The Merchant Of Venice

The Merchant of Venice William Shakespeare

• Introduction the Shakespeare (see Hamlet) • The introduction & source of the play • The relationship between characters • Story analysis • Themes and Motifs • Social significance

Trade of Venice Situated on the Adriatic Sea, V enice always traded with the Byza ntine Empire and the Muslim world extensively. By the late thirteenth c entury, Venice was the most prosp erous city in all of Europe. At the p eak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 shi ps, dominating Mediterranean com merce. During this time, Venice's l eading families vied with each oth er to build the grandest palaces an d support the work of the greatest and most talented artists.

The City of Venice

The Merchant of Venice • Written some time around 1597 • Written as a romantic comedy since it is about lo ve and ends happily • Fuses （融合） many dramatic elements: • romantic courtship （求爱期） , riddling （解开） love t ests, eloping （私奔） lovers, comic confusions, a gripping （引人注意的） courtroom trial, and a seemi ngly harmonious final act • At the core of the play is Shylock, the Jewish mo neylender. He only appears in five of the 20 sce nes, but his presence dominates the play.

Theatrical Traditions of Jews 犹太人在戏剧上的传统体现

• Roots of Shakespearean drama begin with mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages, which were performed by the church for a largely illiterate( 文盲 ) audience abou t Old and New Testament stories. Jews were often view ed as responsible for Christ’s crucifixion （钉死在十字架上） . • Jews became the evil villains （反派角色） of Elizabethan drama. They were one-dimensional （一元空间） stereotyp ical characters. • The Jew of Malta( 马耳他岛的犹太人 ), written in 1589 by Chri stopher Marlowe, is one such work. Marlowe was Shake speare greatest rival.

The Jew of Malta

Barbaras is a villain who steals, cheats, and indulges in murder until he finally meets a gruesome end, boiling in oil.

The Merchant of Venice

Both money-lend ers Both have daught ers who leave ho me with father’s money Both despicable （卑鄙的） char acters

Shylock is presented as a complex man, whose every action can be understood, and who ultimately elicits sympathy from the modern audience.

Jews in England • 1075 in Oxford: Jews were not confined to ghettos （贫民区） as many of their European counterparts, but they were not allowed to be citizens. B ecause Christians could not lend money with interest, many Jews earne d lucrative （获利多的） livings as usurers. In trying to regain debt owed t o them, Jews became the target of resentment. • Late 12th Century: Anti-Semitic sentiment （反犹情绪） culminated in （达到 顶峰） two massacres, one at the coronation （加冕礼） of Richard I in 11 89 (30 Jews killed), and the other in the city of York in 1190 (150 Jews kil led). • In fact, the Magna Carta （ 1215 年制定的大宪章） , is a testament （实际证明） to growing Anti-Semitic feelings—two clauses （法律条款） state that if a d ebtor dies debt is paid, neither heir or widow is responsible for paying it. • 1275: Jews forbidden to be money-lenders as well as other edicts imple mented: taxation of Jews over 12 years old and wearing badges （标记） that identified them as Jews. • 1290 (until 1655): Expelled from England

Jews in Elizabethan Society • Threat of Civil War • Staved off （防止…发生） threat of rebellion by dealing ruth lessly with threat of treason, real or perceived • Climate of religious intolerance （不容异说） against Christ ians • Jews who converted （更换信仰） living quietly in England during Elizabeth’s reign • In 1593 Rodrigo Lopez, the Queen’s physician, was accu sed of trying to poison her, allegedly in league with （与… …联合） the King of Spain. He was convicted of treason and hung in 1594, and because he was one of the above Jews, yet another outbreak of anti-Jewish sentiment occ urred. • Therefore, it isn’t known whether Shakespeare ever cam e into contact with anyone who was Jewish.

Shakespeare’s Intent?

