalked. Leaves, appearing towards (he end of flowering, arc- large, to 90 cm wide, long stalked, woolly underneath, deeply corDistribution

European

native;

on

wet,

careous and stony soils, beside streams, in did lies or flooded pasture. Cultivation (

Wild.

onstituents Inulin;

mucilage;

cal-

rivers,

an

helianthenine; tannic acid; petasine and oil;

essential

235

PET-PHY an alkaloid.

petasitine;

rhizome,

(dried

Uses

Portugese, Yugoslavian and Czechoslovakian occasionally

fresh

or

dried flowers and leaves) Vulnerary; astringent;

weak

diuretic;

expectorant;

antispas-

modic; weak emmenagogue. Principally used homeopathically in the treatment of neck pains and headache. Fresh leaves

and flowers may be applied as a poultice to wounds. Rhizome may be employed in combination with other inulin-containing remedies for

certain eruptive skin conditions.

used as an antispasmodic tract infections

and

for

in

Once

coughs, urinary

pharmacopoeias, and the seed is found in French and Portugese pharmacopoeias. The botanical name for this herb has changed several times; it has previously been classified as Petroselinum hortenso Hoffm., P. sativum Hoffm., Apium petroselinum L, A. crispum Mill., and Carum petroselinum Benth. Description Biennial or short-lived perennial on Swiss,

stout vertical taproot; stems solid, branching,

cm tall (usually 30 cm). Leaves deltoid, pinnate, segments 1-2 cm long, cuneate-ovate, to 75

much curled (depending on cultivar). Flowers small, greenish-yellow or yellowish, in flat-topped, 2-5 cm wide compound umbels, appearing mid-summer to early autumn; followed by 2.5 long, ribbed, ovoid fruit. Distribution Native to northern and central Europe. Introduced and naturalized elsewhere, including some subtropical zones (such

stammering.

stalked,

rm

mm

as the

West

Indies).

u ,

*A

.

i

"

<

\^\&mki^M?44£.

j*

.vwVK^hB

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.)

Nyman

UMBELLIFERAE Parsley

The Greeks

differentiated

between

Marsh

Celery or Smallage (heleio selinon) and Rock Celery or Parsley [petros selinon). Both types were associated with death and funerals and only later on in Roman times were they used as food. Pliny stated that every sauce and salad contained what was then known to the

Romans

Today Parsley is known of all garnishing herbs in the West, and a number of varieties exist. Columas apium - or Parsley.

the best

ella (a.d. 42)

was the

first to

mention a curly

form - the type now favoured in Englishspeaking countries. It lacks, however, the hardiness of plain-leaved varieties, though it is less likely to be confused with the highly poisonous Fool's Parsley

(Aethusa cynapium).

forms are commonly cultivated: the Neapolitan or celery-leaved; the

At

least three other

fern-leaved; rooted.

and the Hamburg or turnip-

Parsley root

is

still

retained in the

Description Similar to P. crispum but leaf seg-

in

drills

early spring to early

encourage leaf growth. Requires rich, moist, open soil in partial shade or full sun; a good watering during hot weather and protection under cloches during winter. Germination is often poor and slow (to 8 weeks) and may be encouraged by pouring boiling water in drills immediately after sowing. The plain-leaved varieties tolerate extremes of cold and dryness better than the curly-leaved varieties. Constituents Essential oil comprising apiol, apiolin,

myristicin,

pinene;

to

flavonoids;

a

glucoside; apiin; provitamin A; ascorbic acid.

Action largely due essential oil,

to the apiol

blood-flow

increases

content of the

which stimulates the appetite and the

to

digestive

tract,

and

P. sativum var. tuberosum

Bernh.

ments usually not curled or crisped, and taproot is fleshy, 5 cm wide and 12.5 cm long. Distribution North and east European cultivated plant. Cultivation Cultivated horticulturally

and com-

mercially particularly in Holland, France and

Germany. Seed is sown in early spring on deep, rich, well-dug soil; watered well during dry weather; and roots harvested from mid-autumn onwards. Frost resistant. Constituents Similar to P. crispum; the root also

contains bergapten. Uses

(cooked

Cooked

Not used medicinally.

root)

soup mixes. Flavour resembles both Celery and Parsley. as a vegetable; or used in

uterus and mucosae. Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried root, dried

occasionally

seed,

oil)

Diuretic:

emmenag-

ogue; stomachic; carminative. Effective in dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, as a diuretic, anti-flatulent

and

to stimulate the

appetite.

The

use of the leaf for culinary purposes

known. The (Parsley tea).

is

well

was formerly used as a tea May be chewed to destroy garlic

leaf

odour on the breath. Dried stems of use

as a

green dye. Contra-indications

The

oil

either the oil or the leaf

They may

should only be used

may

cause abortion.

also cause polyneuritis. Apiol

and

myristicin can induce fatty degeneration of the liver,

and

gastro-intestinal haemorrhages.

Peumus boldus Molina monimiaceae

Boldo Boldu Chilean Andes is still South American and European pharmacopoeias, and is employed predominantly for liver disease. The leaves, which are the only parts used in medicine, This

native

retained

in

of the

several

were first tested in Europe in 1869 by the French physician Dujardin-Baumez. Other botanical names for Boldo, which is the local Chilean name, included Boldoa fragrans Gay and Ruizia fragrans Pavon. Description Aromatic, dioecious, evergreen shrub 5-6 m tall leaves shortly petiolate, grey;

green, coriaceous, entire,

terminal racemes. Distribution

This variety of Parsley was probably first developed in Holland since it was once called Dutch Parsley. Fuchs described it as oreoselinum in Germany in the mid-sixteenth century, and the name Hamburg Parsley was used by Mawe Miller

(1691-1771), the curator of the Chelsea Physic Garden, introduced it to England in 1727, but it was only in

1778.

Philip

revolute,

elliptical,

UMBELLIFERAE Parsley

somewhat

upper and lower surfaces slightly pubescent, upper surface covered with small papillae. Flowers small, pinkish, on open ovate or

Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum Crovetto

Turnip Rooted Parsley Hamburg

236

still

is

seed sown in

under medical supervision. Very large doses of

\M

for a

plant

radicosum Bailey

summer. Remove flower-heads

'

The

1880.

Wild. Extensively cultivated horticulturally and commercially. Propagate from Cultivation

I

century - from 1780 to frequently found in France and Germany in vegetable markets. It is also described botanically as P. crispum var.

popular there

Chilean native. Introduced elsewhere. Especially on sunny slopes. Cultivation Wild. Limited cultivation in Morocco and elsewhere. Constituents Volatile

mainly eucalyptol, comprising mainly

oil

(to

2%) comprising

also ascaridol; alkaloids,

boldine

(to

o.i°

);

a

(boldoglucin or boldina). Cholagogue action due to the presence of boldine. Antihelmintic action due to ascaridol.

glycoside,

boldin

PET-PHY Uses (dried leaves, occasionally bark) Cholagogue; choleretic; stomachic; sedative; diu-

a dehiscent oblong

retic; sternutatory; antihelmintic. Formerly used as a tonic where quinine was contraindicated; in rheumatism; and in certain

Distribution

urinary tract infections, including gonorrhoea. Of benefit in the treatment of hepatic congestion and gallstones; used to stimulate the

countries.

cm

long.

Native to west coast of Africa, especially Nigeria, Cameroun, Togo, Dahomey; introduced to Brazil and other tropical

On swampy

river banks.

Wild, and collected commercially in West Africa. Ripe seed germinated and plant grown in greenhouses in temperate zones. Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly eserine (physostigmine) to 0.3%, also calabarine; Cultivation

and release of bile, and hence to aid and as a tonic in gall-bladder The powdered leaf may be used to

secretion

digestion, disease.

pod 16 cm long, and con-

taining 2 or 3 seeds to 3

starch (to

induce sneezing. The aromatic fruit pulp can be eaten. Bark was once used in tanning. Contra- indications Large doses cause vomiting.

50%);

proteins (to

23%).

Uses (cotyledons from ripe seed) Miotic.

Now

used exclusively in opthalmology - to contract the pupil in the eye, and decrease intro-ocular

Uses

(fruit,

rarely

leaves)

Diuretic;

anti-

pyretic; mild sedative; nutritive; laxative.

Formerly employed in the treatment of renal rheumatism, arthritis and gout. The

calculi,

in

may be eaten in small quantities or used jams, and the whole plant (except the root)

is

used in certain diuretic wines.

fruit

Contra-indications

Large quantities

may

cause

diarrhoea. Physostigma venenosum Balfour

leguminosae

Calabar Bean Ordeal Bean/Esere Nut Calabar Bean is named after the area in southeast Nigeria, and near to the modern Port Harcourt, where the plant is most commonly pressure in glaucoma. Formerly employed in

found.

L solanaceae Bladder Cherry Chinese Lantern

known locally as esere, hence one of its common names Esere Nut. The plant's

physostigmine,

Dioscorides called the herb phusalis or strychnos

cotyledons were once used

kaloid used in

Physalis alkekengi

It

-

and considered it a sedative. Although several other Physalis species unused for jams, they are now seldom of medicin-

halikakabos

al interest.

Description Perennial (often

grown

as

annual)

on creeping rhizome, reaching 20 110 cm. Leaves entire, ovate, petiolate to 8 cm. Flowers solitary, whitish, nodding, appearing early summer to late autumn and followed by red globose berry enclosed in paper-thin, orange-red calyx. Distribution Native from central and south-east Europe and western Asia to Japan. On dry calcareous soils in vineyards and wasteland, to

1500

m

is

altitude.

by ordeal in Africa in which the accused had to drink the powdered bean. An explanation for the fact that the innocent generally survived and the guilty died is that in the former case the entire quantity was drunk thereby inducing violent vomiting and purging which removed much of the poison; while the guilty person sipped the potion, allowing rapid absorption of the alkaloids from the gastro-intestinal tract and thereforesubsequentdeathfrom cardiac arrest. was introduced to Europe in 1840 by It Daniell, and its medicinal properties were recognized in i860. The plant has no place in modern medicine, and physostigmine (its chief constituent) has now largely been replaced by in trials

Wild frequently as a garden escape. Cultivated as an ornamental from seed sown. as early as possible, or under glass Require!

neostigmine.

warm

large, ternate, pinnate; flowers purple, 3

Cultivation

;

on climbing woody stem thick) reaching 15 m tall. Leaves

Description Perennial (to 5

cm

cm

wide, produced on long pendulous axillary

including malic and citric; a bitter substance, physaline; pectin; pectinase; glucose.

racemes, each possessing 30 or more flowers; appearing early to mid-spring, and followed by

Constituents

(fruit;

a parasympathomimetic alsome of the above conditions

and

in the treatment of myasthenia gravis (a neuro-muscular disease), and to induce peristalsis in

ity.

post-operative gastro-intestinal debil-

Calabarine and physostigmine exert op-

posite effects; the action of the seed

is

therefore

frequently different from that of pure alkaloids.

Once

used in veterinary medicine.

Contra-indications

may

Very

POISONOUS.

Death

be caused by cardiac arrest or respiratory

paralysis. Phytolacca americana L phytolaccaceae Poke Weed Poke Root/Pigeonbcrry

Phytolacca

is

derived from the Greek phyton

meaning plant and pigment),

propagated by division. Vitamin C; organic acids

position. Also

tetanus and rheumatism. Used as a source of

the French lac (a reddish

reflecting

the

berries'

ability

to

produce a crimson dye. The herb was introduced to American settlers by Indians to whom it was known as pocan or cocum and from which the name Poke Weed originates. Traditionally Poke Weed was used as an emetic and as a remedy for venereal

*37

PIC-PIM but by 1830 Geiger had discovered other medicinal attributes. diseases,

Because of its complex chemical constituents the herb has received considerable scientific attention, and among other things it has been shown to possess a mitogenic phytohaemagglutin called Poke Weed mitogen factor

(PWM)

which

snails,

is

agent

to

for

immuno-

modern medicine.

logical purposes in

Another

employed

is

which has the ability to destroy being examined in Africa as a possible factor,

control the carrier of Bilharzia. a

and

a hydrolysis product, phytolaccagenin;

and dicarboxy oleanand saponins; potassium

jaligonic acid; carboxy

enes; various steroids (berries)

salts,

Saponins

(to

25%); mucilage;

tannic acid; phytolaccinic acid; red pigment, caryophylline. (leaf) Anti-viral protein, called

PAP and

similar to interferon; rubber; fatty Note: the exact chemical status and nature of phytolaccin and phytolaccine are

oil.

not fully known.

young cooked Emetic; purgative: narcotic; sternu-

Uses (dried root, occasionally leaves)

which invades and organs and which is contracted by washing in water containing

tatory; molluscicidal; spermicidal; fungicide; anti-rheumatic; anti-catarrhal. Root principally used internally in the treatment of

certain snail*.

smooth hollow on large fleshy

throat infections associated with swollen glands; acting particularly on the lymphatics. Also used in chronic rheumatism and upper

petiolate, alternate, entire, ovate-lanceolate or

respiratory tract infections. Externally it is applied as an ointment or poultice in fungal

disease caused by a parasite

destroys

many body

Description Perennial with thick,

25-3. 5 m tall, Leaves unpleasantly scented,

purplish stem,

branched

1.

root.

cm long, acute at both ends. Flowers white or sometimes pinkish, 7.5 wide, bisexual, on many-flowered terminal, then lateral, racemes from 5-20 cm long. oblong, 10-30

mm

Appearing

late

summer

to

mid-autumn and

followed by purple-red, globose berries to

1

cm

diameter.

haemorrhoids and scabies. was once applied externally to ulcers and tumours, but it is not very effective. In Hungary the root is employed as an abortifacient, and in Mauritius it is infections, ulcers,

from

Juice

the

berries

considered to be a sedative. After special treatment the berries to colour

also

may be

used

wine and confectionery. They have

been used

as a

colouring in

artists' paint.

Toxic and dangerous: it should only be used by medical personnel. To remove harmful substances it is important to soak in salt water, and cook well with 3 changes of water. The use of the young cooked plant, however, is not advised. When handling the mature plant gloves should be worn. May cause haematological abnormalities, violent Conlra-mdications

emesis and possibly death. Picea abies (L) Karst.

pinaceae

Picea

is

now

name for a tree which commonly planted conifer in

the ancient Latin the most

North America and Europe. but strong timber.

employed

It

yields a light

Norway Spruce

is

locally

manufacture of spruce beer by fermenting with yeast the leaves and twigs in a in the

sugar solution.

Monoecious evergreen tree to 40 m bark reddish brown, branches pendulous, pubescent or glabrous, bearing quadrangular leaves 14-18 long. Female cones cylindrical-oblong to 18 cm, woody and pendulous. Male cones catkin-like. Distribution Central and north European native. Introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Extensively grown for timber. Numerous horticultural cultivars used as ornamentals. Constituents Resin comprising a - and /? - piceaDescription tall;

mm

North American native, from New England to Texas and Florida. Introduced elsewhere, particularly in the mediterranean region. Especially on rich, light soils in newly Distribution

cleared land, field edges, roadsides. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated on a marketgarden scale in Carolina and elsewhere in the United States. Propagated from seed sown in spring or from root division in spring or autumn. Prefers sunny situation on deeply-

dug, nutrient-rich, well-drained

crop of vegetable leaf lifting roots in late ly in a

may

box of

be cut

when

15

A winter

may

autumn

damp

soils.

be obtained by and planting close-

peat, kept indoors; leaf

cm

long.

Neutral principle, phytolaccin; alkaloidal substance, phytolaccine; phylolaccic acid; phytolaccatoxin (cyanchotoxin) Constituents (root)

238

Quassia Jamaican

pimarolic, piceapimarinic and piceapimaric

and juroresene; also volatile oil. Burgundy pitch, wood) Burgundy pitch was formerly used in counter-irritant plasters for the treatment of lumbago, rheumatism and chronic bronchitis. Young tips (the spray) used in beer manu-

Quassia/Bitter Ash

name given by Linnaeus amara L in honour of a Guyanan slave called Quassi who had used the wood from this 2 m-high shrub to treat fevers. Quassia amara L or the Bitter Wood of Surinam (Surinam Quassia was therefore introduced to Europe (1756) and entered the London Quassia was a generic

to Quassia

1

Pharmacopoeia in 1788. By 79 however the much larger, but closely related, West Indian tree, Picrasma excelsa (then known as Quassia excelsa Swartz] had been shown to possess very similar properties and this so-called Bitter Wood of Jamaica was imported to England. It replaced Surinam Quassia in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1

Norway Spruce is

Picrasma excelsa (SW.) Planchon simarubaceae

1

1809, but in several other countries - including

Holland and Germany - Quassia amara has remained to this day the official Quassia. The Indians use another related plant, Picrasma quassioides

Benn.

for exactly the

Description Ash-like tree to 20

same purposes.

m

tall;

leaves

opposite, entire, unequally pinnate; the leaflets

pointed at both ends, ovate. Flowers

conspicuous, greenish, appearing late to

early

winter;

followed

in-

autumn

by shiny black

drupes. Distribution Native to West Indies, particularly Jamaica (on lower mountains and plains), St Vincent and Antigua. Cultivation Wild. Trees felled and sawn into

m

long for export for quassia chip

acids

logs

Uses (resin,

manufacture and

2

for

local

pharmaceutical

processing. Constituents sin,

a- and /?-piceaand neoquassin, to

Resin comprising

isoquassin (picrasmini

facture in north Europe.

which the action is due. Uses (stem wood) Bitter tonic: stomachic:

The

insecticide.

timber, white deal, is of great economic importance and a main source of paper pulp.

benefit

in

A powerful loss

non-astringent bitter of

of appetite

due

to

gastric

PIC-PIM debility.

Stimulates

and an enema to

also entered into the composition of several

gall-bladder

the

Once used

gastric secretion

as

Hop

substitute to render ale bitter.

Of

may be

used as a

its its

high cost, and it is often replaced by Chinese Anise (Illicium verum Hook). Description Aromatic, pubescent annual on thin root, to 75 cm tall. Stems erect, bearing long-petiolate, simple, coarsely-toothed, reni-

Infusions of Quassia chips, sweetened with sugar, or used alone,

aphrodisiac mixtures. In recent years

use as a flavouring has declined because of

classic

eradicate threadworm, and as an ingredient of lotions to destroy pediculi and other parasites. Roasted, powdered wood once employed as a

fly killer.

form lower leaves, 2.5-5 cm l° n g> an<^ 2 or 3 lobed, cuneate, entire or toothed upper leaves.

service as a horticultural insecticide des-

troying red spider, woolly aphids and greenfly. Contra-indications Large doses iritate the stom-

Flowers whitish, small, numerous in open, thin, compound umbels; appearing late sum-

ach and cause vomiting.

mer ish,

to early

autumn, and followed by brown-

ribbed, aromatic, ovate

fruit.

Egypt, the Levant and parts of the eastern mediterranean. On dry poor soils in sunny situations. Cultivation Wild, or occasionally wild as an escape. Widely cultivated commercially in

Distribution

Indigenous

many warm

to

countries,

particularly

India,

Turkey, south mediterranean region, Mexico, Chile and Soviet Union. Propagate from seed sown in spring, later thinning to 30 cm apart; cannot be transplanted successfully. Will not produce ripe seeds in cold northern zones. Constituents

(seed)

Volatile

comprising mainly anethole

oil

(to

(to

85°

),

3.5%) methyl

chavicol (estragol) (to 15%); also fixed oil (to 20° ); starch; choline; sugars; mucilage. entire, glossy

to

12.5

cm

and leathery; oblong-lanceolate

long.

Flowers small

(to

mm

7.5

many-flowered cymes borne in Appearing mid-summer to early autumn and followed by dark brown, wide white,

in

the upper axils.

globose, 6 Distribution

co,

West

mm

Native Indies.

Prefers hilly Cultivation

wide. 2-celled berries.

Central America, MexiIntroduced to Indonesia. soils.

Wild. Cultivated commercially in

Central America; collected commercially in May be propagated by cuttings or

Jamaica.

layering, but in northern zones only

to volatile oil content.

Uses (ripe seed, fresh leaf, occasionally oil)

Mild expectorant carminative galactagogue ;

weak

;

diuretic; laxative; antispasmodic.

Especially effective in flatulence or flatulent

Aids digestion and improves the appetite by promotion of gastric secretions. Stimulates the mammary gland secretions and acts as a cough suppressant. Used in the treatment of bronchial catarrh. Used in combination with other laxatives. Once emploved in asthma powders. The oil may be combined satisfactorily with colic.

to

environments on calcareous

Action mostly due

grown

as a

non-flowering greenhouse ornamental.

myrtaceae

Pimenta dioica (L) Merr.

Constituenti Volatile oil (to

Allspice Pimento/Jamaica Pepper Must of the European supplies <>l Allspice ome from Jamaica where plantations ol n.it ural woodland consisting predominantly oi these trees are called Pimento walks. The berries an harvested by hand when green and unripe. and then either sun or kiln-dried. he name Pimento derives from the Spanish i

I

pimienta or pimiento similarity in shape

meaning pepper,

after tin-

4.5%) comprising

mainly eugenol (to 65%), also cineole, phellandrene, caryophyllene. Uses (dried unripe berries, oil) Carminative; aromatic stimulant. Used as the source of oil of Pimento, which was once employed as a carminative-.

Powdered berries are of benefit in and to disguise the uste

flatulence, dyspepsia ol

They may also be stimulant lotions and plasters.

disagreeable medicines.

incorporated

in

peppercorns. Pimienta

Print ipally used as a flavouring in rice, curries,

comes from the medieval term pigmentum meaning spicery. The spi<e was first imported to Britain in the early seventeenth entury and variously ailed Pimienta de Chapa and Pimienta de 1 abasia.

puddings and cakes, and in pickling. The tree provides wood which was one e much used in the manufacture of umbrella handles and walking sticks.

to

itself

<

before

Ray

in

<

[693 described

it

as

Allspict

combination of the flavours <>l cinnamon, nutmeg and loves. Botanically it has been lassified as Myrtus ilimia L, M. pimenta L, Eugenia pimenta DC, and Pimenta officinalis Lindl. the last nam< emphasizing that the plant was included in the official British Pharmacopoeia from 1721 to because of

its

<

<

191

1

Aromatic evergreen tree to 13 m, resembling a large Myrtle; haves petiolati Description

Pimpmella amsum L umbelliferae Anise Aniseed

Aniseed is one of the most ancient of spices and was cultivated by the Egyptians and later by the Greeks and Arabs. The early Arabic name was anysum from which was derived the Greek anison or anneson and the Latin anisum. Dioscorides considered that Egyptian Aniseed was sec ond only to that grown in Crete. In the Middle Ages it was largely used as a spue and as a carminative medicine, but it

239

PIM-PLA liquorice in cough lozenges, or used alone as an

may

antiseptic.

and

Important

manufacturing industries

in

as a

flavouring for food, liqueurs. Fresh leaf may be used in salads. Seed is added to vegetable

chewed

curries, or

sweeten the breath.

to

It

is

occasionally used in perfumery, for example, as a constituent of eau

de Cologne.

although

certainly used by the ancients

it

be the kaukalis which Dioscorides referred

Formerly employed

as a

mild sedative and

externally as a poultice or bath to treat wounds.

The young fresh leaf can be included in salads. The oil has limited use in certain liqueurs as a

PINACEAE

Dwarf Mountain Pine This variety of Mountain Pine a pure essential oil as

W

which

is

the source of

is

variously described

The Rumanian,

Pini Pumiliones.

Swiss,

the

in

oil

is

retained

Yugoslavian.

Hungarian, Austrian and Czechoslovakian pharmacopoeias, and it is especially popular in Swiss. Italian and Hungarian medicinal use. Pumilio Pine Oil is produced by distillation of the fresh young needles (which are shown in the illustration, below). It has been used since

*'

at least the

In

diseases,

Dr

James

Prosser

described

its

and suggested

its

use in an atomizer

Description Low prostrate shrub with glabrous, dark brownish, erect branchlets, and a grey somewhat scaly bark. Leaves to 3.5 cm long,

crowded in clusters or fasciCones dark brown to yellowish, almost sessile, deciduous and dehis-

stiff,

cles,

needle-like,

bright

green.

cent, ovoid to 4

cm

long.

Native to the mountains ofsouthern and central Europe. Rarely introduced elsewhere. Often on light, sandy or rocky soils. Distribution

German

physicians used

it

particularly from

Middle Ages onwards and it appeared in a number of pharmacopoeias including those of Augsburg (1640), Wiirttemberg 11741 and the

Prussia (1799- 1829). In seventeenth-century

Germany

is

was an

ingredient of "magic powders'. Description Perennial

taproot.

on unpleasantly smelling

Stem 30-100 cm

hairy, finely furrowed;

pinnate

1-2.5

strong, slightly 1

or 2-

with

leaves,

segments,

tall,

bearing few

cm

ovate to lanceolate l° n S- Flowers white or

compound umbels to 5 cm diameter. Appearing late summer to early autumn. pink in

Distribution

Native

to

Europe, Middle East and

and naturalized in New Zealand and the United States. On dry, grassy, shallow, stony and calcareous soils in warm situations to 2500 m altitude. Siberia. Introduced

Cultivation

Wild.

comprising coumarinic substances including isopimpinellin and pimpinellin; saponosides; bitter princiConstituents Volatile oil (to o.4°

i

ples; resin; tannic acid.

Uses

(dried

root,

occasionally

fresh

root

Expectorant; vulnerary; diuretic; stomachic; antiseptic; weak galactagogue; weak sedative. May be used in combination with other remedies for genito-urinary infections. Alone it is of benefit in the treatment of respiratory

upper respiratory and throat infections in the

tract catarrh, tions

240

tract

infec-

latter case

it

sub-

Stimulant; counter-irritant appears to possess slight anaesthetic properties. Inhaled as steam, the oil is of benefit in the treatment of coughs, laryngitis, chronic bronchitis, catarrh, asthma and other respiratory diseases since it exerts dilatatory action on the bronchi, the oil may be taken internally in small doses in the form of lozenges, syrups, or on sugar. The infusion of leaves is inhaled in the treatment of similar

sometimes

respiratory disorders.

Cultivation

Wild plant infrequently cultivated

horticulturally as an ornamental. Constituents

(oil)

Esters

Piper betle L piperacae Betel Betel Leaf

Betel as

chewing

popular

peans.

as

is

a habit

among Malays almost among Euro-

tobacco smoking

The method

consists of rolling

up a

slice

Nut (Areca catechu L with a little Lime (Chunami (made by burning seashellsi, inside a leaf of Betel, and then slowly chewing the

or Areca

called a quid.

Chavica siriboa

Miq.

is

sometimes used as a

substitute for Betel Leaf.

Shrub, climbing by adventitious semi-woody, enlarged at nodes, bearing entire, or undulate, thick, glo^\ broadly ovate, slightly cordate leaves on 2.5 cm long petioles. Flowers yellowish in dense pendulous cylindrical spikes to 5 cm long: followed by fleshy fruit. Distribution Indigenous to India, Ceylon and Malaysia. Introduced elsewhere. Requires hot and moist environment, in partial shade. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in India and the Far East. comprisConstituents Essential oil 0.2— 1.0% ing cadenene, chavicol, chavibetol and sesDescription

rootlets; stems

to disinfect sickrooms.

#

unknown

Uses (fresh leaves

and

mixture

seventeenth century.

Britain,

beneficial action in 1888 for certain respiratory

n

(leaves,) Esters; resins;

Pumilio Pine Oil, Pine Needle Oil and

Oleum

to in his writings.

mainly bornyl acetate,

small quantities of glycosides; stances.

Pinus mugo var. pumilio (Haenke) Zenari

Burnet Saxifrage This somewhat variable herb is widely distributed throughout much of Europe but was not

may

internally.

bitter flavouring.

L umbelliferae

Pimpinella saxifraga

be used as a gargle. It promotes gastric gland secretions when taken

mammary

(4-10%) comprising

quiterpenes; also sugars; starch: tannic acid:

PIM-PLA acid; diastase (to 2",,

Ceylon, India and the East Indies.

.

Stimulant; antiseptic; carminative; sialogogue; tonic; stomachic. Leaves commonly employed as a masticatory Uses (leaves,

oil)

in the East; they act as a general tonic, pro-

mote

and

salivary

gastric

secretions,

digestion, decrease perspiration

aid

and increase

physical endurance.

Constituents Volatile oii

cubebic acid

Cubeb

L piperaceae

comprising

1%), cubebin, cadinene, several terpenes and sesquiterpenes; resin: fixed oil; starch; calcium and magnesium malate. Action largely due to cubebic acid which has a local irritant and stimulant effect on mucous membranes. dried

Uses Piper cubeba

(5-2O o

(to

unripe

fruit,

occasionally

oil)

Antiseptic; diuretic; stimulant; expectorant:

Cubebs/Tailed Pepper the East Indian name

Cubeb was

for this spice

stomachic; carminative. Once used in the treatment of genito-urinary tract infections, including gonorrhoea. May be of benefit in cystitis, indigestion, and if incorporated in lozenges, can be used for coughs, bronchitis and respiratory complaints. Formerly employed in the United States in asthma cigarettes. Principally of use as a condiment; the flavour

resembles Allspice, and

and

is

suitable for sauces

fruit dishes.

Piper nigrum L piperaceae Pepper Black Pepper

Historically one of the most important spices

the alkaloids piperine, piperidine

which has been very highly prized since the earliest days of East-West trade. It has been used as a form of currency: during the siege of Rome a.d. 408 part of the city's ransom was paid in Pepper berries, and a thousand years later "pepper rents' were commonly paid to landlords. The quest for Pepper by European nations led them to discover a maritime route to the East. During the Middle Ages much of the- wealth of Venice was derived from its Pepper trade. In England the control of the spice trade was in the hands of the Guild of Pepperers (or

ine;

derived from Piper or Pepper

Piperarit

from

Guild was later to become incorporated with the Grocers Company, which in turn eventually lost its control over clings and spit es to the apothecaries. P. nigrum as early as

which

as early as the tenth century

was recog-

nized by the Arabs to be a product ol Java. authorities consider that the Arabic

Some word

kababe

referred fruit.

to

a

was

a

collective

number

Indeed,

even

ol

in

which

term

similar cubeb-like

modern

times

the

peppercorn-like berries are frequently adulterated with inferior Piper species such as

and The spice has enjoyed varying popularity. In the thirteenth century it was Commonly found in Europe as a medic ine and as a condiment, but by the- end of the- seventeenth century it was both uncommon and expensive. In England it had fallen into almost complete disuse by the early nineteenth century, but was reintroduced in 1815 alter Piper crassipes, P. ribesundes, P. mollissimum

P.

muncatum.

verification of

medical

therapeutic effects b\ serving in the far East

its

office rs

Arms

t

picking the

produce

:

this

White Pepper. Instead unripe berries and drying them

source- of

also the

is

154

<>l

dark skin (pericarp White Peppei was to Theophrastus and his Greek contemporaries but In the Middle Ages it had lost its popularity. Although still used most White Pepper is now. in lac 1, decorticated Pepper in .

known

that the outer layer by

is

incompletely removed

machinery

/) cription

and chavic-

piperettine which

hydrolyzes to piperidine and piperettic acid; traces of

hydrocyanic acid; resins

starch

30%

to

(to

6%

:

.

dried unripe fruit) Stomachic; carmin-

Uses

ative; aromatic stimulant; antibacterial; insecticide; diaphoretic.

Stimulates taste-buds and thus causes reflex stimulation of gastric secretions. atonic

membranes and and

Also

dyspepsia.

Employed in mucous

stimulates

part of the nervous system,

body temperature. May be used as a and externally as a rubefacient. East

raises

gargle,

Africans use

as

it

an abortifacient. They also

consider that the body odour resulting from eating the

fruit repels

Mostly employed

mosquitoes.

as a stimulating

and food preservative,

as,

for

condiment

example,

in

sausage meats. Plantago major L plantaginaceae Greater Plantain Rat-tail Plantain/ Wavbread This and some closely related Plantago

major var. asiatica Decne.

as P.

sue h

lanceolata

L have

species

and

P.

a long traditional use in the

treatment of sores which has recently been by modern examination of the

vindicated

plant's action.

Perennial

climbing shrub: stem strong and woody bearing tdossv prominently nerved, ovate-oblong to orbicular leaves, to 18 cm loncj; and 12cm wide, on 2 cm long petioles. Flowers white-, usually dioecious, on glabrous spike-s from 5 15 cm long. Followed In (> diameter globose, yellow and then red, fruit. .

mm

Distribution

compound

yellow

to

black variety, the fruit is allowed to ripen on the \ me and then soaked to removethe

tin

a

Native- to southern

India; intro-

The

unattractive and tenacious Plantains are

the scourge of gardeners, but

many

are

still

highly respected in folk medicine from Africa

Vietnam.

to

Leaves entire or

Description Perennial.

slightly

toothed, long petioled, ovate to elliptic,

cm

5-20

forming a basal rosette. Leaves prominently 7-veincd and no more than twice as long as the petiole. Flowers inconspicuous wide, numerous, yellowish-green, with 3 lilac and then yellow anthers; on cylindrical long,

Climbing perennial or shrub; stems smooth and flcxuous, bearing glabrous entire, acuminate, petiolate, oblong or ovate-oblong, coriaceous and obliquely cordate leaves. Flowen dioee ions, in spikes, and followed l)\ brownish globose fruit to *> nun diam<

duced

and China; frequently

Distribution Native- to

Distribution Native to south-east

w

other temperate zones. Widely distributed on cultivated land, wasteland and roadside.

Description

i<

ally

1

Asia, especi-

Sumatra and Java. Introduced elsewhe n

Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially

in

Brazil.

to

tropical Asia.

Malagas)

In tropical forests: requires

Republic. shade and

high humidity Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially

Indonesia, South India. West

ill)

Indies.

in

Brazil

in mixed plantations other lucrative Crops SUCh as Coffee. Will

yield a crop for

approximately 10 years. 2.5%), comprising

Constituents Volatile oil (to

mm

spike 5 to

40

cm

lout;.

Appearing

earl)

summer

mid-autumn.

Prefers

moist

Europe. Introduced

to

sandy or loamy nutrient-rich

24

l

PLA-POL but tolerates most conditions. Wild plant. In eastern

soils,

Cultivation

commercial cultivation of

P. lanceolata L. has

recently begun. Constituents

Mucilage;

(leaf)

bin (rhinanthin)

pentacyclic

a

;

the

enzymes emulsin and

invertin; potassium salts (too.5°

22%);

)

;

citric acid.

a trisaccharide, plante-

ose; aucubin; choline; various organic acids.

Uses (dried leaves, seed) Vulnerary; diuretic;

expectorant; astringent; bacteriostatic. Principally of use as a poultice, ointment or in decoctionfortheexternal treatment of wounds, ulcers

and

eye-wash

bites.

in

Dioscorides'

day,

derived from the Greek for flea ipsylla) - an allusion to the seed's appearance. Apothecaries

triterpene, oleanolic acid; a glycoside, aucu-

(seed) Oil (to

They have been used since and the specific name is

Psyllium.

as

Europe

Also used as a gargle and as an

blepharitis

and

conjunctivitis.

called the seed Pulicariae, from the Latin for flea.

In India P. ovata Forskal,

commonly known

Ispaghula,

precisely

used

is

may

purposes, and

for

the

as

same

therefore replace Psyllium.

Annual with

erect thin hairy stems bearing sessile, long thin (acicular) grey-green glandular leaves; opposite or in whorls of 3-6 leaves. Flowers small, numerous, white, in globose spikes borne on long peduncles; appearing late spring to late summer, and followed by 2-3 long, dark Description

IO ~35

cm

ta U>

mm

brown

glossy seeds.

Native to the mediterranean reFrance, Spain and North Africa. On poor, dry sandy soils in full sun. Cultivation'Wild. Cultivated commercially from Distribution

gion;

especially

seed sown in the spring.

and followed

mucilage

Constituents Oil;

to

10%

.

compris-

Distribution

onic acid, to which

to Florida

therapeutic action

is

due.

soils

Emollient

seeds

Usei

Used

treatment of chronic constipation; mucilage swells considerably in water and the gelatinous mass acts as a bulk the

in the

seed's

purgative.

The

emollient action makes this

herb also suitable for use in severe diarrhoea. It can be used as a soothing eye lotion. Young leaves may be added to salads.

Employed

The

plant has the ability to destroy a wide

range of micro-organisms, and stimulates the

in

Wild.

Cultivation

Collected commercially

cosmetic preparations,

May

eastern North America.

in

be propagated

by division of root-stock in the autumn, or from seed sown in the spring. Requires damp, humus-rich soils, and partial shade. Constituents Podophyllotoxin and related substances such as picropodophyllin: podophylloresin; qucrcetin; a-

industrially to dress muslin.

An ingredient of certain

long,

streams.

laxative.

;

35 cm

fruit.

North American native from Texas and Quebec. On damp nitrogenous open woodland, pastures and near

ing xylose, arabinose, galactose, and galacturits

autumn by

in early

ovoid, yellow edible

and

/J-peltatin; starch;

(lavonoids. Purgative action

due

to the

podo-

phyllotoxin and podophylloresin content.

such as face masks.

American Mandrake Podophyllum/

Podophyllin or podophyllum resin is produced by adding the alcoholic tincture to water. Usei (rhizome, Podophyllum resin Powerful

in constipation.

Common

purgative; gastro-intestinal irritant; antihel-

Formerly used to treat various haemorrhages including post-partum haemorrhage; also bronchitis, bronchial catarrh and coughs. An

The name May-apple

healing process (epithelization

The

.

may

be employed internally to treat diarrhoea, and conversely the seed is of benefit leaf

effective diuretic.

The young

Plantago psyllium

Psyllium

Employed homcopathically.

leaf was once used as a pot-herb.

L plantaginaceae

Flea Seed

Seeds from several Plantago species which have the ability to swell in water due to their high mucilage content have been used for medicinal

and other purposes. P. psyllium and P. indica L. seeds are rich in mucilage and both are commercially known

L berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum

May-apple is

and acidic

that the juicy

derived from the fact

mintic; anti-mitotic. Used locally externally

sometimes

soft venereal warts and on other warts. Both resin and rhizome have been employed as a purgative in cases of chronic constipation with associated liver complaints, although

fruits are

eaten, and, despite their laxative effects, they

were once on

sale in

some American markets.

All other parts of the plant must, however, be

on

considered as poisonous, and the powerful nature of the dried rhizome is emphasized by

actual choleretic action

is

Normally combined with

less drastic

the size of the therapeutic dose - 0.12 of a

Contra-indications

gram. American Mandrake was long used as an emetic by the Indians; but its purgative effect was introduced to medicine by Schopf who was the physician to German 1787

severe

fighting

soldiers

Independence.

It

in

the

first

American War of entered

the

United

Pharmacopoeia in 1820 and is also in the Spanish and Portugese pharmacopoeias

remedies.

POISONOUS. May

cause

or

poly-

gastro-intestinal

irritation

External application must be care-

neuritis. fully

not substantiated.

restricted

to

abnormal

tissue

only:

systemic absorption has been shown to cause poisoning. Not to be used during pregnancy.

Only

to

be used b\ medical personnel.

States

although

now

lum The

resin.

for

foot-leaf;

generic

only as the source of Podophyl-

is

derived from the Greek

while peltatum

means

shield-

on reddish-brown, long 5-15 mm diameter. Stems simple, erect to 45 cm, bearing or 2, 7-9 deeply lobed drooping leaves, to 30 cm wide. Flowers white, borne singly on nodding peduncle in the stem bifurcation between 2 leaves. Petals fleshy, 6 or 9; stamens 12 or 18; corolla to 5 cm wide. Appearing early summer Description Perennial _'

m

1,

cylindrical rhizome

1

242

has one of the strongest and most perfumes known and for this reason was traditionally used to scent Indian linen, to distinguish material of Indian nrisrin. Several of the 40 species in the genus Pogostemon are now used as a source of Patchouli oil,

Patchouli

name

shaped. to

Pogostemon patchouli Pellet labiatae

Patchouli oil

distinctive

which has therefore become of somewhat variable

quality.

Besides

known

P.

patchouli

Pell.

and Blanco Benth. Patchouli is mostly derived from the Javanese species P. comosus Miq. Alternative sources from different genera which

is

P. cablin

also

as P. heyeanus Benth. ,

PLA-POL commonly found;

include Microtaena cymosa Prain and Plectran-

species

thus patchouli Clarke.

properties as P. vulgaris but

m

and hence

Description Aromatic perennial to stems erect, square, slightly hirsute, bearing opposite, ovate or triangular leaves approximately 3-5 cm long. Flowers whitish, often i

marked with purple, arranged terminal and axillary spikes.

in

tall;

has the same

it it

more

is

bitter

acts as a bitter tonic. Early writers

was the polygala and and Dioscorides respectively - both from the Greek meaning much milk but this cannot be certain and several Milkdecided that P.

vulgaris

polugalon of Pliny

groups on

now

wort's

and

the

retain

traditional

virtue of

India; introduced to West Indies and parts of South America. Requires tropical or sub-

being galactogogues. Description Perennial 10-30 cm tall, with erect or decumbent stems. Leaves alternate, ever-

tropical conditions.

green, obovate to lanceolate,

Native

Distribution

south-east

to

Asia

Wild. Cultivated commercially and

Cultivation

5-35

mm

long.

Flowers usually blue, occasionally pink or whitish, in loose racemes; appearing early

horticulturally from seed sown in the spring, or by division of root-stock in spring or autumn, or from cuttings taken in late spring. May be grown as a greenhouse plant in temperate zones. Use a rich or medium-rich potting compost, and strike heeled cuttings in high

summer

autumn. to Europe; on grassland, heathland, mountain pastures, in sandy, wellto early

Distribution

drained,

Native

humus-rich

but

to

soils

m

2000

altitude.

humidity.

Wild. Propagate from seed sown in

Cultivation

comprising cadinene, stearoptene and related compounds. Obtained from leaves by distillation. Constituents Oil

Uses (dried leaves,

oil)

Not commonly used

Once considered

Antiseptic; insecticide.

for

medicinal purposes.

to act as a stimulant.

Principally of use as a perfume.

employed

a

in

The

oil

may

be

wide range of cosmetic pre-

parations, including soaps.

It

is

also used in

incense. Leaves can be incorporated in potpourris,

scented sachets and other scented

articles.

Valerianae graecae, was still retained in some European pharmacopoeias and was employed predominantly as an antisyphilitic agent or in

the treatment of rabies.

The common name

refers to the ladder-like

shape of the leaves. Description Perennial from 30 cm to m tall; stems erect bearing short, petiolate or sessile, alternate, pinnate leaves. Basal leaves from 1

12.5

7.5

cm

long, long-petiolatc. the petioles

being winged; 1-21 lanceolate than stem leaves, from 15

leaflets large)

1

mm

I

lowers blue, 5-petalled, 3

drooping

panicles,

to 2

cm

appearing

cm

long.

diameter, late

in

mid-

to

summer. European

Distribution

native.

Introduced

to

temperate zones.

damp

Prefers

soils

near streams in the partial

shade of woodland. Wild, usually rare and localized. garden escape. Cultivated horticulturally from seed sown in spring or by

soil

autumn. Requires rich, soil and the addition of

ine

Cultivation

Found

as a

division

the

in

moisture-retaining lime.

Mowers larger

;

/'.

lilac

Bcnth.

has

white caeruleum var. himalayanum Baker lias -blue Mowers. Both may be found in

caeruleum

/'.

var.

lacteum

cultivation as Jacob's Ladder. Constituents

Unknown.

Polemonium

is

herb which

;i

into disuse. poll

in

an ancienl It

murium ,mrl

wine

in

name

lias

now

was known lo the root was oik

I

c

<>l

uncertain

largely fallen )ios( 01

late

a

to possess

Weak blood-

Principally ol horticultural use in formal histoi H al

administered

cases ol dysentery, toothache

and

[830 the herb, then called Herba

do not cover with

comprising gaulthcr-

and other compounds; saponins; polygalic acid and senegine; mucilage; resin. / ses (dried whole plant, dried root) Expectorr

ant; diuretic; laxative; stomachic. Traditionally considered to be a galactogogue,

unsubstantiated.

is

Of

use in bron-

and pulmonary complaints, often com-

bined with other remedies; but not effective as once supposed.

in

asthma

The is

leaves

and

root

similar to Saponaria

make

a crude soap

officinalis

but

which

less effective.

and

gardens.

Polygonum

bistorta

L polygonaceae

Bistort Snake Rooi/Snakeweed

ides as

againsi the bites ol poisonous animals. \

Once considered

Constituents Essential oil,

chitis

purilying qualities, but now no longer used lor medicinal purposes.

PolemOTlium caeruleum L POLEMONIACEAE Jacob's Ladder Chains (.nek Valerian

origin lor

.

surface;

soil

or germination will be poor.

but this

Uses (dried flowering plant, dried toot

diaphoretic

spring on the

L polyoalacbai Milkwort

Polygala vulgaris

Bistort belongs to the- knotweeel genus,

Common

members of which

In ha Iky areas and in continental Km ope the very similar Bitter Milkwort /'. amarn I, is the 1

swollen

or

man)

are characterized by their

jointed

stems.

means nianv-kneed from

Polygonum the

itself

stem's shape.

t;

POL POT rhizome and

Bistorta describes the

Latin

shape of the underground

known

is

from the

twice twisted, after the snake-like

for

parts. It used to

be

as Serpentaria or Serpentaria rubra (after

the red colour within the blackish rhizome)

which has

some confusion since both L and Arum maculatum L Serpentaria in the sixteenth and

led to

haemorrhoids. The powdered rhizome Once used in the treatment of tuberculosis faction uncertain The root is edible after it has been soaked in water and then roasted.

and

to

acts as a styptic.

.

Young

shoots

and leaves may be boiled and

decaying tree trunks. Requires damp, shady sheltered conditions.

Wild. Several varieties cultivated most of these forms being characterized by attractive foliage. Cultivation

for horticultural purposes;

Constituents

Essential

oil;

mucilage:

sugars;

Artemisia dracunculus

eaten as spring greens.

tannic

were

Used

polypodine; various mineral salts. Cholagogue action largely due to polypodine.

also called

seventeenth centuries. There are over 200 species of Polygonum and

one was not introduced into medical practice until the Renaissance; the leaf, howthis

ever

is still

included

in the

Pharmacoppharmacopoeias of Swiss

in veterinary

medicine.

Polypodium vulgare L polypodiaceae Polypody Root Common Polypody

Dioscorides

knew

a purgative.

He

herb.

mucilaginous root as a poultice

on thick, somewhat flattened and twisted S-shaped rhizome; stem m tall. erect 25 50 cm or occasionallv to Radical leaves broadly ovate or lanceolate, lighter and hairy beneath, 5 15 cm long, outline wavy stem leaves sparse, smaller, triangu-

fractured fingers.

Description Perennial

1

drug and prescribed

it

also used the pulverized fresh for

sprained or

Cholagogue; expector-

Small doses promote the appetite: stronger decoctions are useful in the treatment of chest infections,

and bronchial catarrh. mild laxative and anti-

coughs,

Large doses act

as a

Populus candicans Ait. salicaceae

Balm of Gilead

in

The

was usually only used for its expectorant action, which is weak. A related Peruvian Polypody, P- calaguala Ruiz whose

used

It is

now

rarely used

and

it

Poplar Buds

Balm of Gilead has been

descriptive term for a

number

of different plants.

of

first

it

is

extinct in

its

Indian and Egyptian homes, although

,

One

and possibly the original Balm of the Bible was the oleo-resin obtained from Balsamodendron opobalsamum Kunth. also called the Balm of Mecca. Miraculous properties wereonce attributed to this aromatic substance but it is now obsolete in Europe and most the

authorities consider

opening. Flowers pale pink or rarel)

diameter in white, numerous, small (4 dense solitary, cylindrical terminal spikes <>l

mm

saponoside,

as

;

mm

a

helmintic with some action against tapeworms. the

lar-acuminate. Petioles variable in length and triangular in section; leaves iolded longitudinally before

resins;

Uses (dried rhizome

footed.

the past

bitter

ant; laxative; antihelmintic.

Brake Root Both the generic and common names of this fern refer to the branching habit of the rhizome; the Latin polypodium means many-

and the rhizome in the France and Russia. It was certainly an important food in the spring in northern countries from earliest times sometimes even being cultivated as a garden

oeia

acid;

former it

mav

survive locally in the Middle East.

Canada Balsam from

mid-summer

Wild plant. Tannic acid to 20% oxalic acid vitamin C; starch action due to the astringen-

Abies bahamea Marshall was also once called Balm of Gilead. but the commercial product is now derived from P. candicans which is also known as P. balsamijera var. candicans Gray and P. gileadensis Rouleau and from the Balsam Poplar, P. balsamijera L. also called P. tacamahacca Mill. It is probable that several other substitutes from the Poplar family such as P. tremuloides Michx. are

cy of the tannins.

known

Uses (dried rhizome) Strong astringent; anti-

Description

10

15

diameter. Appearing

autumn. Distribution European to early

native.

On

moist

silice-

ous nutrient-rich grassland, mixed woodland, fenland and alpine mats. Particularly on higher ground, and Frequently near water. Cultivation

Constituents

:

.

;

I

;

;

Useful in decoction or infusion for diarrhoea or

aphthous ulcers, stomatitis and Applied externally to cuts or sores

as a gargle in

common name

is

Calahualae

was shown

in

the 1930s to possess better expectorant qualities

than

this species.

Description

Perennial fern on long creeping

somewhat flattened rhizome to 10 mm thick, bearing numerous brown scales, and from which the stipes grow to 10-50 cm. Leaves smooth, deeply pinnate, with 20-40 lanceolate, alternate and opposite, obtuse or semiacute sometimes curved, segments; midribs prominent. Sporangia in light brown circular sori

arranged either side of main segmental

nerve.

Native to Europe, western Asia: introduced to North America and other temperate regions. Frequently found on old walls, rocky ground, woodland, ruins and old Distribution

244

Balm of Gilead.

Tree to 20 m occasionally to 30 m spreading with open and irregular top: leaves

inflammatory vulnerary.

gingivitis.

as

.

POL-POT dark

above,

lighter

and

beneath,

hirsute

Native from Greece to Introduced elsewhere. On dry, sano

Distribution

cordate, alternate, petiolate. broad-ovate or

cm on g- Flowers in drooping to 15 cm long. Winter leaf buds

10-15

deltoid,

scaly catkins

'

and highly aromatic.

sticky, resinous

Distribution

Uncertain origin. Introduced and temperate countries.

Frequently beside rivers. Wild. Cultivated horticulturally as aromatic garden ornamental. Cultivation

Oleo-resin;

compounds

salicylic

including salicin and salicin benzoate; buds yield to 40° of an alcohol-soluble extractive. Uses dried or rarely fresh leaf buds, occasion(

ally

Antiseptic:

oleo-resin;

rubefacient: ex-

pectorant.

Used

internally

respiratory

coughs,

in

and

laryngitis

employed

treatment of upper

the

bronchitis.

ointments

in

particularly

infections,

tract

for

May

external

be

appli-

cation to relieve the local pain and irritation of arthritis, cuts

and

An

bruises.

excellent gargle

for sore throats.

The buds can where

articles is

be used in a range of scented a

heavy resinous balsamic aroma

Wild. Cultivated horticultura'

Cultivation

t

Purslane has long been used as a foodstuff

early autumn on light, well-drained soil; water well and harvest 6-8 weeks after sowing. Leaves of the cultivated varieties may be less sharp than the wild plant. Constituents

plant

i

collected from the wild

in

Africa,

organic acids

pulmonary and

The

skin diseases.

spring crop can be obtained by successive

when

plantings on hotbeds or in frames. Grown semi-commercially in France, Italv and Holland.

used fresh and

may

remedies

the

for

erties,

and

The

be incorporated with other

treatment of urino-genital

low blood pressure

in conditions of to

induce more vigorous contracsubtropical coun-

in several

somewhat fleshy,

ipatulate, sessile leaves

Flowers small in groups

or

summei seed

1

;

7.5 of

9

mm

the petals soon

apsule.

yellow,

1,

or

.'

cm

long.

sessile, single

appearing ill and reveal

3, I,

1

in

late

a small

Not

herb)

used

for

medicinal

The stem and

taste.

A

it

may

has a sharp

leaves are pickled for

traditional

ingredient of the

French soup bonne femme and the Middle East Portulaca oleracea v?LT. sativa

DC.

I.

salad, jattoush.

The

rULAC vcKAE

I'OK

Garden Purslane Green Kit<

attractive golden-leaved variety

north-west

in

Europe from the end of the sixteenth century end of the eighteenth entury, but in (

English speaking countries

now

is

it

rarely

grown.

Potentilla anserina L rosaceae Silverweed Wild Tansy There are more than 300 species

in the genus found in the northern temperate zones, and Silverweed is one of the most easily recognized with its silky-silver leaf undersides. This characteristic Potentilla,

varieties wen- developed from the Wild Purslane of which the Green, Golden and large-leaved Golden were the best known. Only the Green and Golden varieties are now easily obtained, the latter sometimes errone-

Several

led to both

most

its

of which

current

argent

Yellow Purslane. The true Yellow Purslane is I', lutea Soland and is found New /ealand. 111

meaning powerful

I

he

(

the

onimon name

is

from the old Latin name while oleracea means

lor the plant porcilocca]

vegetable garden herb used Description

plant

taller

,1

Annual. Similar

stems and

to

oleracea

/'.

<

leaves. Distribution

temperate and subdeveloped in tinsouthern Europe. Prefers

Widespread

tropical

/ones.

Middle

Last

in

Probably 01

nitrogen-rich, well-drained dryish

soils

m

lull

sun.

Only found Propagate as

Cultivation

in

ape.

for

1

15

•

20

cm

suIIk tent

apart

water

be possible from

in

the wild as a garden P.

oleracea L.

rows 30

<

m

Plant

apart.

II

given, 2 or g gatherings will each plant. winter and early

is

A

The generic name

common name and

is

the

Argentaria (from

from the Latin

potens

after the medicinal action of

the group, most of

which contain high per-

centages of tannin and are thus strong astringents.

Anserina

L but

50 m, with thi< kei green succulent spatulate

reat hing

bright

.1

cooking.

in

are

names Argentina and meaning silver).

earlier

ously being desc ribed as a separate species, P.

or

be

gardens.

hen-garden Purslane

sativa

may

used for horticultura] purposes in formal herb

Purslane/

until the

Annual or biennial with flesh) decumbent stems to 15 cm; pinkish, and bearing opposite,

(fresh

Uses

purposes. Principally eaten cooked but

winter use.

a salad herb.

emetic by the Zulu. or

Constituents Similar to P. oleracea L.

also be used sparingly in salads;

cooked vegetable and

a

.is

a useful diuretic

leaf has vasoconstrictive prop-

Extensively used tries

It is

Garden Purslane was popular

prostrate

seed and

root are reported to be antihelmintic but this

India and the Far East and used for culinary and medicinal purposes. The related plan! P. quadrifida L is used in South Africa as an Description

to

(2%). The combined action being predominantly diuretic and tonic. Uses (fresh herb Diuretic: tonic; anti-scorbutic. Due to its high vitamin C content the plant was once an important remedy for scurvy. It has also been used in a variety of

tions of the heart.

1

in

[%); sacchariferoid

duced into cultivation in Europe in the Middle Ages. It was first grown in England in 1582 but was probably well-known in 1.1 and France long before this a-- Ruellius described both the wild and erect cultivated garden form in 1536. 1

per 100 g fresh

in fresh, 7o

sitosterol: volatile oil; resins;

infections. in

mg

(700

salts (i°

dry plant); urea; oxalic acid: carotenoid pigments; alkaloids (o.03° ); glucoside: /?-

can be used

still

C

Vitamin

potassium

;

India and the Middle East, and was intro-

is

y for

Middle and Far East. A number of varieties and cultigens have been developed from this wild species. Propagate from seed sown successively from late spring to

has not been proved.

required.

\i Portulaca oleracea L PORTULACA( Purslane Wild Purslane/ Yellow Portulaca

It

n'tro-

sun.

soils in full

centuries in the

naturalized in several

Constituents

gen-rich weedy

J una.

comes

fron

e

Latin anserinus mean-

ing pertaining to geese, since the birds were

thought

to

be particularly partial to the leaves;

many animals

are happy to graze on the plant. The Silverweed has been identified as the Mynophyllon of Dioscorides who suggested boiling the plant in salted water lot the treatment of haemorrhages. Description Silkv perennial 20 40 cm tall, on short, thick root-Stock from which arise long creeping stolons (to 80 cm long) which toot at the nodes. Radical leaves 5-25 cm long, compound, pinnate, silvery-white and hairy beneath; 14 24 leaflets, 6 cm long, alternately large and small, oval, deeply dentate. 1

'I

I

POT-PR U Many

ations.

Rhatany

have noted that for economic

authorities

only

preferred

is

reasons, since the plants possess similar actions.

Rhatany was brought to women of Lima who preserve their teeth, while Tormen-

coincidental that

It is

the notice of Ruiz by the

used

to

it

was long used as an astringent tooth powder. P. erecta was apparently not widely tilla

used in medicine until the sixteenth centur\ it first found favour in the treatment of

when

the name Tormentilla is derived from the Latin tormina meaning colic. It is still employed widely in European folk

colic

;

medicine, and occasionally of

manufacture

in the

artists' colours.

10-40 cm tall on thick woody, long to 20 cm rhizome, reddish internally. Stems prostrate or more

Description Perennial,

cm

to 3

Flowers 5-petalled, golden yellow, to 2 cm diameter, borne singly on long stems arising

from the basal

rosette.

Appearing mid

to late

summer. where.

On

damp damp

soils;

native. Introduced else-

10-15 10-30

m

;

resins; flavours:

starch.

flowering

cm

sessile.

long,

Flowers

mm cm

yellow,

wide, l

only

carried

peduncles,

thin

4-petalled.

on

long

arising

from

singly

axils. Appearing from early summer autumn. Distribution Native to Europe. West Asia and

stem-leaf

Tannins; choline;

(dried

altitude.

1

'

embankments,

an alcohol, tormentol Uses

ovate, leaflets.

roadsides, railway

-2

narrow and long stalked. 3-lobed. broadh basal leaves, with v ° mrn long

nitrogen-rich, loamy, undisturbed

pastureland to 1500 Cultivation Wild. Constituents

usually erect, thin, branched, bearing

5-lobed stem leaves, with leaflets

European

Distribution

1,

plant,

dried

leaves,

to early

Siberia; rarer in the mediterranean region.

damp

On

occasionally root-stock) Astringent: antispas-

light,

modic; tonic; stomachic.

land, fenland, open deciduous and coniferous woodland, and often in hilly regions. To 2200

Used

in the

treatment of diarrhoea, painful

acidic,

menstruation weak action and as a digestive aid in indigestion. Formerly used to treat

m

various haemorrhages including those arising

Constituents

.

I

from haemorrhoids;

as a

douche

in

leucorr-

hoea, and for uterine spasms. Externally

it

may

soils,

particularly heath-

altitude.

Wild plant.

Cultivation

on

storage

Calcchol-iannins to 20% which convert to phlobaphcncs: an .

alcohol, tormentol; a glycoside, tormentillinc

be applied to cuts and wounds, and it is of use as a gargle in mouth complaints such as ulcers. Employed homeopathically. The roots

quinovic acid also found in Cinchona bark. Uses dried root-stock Astringent haemostat-

may

ic;

be roasted, boiled or eaten raw.

rosaceae Tormentil The red colouring matter found in the rootstock of this herb appears to be identical with a Potentilla erecta (L) Raiisch.

Tormentilla

substance

Common

known

as ratanhia-red present in

sugars;

starch:

a

bitter,

chinovic

acid

or

:

'

anti-inflammatory; vulnerary. A powerful remedy in severe diarrhoea, largely due to its high tannin content. Principally used to much benefit externally as an infusion

on

cuts,

wounds, abrasions and burns, includThe plant promotes epitheliz-

ing sunburn. ation.

It

is

also used as a lotion for topical

Sanguisorba means either blood-ball or blood stopping after both the appearance and action of the inflorescence and whole plant.

on woody root-stock forming a clump of branching grooved stems bearing leaves subdivided into serrate lobes, oblong or orbicular. 7 Flowers greenish or reddish brow n. small, in a dense rounded terminal panicle to 15 diameter; appearing early to mid-summer. Distribution Native to Europe and Asia: introduced and sometimes naturalized elsewhere. On dryish porous calcareous grassland, woodland edges, roadsides, in warm situations to Perennial

Description

20-70 cm 1

tall,

1

mm

1

700

m

altitude.

Wild. Cultivated as a salad herb

Cultivation

from seed sown

Remove

the root-bark of Krameria triandra Ruiz and Pav.

applications to haemorrhoids, frostbite, and as

Peruvian Rhatany, an astringent plant which was introduced to Europe in 796 by Hipolito Ruiz and which has now largely replaced Tormentilla in several official prepar-

a gargle in throat

the flowers to encourage production of leaf.

The powdered

Suitable as an edging plant in formal herb

or

1

and mouth inflammations. root-stock is an excellent

root

extract

is

used in certain forms of

The roots provide a red Once used in tanning.

dye.

A powerful astringent; must be used internally with care. Prolonged contact with the skin should be avoided, as it may cause scarring. L rosaceae Salad Burnet Garden Burnet Poterium sanguisorba

has been cultivated as a salad herb at least

since Lyte recorded

-'

{) \

Vitamin C;

essential oil; tannins;

was

also

it

(whole fresh or dried plant, fresh

i'ses

dried

rarely

Contra-indications

1578. but

Constituents

flavones; a saponoside.

schnapps.

It

spring or autumn.

garden designs.

styptic.

A

in

in Dodoens' Herball of

known

root-stock

leaf;

Astringent;

vulnerary; haemostatic; carminative; digestive.

Chewing

the leaf assists digestion,

w hile

in-

whole plant are of use in treating haemorrhoids or diarrhoea. The root decoction is an excellent haemostatic and can be used on all cuts and wounds. Traditionallv considered of benefit in the menopause, but fusions of the

this

is

unsubstantiated.

as Sanguisorba minor

from the time of Fuchs The Great 154.2 Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis L) was preferred as the official medicinal plant, probably because it is larger; both species, however,

Primula veris L primulaceae Cowslip Paigle The Cowslip obtained its name by

possess similar properties.

signifying

corruption

from the old English cu-sloppt. occurrence in meadows freits

of 'cow slop'

POT PR L quented by domesticated animals. Changing agricultural practices, however, have led to its rapid disappearance in parts of Europe, and attempts to cultivate it on a commercial scale in eastern Europe have proved uneconomic. Tradition maintains that the Cowslip arose from the ground where St Peter dropped his keys, hence the English, French and German common names, Keys of Heaven, Clef de St

and

Pierre

Primula after

is

Schliisselblumen.

The

generic

from the Latin primus meaning

first

on short, rhizome surrounded by leaf bases and producing long thin rootlets. Leaves obtuse, ovate-oblong, finely hairy and crenate, 5-20 cm long, narrowing at the base into a winged petiole, equally long as the leaf blade. 1-30 Description Soft-pubescent perennial

stout

deep yellow flowers marked with orange. 10-15 mm diameter, on a nodding umbel surmounting a 10-30 cm long stalk (scape). Appearing late spring to late summer. Distribution Native to northern and central Europe, Iran. Introduced and sometimes naturalized elsewhere. On porous calcareous mixed or soils in meadows and pastures, deciduous woodland; preferably in warm dryish situations. To 2000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from seed sown as soon as ripe, or by division of rootstock in autumn. The Oxlip P. elatior (L) Hill is frequently mistaken for the Cowslip but may be distinguished by its lack of orange marking and its possession of a seed capsule longer than P.

wmvar. Kleynii darker

has

it

Hort.

yellow

found in cultivation to salmon coloured

is

:

flowers.

Vitamin C; saponins to m Savonoid pigments; a volatile oil, primula camphor: the heterosiclcs primulaveroside and prim veroside enzymes; mineral salts. Uses (dried root-stock, dried Mowers and ;

calices, occasionally dried

antispasmodic;

weak

leaves

Expector-

diuretic;

Primula vulgaris Huds. primulaceae

Primrose The Primrose is so popular now almost extinct close to

weak

to

be a

drinks, conserves, cos-

and subtle smell. They are to the north Europeans the epitome of spring, and are well named since the word Primrose comes from the Latin prima rosa, meaning the first rose (of

flowers are used as a weakly sedative tea

:

as for Primula

veris.

The genus

Primula comprises more than 400

which hybridize readily and are an important horticultural group. This species, for example, hybridizes with P. veris L to produce the so-called Common Oxlip. Description Perennial on short thick root-stock Leaves wrinkled, blunt, obovate-spatulate, hairy beneath, glabrous above, crenulate, species

8-20 cm than

long,

the

Prunella vulgaris

L labiatae

Self Heal Heal-all/Woundwort A common weed throughout America and from western Europe to China. Its easy availability led no doubt to its commonest use in stemming blood flow resulting from domestic accidents and fights; hence the common names Carpenter's Herb, Touch and Heal, Sicklewort, Hercules Woundwort, and the plant's historical pre-eminence as a vulnerary herb. It has other uses: the Chinese, for example, discovered its antipyretic and diuretic actions and still use it in gout in conjunction with other remedies.

Sixteenth-century adherents of the Doctrine of Signatures saw the throat in the shape of the flower and introduced

the year).

narrowed

into a petiole shorter

Flowers

leaf blade.

occasionally purplish,

pale

yellow,

34 cm wide, solitary on cm

long.

summer. European native.

it

to treat diseases of the

and diphtheria. Hence its modern generic name Prunella which is derived via Brunella and Braunella from the throat such as quinsy

German

for

quinsy (Die

Braiine).

and Gemeine

called Brunelle commune

It

is

still

Brunelle in

France and Germany respectively. Description Aromatic perennial with creeping rhizome on square erect or decumbent stems to 60 cm. Leaves either entire or toothed, opposite

petiolate,

ovate, 3-7.5

cm

and

decussate,

oblong-

long. Flowers violet-purple

Appearing

early spring to early Distribution in

On

rich,

damp

shady woodland, hedgerows, grass-

land.

Wild plant. Propagate by division on heavy or medium loam in semi-shade or

Cultivation

sun. Constituents

Uses

Saponins; volatile

dried root-stock,

oil.

fresh flowering plant

Expectorant; antispasmodic; diuretic; anodI

pneumonia and traditionally thought remedy for palsy and paralysis.

it is

large

metics or just for their attractive appearance

\

inflammatory conditions of the respiratory tract, bronchitis and coughs; li
The

home-made

base for

Of

benefit in

in spring that

urban areas. It has in fact always been heavily cropped by man, not so much as a medicine but rather as a

laxative.

to treat

by a violent and forearms.

sensitivity, characterized

Allergic individuals should avoid the plants.

soils

Constituents

ant;

primula

vesicular eruption on the fingers

pubescent pedicels to 20

the calyx.

Flowers may be candied, used in salads and in Primrose tea. Leaves once boiled as greens. Contra-indications The same precautions apply

particular form of contact dermatitis called

name

early flowering in the spring.

its

manufacture of home-made wines, and are candied and used as cake decorations. Contra-indications Some members of the Primulaceae, but particularly Primula obconica Hance, possess the quinone, primin, which causes a

also in the

in si il

.is

.in

expectorant

respiratory infections.

in

bronchitis and other

The

tisane

may

be of

and Formerly used in rheumatic disorders and in ointments lot '.km wounds and benefit

as

a

mild sedative

in

anxiety

insomnia.

blemishes.

mm long, borne in on compact spikes to 4 cm long. Appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn. Distribution Native to Europe, Asia and North America; introduced elsewhere. On moist, loamy, well-drained soils in grassland, pastures, open woodland; preferably in sunny

(occasionally pink) 8— 5 1

leaf axils

situations. Cultivation

Wild. Propagate from stem cuttings

summer and rooted in a peat and sand mix; or by division of clumps. The |)ink flowered form is sometimes called /'. taken

in

spring or

vulgaris vat. rubrifolia

variety

may

be

Beckhaus., while a white

found

as

/'.

vulgaris

var.

leucantha s< hur. Constituents

bitter

prim

Tannins; iples;

volatile oil;

unknown

an alkaloid;

substances.

247

PRU-PYR (dried flowering plant)

i'ses

Vulnerary;

as-

tringent; antiseptic; carminative.

vides the

Commonly

used as a mouthwash, gargle and wash in the treatment of sore throats, irritation and inflammation of the mouth, ulcers, cuts, burns, wounds and bruises. Once external

considered a specific against diphtheria. Rarelv used internally and then only in cases of mild

diarrhoea or flatulence.

acts

It

(Lj Schiibl. and Martens proHeart Cherries, and P. avium var. duracina (L) Schiibl. and Martens the Bigarreau Cherries, of which the best known are Napoleon and Windsor. Constituents (fruit stalks) Tannic acid; potassium salts; flavonoids. (fruit) Organic acids; provitamin A; tannins. var. Juliam

weak

a

as

bitter tonic.

Uses

dried fruit stalks

(fruit,

Strong infusions of the dried powdered herb

Many

are effective styptics.

used

parts of the tree have traditionally been

a

for

commercially,

the cultivated Cherry varieties but, unusually

diarrhoea.

European

tree

is,

Sweet Cherry described in It

fruits,

they are quite sweet.

therefore, understandably called in the

its

United States yet rarely

so

for use in

medicine as a

folk

diuretic.

They

have some

also

The

fruit

effect

used domestically

is

cases of mild

in

for

home-made manu-

conserves and commercially in liqueur facture

I

kirsch

The wood

native home.

purposes.

the dried fruit stalks are available

Prunus avium L rosaceae Wild Cherry Common Wild Cherry/Gean Th° fruit of P. avium are smaller than those of

The

of medicinal

variety

Today only

for wild

Diuretic; as-

tringent.

sun

.

a valuable timber.

is

has doubtless long been of domestic importstones have been disco ered in

ance since

its

Neolithic

remains.

r

This

species

has

also

provided the stock for the table Cherry while the Morello or So-ir Cherry comes from P. cerasus L. Prunus is an ancient name for the plum, while avium is the Latin for bird, which readily eat the fruit. The word cherry can be traced back to an Assyrian base karsu] the

Greek name for it was kerasos. Deciduous tree 10-20

m tall; bark smooth, reddish, peeling off transversely in strips; branches ascending bearing dark green, denta.'-, alternate somewhat variably shaped leaves, 10-15 cm on §' Dut usually oblongovate to oblong-obovate, and pubescent beneath Flowers white, 5-petalled, 3 cm wide, on long glabrous pedicels to 4 cm; appearing late Description

'

spring to earlv

summer

with the

leaves,

first

and followed by globular or cordate fruit which are first yellow, then red and finally purple. to

land. Cultivation

Wild - the

species from

cultivated Cherry was developed.

which the

It is

used for

grafting purposes in fruit-tree nurseries.

Many

different

ornamental forms

flowers,

variegated leaves,

weeping growth

The

variety P. avium

attractive foiiage.

exist

with double-

Mill.)

Webb rosaceae

D.A.

been

tree has

in cultivation in

Asia for thousands of years and

mentioned in Europe by tin

is

was introduced to of more than 10 kinds oi the seed which was then known as amugdale, and from which the Latin term amygdala was derived. The Romans called them .\ graecct o- Greek Nuts, and they have been Genesis. (

ir.eks

It

who knew

from a very early date. They do not seem to have been grown in France until the eighth century and were not cultivated

grown

;

:i

Italy

north-wesl

in

Micldlc Ages;

England

the

Europe tree

first

until

the

late

was planted

in

in the early sixteenth century. Eliza-

bethan cooking, however, used large quantities set I, and "Almond water' was frequently

of the c

allcf

or

and used much

certain recipes.

The

as

we now

use milk in

botanical classification of

is complicated and very many names will be found: Prunus amygdalus Batsch. and Amygdalus communis L are the commonest, but have low been superseded. Description Bush or tree from 3-7 m tall, with glabrous light-coloured branches, and narrow,

plant

different

glabrous finely dentate, acuminate, oblonglanceolate leaves 7.5-10 cm long, with gland-

bearing petiole. Flowers pink or white, usually solitary, 3-4 cm wide, sessile, appearing mid to late spring either with or efore the first leaves: followed by oblong-ovoid light green pubesI

4 cm long containing 2 seeds. Native to southern and central Asia, especially Persia. Introduced to southEurope 2500 years ago: now wio-spiead and cent

Di

fruit, to

'ribuii^n

m

altitude. To 3000 Wild. Widely cultivated, and is the

frequently naturalized. Cultivation

which many varieties have been developed. The Bitter Almond is P. dulcis var. amara (DC) Buckheim formerly P. amygdalus var. amara (DC) Focke), and the Sweet / Imond is P. dulcis var. dulcis (DC) original species from

Buckheim formerly P. (T.C. Ludw.) Focke). Other

amygdalus var. sativa varieties

cultigens provide fruit of different shapes sizes.

The

tree

is

somewhat

frost sensitive

should be planted on well-drained

248

position.

(seed)

fatty oil

65%

mide

The Almond

warm to

Protein

and and and

soil in full

;

mineral

contains up to dalin I

(to

20",,

;

edible

enzymes, mainly emulsin;

:

B 6 E and PP nicotinaBitter almond seed of a toxic glycoside, amyg-

vitamins A, B,, B 2 Ji

Almond

the

Native

Europe, western Asia; introduced elsewhere. In deciduous woodDistribution

and

Prunus dulcis

in a

Constituents

.

,

salts.

4%

.

oil,

res

seed

Demulcent:

fying agent. Sweet

Almond

nutritive; emulsi-

is predominantprepare emulsions in which other herbal remedies may be suspended, particularly for cough mixtures. The sweet oil is used

ly

used

oil

to

externally in massage

oils

and internally was once used

laxative. Bitter

Almond

flavouring

pharmaceutical

in

oil

as a

as a

preparations

and externally in demulcent skin and sunburn lotions, and is now used in the perfumery, liqueur and confectionery industries. Almond flour was formerly used in diabetic foodstuffs. Both

oils

toilet

preparations.

The

seed

are widely used in cosmetic ai.d

is

used

in

many

sweet and savoury

dishes. Conlra-indications

The raw

Bitter

contains cvanide derivatives and

Almond is

seed

POISON-

OUS. L rosaceae Cherry Laurel Cherry Bay/

Prunus laurocerasus

Common

Cherry Laurel

is now most commonly found as an ornamental hedge, and has never been of great importance medically although some Spanish and Swiss physicians once promoted it as a sedative. In Britain it was noticed first by Madden in Dublin 1731 following fatal poisoning by Irish cooks who mistakenly thought it could be used as a Bitter Almond flavouring. Its action is due to the presence of cyanide derivatives, which may be fatal even in small quantities. The plant was introduced to European botany by Pierre Belon and Clusius between 1550 and

The Cherry Laurel

1580. Description

Variable evergreen bush or small

tree usually

3-4

m

(occasionally 6

m

tall.

Leaves shiny, dark green, oblong, alternate, obtuse or occasionally retuse. short-petioled, 7.5-12.5 cm long. Flowers strongly scented, white, in slender racemes to 10 cm long, appearing late spring to early summer and

PRU-PYR is

replaced by a rosette of basal, long-petioled.

auriculate-cordate leaves.

Native to Europe; introduced elsewell-drained calcareous soils in mixed woodland and thickets; to 1000 m

Distribution

On

where.

Mucilage; tannins; mineral salts, potassium and silica; saponins;

very short petiole. Flowers orange-red, waxy, 4-5 cm long and wide, followed by large brownish-red or yellowish edible fruit (4-8 cm diameter) containing numerous seeds and soft pink pulp.

dried flowering plant! astringent; diure-

particularly Asia, Distribution Native to Afghanistan, Persia and the Himalayas. Natur-

altitude. Cultivation

Wild. Propagate by rootstock divis-

autumn

ion in

Constituents

especially

or after flowering.

allantoin.

Uses tic;

Deciduous tree or shrub to 6 m tall, with spiny tipped branches; leaves opposite, sub-opposite or clustered, glabrous, entire, oblong or oval-lanceolate with pellucid areas, 2.5-6.0 cm long, narrowing at the base to a

Description

weak expectorant. Of use

emollient;

in the

treatment of diarrhoea, haemorroids and some gastro-intestinal problems; also of some benefit in respiratory disorders such as bronchial catarrh.

the mediterranean region, India, South America, southern United States, and

alized in

parts of south

and

horticulturally.

Leaves once used

Both

mm

Native to south-east Europe, and western Asia to Iran. Introduced and often naturalized elsewhere. Frequently in valleys in

mintic action in areas

greenhouse ornamentals. Yellow bitter colouring

as

methylisopelletierine,

Wild. Introduced as an ornamental

summers nor

a dwarf grown in

and which the antihel-

tierine, pseudopelletierine, isopelletierine

hilly regions.

bush and successfully grown

are

matter; gallotannic acid (to 30%). (root bark) Alkaloids ^o o.o, ), comprising mainly pelle-

long.

neither the

(Pers.")

Constituents (fruit rind)

Distribution

Cultivation

and

this species

form. P. granatum var. nana

as a pot herb.

temperate zones followed by dark purple conical fruit to 15

east Africa.

Wild. Cultivated commercially and

Cultivation

where

triterpenes.

the winters are too

due; also tannins

is

Ursolic

(leaf)

and

betulic

citric

20°

(to

acids;

).

various

(10—20%

Invert sugar

(fruit)

(5—10%);

glucose

to

:

(0.5-3. 5%);

acid

extreme. Frequently used in hedging, when it should be pruned carefully with secateurs rather than generally clipped. May be propagated by cuttings taken in summer. Constituents The glycosides prulaurasin lauro-

and prunasin, which are decomposed

cerasin

water by the enzyme prunasr to release hydrogen cyanide, benzaldehyde and glucose. Cherry Laurel water is manufactured from the in

by

lea\ es

distillation.

Uses (Cherry Laurel water, very occasionally leaves] Sedative; antispasmodic.

The water was once used

in the treatment of nausea and vomiting, as a flavouring agent, and, much diluted, as an eye lotion. It is now obsolete in most countries. The leaves can only be applied externally in small quantities in mixed poultice for the temporary relief ol pain. .1

Contra-mdicatiom Very

POISONOUS. To

used

under medical luper-

internally

only

be Punica granatum

L pinicaceae

boric acid; vitamin C.

vision.

Pomegranate

fresh

Pulmonaria

Pomegranates are mentioned in nianv ane ient writings and have been depicted in various forms of illustration from the days of the Egyptians. Both the fruit rind and root bark were used

astringent which

Lungwort

boraoinai \i Jerusalem Cowslip Jerusalem

Sage This herbs

common names

officinalis I.

i

variously icier to

white spots on its leaves, the hange in its flower colour from pink to blue. 01 more frequently to its former application in lung tin

<

Hence

diseases.

which of

is

the generic

derh ed from

pulmonaria, and, by

its

name

Pulmonaria

medieval Latin name Lungwort.

translation,

Lungwort's reputation tar exceeded its therapeutic a< tion. however. Description Hairy perennial on creeping roottock, reaching 30 cm tall; items hairy and unbran< hed bearing lew, alternate, sessile, white-spotted, oval and slightly pointed leaves to 7

.

-,

(

in

long. Flowers blur-, pink, purplish 01

white, primrose-like, to 3

vmes; appearing spring Flowering stem Hies flown

1

cm to

long

in

in late

terminal

summer. lumma and

early

medicinally by the ancients, and Pliny and Dioscoricles

mentioned the

specifically

root

decoction as being effective in the destruction of tapeworms. Yet, although various parts of such as the fruit rind the plant can be traced

in the

writings of the apothecaries and

druggists, the valuable root bark apparently fell

2000 years

into disuse for

teenth century. In tions of

its use-

in

until the nine-

1807 Buchanan and then

Fleming reintroduced

The

it

India.

(

many

seeds.

fresh

leaf,

fruit)

mintic; antibacterial.

Astringent;

The

rind

is

antihel-

a powerful

is used in decoction in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, and as an infusion for colitis or stomach ache. Also

used as a douche in leucorrhoea. The bark is removal of tapeworms (more

effective in the

when fresh emmenagogue.

effective

I

In

leaf

The fruit

and has been used

has antibacterial

applied externally cial

,

an

as

properties and

is

to sores.

fruit is bitter and refreshing; of commerimportance both as the whole fruit and in

drinks.

following observa-

word Punica is derived from tinLatin malum pumcum meaning the apple cil 11 thage, which is one of its early names while poma granata (and hence pomegranate means generic

apples with

(dried fruit rind, fresh or dried root bark,

/ 'ses

MJ. Roem. ROSACEAE Firethorn Everlasting Thorn Although closely related to the genus Crataegus some ol whose species provide valuable heart remedies, the Firethorn is now employed Pyracantha coccinea

only as

,111

ornamental. Pyracantha

is

from the

'H

QUE-RHA Description

Round-topped deciduous

tree to 40 smooth, later developing fissures; leaves 5-12.5 cm long, oblong-ovate with 3-7 lobes each side, petiole short (to cm). Small, greenish-yellow staminate flowers

m

bark

tall;

first

1

in thin catkins; pistillate flowers in spikes in

leaf axils;

appearing

late

spring

summer, and followed by ovoid

to

early

or oblong fruit

on peduncles 3-7.5 cm long. Distribution Native to North Africa, Europe and western Asia; introduced elsewhere. In forests, mixed woodland, on clay soils; from lowlands

mountainous regions. Wild plant. Planted commerciallv on estates and forestry land for timber. The variety Q. robur var. Jastigiata DC has a more columnar appearance while the Durmast or to

Cultivation

Sessile

Oak

(Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebleinj has a

spreading and

less

less

branched growth, and

sessile fruit.

Several forms of Q. petraea exist.

Constituents

Tannins

(to

20",,

:

a

glycoside,

(dried bark, occasionally dried leaves

/ 'ses

fruit)

and

Astringent: anti-inflammatory; antisep-

tic.

Used

as a

dout he to

Greek

for fire

and thorn

alter the red fruit

gargle for throat disorders: as a

leucorrhoea; externally as a lotion cuts, burns, abrasions, and for application

for

in

Much branched

The

Latin ranunculus means a

was given

name

frog

little

since

many

with

hollow,

and

it

of the 250 species in the group are aquatic or are found in this

very wet habitats.

Perennial

Description

erect

or

prostrate branched stem, on several clavate or

root-tubers; 5 25 cm tall. Leaves cordate, occasionally toothed, glabrous, petio-

haemorrhoids.

fusiform

and

and sheathed

late

at the base, glossy;

cm

4

1

long, the stem leaves being smallest. Flowers

shiny branches. Description

should be handled with care and only used externally.

quercitrin.

evergreen shrub or

yellow,

23

cm diameter with 8-12 petals, appearing mid to late spring on long

small tree to 5 m. Leaves dark green, acute, crenate-serrate, narrow-elliptic, .5 cm 5 cm

solitary,

long. Small, white flowers in large corymbs,

appearing early summer and followed by red or orange berries which last through the

Distribution Native to Europe. North Africa and western Asia. On rich nitrogenous soils in u el situations in woodland, meadows, ditches.

winter.

Prefers shade.

peduncles.

1

;

from south Europe to Escaped and naturalized in North America and elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as ornamental or wall shrub, often espaliered. Hardy on welldrained soils. Propagate by ripe wood cuttings under glass, by seed, or by layering. Prune back hard to promote branching. Dislikes Native

Distribution

western

Cultivation

damp

Uses

No

the fruit

I

Of

use as a winter ornamental for hedges or

L fagaceae

Oak English Oak/Pedunculate Oak No plant has been of greater symbolic, and magical importance in Europe than the Oak tree, and its esteem has been traced back to the earliest Indo-Germanic religions. No other plant has provided more in the construction of buildings, ships, weapons and fine furniture. Oak's strength and durability were unequalled, and as a result the vast Oak forests of Europe have been virtually destroyed. Although its bark provides an excellent astringent medicinal remedy, only herbalists used it to much extent, the apothereligious

and others preferring more

costly drugs.

250

deep,

in

Vitamin C: anthemol; tannins. herb,

fresh

»

The

occasionally

plant

is

dried

herb

specifically used in the

preparation of ointments

for external

appli-

cation to haemorrhoids.

The

walls.

caries

from root-

cm

acrid

and vesicant

juices from the sliced

tubers were once applied to warts.

purgative but toxic.

Quercus robur

w

Astringent.

Cyanogenic glycosides.

longer used for medicinal purposes; is

plant. Propagate

rich soils.

Constituents

transplanting. Constituents

Wild

tubers planted in the autumn, 5

Asia.

exotic

and

Used internally for haemorrhoids, diarrhoea and enteritis. Once used as a tonic tea. Roasted acorns have been used

as a coffee

Very young leaves were once eaten

POISONOUS

Contra-indications

substitute.

state; not to be used internally.

Valuable timber. Bark was once the most important agent for tanning leather; and also provided a variety of dyes, the colour depending upon the mordant

bruised plant

Raphanus

may

sativus

The

L cruciferae

well-known

fig-like

certain, but

where many

shape of the swollen root-tubers of

plant led to the specific epithet ficaria from ficus or fig. Earlier herbalists considered the same structure to resemble piles and by this

association they were used, with in the

much

success,

treatment of haemorrhoids.

Members

of the genus Ranunculus are not popular in folk medicine because of their poisonous and acrid nature, and all species

the fresh

cause skin irritation.

salad

herb

cultivation for so long that

Ranunculus fie aria L ranunculaceae Lesser Celandine Pilewort

in

Handling the

Radish This

used.

prevent

to

scurvy.

it

been

has

its

origin

probably originated

in

is

in

un-

China

varieties exist today including a

long-rooted, winter-harvested Chinese Radish, or

Daikon

1

a

Japanese name

.

which

is

some-

times cultivated in the West.

Some

authorities believe that R. sativus [sativus

means cultivated) is a cultivated variety of the Wild Radish or Wild Charlock R. raphanistrum L), a widespread and troublesome weed. Radishes have certainly been grown since the time of the Pharaohs, and the Greeks and

QUE-RHA Romans knew radix

several varieties including the

or round Radish

syriacan

(the

common

and

Rhamnus

long Radish

catharticus

L rhamnaceae

Uses (2 year old bark, fruit) Purgative diuretic. ;

Buckthorn

the radicula or

So

Only employed

common

a plant with so drastic an effect as powerful purgative has doubtless been used for a very long time. The Anglo-Saxons certainly recorded it in the ninth century, when it was known as Waythorn or Harts-

the latter

meaning simply root and being the source of the common name, Radish. The black Radishes which are the varieties now employed in homeopathic medicine were probably developed in Spain in the Middle

this

while

thorn,

the

thirteenth-century

Myddvai used

Contra-indications

boiled

be taken with great care.

physicians of

Annual or biennial on fleshy root of shape and colour; stem glaucous 60-90 cm bearing lyrate-divided, petiolate leaves with a large terminal segment. Flowers dark-violet, white-veined, in racemes appearing summer and followed by 3-7 cm long fruit

with honey. Three hundred years later Gerard was to recommend boiling them with broth;

Description

variable

(a silique).

Distribution

Worldwide on most

Cultivation Cultivated plant:

escape.

Many

soil types.

found wild

cultigens exist,

all

as

an

of which are

sown thinly on moist, friable an open position. Time of sowing depends on variety; but usually best sown raised from seed

soils

in

Constituents

An

they are rarely taken alone, and even

antibiotic glycoside, glucora-

phenine; mineral salts; vitamin C; oxalic acid. seeds contain linoleic and linolenic acids.

.

called

fresh root, fresh leaves, root juice, fresh

young seed pods

Antibiotic: bechic; tonic;

carminative; choleretic; nutritive. Of benefit in the relief of dyspepsia and used

to

Formerly employed in the treatment of coughs and bronchitis. May be used in combination with other remedies in the treatment of liver conditions especially where

promote

salivation.

bile secretion

is

inadequate. Also used homeo-

pathically.

The root and young leaves are eaten aa salad t). and the young seed pods ma) l>< pi< Ided. .1

lui

it

Spina

cervina;

Cordus.

Cervi

spina:

and Caeselpinus, Dodoens knew it as Rhamnus

Matthiolus, Spinus cervatis.

infectoria:

solutivus.

The

The

L'ses

when

Syrup of Buckthorn was first included in the London Pharmacopoeia in 1650 (it had appeared almost a century earlier in the German pharmacopoeias) it was mixed with Nutmeg, Cinnamon. Aniseed and Mastich fthe latter a gum from Pistacia lentiscus L The characteristic spine on the branches has led to most of its names: Crescenzi and Gesner

Spina

every three weeks.

fruit

plant

is

purposes, but

dyes.

Welsh

Ages.

its

treatment of chronic constipation; usually in association with other remedies. Juice from the fruit was once used in veterinary medicine as a laxative. The fruit and bark can be used as sources of in the

now rarely used for medicinal home dyers still employ the bark

golden-brown dyestuflT. Description Deciduous bushy shrub from 2—4 111 tall, occasionally to 6 m. Branches spreading irregularly, and often tipped with a spine bark reddish-brown and glossy. Leaves opposite, acute or obtuse, margins finely dentate, ovate, 3-6 cm long, 2 -5 cm wide. Flowers small, as a

Do

Strong purgative action;

to

not use fresh bark.

DC rhamnaceae Cascara Sagrada Sacred Bark Rhamnus purshiana Cascara sagrada

name

the

first

Mexicans who

means sacred bark and

this

was

given to the tree by Spanishnoted the American Indian use

of the bark as a laxative and tonic.

The

tree was mentioned in the eighteenthcentury American materia medicas but first described botanically in 18 14 by Pursh - hence the plants specific name. Use of the bark in conventional medicine began in 1877 and a year later a nauseous and bitter fluid extract for use in chronic constipation was available pharmaceutically. This extract was exported

Europe and it was not until 1883 that the bark itself was made available outside the United States of America. It has been conclusivelv demonstrated that the crude bark is to

:

greenish-yellow, usually unisexual, in delicate clusters in leaf axils,

appearing

late

spring to

mid-summer, and followed by 7.5 mm diameter globose, fleshy, black fruit drupe Native to north-west Europe, northern Asia, eastern North America. Wide-

Distribution

spread in scrub, woodland, forests, on calcareous soils to 1200 in altitude. Cultivation

Wild.

Planted

hedging. Cuttings taken

in

on

farmland

summei

as

are easily

I'm >ted.

Vitamin C: Erangula-emodin;sheschrysophanol; rhamnosterin; rhamnioaide; rhamnicogenol a Buoresi ent pigment,

Constituents

terine; 1

rhamnoMuoi

;

in

;

other yellow pigments. \er\

much more

effective as a purgative than

an) commercial preparation

bark; the

official

example only

fol

bark

is

made from

the

dried and liquid extracts are 15 per cent as active.

retained in

many

national

The

pharma-

copoeias. Description

Deciduous

m. Bark dark Leaves in tufts at

tree to to

grey, smoothly wrinkled.

branchlet tips; 5-15 cm long, elliptic to ovateoblong, either rounded or acute. Flowers in umbels, stalked, appearing spring and followed by black, globose fruit of 7.5 diameter.

mm

North American native from British Columbia to Washington state. In coniferous woodland, on mountain ridges and canyon Distribution

walls.

Wild plant. Anthraquinone glycosides 6 9% comprising cascara ides A, B, C and I) and Cultivation

Constituents

.

Othei glucosides, to whi« {

-

dried item li.uk.

li

al

the action leas)

6

is

monf

due. hs old

Ar)'

RHE-ROS Purgative; bitter stomachic.

May

be used in

small doses as an appetite stimulant. In large doses it acts as a laxative or a mild purgative.

chronic constipation. In small doses it may be used to treat diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal cat-

and

arrh,

to stimulate the appetite.

Sometimes the tincture is applied to childrens" fingernails to deter them from biting their

Added

nails.

with renal or urinary calculi.

to tonic

wines as a

Contra-indications

Not

to

Added

wines as a bitter. Not to be used by individuals with renal or urinary calculi.

bitter.

be used by individuals

Ribes nigrum

officinale Baill.

polygonaceae

Rhubarb This for

is

not the garden species

commonly grown

edible leaf stalks, that one being R.

its

rhabarbarum

The garden Rhubarb was

L.

western Europe in 1608 and was first cultivated at Padua botanic gardens by Prosper Alpinus; it was widely grown by the end of the eighteenth century, but the root has

introduced

to

never been used owing to a substance (the glycoside, rhaponticini which exerts a hor-

on humans. officinale, however, is one of two main species, the dried rhizomes of which have been important medicinally in China since around 2700 B.C. Both have been imported into

monal Rheum

effect

since the time of the early Greeks. Dioscorides described the drug as rheon or rfia,

Europe

hence the modern names. Because the main centre for trading in the drug has changed over the centuries, both this and other species have been variously described as Turkey, East Indian and Muscovitic rhubarbs. The plant was introduced to Europe in 1867 and limited cultivation led to further names such as English,

German,

Bucharest,

Dutch

and

French rhubarbs.

Rheum palmatum L polygonaceae Rhubarb Chinghai Rhubarb R. palmatum and some varieties such as R. palmatum var. tanguticum (L, Maxim., and R. palmatum var. palmatum (L Maxim., are now. and possibly always were, the main sources of medicinal Rhubarb. R. palmatum was introduced to European gardens in 1763, earlier than R. officinale Baill.. and like that species was cultivated commercially. It is still cultivated in Russia and

Germany, but

the Chinese product

is

superior.

In the Chinese herbal Pen-King 2700 b.c. the drug was called Ta-huang, meaning the great yellow, after

and

its

colour and reputation,

name was retained traders who collected it this

for

2000 years by

the in Tibet and the province of Kansu. R. palmatum is now called Chinghai or high-dried Rhubarb.

on thick rhizome, reach-

Description Perennial

m

ing 2

cordate

Large leaves

in

orbicular

base,

Flowers

lobed. small,

tall.

at

reddish

numerous,

to

clusters

in

basal clumps,

and

palmately

greenish-white,

on

tall,

stout,

hollow, finely grooved stem. Appearing mid to late

summer.

Distribution

to

north-east

Asia.

On

on thick rhizome, reachm wide, roundto elliptic, basal, 3-7 lobed. Flowers white small. numerous, in panicles on tall, stout, hollow, finely grooved stem. Appearing mid to late Description Perennial

ing 3

m

Leaves

tall.

well-known

1

fruit

formerly collected from the

wild in northern Europe and now extensively cultivated commercially and horticulturally.

Although

it

was once used

throat infections

it is

now

in folk

Ribes

is

an old Arabic name and the

means

epithet nigrum

colour of the wild

fruit.

Today

Description

Aromatic perennial shrub

.

Mild purgative; astring-

employed alone remedies

in

or in combination

the

treatment

of

deep, rich, moist

soils

at altitudes of

3000-

4000 m. Wild. Cultivated commercially in China, Russia, Germany and Central Europe. Requires moist, deep, well-manured soil: propagated from root division and root cuttCultivation

from seed. Occasionally grown as garden ornamental. Constituents Tannins: anthraquinone derivatings, rarely

ives

of aloe-emodin,

and rhein Uses

chrysophanol. emodin

to 10'

dried rhizome

Mild purgative: astring-

ent: bitter.

Principally

employed alone or

in

combination

with other remedies in the treatment of chronic constipation. In small doses it mav be used to treat diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal catarrh,

252

m,

long-petiolate. alternate or clustered leaves.

Flowers 4-10, greenish-white in pendulous racemes in leaf axils. Appearing late spring to early summer and followed by spherical, soft berries.

and central Europe, and west Asia. Introduced and naturalized in North America. On moist, loamy, slightly acidic soils in woodland. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated commercially and Description Native to north

horticulturally for fruit. Several cultivars exist.

Propagation by cuttings taken cool,

humid climate and

in

autumn.

clay

soils

provided they are well drained. Constant pruning is essential to good cropping. Constituents Anthocyanin pigments: vitamin C: pectin: sugars: various organic acids: essenUses

ent; bitter.

other

to 2

lacking spines and bearing 5-lobed. rounded,

fresh or dried

leaves,

The

with

culti-

vars have been developed.

Native to Tibet and west China, introduced elsewhere. On deep, rich, moist soil at altitudes of 3000 4000 m. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in the East. Constituents Tannins; anthraquinone derivatives of aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, emodin and

Principally

green, yellow

tial oil.

Distribution

10%

specific

and white forms are grown, and many

diuretic: astringent; tonic.

Uses (dried rhizome

for

black, referring to the

summer.

rhein (to

medicine

not considered to be

of medicinal importance and finds greatest use in the food and drinks industries.

Prefers

Native

L saxifragaceae

Blackcurrant

A Rheum

to tonic

Contra-indications

and

to stimulate the appetite.

leaves

mav

fruit

Nutritive:

be used as an infusion to treat

RHE-ROS male below, female above: both without and in panicles. Followed by a smooth

diarrhoea: they are also weakly diaphoretic and have been included in cold remedies, and

cious;

to treat urinogenital infections.

or spiny capsule. 3

Once employed in matism. The fruit is

Distribution

from

treatment of rheuof value to those suffering the

hypertension,

possessing

or

capillary

an infusion as a sore throats. Leaves can be used as a

and can be used

fragility:

gargle for

in

petals

cm in diameter. Native to India, tropical Africa: distributed throughout tropical and main temperate regions. On most well-drained soils in full sun.

many

jams, drinks, cordials and liqueurs as well as eaten fresh.

cool,

L euphorbiaceae Castor Oil Plant Wonder Tree The Castor Oil Plant was certainly known to the Egyptians who employed the seed oil as an unguent base and also in lamps. Theophrastus. Dioscorides and other Greeks also knew both the plant and the oil. but considered the latter unfit for culinary use and suitable onh Ricinus communis

for external application

tion

maintained

for the

medically - a tradifollowing 1500 years

Wild. Cultivated commercially in especially South America.

Cultivation

tea substitute. Fruit widely used in conserves,

countries

Grown as a house plant in northern temperate zones, or outside in protected sites. Prefers well-drained clay or sandy loams. Propagate from seed planted in early spring or under glass, transplanting in India. Africa. Italy.

summer. Many

early

cultivars exist.

Protein

seed

Constituents

26%

to

fixed oil

:

50%

comprising ricinoleic. oleic, linoleic. stearic and hydroxystearic acids. One of the to

w hole seed

protein substances in the

albuminoid,

is

a toxic

which the poisoning

to

ricin.

is

due. seed

Uses

steam treated seed cake

oil.

Pur-

gative. Constituents

E.

enema to remove impacted faeces. Used externally as an emollient and a vehicle

pectin.

poisoning. Applied as an

for various

The

oil

is

he seed cake

I

is

used in

am

other flower symbol-

zenith of beaut) in the plain kingdom, I

I

alba

that n has generally

he epithet

Dog

is

been

and contempt.

treated with familiarity I

.

thought Britain was called Albion was covered with the white rose it

meaning white

onl)

iiu

identalb derogat-

coming original!) from the cynorrodon ol Plin) and Rout comma ol the Middle Ages aftei a supposed abilit) ol the root to cure 'mad-dog bites', or rabies. Apothecaries employed the briar balls or galls of the Dog Rose as a diuretii and the rose-hips were used as a tart ory,

reproduced

faithfully

in

th<

sixteenth-

century herbals of Turnei and Gerard. the end

supplies

the

"I

sixteenth

the

<>i

en]

century

ami from the

i

Up

to

European

East, notably

fruit

from the

200 /ears the supply

medicinally

shiik reason and mi much ot was only used infrequendy. In oil w.iv reintroduced to medicine in 70 by Canvane who had noted its use in the W< 11 Indies where was i.illerl Paltna Christi and agno Casta bv the Spanish, hem CaStO oil. and then ( !astoi oil Since the 7801 n has been retained as a pur

World Wai

India, bul

declined

Europe

t<>i

.1

period

ol

foi

il

I

1

j

il

«•

.

-

1

gative in

man) pharmacopoeias.

diuretic.

The seeds were once used as a The hips are used in conserves and

jams.

earliest times.

important

The

onl)

in

as a in h source ol

latter be<

This is a vigorous grower and possesses a strong fragrance which can be smelled at a

which led to its use as hedging plant from early times. The common and specific names come from the medieval Latin aculentus meaning thorny. Formerly classified as Rosa rubiginosa agg. and subdivided into two species. R. rubiginosa L and R. murantlia Borrer ex Sin., but now condistance, characteristics

a

sidered as R. tglanteria. Description Perennial

orbicular to

shrub 1—2

elliptic, to 3

cm

m

tall.

Leaves

long; pubescent

ame

Second

the

vitamin C.

Climbing and trailing prickly perennial shrub to 3 m. Leaves alternate, ovate /> cription

to

to

elliptic,

}

cm

senate,

long,

acute or

acuminate. Flowers aromatic, large, white or pale pink on long pedicels, appearing mid to late s<

summer. Followed

ar let false

lr

nils

by

hips

1

5

mm-long,

fleshy,

.

Native to Europe, North Africa, western Asia: introduced and naturalized elsewhere ( )n porous soil in hedgerows, Distribution

/> cription

Very variable annual herb <>i perennial tree from a 15 m tail, usually m. Leaves simple, alternate, long-petioled, 5 11 lobed, glossy, to m wide. Flowers monoej

1

lethargy.

L rosaceae Sweet Briar Eglantine

(

Plin)

or in

Rosa eglanteria

Briar

and since man started ullivation its seen lias been most highl) esteemed. The )<>^ R"-< however, was so common throughout Europe because

may be used as a laxative wound healing.

form of the seedless puree, are an excellent source of vitamin C. a tonic, and useful in

The Rose more than izes the

leaves

poultices to aid

Rose-hips, usually used as a tisane or in the

L rosaceae

Rosa camna

Tonic; laxative; diu-

and soap.

is

Dog Rose Dog

rose-hips, leaves

steam treatment destroys the

employed as a fertilizer. CoBtra-indications Whole seeds are toxic: not to be used internally. Large doses ,,i the oil ma) cause vomiting, colic and severe purgation. poison, ricin

Uses

:

retic; astringent.

The

ointments. Soothes eye irritations.

not suitable for cooking, but

the manufacture of paints, varnishes

.hkI

Vitamin C to 1.7% vitamins B. K; nicotinamide; organic acids; tannins:

Principally used to treat chronic constipation

but also in acute diarrhoea caused by food

woodland, thickets Cultivation

to

[600

in

111

altitude.

Wild.

253

ROS-RUM Flowers

and rusty-coloured beneath.

are toxic, possibly causing abortion, convul-

1—3,

bright pink, strongly scented, to 3 cm wide, appearing mid to late summer and followed by

sions,

round

Rubia tinctorum

and very

rarely, death.

Asia,

Madder

and naturalized elsewhere. In hedgerows and woodland edges. Cultivation Wild plant. A cultivar, Duplex, with double flowers is grown horticultural!} Constituents Tannins; essential oil.

Both the the Latin

L rubiaceae Madder early Greek name Erythrodanon and name Rubia come from a stem-word

meaning

red. since this has traditionally

Uses (flowers) Astringent.

alizarin.

scarlet false fruit

Distribution

Native

to

hip

.

Europe,

west

introduced

the source of a brilliant red

.

No it

longer used medicinally. In some countries employed in the treatment of diarrhoea

By the end of the nineteenth century the maddering wool or cotton consisted

of various steps including scouring in mild

hedging plant

in large gardens.

alkali, steeping in oily emulsions,

Rosa rugosa Thunb. rosaceae

Japanese Rose Turkestan Rose one of the most hardy of all roses and is both disease resistant and a profuse and continuous bloomer. The scent is rich and This

is

in addition

about 1330 by Raymundus Lullus, and still

extensively used in perfumery.

One

it

is

of the

most famous cosmetic preparations containing the herb was the Queen of Hungary's water. The apothecaries used Rosemary in a wide range of preparations including waters, tinctures, conserves, syrups, spirits and unguents: but today only the oil is included in the pharmacopoeias, while the leaf remains popular in folk medic inc. Aromatic, evergreen perennial Description shrub to 180 cm, usually 100 cm tall. Branches somewhat pubescent when young, becoming woody. Leaves simple, opposite, leathery, tomentose beneath, to 3.5 cm long. Flowers

Sweet Briar

as a

be used as a source of vitamin C. Description Perennial to 2 m. Very

prickly

59

elliptic Leaves subdivided into leaflets to 5 cm long. Flowers scented, white to rose, to 7.5 cm diameter, followed by large red or orange hip to 3 cm diameter. Distribution Native to Japan and China. Cultivation Wild. Widely cultivated as a large

stems.

number include roses,

of attractive hybrids, and varieties

Max

Graf, one of the lowest growing

obtained by crossing R. rugosa with R.

uichuraiana Crep. Constituents

(hips)

B,

C,

E,

K.;

nicotinamide; organic acids; tannins; pectin. Uses Rarely used for any purpose other than as a hedge plant.

officinalis

Rosemary The common and

L labiatae

to

sheltered position in cooler regions.

grown

in pots.

seed. Various cultivars are

most useful

is

5%

2

io-2O

o

linalol.i;

free

be the

sometimes

generic

names are derived

254

stem:

usually

sessile,

and spiky

long, tipped

lanceolate, at the

5-10 cm

margins. Flowers

small, greenish-yellow, in both axillary

terminal cymes; appearing early

and

mid-summer

to

autumn, followed by globose, purple-

black berry.

Native to south-east Europe. Asia

i

to

2%) comprising

and alcohols (mainly borneol and mainly

bornyl

acetate

organic acids: choline; saponoside;

heterosides; tannins. r

ses

I

fresh or dried leaves, oil

Tonic diuretic ;

aromatic; stomachic: carminative; antispasmodic cholagogue antiseptic emmenagogue. A leaf infusion has a wide variety of internal applications as indicated. The oil may be used ;

;

soothing

;

embrocations, is

and diluted

as

an

particularly effective in

neuralgia.

Wide culinary use of the leaf in meat dishes. The oil is employed widely in the cosmetic industry.

Leaf may be used

in

bath mixtures and aro-

matic preparations. Contra-indications

internally.

The

oil

deep, friable Constituents

should not be used

Extremely large doses of the leaf

soils.

medicinal red

The

comwhich the

Heteroside anthraquinones

prising mainly ruberythric acid

pectin.

.

Essential oil

esters

grown of which

the prostrate form,

called R. prostratus Hort. Constituents

May

Propagate by stem cuttings or

antiseptic gargle. It

from the early Latin ros maris or dew of the sea, from its habit of growing close to the sea and the dew-like appearance of the blossom at a distance. From earliest times its medicinal virtues were recognized and it has always been a popular aromatic plant. The oil was first extracted by distillation in

Climbing perennial, 60-100 cm on long, fleshy, much-branched rootstock. Leaves in whorls of 4-8 on stiff, prickly Description

tall,

drained alkaline soils in full sun or partial shade to 1000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Propagated from seed sown spring or autumn, or by root division. Prefers

Native

externally as an insect repellant, in various

Rosmarinus

L provides

mediterranean coast. commercially from the wild and cultivated only as a garden plant. Requires well-drained soil and warm, wind-

summer.

Cultivation Wild. Collected

I

Vitamin

Rubia peregrina

a rose-pink dye.

Minor; introduced to central and north-west Europe, and locally naturalized. On well-

Distribution

to

The Wild Madder

to

early

and is considered superior hedge plant. The hips may

in

Distribution

white to pink, small, short axillary racemes, appearing late spring

clove-like

washing

sheep dung, galling with oak galls, treating with alum and finally maddering with powdered and partially fermented roots. The dried roots w-ere first exported from southeast Europe and Turkey to other parts of Europe, and cultivation then commenced near the cloth centres of France, Holland, Germany and, less commonly, England. Even though it has long since been replaced by synthetic alizarin, it is still grown as a medicinal plant in central Europe and west Asia.

in

pale blue or rarely

somewhat

later called

process of

colic.

useful

been

permanent dye

Adrianople Red or Turkey Red,

is

and

A

Dyer's

action

is

mainlv

to

due:

colouring; matter includes

alizarin

,

madder purple

sugars:

madder

purpurin

.

ROS-RUM madder orange rubiacin xanthine I

rarely

root,

ses

and madder yellow

.

.

Choleretic;

stems

lealy

emmen-

tonic; antiseptic; diuretic; vulnerary;

Europe, fragments of the berry being found

agogue; laxative; antispasmodic.

The powdered

root

and

dissolution

is

much

of

archaeological excavations of Swiss villages.

and

Cultivation began in the Middle Ages, and the many European raspberry cultivars are all

bladder calculi; the remedy also acts as a prophylactic against stone formation. May be used externally to aid wound healing. The leafy stem in infusion can be used to treat constipation.

Root

is

employed

as a dye.

developed from this wild species. Prior to 1866 at which time over 41 varieties were known in the United States of America all American tvpes were also from R. idaeus. They are now also developed from R. ulmifolius Schott. R.

Cham and

ursinus

Rubus fructicosus agg. rosaceae

L. Rubus

Bramble

means

Blackberry

While the Raspberrv was named red French wine,

the

raspis,

after a sweet

common

fruit

of

more varieties and species grouped under the name R. fructicosus were simply blackberries, and the plant itself was the brom or thorny shrub, hence bramble.

the iooo or

In

German

the plant

Mount

'of

Mount

Schlechtend, R. occidentals

from the Latin

is

and idaeus abundance on

for red.

Ida', after

its

Upright or bent perennial 90-150 cm tall, with varying degrees of prickles or sometimes entirely lacking them. Leaves glabrous above, grey tomentose beneath, compris-

now

Europe Blackberry picking

Description

shrub

Variable

Rumex acetosa L polygonaceae Sorrel All sorrels are acidic and sour-tasting, and in former times were popular ingredients of sauces, especially those for

name

old French

plant's acidity

and

its

by R.

with

woody,

leaves

By the eighteenth was largely replaced by R. scutatus L in horticulture. The plant was known to the apothecaries as Herba Acetosa and was century or even

native:

especially

annins; sugars.

in


de< o< tion

douche and externally on been


(

redited with

antidiabetic

Wide \

ides

.1-

Sowers

.1

n,ut;li

01

have unsubstantiated I

bey

a< ti\ ity.

culinary

mm

ol

an orange dye.

the fruit.

many

in

to

I

he rool

|m<.-

cm

10

from

dispensatories

the

50-150 cm

nearly

tall,

long,

small,

summer

to early autumn. European native;

damp, loamy

Cultivation

Wild

soils to

plant.

2500

May

m

in altitude.

be propagated by

autumn. and juice Oxalic acid and potassium binoxalate (to t%); tartaric acid;

root division in Constituents

ing 3 or j ovate leaflets. Flowers small,

.is

ulcers.

\et

earlier.

it

also found in northern Asia. In meadowland on nitrogen-

in

Astringent; tonic; diuretit ust

how ever,

Distribution

fleshy, black, edible

Uses fdried or fresh leaves, fruit, rarely

Leaves may be

L.

The herb

the upper ones sessile. reddish-brown on slender, loose inflorescence to 40 cm long, appearing

Vitamin C; organic acids; I

acetosella

animals.

has, nevertheless, long been used as a salad and vegetable and was cultivated in the fourteenth

late

hedgerows, wood edges and gardens. ( )n moist 2400 m in altitude. Cultivation Wild. Introduced near habitation .hkI often rampant. pei tins,

by R.

man and

glabrous. Leaves rather thick, oblong-lanceo-

soils to

fruit

or

acetosa

occurring in both

rich,

Constituents

C

(mostly

latter substances are responsible for the

Description Perennial

fruit.

European

vitamin

salts

occasional cases of Sorrel poisoning caused

early

Distribution

its

potassium hydrogen oxalate).

These

Leaves palmate or ternate. and petiolate. Flowers white to pink in compound inflorescence appearing mid-summer to early 1>\

due to both and oxalate

is

oxalic acid

Flowers

followed

surele.

The

biennial stems densely covered with prickles

autumn and

The common

fish.

derived from sur meaning sour, via the

is

fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries.

practised.

still

and

cosmetic purposes.

included

is

the last ritualistic seasonal collet ting of

wild plant food

in wines, liqueurs, vinegars, syrups,

other confectionery, culinary and some

century,

Like raspberries they have been picked and eaten for thousands of vears and todav in much ol industrialized

Used for

either

Ida.

Description

called Brombeere.

still

is

in

value in the

of renal

elimination

L rosaceae Raspberry Like so many wild fruits the Raspberry has been known and used since prehistory in Rubus idaeus

1

b

in

leaf

vitamin C. (rhizome) A hyperoside, quercetin3-D-galactoside; anthracene; oxymethylanthraquinone; tannins 1025%). fresh leal, rhizome) Diuretic; laxative; Uses

drooping panicles in terminal axils, appearing early to mid-sunimer. followed by aromatii fleshy cone-shaped red to yellow Emit. Distribution Eurasian native, introduced and widespread. In woodland clearing] and edges, espet ially deciduous woodlands. On light soil, moist and rich 111 nun icnts. to 2OO0 in in

as

an astringent in diarrhoea

it

is

altitude

certain skin complaints, including acne.

Numerous

Wild.

Cultivation

cultivars

tonic; antiseptic; bitter.

The root decoction

is

used as a bitter tonic and :

also as a diuretic

not suitable lor use in either

young

;

or very

old people.

The

leaf may be

employed

in poultices to treat

propa-

gated by suckers 01 root cuttings. Canes should be removed alter fruiting to allow new ones primocanes to develop. Tolerates most soils. leaf

Constituents

acting

stances,

in

Fragarine and other subisolation as both uterine

muscle stimulants and relaxants, ai id; vitamin C; pectin. /

hs

oxv I

il

fresh 01

loi k

:

dned

leaves, fruit

leaf is of proven value during confinement, taken regularly and in small doses as ,m

In

infusion

it

and speeds parturition.

eases

is

menstruation and also

amounts I

Astringent;

nutritive; laxative.

larger doses the leal

ol

Citric

fruit

he

fruit

the fruit vs. is

is

ol in

benefit

diarrhoea. In large

mildly laxative.

formerly employed

phai mat eutn

al

and

het bal

in a

produi

ouring and oloui ing. Edible fruit is pi << onomit impot tarn

llav

In

painful

in

variety 1

as a

(

c

255

RUM

SAL

The young

leaf

is

edible fresh or cooked.

SONOUS,

it is stomachic and tonic, and in China it is considered antipyretic. The powdered root-stock in water is employed as a gargle for laryngitis and as a tooth powder

In small doses

Very large doses are POIcausing severe kidney damage. The

Contra-indications

herb should not be used by those predisposed to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or gastric hyper-acidity. The leal may cause

The

dermatitis.

in cases of

Rumex

crispus

L polygonaceae

Yellow Dock Curled Dock, Rumex

in gingivitis.

seed

highly astringent and

is

may

be used

diarrhoea.

Young leaves may be eaten as greens, but water should be changed twice during cooking. Contra-indications May cause dermatitis. Excessive doses produce nausea.

both this species and weed, the Broad-leaved Dock [R. obtusifolius L) have been used for the same medicinal purposes, and more recently they have been shown to possess similar chemi-

Rumex scutatus L polygonaceae French Sorrel Garden Sorrel While Rumex alpinus L or Monk's Rhubarb

cal constituents.

the most physiologically active of the

R. obtusifolius was known as Lapathum or Lapathum acutum from the fourteenth century, while the Yellow Dock was called Lapathum

species of Rumex. the French Sorrel is probably the least, and since it in addition

In

writings

ancient

common

another

calism

development of physiomedi-

In the

crispum.

early

the

in

nineteenth

century in

was used for obstinate skin complaints, while in Europe R. obtusifolius was used for the same condition. Today Rurm \ is found in English herbals. and Lapathum in European ones. Description Perennial 50-100 cm tall on stout rootstock. Leaves with undulate edges, lanAmerica. R.

crispus

lemony taste it has become the most popular of the edible sorrels. Once established its deeply-growing roots may

then as a broom or twitch to scrub chopping

be difficult to eradicate.

blocks,

possesses a mildly sour,

low-growing and glauLeaves petiolate, hastate,

Description Perennial,

cous,

10-50

cm

tall.

and

Christmas time, and the evergreen twigs are

duced elsewhere. Cultivation

in

Wild. Cultivated

as a salad herb in Propagate from seed sown thinning to 30 cm apart and

rich, moist soil.

spring,

It

Broom included

Eurasian native, widely distributed in temperate and subtropical countries as a weed. In anv rich, heavy soil in weed)

cm

Constituents

pinkish, minute, solitary or clustered, attached

(

is

cladode midrib, appearing mid-autumn and followed by red or yellow globose berries reaching 15 in diameter. Distribution Native from the Azores to Iran, including north-west Europe and the mediterranean region. Introduced elsewhere. In woodland thickets on poor, dry soil among rocks. To 600 m in altitude. Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally. and

starch;

to the

to late spring

)xymethylanthra-

;

rumicin;

thiamine.

;

mm

chryso-

tannins:

The combined

both astringent and purgative, and

is

described as tonic laxative. (root-stock,

Uses

young

leaves,

rarely

seed

Purgative: cholagogue; tonic; astringent.

much

associated function.

and

Of

value both internally and externally

skin complaints, especially

with

May

urticaria,

Erect evergreen perennial 30-90 leaves are minute and bract-like

The

tall.

and subtend the 4 cm-long, spine-pointed,

altitude.

quinone to 0.2% erftodin too.i% phanic acid: volatile oil: resin: action

and Hypothe rhizome

ovate, leaf-like cladodes. Flowers whitish or

Wild. Propagate from seed. root-stock

Eruscus

recommended

Bruscus,

of kidney stones.

Description

Distribution

to

glosson; Dioscorides in cases

winter decorations.

in florists'

related

is

autumn.

m

bears scarlet berries at

Asparagus and starts with young edible shoots which can be eaten in a similar way. The ancient names of Butchers

any

Cultivation

It

now used

Flowers small, reddish, unisexual, appearing mid to late summer. Distribution Native to Europe and Asia; intro-

whorls along a somewhat branched inflorescence, appearing mid-summer to mid-

places, to 1500

decoration for meat

finally as a

times.

festive

at

fleshy.

ceolate, large, crispy. Flowers greenish, small, in

is

European

where the cause

constipation

or

liver

collected

in

on a small commercial

Constituents

is

potassium

dys-

be applied to ringworm, scabies the parasites probably being

removing flower-heads

to

promote

leaf.