• Given the anti-Jewish climate in Elizabethan Eng land and Shakespeare’s portrayal of Shylock as a negative stereotype, it would be reasonable to assume Shakespeare was an Anti-Semite. • However, the rest of the details of the play do no t support this. • It has been suggested that the real evil is the cor rupt value system of the principal Christian chara cters. Antonio, the merchant of the title, is the worst big ot （抱有偏见的人） Portia is also a racist, but not only were Jews he r only victims.

Influence on Anti-Semitism

• Regardless of what Shakespeare's own intentions may have b een, the play has been made use of by anti-semites througho ut the play's history. • One must note that the end of the title in the 1619 edition "Wit h the Extreme Cruelty of Shylock the Jew…" must aptly descri be how Shylock was viewed by the English public. • The Nazis used the usurious （放高利贷的） Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, "The Merchant of Venice" was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the Ge rman airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Luberk (19 38),Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi Territory. • The depiction of Jews in English literature throughout the cent uries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as “a monied, cruel, lecherous （好色） , avaricious （贪婪） outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard ( 财产积蓄 )”.

Contrasts Presented in the Play • • • •

Jew against Christian Love against hate Usury against venture trading Mercy against justice

• Appearances are rarely what the seem: gol d and silver prove worthless, identities are mistaken, women disguised as （伪装） men t rick their husbands.

Subplots • • • •

Bond Plot 契约情节 Casket Plot 首饰盒情节 Elopement Plot 私奔情节 Ring Plot 戒指情节

• These plots are interwoven throughout the play.

Reading Shakespeare: A Review Unlocking Shakespeare's Language, by Randal Robinson  Unusual Word Arrangements I ate the sandwich. I the sandwich ate. Ate the sandwich I. Ate I the sandwich. The sandwich I ate. The sandwich ate I. Robinson shows us that these four words can create six unique sentences which carry the same meaning. Locate the subject, verb, and the object of the sentence. Notice that the object of the sentence is often placed at the beginning (the sandwich) in front of the verb (ate) and subject (I). Rearrange the words in the order that makes the most sense to you (I ate the sandwich).

• Poetry

We speak in prose (language without metrical （韵律 的） structure). Shakespeare wrote both prose （散 文） and verse （韵文） (poetry). Much of the langua ge discussion we will have in this guide revolves aro und （围绕着） Shakespeare's poetry. So, it is import ant that you understand the following terms:

Blank Verse （无韵诗、素体诗） : unrhymed iambic pent ameter （不押韵的五音部诗） . 参照书本 94 页起 （ introduced by Christopher Marlowe ） Iambic Pentameter （抑扬格五音部） : five beats of alte rnating （交互的） unstressed and stressed syllables; ten syllables per line.

• Omissions Again, for the sake of his poetry, Shakespeare often left out letters, syllables, and whole words. These omissions really aren't that much different from the way we speak today. We say: "Been to class yet?" "No. Heard Albrecht's givin' a test." "Wha'sup wi'that?“ We leave out words and parts of words to speed up our speech. If we were speaking in complete sentences, we would say: "Have you been to class yet?" "No, I have not been to class. I heard that Mrs. Albrecht is giving a test today." "What is up with that?"

• A few examples of Shakespearean omissions/contractions follow: 'tis ~ it is ope ~ open o'er ~ over gi' ~ give ne'er ~ never i' ~ in e'er ~ ever oft ~ often a' ~ he e'en ~ even

Source • There are many possible texts that Shakespeare could have used in writing The Merchant of Venice. • His chief source was a tale in an Italian collection entitled Il Pecorone or The Simpleton, written in 1378 by Giovanni Fiorentino, and published in 1565. • In addition, Shakespeare could have relied upon a play called The Jew. He also could have used a novel called Zelauto, written by the English playwright Anthony Munday in 1580. Lastly, in approximately 1591, Christopher Morlowe wrote the Jew of Malta.