Water

well in hot weather. Tolerates partial shade or lull sun, and can be grown under cloches provide leaf throughout the year. Constituents Oxalates, in small quantities.

Uses

to

fresh leaf Diuretic.

oil;

scale.

saponoside:

resin;

salts.

dried root-stock,

['ses

leaves

destroved bv the rumicin content.

Essential

young

shoots,

rarely

Antipyretic; diuretic; vasoconstrictive.

Rarely used medicinally, but of value in some problems associated with venous circulation. Traditionally used in the treatment of haemorrhoids, gout and jaundice. The young shoots have been used in spring salads in the same way as Asparagus. Contra-indications Not to be used by individuals with hypertension.

Not used medicinally but moderate amounts of the leaf are diuretic.

Ruta graveolens

May

Rue Herb

be used with discretion in salads.

Contra-indications

Not suitable

for

those pre-

Rue

is

L rctaceae

of Grace Herbygrass

an ancient and important medicinal

plant of undoubted effectiveness which de-

disposed to kidney stones.

serves wider use by medical personnel; yet.

Ruscus aculeatus

L liliaceae

and use

Chinese herbal medicine, it is now only tained in the Swiss Pharmacopoeia.

teenth to the nineteenth centuries,

allv

crude repellent barrier

256

besides folk medicine application

Broom

Box Holly Jew's Myrtle This unusual member of the Lily family was associated with the meat trade from the six-

Butcher's

to

first

as a

vermin and animals.

It

in re-

had wide therapeutic application traditionand was also included as a major ingredi-

ent of the poison antidotes of Mithridates.

Its

RUM-SAL opposite, joined along their margins forming

marins; several other active substances. Uses (dried or fresh leaf, rarely juice)

Emmen-

agogue; abortifacient; antihelmintic; stomachic; diaphoretic.

Principally active on the uterus and in small

Distribution

doses beneficial for the relief of dysmenorrhoea

and

it

an emmenagogue.

acts as

pre-eminence as a

name was once thought Greek

reuo

meaning

effectiveness.

The

from the

to be derived

to set free after

its

ancients, however,

general

knew

hrute

differentiated

wound

its

use in

homeopathy

in

1818.

ive

Rue

and the plant has

is

strong and distinct-

to be used with care,

Salsola soda

L chenopodiaceae

Saltwort and the

Both

is

glass,

this species

and

closely related S. kali

in the

amounts of

large

manufacture of

the mineral-rich

sometimes precipitating mental conand the oil is capable of causing death. Handling the plant can cause allergic reac-

toxic,

fusion,

tions or phytophotodermatitis.

Salicornia europaea agg.

chenopodiaceae

Glasswort Marsh Samphire

A

It

it

has not enjoyed popular use in recent times;

maintaining the tradition of its employment in Mead known as sack, however, it is included in the Italian grape spirit Grappa con the old

manuL

replaced the southern Salsola soda

which had been exported northwards up the sixteenth century.

Its

other

it was eaten in the same way Samphire Crithmum maritimum L).

It is

now

rarely,

if

ever, used.

S. herbacea

to

common name

indicates

botanically as

Since the flavour of

salts.

butter.

L were once important

oil

facture.

introduced

knob of

The

as a source of materials used in glass

hrute,

plant's effect

mann

Large proportion of mineral

Uses (fresh plant) Diuretic.

as a flavouring.

on the uterus and the nervous system, and many, such as Bock in the fifteenth century and Lemery in the eighteenth, differentiated between the wild and garden herbs in medicinal application. Hahne-

from

Wild.

healing, in neuralgia, rheumat-

Writers after Dioscorides also emphasized the

to be derived

marshes

Rarely used medicinally. May be eaten either raw, or cooked with a

and hence the word Rue.

now thought

is

salt

Of much value in certain autonomic nervous system disorders; traditionally employed in epilepsy. Externally used to treat skin diseases,

herb of the salt marshes of Europe, especially found in the north and west, and one which as its common name suggests - was employed

Ruta

On

native.

it

and peganon and Dioscorides between a sharper 'mountain peganon' and a garden peganon'.

both as further

European

mid-

to

Constituents

employed in the perfumery industry. Contra-indications Must be used only by medical personnel. Must not be used at all by pregnant women as it is an abortifacient. Large doses are its

appearing early

flats.

Cultivation

ism and as an eye lotion. Also as a gargle. Leaves may be used, with discretion, in salads

protector against witchcraft and magic; the

mud

spikes,

Increases blood-flow to the gastro-intestinal system, aids in colic and acts as a stomachic.

to aid

beneficial effects led to

'segments'. Flowers minute, greenish, borne

on fleshy autumn.

It is

also

as

known

L.

Description Succulent annual or biennial with green leaves, and green or dull red uniformly candelabra-shaped stems, to 10 cm tall. Leaves

ash were exported from southern Europe and North Africa under the name Barilla. In

Europe

were

ruta.

north-west

Aromatic semi-evergreen perennial, glabrous and glaucous herb or subshrub to m. Deeply subdivided alternate leaves with spatulate or oblong 15 mm long segments. Flowers yellow in terminal corymbose inflorescence, appearing summer to early autumn.

placed over 300 years ago by the abundant local Salicornias, but in France and Italy they

Description

1

Distribution

north

Native

to

southern Europe, as

far

southern Alps. In sheltered positions on dry rocky or limestone soils. Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from as

the

Grown horticulturally and propagated from seed sown in the spring, from cuttings taken in spring, or by careful division. Prefers full sun and well-drained soil. The the wild.

cultivar variegata with variegated leaves,

and

the variety var. divaricata (Ten. J Wilk., with bright yellow-green leaves, are also grown in

herb gardens. Constituents Volatile oil (to

0.6%), comprising

various ketones, but mainly methylnonylkcI'uic (to

90%),

also limonene, cineol,

toxin;

coumarin; alkaloids;

fixed oil;

ascorbic

bergapten; xantoacid;

both commercial and, to a medicinal importance until the

The herb was never German pharmacopoeias, since remedies are numerous. The plant is

nineteenth superior

re-

to be of

lesser extent,

included

species

century.

in

no longer used. Description

Decumbent annual with spreading

stems to 60 cm; leaves to 4 cm long, fleshy, sessile, simple and cylindrical; flowers usually

and insignificant. Appearing mid-autumn.

solitary, greenish late

summer

to

Native to mediterranean region. sandy seashores. Cultivation Wild plant. Constituents Mineral salts, particularly large quantities of sodium sulphate; alkaloids, salsoline and salsolidine. Distribution

On

Uses (fresh or dried plant] Diuretic.

No

longer

employed medicinally.

methyl

acetate; resin; tannins; the rhamno-glucoside, rutin;

continued

Salsola

furo-cou-

Salvia officinalis L labiatae Sage The Sage family is a large group

of horticultur-

•;

r

>7

SAL-SAX important plants which consists of over 750 species widely distributed throughout the world. Some are also of culinary use. others medicinal and at least one central American species is a powerful hallucinogen, traditionally employed in religious and magical rites. allv

The most important and officinalis,

known

is

Salvia

for millen-

ancient names include elifagus, elelisphanamed by Dioscorides lingua

ia. Its

kon

best

which has been cultivated

the latter

.

humana, selba and

from the Latin health

:

salvia.

solvere,

The name

meaning

and the old French

salvia

to be in

is

good

saulje gives us the

modern common name.

bitter

compounds including

Uses

fresh

picrosalvine.

or dried leaves,

oil

Antiseptic

antifungal; anti-inflammatory: astringent; carminative; emmenagogue; choleretic: weak hypoglycaemic. Wide medicinal application: especially effective as

an anti-sudorific

in cases of excessive

sweating, and also to reduce lactation. Lseful in

liver

and

disease,

respiratory tract infections,

nervous conditions such as anxiety or depression. Red Sage is an effective antiseptic gargle and may be used as a douche in leucorrhoea, or in baths to treat skin problems. It was traditionally employed in female in

At one time Sage was included in a brew called Sage Ale, and Sage tea was also a popular drink. The Chinese once preferred it to their local teas and exchanged their product with the Dutch for Sage tea. bartering on the basis

sterility.

of weight for weight.

Clary Clary Sage Muscatel Sage Sage is also known as Muscatel Sage since it is now almost exclusively grown

Subshrub from 30-70 cm

stem woody at the base, branched, quadrangular. white and woolly when young. Leaves oblong. 3-5 cm long, usually entire, glandular or rugose, grey-green, petiolate. Flowers violetDescription

blue, to 3

cm

long,

tall:

The oil

is

in

both the pharmaceutical

and culinary

industries.

Salvia sclarea

L labiatae

tries

Uses

fresh or dried leaves,

seed,

oil

Anti-

principal

and

medicine Oil

is

employment is as the source of the oil, most commonly used in herbal

is

it

to treat

vomiting.

of value in the perfume and flavouring

A

decorative garden plant.

L caprifoliaceae

Dwarf Elder Danewort

Clan,

commercially as the source of Muscatel oil, which is used in flavouring and in the perfumerv industrv. The leaves were once mixed

between 5 and 10 arranged Appearing early summer to

Of the

the 20 or so species in the genus Sambucus

Dwarf Elder

cologically,

is

the most active

and unlike

its

pharma-

close relative the

L its fruit should be considered The dark purple berries are

Elder 5. nigra poisonous.

as

Middle A^es both these and the root or root bark were used as such - although ancient Greek

certainly violently purgative: in the

physicians did not

recommend

their use.

Early names included chamaiakte. atnx and ebulus.

the

ebullire

meaning

describing

Grigson

Wide horticultural use and several commonly grown. In northern counNarrow-leaved Sage is grown from seed in spring, flowering early summer to early

in

last

shows

it

stemming from the Latin bubble out, and possibly

to

purgative action. The Englishman's Flora traces the

its

origin of the

.

common name Danewort and

has nothing to do with the spilled

blood of the Danes", from which the herb wa> once thought to grow: it is. in fact, derived from the danes. or diarrhoea, caused by the

autumn. Broad-leaved Sage does not flower in cool regions and cannot be raided from seed use cuttings taken in late spring or early sum-

plant.

The Anglo-Saxons and Gauls employed Dwarf Elder berries as a blue dye. and this is now the

mer. Red-leaved Sage Purple or Red Saa;e Variegated Sage and Tricolor Sage variegated and tipped with purple are all grown from cuttings or by layering. Old leggy plants should be earthed up in spring and rooted cuttings cut off and planted out in autumn. Replace every 47 years. comprising Constituents Volatile oil to 2% mainly thujone and cineol but including .

main

use for the herb.

Description Strong-smelling nial to

herbaceous peren-

120 cm, on creeping rhizome. Stems

numerous,

grooved,

bearing

long-pointed,

5-15 cm

long. Flowers

oblong, serrate,

leaflets

in flat-topped,

broad cymes, white

to pink:

appearing late summer to early autumn and followed by small black fruit. Distribution Native to Europe. North Africa. Asia; introduced elsewhere. On damp soils.

numerous

other substances: also tannins: organic acids; rosmarinic acid: oestrogens:

with Elderflower and employed in flavouring wines,

and

Clan.-

wine

itself

was a sixteenth-

century aphrodisiac. The name Clary comes from the Latin clarus after the use of its mucilaginous seeds to clear the eye of grit. Description Erect biennial 30-120 cm tall, flowering stems bristly. Leaves simple, aromatic, pubescent, petiolate. broad-ovate. 1522 cm long. Flowers white, lavender and pink, attractive, numerous, on terminal panicles.

Appearing early summer

to late

autumn.

Native to southern Europe on dry limey or sandy soils, to 1000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Grown commercially and horticulturally from seed sown thinly in spring. For blooming each year allow some Distribution

plants to self-seed, or plant even. year. Constituents Essential oil

^8

saponine; tannins:

spasmodic: stimulant; emmenagogue. The seed becomes mucilaginous in water and may then be used to extract foreign bodies from the eye. The leaves in infusion may be used as a gargle, douche, skin wash for ulcers and cuts, and in small doses may be taken to promote appetite. It reduces sweating. Its

Sambucus ebulus

varieties

late

esters; choline;

mucilage.

industries.

employed

on terminal spikes. early autumn. Distribution Native to southern Europe, notably the mediterranean region. On limestone soils in full sun slopes, to 750 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from the wild, especially in Yugoslavia Dalmatian

Sage

and

linalol

too.i°

comprising

SAL-SAN wasteland, grassland or roadsides, to 1400

m

Wild

Cultivation

anthocyanins; tann-

organic acids.

gative. Rarely used fruit

owing

to

its

Pur-

drastic action.

produces a blue dye.

Contra-indications

such

exist,

as

The

berries

Sambucus nigra

should not be

L caprifoliaceae

Elder The Elder has been used continuously since the days of the Egyptians and probably before, and it is still included in certain modern cosmetic preparations as well as retaining its popularity in folk medicine. Elder flowers and Peppermint infusion is the medicine of choice

treatment of colds

homes in Europe. The plant has several that every part of the

comprising terpenes;

and quercitrin;

alkaloids;

tannins; vitamin C; mucilage; anthocyanins.

The combined

action

is

predominantly dia-

phoretic.

taken internally.

for the

varieties

Constituents Essential oil

the glucosides, rutin

Uses (root bark, fresh berries, flowers)

The

horticultural

dissected forms.

plant.

Constituents Essential oil; ins;

Some

white, golden-yellow, variegated, or deeply

altitude.

in

many country

and some believe Elder has some use. None uses,

more popular than elderberry wine, while Elder flowers soaked in lemon juice overnight

is

provide a most refreshing summer drink. Probably out of respect for its usefulness, the plant has been attributed with a variety of magical virtues, and many different European spirits were thought to inhabit it. In some

Uses (fresh or dried flowers, fruit, leaves, root bark, stem pith) Diaphoretic; laxative; anti-

spasmodic: diuretic; emollient. Mostly of use in combination with Peppermint and Yarrow in the treatment of colds and nasal catarrh, or alone as a gargle in throat infections.

Also of value with other remedies in constipation, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, bronchitis

and cystitis. The flowers are sometimes used as an ingredient of eye lotions. Young buds can be pickled, and the flowers can be eaten raw or used in various drinks including wines. Fruit valuable in conserves, pies, jams and also

They can be used in home Wide cosmetic use of the flowers.

wines.

dyeing.

Sanguinaria canadensis L papaveraceae Bloodroot Red Puccoon/Tetterwort Another common name for this small pretty herb is Indian Paint since it was one of the body stains iand clothing dyes) used by the Red Indians.

It

was known

akte,

doff their caps at the

rich soils in

modern generic name. Description Shrub or small

and

tree to

10

m

its

(all:

leaves dull green, subdivided into 5 elliptic, serrate acuminate leaflets, < g cm long.

Flowers white, 5

mm

diameter, numerous,

in

20 cm diameter: appealing mid-summer and followed by numerous flat-topped

cymes

to

it.

to the ancients as rixus, ixus

to

edible, purple, globose fruit to 8

mm

diameter. Native to Europe. North Africa. western Asia. Introduced elsewhere. In hedgerows, woodland edges, on nitrogen-rich soils. To 1000 m altitude. Distribution

woods and woodland

On

be used,

diluted, as a gargle in sore

throats.

POISONOUS.

Contra-indications

only.

The

therapeutic dose

is

Medical use

very small; large

doses are toxic, causing violent vomiting, and possibly death. Santolina chamaecyparissus L compositae Lavender Cotton Cotton Lavender/

French Lavender

used

clipped hedges of formal knot valued as an ingredient of

in the low,

was

gardens.

It

scented

sachets

also to

repel

drawers. Other than received

much

this

moths

in

clothes

the herb has not

attention, although

its

vermi-

fugal properties have been recognized from

the earliest times.

moist,

slopes in the

shade. Cultivation Wild. Introduced as a shady wild garden ornamental. Propagate by division in the autumn. A cultivar multiplex' with double flowers is found horticulturally. Constituents Alkaloids comprising sanguinarine,

protopine,

chelerythrine,

a-

and

fi-

homochelidonine, also chclidonic acid; an orange resin; gum; starch; sugars. Uses (dried rhizome) Expectorant: emetic; antipyretic spasmolytic cardio-active stimu;

;

;

lant; topical irritant; cathartic; antiseptic.

The

fresh juice

is

caustic (escharotic)

and has

Cultivation

Wild plant. Usually propagated by

been used against warts. The powdered drug has also been used externally to treat certain

SUCken or

CUttingS. Prefers moist

skin

soils.

much

well) in the sixteenth century, largely to be

Perennial

oblong capsule. Distribution North American native.

but mostly as sambucus which gives us

May

genus.

30 cm on thick rhizome; one leaf, basal, palmately lobed, petiolate, and only appearing when flower dies. Stem is a smooth scape to 20 cm, terminated by white, sometimes pinkish, flower. Solitary flower to 4 cm wide, appears midspring to early summer, followed by 3 cm-long still

capillary circulation.

This southern European native wasintroduced to cooler northern climates (which it tolerates

Description

plant or refuse to burn

employed in chronic bronchitis as and in cases of deficient

expectorant,

Introduced to medicine via folklore, it was used as a domestic remedy for gastric complaints. It was described by Geiger (1830) as having an action similar to Foxglove Digitalis purpurea L), and a century later in the HagerHandbuch as an emetic similar to Ipecacuanha. These are powerful properties for a domestic remedy, and the rhizome should not be used except under medical supervision, since in large doses it can be fatal. Sanguinaria describes the red colour of the rhizome and juice. It is the only species in the |

places old people

Principally

an

complaints and as a snuff in nasal polyps.

259

SAP-SCR The Greeks knew it as abrotonon and Romans as habrotanum, both referring to

the

shape of the flowering branches - a

tree-like

modern

characteristic also indicated in the specific

the

name. shrub 20-50

Description Perennial evergreen

much branched with silver-grey, tomentose leaves to 4 cm long, subdivided into

cm

tall;

small, thin segments. Flowers bright yellow,

numerous, but

rounded capitula

in solitary

the tips of branchlets; appearing to early

at

mid-summer

autumn.

Spain to Albania; North Africa; introduced elsewhere and locally escaped. On dry rocky soils in full sun, to 1000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticulturally from cuttings taken late summer, autumn or early spring, and rooted under glass in a peat and sand mix. Well-drained soil in full sun is required in cool climates. Clip in mid-spring to Distribution

On

shape. Constituents

unknown

Essential

bitter

oil;

principles;

substances.

moist but well-drained

and roadsides,

weak emmenagogue.

fuge; antispasmodic;

Rarely used medicinally. Leaves may be included in insect-repellent

sown

seed

Constituents

wasteland

soils in

horticulturally from

by

or

division.

5°

to

comprising

,

sachets.

Principally of use as a decorative evergreen

Uses

garden shrub. Especially suitable as a low

laxative; cholagogue; choleretic; expectorant.

hedge.

Once

fresh leaves, dried root-stock) Diuretic:

in

the treatment of certain skin

conditions, including psoriasis, eczema, Saponaria

officinalis

L caryophyllaceae

Soapwort Bouncing As both the

stock

and

suggest, the boiled leaves

names

generic

roots of this herb

may

be used as the source of a somewhat astringent lather suitable for cleaning woollen fabrics. How long the herb has been used as a natural soap (its cleaning properties being due to the presence of saponins in the plant) is uncertain. It is not known how widely it was employed, but it may have been known to the Assyrians and is certainly still used both in the

Middle East and rarely

in the

West

for clean-

ing old and delicate tapestries.

Dioscorides probably

knew

Saponaria

officinalis

Middle Ages

as Struthion while in the

it

was

variously called Herba Philippi, Sapanaria or

Herba

fullonis.

those

who

The

name

latter

fulled cloth (that

cleaned and thickened

it

1

is,

used

indicates that

the fullers it

and

acne. In India the specially prepared root-

Bet

common and

who

as a cleaning

and from this William Turner in his The Xames of Herbes (1548) called it 'Soap-

agent, wort'.

considered a galactagogue, and else-

is

where

has been employed as an expectorant

it

in respiratory complaints.

Fresh leaf

is

princi-

pally used as the source of a soap to clean old fabrics.

Contra-indications

To

be used internally only

under medical supervision. ex

Formerly classified as and known as Genista

Cytisus scoparius

1

L Link

in the early herbals, this

useful medicinal herb was employed by all the major European schools of medicine and is still in demand in folk medicine. It was the emblem of the Norman conquerors of England. Cytisus was the Greek name for a type of clover, which,

hardly resembles at all. Deciduous shrub to 3 m with many erect slender glabrous 5-angled branches bearing short-petioled obovate or oblanceoin fact,

it

Description

;

mm

Distribution

5-10

acute leaves,

yellow,

2-lipped,

2.5

cm

long.

long,

Flowers

appearing

spring and summer.

Central and southern European

Description Perennial, sparingly

native; naturalized in the United States.

rhizome bearing erect, 30-40 cm tall. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceo-

wood

clusters;

long, 3-veined. Flowers pink

cm wide

appearing

in

dense terminal

mid-summer

to

mid-

autumn. Distribution

fringes, roadsides, in clearings to

On

500

m

altitude. Calcifugous. Cultivation

Wild plant; grown

horticulturally,

the variety Andreanus has yellow flowers with

dark crimson wings. Constituents Several alkaloids, including spar-

Native to

Europe and western

teine; flavonoid pigments; a glycoside, scop-

Asia.

arin; mineral salts; bitter principles; tannin;

Introduced and naturalized elsewhere.

volatile

260

and the

blood

pressure

is

especially

lowered.

Some

oxytocic

and therefore cannot be used in pregnancy. Constricts peripheral blood vessels, and of benefit in profuse menstruation. Seeds once served as a Coffee substitute, and the flowers and buds were pickled and eaten as Capers. Twigs used for basket manufacture. Bark yields fibre suitable for manufacture of paper and cloth. Formerly used to tan leather, and leaves yield a green dye. Contra-indications Large doses paralyze the autonomic ganglia; to be avoided in pregnancy activity,

Sassafras

as a fish poison.

cm

pur-

when

palpitation,

Sassafras albidum

Scotch Broom

usually appear alone in the axils, pale or bright

usually 7

Diuretic,

use in the treatment of tachycardia

functional

PAPILIONACEAE

late

or whitish to 4

flowering herb

Broom

to be treated in special ways can be used medicinally and it has been implicated in the poisoning of both animals and man, a property once recognized in its use

late,

(dried

Koch

before

branched, on finely pubescent stems

Uses

and hypertension.

L Wimmer

Sarothamnus scoparius

Soapwort has it

and conductivity of

lessens irritability

gative, anti-haemorrhagic.

Of

soils.

Saponins

saporubin and saprubrinic acid: gums; flavonoids; vitamin C; vitexin.

used

which

cardiac muscle.

altitude.

mid-spring,

in

Tolerates poor

m

Grown

Wild.

Cultivation

Uses (dried flowering stems, leaves) Vermi-

1500

to

oil.

Action largely due

to sparteine

This tree

is

Nutt.

Nees lalraceae

considered bv

manv

authorities to

SAP-SCR provided the first of the American medicinal plant drugs to reach Europe. Its action was noticed by Monardes during an

have

expedition to Florida

and

1564),

1

wood was imported to It was known firstly by

in

1574 the

Spain. the native Indian

name

flowered inflorescence, appearing late to

Distribution

Native to eastern mediterranean

and south-west Asia, introduced to South Africa, America and elsewhere. On dry region,

chalky

soils,

rocky

hills,

roadsides; to 800

pavame, and also the French sassafras. From 1582 the Germans called it lignum floridum and

altitude.

Fennel Wood,

the wild. Cultivated from seed

pauame after

as well as lignum

its

and the fennel-like aroma of the bark. The tree was grown in England as early as origin

1597. An Italian, Angelus Sala, first extracted the Sassafras oil by distillation, and it was this

summer

mid-autumn.

m

Wild. Collected commercially from

Cultivation

sown

in spring.

comprising mainly carvacrol and cymene; phenolic substances; resins; tannins; mucilage. Constituents Essential oil (to i.5°

!

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried flowering

product which in modern times has been used most frequently. It is now under scrutiny for possible toxicity problems, and in many countries it has been withdrawn as a flavour-

Antiseptic; expectorant; carminative; stomachic; stimulant; antihelmintic; diuretic. Principally of use in gastric complaints, to aid

ing.

beneficial antihelmintic action,

Aromatic deciduous

Description

tree to

Leaves variable, lobed or

tall.

30

m

entire, altern-

ovate to 12 cm long, darker above. Flowers greenish yellow, on clustered racemes to 5 cm

tops)

digestion or stimulate

appetite.

Possesses a

and can

also

be used as an antiseptic gargle. Once considered an effective aphrodisiac although this is

long; followed by dark blue fruit with fleshy

probably only due to its stimulant effect. oil is used commercially as a flavouring, as is the leaf which is an important constituent of

the wild.

The

Grown from seed sown in poor, welldrained and chalky soils in early to midautumn or propagated by division in spring or

red pedicel. Leaves attractively coloured in

salami.

autumn.

ate,

autumn.

1.5%) comprising mainly carvacrol and cymene; phenolic subConstituents Essential oil (to

North American native from cen-

Distribution tral to

southern states. Wild.

stances; resins; tannins; mucilage.

Cultivation

Constituents

Uses

3%

oil, to

comprising safrole

80%), phellandrene and pinene. Uses (root wood, root bark, oil

rarely)

The

tops)

Aro-

inner root bark in decoction

ornataj in

decoction to induce sweating. is

oil

and

rubefacient

although safer remedies

for

destroys

appetite.

used as an antiseptic gargle.

Possesses a

and can

also be

Once considered

an effective aphrodisiac although this is probably only due to its stimulant effect. The oil is used commercially as a flavouring, as is the leaf which is an important constituent of salami.

lice,

both purposes are

preferred. Pith from the stem forms a

or stimulate

beneficial antihelmintic action,

carminative and has been used for gastro-intestinal complaints, and in association with purgatives in constipation. The wood shavings were formerly administered with Guaiacum and Sarsaparilla [Smilax

The

Antiseptic;

digestion

is

aromatic and

mildly

or dried leaves, dried flowering

(fresh

expectorant; carminative; stomachic; stimulant; antihelmintic; diuretic. Principally of use in gastric complaints, to aid

to

matic; carminative; stimulant; diaphoretic; diuretic.

;

Scrophularia nodosa L scrophulariaceae Knotted Figwort

demul-

cent mucilage in water and can be used in eye

the lame properties and uses as Savory and is collected commercially both for the leaf and for the oil extracted from the leaves. The flavour of Winter Savory is, however, both coarser and stronger, but it has the advantage of being a hardier plant and a

Figwort is an interesting medicinal plant which modern examination. Like the Foxglove, which is also a member of the Scrophulariaceae, it possesses cardio-active substances which lead to increased myocardial contraction. It is not used in heart therapy however, and its main employment in folk medicine is a dermatological one, where its action on the liver is traditionally considered to benefit skin problems. Nineteenth-century research also indicated a hypoglycaemic action, and for a time the root was included as an

hortensis.

perennial evergreen, thus providing fresh leaf

antidiabetic agent.

ancient application against

effective

warmer climates. Winter Savory is also called Mountain Savory, hence its specific name montana. Description Shrubby evergreen perennial 10-40 cm tall, woody at the base, branched and forming a compact bush. Leaves

cervical

lotions.

Oil

deserves closer

used

is

Sassafras tea

made from

is

Contra-induatwns internally as

May

it

now under and perfumery.

food flavouring

in

review], tobacco flavouring

the

wood

should

Oil

not

shavings.

be

used

causes liver and kidney damage.

irritate the skin if

L labiatae Savory

sometimes incorrectly named as Satureia It is now most commonly used as a culinary herb, the name Savory emphasizing its culinary use. It has been employed in food flavouring for over 2000 years and probabb longer than Sage. The herb also possess s This

is

medicinal

properties

stimulant effect which led to

an aphrodisiac. this

Some

among herb,

was the origin of meaning satyr. The

the

and

first it

to

including

a

former use as

authorities believe that

effect

Satureia

its

introduce

the old

name

were a garden

Italians

this as

has been in cultivation since the

ninth century.

Annual, 30 10 m tall, pubescent, and branched. Leaves acute, entire, 3 cm

Description

erect

long. Flowers rose,

<

lilac

I

his

has

Summer

used externally.

Satureja hortensis

Summer

L labiatae Winter Savory

Satureja montana

or white, in a sparsely-

for

winter flavouring

oblong-linear long.

White

or or

in

sessile, entire,

oblanceolate,

pink

flowers,

flowering spikes appearing early

15-30 in

mm

terminal

summer

to

still

apothecaries'

fig)

The

plant's

older, traditional uses.

name

Ficaria major refer to the \\\tficus

or piles; while Scrophularia

(Latin

goitre and lymph nodes),

for

names indicate

Figwort and the

is

(Latin for

from scrophula

tuberculosis since

it

of the

was used

in

complaints characterized by swelling, such as

tumours and mastitis. Square-stemmed, strong-smelling

Description

Native to south-east Europe and North Africa; introduced elsewhere. On dry chalky soils, rocky hills and mountains to 1500

perennial, 40 to 120 cm tall, on tuberous rhizome; leaves opposite, undivided, decussate, ovate and glabrous. Flowers greenishbrown, to cm long in panicles appearing

m

mid-summer

early

autumn.

Distribution

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild. Collected commercially from

1

Distribution

to mid-autumn. European native. In wet woodland.

261

SED-SIL women formerly made a tea from the plant which they used before or during childIndian birth,

and

hoea.

The herb never

to treat conditions

such as leucorr-

much

attracted

atten-

however, and it was only included in the early nineteenth-century American Eclectic Materia Medica; Hale introduced a homeopathic preparation, however, of the fresh

tion

flowering plant in 1875.

The

plant contains

which have been implicated poisoning, and it is, therefore, now

toxic substances in cattle

seldom used. on thick horizontal

Description Perennial

root,

reaching 30-60 cm tall. The stem is grooved, erect and brown-streaked; basal leaves alternate, long petioled, obtuse, toothed, 3-15 cm long.

Stem

leaves oblong or lanceolate, lyrate

or pinnatifid. Flowers golden-yellow to 2

cm

wide, in corymbs, appearing early to mid-

summer. North American native; on nutwet soils, near to streams, marshland.

Distribution

fenland hedgerows, ditches, near streams.

1700

m

porous,

altitude.

On

To

nutrient-rich loamy, but

embankments and

Cultivation

roofs.

Wild.

Wild

cosides; mucilage;

plant.

unknown

semadine; gly-

substances.

Constituents

Uses (fresh leaves) Rubefacient; hypotensive;

ins,

irritant.

Cardio-active glycosides; saponcomprising mainly diosinine; hesperetin;

Use of the

substances.

external

Uses (dried root-stock, dried flowering tops)

warts and corns;

weak hypoglycaemic. Used in poultices for the external treatment of wounds, burns, ulcers and haemorrhoids. Formerly used externally and internally in glandular disorders, mastitis and tumerous conditions. Also used externally and internally in

chronic skin diseases such as eczema.

Contra-indications

heart

it

Owing

to

its

action on the

should only be used under medical

supervision.

Sedum acre L crassulaceae Biting Stonecrop Yellow Stonecrop or Wall-pepper The Wall-pepper, named after its habitat and taste, has never been considered of much medicinal importance, and even some of the ancient writers warned against It

its

internal use.

was, however, included in some sixteenth-

century apothecaries' remedies for intestinal parasites, and was known then as vermicularis. Similar, related plants were used for the

same

purpose and by 1741 the Wiirttemberg Phar-

macopoeia

specified

'

Vermicularis Jlore flavo\ the

yellow-flowered Vermicularis. In 1830 ble

employment

in epilepsy

its

possi-

had been recog-

was rarely used

for this purpose because the irritant substances it contains caused blisters. Description Fleshy perennial on creeping or decumbent stems forming mats 5-20 cm tall. long, thick, sessile, numerous, Leaves 3-4 cylindrical, arranged closely along the stem. Flowers yellow, to 15 wide, sparse, in terminal cymes; appearing mid-summer to

nized, but

it

mm

mm

autumn. European native; introduced elsewhere. On poor, dry, warm, calcareous or

Cultivation

Wild.

Constituents Alkaloids; tannins; resin;

fresh plant

must be restricted to

for local treatment of should be diluted with water to aid wound healing. The plant cannot safely be used in the treatment of hypertension. May be employed homeopathically.

application

Not

Contra-indications

External use

it

may

to

be used internally.

cause blistering.

Emmenagogue;

and

root)

diaphoretic; tonic; diuretic;

anti-haemorrhagic. used in the treatment of certain internal haemorrhages, especially pulmonary haemorrhage; in female complaints and in childbirth;

Once

in genito-urinary tract infections.

Considered

be a tonic in debility following illness. Contra-indications To be used only by medical to

personnel.

L compositae Golden Ragwort Liferoot/Squaw Weed

unknown

substances. Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant

vitamin C; palmitic and malic acids; unknown

choleretic; diuretic; cardio-active; vulnerary;

rient-rich in

Constituents Alkaloids including

soils.

Cultivation

rubble,

May

prove toxic.

Senecio aureus

Female Regulator and indeed most of its uses were traditionally concerned with female complaints. American Senecio aureus

is

also called

Senecio vulgaris

L compositae

Groundsel This common weed is known to most European gardeners as an unwelcome intruder in the vegetable plot, or wherever soil has been disturbed. Dioscorides called it erigeron and conit had cooling properties, a statement echoed 1600 years later by Culpeper who thought the herb of value in all diseases caused by 'heat'. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Groundsel was frequently used in

sidered

it evidently fell out of 780 Hagen wrote that 'it had .'. formerly been used Dr Finazzi reintro-

various conditions, but fashion, since in

1

.

.

duced the herb

in

1824 for liver diseases, and a folk medicinal application

century later its included it being used in amenorrhoea and

dysmenorrhoea.

now known

It is

that, like

its

American relative S. aureus, it possesses toxic alkaloids which after prolonged or large dos-

damage the liver. The English name Groundsel, (from age

the old

English ground swallower) and the French

name

Toute-venue,

emphasize

the

weed's

vivacity. Description

Annual 4-60 cm

tall;

stems erect,

succulent, purple at the base. Leaves pinnatifid,

with

irregularly

toothed

lobes,

short-

petioled or half-clasping. Flowers yellow, the

mm

diameter in cylindrical

early

flower-heads to 4

Distribution

involucre, on terminal dense corymbose clus-

stony

262

soils,

or sand; especially on old walls,

ters;

appearing throughout the year. European native, introduced

Distribution

else-

SED-SIL where. Widespread and common on wild and cultivated soils, to 2000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Constituents Alkaloids including senecionine; mucilage; tannins; resin; various mineral salts;

unknown

months.

L

yields white or yellowish oil is

or

brown seed from

S. orientale

The black L (now classified

as a cultivar of S. indicum L) gives

an

which

oil

considered suitable for industrial purposes. Constituents Fixed oil (to 55%) comprising is

Uses (entire flowering plant)

Emmenagogue;

astringent; vulnerary; haemostatic.

Used

glycerides of palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic

in

and

in various conditions

and other acids; a phenolic subsesamol; sesamin; choline; lecithin;

linoleic

associated with blood circulation or haemorr-

stance,

hages, and in problems of menstruation. Now very rarely employed, except externally as a

nicotinic acid; calcium salts.

wash

Nutritive;

Uses

for cuts.

Popularly used to feed caged birds.

and can damage the liver; under medical supervision.

to

seed

(seed,

fresh

oil,

laxative;

leaves

emollient;

rarely)

demulcent.

may be used as a poultice, as may The ground seed when mixed with

Fresh leaves

Large doses are dangerous

Contra-indications

suitable for both

culinary and medicinal purposes.

substances.

homeopathy. Once used

S. indicum

seed and the expressed

the seeds.

water can be used to treat bleeding haemorrhoids, and can be taken for genito-urinary infections when combined with other

be used only

remedies. Seeds are of benefit in constipation, and Indians consider a decoction acts as an

emmenagogue. The oil has wide medical, pharmaceutical and culinary application.

Sesame seed paste (tahini) is used in spreads, and pates. The seed is used to decorate and flavour bread. sauces, casseroles

from

plains

Carolina. In

drained

Florida and Texas to South swampy, low-lying land on well-

soils.

Wild. Sometimes transplanted as a garden cover plant. Constituents Fixed oil (to 1.5%) to which the Cultivation

action I 'ses

due.

is

partly dried ripe fruit) Tonic: stimulant

1

expectorant; nutritive; sedative. Although the is mildly sedative, the fruits have

general action a

stimulant

local

urinary

on

action

membranes of both

mucous and genito-

the

the respiratory

The

systems.

action

overall

considered tonic, especially following Serenoa repens

Small palmae Sabal

Principally used therefore in chronic

Bartr.,

Saw Palmetto

The generic name

Serenoa

is

named

Watson, an American botanist repens means creeping, and refers

acute

Screno

alter

[899 to the habit of t8<>f>

bronchitis,

cystitis,

catarrh,

is

illness.

and suband as a

tonic tea. Considered to be of benefit in sexual

and atrophy of

debility

the testes, but this

is

unsubstantiated.

the stems. This habit leads to dense stands of

Saw Palmetto growing along the coastal of Florida and Georgia

in the

plains

I'nited States of

America.

American Indians used the ground-up seed as food and considered the fruits were sedative and tonic. They were, therefore, included in some orthodox pharmacopoeias from 1830 for

about

100 years,

restricted

palm.

their

use

is

now

folk medicine. Saw Palmetto saw-toothed edges of the leaves ol was formerly known as S. serrulata

to

refers to the tin

but

It

(Michx.) Hook. Description Palm, usually low and shrubby, 9 m tall, sometimes to f) m tall, with prostrate 1

and creeping, branching stem,

often underground. Leaves very deeply divided to 20 legmen ts), 7-, (in wide, green 01 glaucous Flowers inconspicuous, on a brain lied luster, (

followed by SUCCUlent purple drupes fruit) won drying, darkening, and shrinking to 18

mm

Distribution

long.

North American native, on

(

oastal

Sesamum indicum L pedaliaceae

Sesame

Bennc/Gingclli

Sesame is still widely cultivated for its seed which yields the valuable Sesame or Gigelly oil

an edible

those of Olive

with similar properties to

oil

The name Sesame can be

oil.

traced back through the Arabic Simsim (

loptic

Semsem

name mentioned B.C.)

and

Egyptian Semsemt, a the Ebcrs Papyrus (c. 1800

to the early in

which indicates how long man has known

and used

the herb.

Description

Erect,

pubescent

annual

strongly

smelling,

cm

finely

Leaves variable, simple above, lanceolate or oblong, alternate or opposite. Flowers purple to whitish,

to

cm

3

solitary,

to

long,

axillary.

90

sub-erect

Followed

capsule containing numerous Distribution

Native

tall.

or

by flat

to the tropii

drooping, 3

cm-long

seeds.

s.

Widely cultivated in Africa, Asia and America, on sandy loam; the seed being sown broadcast and harvested within 4 Cultivation

L Gaertn. compositae Milk-thistle Marian Thistle/ Wild Artichoke Dioscorides described this herb as silybon but from early Christian times both Latin and common names have normally included the name of the Virgin Mary, after an old tradition that the white veination on the leaves came from her milk. From this there arose the

Silybum marianum

belief that

which there

the plant affected lactation is

for

no modern evidence. The herb

is

SIN-SOL Young leaves, and

shoots, peeled stems, receptacles

roots can be

Contra-indications

The

seed should be used only

by medical personnel. Sinapis alba

L cruciferae

ancient Greeks and

officinale

(L) Scop,

cruciferae

This herb was the erysimon of Dioscorides who prescribed it (combined with honey) against deadly poisons and a host of other diseases and pestilences.

Mustard White Mustard The

Sisymbrium

Hedge Mustard

cooked and eaten.

The Greek name was

the apothecaries' Herba erysimi,

Romans

used Mus-

Linnaeus who

classified

it

as

retained in

and even by

Erysimum

officinale

tard as a spice, usually ground up and sprinkl-

The development of the now known condiment began in France

ed over food. universally

and today over half comes from Dijon. White Mustard is closely related to the Wild Charlofck (Sinapis arvensis L), and is much less pungent than Black Mustard. There was no medicinal differentiation between the various types of Mustard seed until the London Pharmacopoeia of 1720. Description Branched annual to m high; slightly hairy stems; leaves generally oval and in the seventeenth century,

the world's supply

1

lobed. Flowers small, bright yellow, appearing

mid-summer

to early

autumn. Seed yellowish

in colour, in bristly pods.

Native to southern parts of Europe and western Asia. Introduced elsewhere. Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated commercially on wide scale. Distribution

effective

upon

the liver, however, a property

it

shares with another species of the Compositae

Constituents

Family, the Artichoke; and,

A glycoside comprising sinalbin

;

an

recognizing

in that

name

the fact that

Hedge

Mustard had long been an official plant, and effective as an expectorant. Traditionally, and in practice, the herb or juice

enzyme,

myrosin,

the flower receptacle can be eaten.

presence

of cold

Milk Thistle was formerly cultivated quite

crushed.

may

widely, not only for the receptacle but also for

Uses (seed, leaves) Stimulant, irritant, emetic.

roots - the latter

Less powerful than Black Mustard and used in

Tragopogon porrifolius L). In

combination with it for similar purposes. Powerful preservative, effective against moulds and bacterial growth; used for this reason in

loss, and for this became known as the Singer's plant. Description Annual on branched, erect stem 30-90 cm tall, with 5-8 cm long basal leaves deeply pinnatifid and toothed; stem leaves thinner and hastate. Flowers small, pale yellow

young

the

stalks, leaves

resembling Salsify

(

like the

and

the eighteenth century the

Artichoke,

young shoots were

thought to be superior to the best cabbage. Medicinally the herb was often used in place of the Blessed Thistle (Cnicus benedictus L) and for a long time the seed was considered a specific for stitches in the side.

Description

Annual or biennial; 30-150 cm

tall

prominently grooved, seldom branched stem. Leaves large, oblong, shiny,

with

erect,

variegated and very spiny; sessile or clasping. Flowers violet-purple, thistle-like in a hemispherical capitula to 5

cm

and surrounded

the base by long spiny

at

long; usually solitary

appendages.

Appearing

elsewhere.

summer

to early

On dry rocky or stony soils in waste-

and roadsides to 600 m altitude. Cultivation Wild plant. Easily grown from seed; prefers sunny situation and well-drained soil.

lands, fields

Constituents Essential oil;

tyramine; histamine;

bitter principles; a flavonoid, silymarine.

Uses (powdered seed, fresh

and dried

whole and dried flowering plant, fresh root, young stems and shoots, fresh receptacle) Choleretic; cholagogue; bitter tonic; hyper-

tensive; diuretic.

The whole herb

leaves used in salads.

the is

be used fresh to restore the voice in

hoarseness or in complete

reason

is

of value in the stimulation of

assist digestion.

it

on long racemes, appearing early summer to mid-autumn. Distribution European native; in hedgerows, roadsides, railway embankments, most wasteland and weedy places and occasionally on 1700 m altitude. Wild. Once cultivated as a pot-herb. Constituents Sulphur-containing compounds;

walls.

To

Cultivation

cardenolides. Uses (fresh flowering tops, fresh juice) Expect-

bechic;

stomachic;

tonic;

diuretic;

laxative.

Useful in bronchitis, pharyngitis, tracheitis,

and

as a tonic.

May

be used with discretion in sauces; formerly eaten as a vegetable but the flavour is strong and disagreeable in large quantities. Contra-indications it is

As

it

has an effect on the heart

not suitable for the very young, old or those

with cardiovascular problems.

leaves,

fresh

appetite and to

Young

in

seed

orant;

autumn. Distribution Native to central and west Europe; introduced and naturalized in California and late

pickles.

which interact water when the

The powdered

Smilax ornata Hook.

f.

liliaceae

Sarsaparilla Sarsaparilla was introduced to Seville, Spain, between 1536 and 1545 from Mexico, and it soon received attention as a potential remedy - particularly following the reports

for syphilis

markedly choleretic

of successful treatment using the herb's roots

cardiovascular disorders.

sickness.

by Pedro de Ciezo de Leon in the 1540s. The plant was established as an official drug by the mid-sixteenth century and remained

ulcers

official

seeds taken in emulsion are

and of use

They

264

in certain

also act prophylactically against travel

Formerly used in the treatment of leg and varicose veins.

until

the

early

twentieth

century.

SIN-SOL was given various names, including and Sarmentum indicum, and by 1685 three main sorts, Mexican, Honduran and that from the province of Quito were being exported to Europe in large quantities. By the nineteenth century Sarsaparilla was established as a valuable alterative and tonic Initially

it

Zarzaparilla, Zarza-Parrilla, Salsa Parilla

for use in

rheumatic, syphilitic, scrophulous,

some

benefit in rheumatism.

gests

Smyrnium olusatrum L umbelliferae Alexanders Black Lovage/Horse Parsley Because of superficial similarities with other members of the Umbelliferae family, AlexBlack Lovage, Wild A medieval name Petroselinum Alexandrium or the Rock Parsley of

Celery,

root

now

is

retained in few national

pharmacopoeias, and besides use,

it

is

folk

medicinal

only employed as a vehicle and

flavouring agent for medicines, or as a soft

climates.

is

also

known

and Horse

as

Parsley.

Alexandria echoes these similarities and gives us the name Alexanders. It was known to Theophrastus as hipposelinon

and occasionally

as petroselinon, the latter

usually being applied to Parsley.

A

name

related

L, which had similar and uses was given the Greek name Smyrnion and from this the generic name of Alexanders is obtained. Both plants were official from the earliest times, and the root plant,

perfoliatum

S.

properties

drink flavouring. Description Dioecious,

means of paired

woody

vine climbing

in a sunny position from seed sown in the autumn. Its cultivation is similar to Celery.

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses (seed, dried

and

fresh root, fresh stems

and

leaves) Stomachic; diuretic.

anders

The

Evidence sug-

warmer

Employed as a pharmaceutical flavouring Used in soft drinks.

many

were reaching Europe. These included Honduran, Guatemalan, Brazilian, Jamaican, Mexican and Guayaquil Sarsaparillas. Of these, the socalled Jamaica Sarsaparilla (exported via Jamaica but actually from central America) was the only sort once allowed in the British Pharmacopoeia.

effective in

agent.

and chronic dermatological problems, and different types of root

more

is

it

Now

rarely used medicinally, the seed soaked

wine was formerly considered an emmenagogue, while the leaves were antiscorbutic in days when vitamin C was unavailable. The root is mildly diuretic and a bitter, thus promoting appetite. The seed is stomachic, and was once thought to be of benefit in asthma. The fresh juice may be used on cuts and wounds. Seed may be crushed and used with discretion as a condiment. Leaves, stem, root and shoots may be boiled and eaten. The fresh blanched stem and flower buds can be eaten raw. in

Solanum dulcamara

L solanaceae

Nightshade Bittersweet/Woody Nightshade The Solanaceae family consists of over 1700 some of which are of considerable economic importance - such as the Egg-plant, Pepino, and Potato. Others are of horticultural interest and several have been employed species,

by-

Stems prickly root-stock, from

stipular tendrils.

arising from rhizomatous which numerous thin, cylindrical roots also arise. Leaves alternate, variable. Flowers greenish to white, followed by berries. Distribution Native to Central America, especially Costa Rica. In humid forests, swamps, and river-banks.

for

medicinal purposes

Many, such

in all parts of the

world.

acid sitosterol-d-glycoside fatty acids sugars

have very poisonous berries due to their glycoalkaloid content. This irritant substance partially breaks down, however, in solution to yield steroidal alkamine aglycones which have an effect on the nervous system. Various parts of the plant (excluding the berries) have therefore been used appropriately in medicinal practice since as early as

resins.

the thirteenth century.

Uses (root) Alterative; diuretic; tonic. This

herb's stem

Cultivation

Wild.

The

thin rootlets are usually

collected from the wild. Constituents

Sarsaponin, a glycoside; sarsapic

;

remedy

;

is

ineffective in syphilis

;

and

is

now

as this species,

The

was introduced

sixteenth century

when

it

specific use of the in

Germany

in the

was called Dulcis

considered of low therapeutic value. It does assist in the elimination of urea and uric acid,

amara,

however, and

chemical changes mentioned above). Its medical use has almost disappeared in the last 30 years although it is included as a food flavouring provided the solanine content in the final food product is not more than 10 mg

is

thus of value in gout;

it

is

which

of so until 1830 in much of Europe. Alexanders has been most important as a culinary herb however, and its cultivation was described by Pliny and Columella in the first century a.d. Even Galen considered it more important as a food than a medicine. The leaves, the upper part of the roots, stem and shoots were most often used, but the flower buds were also added to salads. Like Celery the herb was blanched to remove bitterness. Due to the whims of fashion, Alexanders largely disappeared from gardens in the mid-eighteenth century, but it is worthy of modern

and seed remained

literally is

first

sweet bitter, after the taste then sweet (due to the

bitter,

per kg. Description

cm tall.

Shrubby perennial usually 60-170

sometimes climbing or trailing to 4 m Leaves ovate, pubescent, petiolate, entire

tall,

cultivation.

Glabrous biennial, 50-150 cm tall furrowed stem. Lower leaves to 30 cm long, compound, stalked, with broadly ovate segments to 6 cm long. Flowers yellow-green in sub-globose umbels to 10 cm wide appearing early to mid-summer and followed by aromatic Description

on

solid,

black seed. Distribution Native to west Europe, mediterranean region, and naturalized elsewhere; on moist soils in hedge banks, rocky soils, cliffs,

specially close to the sea. Cultivation

Wild

plant. Cultivated

on most

soils

265

SOL-STY 2

or

more

basal lobes; to 10

spotted

violet,

cm

with

green,

long. Flowers

bright

yellow

numerous in long-stalked cymes, appearing mid-summer or mid-autumn. Followed by ovoid, scarlet-red fruit to 12 anthers;

mm

diameter. Distribution

weedy on

Widespread. Native

places, stream edges,

damp

nutrient-rich

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

Europe,

to

On

and North America.

Asia,

wasteland,

and woodland;

Leaves either dentate or entire. Flowers golden-yellow, to 15 wide, arranged in terminal panicles; appearing late summer to

mm

autumn.

late

Native

Distribution

and

to

Europe, North Africa

wood

edges,

grassland;

porous acid and calcareous

Alkaloids

(to

1%)

comprising

and solanine; glycosidal

and non-glycosidal saponins comprising dulcamaric and dulcamaretic acids. Uses (dried stems) Expectorant; diuretic. Formerly employed in decoction to treat asthma, catarrh, rheumatism and bronchitis, and especially of benefit in dermatological problems such as eczema, psoriasis and pity-

May

woodland

Asia. Introduced elsewhere. In

clearings,

soils.

plant.

solaceine, solaneine

pubescent, the basal ones obovate to oblanceolate and petiolate, to 10 cm long. Upper leaves smaller and becoming sessile. ate,

soils,

to

on deep 2800 m

altitude.

Wild plant. Propagated horticulturby division in spring or autumn, or from seed sown in spring. Prefers open conditions, and soils which are not too rich. Cultivation

ally

Constituents Essential oil; flavonoids; tannins;

saponins; various organic acids comprising

mainly

known

tartaric

citric,

and oxalic

acids; un-

substances.

be used homeopathically. All parts of the plant are POISONOUS; to be used only by medical

Uses (dried flowering plant) Anti-inflammatory expectorant vulnerary astringent weak-

personnel.

Of much

riasis.

Contra-indications

;

;

use applied externally in poultices or

ointments Solidago virgaurea

L compositae

ance.

It

is

to assist tissue healing; used intern-

same purpose, and

ally for the

Golden Rod The common name

;

;

ly diuretic.

also in urino-

genital inflammations or to treat chronic skin

refers to the herb's appearan attractive plant and has been

problems.

Formerly

taken as an adjuvant (assisting with other remedies, of benefit in

taken into cultivation as a useful late-flowering

agent)

ornamental. The herb is not certainly mentioned in ancient writings and there is evidence that it was particularly promoted by the Arabs in the

asthma, arthritis and rheumatism. Rarely used in cases of diarrhoea. Its ability to reduce cholesterol levels is not clinically

Once

substantiated.

takes place.

Middle Ages,

since to fifteenth

and sixteenthSpigelia marilandica

wound

The

herb, hence the

name

consolida

from the

make whole and hence its generic name. Traditionally it was employed both externally and internally. Clarke introduced an extract of the fresh flowers to homeopathic medicine in 1902, and in 1949 it was discovered by Hager that Brazilians used the Latin to

herb

closely

related

wound

plant, too.

S.

microglossa

m

DC

as a

Erect perennial to tall on knotted rhizome. Stems usually sparsely branched, sometimes unbranched. Leaves alternDescription

1

;

rarely

round-worms;

specifically used to expel

when purgation

the action only being effective It

was, therefore, usually adminis-

L loganiaceae Pink Root Carolina Pink/Worm Grass/

of use in the treatment of nervous headache.

Indian Pink

The remedy

generic

name

of this once popular North

American Indian remedy

for

round-worms

is

taken from Adrian van der Spiegel, a physician from Brussels

who

died in

Padua

in 1625, in

whose honour it was called Spigelia. The herb was particularly favoured in the southern States by the Cherokees, to whom it was known as unsteetla. It was introduced to medicine in the 1750s by Dr Garden and Dr Chalmers; it was included in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and continued to be used in orthodox medicine until 40 years ago. The name Pink Root comes from the internal colour of the root-stock. It was formerly classi-

from 30-60 cm tall. acuminate, sessile, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, somewhat pubescent beneath; 5 10 cm long. Flowers very attractive, 3-5 cm long, deep red outside, yellow inside, carried on erect, onesided terminal cymes; appearing early to late Distribution

rich,

American

North

New Jersey

deep

soils at

native;

incompletely

be of benefit leaves

may

be used, with discretion, as a

stomachic tea; they do not contain the same quantity of active substances as are found in the root-stock.

Betony is an interesting example of a herb which was attributed with magical properties from the earliest times when it was used medicinally, and which for some time retained an important place in folk medicine even though its value is

This

The EgyptBetony with magical properties, and it was the most important magical plant of the Anglo-Saxons, being mentioned as one of the medicinal plants in the eleventh-century work, the seriously questioned.

ians were the

first

to attribute

Lacnunga. Dioscorides

knew

authorities consider

it is only an astringent was once an ingredient of bitter

Wild

tonics), while others believe

An

plant.

alkaloid, spigeline; bitter prin-

ciples; resin; volatile oil; fixed oil; tannins;

content, which

is

to

the

as kestron while

in

Cultivation

due

it

the

Constituents

mostly

labiatae

Stachys officinalis (L) Trevisan

bitter

is

but

com-

plaints.

The

clearings.

action

studied,

certain nervous

in

woodland

the

thought to be

in

from

and Texas; the edges of woods and to Florida

is

is

Romans called it vettonica, from which the old name betonica is derived. It was previously known as Betonica officinalis L. Today opinions differ as to its value; some

summer. southern

may

now being

on twisted root-stock, Leaves opposite, entire,

Perennial

Description

powder

In small quantities the

fied as Lonicera marilandica L.

266

and rhizome,

tered in conjunction with a purgative.

it was known as Erba pagana and the Germans called it Consolida Saracema. Golden Rod has principally been used as a

century Italians

Uses (dried or fresh roots

fresh leaves) Antihelmintic; narcotic.

spigeline

a slightly toxic substance.

(it

however,

now

chiefly

it is

sedative.

employed

smoking mixtures and herbal

in

It

is,

herbal

snuffs, as well as

occasionally being used in folk medicine. Description Perennial with square stems; reach-

SOL-STY medicine by Dr Symons. It was soon an drug in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and entered European pharmacopoeias its action is markedly reduced if old tinctures or roots are employed, and it was found to be a better expectorant than an antisyphilitic. It is still retained in folk medicine and proprietary herbal products as an alterative. Its leaves are often marked with chancre-like which may have (like syphilitic lesions) spots

to

official

originally suggested

use in syphilis.

its

subshrub to 90 on thick, creeping root-stock. Stems clustered and regularly branched. Leaves very variable in form; from ovate to oblong or Description Glabrous, perennial

cm

tall,

lanceolate, sessile or short-petioled, toothed,

Distribution

long-petioled, 3-20 mm long; some leaves ovate and sessile. Flowers small, white, numerous on downwardly pointing stalks. Appearing early spring to mid-winter. Distribution European native; distributed worldwide, and often naturalized as a weed of importance. On all moist, cultivated land and

in

wasteland

to

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild

Wild plant. Constituents Tannins (to

Mineral salts including calcium and potassium salts; saponins. Uses (fresh stems and leaves) Vulnerary. The crushed plant may be used in poultices; once rubbed on arthritic joints to relieve discomfort. Used homeopathically in the treatment of rheumatism. Principally used as a salad herb or ma\ be cooked as a vegetable with a knob of butter added.

30-60 cm

ing

dentate,

tall.

slightly

Basal rosette of cordate,

and

long-petiolate

hairy,

strongly-nerved leaves. Flowers pink or purple, in

a dense, terminal spike surmounting a

mid-summer

long stalk; appearing

mid-

to

autumn.

European native; on sandy loams wood clearings, meadowland, to 1500 m

saponosides;

15%);

sub-

bitter

glucosides;

alkaloids

comprising betonicine and stachydrine. Uses (dried flowering tops, root-stock rarely)

emetic;

stomachic;

Astringent;

purgative;

vulnerary; sternutatory; bitter; sedative. The root may cause purgation and is not usually employed.

The herb in

is

an effective bitter tonic and useful

diarrhoea and

for external

application

in

may

states,

but

is

best

taken with other remedies. dried leaves

may

be used as a tea sub-

and are included

stitute,

in

smoking and

snull

I)r Benjamin named.

The

Stillingfleet, alter

use of the

herb as

was established

States well before 1828

media (L) Vill.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

dry

W ild r

plant.

Constituents Volatile oil (to

months

12

with birds. It

has long been used as a bird feed, and in

winter

it

provides one

of

Seed lor them. Indeed,

the few sources ol fresh is

it

as a foodstuff lor

The commore than

ive; laxative; sialogogue.

Principally used now as an alterative in chronic skin problems, liver infections and urino-genital infections. In small doses it is laxative,

and

in large

doses

it

is

emetic and

in

pulmonary

purgative.

Of

an expectorant

benefit as

whom

it

was

Styrax benzoin

Benzoin It

was

in

a

spe<

i

I

u

against

the southern United

when

it

was introduced

it

Dryander styracaceae Benjamin

Gum

noted by Ibn Batuta following his to 1349, and he called

first

Sumatra in 1325 Java Frankincense

Arabic).

(or Luban Jawi The Arabic name was altered

in

to

Banjawi, Benzui, Benzoin and Benjamin over subsequent centuries.

The resin was imported to Europe following Garcia de Orta's description of the drug (1563), and in the

in

an

old) Expectorant; emetic; purgat-

in

bite

fixed oil;

Uses (dried or fresh root-stock, not

Chickweed and

4%);

ate; cyanogenic glycosides; starch. bined action is mildly irritant.

I'oiseau its

is this herb's English name, Imbed French name, Vogelmiere iis German, medieval Latin mOTSUl gtUlitUU liens all of these emphasizing die association

from light,

sun.

soils in full

Cultivation

visit to

The

Chickweed

native;

Card, eiphorbiaceae

Queen's Delight Queen's Root/Yaw-root Queen's Delight receives its generic name from

syphilis

Stellaria

American

Virginia to Florida and Texas. In sandy,

disorders.

mixtures. fresh plant provides a yellow dye.

mid-autumn. North

to

Distribution

acrid resin, sylvacrol; tannins; calcium oxal-

altitude.

plant.

Stil/ingia sylvatua

possess a mild sedative action of benefit

headaches and anxiety

The

m

to

wounds. It

2000

Constituents

Cultivation

stances;

ovate-acute,

green to red, 3- 11 cm long. Flowers monoecious, yellow, without petals, in dense, terminal spikes to 12 cm long; male flowers in clusters, female solitary. Appearing late spring

a

1582

name

it

was

list

listed as

of taxes levied at

Asa

Worms

(Sweet Asa) -

dulcis

retained until the 1850s.

By [800 the antiseptic properties of Benzoin had been fully recognized and both Simple and Compound Tinctures of Benzoin were regularly employed as preservatives in a wide range of medicinal and cosmetic preparations, the resin is still used today in herbal

animals and poor country lolk that it has received most attention; the ancient writers ignored it and it has few, if any, medicinal

and

applications.

elliptic to orbicular, entire or slightly dentate.

Stellaria

is

from the Latin

Stella

meaning

a star.

after the (lower shape:

preparations.

2

Vigorous annual, but rapidly propagating and found throughout (he year. Stems much-branched, decumbent and as-

Cultivation

'

ending, very Straggly, 10

40 (in

tall.

Leaves

to

7

m

tall;

leaves simple,

Flowers white, several, in drooping clusters on cm long pedicels. Distribution Native tosouth-east Asia, especially

while media serves to distinguish this plant fi >m both larger and smaller relatives as it me, ins middle. Description

Tree

Description

Sumatra;

mixed forests lose to rivers. Wild and cultivated commercially.

in

c

obtained by tapping 7 10 year old raping off the whitish exudation from the bark. Trees can be so treated for up to I

he

trees

ic

sin

and

is

se

267

SUC-TAX symphiton of Dioscorides. but

the

Roman

it probably was from the verb meaning to the name from which both the

conferva

join together

.

common name

medieval Consolidae maioris and

Comfrey are derived. Comfrey was once one of the main herbs used in treating fractures and hence the alternative name Knitbone. The pounded root forms a mucilaginous mass which can be bound around a fracture and which, when dry. holds the bone in place.

30- 1 20 cm tall, on thick brownish-black root-stock. Leaves and stem erect, with stiff hairs. Lower leaves to 25 cm Description Perennial.

long,

lanceolate,

petiolate.

Upper

narrower.

leaves

hairy

beneath.

Flowers

purplish,

pinkish or yellowish-white, in crowded ter-

minal

appearing early summer

cymes;

to

autumn.

early

Europe. Asia; introOn rich, wet streams, in ditches, on low-

Native

Distribution

to

duced and naturalized elsewhere. soils

near

lying

rivers,

meadowland. To 1500

m

altitude.

Propagated by division in spring and autumn, or by root cuttings from spring to autumn. Tolerates most conditions, but requires regular watering on dry soils. Constituents Mucilage: allantoin to 0.8 Cultivation

20 years, before they die.

Balsamic acids to 6o° comprising esters of cinnamic and benzoic acids: benzoresinol: benzaldehyde; styrol: vanillin: Constituents

and

several related substances.

The combined

predominantly antiseptic. Uses resin Carminative: antiseptic; diuretic:

action

is

mildly expectorant.

Used internally as a genito-urinary antiseptic, and as an expectorant in chronic bronchitis. Principally poultices

of benefit

and

an

as

antiseptic

in

and also applied directan antiseptic tincture. The

plasters,

ly to the skin as

an excellent preservative, suitable various pharmaceutical and cosmetic

tincture for

is

preparations.

can be used diluted as a mouth wash. Used in incense and aromatic products. It

toothed. Flowers dark blue, occasionally white. numerous, arranged in globular, involucral heads, terminating a long stalk. Appearing late summer to late autumn. Distribution Native to North Africa: Europe: western Siberia: introduced and naturalized in north-east United States and elsewhere. On moist soils in woods, pastures, fenland. and

To

m

The second

part of this herb's

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

in

which scratching

is

characteristic.

It

was

most

members

scratchy

seed

of

the

heads;

Dipsacaceae the

Fuller's

is

rarely used today.

Description Perennial

A decoction may be

stem erect 15-100 cm tall, usually glabrous. Basal leaves narrowly elliptic to obovatelanceolate, to 30 cm long, arranged in a rosette; stem leaves narrower and rarely

268

used externally

pruritus or to aid

healing or ulcers. Also used homeo-

Symphytum

officinale

L boraginaceae

Comfrey Knitbone Comfrey

has

received

much

attention

recent years both as a medicinal plant

viding a source of vitamin proliferant allantoin

and

B 12 and

in

pro-

the cell-

as a potential source

Attempts suitable

extract the protein in a form

to

human consumption and

for

to

develop the plant as a food source in underdeveloped countries have so far been unsuccessful.

on short, erect root-stock

Astringent: demulcent: cell-prolifer-

ant: vulnerary:

Root

used

weak

sedative.

internally

in

the

treatment

of

veins.

almost 35 per cent total protein, which is the same percentage as that of soya beans, and 10 per cent more than that of Cheddar Cheese.

is

fresh or dried root-stock, fresh or dried

leaves!

Now rarely used; the root-stock was formerly considered of benefit as an expectorant in

of protein. Certain strains of the herb contain

an old prefix from a traditional story in which the devil bit part of the root off. The herb is not very effective medicinally and Devil's-Bit

cell-pro-

tion. Considered of benefit in neuralgia and rheumatism, applied externally. Occasionally

flower?

have

L

The

to the allantoin content.

root are applied as a poultice, lotion or decoc-

rarely

Teasel

Honk, is the most extreme example of this, and the bracts were once used to tease or scratch up the nap on cloth. Dipsacus sativus

due

and

root-stock;

pathically.

formerly classified as Scabiosa succisa L. This may have been introduced through the theory of the Doctrine of Signatures, since

Uses

is

Expectorant: diuretic: antihelmintic: vulnerary; astringent: stomachic.

dried

Uses

juice

common name

it has been used in the treatment of scabies and similar skin conditions

liferant action

gastric

altitude.

Constituents

wound

refers to the fact that

sugars; essential oil; choline.

Saponins: a glucoside. scabioside: starch; tannins: mineral salts.

1800

to relieve itching of the skin

Moench. DIPSACACEAE Devil's-Bit Scabious

tannic acid: resin; traces of alkaloids compris-

ing consollidine and symphyto-cynoglossine:

and duodenal ulcers and diarrhoea: leaf used in pleurisy and bronchitis. For wounds, bruising, ulceration and dermatological complaints the leaves or macerated

marshes.

bronchitis.

Succisa pratensis

Wild.

Comfrey is, however, an important animal some parts of the world, and in Africa.

feed in for

example,

also It

is

increasing in importance. It is an organic compost and mulch. not certain that this species was the

grown

it is

as

used externally

in

the treatment of varicose

Dried leaf is a tea substitute. Fresh leaf used as a vegetable; in composting and mulching.

in

animal feeds:

SUC-TAN araceae

Symplocarpus foetidus (L) Nutt.

Skunk Cabbage

Weed

Polecat

This herb has an unusual appearance and, as common names suggest, an awful smell

its

when

bruised.

has been classified botanically in several Pothos, notably Ictodes, genera, different Arum, and Dracontium, but it is now included It

genus Symplocarpus.

as the only species of the

Skunk Cabbage root and seed were introduced to Europe in the early nineteenth century from American folk use, and although included in the United States Pharmacopoeia for a short time they did not attract much attention since superior antispasmodics were available. It is,

however, retained

medicine.

in folk

hardy perennial on large tuberous root-stock and long rootlets. Stemless. Leaves (produced after the flowers) ovatecordate, 45 cm long and 30 cm wide, smooth, Description Foetid,

entire, long-petioled (to 25

mentioned in the writings of Chinese and an early custom of the Han dynasty (266 B.C. to a.d. 220' was to retain a first

physicians,

cm). Inflorescence

a fleshy ovoid spathe to 15 cm long, purplebrown, mottled with yellow, covering a black

Clove in the mouth when addressing the emperor, presumably to counteract halitosis. Pliny mentioned a spice called caryophyllon, hence the specific name, and by the fourth century Cloves were widely used throughout Europe. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the spice caused serious trade rivalry between some European countries, and eventually the French began cultivation in Mauritius. It was first grown in Zanzibar in 1800. Description Attractive pyramidal evergreen tree 10-15 m ta "- Leaves ovate-oblong, 5-12.5 cm

is

oval spadix; appearing early to mid-spring.

North-eastern

Distribution

American swamps and

North

native; also in north-east Asia; in

boggy land.

long,

smooth and shiny, leathery, acute, and

tapering at the base. Flowers crimson or pale

mm

purple, 7 wide, in branched terminal cymes. Fresh buds pink, but reddish-brown after sun drying. Distribution Native to south-east Asian islands, especially the Moluccas. Introduced to West Indies, tropical East Africa, China.

Wild; cultivated commercially maritime countries.

Cultivation

tropical

Constituents Volatile oil

1

V

i

in

u.illotannic acid

caryophyllin action due to volatile oil. Uses (dried flower buds, oil) Aromatic stimu( 1

3°o

Cultivation

Wild.

ent

Resin fixed ;

oil

;

volatile oil

;

whooping

asthma,

bronchitis,

fever,

respiratory

hay

cough,

Root-stock formerly employed in the treatment of certain nervous disorders; also used to treat snake bites. Contra-indications Slightly narcotic;

only.

The

fresh plant

may

&

Perry

I

lie

dried

(loves,

unopened flower buds, known

are

derived

growing only on

tin

5

from a

tree

as

originally

small islands comprising

the \Ioluc( as propci. For

tliis

reason thev win-

tamine-like

Formerly only used externally Contra-indications

remedy externally ailed

nigra

ampelos

(black

melana vine)

his

to treat bruises.

Certainly by the Middle Ages <

prescribed

(black

and

this

plant was

ampelos),

finally

brioma

vitis

nigra

as a poultice to

Tanacetum vulgare

in

It

POISONOUS;

the

berries

fatal to children.

is

also

L compositae

found

classified as

now

Chrysanthemum

grown and longyellow flower-heads, many of which are Bernh.

herb gardens

used

who

his-

oxalate; un-

treat contusions.

scented articles. Ampelos {Ampelos

Mucilage; gums;

resolvent.

Black Bryony The Black Bryony

field

m altitude.

Uses (fresh or dried root-stock) Rubefacient;

lasting

thought to be the herb

100

1

compound; calcium

Tamus communis L dioscoreaceae is

soils, to

plant.

substances.

vulgare (L)

described as the wild or agria) of Dioscorides

Clove-tree

Wild

Constituents (root-stock)

Tansy

medical use

MYRTACEAE

Cultivation

should not have prolonged contact with the gums as this may cause serious irritation. oil

cause blistering.

Syzygium aromaticum (L) Merr.

drained, nutrient-rich

Contra-indicalions If applied for toothache, the

leaves can be used fresh as a vulnerary.

mm

diameter globose, red berry. Distribution Native to central and southern Europe. In hedgerows, woodland clearings, wood margins, scrubland; on moist, well-

Tansy

catarrh.

The

spring to late summer, and followed by 12

Culinary uses include bread sauce, curry, mulled spiced wine, liqueurs and stews. Acts as a preservative in pickles. Used in pomanders.

use in the treatment of various respiratory

including

Black Bryony is poisonous, and if the root is used internally it is violently purgative and emetic. It has, therefore, never been considered useful medicinally, but Clarke introduced a homeopathic preparation in 1902 to be used in sunstroke and rheumatism. Description Dioecious perennial, on very large tuber (to 60 cm diameter), producing annual, twining stems. Leaves entire, cordate, broadlyovate, glossy, to 10 cm long, with very long petioles. Flowers yellowish-green, male stalked, female sessile; both small. Appearing late

known

counter-irritant.

common

derived.

can be

expectorant; diuretic; emetic; mild sedative.

Of

is

Used in the treatment of flatulent colic, and as a remedy for toothache. Applied externally in embrocations to relieve neuralgic pain, and in rheumatism. A constituent of tooth-powders and toothpastes, as a flavouring agent and antiseptic.

sugars

gums; unknown acrid substances. Uses (dried root and rhizome) Antispasmodic;

complaints,

;

;

i

antispasmodic; carminative; rubefaci-

lant;

Constituents

)

(black brionia) - from which the

name

in

It is

for its

frequently

attractive

insect-repelling pot-pourris or other

has traditionally been used as an insecticide

and in the Middle Ages was one of the strewing herbs used on floors. Tansy was also rubbed over meat to keep flies away, and one of its old names arthemisia domestica emphasizes its use in the house. It was also called athanasia and tanacetum. or insect repellent,

269

TAR-THY the family Flacourtiaceae which yield seed containing a fatty oil. The oil, and the crushed seed, have long been used in south-east Asia to treat various skin diseases, and it has been

the most useful of European herbs and all parts of the plant can be employed. It is an extremely

shown

the best herbs

that

the active principles of the oil

(hydnocarpic and chaulmoogric acids,

are

effective medicinal plant, being possibly the safest

and most active plant

known

and one of

diuretic

to treat liver complaints.

Both the leaves and root have long been eaten

strongly antibacterial. For this reason Chaul-

as

moogra

cultivated forms with large leaves have been

employed

is

Hindu medicine

in

to

material,

developed

treat leprosy.

Tree

Description

salad

m

20

to

tall;

leaves glossy,

and oblong-lanceolate, to 20 cm long. Flowers few, in branched axillary cymes, or appearing singly. Followed by rugose, indehiscent, hard, globular fruit to 10 cm diameter; containing numerous seeds in entire, alternate, leathery

as

and

in

the last century

an autumn and spring vegetable;

these usually being blanched in the as

same way

Endive.

flowers last so long.

Dandelion roots provide when dried, chopped and roasted the best-known coffee substitute, and all parts have been employed in fermented and unfermented beers, wines and tonic drinks. Surprisingly the herb is rarely mentioned by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and it is generally considered that the Arabs promoted its use in the eleventh century. By the sixteenth century it was well established as an official drug of the apothecaries, who knew it as Herba Taraxacon or Herba Urinaria —

Tansy was used

the latter term emphasizing

a pulpy mass.

Native

Distribution

names of uncertain to

mean

Burma and Thailand

to

and now introduced

to

other regions of tropical

association but considered

deathless

-

because

possibly

the

until the mid-eighteenth century in certain types of pancakes called tansies. These were eaten at Lent, and the bitterness was meant to remind the eater of

It

Description

Aromatic,

60-120 cm

somewhat tall,

Leaves pinnate, alternate, divided

into

numerous

to 12

rhizome.

cm

long, sub-

leaflets

which

It is still

mid-autumn. to Europe and Asia;

to early or

Distribution

Native

A

variety (var. crispum

larger and more

are found in T.

is

with

some-

yellow, on hollow scapes, appearing late spring

Constituents Essential oil, (to

to

comprising thujone

70%), and borneol; vitamin C; tannins;

south-east Asia.

acid

(to

Uses

irritant.

Anti-

emmenagogue.

Small doses are effective in the treatment of round-worms. The herb also aids digestion. Maybe used in infusion as a gargle in gingivitis. The extracted oil was formerly used externally in the treatment of rheumatic pain.

Employed in a variety of and scented articles.

insect-repellent

sachets

Contra-indications

Large doses are irritant and if may induce abortion.

taken during pregnancy Taraktogenos kurzii

King flacourtiaceae

23°

gorlic

),

acid,

),

oil,

compris-

chaulmoogric

oleic

The

Antibacterial;

seed)

ioil.

oil is effective in

matous

acid

and

and

alterative;

the treatment of lepro-

still used in the East. Also useful in the treatment of intestinal worms. Seed used externally and internally in various

leprosy,

is

skin diseases. Usually applied as an ointment.

In India the seeds are considered to be an alterative tonic. Contra-indications

The

oil

is

irritant

and may

cause nausea and vomiting, as well as having a slight

depressant action on the cardiovascular

system.

Taraxacum

officinale

Chaulmoogra

Dandelion

This tree is also classified as Hydnocarpus kurzii King) Warb. It is one of several members of

ed

270

Chaulmoogra

palmitic acid.

resin; citric acid; butyric acid; oxalic acid;

Uses (fresh or dried flowering stems)

On

situation to 2000

m

Cultivation

Constituents (seed)

Weber compositae

Although the Dandelion is generally considerto be a ubiquitous weed, it is in fact one of

Native to Europe and Asia; intro-

duced elsewhere.

nitrogen-rich

soils in

any

altitude.

Wild. Propagated from seed sown in

use as an autumn salad herb. Blanch by earthing up or placing an inverted flower pot over the plant. Grow as an annual to prevent bitterness developing in the plant. Constituents Taraxacin, a bitter principle; taraxerin, an acrid resin; taraxerol; taraxas-

spring

lipids.

helmintic; insecticide;

mid-summer.

Distribution

ing hydnocarpic acid (to 36°

times preferred in herb gardens.

officinale.

Variable perennial on taproot, to 30 cm tall. Leaves spatulate, oblong or oblanceolate, entire to runcinate-pinnatifid. Flowers Description

intro-

DC

finely divided leaves

retained in the national pharmaco-

the roots. Small quantities of a similar latex

are

duced and naturalized elsewhere, especially in north-east North America. On wasteland, wood clearings and undisturbed, nitrogenrich, loamy soils to 1500 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. May be propagated by division of old clumps in spring or autumn, or from seed sown in spring or autumn. Tolerates most positions provided the soil is not constantly wet.

is

Union and Switzerland. The Russian Dandelion T. kok-saghyz Rodin.,; was extensively cultivated during the Second World War as a source of rubber, which was extracted from the latex of

deeply toothed. Several golden yellow flowers, consisting only of disc florets, in a dense flat or hemispherical corymb. Appearing late sum-

mer

lion's teeth),

and from which term the derived via the French dents

poeias of Hungary, Poland, the Soviet

straggling a

on

diuretic effect.

de lion.

apothecaries.

perennial,

its

also called Denta Leonis

common name

no doubt, also acted as a useful vermifuge since this has been the herb's main therapeutic use from the days of the

was

after the leaf shape,

Christ's sufferings; they,

first

|

for

TAR-THY terol; 3:4

inulin;

dioxycinnamic acid; flavoxanthin; acid; phenyloxyacetic acid;

citric

riboflavin; sitosterol; sitosterin; stigmasterol;

C and

coumestrol; vitamins B,

provitamin A.

Uses (fresh or dried roots, leaves

Diuretic:

cholagogue;

and

choleretic;

flowers)

laxative;

bitter tonic; stomachic.

An

excellent bitter tonic in atonic dyspepsia;

mild laxative in chronic constipation; a cholagogue and choleretic in liver disease (especially jaundice, cholecystitis and the primary stages of cirrhosis). Considered of benefit as an anti-rheumatic. As a bitter it promotes appetite and improves digestion. A a

very effective diuretic. Leaf and root used as a salad

cm

2

long. Flowers purple, rose or rarely white,

root

is

a coffee

lip,

in

either loose or dense terminal spikes: appear-

summer

ing early

mid-autumn.

to

Native to Europe and south-west Asia; introduced elsewhere. On dry chalky soils, in dry thickets, woodland, rocky screes, Distribution

and old

To 1500 m altitude. Wild. Cultivated as an edging plant.

walls.

Cultivation

Propagated from seed sown in spring: division autumn; or cuttings from spring to summer.

in

The dwarf cultivar

um

is

T. chamaedrys cv. Prostrat-

useful as a carpeting herb.

Tannins; an essential oil: bitter probably including picropulin:

Constituents

principles ;

but lacking upper

labiate

typically

sugars including stachyose and raffinose: un-

Dandelion wine, and leaves in Dandelion beer and tonic drinks. The plant is safe to use in large amounts.

known

L labiatae Wall Germander Germander The genus Teucrium consists of about 300 species, many of which are native to the

disorders.

mediterranean region. For this reason it has not been possible to identify definitely this

considered effective in the treatment of gout, although this is unsubstantiated. Used in the manufacture of liqueurs, ver-

substitute. Flowers used in

substances.

Uses (dried flowering plant

Choleretic: anti-

septic; antipyretic; tonic; aromatic; diuretic.

and digestive employed to promote the appetite, aid digestion, and dispel Principally of use in gall-bladder

Teucrium chamaedrys

particular

with

species

the

Khamaidrys

of

Dioscorides, and it is now considered most probably to be the same as his Teukrion. Both these Greek names have, however, been

combined

The

infusion can be

flatulence.

Once used

mouths and

May

shading or planted under higher Propagated from seed.

ficial

and formerly

in feverish conditions

tonic wines.

be used effectively as a horticultural

edging plant.

Constituents (seed) Fat called

Theobroma

oil;

after the

sixteenth century Yaldes reported their use as

central nervous system.

is

shape of the leaf. The common name derived from gamandrea the latinization of

a form of exchange instead of coins (in the

Cocoa

The herb was once predominantly

in

a popular medicine used

commuch employed in

digestive 01

feverish

plaints, but it was also lormal herb and knot gardens as an edging

There is very little modern information iv available on Germander, however, and plant.

ii

little

used

liqueurs

other

and

Description

than

as

an

of

ingredient

tonic wines.

Small, shrubby, practically

green perennial, 10

30

cm

tall.

ever-

Stem er©

1

or

decumbent, hairy, marked witli purple, bearing oblong to obovate-oblong, toothed leaves,

suc-

diuretic.

Theobroma cacao

Yucatan

khamaidrys.

);

and glucose (2.5° ); caffeine; mucilage. oleopalmitostearin. (fat) Comprises 55° Uses (Fat - Cocoa butter, seed products cocoa and chocolate) Emollient; nutritive; rose

Cacao Cocoa-Plant The Spanish were the first to describe the seeds of this now important economic plant. In the

i

Cocoa butter or

theobromine (i-3°

name, and for much of the Middle Ages the herb was known as Herba chamaedryos. Germander was also called Quercula maior or Quercula - names which like chamaedryos mean ground or little oak, to give the botanical

trees.

and

.

cultivated

in

L byttneriaceae

Any medicinal

have long been northern South America as a the

source of chocolate.

from the Mexican

trees

The name

chocolatl

comes

itself

while cacao

is

from

same language. Both the seed and chocolate itself were known in much of Europe by 1600, and Cacao butter was prepared in 1695 by Homberg in France. The medicinal applications of Cacao butter win promoted by the r'ien< h and it was soon cacauatl in the

popular It

is

in

still

pessaries,

forms

various retained

bougies,

cosmetic as

a

and

preparations.

base

for

medical

suppositories,

a vehicle for certain

cosmetics

its

and main

due

actions of the seed products are

theobromine and caffeine content, which act as a mild stimulant and diuretic. Theobromine has no stimulant effect on the to

their

and chocolate are now used pharmaceutically to mask unpleasant flavours.

The

fat is used in pessaries, ointments and as a massage lubricant. Very wide culinary and confectionery use of

the seed products.

The

fat

used in cosmetics.

is

Thymus x

citriodorus (Pers.)

Schreb. ex Scheigg.

& Korte LABIATAE Lemon Thyme Of

the many species and cultivars of Thyme which are available for use in a scented herb garden, one of the most popular is the true

Lemon Thyme.

value being that it does not go rancid quickly. Both Cocoa and chocolate consist of the fer-

Since

tin

mented and roasted plant seed; they differ in quantity of sugar and type of additional Savouring such as vanilla) added to the

other lemon-scented Thymes, notably some varieties of T. vulgaris.

product.

found

Description

Evergreen tree

simple, alternate, glossy

to 7

and

m

tall.

Leaves

leathery, oblong

to 30 cm long, red when young. Flowers small, yellowish-pink, long-stalked in clusters carried

directly

on branches or the trunk, followed by

30-cm long yellow to brown 20 40 3 cm-long seeds.

fruit

containing

T.

it

is

a cross between T. pulegioides

vulgaris

L

Lemon Thyme

there

is

often

is

variable in form.

Queen, which

itself

ranges

inflorescence; appearing

many tropical countries, especially Brazil and the west coast of Africa. Usually given arti-

in

degree and

Because of its mild flavour Lemon Thyme is a popular culinary herb. Description Aromatic lemon-scented bushy shrub to 25 cm tall. Leaves glabrous and revolute, varying in colour from dark to light,

tropics or wet soils. in

often

colour of variegation.

mm

Wild. Cultivated commercially

It is

as the silver-variegated cultivar, Silver

Distribution Native to Central and South America; introduced elsewhere. In lowland

Cultivation

L and

confusion with

01

silver-variegated, lanceolate to ovate, to 9 long. Flowers pale lilac, in small, oblong

Distribution Cultivated Cultivation

Found

mid

to late

summer.

world-wide.

horticulturally only; propa-

gate from cuttings spring to autumn, or by

271

THY-TRA aromatic carpeting herb serpyllum

Thyme

Creeping

and,

garden.

for the

also described as

is

T.

Mother of Thyme,

Lemon

confusingly,

Thyme. Extremely variable, prostrate, mat-

Description

bearing 8 mm-long linear to elliptic, almost sessile leaves and pink to purple small flowers

arranged

an ovoid, short, terminal inAppearing late summer to early-

in

floresence.

autumn. Distribution

Native

from from

in turn derives

names thymbra or thumon. It is howmost unlikely that this species was the main one used by the ancient Greeks, more probably they used Thymus capitatus Lk. It is also uncertain when Thyme was first cultivated in northern European countries;

Europe,

to

north-west

believe the Romans took it to Britain, while there is stronger evidence that it became popular north of the Alps between a.d. 850 and 1250. Certainly by the sixteenth century it was in general cultivation being grown as an

some

annual

in the far north.

The

On

isolated

well-drained sandy

or sandy loams in

m

woodland

altitude.

German the

apothecary

plant's

Neumann

essential

first

in

oil

1725,

and

this powerfully antiseptic substance is used in pharmacy and various commercial preparations. still

Wild. Propagated by layering in

Cultivation

summer

soils

roadsides, sunny slopes,

turf,

clearing; to 2600

or from cuttings taken from spring to

autumn.

Aromatic perennial sub-shrub on

Description

somewhat gnarled

comprising mainly thymol and carvacrol; tannins; saponConstituents Essential oil (to o.3°

soil

which

the Greek

Asia; introduced and naturalized elsewhere.

dry

common names come

generic and

the Latin thymum

ever,

forming, aromatic perennial 10-40 cm tall; woody at the base and sometimes a semishrub. Flowering stems erect to 10 cm tall

division in spring. Requires well-drained

The

)

oside; resins; flavones; bitter principles.

Com-

10-30 cm small,

or tortuous

linear

entire,

woody

stems,

leaves grey-green, opposite,

tall;

to

elliptic,

mm

petioled or

sessile,

tomentose, to

lilac to

white, small, in dense or loose

15

long.

Flowers

warm position. Winter protection under glass may be necessary for some cultivars in

position varies considerably.

Anti-

flowered terminal inflorescences, characteriz-

northern climates.

spasmodic; antiseptic; expectorant; carmin-

Constituents Essential oil.

ative; bitter aromatic.

ed by somewhat larger leaves than those on non-flowering stems. Appearing early summer

in a

Uses (fresh or dried leaves)

Not used medi-

Uses (dried flowering tops, rarely

Principally

employed

oil

in digestive complaints,

including flatulence and indigestion. Useful

cinally.

Widely used culturally

as a culinary herb.

as

Used

horti-

an aromatic ornamental and

coughs and respiratory

May

in

tract infection.

be used as a disinfectant mouth wash,

edging plant.

external poultice on wounds, for rheumatic

Thymus serpyllum L labiatae

The

pain,

Wild

Thyme

ancient names refer to the prostrate, snake-

growth habit of the plant. Wild

exists in

many

forms with variations

in colour,

many

different

growth habit and

leaf size;

varieties are, therefore,

but

all

Thyme

found

as

Wild Thyme,

are suitable as a quickly spreading

as a

douche.

is used commercially pharmaceutical and cosmetic pro-

(Oil of Serpoletj

in certain

As the common name suggests this herb is found wild. It is extensively distributed in Europe and Asia and is found as far north as Iceland. Wild Thyme has been used since the earliest times, and Dioscorides called it herpyllos; the Romans knew it as serpyllum. Both like

and

oil

ducts.

Dried leaves can be taken as a used for culinary purposes.

tea,

and are

vulgaris L labiatae Garden Thyme Common Thyme Thyme is one of the best known and most

Thymus

autumn.

to late

Native to the western mediterranean region and southern Italy; introduced elsewhere. To 2500 m in altitude. On dry soils, eitherrockyorwell-drained,in sunny positions. Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from the wild in south-west mediterranean countries; cultivated commercially in Europe, especially Hungary and Germany. Widely grown as a horticultural or culinary plant. Propagated from seed sown in early summer, by division in spring, or by cuttings or layering from mid-spring to early summer. Grown as an annual in very cold climates. Distribution

Very variable

widely used of the culinary herbs, and to satisfy the demand it is not only collected from the wild in mediterranean areas, but is

thymol

and

neutral

also cultivated

eastern Europe.

commercially

in

central

many-

plant.

Constituents Essential oil (to 2.5°,,;, (to

40°

bornyl-acetate;

/-pinene,

linalol,

comprising

carvacrol, borneol, cymene,

),

saponins;

thiamine;

cafleic acid; tannins; bitter

and

acid

ursolic

acid;

compounds; other

active components.

The combined due

to the

action

is

antiseptic,

and mostly

thymol content.

Uses (dried flowering plant, oil) Antiseptic; carminative; vermifuge; rubefacient. Thyme can be used in a wide range of con-

where

ditions

oil

antiseptic

properties

beneficial

in

are

gastro-

and respiratory complaints.

intestinal

The

its

Particularly

required.

may

be used as an antihelmintic,

particularly to destroy

hookworm.

Wide

in

use of the

oil

commercial, phar-

maceutical, flavouring, and cosmetic preparations.

The

plant

is

of great importance as a flavouring

and kitchen herb. Tilia cordata Mill,

tiliaceae

Small-Leaved Lime The Lime, like the Oak and

certain other

European plants, was sacred to the IndoGermanic peoples, and the name Lime is

272

THY-TRA unknown Uses

leaves).

plant or simply by standing close to

active substances.

and

(dried flowers

bark, fresh

bracts,

Antispasmodic; sedative; diaphoretic;

diuretic; expectorant; choleretic.

Flowers principally used in combination with Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) and Mistletoe Viscum album L) in the treatment of (

hypertension.

They

are also of much benefit in feverish chills,

respiratory catarrh, indigestion, anxiety states

and migraine, and

in combination with other remedies in urinary infections. Small doses assist digestion. An infusion can be made for

external use on skin rashes, as a gargle, or as a soothing bath. The bark decoction is of benefit

in liver disease.

Flowers used as a tisane -

German

base

A

lind.

tea

Native

may be eaten. used for carving and is also used in charcoal manufacture. The tree is used (often clipped to shape) as a

Cultivation

Wood

Constituents

roadside ornamental.

Once used Salisb

Gillis

made

Wild

fruit.

to eastern

in

plant.

Tannins,

codendric acid;

North America

as rhoitannic acid; toxi-

unknown

substances.

Uses (leaves, juice) Narcotic; irritant. in the

treatment of chronic skin

problems, rheumatism and paralysis. No longer employed, except in homeopathy. The juice was formerly used as an indelible ink, and in shoe-creams. Contra-indications May cause severe contact dermatitis.

Not

to be used internally.

L compositae

Tragopogon porrifolius

Salsify Vegetable Oyster/Oyster Plant

called

is still

brown globose

Fresh leaves

Linden Tea. In America the so-called American Linden / from the flowers

pale

Distribution

thickets.

Toxicodendron toxicaria

derived from the

.

homeopathically. Description Perennial shrub to 2 m containing milky juice. Leaves compound, comprising three thin, acute, rounded and dentate or crenate leaflets, downy beneath. Flowers small, several, greenish, in open axillary, racemose panicles; appearing mid-summer, followed by

Linden Tea.

ANACARDIACEAE Poison Ivy Poison Oak Hiedra The genus Rhus contains more than 150 species, some of which are grown as orna-

it.

medicinal use was discovered in 1794 by Anderson and Horsfield in America, and it was introduced to Europe by Du Fresnoy in 1 798. The leaves and a tincture have been included in various pharmacopoeias and materia mediNow only used cas until as late as 1941 Its

Basswood Tea (which should, however, only

The Greek name for Salsify was tragopogon which means goat's beard; this gives both the generic name for this species and the family, as

be taken sparingly since it can cause nausea). The Latin name for this and related species

ent herb, Tragopogon pratensis L.

amencana L

provides a similar drink

the

well as the English

Tilia, hence the generic name and the modern French, Italian, and Spanish names Tilleul, Tiglio and Tilia. The tree has long been planted around houses and in towns as a decorative or shade-plant. It is the lightest European wood in weight as well as being one of the easiest to work in carving. The inner bark fibre was also once

name

was

used

pres,

especially

warm

position;

native,

in

in

mixed or sandy or

to

1600

m

altitude.

Wild. Introduced tree.

May

Constituents Volatile oil

several

age;

in

saponins;

salts;

towns

as

an

reach 1000 years old. (to 0.02%) comprising

compounds including

manganese

farnesol; mucil-

flavonoid glycosides;

polyphenols;

to

for Salsify

were

oculus porci

from the Italian sassefrica (meaning the plant which accompanies stones - after its

tannins;

Othci

predisposition for rocky land).

The

Italians

were the

first

to cultivate Salsify as

a vegetable, doing so in the early sixteenth century. By the seventeenth century

it

had not

been introduced as a vegetable in northern Europe, but also as a flower. Salsify was largely ignored by nineteenthcentury gardeners in favour of the Spanish Scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica L), although both are now used commercially. The herb has never been of medicinal interest. Description Attractive hardy biennial to 10 cm, on 25 cm-long edible taproot. Leaves clasped, tapering, pointed and grass-like. Flowers purple, attractive, solitary, opening in the morning, ligulate to 8 cm wide. Appearing only

known

European deciduous woodland

Cultivation

adding

also used), thus

the confusion that surrounds

herba salsifica

fruit.

ornamental

is

colour and appearance of the broken root) and

globose

in

Salsifis des

or pig's eye (which might be a reference to the

mentals. Recently six species (each

soils

however,

international names.

15-40 m tall. Trunk straight, smooth when young. Leaves to 6.5 cm, orbicular, petiolate, serrate. Flowers aromatic, yellowish, in eithei erect or pendulous cymes of 5 10 flowers. appearing mid to late summer, followed by

stony

is,

for a differ-

The French

Salsify (although barbe de bouc

The medieval names

its

l)i\lrtbutwn

T. pratensis

Meadow

and emphasizing

blossom in a pleasant herbal tisane, Lime has an important place in folk medicine and eastern European medicine as a remedy for high blood pressure. For this purpose the flowers of T. platyphyllos Scop. (Large-leaved Lime) and T. x europaea L (a hybrid between T. platyphyllos and T. cordata are also collected for medicinal application Description Deciduous tree or, rarely, shrub Besides the use of

for

or goat's beard

rope manufacture.

in

or

common name

1

as Poison Ivy or Poison

transferred

to

genus

tin

commonly

Oak) have been and

Toxicodendron,

Toxicodendron toxicaria was formerly classified as Rhus toxicodendron L. It is frequently confuted with the closely related R. radicans L now T. radicans (Lj O. Kuntze) which is considered by

some authorities to be- a variety of T. toxicaria. and having the same properties. Poison Ivy is best known as an agent causing a violent allergic

response

in

susceptible

individuals.

This allergy occ urs either on contact with the

early to late

summer.

Native to southern Europe; introduced elsewhere. Naturalized as a weed in North America. On stony but moist soils with some loam, in meadowland to 2000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Propagate from seed sown in spring, thinning to 10 cm apart. Requires wellDistribution

dug, rich and deep

soil

which

is

kept well-

2 73

TRI-TUS Lam.

Husnot

The herb was known

.

to the

ancients as triphyllon and trifolium, after leaves, but

it

its

3

was not widely used medicinally,

only occasionally being used as a vulnerary. After its introduction to America it soon be-

came naturalized and American Indians both ate

and used

it

it

medicinally

in

ointments for

external sores and internally in skin disease.

It

appears to have re-entered British herbal use from American folk medicine in the nineteenth century.

Distribution Cultivation

on large branched

cm

tall,

Stems short and hairy,

root.

being ovate to obovate,

50

leaflets to 5

cm

long, in

long, con-

Native to south Europe and Asia. Wild. Cultivated commercially in

Middle

the

cm

India.

East.

Morocco and

else-

where. Propagated from seed sown in spring. seed Mucilage 1030',, trigonel-

Constituents

choline;

line:

protein ive;

pigment;

flavone

20°

to

fixed

oil;

lecithin: phytosterols.

:

Aromatic: carminatSeed valuable in dyspepsia and

seed, fresh leaves

Uses

Description Short-lived perennial to

appearing mid-summer and

after flowering,

followed by beaked pod. 5—7.5 taining 10-20 seeds.

tonic.

diarrhoea.

Used as a

spice, or roasted as a coffee substitute.

long-petioled, trifoliate leaves. Flowers rose-

purple or white in ovoid, dense heads

appearing

long:

summer

early

cm

to 3

early

to

autumn. Distribution

European native: introduced and

naturalized elsewhere. Widely distributed in beside roadways, on deep, moderately moist soils.

rich,

fields,

watered. winter

Lift roots in

in the soil.

or leave during

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses

autumn

Readily self-sown.

tresh taproot) Nutritive; diuretic: bitter.

Although not used medicinally, the root acts as an appetite stimulant, and there is some evidence that it may have a beneficial effect on the liver.

Roots cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Leaves nun be used sparingly in salads.

Wild. Grown agriculturally as a fodder crop. Usually sown broadcast on pre-

Cultivation

trilolianol; a quercitin glucoside; essential oil:

phenolic glycoside, trifoliin: an hydroxvmethvloxvllavone. pratol: sugars, including rhamnose: a plant oestrogen, coumestrol.

a

It

is

often

arable

Ryegrass

dried flower-heads, fresh plant

»

L LEGUMINOSA1

:

land

under

\Lolium

in

pasture

multifiorum

short-term with ssp.

leas

Italian

multiflorum

:

;

ment of a short-lived perennial

incorporated

Alterat-

antispasmodic expectorant vulnerary. Flower-heads applied externally in the treat-

sometimes incorrectly described in seed lists as an annual or biennial which is of great importance as a forage and cover crop in agriculture. is

coumarii

Salicylic acid:

acid: isorhamnetin; a phytosterol glucoside;

(

Red Clover Red Clover

in spring.

pared, rolled fields flower

Constituents

ive

Trifolium pratense

dry or

burns,

ulcers,

sores

Used internally

plaints.

and

skin

to treat chronic

comskin

conditions such as psoriasis and eczema.

Once The

used in domestic wine-making.

fresh plant

is

used for cattle fodder and although it has

other agricultural purposes

been known titis in

cattle

to

cause a photosensitive derma-

known

as trifoliosis.

Trigonella foenum-graecum

An

L legi ionosae

Fenugreek Foenugreek Like Red Clover Trifolium pratense L this herb is a fodder crop and the specific name foenumgraecum

Latin for Greek hay emphasizing

is

agricultural use,

and the

fact that

it

its

has been

used for this purpose since the earliest times.

ingredient of commercial chutneys and the

Middle

Eastern

confectionery,

used

The may be

halva.

seeds are celery-flavoured. Fresh leaf

can be sprouted and

in curries, or seed

used as a salad herb. Seed provides a yellow dye.

Employed

as a fodder plant.

Benedictine monks introduced the plant to central

Europe and Charlemagne promoted it was grown in England

in the ninth century. It

The herb has long been a favourite of the Arabs and it was studied at the School of Salerno by Arabic physicians. Egyptians not only use the seeds for medicinal purposes, but roast them as a coffee and eat both the sprouting seed and the fresh leaves as a vegetable. Indians also use the leaves as a in the sixteenth century.

L liliaceae

Wake-Robin genus

The Bethroot

or

of about

species

30

of attractive

flowering liliaceous plants. refers to the fact that

three leaves

and a

Most

native

are

The

consists

spring-

generic

name

each species produces

tripartite flower.

to North America and Appalachian and other In-

vegetable and consider the seed not only a

traditionally the

spice for curries, but as a source of a yellow

dians used various species to treat a range of

cloth dye.

The name Fenugreek

is

simply an

abbreviation offoenum-graecum. It is

now

used more in veterinary than

human

to 60 cm. 2-2.5 cm l° n §toothed, oblanceolate-oblong. Flowers whitish, solitary or in pairs in axils, petals deciduous

Description

Leaves

Smooth, erect annual

trifoliate:

leaflets

female complaints root

medicine.

274

Trillium erectum

Bethroot Brown Beth Squawroot Stinking Benjamin

hence the name Squaw-

.

When

Rafinesque and others introduced Bethroot to medicine in 1830 it was considered that any species of Trillium could be employed, although the Indians considered the white flowering species the most effective.

Millspaugh proposed

in

1892 that only

T.

TRI-TUS the Yellow Alder,

T. ulmifolia L) indicating

the presence in the group of a tonic constituent

or constituents. Description

Aromatic, pubescent, shrubby percm tall. Leaves simple, petiolate,

ennial to 60

obovate, pale green, dentate, to 2.5 cm long. Flowers small, yellow, axillary, attractive, appearing early to late summer, followed by small, globular,

many-seeded capsule.

Native to subtropical North America, especially Mexico, California and Texas. On dry, sandy or rocky soils in full sun. Cultivation Wild plant. May be propagated Distribution

from seed sown

erectum

L be

used,

which

fusion

since

herb

collectors

some concontinued to

led

to

and generally pendulum - a name which Jn

collect several different species

called

now

them

all

T.

obsolete. Indians traditionally used the

herb as an aphrodisiac. in some folk medicine.

now

It is

cm

only retained

on short. thick root-stock; 3 leaves, sessile, rhomboid, to 21 cm long in terminal whorl, subtending a pedunculate solitary, somewhat nodding, atDescription Perennial to 50

flower

tractive

to

ranges from white

cm

5

tall,

wide.

The

colour

brownish purple. Appear-

to

ing late spring.

North American native, from North Carolina. In shaded wood-

Distribution

Quebec

to

land, on moist rich Cultivation

Volatile oil;

Constituent oil

soils.

Wild.

gum;

tannins; fixed

a saponin, trillarin.

;

dried

Uses

emmen-

Astringent;

haemorrhages, metrorrhagia, lcu< orrhoca. The poultice is

ted in uterine

menorrhoea,

countries.

Considered to be an astringent tonic and

oi

use

benefit in

ol

frosts.

South American native, especially Peru and Bolivia. Cultivation Wild. Cultivated widely as an ornamental, and rarely as a drug. Propagated from seed sown in late spring to early summer in rich soil in sunny situation. Dwarf and Distribution

double-flowered cultivars are found. Some double-flowered forms cannot be raised from seed. Harvest sceel before pods lose their green

line,

biotic i

essential

;

1

me. The herb was known from

a

vegetable and

its

introduction as

iihcIk

\/i\turcium

The

Cress.

eaten

but

01

is

It

still

is

is

anti-

fresh

Bowers, sccels, pickled Antibacterial; antimyc otic. leaves,

the genito-urinar)

and

employed

fsed as a

as a salad

herb or as a

garden ornamental.

Turnera diffusa Willd. vat. aphrodisiaca

Ward.

KNKKACKAE Damiana Mexican Damiana /Turnera Damiana is principally a tonic tea which has It

long been used by the Mexicans

who

call

was introduced to Europe from American folk medicine in the early twentieth century and recommended as a tonic and aphrodisiac It

Ionics

111

Iropieal

gum;

comprising

tannins (4%);

Tonic;

mild

laxative;

similar

America and Africa such

anxiety the-

neuroses.

infusion

and acts as a laxative. and hence stimulant,

It

initiates

In

atonic

peristalsis

has a specific irritant

on the mucosa ol and therefore possib-

effect

the genito-urinary tract,

acting as an aphrodisiac Small doses aid digestion.

ly

it

luerba de la pastora.

various disorders such as depression. Related members of the genus Turnera are also used as

collected commercially in some-

(to

oil;

Principally of benefit as a tonic in depression

constipation

studied extensively but appears to be useful in

rarely used medicinally,

i"„)

oil

;

and

best substitute-

are-

Volatile

damianin; also fixed starch two resins. dried leaves) Uses stimulant.

aper substitute.

I'll).

autumn, and from cuttings taken in summer and rooted in a peat and sand mix. Constituents

.

now

Mowers and leaves

spicy taste in salads,

now

an antibiotic

and the

indicum or Indian

the-

to yield

Principal action

formerly being incorporated with other supposed aphrodisiacs or agents considered ol benefit in sexual debility. It has not been

Nasturtium peruvianum;

flower buels provide

capers it

seed.

their

lor

pli kleel lor

indicum

became Nasturtium

it

oil.

Bower buds Used in infections of

I

Nasturtium is a well-known garden ornamenwhich is a perennial although it is grown as an annual. It was introduced to Spain from Peru in the sixteenth century and reached Gerard in London in the- 390s it was unknown in finlral Europe, however, until (>84 when as

glycoside, glucotropaeo-

which hydrolyzes

and an

<

tal

it

A

Constituents (seed)

Principally

L tropaeolaceae Garden Nasturtium Indian (a ess

hence

to orbicular

entire, glossy, alternate, long-

respirator) systems.

Tropaeolum majus

Beweming promoted

perennial,

petioled. Flowers spurred, to 5 cm wide, from orange to white, occasionally red or mahogany; appearing from early summer to first

/

post-partum; and an alterative chronic skin conditions.

1

succulent

reaching 40 cm. Leaves reniform

5-20 cm wide,

applied to ulcers and sores. (

Somewhat

Description

grown as an annual in cool climates. Climbing and twining to 3 m tall - dwarf forms only

colour.

root-stock

agogue; antispasmodic; emetic; expectorant. I

in spring, division in spring or

as

Tussilago farfara L compositae Coltsfoot Son-before-father

Named

after

the-

leal

shape, Coltsfoot

is

still

one of the most important herbal remedies for the treatment of coughs. The Greeks knew it as bec/iion and the Romans as tusilago, both names referring to the 'cough plant' and from which the modern medical terms bee hie and (and-) tussive are derived. Even in the days of Dioscorides Coltsfoot was smoked to relieve coughing, a tradition maintained in its modern

2 75

ULM-VAL

incorporation as the basic ingredients

of

herbal

flowers

both

;

belong

to

smoking mixtures. The leaves and flowers are now normally administered in the form of an

ferred by both the

infusion.

later

on creeping stolons reaching &-30 cm tall. Flowers yellow, to 4 cm wide, in solitary capitula, appearing early to late spring on purplish, woolly and scaly cape 12 cm long, later elongating and bearin„ numerous achenes covered with a pappus of white hairs. Leaves appear from late spring: basal, long-petioled, tomentose beneath, orbicularcordate, sinuate, 10-18 cm wide. Distribution Native to Europe, north and wesl Asia, North Africa; introduced and naturalized in North America and elsewhere. On moist, loamy soils in wasteland and uncultivated places, to 2400 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Collected from the wild. Propagated by seed, by root cuttings or division. A moist soil is essential. The herb may become rampant, and care is needed to restrict its growth in gardens. Constituents Mucilage; tannins; inulin; a bitter glycoside; essential oil; potassium and calcium

used in certain rat poisons.

Description Perennial

salts;

saponins.

Uses

(dried leaves

leaves, fresh juice)

and

flowers,

rarely fresh

Expectorant; demulcent;

the heart

sores.

Fresh leaves eaten as a salad herb rarely. Fresh or dried flowers used in wine-making. Leaves formerly smoked to relieve coughing,

and now included

in

herbal tobaccos.

L'lmus rubra Miihlenb.

Slippery

ulmaceae

Elm Red Elm

its common name from moistened inner bark (the secondary phloem), which is the only part now used medicinally. North American Indians have long used the bark tea as both a laxative and treatment for diarrhoea, and the root tea to assist childbirth. Since the bark has been used as a mechanical abortive it is now only available commercially in the powdered, and hence harmless, form.

Slippery

Elm

the

of the

276

feel

receives

It is

now

the variety

retained in several national in

view of

its

action on

unsuitable for use by other than

Bulbous perennial

to

1

50

leaves fleshy, glaucous, basal, to 10

Slippery

Elm

drinks,

constituents, are

still

some including malted popular nutritive medi-

cm tall cm wide

and 40 cm

long. Flowers white or rose, in racemes terminating a leafless scape; appear-

cines following gastrointestinal illnesses.

ing autumn.

Formerly called U.fulva Michx. Description Small or medium-sized tree reaching 20 m tall: leaves dark green, simple, rough above and pubescent below, serrate, 12 cm long, obovate oblong. to Flowers inconspicuous in clusters, appearing spring followed by flat, conspicuous 1-seeded samara. Distribution North American native from Florida to southern Canada. In moist woodland and stream edges; also rarely in dry situations. Prefers poor soils. Cultivation Wild plant. Inner bark collected in

Native to mediterranean region from Spain to Syria; also Canary Islands and South Africa. On dry sandy soils specially near

spring. Constituents

(dried

3-

to

the sea,

in poultices, or as a

hoea or constipation. Employed commercially and domestically

full

Wild

Cultivation Constituents

red

mainly

sides

action

is

sun; but also to 900

m

Red

plant.

and white varieties) GlycoA and B to which the

scillarin

largely due; mucilage

carbohydrate,

sinistrin:

to

ii°

);

a

and other substances.

Squill, in addition, contains the rat poison

scilliroside.

dried bulb- Expectorant: emetic:

irri-

tant: cardio-active.

acute

in

the treatment of chronic

but not

bronchitis.

Employed decoction for diarr-

in

altitude.

Used

powdered inner bark Demulcent:

emollient.

Used

Distribution

i'ses

Mucilage, on hydrolysis yielding

i'ses

and

U.

the medical profession.

methyl-galactose.

ulcers

it is

Description

Used

treatment of irritating coughs and respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and laryngitis; applied externally as a poultice to

is

pharmacopoeias, but

anti-inflammatory. in the

Squill

species

is

French apothecaries.

White

the

more active and preearly Arab physicians and

maritima, but the red

as a constituent of rat poisons.

Contra-indications

Very

POISONOUS:

to

be

used only by medical personnel. in

nutritive, convalescent drinks.

L'rginea maritima (L) Baker liliaceae Squill Sea Onion White or Red Squill The Squill is a powerful medicinal plant which has been in almost continuous use from the time of the earliest Greeks to the present. To Dioscorides it was known as scilla, hence the common name. There is some evidence that the bulbs were used to beat to death scapegoats or ritual victims in very early Greece in order to placate the gods of fertility. Certainly the large, heavy bulbs have strong magical associations as well as having therapeutic uses. Two varieties were known, the white and red (the colour referring to the bulb scales, not the

L'rtica dioica L urticaceae Stinging Nettle Nettle/Common Nettle The Nettle is now a common and painful stinging weed which appears wherever land is disturbed by man and left derelict. In the past, however, it has variously been used in cloth manufacture, as a food, and medicinally. was once even cultivated in Scotland, It Denmark and Norway. The use of the plant in cloth manufacture onlv

stopped in the first quarter of the twentieth century but can be traced back to the Bronze Age - and is recorded in the common name, nettle, from an old word meaning to twist and hence make fibre). Greeks knew it as akalyphe and Romans as

ULM-VAL annual

L

U. pilulifera

rather more, since

Both

Europe.

same values

Roman

(or is

it

is

commercial source of chlorophyll. Used in paper and cloth manufacture.

Nettle)

southern Small also an annual, have native

Vaccinium myrtillus L Ericaceae Bilberry Whortleberry /Huckleberry

the

The genus

as U. dioua.

from 80-180 branched, cm tall, stems bearing opposite and decussate, acuminate, sparsely

deeply serrate, petiolate and ovate leaves to 14 cm long. Flowers minute, in pendulous axillary racemes, appearing mid-summer to

there

to

confusion in the genus (which

exchange of the same various species.

It is

i

because of the free

common name between

not possible, therefore, to

in ancient medicinal plant from the sixteenth century and known then as vaccinia and mora agrestis. The specific name refers to the Myrtle-shaped leaves. The fruits have long been a popular food, and are still collected for this purpose. Description Subshrub 30-60 cm tall, deciduous

identify

definitely

writings, but

2700 m altitude. Wild plant. Cultivated only rarely

Cultivation

medicinal purposes, and as a source of

for

much

is

contains about 150 species

mid-autumn. Distribution Widespread; Eurasian native. On wasteland, especially damp and nutrient-rich soils which have previously been disturbed by

man;

Principally

Vaccinium includes several species

which are grown as ornamentals as well as others which provide such edible berries as the Blueberry, Cranberry and Bilberry. V. myrtillus has many common names and

Description Dioecious perennial, bristly,

used in the treatment of diarrhoea. Leaves have a weak hypoglycaemic action, and have been used in combination with other remedies in the treatment of diabetes. Fruit

to

and

species

this

Nettle (U. urens), which the

A

- but the ancients probably used the

urtica

it

this

was an

species

official

and glabrous on thin creeping and rooting

employed as a nutritive, rather and syrups, or eaten raw.

tart fruit in conserves

Also distilled to flavour certain liqueurs. Valeriana officinalis

Valerian

L valerianaceae

Common

Heliotrope Several different

been used officinalis

L,

Valerian/Garden

species

of

Valeriana

have

European medicine of which V. celtica L, V. dioica L and V. phu

in

V.

L,

were the most important. The latter species was probably the herb known as Phu to the ancients while V. celtica was referred to as Xardus celticus. Valeriana officinalis was particularly promoted by the Arab physicians and the name Valeriana first appears in the tenth century. Tincture of Valerian was employed in the First World War to treat shellshock, and the rhizome and roots are still retained in several national pharmacopoeias. The root was once included in various recipes and was also used to scent linen.

Glabrous perennial 20-150 cm tall, on aromatic root-stock. Stems lightly grooved. Leaves pinnate to 20 cm long, leaflets either entire or toothed, lanceolate. Flowers white or Description

pinkish, small, in terminal inflorescence appearing mid-summer to early autumn. Distribution

Native

to

Europe and west Asia;

naturalized in North America. In grassland, ditches, damp meadowland, close to streams, on nutrient-rich soils to 2000 m altitude. Cultivation Wild. Propagated by division of root-stock in spring or autumn, or from seed sown in spring. Constituents

Essential

oil

(to

t%) comprising

various components (which include monoter-

pene valepotriates) and which

in

combination

are sedative and antispasmodic.

ommercial chlorophy 11. Propagated from seed, or by root division

I (dried root-stock) Sedative; stomachic fes antispasmodic; carminative. Of benefit in the treatment of a wide range of nervous disorders and intestinal colic. Used in combination with other remedies in the treatment of hypertension. Useful in insomnia and migraine, nervous exhaustion and anxiety

(

;

in

spring.

Histamine: acetylcholine; Formic acid; gallic acid; tannins; ylndiow-

Constituents (leaves)

tryptaminc; vitamins A and C; mineral sails including calcium, potassium, silicon, iron,

manganese and sulphur; stances;

othei

active

sul>-

unknown components.

stems.

fresh or dried leaves, root-stock rarely

Uses

Astringent; anti-haemorrhagi<

;

diuretic;

t^al-

actagoijiie. I

manv

he Nellie has

but

principally

is

internal

therapeutic apphe ations.

is

it

haemorrhages; as a diuretic; in haemorrhoids: laxative;

woodland,

in

all

used

in

.1

dermatological problems

in-

he

powdl led

has been

level

and

shown

also

2600

in

m

forests,

moorland and fcnland,

to

altitude.

Cultivation Wild.

leal

used as a

suiill

slops nose

bleeds. It

Asia;

fruit.

Native to Europe and northern humus-rich, acidic, damp soils in

Distribution

benefit

cluding eczema. I

followed by globose purple

ol

oi

urticaria, jaundice,

and

kinds

Leaves alternate, bright green, finely oval, to \ cm long. Flowers pale greenish-pink, small, solitary, appearing in leal axils from laic- spring to late summer, dentate,

lo

to

lower the blood-sugar

lower

the-

blood

pressure

Propagated as ground covei shady positions on damp and ac idic soils eithei peaty or sandy. Grown from rooted in

(

minims.

Constituents

fruit

Organil

acids;

pectin;

slightly.

sugars; mineral salts; tannins; vitamins

ed to promote haii growth rarely, and fresh Inane lies applied externally in rheumatism.

C; arbutin; anthocyanin pigments.

Young

antiseptic

1

shoots and leaves cooked like Spinach.

Uses

fresh ;

fruit,

leaves

rarely

A and

Astringent;

tonic

*77

VAN-VER The

states.

was once used,

root

small

in

Contra-indications

The drug should

in large doses for

an extended period of time.

Vanilla planifolia

Andrews orchidaceae

not be taken

Vanilla was introduced to Europe by the Spanish in the early sixteenth century following their observation of its use in Mexico by the Aztecs for flavouring chocolate. Early names included Araco aromatico, banillen and Vanilla

was employed

in the

seventeenth century,

chiefly in France, both for chocolate

manu-

and scenting tobacco, and eighteenth century it was included first time in several pharmacopoeias

in

the

for

the

facture

-

as

an

aromatic carminative. Vanilla pod- are now mainly employed in flavouring. West Indian Vanilla is from V. pompona. D- nription Epiphytic orchid with stout stems,

and oblong-lanceolate lcather\. petioled leaves to jo

and orange fruit to 18

to 5

cm

cm

cm

fleshy, short-

long. Flowers yellow

long, followed by aromatic

Green Hellebore Veratrum viride was formerly classified as I*. eschscholtzu A. Gray. The European White Hellebore is V. album L. Both these species and another European plant. V. nigrum L the Black Hellebore have long been used as arrow poisons as they are very toxic.

The Red Indians and

poison,

it

used

V. viride as

was introduced

medical practice

in the late

to

known

America;

intro-

duced and cultivated elsewhere. Cultivation Wild. Widely cultivated in Mexico. Madagascar and elsewhere: in high humidit) under shade, on poles or tree trunk-. Vanillin

to

2%

:

unbranched peren-

onlv to

Verbascum thapsus L scrophulariaceae Mullein Aaron's Rod The common name. Mullein, is derived from the Latin mollis meaning soft, after the large ear-like

eighteenth century

POISONOUS:

Very

be used by medical personnel.

an ordeal

veterinary practice. /) cription Rhizomatous,

Contra-indications

American

British supplies of V. album were cut off by the War of Independence. Green Hellebore was once an American domestic remedy for removing lice from the hair - combing it through in the form of a strong decoction. The herb contains alkaloids which drastically depress the action of the heart and reduce blood pressure. Its use is now strictly limited to

leaves - the

Donkeys

as

herb

is

also

variously

Ears. Bunny's Ears

and

Bull's Ears.

stem was been dried tallow. There is evidence was one of the supposed

Mullein's

tall,

once used

as a taper,

spire-like flowering

and then dipped that at one time

in it

having

first

magical herbs of the ancients. Various species of Verbascum have been employed medicinally, the most important, historically, being I'. thapsiforme Schrad. and V. phlomoides L. Mullein is now grown mostly a- a decorative plant.

Distribution

and woolly biennial, Leaves grey-green, forming a basal rosette in the first year, eventually reaching 30 cm tall. Flowers yellow, sessile, in clusters, on dense, erect 2.5 cm-wide spikes appearing

-oil- in

mid-summer

nial

to

m.

2

Flowers

on

ovate to

alternate,

cm

long.

Distribution Native to tropical

Constituents

is

when

vainillen. It

anti-parasitic and can be used by veterinarv personnel for animal use.

Veratrum viride Ait. liliaceae

American White Hellebore

quantities, as a culinary flavouring;.

thick

root-stock.

elliptic,

to

30

cm

terminal panicle-, greenish,

in

Leaves long. to

"

-

wide, appearing late spring to late summer.

North American native, on wet woodland, beside streams, or on low-

[) cription Erect, very soft

to 2

m

tall.

to early

autumn.

Eurasian native: naturalized in -orne temperate zones. On stony, shallow, wellDistribution

drained, nitrogen-rich

woodland

aromatic sub-

soils in

wasteland and

clearing-.

Cultivation Wild. Propagate from seed sown as soon as ripe or in the spring. Will not tolerate cold, wet conditions. Constituents Mucilage: essential oil: saponos-

stam

ides.

dried

or

fresh

leaves,

dried

flowers

Emollient: weak!) -edative: expectorant. Principally employed with other remedies in the treatment of respiratory disorders.

King meadowland. Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by rootstock division in spring or autumn. inConstituents Several alkaloids to 1.5% cluding veratrine. jervine and veratrosine: Vanilla bean-

dried cured seed-pods

glycosides.

Aromatic carminative.

Uses

Rarely used for medicinal purpo-e- other than a- a pharmaceutical flavouring. and Principally employed as a culinan

emetic: purgative.

commercial flavouring and

;tH

in

cosmetics.

dried

rhizome

Hypotensive:

toxic:

any medicinal purpose. Once reduce blood pressure associated with toxaemia during pregnancy. A decoction Rarely used

employed

to

for

VAN-VER The

leaves have been included in herbal

ing mixtures,

smok-

and used

in

domestic cosmetic

provide

a

pale

The

An

un-

is

yellow

dye.

Fluellen

Used externally

to treat

officinalis

Veronica beccabunga L schrophulariaceae Brooklime Water Pimpernel

L verbenaceae

Vervain Like Betony. Vervain has a long and welldocumented history of association with the

magic and sorcery of the Celtic and Germanic It also seems to have been considered sacred by the Greeks and Romans however, being known as Herba sacra and Herba veneris. Not surprisingly for a herb with alleged magical properties, Vervain was used in numerous complaints and it became an official drug. By 1830, however. Geiger stated that in Germany it was seldom used. It still has a peoples of Europe.

L scrophulariaceae

Fluellen

is

common

wounds.

attractive horticultural ornamental.

Verbena

Veronica officinalis

Speedwell

probably the older of the two it is derived from the old Welsh llysiau Llywelyn - the herb of St Llywelyn. The name Speedwell is given to the entire

substantiated.

preparations. flowers

chronic skin complaints. Considered to have a specific benefit to the uterus, but this

Brooklime has a similar but more bitter taste to Watercress, and in former times was eaten as a salad herb. Its sharpness may have led to another common name Mouth Smart - or more probably this English name was a translation of the Flemish beckpunge and German

English names, and

family, as well as to this species. In

America

it

Low Speedwell and Gypsyweed - one of many herbs with the latter name.

is

known

also

As Herba

as

majoris this plant became Middle Ages and had a repu-

Veronica

official in the

tation as a healing herb - including the ability

place in folk medicine.

35-80 cm

Description Perennial

tall,

glabrous

or nearly so. on erect, ribbed, angular

branched and

loosely

only

sparsely

sum: leafy.

Leaves petiolate, ovate, some pinnatifid, to 6 cm long. Flowers small, lilac, at the tips of long stalks.

Appearing summer

Distribution

established

gion;

to late

autumn.

Native to the mediterranean elsewhere.

wasteland, on nutrient-rich

On

to

soils

re-

roadsides,

1500

m

altitude. Cultivation Wild.

Propagated from seed sown

spring. Requires Constituents

sential

oil;

verbenaline

lull

Mucilage; tannins; saponins; verbenaloside;

and

in

sun.

verbenine;

es-

glycosides,

the

unknown

sub-

stani

Uses

dried flowering plant

diuretic

:

diaphoretic

;

Tonic astringent ;

gala< tagogue;

emmen-

agogue; vulnerary; antispasmodic. Used in the treatment oi nervous complaints such
mean

Bachbungt which

To

the same.

Be<

1

and

abunga hcn<

as

Herba

modern spe< ifi< name Water Pimpernel

e the

Anagallis aquatiea or

from

similarities between Brooklime's and those of the Scarlet Pimpernel

the

(lowers

Anagallis arvensis

L

a vai iet) of skin complaints. used in a wide range oi syrups and

to treat

was known

the apothecaries h

although the) differ

in

and stomach problems; it became important l>v the mid-nineteenth century and 11 was ihen inostlv used as a lea substitute. The French give it the name the d' Europe less

European Tea Low-growing pubescent perennial,

Description

Description Semi-aquatii

often forming mats

10

to

obi out; to ovate, to 5 cm long, crenate-serrati Flowers small blue, in loose- short, axillary

appearing

racemes,

tummei

earl)

mid-

to

autumn. Native-

Europe,

to

North

Asia.

Africa; introduced elsewhere. In streams to _>f>oo in altitude

elite lies

Wild plant. Constituents Tannins;

.1

1

1

<

leaves

a

glucoside;

Kate liver

tinal

dried

or

flowering

stimulant: siomac hie

Diuretic;

pV telle lv

:

tall.

oblong,

to

be

e

hie

used

:

unknown

plant,

weakly

fresh

anti-

siiniinei

.

America;

Native

(

oppic

es,

loamy

to

Luiope,

Asia,

North

scrubland clearings, moorland, hedgerows, heaths; on acidic, sandy in

soils, to

moo

Constituents

.

Fonnerlv

used

in

problems, haemorrhoids, gastrointescomplaints, and applied externally to

mav be eaten

A

in altitude

glycoside,

principles;

.

sparingly,

aucuboside;

tannins;

unknown

resins;

sub-

stane es.

plant Expectorant; galactagogue diuretic. All the actions are weak and the plant is no longer ol medic mal interest. Uses

(dried

flowering

stomachic; vulnerary

.

mcclie inallv

ulcers. Fresh leaves

1

prostrate tooting stems.

ol

Leaves opposite, serrate, ovate cm long, with short petioles or

Flowers pale- blue, small, attractive. 111 dense, erect racemes. Appearing e.nlv to laic

bittCI

fresh

1

m

Cultivation Wild.

substances. w

c

sessile-.

or

.

Cultivation

/

01

jo

Distribution

Distribution

was also

elixirs, for

respirator)

colour.

succulent perennial, 60 cm tall, with hollow, creeping, easily rOOted stems. Leaves opposite-, shot l-pelioleel.

It

Principally

;

;

employed

as

a

tea

substitute

in

herbal tea mixtures.

79

YER-VIO Veronicastrum virginicum Farwell

principle; leptandrine, to

SCROPHULARIACEAE Culver's Root Black Root/Physic Root Formerly classified as both Veronica virginica L and Leptandra virginica Nutt., this tall American

largely due.

herb

is

closely related to the

Speedwell family

or Veronicas. Its

popularity as an Indian remedy

in

another

is

reflected

common name, Bowman's

the Seneca Indians once used

its

Root;

root as a tea to

(dried

Uses

which the action

rhizome and root]

Purgative;

emetic; cholagogue; tonic. as a

when used purgative and may

Contra-indications In large doses or

widely used. Its botanical

name

Veronicastrum

derived

is

was named after St from Veronica) and astrum or star - after the arrangement of the leaves. It was first introduced to Europe in 17 14. Description Perennial to 2.25 m on horizontal blackish rhizome. Stem erect, smooth and unbranched bearing 15-cm long lanceolate, or oblong-lanceolate, dentate, and shortly petiolate flowers in whorls of 3-5 or occasionally 9. (which

itself

acts as a drastic

it

cause vertigo and bloody

Native to Europe, North Africa, northern Asia; introduced elsewhere, often as an ornamental. In woodland clearings, on wet loamy soils to 1200 altitude. Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated from seed or Distribution

hardwood

cuttings; several cultivars are

grown

ornamentals.

Constituents (bark)

Viburnum opulus

L caprifoliaceae Guelder Rose Cramp Bark/

resin; viburnine.

Cranberry Tree This is an attractive plant and several cultivars are found as horticultural ornamentals. As the name Cranberry Tree suggests, the fruit have been used like Cranberries but they do not really compare in quality and they must be

Of benefit

Tannins; isovalerianic acid;

Uses (dried stem barki Sedative; spasmolytic. in functional uterine disorders, as a

uterine sedative;

menopausal metrorrhagia,

miscarriage, and dysmenorrhoea.

may

Fruit

be cooked and eaten, or used as a

dye. Contra-indications Fresh berries are

POISON-

OUS. Viburnum prunifolium L caprifoliaceae Black Haw Sweet Yiburnum/Stagbush American Sloe

mm

to

fruit.

as

stools.

long, numFlowers white, pink or blue, 7 erous, on short pedicels, arranged in dense terminal spike-like racemes. Appearing mid-

summer

cymes to 9 cm wide, appearing early to mid-summer; followed by scarlet, then purple,

m

emetic. fresh

m

Shrub to 4 tall, branches glabrous and erect; leaves 3-5 lobed, opposite, petiolate, dentate. Flowers white, in peduncuDescription

late

stomachic tonic, in diarrhoea, dyspepsia and atony of the gastro-intestinal system. Promotes the flow of bile from the gall bladder. Boiled in milk it acts as a laxative; larger doses are purgative or

Small doses are valuable

cause vomiting for ritualistic and medicinal purposes. Although it was formerly included in the United States Pharmacopoeia it is not now

veronica

is

V. prunifolium

mid-autumn.

ties

and

has similar constituents, proper-

uses to V. opulus L, but differs in that

the part used medicinally is usually the root bark rather than the stem bark. Its fruit are also sweeter than those of V. opulus - hence the name Sweet Viburnum. Black Haw continues to be used in folk medicine and is retained in several pharmacopoeias; other species are similarly used, besides V. opulus,

clude

V.

and

Haw

cooked before they are eaten - the raw

fruit

cause severe gastro-intestinal disorders. In

Norway and other Scandinavian

countries a

liquor has been distilled from the

V.

fruit.

numerous common names: Guelder Rose is from the Dutch Geldersche roos since the tree was introduced from Guelders, on the German border, to England in the sixteenth opulus has

American

native

from

Massachusetts to Florida and Texas, on a variety of soils from dry to rich and wet; but especially in moist meadows and river banks. Cultivation Wild. May be propagated by division

of rhizomes after flowering in late

autumn, or in mid-spring. also known. Constituents

terol;

saponoside;

280

Gum;

volatile

a

A

purple variety

is

resin; a phytosterol, veros-

oil;

citric

volatile

acid;

mannitol; a

alkaloid;

a

bitter

century. Strictly, Guelder Rose roseum sterile,

L

(or V. opulus

L

var.

is

sterile

V. opulus var.

DC

and

thus non-fruiting, ornamental

in horticultural

The herb was

lists

as the

i

is

a

found

Snowball Tree).

employed in north and west European medicine, but it was popular in the early nineteenth century in America - it is rarely

still

included, however, in the Polish,

ian

and Russian pharmacopoeias.

Ruman-

and they

in-

Possumhaw Viburnumj

rufidulum Raf. (the Southern Black - the latter being found in the Mexican

V. 1

Description

contains a substance, viburnine, which can

North

L. (the

Pharmacopoeia. Deciduous shrub branches spreading. Leaves

|lll?

Distribution

nudum

to

5

m

tall;

dull-coloured,

VER-VIO opposite,

ovate to

petiolate.

elliptic,

land in loamy calcareous

finely

toothed to 7.5 cm long. Flowers small, white, in sessile cymes to 10 cm wide, appearing late spring to early summer, and followed by purple oval

fruits.

Distribution

Native

Connecticut Cultivation

Tannins; alkaloids, including pubescine, vinine and vincamine; flavonoids: pectin: organic acids; several mineral salts: vitamin C; rubber; ursolic acid. The flower

Constituents

plant.

Constituents (root bark)

Tannins; isovalerianic

contains robinoside.

acid; resin; viburnine.

dried root bark

Uses

Of benefit hia,

Sedative: spasmolytic.

and threatened miscarriage. Once taken and considered to be of benefit in

Hypotensive: vasoplant hypoglycaemic; astringent: vulner-

(flowering

Uses

dysmenorr-

as a uterine sedative in

dilator;

ary; sedative.

as a tonic tea,

Generally used

asthma.

ally

Contra-indications

autumn.

cuttings taken in spring or

North America from

to

well-drained, to

soils,

altitude.

Cultivation Wild. Used as ground cover in shady positions; propagate by division or stem

to Florida.

Wild

m

1200

Uncooked

fruit

is

POISON-

and

to stop bleeding,

both extern-

internally, as in metrorrhagia

and

menorrhagia. Also used in nervous conditions such as anxiety states and subsequent hyper-

OUS.

tension. Yinca major

possesses many other uses. It reduces blood pressure and dilates both coronary and peripheral blood vessels. There is also a marked effect on smooth muscle. Can be used as a

The herb

L apocynaceae

Greater Periwinkle Periwinkle The Periwinkle family consists of about 12 species of trailing evergreen shrubs. The genus from the old Latin name Yinca from which the common name is derived formerly included the Madagascan

and

Employed

Yinca

tonic, bitter

peruinca

itionally in Africa to treat Diabetes mellitus.

Periwinkle,

Yinca rosea L,

Catharanthus roseus (L) G.

(now

Don

classified as

which

is

major

was generally preferred, and

it

is

still

used in folk medicine. Various cultivars of V. minor are grown as garden ornamentals. Description Trailing evergreen perennial 30-90 cm tall. Long prostrate stems bearing dark green, shiny, ovate, short-petioled, obtuse or acute leaves to 4 cm long. Flowers pale blue to 4 cm wide, solitary on hollow stalk appearing

mid

to late ipring.

Distribution

European

native, in

trad-

Note diabetes must only be treated by medical :

personnel.

an

important medicinal source of anti-leukaemic drugs. Both the Greater and the Lesser Periwinkle Y. minor L have long been considered as magical and medicinal plants, but Y.

in catarrh.

mixed wood-

hypotensive; expectorant; diuretic.

L violaceae

Viola odorata

Sweet Violet The name Sweet

Violet describes both the

and colour of the

smell

and the plant

flowers,

has been cultivated for over 2000 years as both a colouring agent for drinks a source of perfume.

It is still

and syrups, and as grown in southern

perfume industrv At the turn of Water and other Sweet Violet perfumes were one of the most popular of all m cuts in England although Violet-scent was also obtained from Iris germanica L France

for the

the centurv

.

Violet

.

names included viola purpurea, viola The aromatic glaucia and the Greek ion agrion. principle is known as ioninc or irone. The Early

name

genet k

is

taken directly from the old

Leaves and flowers are principally employed in the treatment of respiratory disorders, especially chronic naso-pharyneal catarrh and bronchitis. Used in cough mixtures, and once employed in the treatment of rheumatism. Used as a gargle in inflamed buccal mucosae. Flowers used to colour medications; candied in confectionery, and used widely in perfumery. Contra-indications

large

In

doses

Yiola tricolor

L

ssp. arvensis

This herb with three-coloured petals (white,

yellow and purple)

became

the Herba Trinitatis

of the Middle Ages, and was later given the similarly descriptive specific

name

Heartsease

in

on long stolons, to 15cm on short rhizome. Stemless Leaves teniform to cordate-ovate, petiolate. Flowers 1

up/ion Perennial

1

cm

attractive

scented,

violet, also

white or pink: appearing mid to

to

2

wide,

usually

late ipring.

Native to Asia, North Africa, Europe introduced elsewhere on damp calcareous soils in shad) woodland, scrubland, hedgerows, wood clearings to 000 m altitude. Distribution .

;

Wild. Propagated from offsets rewinter or earlv spring in a peat

Cultivation

planted

1

in late

and sand mix, under

glass; or divide in spring.

Requires shade, rich soil and moisture. Various cultivars may be found. Saponins; a glycoside, violarutin; methyl salicylate; mucilage; vitamin C; an

Constituents

alkaloid,

odoraline;

author yaniii

an aromatic substance c

v

he

Usei

dried

c^lyc

ioninc- 01

pigments; irone; sali-

leaves

European

and

root-dtock)

is

still

official

and

countries until

however remain important horticultural ornamentals as edging plants. The name Pansy is from the French word pensee, meaning thought or remembrance, and Wild Pansy is called Pensee sauvage in France. In the traditional language of flowers the purple form meant memories, the white loving thoughts

still

and was

a plant received in

the

heart-break of separation.

the-

yellow

Description

perennial,

souvenirs. Hence- Heartsease

happy memory annual

Variable,

somewhat

straggly

or

to ease

short-lived

and branched

to

m tall. Leaves opposite,

ovate to lanceolate. dentate, with lobed stipules, flowers purple, while-, yellow or a combination of these j",c

Most frequently yellowish in the wild Appearing mid-spring to late autumn. Distribution European native. Naturalized in North America. Introduced elsewhere. On

colours. plant.

in

fields,

flowers. Iresh Mowers.

mountain pastures; on

Emetic;

altitude

purgative-;

tricolor.

some eastern remained so in

1926; it is now no longer cultivated medicinally. Various cultivars do

Germany

wasteland,

osides.

clried

is

Murr. violaceae

Latin name.

tall,

root

Heartsease Wild Pansy/Field Pansy

Various parts of the plant are still used medicinally but their a< tions differ. The rootStO< k is now the part most commonlv employed

the

emetic and purgative.

hedgerows,

rarely

in

acidic soils.

To 2000

in

281

VIS-ZIX \ ilci-

This species

is

one parent of

Garden Pansy V. x mttrockiana which is found in several forms.

the cultivated

The herb

hybridizes readily with related Propagate from seed sown in spring or on as ripe. Requires rich, damp soil.

plants.

Constituents Salicylic acid

and

salicylates: sap-

onins; flavonic glycosides including violaquer-

blue chromoglucoside,

a

citin:

emetu

:

rutin

violanin:

which

violin

principle,

bittc.

and related

as

acts

a

an

traces of

rutins:

volatile oil.

dried flowering plant, fresh juice, dried

Bowers Diuretic: antipyretic: tonic: laxative: anti-inflammatory.

Used

agent especially in complaints and rheumatism. Stimulates the metabolism and induces persas a blood-purifying

chronic

skin

piration,

and therefore employed

conditions.

Of

benefit

in feverish

indigestion

in

urino-genital inflammatory condition^. as a gargle or lotion

ulcers

and

sores.

A

to

aid

wound

valuable

and Used

healing.

horticultural

plant.

Contra-mduations Large doses or prolonged

may

use-

cause allergic skin reactions. Vollm., and Loranthus europaeu* L

onstrated in some animals but not

The parasite.

Used

phyll

Mistletoe w bicb contains chloro-

tound on different deciduous trees and the Apple. It has been shown that

is

commonly

the constituents of the

mas

Mistletoe

belief that the

drug from the thought

Druids

itself

to

Oak

most

vsas

be magical by the

Mistletoe

b

currently

being

examined

for

contains sub-

It

1

m

Woody perennial evergreen; stems long and regularly branching. Leases green,

light

8

to

cm

short,

in

narrow

blunt,

long.

Rowers

sessile,

almost

sessile

axillarv

in-

is

mas album L

collected from the wild the resultant drug also contain other specit-x ->p.

abieti,

album L.

V.

notabh

V.

Abrom.. V. album ssp. Wiesb. album L ssp. austriacum Wiesb.

to

women

Native

several

to

regions

from

trees.

Wild.

Semi-cultivated

in

some

fruit.

Constituents

galactosyl alkaloids:

11

proteins: a lectin

specificity

many

:

a

toxin,

svith

a

D-

siscotoxin:

other supposedly active com-

gynaecological

Uses

dried branches and leaves

Hypotensive:

cm

basket

in

The

making

in

long.

South European native: introduced and often naturalized in svarm regions. On sandy or loamy. s\ ell-drained soils in full Distribution

sun.

Propagated from seed sown in by layering in spring to summer, or young woody cuttings under gj

Cultivation Wild.

spring,

Several

are grosvn for decorative including the svhite variety Alba

cultisars

L ^ed in combination svith other remedies to hypertension, and associated, nervous

Constituents Several

dem-

now included

formulations.

Aromatic shrub or small tree to 6 m Leaves opposite, palmately compound, disided into 5—7 lanceolate leaflets, each to 10 cm long. Flowers small, lasender or lilac, in dense cymes to 15 cm svide. in panicles to 30

purposes,

complaints. Considered anti-neoplastic

is

and are of hormonal

Description

cardio-active: diuretic: sedative. treat

in

certain

tall.

from

pounds.

with

problems. Chaste Tree

branches are used southern Europe.

ed ripe

in

s\a-

.

benefit

by the inoculation of tree bark in Apple orchards, for example svith the squash-

interest

It

that the seeds contain hormone-like substances

svhich reduce libido in the male

places

species of medicinal

.

from which the

used to put the leaves in their

sticks fruit.

Cultivation

album, although since the plant

the

derived.

is

seseral

deciduous

V.

meaning wild

agnus-castus

and

Europe to China, including Iran and parts of the mediterranean region: rarely tound on conifers, but common on some

is

-

piper agreste of the

uni-

north-svest

The

agreste

and

florescence,

Distribution

Europe

Middle Ages called iituis

Wild Pepper

name

beds, and later monks in Europe used the ground-up seed as pepper - in both cases the purpose was to ensure chastity hence Chaste Tree and Monk's Pepper It is nosv knosvn

appearing mid-spring to earls summer and followed bv i-cm diame-ter svhite.

world.

also called Indian Spice.

is

Hemp Tree and

macology of the plant is vers complicated. however, and no definitise results hase yet been demonstrated in humans.

sexual,

and almost 1500 species of mostly parasitic plants which are widely distributed around the

Vita agnus-castus

Sage Tree.

name

leathery,

family comprises jn genera

Vita agnus-castus L verbenaceae Chaste Tree Monks Pepper Agnus Castas

women

obovate,

Mistletoe

winter decorations.

botanical

mas combine with and phar-

DescriptUH

The Loranthaceae

in

Athenian

to

L loranthaceae

Employed

certain cancer cells: the chemistrs

statues called lectins which

n album

.

prepar-

ations.

latter reflecting the

.

possible anti-cancer effects.

humans

certain

in

var\

according to the host plant on which it is found. This mas explain the ancient druidic valuable

pharmaceutical^

Westn. dried fruit

hormonal substances. Anaphrodisiac

in

males

VIS-ZIN The drug was introduced following long use by Red

in 1849 by King Indians as a local

and general stimulant.

It was once included in remedies for alcoholism, but is now used only in folk medicine. Sometimes incorrectly found classified as

Xanthoxylum. Description

Aromatic shrub or small

Leaves

30

to

cm

tree to 3

long, subdivided into

m.

511

ovate leaflets. Flowers greenish-yellow appearing in late spring before the leaves arranged in :

axillary clusters. Distribution in the east.

North American native especially in rich woodland on moist

Usually

soils.

Wild.

Cultivation

Constituents

Resins:

alkaloid-like

substances;

a phenol, xanthoxylin. Uses (dried stem and root bark, rarely fruit Stimulant; counter-irritant; diaphoretic: car-

minative.

Used

in atonic

dyspepsia; in combination with

respiratory catarrh, and more frequently with other remedies of value in chronic skin disease and rheumatism.

other remedies in Principally ditions

May

employed

in

gynaecological con-

including depression in menopause.

be used sparingly as a condiment.

Decoction used externallv on ulcers. the

east

centuries

for

described

medicinal

before

Dioscorides

Far East it had also long been employed; in China it was, and still is, an important drug, and Green Ginger in syrup was a delicacy from the fifteenth century. Ginger is now grown commercially throughout the tropics from Australia to Jamaica - and many types and grades are available. The Spanish were importing Ginger from Jamaica before the mid-sixteenth century, and Jamaican Ginger its

uses. In the

considered the best for culinary use. Perennial, creeping plant, on thick tuberous rhizome, producing an erect annual stem ()o iao cm tall. Leaves 1-2 cm wide, still

is

I)i

scription

5 30 cm long, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate. Flowers greenish marked with purple, in 1

radical spikes (to 7

cm

long) on 30 cm-long

peduncles. Distribution

Native

and

duced

To

countries.

south-cast Asia; intro-

to

widespread 1500

several

in

Propagated from on rich, well-

Cultivation Cultivated plant.

rhi/ome

cuttings,

tropical

in altitude.

planted

drained loam. Constituents

camphene,

many

Volatile

oil

(to

phellandrene,

3%), comprising and

zingiberine,

other substances resin starch gingerol the latter two substances being ;

;

;

shogaol

pungent. fc?J fresh or dried rhi/ome Stimulant; carminative; aromatic; sialogogue; anti-emetic Very valuable in flatulent colic, dyspepsia and atonic dyspepsia. < )lteu used as an adjunct to other remedies lor general tonic or stimulant purposes, or to purgatives to prevent griping. 1

\< Zanthoxylum ameruanum Mill, ri \i Prickly Ash Toothache Tre< Several %anthoxyUm species have medicinal non. notably Prickly Ash and the Southern Prickly Ash ClavO'Herculii I. They are (ailed Prickly because of their stem and petiole spines; and the other common name relers lo the Red Indian use of the l>.nk foi i

1

;i

11

."'.

.

toothache In this respect the therapeutic use seems to he that ol a powerful counterirritant,

and

it

is

not a

c

im

Zingiber

officinale

Rose oe zingibi racj

\i

Ginger Before plant,

it

Roscoe reclassified this well-known had been called Amomi/m zingiber I..

name reflecting the old Arabic name Amomnrn Zerumbeth. The term amomum had

a

been used

to desc rihe

c

ei

tain aromatic spices

.

Rubefacient when applied externally

Very wide culinary

Round Cardamom, lor example, is still called Amomum compactum Soland. ex Ma ton. Ginger was long known as Zingiberis however,

ed In

and

plaint.

the

the Greeks

had imported

the-

rhi/ome from

in

the

fresh state.

<

ommen

ial

uses in

many domestic and

preparations.

Contra-indications

Large doses should be avoid-

patients suffering from any

skin

com-

283

ALIMENTARY TRACT The

Glossary

from the mouth

ALKALINE

i

;

through body membranes and

bodv compartment

tissues

from one

to another.

ACETYLCHOLINE

The substance which

transmits cholinergic nerve impulses. (bot.) A dry, indehiscent. one-seeded

ACHENE

pericarp or

fruit.

ACICULAR

Needle-shaped. substance which forms hydrogen ions in solution, and which contains replaceable hvdrogens. Opposite to alkali. ACTIVE SUBSTANCE A substance which, either in combination with other substances or in the isolated form, exerts a physiological or pharmacological effect on living tissue. (bot.) Describing the acute apex of a leaf, the sides of which are concave and taper to a protracted point. The point of such a leaf is called the acumen. A system of medicine, originated in China, in which needles are inserted into specific tissues and/or organs at predetermined points thereby relieving pain, inducing anaesthesia, or assisting in the healing

ACID

(bot.)

chem.)

A

ACUMINATE

ACUPUNCTURE

process.

ADAPTOGEN A

A

(chem.)

ANTIHELMINTIC A

destroys or expels intestinal worms.

ALKALOIDS A

group of naturally occurring

compounds which contain at least one nitrogen atom in a ring structure in the molecule. They are usually of plant origin, basic organic

substance which modifies the

ADRENALIN A

hormone

secreted by the

adrenal glands. One of the substances which transmits sympathetic nerve impulses. ADRENERGIC Describing either a substance which acts like (nor)adrenalin or the type of physiological action characteristic of (nor'ladrenalin.

ADVENTITIOUS ROOT appears casually or

on a plant, and

is

in

1

bot.

A

root that

an unusual place

not a part of the

main

root svstem.

Hydrocarbon

radical

derived particularly from those of the paraffin series.

ALUM

Potash alum or crystalline potassium aluminium sulphate, a chemical substance occurring naturally and used for a number of purposes, including as a mordant in dyeing. ALVEOLAR DUCTS The minute air passages in the lung which lead from branched bronchioles to alveolar sacs. terminal branches of alveolar ducts comprising alveoli. An air cell of the lung. Absence of menstruation. AMINO-ACIDS The basic constituents of proteins, consisting of organic compounds.

ALVEOLAR SACS The

part of a

AMMONIA

A

characteristically pungent-

smelling gas with the formula NH3. It is vcrv soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide. AMOEBIASIS Infection of the gut and liver by Entamoeba histolytica, a parasitic protozoan. A cyanogenic glycoside found

AMYGDALIN

in

peach stones,

for

example.

ANABOLISM

That aspect of metabolism which is concerned with the building up of complex substances from simpler material: the

ANAEMIA

The male organs

of a flower. Plants which have their seed

enclosed in a seed vessel. bot. A plant whose life-cycle from germination to maturity and death lasts only one growing season. A substance that relieves pain. A condition characteristically found in young women usually in

ANNUAL

ANODYNE ANOREXIA NERVOSA

which intense aversion

to excess weight leads to great restriction in food intake and subsequent emaciation and nutritional deficiencies: often

convinced she is fat. associated with emotional

The

condition

is

is

contains pollen.

albumin.

ANTHOCYANIN

intermediate between alcohois and acids. ALGAE (bot.) A group of largely aquatic plants which lack roots, stems and leaves and which do not flower. They range in size from large seaweeds to minute organisms, and are of great importance as the primary source of organic matter in the food chains of seas, rivers

284

and

lakes.

White

oral sore or ulcer

cause.

APICAL BUD

The bud

bot.

nearest to the

archaic term for those who prepared and sold drugs and who at one time administered to the sick. The modern apothecary is, strictly speaking, a general medical practitioner, but the term may also be applied to pharmaceutical chemists and druggists.

AQUEOUS SOLUTION A solution in water. ARABINOSE A sugar which found in plant is

material.

It is

also called pectin sugar

and

ARACHIDIC

Relating to the Peanut,

Arachis hypogaea.

ARACHNOID like a

Soft entangled hairs.

bot.

cobweb.

ARECA RED A

red dye obtained from the

of the Betel Palm. Areca catechu. ARIL bot. An outer wing on a seed or fruit

appendage

to a seed,

growing out from the

hilum or funiculus.

AROMATHERAPY The

use of essential oils treatment of medical and cosmetic problems; the oils are considered to act at a spiritual or emotional level. The subject was promoted by Rene-Maurice Gattefosse in the 1920s and is not accepted as a legitimate branch of herbal medicine.

AROMATIC

chem.

Organic compound

derived from benzene; also called aromatic

compound; spicy taste

having a fragrant and or

herb,

and

smell.

ARRHYTHMIA

med.

Irregularity or

absence of rhvthm of the heart

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

Hardening of the

arteries.

ARTIFICIAL

chem.

Man-made

substance.

ARYL RADICAL

ALBUMEN

organic chemicals

unknown

in the

ANTHELMINTIC See antihelmintic. ANTHER bot. The part of the stamen

class of

of

pectinose.

The non-sugar part of a glycoside molecule. (See Glycoside. Egg white; comprised chiefly of

ALDEHYDES A

APHTHOUS ULCER

APOTHECARY An

AGLYCONE

heat.

ANTISCORBUTIC A substance which prevents or cures scurvy. ANTI-SUDORIFIC A substance which stops or reduces perspiration. ANTI-TLSSIVE An agent which reduces or relieves coughing. APERIENT Laxative. APHRODISIAC A substance which stimulates sexual excitement and sometimes ability.

AMENORRHOEA

conflict.

ALBUMIN

.

top of a shoot.

plant which exists above ground.

One of a group of protein substances; soluble in water and coagulable by

substance that inhibits

or destroys

ALVEOLUS

the emaciated patient

AERIAL VEGETATIVE PART Any

ANTI-NEOPLASTIC A or reduces fever.

as salts of organic acids.

ALKYL RADICAL

ANGIOSPERMS

effect of another.

inhibits

the division of cells.

and often found

ANDROECIUM

class of

ANTIMITOTIC A substance which

physiologically active, insoluble in water,

ADJUVANT A

new

substance which

tumours (neoplastic cells ANTIPYRETIC A substance which prevents

consciousness.

to describe a

substance which counteracts or

to acid.

herbalists' term, alterative.

Brekhman

ANTIDOTE A

the soluble hydroxides of metals. Opposite

drug (of which Ginseng is the prime example which is ineffective and harmless in the absence of stress, but which returns body processes to normal when faced with stress or damage. (Similar in meaning to the

Israel

substance that slows

neutralizes a poison.

referring to

conversion of nutritional compounds into those of which living matter is composed. A reduction in the normal level of the red blood cells and/or haemoglobin content of the blood. ANALGESIC A substance which produces insensibility to pain without loss of

term introduced by Professor

ANTI-COAGULANT A

or prevents the clotting of blood.

substance which forms

and usually

ions in solution,

ABORTIFACIENT A substance causing expulsion of the foetus; hence an agent which induces an abortion. ABORTIVE (bot.) Undeveloped; barren; immature; faulty; coming to a premature end; med. cutting short the course of a disease; ending without completing. ABSOLUTE Relating to alcohol ethanol or ethyl alcohol) that which does not contain less than 99% pure alcohol by weight. ABSORPTION The passage of substances

digestive tract,

to the anus.

which

Radicals derived from aromatic compounds. See Aromatic. ASCORBIC ACID Vitamin C. Difficulty in breathing, due to constriction or spasm of air passages and

ASTHMA One

of the flavonoid glycosides which comprise the soluble colouring matter of certain plant material, such as the

caused by increased responsiveness of the bronchi and trachea to various stimuli.

purple and red of autumnal leaves, and the and blue of flowers.

particularly allergy.

violet, red

ASTRINGENT A

ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDE A

contraction, shrinkage or firming of living

mucous membranes, and which in doing reduces or stops the function of those tissues thereby affecting haemorrhages. secretions, diarrhoea, etc. The term is often applied to cosmetic preparations which tighten

glycosidic derivative of anthraquinone. usually

tissues, often

possessing a cathartic action.

so

ANTHRAQUINONE NUCLEUS

Complex

aromatic compound. (See Aromatic. ANTICHOLINERGIC Acting as or relating to a cholinergic blocking agent, hence blocking the action of cholinergic nerves or acetylcholine.

substance that causes

the skin.

ATROPINE An

alkaloid obtained from

Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) and other members of the Solanaceae family. It is a

parasympatholytic agent which is used mainly its spasmolytic action on smooth muscle and for its action in reducing secretions. AURICULATE Ear-shaped, particularly referring to the shape of leaves. AXIL (bot.) The upper angle formed between a petiole or peduncle and the stem carrying it. AXILLARY BUD A bud formed in an axil, the angle of the leaf with its stem. AXIS bot.) The main stem or root of a plant. for

drugs with bitter constituents, which are used

CARPEL

promote the appetite. BLEPHARITIS Inflammation of the

the

to

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER A

BACTERIA An

enormous group of unicellular

or sparsely cellular micro-organisms which are neither animal nor plant, but which possess a

wide range of structural and biosynthetic ability. They range from free living soil and water organisms to human parasites which have never been cultivated. Some forms are able to photosynthesize in a manner similar to that of green plants but they do not produce oxygen.

BALLAST MATERIAL

Those substances,

naturally occurring in medicinal herbs, which modify the physiological activity of a

movement of substances from

substances to simpler ones, with the release of energy. CATALYST A substance which alters the rate at which a chemical reaction takes place, but itself remains unchanged at the end of

the blood to the

central nervous system, allowing

some

to pass

freely while inhibiting or completely preventing the movement of others. BRACT (bot.) A much reduced and often scale-like leaf that bears a flower or

the reaction.

CATHARTIC A purgative substance. CAUDATE (bot.) Having a tail-like appendage

its axil.

BRACTEOLE (bot.) A small bract. BRONCHIOLE A branch of a bronchus

which

mm in diameter. BRONCHODILATORS Substances which

is

less

than

1

increase the diameter of the

pulmonary

air

whose life-cycle maturity and death takes

from germination to two growing seasons. BIFURCATION Forking or branching. BILE A secretion of the liver which is stored in the gall-bladder. It is rich in fats, pigments

and various

salts

BILHARZIA One

which aid digestion.

Bilharziasis or Schistosomiasis.

of the most important debilitating

diseases of

man, contracted

in tropical

subtropical regions of the world.

worm permeates of

its

A

and

BRONCHUS

One

of the main branches of the trachea or that within the lung which contains cartilage in the wall structure pi. bronchi"). (bot.) A division of the non-

parasitic

Acute paroxysmal pain

caused by the movement of gallstones

down

the bile duct.

BILIARY OBSTRUCTION

Reduction

down

in the

the

bile-

duct due to physical obstruction.

BILIOUS Sometimes

CALCIFUGOUS

CALCIFUGE

and

(bot.)

(bot.)

salts,

often phosphate or

l

:

BIOCHEMICAL

chloroplast.

CHOLAGOGUE A substance which stimulates or aids the release of bile from the gall-bladder.

CHOLECYSTITIS

Inflammation of the

flower.

presence of stones in

the bile duct and/or gall-bladder.

CHOLERETIC A

substance which stimulates

CAMBIUM

CHOLINERGIC That part of the nervous system which uses acetylcholine as its transmitting substance; or the type of physiological action characteristic of

(bot.) A secondary mcristematic producing annual growth of vascular

tissues, or (

cork

in

woody

\OCICHOrC

plants.

India-rubber or

many

Gum

Elastic

plants.

smallest subdivision of conned the smallest

veins to the smallest subdivision

of

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION between the surfaces results in the

ol

That force narrow tubes which

movement of fluids along them.

CAPITULUM

(bot.)

A Bower-head;

often

acetylcholine.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

The

separation of a

mixture of substances by various methods, such as selective adsorption or partition between non-mixing solvents, for example. (biol.) Small bodies found in cell nuclei which carry the genes or inheritable characteristics of the organism concerned. Different organisms often have

CHROMOSOMES

numbers of chromosomes. Normal

referring specifically to those with sessile

different

flowers

vegetative cells have two sets; reproductive cells have only one.

1

pi.

capitula).

CARBOHYDRATES c

A class of organic ompounds containing carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen. Included

in this

group are the sugars.

starches and cellulose.

An

odourless and

CILIATE

Fringed with small hairs. small hair or whip-like structure attached to some animal and plant cells,

CI LI f

UM

(bot.)

A

pi. cilia).

wilh living matter.

and used

degeneration and regeneration of

BIOSYNTHESIS The

starting point for the synthesis of

c

;

production of chemical lubstam es by a living organism. BIRD-LIME A glutinous substance manufactured from various plant materials which was traditionally applied to sticks to capture birds.

BITERNATE

(bot.) Leaflets in a

compound

arranged in threes, in wlm h one group borne on a sec ond.irv but similarly arranged

leaf,

i

petiole.

BITTER A

substance characterized 1>\ Often applied to alcoholic drinks ontaining bitter substam es. 01 to botanii .1

bittei

(

in

photosynthesis by plants as the arbohvdrates.

CARDIO-ACTIVE (

ARDIOTONIC

c

Acting on the heart. bsi wci.s Agents of

heart

muscle-; applied loosely to substances

have some benefit (

ial

which

action on the heart. Relating to

tRDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

the heart

and blood

CARMINATIVE and

into vitamin

vessels.

A substance which

relieves

Reddish-yellow pigments in be- converted by animal tissue

may A-.

disorder of the liver character-

ized by increase in fibrous connective tissue,

Caused

liver cells.

especially by alcohol.

COLIC Acute paroxysmal pain in the abdominal region. COLON That part of the large intestine which begins at the caecum and ends at the rectum.

TOMY The surgical

formation of an anus in the abdominal wall following lower bowel disease. COMBUSTION PROCESS Any chemical process which is accompanied by the release ol (

:(

)I,(

)S

artificial

colic.

CAROTENES plants which

al

si

which increase the contractility

flatulence

taste

gall-

bladder.

CIRRHOSIS A

biologic al

which

CHLOROPHYLL

colourless gas with the formula CO2. Formed in the pioc ess ol respiration by man and plants,

Relating to physiological or lirmistrv the chemicals ,isso< iated

fluid

surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Abbreviated as CSF. (bot.) The green pigment of plants, vital to the process of photosynthesis. CHLOROPLAST (bot.) A minute organ (organelle) within green plant cells, containing the green pigment, chlorophyll. The basic processes of food manufacture occur within the

the production of bile in the liver.

CARBON DIOXIDE

distinct species.

grey

cambium.

blood vessels which

BILIOUSNESS A disorder associated with poor digestion and characterized by gen era discomfort, headache, constipation and nausea It may or may not be related to bile se< k lion. and the term is medically inexact. BINOMIAL bii.l Describes the system of nomenclature of animals and plants in which two names are applied to a spec ih< organism the first genus groups the organisms into closel) related types, and the second apecifii

true plants.

CHOLELITHIASIS The

CALYX (bot.) The outer covering of a CAMBIAL CELLS (bot.) Cells of the

of arteries

ifies a

or containing

Descriptive of plants which will not tolerate soils containing chalk or limestone. CALCULI Stones in the kidney, gall-bladder or bladder. They are composed of mineral

subdivision

spe«

of,

Descriptive of plants which tolerate, or require soils containing chalk or limestone.

into the intestinal svstem.

epithet

Composed

CALCICOLOUS AND CALCICOLE

relating to bile itself or to disorders aused by excessive production and release ol bile <

The carbohydrate

structural constituent of the cell-walls of all

CEREBRO-SPINAL FLUID The

free lime or limestone.

CAPILLARY The

i

plants. (bot.)

CEREBRAL CORTEX The external

obtained from the juice of

called Bilous. Eitln

CELLULOSE

laver of the brain.

tissue,

flow of bile from thr gall-bladder

(biol.) The fluid within plant cells, including that in conducting vessels and the material which can be extracted on crushing

flowering plants which contains the Liverworts, Hornworts and Mosses.

oxalate.

life-cycle.

BILIARY COLIC

tail.

CELL SAP

BRYOPHYTA

substances and

the circulatory system, as part

or

and macerating

passages.

CALCAREOUS

soothes a cough.

Related to or containing

CATABOLISM That aspect of metabolism concerned with the breaking down of complex

plant or extract.

BECHIC A substance that BIENNIAL (bot.) A plant

CARTILAGINOUS cartilage.

barrier between the tissue of the brain and the brain capillaries which effectively controls the

inflorescence in

B

eyelids.

functional

(bot.) One of the units composing gynoecium or the female parts of a flower.

heat

COMPOUND LEAF

(bot.)

One made up of

285

DNA

several distinct leaflets.

compound

CONJUNCTIVITIS

CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDE A glycoside

Inflammation of the

mucous membrane covering

conjunctiva, the the eye-ball.

which

to the cut surface.

hydrocyanic (or prussic) acid

liberates

when broken down.

CONTUSION A bruise. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION The separate and independent development of unrelated plants or animals leading to structural or functional similarities or close identity that

(See Glycoside.) A group of evergreen plants belonging to the Gymnosperms, and thus among the most primitive of living seed plants. The Cycads were especially dominant in the flora of the

CYC AD

Mesozoic period.

superficially suggests a close relationship

CYME

between them.

flower-cluster in

CORDATE (bot.) Heart-shaped. CORIACEOUS (biol.) Having a A

which the central flowers open

CYSTITIS Inflammation

leathery

CYTOPLASM (bot.)

broad, inverted cone-shaped

first.

texture.

CORM

A

(bot.)

swollen, rounded underground

excluding the

stem which lasts for one year only, that of the next year being produced on the top of its

COROLLA

(bot.) Collective

term

for the

its

leaves

autumn.

(herb.) Extract of a herb obtained by boiling a given weight of plant matter in a given volume of water for a given

the heart.

time.

blood

cell

or any other small

rounded body.

CORTEX organ

part of the small

from the stomach,

DYSENTERY

plant that loses

formation of a clot or thrombus in a coronary artery of

CORPUSCLE A

first

and containing the pancreatic and common

DECOCTION

CORONARY THROMBOSIS The

with a medicinal substance. DROPSY An old-fashioned term for heart failure, characterized by the abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in body tissues.

bile ducts.

in

petals of a flower.

DOUCHE

Normally referring to the direction of a flow of liquid into a body cavity; often the vagina for the purpose of washing

intestine following the outlet

D

DECIDUOUS A

parent.

DNA

DUODENUM The

of the bladder. material within cells, nucleus.

The

cell

(Deoxyribonucleic acid) Complex molecules containing a deoxyribose sugar and organic bases. is present in chromosomes of all plant and animal cells and carries coded genetic information.

DECOMPOSITION

The breaking down

of

Inflammation of the intestine, characterized by diarrhoea containing mucus and blood, pain and painful straining to evacuate the bowels.

DYSMENORRHOEA

Painful or difficult

menstruation.

DYSPEPSIA

Disorder of the digestive process.

DYSPNOEA

Difficulty in breathing.

complex substances into simpler ones.

The

(med.)

peripheral portion of an

as in the cortex of a kidney; (bot.) the

between the vascular cylinder and epidermis of the stem and root. tissue region

CORYMBOSE CLUSTER

(bot.)

A

and

short

DECUMBENT bending towards

(bot.)

Lying on the ground or

but with the apex pointing upwards (as for a plant stem or branch).

DECUSSATE

it,

(bot.)

Arranged

in opposite

each pair being at right angles

pairs,

to the

ECLAMPSIA A

disease occurring during the pregnancy characterized by a blood pressure, and sometimes

latter half of rise in

convulsions.

broad, practically flat-topped flower (luster.

next.

ECLECTIC MEDICINE A

CORYMBOSE TERMINAL PANICLE

DEFALCATION

that particularly attracted attention in

Corymbose

See

cluster.

COTYLEDON

The leaf or leaves of an embryo, usually differing from the shape of mature leaves, and found already developed within the seed. On germination they either remain in the seed-coat or rise above ground (bot.)

and become green.

COUMARIN

A compound

found

many

in

and responsible for the aroma ol 'newmown hay which some possess. Ingestion in large amounts can lead to haemorrhage in man and animals. plants

COUNTER-IRRITANT A

substance thai causes inflammation of the skin. It is applied for the temporary relief of a deep-seated painful irritation.

CRENATE

(bot.) Scalloped or shallowlv

round-toothed.

CRENULATE

The diminutive

of crenate.

CROSS-BREEDING and CROSSFERTILIZATION To fertilize with

The action of expelling waste matter from the body. DEHISCENT (bot.) Opens to shed seeds or

form of medicine North

America

painful surface.

in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, in which methods and materials were borrowed from different systems of medicine. An acute or chronic inflammatory disease of the skin of unknown cause. Characterized by a variety of lesions.

DENTATE

EFFLUENT

spores,

DLL

IOII)

Triangular.

hot.

DEMULCENT

A

substance that is smooth and soothing when applied to an inflamed or

ECZEMA

(bot.) Having sharp or coarse indentations or teeth that are perpendicular to the leaf margin.

antiseptic

DENTICULATE

resist

Very finely dentate DER MATITIS Inflammation of the skin DESICCATION The complete drying ol

EMBALM

Waste

fluid.'

The treatment

of a corpse with

and preservative substances

EMBROCATION A

liquid medication or

substance.

liniment applied to the body surface by rubbing.

DIABETES A

EMESIS

a

condition characterized by the habitual discharge of an excessive volume of urine and by an associated excessive thirst. Used loosely to describe diabetes mellitus DIABETES MELLITUS A disorder of the

Vomiting.

EMETIC A

substance that causes vomiting. A substance that stimulates the menstrual flow. EMOLLIENT A substance used internally to soothe inflamed membranes, or externally to

EMMENAGOGUE

from another plant of different variety, strain

carbohydrate metabolism characterized by disturbance to the insulin mechanism and resulting in hyperglycaemia or excess of sugar

or species.

in the blood.

especially referring to the lungs in

DIAPHORETIC A

there

pollen

CULTIGEN A

plant deserving species status known only in cultivation, not

but which is being found in the wild.

CULTIVAR

(hort.)

A

horticultural variety of a plant species

may have

which

originated either in the wild or in

cultivation.

CUNEATE

(bot.)

petals or leaves in

Triangular or wedge-shaped which the narrow end is

attached to the plant.

CUTICLE

(bot.)

layer of epidermal

The water-conserving

outer

cells.

CUTIN

A wax-like substance found on the surface of the external cellular layers of most plants,

which

assists in the

prevention of

excessive water-loss.

commonest methods of

plant propagation, consisting of the removal of stem, leaf or root portions from the parent plant, before rootlets are formed on them.

Portions arc rooted in sand, peat, vermiculite or a mixture of these and other materials, often alter application of a

286

hormone rooting

EMPHYSEMA

Distention of the tissues by air;

walls.

fevers.

ENCEPHALITIS flowering plant which has

two cotyledons.

is

which

destructive change to the alveolar

ENDOCARP

Inflammation of the brain. The innermost layer of the

(bot.)

fruit wall.

DILATION

(med.) The enlargement or stretching of an organ. DIOECIOUS Having the male and female

DISPENSATORY

(i)

The

pharmacopoeia.

A

book

ENDOCRINE

Relating to the endocrine

glands, which are those secreting hormonal substances directly into the bloodstream.

Examples include the pancreas,

flowers on different plants.

early

name

for a

testes

and

adrenals.

ENDOSPERM

substances are listed and their preparation and administration for various conditions are described. DISTILLATION The process of heating a

The nutrient tissue in the seed of a flowering plant, formed after fertilization of the ovule. The injection of fluid material into the rectum; usually for therapeutic purposes

it to vapour (often doing so under reduced pressure), condensing the vapour, and collecting the condensate or

but occasionally to help diagnosis. The study of insects. ENURESIS Incontinence, in the absence of

(2)

in

which medicinal

liquid to convert

CUTTING One of the

soften the skin.

substance that causes an increase in perspiration. Some are used to treat

DICOTYLEDON A

cultivated or

to

putrefaction.

distillate.

Components with

different boiling

ENEMA

ENTOMOLOGY

organic causes.

points can thus be separated.

ENZYME An organic

DIURETIC A

mainly of protein found

substance that increases the volume of urine, and hence the frequency of

and

urination.

reactions.

vital for the

catalyst

composed

in all living systems

functioning of biochemical

There are numerous

kinds.

EPIDERMIS

The outermost

(bot.)

cell-layer

of a

compound

associated with the vegetation of salt-marshes

flower.

FORMALIN SOLUTION A

of the primary tissues of a plant. Plant EPIGEAL germination when the cotyledons are raised

powerful disinfectant and fixing substance consisting of a 37 per cent aqueous solution of formaldehyde;

above the ground.

also called

EPILEPSY A

FRAGMENTATION

GERMINATION

brain disorder characterized by transient episodes or seizures during which convulsions and psvchic dvsfunction mav occur.

EPILEPTIFORM CONVULSION

Convul-

formaldehyde solution. (bot.) A term loosely

applied to a process of natural vegetative reproduction of plants in which portions are variously detached and propagated. A disinfectant substance in a vaporized or gaseous state. FUNGI Non-flowering plants ranging from

FUMIGANT

sion resembling that typical of epilepsy.

EPIPHYTE Plant which grows attached to another plant, but not as a parasite. EPITHELIUM (med.) Cellular tissue of a variety of types, one of which forms the

An alkaloid obtained from Ergot, Claviceps purpurea. It can be used

microscopic moulds to edible mushrooms. are incapable of photosynthesis and share some other features with the animal kingdom. They provide various antibiotics and are important in the breakdown of organic matter in the soil, but are also responsible for the loss of foodstuff through spoilage and

to treat migraine.

disease.

uppermost layer of the

skin.

EPITHELIZATION The damaged

over a raw and

growth of epithelium

surface.

ERGOTAMINE

ERYSIPELAS A

skin disease characterized

They

FUNICULUS

FUNICLE

or

by which an ovule

by inflammation of the skin, caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes ERYTHROCYTE Red blood corpuscle.

attached

is

(bot.)

The

to the

ovary wall

stalk

name

for the alkaloid

physostigmine, obtained from the Calabar Bean Physostigma venenosum, Balfour which is largely responsible for the powerful action of the I

,

plant.

ESSENTIAL OIL A by

a plant

aroma

volatile oil, obtained

and having

distillation

from

a similar

GALACTAGOGUE A substance

that can induce or increase the secretion of milk.

GALLIC ACID An

GAMETES

astringent substance.

Sexual reproductive

biol.)

bot.)

The outermost

wall (pericarp)

layer of the

also called the epicarp.

;

EXPECTORANT A

substance which promotes the expulsion of fluid or semi-fluid matter from the lungs and air passages, by coughing or

lor

lowing; or now, more commonly, allowing land to remain unrropped lor a year or more. FASCICLE (bot.) A bunched mil ot branches,

GENES

The

biol.i

i

FAT-SOLUBLE Soluble in lam substances. FATTY ACIDS Acids which with glycerine fats.

substance which prevents or

reduces lever

now known

FILAMEN

hot.)

I

characteristics;

GENITO-URINARY TRACT The

ol the

urinary organs and the genitalia. Inllammation of the mucous

membrane and

soli tissues

surrounding the

FIXATIVE substam

A substance which

perfumer)

retaining the

aroma

ol the

other

GLABROUS same

Lacking hairs; but not the

bot.

as 'smooth'

when used

in the

botanical

sense.

nonvolatile oil that cannot be distilled or evaporated without decomposition. (See Essential oil.

FLATULENCE A is

Hairs and

(bot.

GLOBOSE Almost spherical. GLUCOSIDE A glycoside- which

leaf.

yields glucose

(See Glycoside.) alkaloid

combined

HERBICIDE

A substance

(hort.)

referring to dried that

kills

plants.

HERPES An

inflammatory skin disease

characterized by the formation of small vesicles in clusters - such as coldsores.

HETEROSIDE A aglvcone

is

glycoside in which the not a sugar.

condition in which excess

present in the gaslro-inleslinal system.

chemical linkage between phosphorus and oxygen (usually in adenosine triphosphate) which releases a large amount of chemical energy on reaction. HILUM (bot.) The point of attachment of a seed, denoted by a scar.

GLYCOSIDE An

organic substance- which ma\ be broken into two parts, one- ol whie h is always sugar. (See AgljCOtU \ venereal diseasecharacterized l>\ mucopurulent (mucous and purulent disc hargc from and inflammation eil the- genital tract. Catise-el b\ the bae leiium, \

n

\

is

cut or

A system of medicine, introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, based on the supposition that minute quantities of a given substance, such as that of a medicinal plant, will cure a condition in which symptoms exist that would be identical to the symptoms produced in a healthy person were he given large quantities of the same substance. (med.) Chemical substance produced by tissues which is introduced into the general blood circulation, and acts as a regulatory agent on different tissues in different parts of the body, (bot.) Chemicals which are produced in small amounts by the plant and control its growth and behaviour. (hort.) The product of the decomposition of organic matter. HYBRID (biol.) An organism which results from cross-breeding. ACID (med.) The acidic substance secreted in the stomach to adjust the stomach contents to the correct degree of acidity for the action of certain digestive enzymes.

HUMUS

HAEMOGLOBIN

The

pigment

blood

in tfie reel

HAEMOLYSIS

red oxygen-carrying enpuse les. e

The release of haemoglobin

damage

HAEMOPTYSIS

HYDROGEN CYANIDE

Prussic acid;

hydrocyanic acid; an intensely poisonous substance, derivatives of which are found

Spitting of blood, or blood-

stained sputum.

HEMORRHAGE

Bleeding; the

esc

ape of

blood from the blood

vessels.

HAEMOSTATIC

substance that Stops

HYDROLYSIS The chemical fission of a substance by water into two or more parts, in which the water is also decomposed. An aquatic plant. HYPERTENSION Excessive tension such as may be- found in some nervous individuals often characterized by high blood pressure-. HYPERVITAMINOSIS A A condition caused by the- excessive intake- of vitamin A.

HYDROPHYTE

HYPOGEAL GERMINATION

The

germination of plants where the cotyledons remain below the ground.

FLAVONE A type of flavonoid a vellow dye. FLAVONE HETEROSIDE A glycoside with

bleeding.

HYPOGLYCAEMIC A

flavone or a derivative- as

HALLUCINOGEN A

the concentration of glucose in the blood.

aromatic substances

substance which can affect all or any of the senses, producing a wide range of perception and reaction.

FLORE1

HALOPHYTE

HYPOTHALAMUS

;

FLAVONOID bot

A broad |

the-

aglyeone.

lass ol coloured See Aromatu Small flower which forms part <

in

certain plants.

seria gonorrhoeae.

H

II

Protective substance present in of the body, being released into the

HYDROCHLORIC

with a sugar.

from red blood corpuscles following their

es.

FIXED OIL A

gas

now

HORMONES

teeth.

stamen

that supports the anther. assists in

urino-

genital (or urogenital) system comprising the

as antipyretic).

The part

plants in monasteries, plant specimens.

HOMEOPATHY

units of heredity

more inherited composed of DNA, and protein.

GONORRHOEA

roots or fibres.

FEBRIFUGE A

Relating to plants

burnt.

GLYCEROL Glycerine. GLYCOALKALOID An

form

(bot.) (i)

blood, when, for example, the skin

Colloidal solution which sets to a jelly

when broken down.

onstituents.

Ploughing read)

HERBACEOUS

which are not woody and which die down at the end of each year; (2) plant parts which are soft and green with the texture of leaves. HERBARIUM Formerly a live collection of

GEL

on cooling.

GLANDULAR PUBESCENT

lagric.)

Congestion or

HISTAMINE

glands mixed on a surface, such as a

product obtained by treating plant material with a solvent or mixture of solvents designed to extract the desired

ALLOWING

HEPATIC CONGESTION

inefficient functioning of the liver.

all tissues

EXTRACT A

I-

propagation.

alimentary system, from the mouth to the anus.

spitting.

<

cells.

GINGIVITIS

glands.

EXOCARP

Breaking a young shoot away from the parent stem, with a portion (heel) of the parent attached to it, for the purpose of

GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT The

controlling one or

to the plant itself.

EXCRETION The discharge from the bod\ of waste products; not limited to the evacuation of the bowels, and including, for example, the excretion of waste matter via the sweat fruit

saline habitats.

(hort.)

A

substance that provides a slough on the skin; acting as a caustic substance; corrosive. alternative

HEEL

HIGH ENERGY PHOSPHATE BOND

or placenta.

ESCHAROTIC A ESERINE An

and other

A

Salt-tolerant plant, generally

substance- that lowers

HYPOTENSIVE A substance

that lowers the

blood pressure. That part of the brain

28 7

which controls the integration of the functions of the endocrine system and the nervous system. (See Endocrine.)

LECITHIN A member

of the group of phospholipids; a very complex substance containing phosphorus, found in egg yolk, brain and blood. A white discharge from the vagina. LICHEN (bot.) A member of a group of slowgrowing plants that consist of a symbiotic relationship between an alga and a fungus. LINIMENT A substance, usually medicinal, applied to the skin. LIPID A fat or fat-like substance insoluble

LEUCORRHOEA

IMMUNOLOGY The study of the systems whereby

living organisms (especially

man)

respond to foreign matter of a biological nature which, when taken into the body, may cause damage to it; especially of those factors in the blood and lymph that produce resistance to disease.

INDEHISCENT

(bot.)

Not opening, or not

opening regularly.

in

water and soluble

many

of lipids includes

INFLORESCENCE A

flowering branch

group of flowers with a

common

(or, a

in fat solvents; the

group

different but related

materials.

LOAM

stalk).

INFUSION The

preparation of a dose of a herb by pouring a given quantity of boiling water over a given weight of herb, and infusing for a given time. INGESTION The act of taking in food or other

(hort.) A good soil containing at two of the main soil particle sizes: gravel, sand, silt or clay; designated by the dominant least

LYMPH

hence a 'sandy loam'. A straw-coloured fluid which

circulates

many

particle

iodide (or iodine-containing) salt

ION

Electrically charged

atom

or groups of

atoms.

IONIZED In the form of ions. ISOMERIC Having the same molecular

and cleanse them.

M MACERATION

The

process of extracting

MEDULLA

to distinguish

it

from the cortex. (med.) Severe depression,

MELANCHOLIA

often of a psychotic nature.

MENINGITIS

Inflammation of the meninges,

The

(bot.)

formula but different properties owing to a arrangement of atoms within the molecule. Hence one compound may be an isomer of another. , ISOPROPYL (Isopropanol) An alcohol with many applications as a substitute for ethyl alcohol (ethanol) some grades are used in the food industry.

ALCOHOL ;

of plants, distinguished from the permanent tissues by the power their cells possess to divide and form new cells. Primary (apical meristems are located near the tips of roots and in the buds of stems. Secondary meristems produce lateral growth subsequent to the primary extension growth produced by the primary or apical meristems. (bot.) The middle layer of a

JAUNDICE A

condition which is caused by excessive amounts of bilirubin in the blood and is characterized by yellowness of the skin and

body

secretions.

KERATIN A

protein material which

characteristically constitutes hair, feathers

and

nails.

KHELLIN A which

substance, isolated from

Ammi

used as a bronchial dilator. (hort.) A decorative formal garden popular in the sixteenth century and consisting normally of very low hedges in geometric patterns. visnaga,

is

KNOT GARDEN

MESOPHYTE

LACTATION The secretion of milk. LAMINA (bot.) The blade of a leaf or petal. LANCEOLATE (bot.) Spear-shaped (of leaves) with the widest part near the centre. LARYNGITIS Inflammation of the larynx. LEACH The extraction of soluble constituents from a mixture of soluble and insoluble material. LEAF FALL Loss of leaves.

LEAF 288

MOULD

Partially

decomposed

leaves.

MUCOSAL

MULCH

MYASTHENIA

(bot.)

A

term used

to

denote

the group of fungi as a separate division of the

plant kingdom.

MYCORRHIZAL

Referring to any soil fungus which establishes a close symbiotic relationship with the young roots of particular trees and

shrubs.

MYDRIATIC A

substance which dilates the

pupils.

N (bot.

|

A

NARCOTIC A

plant suited to a

moderately moist climate.

substance that in small doses produces sleep and relieves pain, but which in large doses may cause poisoning with coma

The reactions involved in the building up and decomposition of chemical substances in living organisms.

or convulsions.

METABOLISM, PRIMARY

back of the throat

Vital processes

concerned with the maintenance of life. METABOLISM, SECONDARY Reactions which result in the formation of complex materials which are not concerned with the maintenance of life. These are often the medicinally active

compounds

NASOPHARYNX NERVINE

Cavity extending from the

to the nose.

(herb.)

A

substance that calms

nervous excitement.

NEURALGIA

Brief but severe pain along the

course of a nerve.

NEUROLOGY The study of the nervous system.

in plant

extracts.

NEUROMUSCULAR

MINERAL A

and muscles.

elements.

NODULE A small

natural inorganic substance; often applied to metallic salts and certain

MIOTIC A substance that contracts the pupils. MITHRIDATE An antidote to poison. (From King Mithridates,

who

See Galactagogue.

fungus of web-like structure. product formed by the addition of gum to water; mucilages occur naturally in many plants and may be applied to irritated or inflamed surfaces to relieve them. SURFACE The surface of a

MUCILAGE A slimy

MESOCARP

the second-century b.c.

LACTAGOGUE

MOULD A small

fruit wall.

METABOLISM

JK

MORPHOLOGY

The study of the arrangement of organs and tissues, including their inner structure and outer form.

MYCOPHYTA

formative tissues

i

different

colour.

acetylcholine.

to lubricate

MERISTEMS

added.

when applied to the fabric to be dyed reacts chemically with the dye thereby fixing the

women.

MENORRHAGIA Excessive menstrual flow. MENSTRUATION The periodic, usually

which an has been

sugar.

MORDANT A substance used in dyeing which

monthly, elimination of blood and cellular material from the uterus of sexually mature

INVOLUCRE

salt to

plant.

MUCOUS MEMBRANE

the covering of the brain.

IODIZED SALT Common

same

MONOSACCHARIDE A simple

MUCOUS

body and serves

Compositae.

flower or flower-cluster.

flowers on the

COLITIS Inflammation of the colon resulting in a mucous discharge. Membrane, kept continually moist by a variety of glands, that lines canals and cavities of the body which are exposed to the air: mouth, anus, vagina. (hort.) Substances spread around a plant to protect it from weeds, water-loss, heat, cold and in some cases to provide nutrient material. Mulches comprise many materials from sawdust and pine-needles to black plastic, but leaves and old straw are the materials most commonly employed. Mulches should only be applied to moist soil. GRAVIS A condition of weakness and rapid tiredness in the muscles of the skeleton (voluntary muscles) which is caused by a malfunction in the release of

tissues of the

substances from a botanical drug by steeping in a solvent. The central part of an organ, used

Bracts or small leaves arranged whorl or whorls immediately beneath a

plant which has unisexual male and female

mucous membrane.

material through the mouth. INSULIN A hormone secreted in the pancreas which regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism; deficiency causes diabetes mellitus. INTESTINE That part of the gastrointestinal tract from the distal end of the stomach (pylorus) to the anus. Consists of the duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum, the caecum, the colon, the rectum and the anal canal. INULIN A complex sugar found in several plants, especially in members of the family

in a

MONOECIOUS A

flowers, but with both

studied poisons and their antidotes.) A member of the Mollusca, animals without segments or limbs and usually

MOLLUSC

having a

Relating to both nerves

NEURONE, NEURON A

complete nerve

cell.

rounded organ.

NUCLEIC ACIDS (biol.) One of a group of substances characteristic of the nuclei and cytoplasm of cells, which yield purine and pyrimidine bases when broken down.

NUCLEUS of a

(biol.)

The

functional centre

cell.

shell.

MOLLUSCIDAL A substance

that

kills

OBLANCEOLATE

molluscs, such as snails.

MONOCARPIC

(bot.)

Bearing

fruit

once, and then dying.

MONOCOTYLEDON A flowering plant has only one cotyledon.

(bot.) Inversely lanceolate.

OBLIGATE PARASITE

only that

(biol.)

A

parasite

that cannot live without a host. (bot.) Inversely ovate.

OBOVATE OESOPHAGUS

The

gullet; passage

from the

pharynx

A

(bot.)

short lateral offshoot of a

stem or root of a plant that can be used for propagation. OLEIC ACID An unsaturated acid found in

many

fats

and

oils.

OLEO-GUM-RESIN A containing an

and

oil

resinous substance

gum, obtained from

a

POLYPHARMACY The

outer flower parts usually consisting of distinct

stomach.

to the

OFF-SET

certain plants.

ORBICULAR Disc-shaped or circular. OSMOSIS The flow of a solvent through

sepals

and

petals.

PERISTALSIS The

progressive, wave-like

contractions of the gastro-intestinal tract or parts of it, whereby matter is moved along PETIOLATE (bot.) Possessing a petiole. PETIOLE (bot.) The stalk of a leaf. The study of the absorption, distribution and elimination of

it.

POMADE

PHARMACOKINETICS

POULTICE (herb.) Warm or hot external application of crushed herbs or extracts of plant contained in cloth such as muslin.

drugs. a

semi-permeable membrane from a dilute solution into a more concentrated one. OVARY (med.i A glandular organ which produces female eggs, (bot.) The ovule bearing

PHARMACOPOEIA A

Applied locally

descriptions of

and inflammations.

book containing and recipes for the manufacture

place.

PHARMACY

the ovary which becomes the seed after fertilization.

pharynx.

OXYTOCIC An

PHARYNX

PALMATE

of the nose, oesophagus. Thick, elastic mucus secreted bv the cells lining the air passages. Originallv

pistil.

OVATE Egg-shaped. OVULE bot. The egg-containing

part of

agent that hastens evacuation of the uterus by stimulating contractions.

1

Shaped or divided

I

like a

PROTHROMBIN

secretes substances responsible for the digestion

one of the four humours or cardinal body fluids the other three being choleric, sanguine and melancholic in the ancient Greek system of

of carbohydrates, proteins and

medicine.

hand.

PANCREAS An

abdominal gland which fats;

also

it

PANICLE

i

A

(bot.)

flower-cluster in which the

branches are racemose.

PANICULATE

Arranged

in a panicle.

PARASITICIDE A

substance that destroys parasites, especially those which exist on the

PARASYMPATHETIC NKRYOl SYSTEM med.) That part of the autonomic nervous system which

s

The

bot.

principal tissue

PHOSPHOLIPIDS distributed in nature

Substances widely and comprising lipids.

phosphoric acid and

fatty acids.

generally dei reases must

PHYSIOMEDICALISM

glandular secretion and contracts the blood vessels.

PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC

Substances causing an action in the bod) similar to thai occurring when the parasympathetic nerves arc stimulated. PECTIN A natural arbohydrate substanc e used as a demulcent or thickening agent. <

PECTORAL

imcd. Relating to the best. substance used in the treatmenl <>l complaints.

i

h<

si

I

A

herb.

PEDICEL

The stem

hot.

ol

one flowei

PEDICULOSIS A i

.

(

skin

(

ondition

(

aused In

and skin lesions. The stem of a flower-

harai terized by itching

PEDUNCLE cluster,

a

bot.

i

The stem of a

flowei

when

ihat

flower is the- only one remaining in an inflorescence. (3) The stem ol a solitary flower. PEPSIN A digestive enzyme sec reted into and part of the- gastric jtiic e.

PEPTIC ULCER digestive system

Tissue loss

m

parts ol the

which are exposed

to the

acidic juices; charae inisin ally the- stomal h.

lower end of the oesophagus and the beginning

as the starting materials.

A

s

W em of herbal

PHY TODERMA THIS A

skin eruption win,

A substance

arranged either

PISTIL

bot.

style-

side

ol

trains ofa flowering plant which carry male- reproductive

more

PERIANTH

the-

bot.)

hot

A

skin.

plant which survives

years.

Collective term for the

its

pharmacologic alls inactivesubstance given as a drug either in the treatment <>l ps\e bological illness or in the course ol dru<4 (rials. PLASMA The- liquid part ol blood or lymph.

PERCUTANEOUS Thai PERENNIAL

The embryonic shoot which germinating seed. PNEUMONITIS Inflammation of the lungs. (bot.)

The <

POLYNEURITIS nei

\

ol certain of the

Compositac

iaIK Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium.

QUINSY

A small unit of energy. Abscesses surrounding a tonsil.

and stigma.

POLLEN

or applied through

e-spei

PLACEBO A

suitable solvents through a vessel containing the lubstance.

performed

PULMONARY

QUANTUM

'The ovary ol a flower, with

hot

is

ihose-

the axis in

a

uln
The external genitalia; usually of the female. Relating to the- lungs. PULQUE A Fermented Mexican drink obtained Irom the sap of Agave amencana. PURGATIVE A substance that causes evacuation of the bowel. PYELITIS Inflammation of the kidnev. An insecticide made from the family,

as a feather.

PLUMULE 1

PUDENDA

PYRETHRUM

Formed like a feather; compound leaf in which the

way

A botanical group and fern allies. Covered with short, soft

bot.

ferns

(bot.)

powdered flowers

hot.

the same-

or psvehe.

applied to

emerges Irom

duodenum.

PERCOLATION

lor three or

I,

The medicinal use of plants; herbalism 01 medical herbalism. a

mind

PUBESCENT

plants.

leaflets ate-

precursor ofa vitamin.

hairs.

which possesses specific antibody-like activity to animal cells. PHYTOSTEROL One ol a group ol sterols, very similar to cholesterol, which occurs in

applied to

The

chronic, inflammatorv skin

which contains the

in plant seeds

PINNATE

microscopic, unicellular

PTERIDOPHYTA

initiated In contact with plants.

PHYTOHAEMAGLUTININ

PSORIASIS A

the

medicine in which herbs are used to assisl the body's natural powers of healing. Thes\stem was developed in North America in the earlv nineteenth centurv.

found

or stage

PSYCHOSIS An aspect of serious mental impairment that leads to inability to manage normal affairs, and is characterized In delusions, hallucinations and mental confusion. PSYCHOTROPIC A substance which affects

the presence of light, using carbon dioxide

is

precursor

condition.

process whereby food substances are formed by green plants in

The extra* don ol onstituents Irom a powdered substance l>\ the passage ol

ol the

sensitive

PHYTOTHERAPY

in a cluster.

In

PROVITAMIN

Becoming

PHOTOSYNTHESIS The

and water

tone, depresses

PROTO ALKALOID A

PROTOZOAN A

following the intake of certain

to sunlight

concerned with maintaining muscle lone, inducing glandular secretion and dilation of the blood vessels. Hie sympathetic nervous system le

bleeding.

animal.

substances.

is

in

in

development ofi or substance that can be converted to an alkaloid. PROTO-BOTANY Early development of botanical studies; primary botany.

responsible for the internal transport of substances svnthesized bv plants.

PHOTOSENSH IZATION

skin.

development^ of thrombin which is formed the liver; thrombin acts as a clotting agent

in the

PHLOEM

secretes insulin.

The

microscopic plants of land and water which constitute the greatest part of the world's photosynthetic ability, that is, the lowest part of the food-chain. PROPHYLACTIC A substance that helps to prevent disease. (bot.) The sexual generation of the Pteridophytes which include ferns and clubmosses) which consists ofa minute, flat structure bearing the sexual organs. A precursor (or stage in the

PROTHALLUS

The muscular tube from the back mouth and larynx extending to the

PHLEGM

bot.

to contusions, bruises, sprains

PRIMARY PHOTOSYNTHESIZERS

of those therapeutic substances that are officially recognized by a given country or

The study of the preparation of therapeutic substances. (2) The place where prescriptions are made. PHARYNGITIS Inflammation of the

part of the

administration of

medication which consists of many different therapeutic substances, as, for example, in herbalism when several different herbs are included in one prescription. A perfumed ointment; often applied to those used on the head.

<s

microspore

s

01 the-

ells

The inflammation

of

simultaneously.

POLYPEPTIDE A amino-ae

iels.

substance containing

several

R

RACEME

An elongated

the terminal flowers open

RADICAL Radii

hen

inflorescence in which last.

Relating to the rool

see also

1

RADICALS chem.) Groups of atoms in a chemical molecule which retain their identity during bemii al changes and affect the- rest of the same molec ulc. RADICLE bot.) The embryonic rool which emerges Irom a germinating seed REAGENT A substance involved in a chemical 1

reac tion.

RECEP1 \( I.I. bol he uppei pan ol the stem which bears the Mowers; it may be I

concave or convex. The lower part of the large

flattened,

RECTUM intestine.

plant material; usually applied to green

TISSUE REGENERATION The

(i)

RENAL ARTERY The artery of the RENIFORM Kidney-shaped.

RETARDANT slow

substances with the aid of introduced steam.

STEATORRHEA, STEATORRHOEA

down

kidney.

(chem.) Serving to delay or

Inflammation of the mucous

membranes

of the nasal passage. (bot.) A horizontal underground

and nodes. root and herb collector of

roots, scales

RHIZOTOMIST A ancient Greece.

fungus infection of the skin

tissue following

that causes

saturated or unsaturated alcohol

STOLON

normally produced above the

is

surface

and which

soil

gives rise to a separate

or nails producing ring-like lesions.

plant at

RUBEFACIENT A

STOLONIFEROUS Bearing stolons. STOMACHIC A substance that counteracts

reddening of the

RUNNER the tip of

substance that causes

skin.

An

(bot.)

aerial, trailing shoot,

which takes root when

it

touches the

ground.

its tip.

or relieves cramps.

STOMATA

(bot.) Minute openings on leaf rhizomes and some stems that allow exchange of gases between the plant and the atmosphere. STOMATITIS Inflammation of the soft tissues within the mouth. STYPTIC A substance that stops bleeding, usually by contracting the tissue.

surfaces,

SALICYLIC GLYCOSIDE

Glycoside containing as the aglycone salicylic acid, or a

derivative.

SALTPETRE

SAMARA

Potassium nitrate.

An

(bot.)

indehiscent winged

fruit.

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES

damage

TOMENTOSE

derived from perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene, such as cholesterol. STIGMA (bot.) The part of a pistil which accepts the pollen. (bot.) A short, horizontal stem that

RINGWORM A

Increase in the

sneezing.

STEROL A

RHINITIS

stem bearing

stools. (2)

STERNUTATORY A substance

a chemical reaction.

RHIZOME

Fat in the

secretions of the sebaceous glands.

The

soft,

(bot.)

or

loss.

Having

a thick

mat of

white hairs.

TRACHEA The windpipe. TRACHEID (bot.) A vascular pitted,

end

leaf.

growth of

woody

(lignified) walls

plant

cell

with

and oblique

walls.

TRACHEITIS

Inflammation of the trachea.

TRANSMITTER

(med.) A substance that transmits or passes on; usually applied to substances involved with the transmission of nerve impulses.

TRIFOLIATE (bot.) Bearing three leaves. TRIFOLIOLATE (bot.j Bearing a leaf subdivided into three equal leaflets. TRISACCHARIDE A carbohydrate which yields three molecules of monosaccharide when it is broken down. TUBER (bot.) An underground, rounded storage organ, formed from the stem or root of a plant.

TUMOUR

An abnormal

swelling resulting

from the multiplication of cells.

UV

loose

connective tissues beneath the skin.

UMBEL

plants containing saponins have been used as a

SUCROSE Common sugar. SUDORIFIC A substance that

substitute for soap.

sweating.

umbrella-shaped inflorescence, in which the flower stalks arise from a common point. An ointment; formerly a perfumed or scented ointment.

SAPONIN A in

glycosidic substance that loams

water and has a detergent action. Some-

SAPROPHYTE obtains

its

(biol.)

An organism

that

nutrient material solely from dead

or decaying matter.

SCABIES An by a small

infectious skin condition caused

induces

SCABROUS (bot.) Rough. SCURVY A nutritional disorder

substance or substaiu es of therapeutic value introduced into the urethra, vagina or rectum in the form of a bod) solidified by means of a fatty agent and which

SYMBIOSIS caused by

A

mutually advantageous relationship between two different organisms. (biol.)

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

lack of vitamin C.

SECONDARY MERISTEMS

(See

SYNAPSE The between nerve

point of communication

cells.

SYNERGISM

Potentiating action between

two or more substances.

calyx.

SEPTICAEMIA

Bacterial infection in

SERRATE (bot.) A leaf margin which has forward-pointing, saw-like teeth. SESSILE Lacking a stalk. SIALAGOGUE A substance that initiates or increases salivation, the production of saliva. SILICULA, Silicle or Silicule (bot.) A short, specialized fruit or capsule found in certain Cruciferae, which is usually less than three times as long as it is wide. SILIQ.UA, fruit

Silique (bot.)

A

long, specialized

or capsule found in certain Cruciferae.

SIMPLE LEAF divided into

(bot.)

A

leaf that

is

not

TACHYCARDIA

Excessive speed of the heart

'TANNIN

Astringent substance related to

tannic acid.

TAPROOT

A

(bot.)

persistent

primary

root,

usually swollen with food.

TENDRIL

A

(bot.)

supporting

thin,

URCEOLATE Shaped like an URETHRA The duct through

URTICARIA Nettle rash; a skin condition characterized by red weals that itch. (biol.) A space within a cell. Substances in the rootstork of Valeriana species responsible for the plants' sedative action. VARIEGATION (bot.) Patches or markings of different colour on a leaf. (bot.

VASOCONSTRICTOR A substance

VERMIFUGE VERTIGO

which unable to reproduce outside a host. Viruses are responsible for a wide range of diseases

mevalonic acid.

in all

(bot.) Flat, primitive

THERIAC An

old term for poison antidote.

in several volatile oils.

protein shell

and

Normally referring

mosses which grow in very wet places. An organ which produces

THIAMINE A member

heal wounds.

spores. (PI. sporangia.)

circulation

SPORE

TILTH

SPUTUM

STAMEN

290

antiseptic

of the vitamin B complex. Deficiency affects the nervous system,

and alimentary

(hort.)

A

prepared

TINCTURE A solution active

VOLATILE OIL

See

surface.

of substances (both

and inactive therapeutically) extracted

from medicinal plants by the maceration or percolation of the plant with alcohol or alcohol-water solutions. Most herbal tinctures are made with 70 per cent alcohol solutions. TISANE A drink made by the addition of boiling water to fresh or dried unfermented

organs

WHORLS

essential oil.

used to treat or

WX

tract. soil

to the

within the abdominal cavity but strictly also those organs of the cranium, thorax or pelvis. VISCOUS Sticky or glutinous. VITRIOL Sulphuric acid.

VULNERARY A substance

An

is

other living organisms.

VISCERA

substance.

(herb.)

of a

a nucleic acid centre,

SPHAGNUM MOSS A group of related

reproductive cell. Materia! eliminated from the mouth by spitting, consisting of secretions from the mucous membranes of the buccal cavity which can include pus or blood. (bot.) The pollen-producing part of a flower, ((insisting of the anther and filament. STEAM DISTILLATION The distillation of

that

destroys intestinal worms. Sensation of giddiness.

THYMOLEPTIC

asexual, unicellular

tissues

causes the constriction of blood vessels. A substance that expels or

release of semen, in the absence of orgasm.

An

The

constituting the conducting regions of a stem,

TERNATE TERPENOID

whip-like, modified

THYMOL A bactericide and fungicide found

(bot.)

which urine

passes.

VESICANT A blistering agent. VIRUS Minute organism, composed

A

or relieves convulsions or spasmodic pains.

SPORANGIUM

urn.

touch, which supports the plant by coiling around a support. (bot.) In groups of three. Organic substance derived from

plant.

fronds, not distinguished as stem or leaf.

The involuntary

Consisting of a

leaf, sensitive to

appendage on a

SITOSTEROL A common plant sterol. SPASMOLYTIC A substance that counteracts

SPERMATORRHOEA

(biol.)

root or leaf.

action.

THALLUS FRONDS

leaflets.

UNICELLULAR single cell.

VASCULAR CYLINDER

which

the organisms invade or multiply in the blood.

indeterminate, flat-topped,

VACUOLE VALEPOTRIOTE

Parasympathetic nervous system.)

(bot.)

Meristematic tissue which produces lateral growth subsequent to the primary extension growth produced by the apical meristems. SEPALS (bot.) The separate parts of the

An

UNGUENT

SUPPOSITORY A

melts at body heat.

insect.

(bot.)

Three or more leaves, bracts or flowers arranged at one point in a circle around an axis. XEROPHYTE (bot.) A plant adapted to arid (bot.)

conditions.

XYLEM

(bot.)

The

tissue responsible for

conducting water upwards within plants; also imparts mechanical strength to the plant, and contains cells with food and waste reserves.

Oven temperatures

Conversion tables

The

only an approximate guide and the suggested temperatures and timings are those appropriate to the oven of an average-sized domestic cooker.

Conversions from imperial to metric are only approximate as exact conversions are unwieldy

tor

table

below

c

F

quick measurement.

is

Solid measurements ENGLISH 8 oz butter or

fat

AMERICAN cup (solidly packed

1

oz butter or

tat

2

1

lb castor

1

sugar

GAS NO G

OVEN HEAT

8 oz castor sugar

no C

4

very cool

2

oz castor sugar

130

2

very cool

1

lb plain Hour, sieved

275 300

140

I

cool

150

2

slow

4 oz plain flour, sieved

325 35o

170 180

3

moderately slow

2

4

375 400

190

5

moderate moderately hot

8 oz

200 220

6

hot

7

very hot

230

8

verv hot

425 45"

1

4 tablespoons

42 cups cake

cup plus 4 tablespoons 8 tablespoons 1

oz plain flour, sieved

12 oz dry, grated cheese rice,

imperial fluid ounces 40

140 1000 1

35 20

560 420 280

10

—

8

—

140

5

cups cups

scant ij

2

1

pints

\

cups

cups

5

cup cup plus cup cup

2

tablespoons

1

\

gill

",

pints

2-j

44 tups 2j

'5

230

1

IMPERIAL

9

225

8

4

85

3

teaspoons

50

2

teaspoon

2

tablespoon

\\ tablespoon-.

7

{

1

dessertspoon

j

5

i

i

5

1

5 H pis=

gal

1

=

(.',

h


ingredients in wine-making are usually b\ volume. Pack the herbs into

nol puss

.1

jug

down.

Medit al Prai titioners Asscm iation 170 Johnston Road. Hong Kmiu

The be following organizations offer membership,

Ihinese

In- (

I

Organizations I

I<

1

Nature Health So(

landii

Laufasvegi

information and details of suppliers. hose marked * offer a regulai publication such as a magazine and set vk CS ol pal 111 ulai In in In in those with an interest in herbalism \ si. imped addressed envelope

National Herbalists Association of

what each one

I'

(

Bos

)

Nazionale

.I/nun

Produtti

Inn isih

l.i

lommen

(

Montville Road. Mapleton, Queensland,

iand

Australia

1

Parkside, S. Australia,

(ii.

offl is

I

Associazione Nazionale Erborisli e Piante Olli, mal, ANEPO * Siena, Via I. S Ph olomini 59, 53

j

he Queensland ;

lei

I

b S01 iety

In-

I

Quei nsland

I

1

In

In

l')i

1

1

i-l

old

12

I

(

In

,1

1

In

1

Sni iety

di

in

-x

1

me

Si

Man

Pai

is

le,

I

1

ant


lb

'1

l>

So< iety

rasmania, 7006

.1

o! \ \ In Ii S01 a* In 300 Massai husetts Avenue. Boston, Mass, 11 husetts 02 ii',' s \

Plantes

dei Reformwaren-Herstellei

and Register of

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Institute of

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Australia.

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Park, Brisbane,

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University ok\ n. Japan.

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Academy

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Society of South Australia Inc. 1

Queensland Chapter

Australia

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following organizations offer either in medical herbalism or include herbalism as pari of other courses: 11. lining

international reply coupon

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Bibliography

|

Introduction Altschul, S von Ries, Drugs and Foods from Little- Known Plants Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1973

HG

Baker,

Swain, T fed. Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Mass. 1972 Thompson, C J S The Mystic Mandrake Rider & Co.. London 1934) Thorwald, J Science and Secrets of Early Medicine: Egypt, Mesopotamia. India. China. Mexico, Peru Thames & Hudson,

Plants and Civilization

London 1962

(Macmillan, London 19701

AJ

Brock.

M

I

Budge. Sir E

W

The Divine Origin of the Culpeper House,

Craft of the Herbalist

'

May

London 1928

R E Herbs and Savoury Seeds Dover Publications, New York 1970 Crockett, J U and Tanner, O Herbs Time-Life Books. Loudon and New York 1977 Dawson. R A Leechbook or Collection <>/

W

Medical Recipes

oj the Fifteenth Century

Macmillan, London 1934) Medicine and Magic oj the Gelfand, Mashona (Juta & Co., Cape Town 1956 Genders, R Scented Flora oj the World Robert Hale & Co., London 1977 Giles, F Out Vegetables, Whence They Camt

M

1

W

Royal Horticultural Society Journal vol. 6g, .

'944' Grieve,

M

A

.1

Modern Herbal (Penguin,

Harmondsworth, Middx. 1971 G A Dictionary of English Plant Names Allen Lane, Harmondsworth, Middx. 1974)

Grigson,

Grigson, G The Englishman's Flora Paladin. St Albans. Hertfordshire

975 Hedrick, U P Sturtevanfs Fdible Plants oj tin World Dover Publications. New York

R

The Herb Buyer's Guide

R

Hemphill,

Penguin.

Herbs and Spices

A

Plant and Planet

Harmondsworth, .Middx. 1974: Viking Press, New York 1973 North Mexico University of Texas Press, Austin. Texas

Kelly,

I

Folk Practices

in

M

Harrap, London

Green Medicine

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Illinois

1964 Levy. J de Bairacli Herbal Handbook for Everyone Faber & Faber, London 1972 Lust, J B The Herb Book Bantam Books.

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1975; Des Plaines, 111. 1974 Food for Free Collins, 1972 |

Plants with a Purpose

|

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M

Of Men and

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W

N Food Resources : Conventional and Novel 'Penguin, Harmondsworth, Middx.

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rerard, J The Herbal! or General/ Historic of

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Minerva

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London 1974; Walter J Johnson, Norwood. NJ- '974)

G

Goodwin, 1

Which were

'

the

Ihihal Review, vol.

hi

'977 Hadfield,

M

A

magic herbs/'

2.

no. 4.

October

History of British Gardening

Spring Books. Feltham. Middx. Jackson. G The Making of Medieval Spain 1

Thames & Hudson. London 1972; Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York 197a King. R The World of Km Macmillan, London 197b Le Strange. R .1 History oj Herbal Plants Angus & Robertson, London 1(177

Moldenke, H N and A L Plants 0/ the Bible Ronald Press. Oxford [952 Monardes, N Joyful/ Newes out 0/ the Xewe Founde Wor/di Norton & Co..

W

K N

The Complete Book

& Jane's,

of

Herbs

London 197}:

Macmillan, New York 1971 C The Herbal in antiquity' '

Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 4J.

Macmillan. London 1927 Smith.

A G R

Science

and

David

Newton Abbot, Devon Press rg66, distrib.

& 1973;

Macmillan.

&

British Flora in

Michael Joseph.

1

;

1971) Sinnot, E and Wilson, S Botany: Principles and Problems McGraw-Hill.

Thames & Hudson. London

W

1972:

Watson. Academic Publications.

New York

T

Stearn, \V

New York

G

latei

development oj cultivated plants'

Royal

Horticultural Society Journal, vol. go. 1965

Biology and chemistry Armstrong. E The Simple Carbohydrates and Glucosides (Longmans, Green & Co..

London

19191

AJ

The Living Plant

University

Edinburgh 1964 Clapham, A R et al. Excursion Flora of the British Isles - 2nd edition Cambridge University Press, 1959 de Wit. H C Plants of the World - 3 volumes Thames & Hudson. London 1965: E P

Dutton

&

Co.,

New York

1963

M Cryptogamic Botany -

1969 Everard, B and Morley, B D Wild Flou of the World Ebury Press & Michael Joseph, London 1970) Fahn, A Plant Anatomy Pergamon Press.

Volume

I

McGraw-Hill. Maidenhead. Berkshire, and New York Algae and Fungi

<

'955 Steward, F C Plants at Work AddisonWesley, London 1964 Tortora, C J et al. Plant Form and Function Collier-Macmillan. London 1970 Trease, C E and Evans, C A Textbook of Pharmacognosy (Bailliere Tindall, London

W

1970

C

Willis. J Dictionary oj the Flowering Plants and Ferns Cambridge University Press.

")73

Medicinal uses British

Herbal Medicine Association

London

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia

'973 Brooker, S G and Cooper, R C New Zealand Medicinal Plants Unit) Press.

Auckland 1961 (

AT

Struik.

^u/u Medicine and Medicine-Men

Cape Town 1966

M

Burlage. H Index of Plants with Reputed Medicinal and Poisonous Properties Austin Press. Austin. Texas 1968 Chopra, R N Indigenous Drugs of India Croizier,

R C

New

Delhi 1973

Traditional Medicine in

Modern

Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Mass. 1968 Culbreth, D M R A Manual of Materia China

Medica and Pharmacology

1972 "7 he origin and

K

|

Arts Press,

Society in the

and Seventeenth Centuries

Sixteenth

Brook,

Press

New York

Bryant,

Press,

1977

The Concise

Polunin, Flowers of Europe Oxford Lniversity Press, 1969 Roberts. B Biology: A Functional Approach Nelson, London 97 Ronald Press.

Smith,

1961

Meal

1965) Kreig,

1965;

Press

AbelardYork, Toronto

and Spices

Schuman, London. New

Singer,

Allen Lane.

K

W

C Of Herbs

Macdonald

Harmondsworth, Middx. 1966

W

1

Cambridge Universitv

1938) Clair,

Sanecki,

Pyramid Books. London 1973

'975 Martin,

M

London 1577

'97* HefFern,

Huxley.

236*,

Herbals, their Origin and

Evolution

Clarkson.

American, vol.

1977

A

Arber,

Scientific

Kingdom

O

Altschul. S von Ries 'Exploring the

Herbarium'

19291

A

Hamlyn, London 1976 Karlson P Introduction to Modern Biochemistry Academic Press. New York (

Colour

History

London

Press, 1973 Encyclopedia of the Plant

Huxley,

Ebury London 1969

Greek Medicine, being extracts

illustrative of medical writers from Dent, Hippocrates to Galen J

Oxford, 1969 Hutchinson, Sir J The Families of Flowering Plants - 2 volumes Oxford University

Lea

Philadelphia, Penn. 1927 Fliick. H Medicinal Plants and

&

their

Febiger.

I

W

Foulsham, Slough 1970 Gunther, E Ethnobotany of Western Washington L niversity of Washington Press. Seattle. Wash. 1973 Gunther, R T The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides Oxford University Press 1934: Hafner Press 1959 - distrib. CollierMacmillan. Riverside. NJ. Chinese Medicine Huard. P and Wong. McGraw-Hill. Maidenhead. Berks., and

M

New York Keys. J

D

1968

Chinese Herbs: their Botany.

Chemistry and Pharmacodynamics

Charles

E Tuttle. Rutland. Yermont 1976 Kowaro. J O Medicinal Plants of East (East African Literature Bureau,

Nairobi 1975)

Krochmal,

A

and

CA

Guide

to the

Africa

Dover Publications.

Medicinal Plants of the United States

Quadrangle 1975,

Harper

distrib.

& Row.

Scanton, Penn.) and Elvin-Lewis, Lewis, Medical Botany Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, Sussex 1977; John Wiley 1

Sons,

&

New York

1976) The Extra Pharmacopoeia.

W

Martindale. 26th edition - ed.

N

The

\V Blacow

Pharmaceutical Press, London 1972; Rittenhouse Book Distributors,

distrib.

Philadelphia. Penn.)

C

F American Medicinal Plants Dover Publications, New York 1974'

Millspaugh,

Nelson, A Medical Botany Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh 1951 Palaiseul. J Grandmother's Secrets Penguin,

Harmondsworth, Middx. 1976; G P Putnam's Sons, New York 1974) Revolutionary Health Committee of Hunan Province, The A Barefoot Doctor's Manual Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1978 Schauenberg, P and Paris, F Guide to Medicinal Plants Lutterworth Press, Guildford, Surrey 1977 Schendel, G Medicine in Mexico University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas 1968 Schneider. Lexicon zur Ar zneimittelgeschichte Govi-Verlag, Frankfurt 1974)

W

Selection du Reader's Digest Secrets des Plantes Medicinales (Paris 1977

F and Jirasek,

Stary,

London

V

Herbs

|

et

Food

in

London

Jane's,

MPF

WH

D

Hartley,

New York

New York

and

1953)

Loewenfeld, C and Back, P Herbs for Health and Cookery (Pan Books, London 197 Universal Pub. and Distr. Corp., 1

A Handhuch der Pharmakognosie volumes 3 Tauchnitz, Leipzig '9°9-'927)

;

Happauge, NY. 1970 McKenzie, E Dining with Herbs The Herb Societv of America, Boston, Mass. 197

M

New York 1950 Rohde, E S Culinary and Salad Herbs (Dover Publications, New York 1972 Sass, L To the King's Taste John Murray, London 1976; Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1977

L To London

the Queen's

Sass,

Conn.

Taste

David

1970; International Pubns. Service.

Arlott.

f

Oklahoma Wallis,

Britain

in

T

M

l.dmburgh [962

Webb. L

Guide

J

Poisonous Plants of Queensland

232, Center lor Scientific

Bulletin

and Industrial

Research, Melbourne 1948 Wilson, A and Schild, Applied Pharmacology J & A Chun hill. London

HO

1968

Wren, R C

Potter's .Sen

Buchman, London I

b

1

I) I)

Munch

W

1973; Harper

& Row. New York

1972

Culinary uses Apicius: I he Roman Cooker Hook.vth. Flower, B and Rosenbaum, E (Harrap, London 1974; British Book Center, \

'(7",

and Recipes from Rome Allen Lane, London.

the Renaissance

to

Spires. Salt

and Aramalics

English Kitchen (Penguin,

in the

Harmondsworth.

Middx. [970]

H

I

he Complete

Book

0/ Gurries

'

Kaye &

Ward, London 1975 Grange,

C

The Complete Book

Preservation (Cassell,

Grieve,

Sante"

Opera

Ritchie,

1

A 3

Co..

Perfumes. Cosmetics and Soaps

Chapman &

Hall,

London

M

oj

Home hood

London 1949)

Culinary Herbs and Condiments

|

G

KN

&

Bell

Practical

Sons,

London

969) Hunter, B

T

Gardening without Poisons

(Hamish Hamilton, London 1965) Loewenfeld, C Herb Gardening (Faber & Faber, London 1964) Perring, F (ed.)/ The Flora of a Changing Britain (Botanical Society of the British Isles Conference Report No. 11, 1972)

K

Sanecki, N Discovering Herbs (Shire Publications, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire

973

A B

Herb Growing and

Profitable

(Country

Collecting

Life,

London

1916)

Periodicals

ACTA PHYTOTHERAPEUTICA,

ten

mersjed with the Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research. Back copies. Swets & Zeitlinger B V, Publishing Dept., 347 b Heereweg, Lisse, The Netherlands. BOTANY, quarterly; economic and medicinal plants, including food crops. Available from The Societv for Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, he Bronx. NY 10458. U.S.A.

ECONOMIC

:

I

HIS LORY,

horticultural

quarterly; historical,

and etymological information;

Dr Christopher Thacker, French I

Studies, University, Reading, Berkshire,

lie

England.

PLANTS AND GARDENS,

quarterly; some

on domestic and

editions contain data

horticultural aspects of herbs. Available from: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn.

NY 1225, USA (QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF CRUDE DRUG RESEARCH, quarterly; scientific aspects of crude drugs, both animal and

and

plant,

their derivatives. Articles in

and German; published and subscriptions: Swets & Zeitlinger B V, Publishing Dept., 347 b Heereweg. Lisse, The Netherlands. RIVISTA DI ERBORLSTERIA, quarterly; English, French

since-

&

London 1867

C

Candle Making

Hodder &

StOUghton, Sevenoaks, Kent 1976) LJphof, J C T Dictionary of Economic Plants Wheldon & Wesley, Hik Inn, Hertfordshire 1970

Cultivation Aichele, I) Wild Flowers Octopus Hooks,

London 1975, L H Manual of Cultivated Plants (Macmillan, London 1949) Brownlow, M E Herbs and the Fragrant Garden (Darton, Longman & Todd. London 1^78 Bailey,

and Sanecki,

1

Redgrove, H S Scent and all about it lleinemann, London 1928 Rimmel. E Book of Perfumes Chapman Hall,

DG

Herb Growing

[961. Back copies

medical herbalism. Editor: Dr Angiolo Via E S Piccolomini 159, 53100

Severi,

Siena, Italv.

THE HERB GROWER,

quarterly; mainly

horticultural aspects. Available from:

Grower,

'974 David, E

Day,

M

M

Plummer, B Fragrance Robert Hale & London i()7*)

1936

Hewer

often of relevance to herbalism. Editor:

1974) on Herbier de S A. Paris i<)7")

Science Press,

1

Duckworth.

New York Mcssegue,

Pouc her,

Cyclopaedia of

(stoking

1973 Feed four Pace

(Lutterworth Press, Guildford,

Delights

(

1977)

GARDEN

Pol Pourris and Oilier Fragrant

J

volumes

R

Beautepar

i<)~3

iteau,

Health Holsworthy, North Devon

NYv\ York

et

New York

Gardens

Botanical Drugs and Preparations

Barber,

Sante

Surrey 1975 Huson, P Mastering Herbalism Abacus, Tunbridge Wells, Kent [977; Stein & Day,

Medicinal and

to the

Michael Joseph.

\

Longman,

1969 (. and Brcyer-Brandwijk, Watt, J Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 0) Southern and Eastern A/rita Churchill Livingstone,

M

Snuff Shop

London 197 Audy, J and Fondin, J Its

& A New York

1

M

editions per year 1954-1972. Scientific journal on botanical medicine. In 1973

PlanUi Ldita SA, Lausanne 1968 Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record Plants and

1970) E Textbook of Pharmacogv Churchill, London 1962;

J

I he

J

Twentieth Century

the

1977)

Domestic and cosmetic uses

Vogel, V J American Indian Medium University of Oklahoma Press. Norman,

191 7)

Gardening for

(John Murray, London 1923 The Dictionary of Hay, R and Synge, P Garden Plants (Ebury Press & Michael Joseph, London 1973) Herb Society, The Growing Herbs London

John Murray,

Tschirch,

1

C

Teetgen.

T Herbs. Spices and Flavourings. & Charles. Newton Abbot. Devon

Stobart,

London Eley,

New York Graphic

distrib.

Herbs, their Culture and Uses

(Macmillan, New York 1966) Day, A Vegeculture (Methuen & Co.,

1)

Medsger, O P Edible Wild Plants Macmillan, New York 1966 Miloradovich, The Art of Cooking with Herbs and Spices Doubleday & Co.,

New York 1972 Wilson, C A Food and Drink Constable. London 1973

1976)

&

1975)

Society. Greenwich,

R E

Clarkson.

1

Hayes, E Herbs, Flavours and Spices (Faber & Faber, London 1961) Hogner, D C Herbs from the Garden to the Table (Oxford University Press, London

Vertus

Hamlyn.

197

England (Macdonald

Falls Village,

Herb

Conn. 06031, U.S.A.

THE HERBAL REVIEW,

quarterly; all herbs and herbalism. Available from: The Herb Society, 34 Boscobcl Place,

at

pe<

tS ol

London SWi, England.

THE HERBARIST,

annually; non-medical of herbalism. Available from: The Herb Sex iety ol America, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, Mass. 021 15. I'.S.A.

aspei

ts

2 93

General index

bronchodilators 61 bruises, herbs to treat 66

digitalis

Buchu brandy 145

dioecious plants 36 Dioscorides 18, 18, 21, 49

bulb 35

Burgundy Vole

numbers

Page

in

Italia

refer

bold type

illustrations. Entries in

to

distillation

pitch 238

burns, herbs to treat 66

refer to

calyx 36

recipes.

absorption, extraction of oils

i

cambium 41 Candied Angelica 88

12

candle-making 94

adaptogens 56 adrenergic drugs 63 Adrianople Red 254

Canon Medicinae

aerial roots 35

cardenolides 56 cardiotonic glycosides 56 cardiotonics 56

After-bath Cologne 105 Aioli French Garlic Mayonnaise 84 air fresheners

95

alcoholic beverages 82, 83, 89

Cardamom Cake

87

Alexandrian School of medicine algae 31. 32 alkaloids 42. 58. 59, 61,

108 Almond water 248 American medicine ji anabolism 53 anaemia, herbs to mat

<>

17.

cell,

48

j

powder 166 China, medicine

Ancient Rome-, medicine

Chin Nong

11.

18,

pi

e

hlorophyll 29,

angina pectoris 56 Anglo-Saxon herbals >i Angostura bitters tg animal medicine 103 animal repellents and traps

enflcurage

cholelithiasis

m/\ mes

choleretic

61

>

Christmas Day Pudding 86

|

m

c

hromatograph)

c

limine brimc lulls 6

i~,. 1

|

120. 132, 134, 136,

138

chutne

\ s.

herbs

in

c(ei.

11

Cinnamon Spinach Circa m\tan\

anther 36 anti-asthmatic agents 61 antibacterial agents 6a anti-bilious herbs 76 1

84

plan)

lass,

e

Clove oranges 97 Cocoa-butter neck smoother 109 Cold cream 108. 109 enlds. herbs to treat 67, 76

Arab world,

compound

medicine

hi.

pi

aromatherapists 104 Aromatic beads 98

56

aspirin 190

asthma 61 atropine 42, 59

Aubergines with Herbs Avicenna 19, 15. axillary buds 35

81

41)

infei

Barilla 257

Basswood Tea 273 104 Bath salts 104 bayberry tallow 226 beef, herbs to go with 82, 83 betel chewing mixture 156 beverages, herbs in 82. 83 biennials, herbs 39, 120, 132, 134. 136. 138 oils

crgotamine 63 ergotism 176 serine 63

Herball by

nuns

herbals, history of 21-24

1.2

extracts ol plants 43. 44.

herb, definition of 7

1

indoors 122

Inns herbes

Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act of 1975 129 Constantine the African 20. 20 constipation, herbs to treat 59, 67 container growing ol herbs 120, 122 convergent evolution 38 cooking with herbs 75 91. 123

Fish au Poivre Vert 79 fish, herbs to go with 79, 82, 83.

7

flatulence, herbs to treat 60, 68 r

,7

herbicides 128

Cruydboeck 2

Franco's Dip 84 Frangipani aroma 106

herb pillows 97

Cucumber

freezing herbs 74

Fruit sundae special fungi 32

cultivar 34 cultivation of herbs 132-9

dairy foods, herbs in 82. 83. 90. 91

garlic

Garlic Bread 88 powder 90 garlic salt 90 Garlic Soup 78

.

22

Botanic Beer 89

Dandelion Wine 89 De A rboribus coniferis 42 1

De Caum Planlarum

Gazpacho

-'/

77 Genera Plantarum 24 generic name 34. 141 Gerald of Cremona 20 Gerard, John 21, 22. 50

Simplicibw 19

I),

bouquet garni 7-,, 77 bouquet simple 75 British Herb Tobacco' 102

diabetes

bronchitis

digestive system 54,

2 94

garnishing, herbs for 90. 91 gastric hyper-acidity 59

7

decoction 44. 64. 65 De Materia Medica 18. 21. depressants 63

Botanologia 24

f>i

1

~)8

diarrhoea, herbs to treat 60, 67 digestion 44 ;/.

55,

7;.

germination 41 -,8

60,

58

Gill

Tea iq8

Herb Omelette Herb Rice

face

cytoplasm 40

bitter tonics

1

1

herb honeys 88

oil 108 Culpeper, Nicholas 22. sj

19

soil-conditions 120, 32 -9 stocking a garden 1 19 window -boxes 121. 122

fragrant herbs 76

counter-irritants 63 Critica Botanica 24

1

siting 115

Fragrant cleansing lotion 107 Fragrant herb pillow 97

bitters

\ature 2

1

selecting plants

Forcemeat 85

gall-bladder disorders 60 gargles, herbs in 68

of

knot gardens 123, 124, 125 paths 16 perennials 39, 120, 132 9 plans 118. 122. 123. 124. 126 plants for walls and pavings 120

propagation and cultivation 125. 132-9

Flour of Mustard 163 flowers, structure of 34, 56 fly papers 102 Foot powder 106

Cynar 89

Book

90. 91

95

biosynthesis 42

Body powders 195 bonne- femme soup 245

151 39

1

1

-1,

Conjunctivitis, herbs to treat 67

corolla 36 cosmetic herbs 76. 103-1 13 cotyledons 36 coughs, herbs to treat 61, 67. 76

84

herb gardens 1

103

fever-allaying herbs

flavonoids 42.

Herb Dredge

1

birdlime 102

bleeding, herbs to treat 66

2

annuals 20, 132-9 beds 16 biennials 120, 132-9 container growing 120, 122 edging plants 120 for blind people 122 hedge plants 20 herbs for cooking 75 91. 123

Gale Beer 226 Galen 8, 18, 19, 49

59 blackhead removers 107 101 Black ink

1

1

curry powder 82, 90 cuts, herbs to treat t>7

43

herbal tobaccos 102 herbaria 130, 131, iji

herb bouquets 75 Herb butter 84

fixatives

1

Herbal butter-milk cleanser 107 John Gerard 21

Europe, early medic ine '1 exocarp 36 expel torants 6l, 67 expression of essential oils 13

fertilizers

1

1

ferns 32

leaf 36 88, 90, 91

to

1

lattoush salad 245

mj

compost accelerators

to

1

facultative parasn

59

1

1

harvesting herbs 129. 132-9 headache, herbs to treat 68 head lice, herbs to repel

411

06 reams 108 face masks 107

corm 35

bacteria 31 baking, herbs used in 82. 83. 86, 90, 91

bath

nllc

1

heart diseases 56 58 hedge plants 20 herbal baths 04

face cleansers

collecting herbs from the wild 128

1

harmine 63 harmol 63

Eye baths 105

Coles, William 22 c

I

arrhythmia 57 arteriosclerosis

1

I

,

hair rinses

1

antispasmodics gg anti-tussive agents tu Anti-wrinkle lotion 109 apothecaries 22, 50 appetite, lack of, herbs to Ileal 66 earls

i,

1

halitosis,

1

lassilu alion 33.

hair 109, log hair and scalp conditioners

12

essential oils

211

71

61

plants

1

42, 102

hair dyes

1

cleaning agents 93 leansing lotions 107

anti-cough agents 67, 76 antidepressants 63 anti-emetics 59 antiseptic herbs 66, 76 ( >

1

cirrhosis 60 e

108

epiphytes 39

/

Guild of Grocers 71 Guild of Pepperers 23.

herbs to treat 68 hallucinogens 47. 63 halophytes 38

1

7

Hager-Handbuch 259 Hahnemann. Samuel 51

ephedrine 61, 63 ephemerals 39 epigeal germination 36

6c

s

in

23. 50.

guayacan 199

haemolysis 42 80. 82. 83. 90. gt

mask

48

15.

Company, The

edging plants 120 egg dishes, herbs in

endocarp 36

|.o

37,

Grocer's

gynoecium 36

emetics 59 je>.

Grand Herbier 1 6 Grappa con ruta 257 Greece, medicine 11,

gums

113

Elderflower Wine 89

11, 13

c

1

3c),

'17

.)<>

cholagogues 60 holcc \siitis 60

246

Egypt, medicine to. 14. 48 Ehrlich, Paul 54 Elderflower Fritters 86

sail ejn

hloroplasts

glycosides 42, 60. 62 glycyrrhizin 59

Ebers Papyrus 14, 71, 263 Eclectic Materia Medica 262

emphesyma

hive

1

Gooseberry Fool 86 Goulash 79

21,

Eggplants with Herbs 81 Egg white and cucumber

13

c

Ancient 'spice' perfume 113 androecium \i<

annuals, herbs antagonists 63

_fo

chili

til,

Dodoens, R.

Eau de Portugal

76

90

plant 30. 40.

chilblains, herbs 10 treat

anaesthetics 63 analgesics 63

glues 102

>

8.

81

12

1

diuretics 57, 76 division, classification of plants 34 Doctrine of Signatures 19. 22

'

Chicken Legs Hunter's Style 78 Chicken Paprika 79 Chicken with Rosemary 78

oil

Gingerbread 87 Ginger Jelly 86 Globe Artichokes

7

druids 49, 49 dr\ ins; herbs 43, 74» I2 9- 3°- '3°> '33- '35. '37- '39 dy es 93 99. lo ° : dyspepsia, herbs to treat 68

cardiovascular system 56 carpel 36 catabolism 53 celery salt

ale 90, 91

Almond

20

Capillaire 143

16

15, 16,

19,

gin 89, 209 1

drugs, administration of 54 drugs, effect of 54

Abulcasi* ig

Aesculapius

25

Diodes Carystius

mask

108

herbs

80

81

see also

herb gardens

collecting from the wild 128

cooking 75-91, 123 cosmetic use 76. 103 -13 cultivation

15-39 drying 43, 74. 129. 130. 130. 132-9 dyeing 93. 99. 100 fragrant herbs 76 1

freezing 74 harvesting 129, 132-9 pests and diseases 128

pot-pourris 95

Herb Sauce

85 herb sugars 88 herb teas 44. 75. 82. 83. 90. 91 Herb Vinegars 82. 83. 86. 90. 91

Herb wines

89. 90. 91

Herophilus 17 Hippocrates 16. 16. 48 Hippocratic Oath 16

Mint and Grapefruit

Historia .Vaturalis 18

by Ray 223 Plantarum, by Theophrastus

Hisloria

17

monoecious plants 36 mordants 99 morphine 25, 42, 51. 233

Huang-ti 13 112. 113

mosses 32 moth bags 99 moulds 32 Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer 89 mucilages 42

hypogeal germination 36

Mushrooms

hypotensives 57

Mustard

Ibn Baitar 49

Mycophyta 32 myrica wax 226

mushrooms 32 a la Grecque 84 Dressing 85

Mss. Appolonius 17

identification of plants 44 Ignis sancti Antonii 76 1

mhotep 14, 14 ndia. medicine 13 ndigestion, herbs to treat 59. 68 nflammauons. herbs

to treat

68

Jarmo

Oatmeal

10

jaundice 60 H'orlde 24

olivette

234

<>il

lamina

herbs

lar\ ngitis,

ureal

t<>

me

Big

48

..1

1

1

.1

parasites 30

Lemon Verbena

scented ink

pedii

lichens 42.

Linden n in

I

; j.

10

1

j

1

2 1.

liqueurs, berbi

31

4.

.'

el

Ii

pei fumes,

5I)

liverworts 32

pi 111

;li

London Pharmacopoeia 50

peristalsii

Lonitzer'l Kreuterbufh

Pesto 85

/',

.11 |i

and

pests 12

Magnus. Alberius

-"•

'

<

u-

petioli

1

it-

1

j6,

1

38

ation

"i

113

diseases ol herbs ihj, 128

aweeds (

sessile leal

mi rin 111.1I hei Ii medii inc men Menei rata 18

physii gardens 23,

")

ph\

-

)i|

1

in'

11

1

em

|ilnitns\ nthesis

6l {

pilin

6

1

microscopical examination of plants

I

-

«

,

1

r » »

1

.ilisin

ilii

.Hies

'.i" 7

1

•

i

Pi

|.|..

•

4

1

1

;'

(5

mile 40

vegetable dishes, herbs in 81, 82, 83, 90, 91 vegetative organs 53 veterinary medii ine 103 \ Hilai 63

»»

mm

|6

shellfish,

1

simple

1

vir.il inlci

.11

1

herbs to go with 9

leal

|)

/,

cell

plan)

1

plant

}o

1.

1

and

plan

I

i"

1 1

-,

1

lion

I12

niilii 11

press

lodium algjnati

ation

1

1

;

.n

1

69

von Liebig, Justus 3 \ on Megenberg, Koni

ai

Warburg's Fevei

ture

;

soil-conditions

on 3

1

planl siriK Hires 34

foi

1

window -boxes \\ in

1

ini

London

!

14

121.

1

estershire saui e

Worshipful

1

herbs 120. 13a

I

1


1

Society 23. 2

\,

22 1

90

ol

Apothecaries

ol

31

138

1

1'

1

ion

I111 lis

Whole Wheat Herb Bread 86

1

i"

ation

laasifii

i'l'

omiting,

j

leep-indui ing herbs 76 imoking mixtures 102 snulls 34. 02 Soap balls 105

11 1.

plan)

\

Simple scented powder 106

181

plant null of

(13.

.11

valepotriotes 63 Vanilla sugar 88

1

shampoos 109

30

pisti

ii

mildi

Ministry

1

Pimpernel water di<

m lati

mi tabolism

\

seeds, slim line nl

Pickled Mackerel 80

\

mid. 11

sedatives

4

I

(»8

ulcers 59 unorthodox medicine 48

\

1

41

methyl sain

-in -1111

Piccalilli

mcvii arp mesoph ytes 38 M> lopotamia mi inii.ilx.il

(7,

I

tussie-mussiea

I

1

1

jo,

;

3

phloem

let

-,

1

a

1

oikI.im meristem

mead, berbi in 89, 90 9 237 medies al medii inc 9, pi

65

I>2

opolamini

si

20

iropane alkaloids 59 tuber 33 iirkc\ Red 254 Turkish lamb 79 iirner, William 2

Sea-Bream with Fennel 80 ea s.ih (>8

sepal

1

rrie
.

histor) of 24

transpiration 35

savour) butters 75 si aids, herbs to treat 69 si ented notepapei 109

-

>»

sjiii is.

Trattato de Prestilentia

7

ti

Philosophiea Botanica 24

uana

toxic dose 57 trade of herbs and

()l

)2.

saproph)

teed dispi

i

toothache, herbs to treal 106

Tooth powder

g6

tranquillizers 63

phai in.ii opoeia \u pharmacopolist!

tii

waters I 13 tonics 56, 59, 69, 76 toilet

1

Marigold Wine 89

iikini

pharmai olog)

tincture 44 tisanes 44. 75

.1

1

phai

materia

1

238 Anthony's Fire 7*1 s.ilr of food .Hid Drugs Act 1873 Salmon. William 2 1. 32

si

j

31

thorn 35 Tinctura antiperiodica 191

herbs in 82. 8

\t

111.11

Thompson, Samuel

Tragus, Hieronymus 21

Mai-Bowl< Manilas 7 1

35

Sage and Onion Stuffing 85

1

petal

2

1

17, 31. 71

therapeutic dose 37 the rouge 231

238

mis in-

laasifii

1

pi n. mill

1

^>

11 11 1.1

11

The Englishman's Flora 258 The \ames of Herbes 260

'1

Al,

I

1.

j

36 thalamus 36

Theophrastus

Si

1

ii

(ration 44,

50

1

<•>

liver diseases 58

111.11

e

pen olation 44 H Is. berbi 2 perfumer)

1

Linnaeus. Carl

\

pepperi orn rent 71

ea 273

hi

'

1

13.

u

rii.i

testa

257

k

Sage

in

t;

pedum

simplui medinnn 20

I.iher dr

1

.

Pea Soup 77

101

ushlights

s.l,

Ii

lepra

1

i

P.lfsll

9

i

terminal bud 54

Rome

lent

Irdicinae 2

passiflorini

Leech Book oj Bald

tendril 35 /

Rosehip Soup 86 rosella hemp 201 Rosemary herb pillow 97

101

pancakes 270

herbs in 44. 75, 82. 83, 90, 91

teas,

1

Ant

s.n In Is 113,

I

tansies,

|g

4

1

tee

I'. 11 kitisnn. John 32 Parsley and Garlic Eggs 80 ,

37

talcum powder 105

I

Para< elsus 22

1

33.

tannins 43

root-gatherers 15 Rosa Angina 2

1

lavender bags 97 lavendei doiliei 97

nergism

tahini 263

root, structure of

paper-making

v.it

eda

I

Rome

(Ii

lateral root 34

l.i

s\

rhizotomists

I

Lavender Powder 106 Lavender-scented pomander beads 98 Lavender Water 113

quinine 25. 51

Rhazes 19. 4(1 rheumatic fever 56 rhizome 35

1

pain-killing herbs 63, 76 Pamphilos 18

bud 34

lateral

sweet dishes, herbs in 86. 90, 91 sweetmeats, herbs in 88. 90. 91

1

\<,

<>

of Hungars's water 234 quinidiiu 37

union

o\.ir\

34, 35

Queen

respiratory system 60 2,60

g

36

suppressants, herbs 67 sweat-inducing herbs 76

74

1

Onion Kuchen 87 sail

style 36,

reserpinc 37, 63 respiration 4

ovules 36

Lacnunga

strewing herbs 95 strychnine 51

137. 139

receptor theory 54 Regimen Samtatis Salerno 20 reproductive organs of plants

facial 108

orthodox media

2

89, 167

stomach soothing herbs 76 stomata 30 'Strassburg Turpentine' 142

radicle 36 receptacle 36

40

ell

1

(

Krtuterbueh

stolon 35

S\rupus de Mcconio Mesuae 233

Oregano Flan 80 Organs Tea 22

7

stipule 34, 35

stigma 36 stimulants 63. 76

77

Orange-flower water 113

khcllinbi knot gardens 123, 124. 125

poudre de chipre 106 poultice 64. 64, 65 primary meristem 41 primary metabolism 41 primary root 34 Primrose Tea 247 propagation 126, 133. 135.

stem, structure of 35 steroids 42

Sweet and Sour Tomato Salad 84

oil

juleps 88

stamen 36 steam distillation 44

Pun-tsao-kang-muh purgatives 59

obligate parasites jo of Serpolei 27 2

21

1

pomanders 95 Poppyseed Sauce 84 Porgy with Fennel 80 pot-pourris 95-6 Potted Shrimps 79 Poudre a la Mousseline 106

Pulque 14b

nucleus,

kummel

spice trade 24, 71. 72 spike lavender oil 21

13

1

Nettle Beer 89 by William Turner 21 nicotine 63 Night cream 109 Nikander 7 node 34 nomenclature 31, 141 nosegays 95

1

spice sugars 88

polypharmacy 49

1 ,

sublingual drug administration 34 suppositories 54

Jackson, Lewis 32 jams, herbs in 90, 91

kr. M ins

pollution 128

Plantarum 3

specific epithet 34, 141

psychotherap) 47

Norwegian Caraway Soup

internode 34

Meat Founde

Species

stuffings 85. 90, 91

1

nsect repellents 69, 1 03 nsomnia. herbs to treat 69

Joyfull .\ewes out of the

plumule 36 pneumatophores 38

81

34 34

prothallus 33 Pseudo-Apuleius herbal 48

.\'ew Herball

nfusion 44, 64, 65 nks 101 nsect bites, herbs to treat 69

John of Gaddcsden

species, classification

nausea, herbs to treat 69 Last, agriculture 10 nervous system 62. 62. 63, 63

Near

nfluenza, herbs to treat 68

Rosmarino

Spaghetti

Pliny 18. 71

pomade

hvbrids 34, 141 hydrophytes 38 hyoscine 42, 59 hyoscyarhine 63 hypertension 56 hypnotics 63

Malthaeus 20

Platearius.

1

homeopathy 51 Horehound candy 219 Horseradish Sauce 84

Hungary Water

Cflcktail 84

Mithridates 7. 48 modern medicine, history of 25 Modern washballs 105 Monardes, Nicholas 24

Historia plantarum.

,

/

1

1.M..

11

herb

Sorrel Soup 78 Soused Fish 80

to

ti

eai '",

Yeast face \\

l(

in

;
mask

57,

108

41

295

Index of plants Page illustrations.

numbers in Italia refer to Page numbers in bold tvpe

refer to the entry in the reference section.

Amadou

142 Abies alba cv. Columnar xlba c\ Compacta

Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. 151 Amaranthus retroflexw 15: 1

Amber

42

Abies balsamea Marshall 244

abrotonon 260 Absinthe 158 Acacia see Acacia Senegal Willd. 112. 142. 212

Acacia catechu

L.

Gum

142

Acacia

Acacia Senegal

Willd. 101, 102. 142

L.

Acanthus mollis L. 142

acchannum

Acet

•;/

Achillea millejolium L.

107.

104.

103,

132. 143

10.

1

102,

ackeley 154

Aconite 143

Acomlum I

napellus

L

143. 154

2(1

L

Acorus calamus

59, 95, 117. 08.

[02,

13a,

•43 Actaea racemis longtssimw

Adder's Tongue 230 Adiantum capilluAdonis annua 144

1

7

1,

143

I

<

Aethusa nnapium

AJramomum

144.

I..

2

{6

Agai

156

Armeria maritime

Willd. 156

Mill.

Centaurv

Artemisia 98. 120. 122 Artemisia abrotanum L. 95. 158 Artemisia absinthium L. 88. 103. 132. 158 Artemisia dracunculoides L. 132. 158

=,q

Cranesbill 196

Ginseng 233 Linden 273 Liverwort 152 Mandrake 242 Pennvroval 221, Sea Lavender 5b Sloe 280 L'pland Cotton <j8 Valerian 63. 181 \\ hite Hellebore 278 White Pond Lil\ 228

Artemisia dracunculus

Wormseed

Asaraban

Acanthus

Artist's

Arum

1

L

75. 132. 158.

agno ast< Agnus ( a^tu* 282 Agnmonia 60 Agrimoma eupaloria c

189 a 160

Beile Pepper

asaro;

Betonica

Asarum canaden- I. 159 Asarum europaeum L 160

Betony 52. 69. 89.

Maton 285

Asclepias tuber osa L.

Ash

160

52.

1

6b.

officinalis

Asparagus

officinalis

subsp.

Asparagus

officinalis

subsp. prostralw ibi

161

06

151

Beauv

L.

Ailanthus alli^ima

A)uga replc

.

188

146

Anemone acuttpetala Hon i-,i Anemone alpina I. 151 Anemone alpina subsp. sulphurta

Seingle 146

Mill.

I03.

akalyphe 276

161

<jb.

see /satis

tmctoria

~ 1

2i>.

Anise

I20.

iq.

122.

/->/.

132.

22,

2

1

2

}.

anisoi

Birthwort 156 Bishops-weed 144 Bistort 66,

Biting Stonecrop 262

(

roi us

177

172

Cavara

L.

Hoffm.

75, 132. 153

rusticutn 144

Allium cepa L. 100. 103. 132. 148 Allium satnum L. 62. 75. 103. 132. 148 Allium schoenopr asum L. 74. 75. 103. 132. 149 Allium tuberosum 149 Allspice 77. 80. 82. 90. 95. 96. 102. 239 Almond 15. 107. 108. 109. Ill, 248

Alnus glutinosa Gaertn. 149. 192 Miller 60,

97. 101, 104. 105.

1

10.

L

5<-|.

162

13

Balsamodendron opobalsamum

BaKam Poplar Bamboo 93 Band Plant

see

Kunth 244

Populus candicans

Vine a major

set

banillen 278

Banjawi 267 barbe de bout 273 Barberrv 60. 162. 218 Barlev 10. 101 202 Barnacle Tree, fabled Barometre 167 .

Blackcurrant 82. 252 Black Cutch 142 Blackeye Root see Tamus communis Black Haw 280 Black Hellebore 53. 201. 278 Black Horehound 69. 162 Black Indian Hemp 154 Black Lovage 265 Black Mulberrv 225 Black Mustard 163. 264 Black Pepper yj. 82. 241 Black Peppermint 223 Black Radish 251 Black Root 280 Black Sampson 184 Black Snakeroot 173 Black Walnut 1. 208 Bladder Cherrv 237 1

tree 52

82. 84. 85. 8b. Basil 30. 38. 68. 69. 75. 7 9. 8 90.98. 104. 105. 119. 120. 122. 123. 127. 1

.

1

Bladderwrack 192 Blazing Star 214 Blessed Thistle 120. 176. 264

Aquilegia ;ulgaris cv. Alba Plena 154 Aquilegia lulgaris cv. Flore Pleno 154

aquilinae 154 Arabian Coffee 177

Bav Laurel 39 Bav Tree 71. 73.

Arachis hypogaea L. 108. 109. 154

90,95. 104. 106. 134. 211 Beans 10. 37. 82. 83 Bearberrv 155 Bears Breech 142

Bluebell 102. 129 Blueberry 277 Blue Bothem 168 Bluebottle 168 Blue Cohosh 168 Blue-Devil see Echium vulgare Blue Flag 207

Arbutus 185 Arbutus unedo L. 155

255

Black Brvonv bb. 269 Black Cohosh 134. 173

22

1

Alnus glutinosa

see

Blind Nettle 210 Bloodroot 67. 69. 138. 259 Bloodwort 201

araruta 219

Aloe lera L. 149

Balsam

Alder

Bla< kberrv 68. 75. 77. 89. 104.

229 basilikon phuton 229 Bavberrv 67. b9. 226

Araco aromatico 278

Aloe perryi Baker

(entaurea nanus

let

Balm of Gilead 67. 69, 244 Balm of Mecca 244 Balmonv bo. 171

Aphanes arsensis agg. 153

Aloe 60. 145. 149

Blai k

.

68. 69, J 76, 82. 88. H 120. 122. 123. 127. 136, 197, 222. 22^

Gaerm. 153 L.

Orange 175

Bittersweet 168. 265 Bitter Wood of Jamau a 248 Bitter Wood of Surinam 238

1

22C1 1

243

1

haris

Ballola

29.

166 Fennel 191 Bitter Milkwort

Balm

apiastrum 222 apium 236 Apium crispum Mill. 236 Apium graitolens L. 154 Apium petroselinum L. 236

apium

<

Ballota nigra

.

Apocynum cannabmum L. 154 Apple 67. 68.82. 83. 108 Apple Mint 123. 224 Apricot 15. 82. 83 Aquilegia vulgaris L. 154

triphylla Brill

90

239

anvsum 239

& Grande

bat

Almond 248 Ash 238

Bitter

ae lauri 21

bachbung.

Bitter Bitter

I

Bitterc res*

ballot'

Anthriscus cerejolium

•47 Allium ascalomcum L. 148

s

bak

Anogeissus latijolia 102

Alliaria officinalis Bieb. 148

bai

123,

I

Bitter

.,,,.

126,

Anise

Antennaria dioica

algae 31. 32 Alkanet 111,1 20. 147 Alkanna tmctoria Tausch. 147 Al Kenna 2 12 al-kharsuf 181 Bieb.

see

107, 161

162

Avens t>7 197 \\ncddo 108

anisum 230 anneson 239 Annual Marjoram 230

1

2i,U

12=,.

18. bo. b7. t>8. 69, 76, 82. 88.

Aniseed

147

Alehoof 34. 1Q7 Alexander* 95, 120. 265 Alexandrian Senna 167 Alfalfa 73. 220

jirr,x

123.

277

Autumn

Bachelor's Button

102. 106. 120. 20b.

Alder 37, 67. 149. [92, 2.1= zyj Alder Buckthorn 60. 67. 192

Alliaria petiolata

I

(17.

Birch 66. 93. 100, 162 Birch wort 156 Bird Pepp<

161

\

I

angiosperms 33 Angostura 194

1

Alchemilla recutita 104 Alchemilla vulgar. gjj

Alecost 82. o

Bilberrv

auril ula muris 2112

trill'

I

Alchemilla alpina L. 147 Alchemilla mollis 48

•49

.

<->• 153 127, Angelica archangelica L. 88. 103. 132. 153

2=,(i

Alchemilla

Aloe

11

I

rose' 150

Mace 172 tripartita L 163

Bigarade 175 see Citrus auranlium var. amara Bigarreau Cherries 248 Big Barlev 202

.

Alrupa belladonna

1

.146

i

161

258

atrix

bevondsea Bidens

officinalis

Asthma Weed 189

1

266

Bible-leaf

L

jrbata Ib2

7b. 80. 90, 146.

(17.

Agroprron reptns

akte

1

160

Asparagus 82. 83. 161 Asparagus

9V

266 102. 138.

Betula lenta 195 Betula pendula Roth. 162

R Dahlgr

Burm.hl.

Asperula odorala L. \sp-ol-)i rusalem

L.

officinalis

Betula 93. 100

192. 238

7. (17.

nthus linearis

Anemone hepalna 1. 152 Anemone Pulsatilla L. 152 Anemone Pulsatilla var. alba Anemone Pulsatilla var rubra 152 Anethum graveolens L 74. 75, 1,2. 152 Angelica 38. 66. 67. 6 82, 88.

L. 89, 146

Piper belle

see

Amnmum

nsnaga 61 cardamon L 185 •r,um compadum Soland ex Amomum Zerumbeih 28^ Amomum zingiber I. 285 Ampelos agria z6g

catechu

betODJca 266

Amm

.

Agnmonv

263

Bethlehem Sage 120

Anemone

145

Bergamot Mint 223 Betel 240 Betel Leaf 240 Betel Nut 112. 156 Betel Palm see Areca

Bethroot 274

Agaricus 191 Agathosma betultna 1.

244

I

Astragalus gummijer 98. 102. 110

AgOVt ameruana

75. 76. 82. 88. 90. 95. 96. 97. 102. 106, 113. 120. 122. 127. 136. 225

L. 159. 244

athanasia

145

Bergamot

Acanthus mollis

see

A ndropogon ,7

Bere 202

Betel Plant 156

Asa dulci* \-al< tida

197

Berberis vulgaris var. atropurpurea 162

159

Arum maculatum

171

Herb

Berbens vulgaris L. 60. 162

Artemisia redouskti 158 Artemisia lulgaris L. 52. 132. 159 Artie hokr bo. 66, 82. 83. 88. 181.

1

04

Benzui 267

219

10.

1

Benedict's

Atropa belladonna

set 1

tripartita

Benjamin 267 Benne 263 Benzoin 108. 109. 267

Arrowroot

Anchiiso officinalis 111. 147

Pillans

Scherb.

Bittersweet 168

Agar-Agar 195 Agaru 191 Berg

&

Arnica angusli/olia 157 Arnica montana L. 102. 157

Hypericum prforalum

.

Agave 145

Belladonna

Beilis perennis

Aloe 145

.

miliguita Rose. 145

Aristolochia serpentana L.

armoracia 157 Armor acta rusticana Gaertn. Mev •57 Arnica 66. 102. 115. 120. 15-

Amygdalus communis L. 248 Anacardium occidentale L. 151 Anagallis aquatu Anagalhs aritn^K I. 151 08 Ananas salnus 101

Aescutus hippocastanum L. 144

Beetroot 82. 83 Beggar's Buttons 155 Beggar Ticks see Bidens Belene 203

Anstolochia clematitis L. 156

ampelos melana 269 amugdalr 248

emails L. 144 Aegopodium podagraria L. 144 indium podagraria variegalum 144

Adonis

Argentaria 245 Argentina 245

151

see

American American American American American American American American American American American American American American American American

bechion 275 beckpunge 279 Bedstraw 67. 100. 194. 256 Bee Balm 225

Areca Nut 156. 240

191

Amaranth

ilba cv. Pendula

Arctium lappa L. 89. 107. 155 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. Spreng. 155 Areca catechu L. 156. 240

.

Aaron's Rod 278 Abata Cola see Cola acuminata :!ba Mill.

'

Alpine Anemone 151 Alpine Lady's Mantle 147 Alpine Plantain 67 Alpine Windflower see Anemone alpina Alpima officmarum Hanre 59. 150 Althaea officinalis L. 59. 60. 150 Althaea rosta L. Ca\ 150 Althea 150 Althea Rose we Althaea rosea

136. 169.

75. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 84. 1

13.

1

20.

1

21. 123.

27

Gum

Lungwort

Pulmonana

see

Cactus 226 Cajuput Tree 220 Calabar Bean 237 Calahualae 244 Calamint 120. 132. 164

Centranthus

Calamintha ascendens Jord. 164

Cephaelis ipecacuanha

Calamus

Ceratonia siliqua

officinalis

Rocket 143 Sailors see Cichorium intybus

Weed

Bog Rhubarb 235 Bokhara Clover 221

Calluna vulgaris Caltha palustris

Boletus laricis Jacq. 191

Borage 67. 68,

76. 82. 88. 90.

1

19. 120.

L. 88. 132. 163

officinalis

Bosuellia serrata 63

Bottlebrush 186

Buxus sempenirens

Bra'sica nigra

Capparis \pinosa 75. 165 Capsella bursa-pastons L

Koch

L.

75,

163

Capsicum 166 Capsicum annuum L

Braunella 247 Brauneria anguslijolia 184 Breakstone see Aphanes anensis

Agai

M\rrh 227

Cardamtne

.iidamom 68. Cardoon 181

^8. 93,

1

Cardttui sanctus

1

22.

196. 256.

103

Brunei! 11-' ii-

<

ommune

Bin

(

(

hinese

(

(

hinese Lantei n 237

at

\\

32.

1

Herb

-

\\

<

ai rot

(

.1

Sagrada

.1

Bean

01

astoi

Im

Bullet Gall 101

(

asuarina 37

Bull's Ears

(

an

Bunny

Calharanlhus roseus

278 Bars 278

Burdot k 'i'i -<>. Hi). 107. 155 Bui Mangold 163 Burnet

76, 8

11

;6

1

246

(

1

'

1

1

ai

ao

Ill

henhrnma COtOO

2

G Don

tao, 122. 127. 136, 1

'

' '

(

1

281

1

dai

../"/

95,

1

1,

<,H.

,

228

Mi< hx

|.

Celei

i'

)

tntaun

,1

77

27.

1

h Sii

166

pies

1

(

(

172. 195

146

154

103

I

I.

136

|6

168 169

8<|.

Basil

1

Ocimum

set

Bearberry

set

Bittersweet

m

basilicum

Arctostaphylos

«.•«-

Bonesel

lommon Bugle 146

Common ommon Common Common ommon Common

Calamint 164 (

lommi

lelandine 170

(

lentaury 169

(

Ihen

Laurel 248

s

Chicory

(

(

(.ilastms scandens

Eupatorium perfoliatum Buckthorn set lihamuus catharticus ><<

in

ommon Common

loflee

<

lomfi ey

177 1

Dandelion

(

Cichorium intybus

set

(

38 wi

/

aiaxtuum

n/ficinalt

Fig 190

('ommon Foxglove 183 lommon Hoik 205 ommon Hoik hoi k 150 Common Horehound set Marrubium

I.

21,2

Common 1

hi

10^.

a

st

n nu

Horse Chestnui

set

ruhjnn

lesculus hippo-

m

Common ommon Common (

Is |

200

s

unipei 209

Mallow 218

lommon Mas -apple 242 lommon Melilot 221 lommon Milkwort 243 ( lommon Mulbei 225 (

L

Nutt

(

134, 173

(

'

1

.

Cinnamomum c innamomum i|8.

68. 69. 73. 76. 8g. 104. 108.

29,

(

Cinnamon

1(18

Centaurium erylhraea Kaln

165

1

(

90

74 ( in, bona "Jin ninhs L. 174 Cinnamomum camphora Nees

168 '1".

hi

120,

275

20,

1

(

I

im

Endl. 177

lira

32. 149

Cichorium intybus var, Wittooj 173 11 ula 78

1

"ii.

Common Common Common

Cimicifuga racemosa

I.

84,

1

103,

|i

as ed Parsley

tana

168

78. 79, 82, 90,

3

sinndrns

7''.

hoisya term

1

Celastrus orbiculalus 168

Celery

(

138.

Common Com im >n

171

I.

78. 80, 82, 84, 90, 23.

el

38. 268 Commiphora molmol Engler tot, 106, 178 Common Alder 149 ( lommon Alkanet 147 ( ommon Anise see Pimpinella anisum Common Asparagus set Asparagus officinalis ( lommon Balm 222 Common Barberry set Berberis vulgaris

1

landine 170. 250 IU

1

Schotl

.

57

Columbine 154 Comfrey 66. 67,

olate 27

(at rls

Ht

1

22.

1

.

1

122,

173

Cichorium intybus L. 134, 173 Cichorium intybus sar Brunswick 173 Cichorium intybus sai Magdeburg 173

<|8. 1

1

.iiiliniim

Peppet 67, 72.

',

11

j

Ihoisya 93

Chun

'53

aiula equina

In

1

(

228

36,

(.rntaurrn munliiriii '/

I

I.

(.auliiphyllum Ihalutintiiis

(

Cabbs

60

142. 2

2.

I

34.

Chrysanthemum anemifolium 63 (.hnsanthemum halsamita I. 99, 172 inthemum cincrarii/ohum Vis 99, 103, 172 Chrysanthemum parthenium I. Bernh. 173 Beinh inthemum vulgart I. 69

nip 228

in

Broom 256

Butterbur 235 Butterfly Milk Weed 160 Butterfly \\>>d .. \sclepias tuberosa Butternut 208 Button Snakeroot 2 \ BUXUS srmperi irrns I. 164

'

>ai

'

Basil 22
Butt In

1

Catnep 104

1

Bush

Illl

.

Catmint 68.

Saxilra^c 240 Bui rage 163 Burr ( iar\ Bui

laatoi Oil

cassia

mi. 253

Plant

ill

(

(

1

Christophonana canadensis racemosa 173 Chry lanthemum 38

Rieinus communis

see

23,

hopnui let Physostigma enenosum Christmas Ros. 201

144, 168

Castanet lativa Mill

1

2-,o

75,

173

Colombo 208 Colombo Root

(

Vahl 167 In' Cinnamomum

Barl

I

06

Cole

Rhubarb 252 74,

34. 168.

Colchicum autumnale L. 177

niton ui8

til.

20.

1

anguilijolia

t

1

Ihinghai

jl>

'17

1

Ihinese

1

122,

pi

1

i

let Jattorhiza palmata Coltsfoot 21. 67. 68. 69, 76, 89. 102.

Chondrus crispus Stackh 1

,

a acutifolia

Ins es

Chionanthus virginicus

251

2 18.

m Nul 151 lassia / |g 60 95

1

(

2

120,

linnamon 174

Radish

( (

('Ins.-

in

.1

'

Meliliilus nlha

inn. 182

{.

167

(2.

1

60

.'

!

Bulbous Violet 193

-

H2. H

8
inum petriisthnum Benlh at sophs Hun .''hi

1

(

I.

1

17

\juga replant

.

<>8.

,-

'/1

-.1

146

see

1

at

2

eed 143

Bugle " rageen 172

lai |»

2~,2

ecd 146. 217

Bugloss 147. 184 Bukhara Clovei

1

(

1

20

1

1

(.mum inn

Bugbane 173 Bugle Bugle

mi

pentei

j.

2311

(

(

But kbean 39, m; 224 Bui kthorn \J. 251 Bu< kwheai 57, 75

(

'1

1

1

Ihinese

<

Bin barest K hubai ! Bin Iiii ,7 145

102

himalati 200 Ihinese Anise 206.

(

Ihinese

1

145

1

183

1

166


177

Cola Nut 68. 69. 177 Colchicum 177

Ink

(

1

Cohosh

20,

1

(

1

buboniou 19a

69, Hj,

ii)(.

s

arolina I'mk 266

1

Bryony 66, 103, 163. 269 Br sophs la 32

(

151

Cola acuminata Beaus

267

66, 68.

1

Coffee 177

(-'

-•

aroiella

2 \~

82. 83 o j. 163 (\

Pea

k

Chili Peppers

13.

02 Agrimonia eupaloria

cocum 237

7

1

coca

Coconut Palm 35. 95. 176 Cocoj nucifera L. 95. 176 Cocowort see Capsella bursa-pa

>" Saliconda europaea

(

(

dioica Ja<

Im

1

1

see

Coflea arabica L.

(

.'-,li

Brunch Sprouts

Gum

arob

Cocklebur

Cocoa-Plant 109. 271

76

1

(

Cochlospermum gossypium

Cockscomb

Chickweed

-

264 Cocaine-Plant see Erythroxxlum Coca Leaf 187 Cochlearia armoraaa 75, 157

96

Chicken-Claws

71.

1

I. 69, 167 Carlinc histle 167 ( arnation 95, 96, 97, 10a, 105,

260

274

Brown Muitard

185. 283

<|o.

'

Club Moss 216

Chervil 75, 78. 79, 82, 90, 126, 127. 132, 153 ( Ihestnui 144. 168

166

I.

-

Cnicus benedutus L. 176.

Chcrrs 61. 8.-. 83, 248 Cherrs Bas 248 Cherry Laurel 248

89

(arlinn maulis 120.

16.

Binussonelia papirijrra 101 n Belh

8k

-

Chelbenah 190

(

1

-

Chenopodium bonus-henricui

167

32.

1

81. 82. 87. 88.

Carduus benedutus

Cloves 49. 68. 69. 82. 85. 86. 88. 89. 90. I2 '3- a6 9 95- 9 6 97- 9 8 '°5- lo6 see also Sy-ygium aromaticum Clo\ e-Tree 269

1

'67

25,

pratensis

<

Bronze Fennel 191 Brooklime 279

27.

1

1

1

119.

«7"

79, 82.

76

25,

1

( laraway Seed can out 179

Brombn m

Brunelle

23.

1

Broad Beans 82. 83 Broad-leaved Do< k ..'-," Broad-leased Saye 2 r-,H

Broom

66. 68

ill.

Chenopodium 20 Chenopodium album L. 128. 54. 171 fodium ambrostoidis var. anthilmintium

166

13

1

Chelidonium majus L. 170 Chelone glabra L. 60. 171

166

I.

DC

Carawa\

110.

109.

1

Capsicum microcarpum (.apsuum minimum 166

Briar 253 brionia ni^ra 269 British

Medic. 166

166

urn fruteSCCni

Breakstone Paroles 153

British

Cheiranthus 95.

Caper Bush 165

Brassica juncea 163

107.

104.

Chaste Tree 52. 282 Chaulmoogra 270 Chaiica siriboa Miq. 240 Checkerberry 195 Cheese Rennet 194 Cheeses see Malta sylvestris

Cape Aloe 149 Cape Gum see Acacia Senegal Caper 72. 75. 82. 90. 165

brahmi 203 Brake Root 244 Bramble 255 Brank Ursine 142

103.

Charitx 243 Charlock 250. 264

Cannabis indica L. 165 Cannabis satiia L 165

10,

Clove Pink 76. 90. 134. 183 Clover 35. 103. 13. 221. 274 Cloveroot see Geum urbanum

68. 69. 75. 76. 89. 90.

120, 122, 127. 134. 170. 220

1

r

see

134.

chapeau du diable 235

1

1

Boxwood

102.

1

175

12.

Clivers 194

chamaimelon 220 Chamomile 18. 67.

Cananga odorata 96. 06 Candleberry see Myrica cenfera Cane Apples 155 Cannabina aqualica 88 Cannabis 165

Bouncing Bet 7. 138. 260 Bowles Mint 123. 224 Bowman's Root 280 Box 23. 124. 127. 164 Box Holly 256 Box Tree 20. 164

89.

170. 220

Canadian Fleabane 186 Canadian Hemp 154 Canadian Snakeroot 159

122. 123. 127. 132. 163

Borago

Ach. 59. 170 Ceylon Cinnamon 175 Chamaemelum nobilc L. All. 59.

Link 175

L.

Cise see Allium schoenoprasum Clary 122, 127. 138. 258 Oars Sage 258 Claiiceps purpurea Fried. Tulasne 63. 176 Cleavers 68. 194 Clef de St Pierre 247 Clematis 122 Climbing Bitterssseet 168

Cetraria islandica [L.)

1

amara

95. 96. 97. 107, 108.

Cilrus sinensis 95, 97,

A. Rich. 59. 169

Brot.

Cervi spina 192. 251

Camphor 49 Camphor Tree 174 Canada Balsam 244

Boneset 67. 188 Bookoo see Agathosma betulina

1

Cereus grandiflorus Mill. 170

00 Calumba 66. 208

Boldu 236

Burm.

Cilrus limon

02

1

106

c.17.

Citrus auranlium var.

Cereus 170

Hull 93. 165

L.

DC. 169

L.

83

am milium

Citrus

1

Century 169 Century Plant 145

California Fern see Conium maculalum California Poppy 35

Gay 236

Boldoa fragrans

Citrus 82,

Centranthus ruber var. albus 169

L. 104. 108. 109. Ill, 164

officinalis

1

108

Citrullus lanatus

66. 69. 169

5 Centranthus ruber

132. 143

Calendula

Boldo 236

Br

Centaury 59, Centella 203

Eucalyptus globulus

see

184 Bocksbohnen 224 Bog Bean 66. 224 Bog Myrtle 226

Brow

cacauatl 271 cacho 142

Ginseng 168

Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue

1

cassia

Blumi

1

el

95,

Eberm 106, 174

teylanicum Nees 88, Bg 1

3.

Im

go 95 96

174

g

I

,

96

175 18, >if;

^5,81,82,84,87,^, 102,

1 1

3.

175

Common (

lommon lommon

M

(

)al

lommon

(

>x

Common

I

cum thapsus

227 Nettle 276 1

j

Common (

)

Mullein

Ii

tie

[01

p 247

lYons 232

;<)7

Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Common

Pigweed 171 Plantain

see

Plantago major

Polypody 244

Rue

see

Ruta graveolens

Sage see Salvia officinalis St John's Wort 204

Snowdrop

see

Tansy

101

t«

conferva 268 conifers 33

Conium maculatum L. 178 Consolidae maioris 268 Consolida Saracenia 266 ullaria ma/alis

L. 57, 95, 97.

113,

i

34,

178

Cool-Tankard see Borago Copal Tree 146

»79

123. '34-

sativum L. 88.

106, 134, 179

<»-,.

Cornflower 67. loj. 168. 169 Corn Poppy 233 Corn Salad 39. 120, 122, 123, 127. 158 corona regis 22 Costmar) 90,99, 120, i172 Cotton 101, 198 Cotton Lavender 99, 259 Cotton Root 198 Cotton Weed 53

dents

Dei

1

<1<

lion

1

83

Duns

-'.

malaccensii 103

Dianthus plumanus 95,

Parsnip 201 Cowslip 61. 66, 67.

Digitalis lanala 76. 82. 89.

120.

B26,

Digitalis lutea

Mate 20 Mandrake 163 1

Oak 250

m

Equisetum

103, 105,

97

113. 134. 183

183

(|t>.

57

Digitalis purpurea L. y>.

1^4. 183. jyi

1

1

'

Fagopyrum esculentum 57 Fall Crocus see Colchicum autumnale False Bittersweet 168 False Chamomile 220 False Hellebore 144 Fat Hen 28. 134. 171 Featherfew 173 February Daphne see Daphne mezereum Felon Herb 159 Female Regulator 262 Fennel 60. 67. 68. 69. 77. 74. 76. 79. 80. 82. 84. 88. 90.

104.

1

10.

120.

122. 123.

127. 134. 191

Fennel Wood 261 Fenugreek 66. 274 Fern-leaved Parsley 236 ferns 32. 115 Ferula foettda Re gel 189

Buhse 190

Ferula galbamflua Boiss. et

Slapl 185

Ferula rubricaulis Boiss. 190

Fevcrbush 205 Feverfew 115. 120. 122. 123. 173 Ficaria major 261

7,110, 186

1

Ficus Carica L. 190

Balm 197

Equisetum hyemale 93 Equisetum sylvaticum 100

Field Larkspur 183

Erba pagana 266

Field Pansy 281

Ergot 176 Ergot of Rye 176 erigeron 262

Field

Field

Poppy 233

Fig 67. 190

Figwort

Erigeron canadensis

57

Everma 00 Everma purpuracea Eionymus europaea 187 Eionymus europaeus 187 Eyebright 67. 102. 105. 189

1

Ephedra nebrodensis 185 Ephedra smica 185 Epigaea repens L. 185

103

Dianthus barbatus 96 Dianthus caryophyllus L.

Cow

English Holl\ 205 English Ivy iff Hedera helix English Laurel see Prunus laurocerasus

Ephedra equiselina 185 Wall.

Bn Scabious 268 Dewberr) ut Rubusjruh

Basil 169

Endymion nonscnptus 102 English Alder 149 English Hawthorn see Crataegus monogyna

Ephedra gerardiana

Devil's

67. 146

73

cnulc-campane 206 Ephedra 39. 61. 63. 185

103

is

1

English Primrose see Primula vulgaris English Rhubarb 252 English Violet set Viola odorala English Walnut jff Juglans regia

270

liplica

1

Cow

42. 161

Delphinium consolida L. 183 Delphinium Staphisagna L. 103. 183

1

Couch Grass

ajacis

276

67.

English English English

carota ssp. fativui 183

Everlasting 198 Everlasting Thorn 249

elifagus 258

English Lavender 211

carota ssp. carota 183

Evening Primrose 229 Evening Star 229 Evergreen Alkanet 147

1

Eleutherococcus senticosus 232

Elm

stramonium L. 39. 59. 182 carota L. 57, ion. 182

Delphinium

elelisphakon 258

Endive

Dense Button Snakeroot 214 Denla Leonis 270

Corn 109

1

270

Dead-Nettie 210 Deer's Tongue 214

84. 88. 90, 95, 106, 120.

120.258.259 206

10. 111.

62. 67. 120. 127. 134.

185 67. 68. 69

101

Deadk Nightshade

officinalis

Coreopsis 100

Coriander 68. 82.

Datura Daucus Daucus Daucus

90. 95. 100.

cardamomum 88 Elettana cardamomum var. mimscula Maton

Daphne 120 Daphne mezereum L. 182 Daphne mezereum var. alba West. 182 daphnoides 182 Date 67

Achillea millejolium

62. 184

#
Elettaria

82. 89. go. 100. 103. 104. 129.

Danube Weed iff

Euryale jerox Salisb. 228

Elettari 185

Danewort 258

Artemisia

absinthium

Cone Flower

Chrysanthemum

><»

cinerarifolium

Wild Cherry 248

Common Yarrow

Flower

Insert

1

European White Birch see Betula pendula European White Hellebore 278 European Wood Sorrel see Oxalis acetosella

Arctium lappa

see

104. 107. 108.

Elecampane

Daisv 104

Dalmatian P\rethrum 172 Dalmatian Sage 258 Damiana 275 Dandelion 35. 39. 57. 60. 66.

272 Tormentil 246 Valerian 277

Conundrum

Egyptian Onion 148 Egyptian Privet ;/;. 212 Elaterium Fruit 184

Dalmatian

see Tanacelum vulgare

Wormwood

182 Cypripedium pubescens Willd. 63. 181 Cytisus scopanus L. Link 260

Daikon 250

officinalis

Thvme

Wheat

Edible Burdock Eglantine 253

Elder 67. 69. 73. 76. 82. 86.

Galanlhus nivalis

Speedwell see Veronica Sunflower 200

Cypripedium calceolus L. 182 Cypripedium calceolus var. pubescens Correll

see

Scrophulana nodosa

ulmana L. 59. 89. 100. 104. 190 Finnocchio 191

186

I.

Ftlipendula

Cowslop 246

Digitalis purpurea var. alba 183

Eruca vesuaria L. 187 Eruca vesicaria ssp. saliva

Cramp Bark 280

Digitalis purpurea var. campanulata 183

Eruscus 256

Fir

Cranberry 277 Cranberry Bush set Viburnum opulus Cranberry Tree 280

Digitalis purpurea var. maculata 183

Ervatamia dichotoma 63 Eryngium maritimum L 187

Firelhorn 249 Flag 66, 67. 68. 95. 97. 98. 102. 132. 143

Eryngo 187

see also

Cranesbill 35. 66. 68. 196 Crataegus monogyna J acq. 57. 179. 273 Creeping Bugle 146

Dill

129. 246.

249

",7.

Dill 18. 60. 68. 6q. 73. 74. 75, 76. 79, 82, 86. 90. tig, 120. 121. 123. 127. 132. 152

Seed 152

Thvme

Honk 268

I.

272 Cress 122. 166. 79. 275 Crithmum maritimum L. 179. 257 Crocus 134. 177. 179 crocus indicus 180

Dipteryx odorala 102. iot>

Erylhrnxylum coca

Di\inr Flower

Km

Crocus sativus L. ill. 134. 179

Dog Poison sec Aethusa Dog Rose 69, 86, 253

Creeping

1

set

Dianthus caryophyllus

Dock 67. 89. 256 Dogbane 54 Dog Briar 253 cynaputm

Crowfoot 154

Drosera rotundifolia 61

Cubeb 241 Cubeb Pepper

Dryobalanops aromatica

74 Dryopteris filix-mas L. Schott 33. 184 Dryopteris spinulosa O. Kuntze 184 Dulcis amara 265

Cuckoo-flower 166 Cuckoopint 66. 159

Cucumber

66. 68. 82. 83.

103.

105.

107.

108. 109

Cucumis satuus 103. 105. 107. 108 Cucurbita Pepo var. ovijera 107

Cudweed

153 see also Gnaphalium uligmosum Culver's Physic see Veronicastrum iirgimcum Culver's Root 280

Cumin

15, 68. 71. 76. 82. 89. 90.

134. 180

Cuminum cyminum L. Curacao Aloe 149

89. 134. 180

120. 123.

Dver's

\<

ads 33

Weed 208 Woad see lsatis

Eau de Cologne Mint

123. 136.

Ecballium elaterium A. Rich

(.inara scohmus L. 6p, 88, 181

Echinacea 66

rvperus

298

i8r>

L. 181

Echinacea angusltjolia

Echium vulgare L. 184

europaeus cv. Burtonn 188

Eupatonum cannabinum L. 188

DC.

Hayne

223

184

62. 184

see

Sambucus nigra see

Solidago viragaurea

Holly see Ilex aquijolium Horse Chestnut see

Fluellen 279 Foemculum vulgare Mill.

74.

88.

103.

127. 134. 183. 259. 261

105. 189

Centaury 66. 69 Crowfoot 154 Elder

Ins germanica var. florentma

110.

Foenugreek 274 Fomes Jomentanus L. Fries. 191 Fomes officinalis Vittadini Bresadola 191 Fool's Parsley 144. 236 Forking Larkspur 183 Fountain tree of water, fabled tree 52 Foxglove 25. 26. 42. 52. 56. 57. 119. 120.

Eupatorium perfohalum L. 188 Eupatonum purpureum L. 188

Goldenrod

see

'34- >9«

Eurasian Chestnut 168 European Angelica 153 European Barberrv 162 European Birthwort see Anstolochia clematitis European Blackcurrant see Ribes nigrum

ebulus 258

officinale

L 187

euphrosinum 163

East Indian Rhubarb 252 East India Root 150

Plantago psyllium

Florence Fennel 120. 191 Florentine Iris 207 Flores stoechado- . Flowering Ash 192

europaeus cv. Aldenhamensis 188

European European European European European European

226

see

Fleur-de-Lis

104. 187

46 europaeus

Wood

Fleawort

europaea 187

Euphrasia rostkoviana

tinctoria

(.tnara cardunculus 181

Cjmoglossum

Euonymus Euonymus Euonymus Euonymus Euonymus

Club Moss 216

Flea

Euphorbia lathyrus 103 Euphorbia resimjera Berg. 182. 189 Euphrasia officinalis 102. 189

Dyer's Bugloss 147 Dyer's Greenweed 100. 196 Dver's Madder 120. 254

Curcuma longa L. Ill, 180 Curcuma Zedoana Roscoe 181 Curled Dock 256 Currants 82. 83 ( usparia Bark 194

63. 187

Nut 237

Euphorbia 189 Euphorbia heplagona L. i8q Euphorbia hirta L. 61. 189

Dwarf Elder 258 Dwarf Lavender 120. 123 Dwarf Mountain Pine 240 Dwarf Thistle 167 Dver's Broom 196

Dyer's

i

1

Durmast Oak 250 Dutch Parsley 236 Dutch Rhubarb 252 Dutch Rush 93 Dwale 161

curcuma 180

Lam.

Fir 33. 142

Ins versicolor 207 Flag Lily 207 Flanders Poppy 233 Flannel Plant jff Verbascum thapsus Flax tot. 120. 215 Fleabane 186 Flea Seed 242

Eugenia pimento D<

Double Chamomile 170

Cubebs 241

ir

Eucalyptus globulus Labill

Donke\'s Ears 278

Piper cubeba

186

Eucalyptus 67. 104. 187

Croton tiglium L. 180

see

II

esob 204 Esparto 101

1

Croton 180 Croton Seed 180

Tin

rr\simon 264 Erysimum officinale 264 Erwhrodanon 254

Dioscora tnllosa yi

Dipsacus tativus

Mill.

Aesculus

hippocaslanum

European Polypody see Polypodium vulgare European Spindle Tree 187 European Vervain see Verbena officinalis

Fox's Brush 169

Fragana vesca L. 107. 108. 191 Frangipani 106 Frangula alnus Mill. 192

Frankincense 267 Fraxinus excelsior

7

Fraxinus ornus L. 192

French Beans 82, 83 French Lavender 211. 259 French Lilac 193 French Rhubarb 252 French Sorrel 123. 231. 256 French Tarragon 86. 122. 132. 158 Fringed Lavender 211 Fringe Tree 171 Fucus vesiculosus L. 103. Fuller'^ Teasel 268

1

10.

192

Fumaria

Golden Ragwort 262 Golden Rod 66, 67. 69. 266 Golden Seal 66. 67. 68. 69. 202 Good King Henrv 171 Goora Nut 177

L. 193

officinalis

Fumitory

67. 193

fungi 30. 32

Galanga 150

Gooseberry 82. 83 Goosefoot 128. 171 Goosegrass 194 Goose Grass see Potentilla

Galangal 69. 150 Galanthus Elwesii Hook. 193 Calanlhui nivalin L. 193

Galbanum

190

Gale 226 Galega

L. 193 Galega officinalis var. albiflora Boiss. 193 Galega officinalis var. Harllandu Hon. 194 officinalis

galion 194 Galipea cuspana St Hilaire 194

1

Chervil 153 Heliotrope see Valeriana

officinalis

Garden Lettuce 210 Garden Marigold 164 Garden Mint 224 Garden Nasturtium 275 Garden Pans\ 282 Garden Purslane 245 Garden Sorrel 256 Garden Thyme 75. 272 Garde robe 158 Garlic 62. 66, 67. 68. 69. 74. 75, 77. yS. 79.

Gourds 10 Goutweed 144 Gractlaria confenoides 195

herba benedicta 197

Grains of Paradise 145 grana paradi--i 43

Herba chamaedryos Herba erysini 264 Herba fullonis 260

Ground

Gelidium 195 Gelidium amansn Kutz. 195 Gelidium carlilagmeum Gaill

Ground-nui 154

Mustard 147 Gaullhena procumbens L. 63. 195 Garlic

Km/

Bi uni

Sond 195

mn An

Gelsemium semper,

Gemeini

Ground Pine tee I.ycopodium Ground Raspberr\ 202

195

195

Genista 260

Genliana lului

y,

I.

96

76, 90, 95,

97, 103, n>»>. 181,

Geranium maculatum

102.

<|t>.

I.

robertianum

I.

196

.1

1

in. in

mini urbanum Ghatti (linn I

(,ill

Ovei

\1\ 1

'i".

<

//

1

Haruthorn

283

1

Parsley

I.

127.

i.

11

'

,

Healing Herb -• Symphytum Heal ( In 2)8 Hearteate 281 Heath< 93, 165 Hedeoma pulegioides I. Pen

ulirpnrn

ii

.in

llr al

hoke 60, illhin

I.

66, Ba, 83, B8, 181 -,<).

I98

1112

lull/lull/, I

Gnaphalium ditricum Gnaphalium mutticeps Wall

III

]i,V.

Hedge

Garlic

Hi dgi

II

'.niiiiii 1

Soldi

11

Marjoram

1

10

I'm ilane 245

raa,

2 <,

124

105,

tuckli

216

1

ill -.hi

hmi

I

op

hi

<

1

leel

12,

,

ut,

II nliarii

(

u< 67 68 6g

lo\

Hik kleben

I.

108, 110, 134,

200

h 202

\

n

22

1

Hi bin

11

I

I.

I

Join! In

1

202

I

Helleborui nigti sar

llellebnrus uneiiliilis 201

Hayne

201

Juglans " gia

I.

Warb. 270

,

iilrnr,

myi

I

I,

202 203 ;(, y

1

208

209

03,

ea Mustard 163 Junius conglomerate 9

Julian

king

208

I. 1 1,

ii<

Junipi

//,

,201 Altifotius

1

) li

'1

II

officinalis

Ephedra gerardiana

sii

Juglans nigra

//,
Hydrocotyli asialica

soi

Java liankmc ense 267 Jei a 90 never 209 Jerusalem Artichoke 82, 83 Jerusalem C lowslip 249 Jerusalem Sage tei Pulmonaria

20, 181

Hypericum mniulalum 100 Hypericum perforatum I. 100, 204 Hy poglosson 1 ;6 '• Hyssop 57 66 6" 69 Ba, Bg

1

11

Jasminum officinal* 104, 105 Jateorluza palmala Miers 208

120

277

i.in

104,

Jasmini Rool 195 Jasminum 95, 96, 97. 102, 112, 113

Hya< null 95 Hydniu injur

102,

96, 97, 122. 123

so,

1

Jessamine 195 Jesuits' Tea 305 Jew \ Myrtle 256 Jimsonweed 182 Ji ii-c hen 232 Joe-pye Weed 188

Helltborus foetidus

In)

In.

11 3,

1

hussopos 204

199 264

69,

is,

Juglans cintrea

I tumulus lupultti

,7,

1

j<

Hydrastis canadensis

III 1

68

mm ao ope 277 Hellebore J3, 103, 144. 201. 278 Id

'

66, 67,

1

1

hrute 257

147

Hedge Mustard

Hilu

Gnaphalium uhginmum I. 198 K in 193 roal n-Carpel h Sedum at n

1

1

Housi

21MP

1

Helianthus armuus

153

I

Hound's

1.

1

heleio telinon 236

98

Japanese Isinglass 195

Japanese Rose 254 Japanese Star Anise 206 Jasmine 76. 82. 91. 95,

50

1

["histli

Sorrel r« Hibiscus sabdanffa

Jamaica Tea 201 Jambul 68

150

k

'

1

1.1

Ann

1

10

1

Jamaica Sarsaparilla 265

.

officinal*

Lonicera caprifolium

see

200

Jamaica

J.

66, (17. tic, 8<,. 127. 162, 219 Horse ( Ihestnui 144 Horseheal 103 Hoi Pai ley tt Smyrnium olusalrum Horseradish '17. 7-,. 82 B4 8 90, 157 Hoi tail 7. 93, 100, 10, 186

247

I

1

Globe

all

208

.

103, 205,

-I

1

eng i'i8. 2-j2. 233 Gipsy Flown 181 (.i|iv\ woi 217 Gladdon 206 Gla vmjii 257 homo hedi racea I. 134, 197 1

1

Hoik

Hoiehound

179. 373

1

201

Hordeum ipontaneum Km Hordeum ulgan I. 202

Hazclworl 160

1

Woodbine 35. 123,

Jaborandi

(17

1

236

\grimonia eupatorie

ft,

L.

Hoyw ceil Hoh

hole

Hi" ileum sativum 101

201

207

L.

L. 207

ixus 259

1

Lici

Lamk. 207 207

).u

199

2 r,i

spuria

k-ln-lhe-hedge 147 Jacob's Ladder 243 Jamaican Quassia 238 Jamaica Pepper 90, 239

I /milium

1

pallida

[vy

95 96 97, 33, Bine 202 Hops yi 68, 69, 76, 83, 89, 90, 97, 103, 123.

1

Iris Iris

Iris virginica

201

Dvkcs 207

Moss 66, 67. 68, 172 Shamrock 231

Iris versicolor

Hordeum ischnalherum Schulz. 202

Hambuig

Haw kweed Haw llioi

Irish

Hop

23

Iround 197

B7, 88,

Irish

202

183

.

1

nermanica v ar. florenlina

Iris

18(1

Honey 279

nica officinalis

206

L.

germanica L. L. 95. 96. 97. 98, 102. 105. 106. 10, 207, 281

Italian

Holy link

b

L. 207

var. albicans 207

Heidra 273

Holyoke

io

1

maloxylum tamptchianum

II

59,

02.

1

Hamamelis virginiana

18. 67, 68, 69, 71. 1

li

195

Gingelli 263

89, 90,

1

1

Iris florenlina

Iris

Holm Oak 205

178 agai anth 11

1

61, 169

Iris florenlina

Iris foet.dissima

HolK Oak 205 Holmi

142

anthinum

.ic

llamamihs

112

Ik

I

at ac iae

208 Ipecacuanha 59, Iris 127. 206

Hibiscus sabdanffa L. 201

pilosella L.

206

caulis 52

Ispaghula 242 Italian Ryegrass 274

Holly hot

>

is

[satis Imcloria

habrotanun

197

I. 1

llala

iti

Gill) flowei

Ginger

»'

Gummi Gummi

Io\

1

Hera biennis

Kliul1.11 b

Gigartina

Gum Gum

mi, 103, 142 Benjamin 267 Benzoin 95, 98, 106, 107

I

German Rampioi <

187

ennel 191

I

mclegueta

1

lovis glans

hipposelinon 265

memum

G\ mnospei n G\ ps\ 'j Rllllllal d\ ps\ weed 217

197

German ( lhamomilt 220 Germander 121, 13H. 271 in. in

280

1

1

Hibiscus 69. 75. 76

hiltil

Gum

(mm Gum

122. 127. 196

mi

Rom

111, 112

Inula helenium L. 62. 103. 134,

la pastora 275 High-dried Rhubarb 252 Hitili Mallow cm Malta Tftoestris

2I11

Tobacco 215 Water Navel Wort 203

Hervea 205

Hteracium

\i .ilin

una punctata y, Genliana purpurea y.

(

199

196

169,

Genliana macrnphi'

urn

199.

H mid

urn

hi. 11. 11

Pink 266 Spice 282

ion agrion 281

herbe a I'oiseau 267 Herb Gerard 144 Herb of Grace 256 Herb Robert 66. 68. 197 Herb) grass 256 HercuU"- Woundwort 247 hcrpvlh^ 27

199

Guinea Gi

100, 196

I.

Mi. 68, 190, 169, 196

Geranium

Guaiacum Resin Gueldei

Genista linilonn

Gentian

I.

Pennywort 203

campana 206

inula

Herba Trinitatis 281 Herba Urinaria 270 Herba Valerianae graecae 243 Herba veneris 279 Herba Veronica major i^ 2~u Herb Bennet 197

claialum

Paint 259

lndigojera tincloria

hierba de

Groundsel 262 Guaiacum officinale (

lli

271

Herba sacra 279 herba salsifica 273 herba Sancti Ioannis 204 herba sanctii ruperti 197 Herba Taraxacon 270

Iv\ 67. 197

Dreamer 165

Indian Indian Indian Indian Indian Indian Indian Indigo

herba pedicularia 183 Herba Philippi 260

Geldcrsrhe roCM 280

123, 132. 148

1

Herba Acetosa 255 Herba Beccabunga 279 Herba bella donna 161

Ginger 158

206

Siebold 206 tllicium reium Hook.f. 206. 239 Indian Corn 01 Indian Cress 275 lllicium religiosum

Heracleum sphondylium L. 201

Gean 248

103. 120.

205

Grav 205

L.

tllicium anisatum L.

Gossypium hirsulum L. lot. 198 Gossypium peruvianum 98

Buckwheat 75

en sis St. Hil. 77.

1

lien verticillata

Henna 110. II 1. 212 Hennebane 203 Hennibone 203

Hellebore 201, 278 Purslane 245 Grwdelia camporum 6 Groats 161 Ground Elder 144

80. 81. 82. 84, 85, 86. 88. 90,

Hex paraguar

203

39. 63,

aquifolium L. 102, 205

Ili\

Henbell 203

Grandilla 235 Grass 67. 101, 146. 274 Gratia 199 Gratia Dei 199

204 204

L. 74, 103. 134.

officinalis

Iceland Moss 59, 66, 68, 69, 170

188

Gossypium arboreum L. 198 Gossypium barbadense L. 198 Gossypium hnhaceum L. 198

Green Green Green Green

Hyssopus

144, 178

Henbane anserina

Gravel Plant 185 Gravel Root 188 Great Burdock 155 Great Burnet 246 Greater Celandine 170 Greater Periwinkle 281 Greater Plantain 168. 241 Greater Prickk Lettuce 61. 210 Greek Myrtle 'a Myrtus com munis Greek Valerian 243

1

Gardenia jasminoides 113

IO3, 120, 122, I27, I34. I99,

Aconilum napellus

sec

Hemp 154. 165 Hemp Agrimony 66. Hemp Dogbane 154 Hemp Tree 282

Gratiola officinalis L. 57. 199

Hollyhock 150 Gardenia 13

Gelidium elegant

Hemlock

1

Asparagus 161 Burnet 246

Gelidium po/ycladium

Helmet Flower

:

Galium aparine L. 194 Galium mollugo 00 Galium tecum L. 7. 100. 194 Garden Angelica 153

Garden Garden Garden Garden Garden

Helleborus viridis L. 201

effuSUS 1 ,

,

.

120, 134,


|

65 66,

Juniperus communis

I.

7

82. 89, 91

1,

.

95,

1

1

1

209 I.

r

,7.

89, 95,

111,

134,

209

I.

I,

|

1

r.

2O3

Juniperus communis ssp

hibernica

Gard.

2011

ommunis ssp nana Syme 209 Juniperus communis vai brostrata Beissen 209 Juniperus snlnna I. 209 Juniperus tabina \.u tamariscifolia Aii 209 Juniperus

90

299

Jumperus sabina var. vanegata Laws. 209

Beard jusquiamus 203 Jupiter'^

kalumb 208 1

Lycopus europaeus L. 217 Lycopus urginicus L. 217

Lemon Grass 106 Lemon Mint 223 Lemon .Nut 208 Lemon Thyme 91. 120. 138.271 Lemon Verbena 97. 10 104. 105.

Lythrum

68. 69. 73, 75, 76. 82. 88. 89. 90. 119. 120. 122. 123. 127. 1 36. 222

kababe 241

Kami

Lemon Balm

Centranlhiti ruber

see

42

1

Kapparis 165

Mace

.

217

salicaria L.

10. 120.

1

.

Madder

100. 120.

Magnolia

Maguey

254

Karas a Gum 102 karkade 20! Kastanea 168

Leonurus deminutus 213

Mahonia aqutfolium

Leonurus glaucescens 213

Ma-Huang

Leonurus heterophyllus 213 Leonurus sibiruus 213

Maidenhair Fern 143 Maidenhair Tree 33 maiorana 230 Maize 10. 101 Male Fern 184 Mallow 67. 69. 102. 218 malum punicum 249

Gum

Katira

Leptandra virginica Nutt. 280

102

Kelp

kerasos J48

Hemlock 144

Lesser

kestron 266

Heaven Khamaidrys 27 Ke\^

.'47

ill

koamu

lie I

Km/

iimii

.11

;

198

also I

Set

.':

22

213

54.

1


lilium

<

I.il\

Lactuca sativa L. 210 Lactuca seariola irosa

2

I.

6

1

1

1

22.

t>8.

Lad's Love 158 Lady's Bedstravt 7. 194 Lads'- Mantle 48. tit). (17. 75, 77. 104, 107, 132, 147 Lad\ 's Slipper 63, 69, 181 Lady's Smock 166 Lamb's-Quarters set henopodium album

1

i

I.inum usitatissimum

Lapathum acutum 256 Lapalhum crispum 256 Lappa 155

Lippia citriodora

Liquidambei

Lapsana communis L. 210

Liquorice 59.

Larch

Liver-leal

i
Large-leaved Golden Purslane 245 Large-leaved Lime 273 Large Yellow Lady's Slipper set Cypripedium

Li\ er

decidua Mill. 191

DC

Larix europata tibirica

4

1

Lolium

102.

l»(.

1

Ma\

198

20.

Latherwon 93

11


I.

.

215

1

mulliflorum

Lam.

multifiorum

^-.p.

174

Laurus nobilis L. 75, 21

Loosestrife

see

104,

106, 113, 134.

Lorucera marilandua L.

216 266

1

-,<<

220

Podophyllum peltatum

sit

20.

1

22.

gale

59. 67. 68.

104.

61

103,

1

12,

Loranthus europaew L. 282

M

Lords and Ladies 159

Melnsa

1

104. 105. 106.

Laiandula

1

13. 21

sloechas L.

Laiandula iera

DC.

Lovage

1

123. I2

212

134. 21

1

Lavender

39. 68. 69. 73. 74. 91. 95, 96, <,;. 101, 102, 104. [05, 106. 113. !2().

98. 12

1.

122.

I23.

125.

68.

I20.

I27.

128.

I34.

211. 212. 259

7-

76. 80. 83. 91.

'34. 2I 3- 2I 4

lucerna 220

Lucerne 103, Lungwort 67.

Leek 69.


I.crrion 97.

75

3OO

/

/.

212 213

lupus

1117.

1118.

10.

112. 113.

68.

220

120. 122. 123.

202

-.alictarius

107

216

Lycopodium felage L. 216 /

officinalis

L.

Pall. 95. 96. 105.

Kopsis art ensis

1

84

127. 136.

221

222

L. 75. 88. 89. 135.

melissophyllon 222 Melist see Melilotus officinalis Melon 108 menastrum 222 Mauspermum palmatum 208

15.

1

159

225

Mullein 7. 61, 67. 69. 120. 138. 278 Mu-catel Sage 258 Mu^covitic Rhubarb 252 -

32. 91

63. 71, 75, 83. 87. 91. 163.

Myrica

cordijolia L.

Mynca

gale L.

264

226

226

Msriophyllon 245 Myristicajragrans Houtt. 89. 95. 96. 98. 106. 1

13.

226

Myroxylon 13 Mvrrh Myrrhis odorata 1

15. 49. 66. 68. 69.

101. 106. 178. 227

Msrrha 178

Mentha 74. 88. 89. 102. 104. 105. 13 Mentha aquatica L. 136. 222. 22 Mentha citrata 3b Mentha odorata 223 Mtiitha palustns 223 Mentha x piperita L. 59. 106. 107. 108. 136. 223 Mentha x piperita var. citrata Ehr. Brig. 223 Mentha x piperita forma pallescens 223 Mentha x piperita forma rubescens 223 Mentha pulegium L. 7. 95. 36. 223 1

rsicon esculenlum

1

lilotus officinalis

221

\

112. 212.

•dium clavatum L. 97.

26 5

'<

Coe

1

249

134.

1

9(1.

120.

Low Cudweed 198 Low Speedwell 279 Luban Jawi 267

Lavender Cotton 138.259 /

119.

Love-lies-bleeding 151 Love Parslev 213

I.asender Mint 223 l.au Mima inermis I.. 110,

Ledum groentandicum Oed. Ledum latifoliutn J acq. 213 Ledum palustn 1.. 2 13

104.

52. 66. 67. 68. 76. 120. 132.

Mscophyta 32 Mynca cerifera L. 226

Melilotus alba var. annua

Lavandula officinalis Chaix. 21 Lavandula spica L. 95, 96, 97. 98. 101. 102.

12

Melegueta Pepper 145

Loosestrife 68. 217

1

57

2711

Mustard

Lavandula

1

dioica

muggia wort 159

mushrooms

220

Melilot, 66, 67, 95. q6. 105. 120, 221 Melilotus alba Medic. 221

!

Motherwort 78. 213 moulds 32 Mountain Balm 164 Mountain Box 155 Mountain Everlasting set Antennana Mountain Grape 218 Mountain Mini 164 Mountain Pine 240 Mountain Savory 261 Mountain Tea 195 Mountain Tobacco 157 Mouse Bloodwort 201 Mou^e-ear Hawkweed 201

Melaleuca leucadendron L. 220

Lonicera penclymenum var. Belgica

latijolia Yill. 2

1

muscus catharticumuscus clavatus 216

Arclostaphylos uia-ursi

saliva L.

143. 154

morarius 225 Morello 248 moron 227 morsus gallinae Iba L. 227 Minus nigra L. 225 Moss 216 Mm- Beauty 187 mosses 32 Mother Die 178 Mother
Mucor Passtflora mcarnata

see

190 set

L.

Monk's Pepper 282 Monk's Rhubarb 256 mora agre-.ii- 277

Mugwort

1

225 227

13. 136.

Moutarde des allemand^

Lonicera penclymenum L. 95, no. Lonicera penclymenum var. Aurea

216 216

1

Mouth Smart

Lavandula 74. 104 Lavandula angustijnlia Mill. 211, 212 Lavandula denlala L. 211

216

164. 222.

Mulberrv

Medicago 117.

120. 121.

136.

Meadow F.yebright 189 Meadow Fern see Mynca Meadow Saffron 177

Mealberry

Lonicera caprifolium L.

119.

128.

mazariyun 182

Lylbrum

salicaria

113.

6g, 150

hamumilln 22"

Meadowsweet

Husnot 274

Camphor

<>H.

.

Mas Flower 185 Ma\ Lily 178 Maypop 234 Maypop Mas Apple

2711

Long Purple Spiked

95

219

89.

I.

179

May-apple

{2

1

230

Matl/n

207

1

(

110. III.

•

95

98.

(17.

llysiau Lis wel\

Logwood

Led. 191

Lathyrus odoratus

Laurel

1

\nemone hepatica

Lobelia inflata

Larkspur 183

h

Matricaria recutita L. 102, 103, IO4, 107, 109.

HBK

Lobelia nicotianaefotia 61

191

Moeni

205

76.

Matricaria

Lobelia 215

pubescens

77. 76, 79. 80. 81.

Benth 230

Main Herbarum 215

ioi, n>8.

I.

orientalis

set

liverworts

127.

1>8

1

Marrow 1117 Mamibium tntlgart

Male

ool 147

I.il\

104.

Mastic h 25

1

I

123.

I

anis 18

lingua

Lion's

maronev

t

limun 177 Linden Ling 93, 165 lingua

122.

i20,

18. 1)7. 73,

Marsh ( lelei j 236 Marsh < ludweed 198 Marshmallow 7< 117. Mai^hmarigold 100 Marsh Samphire 257 Marsh ea 213 Marsh Treibil 224

",t>

1

La pat liu in 256

Lam

76, 91,

77

humana 278 Linseed 66, 67, t>8. 108. 215 Linum biennt Mill. 2 5

Lau\

77.

69,

Laminaria digitala ;# Lamium album L. 210

'

120.

272

in.

1

Limonium vulgan Mill

hum

113,

178 \

69. 83. 89. 91.

tig,

iima hull, wis

97.

7/5.

127.

106.

1

57. 66, 67,

34,

1

219

20. i2i, 83, 84, 85, 86, 91, 97. 107. lib. 122. 123. 124. 127. 136. 230. 231

95,

210

.

H.

•una onites

Lime Tree

1

111.

tog,

Marjoram

42,

113.

125.

Mint Geranium see Chrysanthemum balsamita Mirasol see Heliantbu; annuus Mistletoe 31. 35. 49. 57. 69. 102. 273. 282 Mole Plant 103 \l'.arda didyma L. 77. 88. 97. qb. 97. 102.

occidental 10.

1

105.

123.

Monkshood

95

Lily-of-the-Valley

1

I..

104.

122.

223. 224. 232

i>rnus

Amuardium

set

102.

marchalan Marian Thistle 263 Marigold 66. 67. 68.

78

1

242

163. 164

,

on\ allium

218

Monarda Jistulosa

officinalt

Ligusticum tcoticum L. 214 I. ilium

163.

Marania Starch 219

108.

104

officinalt

Fraxtnus

see

Maranle: urundinacea

[10

>'.

{2,

Ligusticum

17(1

Labradoi Tea

Laburnum

1

hen-.

262 lignum floridum 26 Lignum \itae see Guaiacum

and Pav. 246

74

Lactuca

Maple ;; Maranmi

>i

kustumburu Kutch 142 1

I

Achillea millejolium

Milk Weed 160 Milkwort see Polygala vulgaris Mint 60. 69. 74! 76. 83. 84. 86. 88. 89. 91.

55

1

see

122. 136

Milk-thistle 263

10. 12. 15, 63. 163. 218.

Manna 192 Manna .Vh

Life K\ erlasting 153

kunoglosson 181

kwei

mani

4 Willd. 214 Liatris spuata Willd. 214 Liatris spuata var. alba 214

7 j

1

Krameria triandra

Milfoil

108

Mandrake

Lialris odoratissima

Kola 177 Korean Ginseng; 232

Mignonette 120. 121. Mignonette Tree 212 mildews 32

Malm

Liatris iliamparui 2

.

Microtaena cymosa Prain 243

Malta syloestris L. 102. 218 Mandragora officinarum L. 63.

1

Mezereum germamcum 182

Nutt. 218

Pursh.

185

Lettuce 61 210 Lettuce Opium 2 Levant Cotton jet Gossypium herbat cum officinal) Koch 134. 213 Lialris uillilepis 214 .

1

see

Lesser Periwinkle 281

Kidney wort 152 kinnah [go Kite hen-garden Purslane see Portulaca mhi \ ai •air, a Knitbone 268 Knotted Figwort 261 Knotted Marjoram 120, 230

kostos

185

Lesser Centaurv 169

192

10,

1

Cardamom

Lesser

Lesser Celandine 250

Mexican Tea 171 Mezereon 182

Agave americana

Leonurus cardiaca L. 58. 213

kaukali> 240 ka\ u-puti 220

281

101

karavviya 167

Kat 142

226

106.

77. 78. 79. 83. 8g. 91. 98.

Madagascan Periwinkle

27- '49

Mentha pulegium var. decumben _ _ Mentha rotundifolia L. Huds. 224 Mentha spicata L. 222. 223. 224 Mentha viridis L. 224 menthe Pouliot 223 Menyanthes tri/oliata L. 59. 102. 224 Mexican Damiana 275

L. Scop. 75. 136. 227 Myrtle 52. 136. 226. 227. 256 Mvrtle Flag see Acorus calamus mvrtos 227 Myrtus communis L. Herm. 52. 136. 227

Myrrhis odorata

Myrtus dioica L. 239 Myrtus pimenta L. 239

Nard 160 Nardus celticus 277 Narrow -leaved Sage

123.

278

Papyrus 10. ;;. 101 Paraguay Tea 205

Aasturcium indicum 275 .\asluraum peruvianumi'jj

Nasturtium

120.

73. 76. 83. 91.

122. 128.

Panetaria

275

Navel Wort 203 Neapolitan Parsley 236 \elumbium nucijera Gaertn. 228 Nenuphar 228 .Xepeta cataria L. 04. 36. 228 1

Neroli

Parsley Piert 153

Parsnip 39, 235

Pasque Flower 152 Passiflora caerulea L.

1

235 Sims 235

Passiflora edulis

Nerve Root 181

Passiflora incamala L. 63.

Nettle 66. 73. 76. 89. 91. ioi. 103. 104, 109. 10. 123. 210. 276 1

New

236

126, I27, 128. 136. 153.

105. 106

0,7.

Pimento

234

83. 84. 85, 91, 95. 103. I20. 121, 122. I23.

R. Br. 75. 136. 228

officinale

L.

officinalis

Pimento dwica

234

Parsley 39. 68. 69. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

.\asturtium indicum 275

Xasturtium

& Koch

Mert.

Parietaria diffusa

Zealand Flax 100

234 Passiflora ligulans Juss. 235 Passion Flower 63, 69. 234 Paslinaca saliva L. 235

.\icotiana tabacum 63. 102. 103. 113

Paslinaca sativa var. saliva hortensis 235

Night Flowering Cereus 170 Nightshade 42. 161. 265 Nipplewort 210 Norwa\ Spruce 238 Nuces graecae 248

Patchouli 97. 106. 242 pavame 261 Peach 82. 83. 108

Nutmeg

79. 83. 85. 89. 91. 95. 96. 98. 113.

226 Ximphaea alba

Oak 43. 66. 67. Oak Moss 106. Oak Nut 101

68. 101, 103. 1

1

205. 250

1.

1

1

229

L.

22
I.

Oenothera biennis L. 229

Oil-Nut 208

Pistaaa

Olea europaea L. 60. 108. 229

Olive

60

rec

I

»",

omnimorbia 2 in m 66, 68,

;

1

1

229

Peppermn

Popp)

)|iiiiin

Oi.iiil

8a, 83, 87. 91

/

25,

",

83

6,

28.

1

100, 103,

.

230

I.

6

;.•

1

97,

15,

223 Perfoliate Honeysui klc 216 Periwinkle 120, 127. 138.281 /'. rsea americana 08 Pei sian \\ alnui 209 36,

.

Pei a\

175

13.

ange Mini 223 )range Rom 202 Irdeal Bean 237

1.

in Bat k

(

Pel u\

Oregano Bo, 83. Oregon Grap<

91

123. 130, 231

.

S, In

Mahonia aquifolium

•

I

<

.

rat

Ma)

rtn

11

(

230, 231

(8,

.

1

Polemnmum

39 179

03,

I

\\ man

Mill

1

7",

radicosum Baile) 236

10,

1

i-iin

I

Mtmarda didyma

i.i

118.225

linum horten

hnum

Owlei 149 0\ah<

acelosella

Peh

231

I.

\elinum

lloilm

\o

Klip

2

\ativum

Polygonum tuberosum

vai

17

273 I. 232 forma Alba plena 21,2 forma Rosea plena 233 forma Rubra plena 2 \i

inalii

offii

1

/

officinalis

Paeonia

officinalis

1

officinalis

l.i

v

Peumui boldus Molina 236 Pew lei WOTi Peyote ' !a< tut 22t> Phea tani 1 \ e 144 Philadelphui 95 philanthropon 194

•mum

.'

1

Phyllostachj

I'lnm

Pin

van

"

insert

I

,

Me)

\

'

idoginseng \\

Panax quinauejolium I'lnm

"

Pans) Papal

.

Papax

»

rhoeai

1

li

232

Rom

1

Phytolacca americana Phytolacca Picea

'li"'

dei I.

andra

bistorta

km/

um alaguala 1

Purple Loosestrife 68. 217 I'm pie Sage 30, 23. 38. 258

243

60,

I.

1

1

109 233

Mulbet

1

I.

101

•>

papillari

;

,

63

88,

233

Picrasma

237

69,

1

1

238

r i

B

'•'•

;

\

9

1

11111I11

11ns

10.

1

1

Populu

it'll 11

Populus

tin

n

1

Plant lion 238 Bei

ilai

1

1

1

-

1

l'\

1 1

1

Pyrus

•

mm

11I,

Quassia

63.7". 83,84,

Gra)

.' 1

amain

Ojiassia

1

Pigweed tt Chenopodium album Pilewon 250

Portulaca quadrifida I'm ill, I' ,1 ,ih

L.

^

xcelsa

Mill

III.

I

III.!

r

.'||

,,

I

,

I

I

.111/

238

,

a

I;

2

{6,

I

,

lilnlil

1I1111,

Qui

1,

us

robm

I

in,

11

11

robm

\ .11

<

245

lalioa

145

lot,

iliflora I.

IOI

Matt

'>

1

2J\

I

I

Micha 244

Portulaca oleracea vai

238

1 1,

IO3

I

i7i

Qjll

1

1

238

Queen's Delight 267 Queen's Root 267 I

1

Soland

03, 172

08

1

no,

03,

1

Roem. 249 I

11,1

Qjiassia

I"

I.

136,

1

tandicans

Rouleau 244

Portulaca oleracea

127.

123,

Queen-Annt -Lact • Daunts carota Queen ol the Meadow 188. 190 Queen ol the Night ,, ertus grandiflorus

123.233

I.

11

M

omniums

,

101

1

122,

120,

inea J I'loU II 99,

(till lllll

I'vius

120.

Pigeonberr) 237 k iniii.il 1. -,-, Pig

I

39, 83.

111-

Pusle) 'a Portulaca oh racea

a

Portutaca lutea

1

Pyracantha

1

Populus Iremuloides port

-1.

245

An 244

iimnhiiii

Populus trtmula

1

Papoose Root 168 Papi ika

1

SW

Papaoet \omniferum 1

I.

Populus

1

1

I'm

1

244

I.

Populus fileadensis

1

K.iim

1

Pap*

1

j

I

I

in

249

in-

I

Purple Boneset >" Eupatorium purpureum I'm pie ( onellowei 184

1

Populus balsamifera vai

Physostigma venenosum Balfoui 237

r

68. 82. 83

11

243

I. • >

Populus balsamifera

280

233

I.

Viola tricolm

dubium

1

allii

Phyaii

Nees 233

ichinseng

1

233

237

I.

=^

I'm pie Basil 30 I'm pie Bergamot 22")

Populus alba 101

,

alkekengi

satis

1

220 Pui ging Ag.u 191

\

frutu

'

249

136,

Schrank.

Puniia granatum L. 249 Punica granatum var. nana Pers

Punk

1

1

Popp) 15,25,35 87.88.91. 109,

237

|llllls,llls

1

Pumpkin

243

I.

H eatherglass 151 Pool \l Poplai IOI, 244 Poplai Budi 244

mi

officinalis L.

Pulsatilla alpina

Pomegranate 249 Pond I. il\ 68. 228

Phu 277

5

Palm. ( 'hriiti Palmetto 69, 263

1

I

lnna\ ion

223

ass

'i

<

iae

.11

Pulmonaria

Polypod) 244 Pol) pod) Rom 244

I

Phragmile\ communis

Paiglc 246 I

Bernh

95

1

-'vi

242 puliol ro) ale 223 Pulmonaria 22

;

amara

DC. Buckheim 248 Buckheim 248

DC:.

dulcis

nilia hit ula

Puccoon Pudding

;

Polypodium vulgari

Pl.ini

ticolot

Polygala vulgaris L. 243

/

um Hollm

sain

Ox-eye 144 Oystei

ala

107. 108.

Psyllium 60, (17. 242 Pteridophyta ;s

Pol) gala /'

Schubl. and

Pseudocyphellaria thouarsii 100

.

Polygala tenega

L.

Prunus virginiana 61

caeruleum var. himalayanum B.ikei

1

Schubl. and

terotina 61

I'liiiius

Pulii

Polianthes tuberosa

polugalon

236

Oswego

Pale

7

236

36,

1

L.

248

Prunus dulcis var.

343 / emonium caeruleum vai lacteum Benth

Pelroselinum crispum vai

hi;. 105, 106,

1

Ludu.

Prunus laurocerasus L. 248 Pumas persica 108

•nuni caeruleum

,m

230

1

Focke

C.

F.

Webb

D. A.

Mill.

dulcis

oil.

Prunus dulcis war. amara

Oak 273

polemonion

b 235

36, 230. 231

1

207

(

&

oulgart

,"

I

Pi

1 (li

hybridm

1

1

Poke R0..1 69, 237 Poke w I'd 237 Polll .11 \\ IC<\ 269

p. troselinoi

I

•

in Rli.il.un

Its

oreoselinum Organ) « Origanum um majorana I. Origanum 01 Orris 68, •

1.

DC.

Martens 248

273

v \

1

sativa

Primus avium var. Juliana

Clarke 243 160

j2,

1

1

Martens 248

I. 242 Blanco Benth. 242 Pogostetnon comosus Miq. .'4.' Pogoslemon hcyeanui Benth 242 I'lignstcmon patchouli Pellet 1)7. 106, 242

Poison

1

247

Prunus avium L. 248 Prunus avium var. duiacina

Plantain 66, 67. 68. 69, 105, 168. 241

Poison

-

205

Prune 67

Prunus cerasus L. 248

I

174

Pei u\ ian Pol) pod)

verticillata

\

Prunus

Poison lag let Ins mi Poison lb inli k k 178

1

233

(. 1

91, 241

var. hleynii

veils

Plantago psyllium L. 242

Rom

246

L. 61. 89.

Hon. 247 Primula vulgaris Huds. 247 Prince's Feather see Amaranlhus hypochonPrimula

Focke 248

lemon cablin

8<>.

mis

Hill 247

Hance 247

Primus amygdalus var.

1

Plumeria rubPodophyllum 60. 242 Podophyllum pel latum

1

L.

elatior

Primula obcomca

Primula

.

Plantago major var. asiatica Decne. 241 Plantago ovata Forskal 242

Pleuris)

106, 1

Primula

lent isc us L. 27,1

Plectranthus patchouli

232

( )i

(

122,123,

71. 72. 82. 83.

107. 108.

Ophit>glo*\um vulgatum (

111.

'<'> • 1

Peon) 10, Pepper 18.

148

2.

234 Pellitorv of the Wall 234 Pemcillium 32 Pennyroyal 7, 69, 76, 9; 27, 36, 223 Pennywort Pensee 281 Pensee Sain age 281

230

18

1

1

120.

Penlaglollis sempi

Olea europaea var. oleastm IX Oli urn Wittncbianum 221

1

248

Plantago mdica L. 242 Plantago lanceolata I. 105, 241. 242 Plantago major L. 168. 241

.

rirginieus

Prickh Lettuce 6 2 10 Primrose 76. 129. 247 Primula 42

Prunus amygdalus Batsch. 248 Primus amygdalus var. amara

Plantago 60

15.

Prickly Ash 283

PiunJIa vulgaris var. leucantha Schur. 247 Prunella vulgaris var. rubrifolia Beckhaus. 247 Primus 123

1

Piper ribesioides 24

1

Okra 68 Old \I.iu tee Artemisia abrottaum Old Man's Beard >" Chiotumthui

Haenke Zenari 240

Piper mollissimum 241

Pelargonium graveolens L'Herit. 96. 97. 106.

23

i

230

120. 123, 136.

Pi urns verticillatus

1

Piper nigrum L. 241

1

Marjoram

Pot

Prunella vulgaris L.

Piper muncalum 24

Pelargonium radens 235

Oamum minimum Oamum fOJlCtum

24

crassipc.s

Rausch. 246

L.

Poterium sanguisorba L. 89. 36. 246 Pot Marigold see Calendula officinalis

driacus

240

12. 156.

1

Pelargonium capilalum 235 Pelargonium crispum 95

Pellitory

ansenna L. 245

Prinos r« //

Piper cubeba L. 241

Oamum

10",

60

Potcntilla

1

Pimienta de Chapa 239 Pimienta de Tabasco 239 Pimpernel 151, 279 Pimpmella anisum L. 88. 95, 102. 106. 239 Pimpinella sacifraga L. 240 pinang 156 Pine 33. 83. 97. 101. 104. 240 Pineapple 101. 108 Piney see Paeonia officinalis Pink 76. 90. 95. 96. 115, 116. 120. 123. 128. 134, 183. 266 Pink Root 266

Piper

250

101.

235

104.

Potentilla

Potentilla erecta

piper agreste 282

Pelargonium odoralissimum 235 Pelargonium quercijolium 95

basilicum L. 75. 98.

239

239

90.

Piper belle

Oats 68. 69. tot. 107. 108. 161 Obedience Plant set Maranta arundinacea 229

96. 102.

Lindl. 239

Pinus 97. 101. 104 Pinus mugo var. pumilio

peganon 257 Pelargonium 235

\ymphaea alba var. rubra Lonnr. 228 Xymphaea odorala Aix 228

0.5.

1

Peas 37. 82. 83

Oak

Merr.

L.

officinalis

Pimento

10

1

pin-lang 56 pinones de Maluco 180

Pea Mint 224 Peanut 108. 109. 154 Pear 82. 83. 108 Pedunculate

228

L.

Possumhaw Viburnum 280

Pilocarpus jaborandi 63

Pilocarpus microphallus

DC

245

,

(juilll

I

Quinine

L e blei n 1, 250 i

1 1

fastigiata

1

o

1

150

I

101

aponaria 109

Mil ,

,

1

m, bona

o/fii itialis

3<

»

Quinine Tree 174

120. 121, 122, 123. 126, 127.

Rosmarinus

radicula 25

102.

101,

1

Radish 250

L

officinalis

104.

109.

Ragwort 262

Rampion

Round-leaved Mint 224

1

129

ficaria L. 250 Raphanus raphamstrum L. 250 Raphanus rusticanus 157 Raphanus satioul L. 250

Ranunculus

Raspberry 66. 68. 69. 255 Rats and Mice 181

75. 76. 89. 127. 128.

Rat-tail Plantain 241 Rauiolfia serpentina 57. 63 Rauiolfia tomitoria 63

Bergamot 225 Bryony 163 Bush Tea 160

Cockscomb Cole

set

Cow

Ba-.il

1

F.lm 276

Korean Ginseng 232 Red-lea\ed Sage 258 Red Pepper 84 Red Pimpernel set Anagallii

Scabwort 103. 206 Scarlet Pimpernel 151 Scarlet-seeded

256

Tea 150 Schlusselblumen 247 •-cilia 276 Scorzonera 273

g

'// 95, 101,

;.

H ilk

en

I

variegata 277

j

Lavender

Si

,1

I.d\ ay.

Si

.1

(

Sabal 263

Sea Squill 52 seaweeds j 32

Rheum rhabtnbtiium

89,

I.

|>i.

60, 67, 82, 8

11-

(8.

l>t>.

28. I

rixus 230

S.iKifis dev pre-. 27

Rocket-salad 186 Rock Parsley ol Alexandria 265

>

4

1

Rosa tglanteria L. 253 Rosa tglanteria v Duplex 254 ftcta tallica 95, 107 /?»ia gallica officinalis 120 .

Borrer ex Sm. 25 rubiginosa agg. 253

/?oja micrantha

2

)

53

Thunb.

95,

254

8.,. 91, 95, '96, 97. 98. 102, in-,. 107. 108. 109. 112. 113. 120. 122. 123.253.254 (

Rose-bay willow hei b 7", Rom- Geranium 76. 96,

1

102,

7.

106,

235

V' 2

104,

81).

109.

73,

89, 91, 95, 96, '17. 10. in, 113. 116.

1

76,

74,

101, 1

19.

Oak

104. to6, 107.

Seville

Orange 175 111. 21,

1

258

259 L. 258

1

10,

Starchwon

shunis

Statue Armeria L. 156

2 14

Sanicle 66. 68. 69 Santalum album 95, 98. 102. 104. 106. 113 Santolina 95. 120. 123. 124. 126, 127 Santolma chamaecypanssus L. 95, 99, 38. 259

Silybum

Sapaharia 260 L.

officinalis

7.

61.

113.

138.

109,

L.

.1

Wimmer

ex

Koch

260

scoparius var. Andreanus

273

Nutt.

Stillingia syluatica

;;

260

Stinking

Horehound 162

Sinapis atvensil L. 264

Stinking

Iris

Singer's Plant 264

Stipa tinacissima 101

Gaertn. 263

L.

Simsim 263 264

Sisymbrium

officinale

L.

Slippery Sloe 280

Elm

67. 68,

!

206


Miliaria media

Stock o^ sioechas arabica 2 2 Stonecrop 262 Storax 95 Strawberry 35, 75, 76. 107. 108. 127. 191 Strawberry Tree 155 Struthion 260 1

Smallage 154. 236 Small-Leaved European

Small-Leaved Lime 272 Small Nettle 77 .

Hellebo;

Stitchwort

Scop. 264

276

cor data

Nees 260

Gard. 267

Benjamin 274 Gladdon 206

Sinapis alba L.

138.

Nettie 276

Stinging Stinking Stinking Stinking

mananum

^2. 8i|.

Stavesacre 103. 183 Stellana media L. Vill. 128. 267 Stemless Thistle =,u Sm klewort 146

Six-rowed Barlev 202 Skunk Cabbage 269

Sarmentum indicum 263 scoparius

L Trevisan 266 Stall Vine set t elasln _inish 280 Horn Moss 216 Star Anise 206

1

Maple

184

Slachys officinalis

23, 148

Shepherd'- Purse 166 Short Buchu 145 Shovelweed 166

Silver

243. 260

Cucumber

•

Siberian Ginseng Sicklewort 247 Silver Birch 162

102. 104. 106. 113

2 76

-,2-

Squirting

Shave Grass 186

257 138.

Shamrock

Squill

101, 250

Silverweed 245
Sassefrii

Squaw root 274 Squaw Weed 262

2h<\

Sessile

Shallot 85.

Sassafras albidum

|

263 88. 263

1

I

1

15, 83. 88. 91,

tm mdicum L.

Sarsaparilla 68. 261, 264 Sassafras 260. 261

102,

Serpentaria 24 \ Serpentaria rubra 24 Serpentar\ 156

Sesame

Roselle 201 68,

Small 263 Michx. Hook 203

Bartr.

Sanguisorba minoi 246 Sanguisorba officinalis L. 246

58. 93, 196,

tea

167

a serrulata

257

23.

inlei lona 251 ulmana Spotted Cranesbill set (uranium maculatum Spring Adonis 144 Spring Onion q Spruie 33, 238 Spurge Olive 182 Squash 10

Spinus

.

Serenoa repens

;

Sarothamnm

I

42.

Silver Fir 142

Saponaria

262 262

I.

Sangumaria canadensis L. 61. 138. 259 Sanguinaria canadensis cv. multiplex 2311

Sarothamnm <

lis

Serpvllum 272

rove hips 73, 86, 9

78. 81, 83,

Senna

1

Rosa wichuraiana Crep. 234 Rose 67, 69, 75, 7 83, 86, 88.

Spinai h 66, 67, 78. 82. 83 Spindli Iih /- 187

I

a

in, 258. 259 Samphire 179. 257 Sandalwood 05. 08.

13

20

.

Hurt

Sambucus ebului Sambucus nigra L. 89. 95. too. 104. 107.

linearis

Rosa 75, 88. 89, 08. 102, 105, Rosa canina L. 253 Rosa damascena 95

1

1

tectorum 52

Sesamun

a sclarea L.

Rooibosch 160 Rooitea see Aspalathus

UWIH

Semperinum

&

I

IO, III, 138.

Sambucus

Nettle 277

39,

27.

257

.S«/;;« officinalis L. 74. 88. 95,

Fennel 191

Rosemary

1

Saltwort 257 Salvia 258 I

a marilandica L. 266 Spiked Loosestrife 217 Spike Lavender q6. q8. 105 Spina cervatis 25 Spina Ccrvina 251

Heal 121, 247

273

.

Salsola soda L.

Rock Samphire 179 Roman Chamomile 134. 220 Roman Common Chamomile 170

/c&sa rugosa

1

Salsola Kali

I.

1.

265

Parill.i

Salsify 2

|6

143. 186

/foia rubtginosa

Salsa

I.

Sperat;

262

Semsem 263

uto turopaea agg.

Sahx 10!

/cVmo

2

1

Salicornia herbacea

(

1

204 Si Mary's rhistle set Silybum mariattum ih. 246 Salad Burnet 7b. 83. go, 120,

j

76

15, 121

1

Semsemi

nigrum L. 252 communis L. 60, 104, 253 River Tea Tree r« Melaleuca leucadendron

Roman Roman

122,

257

Ricinti)

2

-•/.

ee 282

/ctoej

Rocket

;

1

M-lba 258

John's Herb 159 Wort Hypericum perforatum

toxicodendron L. 275

Rock Celer\

20.

1

1

.

acre L.

1

s

cereale L. tot.

S.dum Srdum

177. 179

34. 179

iit>.

38. 2411.

1

1

1,

117. t)8. t>(,. 73, 74, 75, -U. 86, 88, 91. 95. 104. lot). 107.

8-,.

III,

10,

1

1

100,

.

255. 252

I",.",.

Rhus radicans L. 27

Mm

101

1

St John's

18. 42.

Ill, 120,

(

JO,

1

71, 76, 83. 91,

5,

79, 83.

St

Rhododendron 100

Rhubarb

1

S.itlion

Sage -'",.'

1

Sa-fa-lang 180

'ticum

)nion 276

-

66. 95, 120. 122. 158

Sowberry 162 Sow at Strawberry see Fragaria Spanish Buglo" 147 Spanish ( Ihestnui 168 Spanish Lavender 212 Spanish Psv Ilium set Plantago psyllium Spanish Si orzonera Sparrow ( rrass 161 Spearmint 69, 23. 224 dwell 279 I

KM

'•

/ igk

..

Sea Parsley 214 Sea Pmk 156

Sai red Bark 251

Southernwood

j6

1

Ryegrass 274

Sabatia angularu

Southern Pricklv A-h 283

Sea Island Cotton 198

R, seda lulea

101,

Saffron

261

I.

Inngium marilimum

Holm

R\e

Maxim

266 266

Sour Cherrv 248 Sour Dock set Rumex acetosa Sour Orange i« Citrus aurantium var. amara Southern Black Haw 280 hern Maidenhair set Adiantum capillus

93

hulana nodosa

Sea

diiaruiilti

Ru-.li

vulgaris

l.iguslicum scoticum

see

Scullcap 68. 69 Si \ thian Lambc \2 Sc \ thian Root 198 Sea Fennel 179 Sea Hollv 187

\2

1

Lovage

Scouring

Lycopodium elaiatum

set

Rutu

I.

DC

Solidago nrgaurea L.

Siottish

256 256 obtusifolius I. 256 scutatus L 231. 255, 256

Kim

var. tangulicum

Solidago microglossa

crispui L. 89,

Sc.i

-'.V-'

Solalrum mortale 161

alpinus L.

Red Valerian 169

Rhtum palmatum

Soft

Son-before-lather 275

Ruta graieolens var.

1

Socotrine Aloe 149 Hemp see Cannabis satna Solanum dulcamara L. 265 Solanum sommferum 161

Iris set Iria Joetidissima

Sorrel 38. 76. 78. 83. 91, Q3. 120. 122. 123. 127, 231. 255. 256

Red-spurred Valerian 169 Red Squill 276

Rhamnui cathartictu I. 192, 251 Rhamnus frangula 60 Rhamnus puishiana DC. 60, i<»2, 251 Rhamnus solutions 25] rheon Rhtum 60 Rheum officinale Bail). 93, m, 252 Rheum palmatum I. 93, 252 Rheum patmalum var palmalum I. Maxim

120. 138.

Scotch Broom 260 Scotch Heather see Calluna

I.

Russian Dandelion 270 Russian Tarragon 132. 158 Rula graieolens L. 136. 256

ea 201

in).

Scorzonera hispanica L. 273

255

0,3.

I.

acelosella

Ruscus aeulealus L. 256

Rush

1

260

Schloss

256

Running Pine fli

Snowdrop.Tree 171 Snow flake see Lamium album Soapbark 109 Soapwort 7. 61. 67. 93.
268

Scabious 268

2^=,

bistorta

Snowdrop 193

69. 263 Pimpinella saxijraga

see

Scabiosa succisa L.

39. 66. 67. 6q. 120. 122. 123. 126. 127.

Red Puccoon 259 Red Robin 197 Red Sage 68. 258

I

Saxifrage

Snake's Rhubarb 155 Snakeweed see Polygonum

Snowball Tree 280

Saw Palmetto

Rue

acetosa

.

120. 122. 123. 127. 138. 261

19.

ruchetta 186

Rumex Rumex Rumex Rumex Rumex Rumex

169

68. 69. 76. 83. 85. 86. 88. 91, io 5

Scented-leaved Geranium* Schin-seng 232

Rumex

Armoracia rusticana

Smyrnion 265 Smyrmum olusatrum L. 95. 265 Smyrmum perjoliatum L. 265 Snake Root 61. 156. 159. 173. 214. 243

Satureja montana L. 105. 138. 261

Savon

Ruizia fragrans Pa von 236

151

Smilax ornata Hook.f. 261. 264

Satureja hortensis L. 261

258 Savin 209 Savin Tops 209

Rubia peregrina L. 254 Rubia tmctorum L. 100. 254 Rubus 104 Rubus jructicosus agg. 255 Rubus idaeus L. 60. 89. 255 Rubus occidentals L. 255 Rubus ulmijolius Schott 255 Rubus ursinus Cham and Schlechtend

138.

Clover 274

Satureia hortensis 88. 261

saulje

254 Rosmarinus prostratus Hort. 254 Round Buchu 145 Round Cardamom 283

radix 25 radix dulcis 198

Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red Red

136.254

74. 89, 9^. 96. 97. 1 to. in, 113. 136.

Lime

set

Tilia

Sirxehnon 161 Slrychni's niis-romica 51

Thymus Thymus Thymus

Strsgium 161

Tiglio 273

Vegetable Oyster 273 Vegetable Sulphur 216 Venus Hair 143 Veratrum 20 Veralrum album L. 103, 278

Sudanese Tea 201

Tilia 63, 273

Veratrum eschscholtzii A.

Summer Savon

Tilia

amencana L. 273 Tilia cordata Mill. 272 Tilia x europaea L. 57. 104. 106. 107. 110.

Veralrum nigrum L. 278 Veratrum uride Ait. 278

Dryander

benzoin

Stjrrax

106.

95. 96. 98.

267

107, 108, 109.

Moench. 268

Succisa pratensis

69. iuj, 119. 120. 123. 127.

261

Sundew 67 Sunflower 83. 108. 110. 120. 134. 200 Surinam Quassia 238 Swamp Cypress 38, /jo Swedish Myrtle see Myrtus communis Sweet Almond see Prunus dulcis Sweet Basil 229 Sweet Bav 211 Sweet Briar 253 Sweet Cherrv 248 Sweet Chestnut 144. 168 Sweet Cicely 76. 83. 90. 120. 122. 123. 127. 36. 227 Sweet Clover 221 Sweet False Chamomile see Matricaria

Verbena Verbena

Tobacco

vermicularis 262

102, 103. 113. 215

108

230

1

Roman

Sweet-scented

Geranium

Toxicodendron toxicaria

Salisb.

38. 281

\\mphaea alba

let

Hemp

1

08.

Symphytum 268

89. 95, 96, 97-

112. 113,

88.

269

nnacelum vulgart

lum l.lll-s

I tnnera

IOO,

I

lulgan sar

crilpum

taragonii

76

J'.

95

'1!

{

.1

Taraxacum 1

oo,

m

"Hi. 122. 127.

•/'/

King 270

Willd.

I

7

y

122.

191,

270

Webei

15

I

60, 89.

,7

aphrndisiaca

var.

/

B

Bo,

123.

'<'•,

;

86 91, 19, $2. 158 159 1

127.

1

atmanian Blm Gum 187 ilium Hutu hum 38 /

I

I / I

.'/.

89.

1112.

138.

1

276

H.iki

I.

1

,2.

6|,

276

89.

101,

H'l-

In).

109. IMP.

1

I r lira I.

1

is

s

>H

1

Pi

1

271

I I

Hi

I

cacae

I.

1

09, 271

hi

I

hoi

I

horoughwon 188

I

hrifi

1(17

Appli

11

.

1

1

'/I

176.

263

182

(2.

156

193

272 tnlira 272 -hi 16 66 n

iti\ 1

I

78.

8...

i"| 1

2

(.

73, 7

'

127

1

melaea 182

ih\

mum ui

Si

1

1. j

1

1,0.

19,

|3f,

272

k

mum

cilriodom A-

Korn

I.

Pei

-

Schreb

277

I

illillnna irltu

I

ah liana

iln,n a I.

277 277

Valeriana

officinali

I.

122.

11

I.

I.

63,

\.i\

1

1

w W W

1

169.277

[8,

203 • Hydi

hi* asialica

279

I

Andrews 95,

\\

I

I

Melaleuca leucaJenaron

Vanilla 278

nili. hi

heal in. lnii

n

mi,

Bisons

io8.

1

09,

1

inn

f

1

>,.

278

102. 106, 113.

\\

Inn

\\

hiu Inn

\\

\\

-Man

s-iooi

.

278

Ycss 33

Ylang-Ylang

Planlago majot

Si|iiill

White Swe<

•

223 68 228

276 (

m./,

96, 106

,~aiitliu\\lum

americanum Mill. 283 lliiilills

I.

283

65

Zarza-Parrilla 26

141 in in

I. .Is

103.

officinalis

An zapai ills

1

102.

20. 132. 143. 2 V)

127.219

Mustard 264 '

lnii

\et

1

.~anlli

hiu Pi |i|h Inn Peppei

1

lloss Alder 275 Yellow Bedstravi set Galium verum Yellow Dot k 67, 256 Yellow Flag 190 Yellow Foxglove 57 Yellow Gentian 196 Yellow Ginseng 168 Yellow Jasmine Root 195 Yellow Jessamine 195 Yellow Lady's Slipper 181 Yellow Portulai a 245

Meliloi 221

White Pond

U

10,

Yellow Purslane 245 Yellow Stonei rop 262 Yellow Sweel ('loser 221 Yei da Matt 77. 205

roosefooi 171

,

1

1

in

103, 163

1

\\

I

1

li"

',8

White Hellebore 03, 20 \\ lnii Hon hound 66 6 \\ Inn Mallow '( Althaea

277

214 anil a pnmpima 278 \ ariegated Sage 258 Varnish ree 146

'

247

Vaw-rool 267

251

1

143.

Y(

Myrtle 226 ad 241 as broad 19 l"ea

158

-,9

107,

222

Won

1

66. 68. 69. 83. 88. 91, 103, 120,

20.

108

Pirn pei in

1

.

228

36,

1

32.

Yarross 67. 68, 76. 83. 91,

White Dead-Nettle 210 103

Viih minella laeusta 138 Vanilla 83. 88. 91, 95, 10a, 106,

I

138. 271

1

Wermul

277

138. 169. 181. 243.

278 272

\\ .hi

\\ as llinl n

m)rlilliis

\ anilla Pl.nn

tapilalus l.k

Mini

\\

Vanilla planifolia

272

heigg

277 155

Valeriana ruhn 169 Valmana 11 allaihn 63

86 88,91, 95.97 16,

138, 271.

ili\

-1.

;;-, ",

I

\\ .in

76. 83. 91

75

\\ a\ lni

urens

ursi

Valeriana i>hu

83 K,

I"',

277

Valerian i\ 63 68 69, 103, 120. 128. 129.

.",

I

.111

Weeping

rakrion 27

nm

I.

271

1-11,1 111 111

208.

112.

\\ .i\

I'rtica piluli/na

etterwon 259 nm hnmatili 'in ehamaedn

\\

I

Xanthoxylum americanum 283

73

Wata Pennywort L

III.

188

I.iK 38,

Chenopodium ambrimmdis s.n

Wrai k 103 Wurstkraul 230

Vain

Hemp \lrliill

19

tee

Woundwort

228

(i).

mi

42

dunta

66 68

11

Wati Watei 1

11I1

IO3,

192,

1

1

276

I

.1

11

69. 73. 76. 91. 96. 161

anthelminticum

Wormwood

in 66 '17. 1112. 209 an AgiiniiiMN 163

Lonicera periclymenum

Sorrel 231

Wormseed

1

\\

11

1

Woodbine see Woodruff 68.

W oods

Alba W'csin. 282

allwnri MS Sambucus rhulus 1

Tree 253 Avens 197 Betony 38

Strawberrs 191 Nightshade 265 Woolls Foxglove .57 W 01 in ( .r.iss 266

282

52,

1.

\\

U

officinalis

mantimn

rgiiua

Ireine

1

-Rnhlli 27

\\ ,iki

275

11

mhiluaiia

agnus-caslus

Wallflowei g

lmu\ iampcstrn 60 Imus fuli M11 ti

Trtliei

268 I

ilex

Wood Wood Wood Wood

Wall Germander 121. 138. 271 Wall-peppei 262

nip Rooted Parale) 236 1111I1 -head 171

'ngulwa

Wiesb.

Wonder

Waldmeisler Tea 161

.'7",

M11I1I1

>

Vogelmien

ui

llmus rubra

Witch Grass see Agropyron repent Witch Hazel 66. 199 Woad mi. 120. 126. 127.208 Wolfsbane 143

album L. 7/. 35. 57. 102. 273. 282 album L. ssp. abnti Wiesb. Abrom.

lilix agnus-castiis \,ir.

127, 138, 261

22.

Vollm 282

82. 83

7 ussilagn /ar/ara I. I win h Crass 146 /

Rodm

270

).

ragon 66

I20,

I

sr urn

\\ .in

officinali

03,

1

I

.'7"

)(

napellus

59

1

Taraktogenoi kurgit

:n

269

(8.

1

282

Urb 275 I.

282

Viscum album ssp. album L. 282 1'iwium album L. ssp. austriaeum

(usilago 27',

Taraxacum kok-sagkyt

I

1

I

IV 269

(8. 2

I

Turnip

269

I.

1

consolida

Winter Cherry see Physalis alkekengi Wintergreen 63, 66. 195 Winter Savor) 68. 85. 105. 120. 122. 123.

Murr. 281

Viper's Bugloss 184 Virginia Bugle Weed 217 Virginia Snakeroot 156

I

Whitethorn 179 White Walnut 208 White Water Lily 228 Whortleberrv 277 Wild Artichoke 263 Wild Bergamot 225 Wild Carrot 57, 182 Wild Celery 154. 265 Wild Chamomile 220 Wild Charlock 250. 264 Wild Cherry 61. 248 Wild Clematis 35 Wild Delphinium see Delphinium Wild Fennel 191 Wild Geranium 196 Wild Ginger 159 Wild Iris see Iris versicolor Wild Laburnum 221 Wild Lettuce 61. 210 Wild Madder 254 Wild Marjoram 91. 120. 231 Wild Nard 160 Wild Pansy 281 Wild Parsnip 235 Wild Pepper 282 Wild Purslane 245 Wild Radish 250 Wild Strawberrs 76, 191 Wild Succory 173 Wild Tanss 245 Wild Thyme 138. 272 Wild Yarn 59 Willow 67. 101 Windflosser 152 Winterberrv 205

281

123. 128. 129. 138. 193. 281

-,.

diffusa

Ward


7(

o

1'iirum

I urnera ulmi/olia

/

I

12

1

(,i

amu mmmunis

I

turmcrackc 180 Turmrrii 83. 91. 111. 180 Turmem hizome 180 Turmerii Rum 180 Turnera 67 68. (19. 275

officinalis

•

I

09.

1

1

|\

Tailed Pepper 241 ralewon Baraga

1

I

Merr & Perry

I.

int).

<|8.

61.269

Null

I.

280 280

purpurea 281

viola

Quercus robur

see

Tunhool k, 7 TurkcMan Rum 254 Turkey Rhubarb 252 Turk \11n1tum

Simplorarpus fncttdus

DC

sterile

Viola x uittrockiana ssp. tricolor

Tuberose

lyriacan 251 urn arumatiium

opulus var.

Viola odorata L. 61, 95, 102. 138.

t« (.annabis satna

Oak

Truffle

}8.

opulus var. roseum L.

Violet 67. 76. 83, 91. 95. 102. 115, 121.

Syi a

1

262

flore flavo

prumfolium L 280 rufidulum Raf. 280 Vmca major L. 138. 281 Vmca minor L. 281 Vinca peruinca 281 viola blaucia 281

Tropaeolum ma)us L. 275

89. 101. 108. mi,.

279

triphyllon 274 Trilicum ulgare 101.

True

officinale L.

o.

Viola tricolor L. ssp. arvensii

Weed

Woodruff 93, 161 more 102 Ssmphoniaca 203

1

Trillium erectum L. 274 Trillium pendulum 2 7 5

;

150 William 96

1

Vervain 68. 69. 76. 91. 279 Vetch 35 vettonica 266 Viburnum 280 Viburnum nudum L. 280 Viburnum opulus L. 280 Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum

I

143

Water Lih

Tangles

273

Tnjolium pratense L. 103, 13. 274 Tngonella Joenum-graecum L. 274

Viburnum 280

Tamarind

Gillis

Trailing Arbutus 185 Trce-of-Heaven 146

graieolens

04.

Veromcastrum virginicum Farwell 280

Tormentil Potentilla erecta 67. 68. 246 Tormentilla 246 Touch and Heal 247 Toute-venue 262 Toxicodendron radicans L O. Kuntze 273

Pelargonium

see

1

279 Veronica officinalis L. 279 Veronica virginica L. 280

Tree Onion 132. 148 Trefoil 224 Tricolor Sage 258

166 Fennel 191

73,

L. 95. 96.

Veronica beccabunga L.

Tragacanth 98

120. 127. 136.

91. 95. 96. 104. 110. 120. 127. 149

officinalis

Vermicularis

Tonquin Bean 106 Toothache Tree 283 Top Onion 132

66. 67. 68. 95.

Gray 278

Verbascum 119, 127 Verbascum phlomoides L. 278 Verbascum thapsiforme Schrad. 278 Verbascum thapsus L. 7, 61. 138. 278

Tinnevelly Senna 167

Laurel 21

1

273

Tragopogon porrijolius L. 264. 273 Tragopogon pratensis L. 273

Marjoram 105. Orange 75

Violei

1

Tilia x vulgaris 95. 104. 106. 107. 110 Tilleul 273

Gale 226

Sweet Sweel Sweet Sweel Sweel Sweel

102.

272

Tomato 82. 83. 107. Tonka Bean 102

97. 98. 102. 132. 143

Sued Sedge

vulgaris L. 74. 75. 88. 95. 97.

Tilia platyphyllos Scop.

recutita

Pea 95 Pepper

272

38.

1

273

1

Sweet Sweet Sweet Sweet Sweet Sweel Sweel

serpyllum L.

104, 105, 271,

Succory 173

Sweet Fennel 191 Sweet Flag Acorus calamus

pulegioides L. 271

Ins ei

221

£ea mays 101 105, lod. 107. 109 Zedoary 181 Zingibei ii 283 ^ingibei officinali Roscoe 88, 89, 283 .

:}<>a

Library; 151

Acknowledgments

APPaterson;

(left)

right

151

AP

Paterson; 152 centre A P Paterson; 152 right Pat Brindley; 153 left Pat Brindley: 154 left Pat Brindley: 154 (right A P Paterson: 155 left P2/IGDA; 155 (centre A P Paterson: 155 right A P Paterson; 156 (left) P2/IGDA; 156 centre A P Paterson; 157 centre A P Paterson; 157 Bavestrelli; 158 left A P Paterson; right (

We

Mark

are grateful to

Day

Constantine, Ivan

1

and Ian Tribe for their kind assistance, and to Michael Stringer and Roberto Campagna for the

M

drawings on pages 142-283.

1

M

We

are grateful to the following for the pictures

on the following pages: 6-7

Iris

11 A-Z Collection 13 Wellcome Snark International: 15 Mansell Collection; 16 (topi Mary Evans Picture Library; 16 below left) Mary Evans Picture Library; 16 (below right) Mary Evans Picture Library; 17 Ronald Sheridan; 18 top Bodleian Library; 18 (below) Mary Evans Picture Library; 19 Snark International; 20 (top Mansell Collection; 20 'bottom) Prague

International:

:

1

_>

Institute; 14

National Library Dagli Orti; 21 IGDA; 22 Bodleian Library; 23 (below left Radio Times Hulton; 23 (right Mary Evans Picture Librarv: 24 Ann Ronan Picture Library 24 25 Iris Hardwick Library 26 IGDA; 27 Ronald Sheridan; 28 Bruce Coleman Stephen Dalton; 30 (top left) C Bevilacqua; 30 top right) C Bevilacqua ; 30 [Harry Smith Collection; 37 A Z Collection; 38 Heather Angel: 39 Heather Angel; 41 Dr S F Buczacki; 42 Gene Cox; 43 Paul Brierley Orbis; 44 Paul Brierley /Orbis; 45 (top left Paul Brierlev Orbis; 45 (top right Paul Brierlev :

;

:

46-47 Michael Holford; 48 (top Pal Brindley 48 (below Snark International; (<) Mary Evans Man Picture Library 50 Ronald Sheridan: Evans Picture Library; 52 Iris Hardwick Librarv: 53 (top) RJ Corbin; 53 below Pat Brindley; 54 Gene Cox: 55 IGDA; 57 IGD \ i); A P Paterson; (14 Mike Leale/Orbis; 66 Iris :

-,

;

1

71 Mike Leale/Orbis; Mansell Collection; 72 right Mansell Collection; 73 Leslie Johns; 71 Zefa; 75 Syndication International; 77 Ann Ronan Picture Librarv; 78 IGDA; 7c) IGDA ; 80 Orbis 81 IGDA; 85 left IGDA; 85 right A P Paterson; 86 Bernard Allien: 87 IGDA; 88 right Mansell (left) Mansell Collection; 88 Collection; 89 Brian Eurner; 92 93 Orbis; 9 left A P Paterson 94 oilier 4 National Museum of Wales; 96 Angelo Hornak; 97 Leslie Johns and Associates 98 3 Leslie Johns and Associates; 99 top) Mansell Collection 99 bottom; Ann and Bury Peerless; tot Michael

Hardwick Library 70 ;

72

Bavestrelli; 159 left A P 158 centre Paterson; 159 (centre A P Paterson; 159 right Ba\estrelli: 160 left topi A P Paterson; 160 A P Paterson; 160 centre A P left bottom Paterson; 161 left APPaterson; 161 centre A P Paterson; 161 right A P Paterson; 162

M

Hardwick

Library; 8 topi IGDA; 8 bottom! Bodleian Library; 9 IGDA; 10 Snark

left

:

top A P Paterson; 162 (left bottom A P Paterson; 162 centre C Bevilacqua; 162 right P2/IGDA; 163 left A P Paterson; 163 centre left

A P A P

G E

Hyde: 164

left top Pat Brindley: 1(34 right APPaterson: 165 centre Paterson; 165 right A P Paterson; 166 left A P Paterson; 166 centre A P Paterson: 167 Bavestrelli; 167 centre A P Paterson: left

Paterson; 163 Paterson; 164

right left

bottom

AP

M

168

A P

left

Paterson: 169

:

AP

top P Paterson;

left

ltnj Paterson; 169 (left bottom A centre A P Paterson; 70 G E Hyde: 171 left A P Paterson; 171 centre A P Paterson: 171 right A P Paterson: 172 Pat Brindley; 173 left APPaterson; 173 centre APPaterson: 174 1

P.>

IGDA;

left

[75

M

right

Bavestrelli; 175

:

A P Paterson; 7b left A P Paterson: ;t> centre A P Paterson: 176 right IGDA; 1 77 left IGDA; 177 right A P Paterson; 178 centre A P Paterson; 78 right APPaterson: 17c) left A P Paterson; 17c) centre \ P Paterson; 179 right A P Paterson; 181 centre Harry Smith Collection; 181 (right A P Paterson; 182 (centre A P Paterson: 182 right top P2 IGDA: 182 right bottom A P Paterson; 183 left and right A P Paterson; 18) left A P Paterson; i8j centre A P Paterson; 185 left P2 IGDA; 185 right top A P Paterson; 185 right bottom A P Paterson: 186 left APPaterson; 186 centre APPaterson: 187 left APPaterson; 187 centre IGDA; 187 right G I. Hyde; 188 A P Paterson: l8e, A P Paterson; C)o A P Paterson ten centre Pat Brindley; 191 right Dr Derek Reid; ic|2 left H Veillcr: 192 right Iris Hardwick Library; 1

1

1

1

193

;

Giorgio Negri

centre-

Johns and Associates; i<m ie)4

centre

ie)6

right

right

193

;

Leslie

APPaterson; 96 (left APPaterson:

left

APPaterson; Hardwick Library; 1

|

Iris

197

right top

;

P Paterson; 197 right bottom A P Paterson; 198 left A P Paterson; 198 centre APPaterson:

A

;

;

Holford: 102 IGDA; 104 A P Paterson: 10;, A P Paterson; 106 P2 IGDA; 107 centre Syndication International: 107

right

IGDA;

108

1

H

1

1

Roger- Yiollet; 114-5 Leslie Johns and

20-1 21 Brian Furner; 121 A— Collection; 125 Ronald Sheridan; 127 both Orbis; 128 left NRVS; 128 centre ICI Ltd: 129 Iris Hardwick Library; 130 Brian Furner: 131

1

left

Snark Edouard Rousseau:

131

right

Kew 142 A P

Brian Matthew/Royal Botanic Garden.

:

140 141 Leslie Johns and Associates: Paterson; 143 left P2/IGDA: 143 centre P2/IGDA; 143 right Brian Furner; 144. centre Brian Furner: 44 right Iris Hardwick Librarv: [45 Harry Smith Collection: 146 left A P 1

Paterson: 146 centre Weed Research Organisation: 147 left A P Paterson; 147 centre A P Paterson; 148 left A P Paterson: 1(8 right APPaterson; 14c) left Harry Smith Collection; 149 centre G I. Hyde; 149 right A P Paterson; 150 hit A P Paterson: [50 centre A P Paterson 150 right Iris Hardwick ;

3O4

19c)

right

P2IGDA:

:

M

1

Associates; 116 Mansell Collection: 119 Paul

Miles;

APPaterson:

left

200 centre Pal Brindlev 200 right Pat Brindley; 201 IGDA; 202 centre APPaterson; 202 right A P Paterson: 204 left APPaterson: 204 centre A P Paterson: 205 left top Pat Brindley: 205 left bottom A P Paterson; 206 Bavestrelli; 207 centre A P Paterson; 207 right A P Paterson; 208 Pat Brindley; 209 left \ P Paterson; 209 right G E Hvde: 210 A P right centre) A P Paterson: 21 Paterson; 21 A P Paterson; 212 A P Paterson: 213 top A P Paterson; 213 bottom: A P Paterson; 214 centre Pat Brindley 2 14 right Harry Smith Collection; 217 centre A P Paterson; 217 right H Yeiller: 218 left A P Paterson; 218 centre A P Paterson; 218 right A P Paterson: 219 A P Paterson; 220 Pat Brindley: 222 left Pat Brindlev; 222 right A P Paterson: 223 lett 1

Syndication International; 10 left Ann and Bur\ Peerless; 110 right IGDA; Mansell Collection; 112 Snark Edouard Rousseau; 113 1

[99

1

1

;

A P

Paterson: 223

A-Z

centre-

Collection: 224

Pat Brindley; 224 right Pat Brindley: 225 centre! Pat Brindlev: 225 right A P Paterson; 226 centre A P Paterson: 226 right Brian Furner; 227 centre A P Paterson: 227 right R J Corbin; 228 centre A P Paterson; 228 right A P Paterson; 229 left A P Paterson; centre

229 right Brian Furner; 230 deft AP Paterson; 230 centre A P Paterson: 231 A P Paterson: 232 Pat Brindlev 233 A P Paterson 234 top A P Paterson 1

;

;

234 bottom Pat Brindley: 235 G E Hyde: 236 top Paterson: 236 bottom Pat Brindley: 238 A P Paterson; 240 A P Paterson: 241 Brian Furner: 242 left top A P Paterson; 242 left bottom A P Paterson: 242 right A P Paterson: 244 A P Paterson: 245 left A P Paterson: 245 right A P Paterson; 246 top A P Paterson; 246 bottom A P Paterson: 247 left A P Paterson; 247 centre Pat Brindley: 247 right A P Paterson; 248 left A P Paterson: 248 right A P Paterson; 249 left A P Paterson; 249 right G E Hyde; 250 centre Iris Hardwick Library: 250 right A P Paterson; 251 centre A P Paterson: 251 right A P Paterson 252 left Brian Furner; 252 right P2 IGDA: 253 top A P Paterson; 253 bottom A P Paterson: 254 left Pat Brindley; 254 centre A P Paterson: 254 right A P Paterson: 255 left A P Paterson; 255 centre A P Paterson: 255 right Pat Brindley; 256 left A P Paterson: 256 centre A P Paterson: 256 right A P Paterson: 257 Pat Brindlev: 258 left A P Paterson: 258 right A P Paterson: 259 left Iris Hardwick Librarv 259 right Pat Brindley: 260 centre A P Paterson: 260 right A P Paterson; 261 centre A P Paterson; 261 right A P Paterson: 262 left A P Paterson: 262 centre A P Paterson: 264 A P Paterstm: 265 centre A P Paterson: 265 right A P Paterson: 266 A P Paterson: 267 left IGDA; 267 centre A P Paterson 268 A P Paterson: 26c) left A P Paterson 269 right Brian Furner; 270 left A P Paterson 270 right A P Paterson: 271 Bernard Alfieri: 272 left top Pat Brindlev 272 left bottom C Bevilacqua: 273 centre A P Paterson: 274 A P Paterson: 275 left A P Paterson: 275 centre Brian Furner: 276 left A P Paterson: 276 right APPaterson: 277 left A P Paterson; 277 right APPaterson: 278 Giorgio Negri 279 A P Paterson; 281 left

A P

:

:

:

:

;

A

P Paterson; 281 right Harrv Smith Collection: 282 top A P Paterson: 282 bottom APPaterson: 283 lett A P Paterson; 283 righl A P Paterson.

"*r

Malcolm Stuart is Director of the Herb and was formerly Assistant to the

Society

director of Research at the National Institute

Medical Herbalists. Dr Stuart contributes and television programs, is the author of numerous articles on medical and regularly to radio

horticultural subjjects

and is the

editor of

Herbal Review.

was formerly Head of the ment of Nutrition and Home Economics at tnc Advisory Bureau in London. Translate* !:tor and author, Mrs Ellison's iJrey Ellison

ivcj

'

•

publications include The Great Scandinavian

Lookbook

Dr

and Growing/or the Kitchen.

Peter Hylands

pharmacognosy and teaching the chemistry of natural compounds. He has also taught in East Africa and has numerous research publications to his credit. is

lecturer in

at the University of London, studying

Allen Paterson trained in horticulture at Cambridge University Botanic Garden and the

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He is Curator of Chelsea Physic Garden, and has written on horticultural and botanical subjects for a range ofjournals and books.

Kay Sanecki worked

trained as a horticulturist

for the

and has

Royal Horticultural Society and

in horticultural publishing for 25 years.

Her

books include Wild and Garden Herbs, Discovering Herbs, The Complete Book of Herbs and Discovering English Gardens. She has also contributed to numerous journals and encyclopedias.

GROSSET&DUNLAP \

HI

MWAYS COMPANY New York

Publishers

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