Story introduction Long time ago, a man called Antonio lived in Venice. He was a m erchant, owning many ships which traded with distant countries. And he was a good man as well as a rich one. His best friend Ba ssanio, who fell in love with a beautiful and rich lady called Porti a, was not a wealthy man. So he didn’t ask Portia to marry him. A t last, he asked Antonio to lend him some money, so that he coul d visit Portia at Belmont. It happened that time all Antonio’s shop s were at sea, and he wouldn’t have money to lend Bassanio unti l the ships returned. So they decided to go to a money-lender. Now, an old Jew named Shylock lived in Venice. The Jews in those days were the money-lenders of Venice. He asked Antonio to sign a bond promising that he might cut off a pound of flesh fr om Antonio’s body if the money was not paid. So Bassanio unwil lingly took the money, and sailed away to Belmont.

In fact, Portia loved Bassanio too. So they arrang ed to get married. However, their happiness was soo n disturbed by a bad news: Antonio’s six ships, full o f riches, had all been wrecked at sea, which also mea nt Antonio lost all his money. Shylock was extremely happy after he heard the news and he went to cut off a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body. When he bega n sharpening the long knife he had brought with him, a lawyer entered. Portia was the lawyer, but none of others knew recognized her. Finally, Portia was so cl ever that she saved Antonio’s life.

The characters in the play

The Duke of Venice

T he Prince of Marocco The Prince of Aragon

suitors of Portia

Antonio, a merchant of Venice Bassanio, his friend, suitor of Portia Portia, the lady of Belmont Shylock, a jew of Venice Gratiano Salerio Solanio

friends of Antonio e Bassanio

Lorenzo, in love with Jessica Nerissa, Portia’s waiting-woman Jessica, daughter of Shylock Tubal, a jew of Venice, Shylock’s friend Leonardo, servant of Bassanio

Balthasar Stephano servants of Portia Launcelot Gobbo, servant of Shylock Old Gobbo, father of Launcelot

Key Words: Glib World-wise Mercenary slick and flimflam

Shylock Who He is

A successful Jewish moneylender who is much maligned over his religion and the practice of moneylenders such as himself of charging interest.

Roles of Shylock

Role １ : Usurer/Miser • Shylock is a greedy and heartless moneyl ender who lends money to Christian. • He ill-treats his servant • He holds his daughter and ducats tightly.

Role ２ : Jew • The “Humanity” of Shylock has been proved many times. He is not me rely a monster to revile 辱骂 and curse; his viewpoint is fully given and can, on occasion, command the whole sympathy of an audience. • The first full opportunity for this is his sarcastic dialogue with Antonio: should I bend low, and in a bondman’s key With bated breath, and whisp’ring humbleness Say this: “ Fair sir, you spet on me on Wednesday last, You spurn’d me a day, another time You call’d me dog: and for these courtesies I’ll lend you thus much moneys”? ( Ⅰ. iii. II8-24)20’20’’

Role ２ : Jew •

The next full opportunity for Shylock to state his case is the speech: Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, P assions? fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, Subj ec to the same diseases, healed by the same means, Warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as A Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison Us, do we not die? and if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? (III. i.)52’40’’ Here he claims a hearing on the grounds that he suffers as other me n, and will take revenge like them.

Role ２ : Jew •

So powerful has Shylock’s justification proved, that it is sometimes f orgotten that a villain 坏人 is speaking. It has to be pointed out that “ What is commonly received as Shylock’s plea for tolerance is in real ity his justification of an inhuman purpose.” Shakespeare has creat ed in Shylock an outcast who suffers and is driven to extremity in hi s suffering, but no matter how harshly the Christians treat him, he re mains the Jew who intends to kill his enemy, a harsh , cynical, and r uthless villain. Whether his suffering forces him to be a villain, or wh ether his villainy causes him to suffer, Shakespeare is not concerne d to say. But there is a judgment: at the end of the trial scene, Shylo ck ‘s designs are defeated and he has to accept conversion to Chris tianity.

Role 3: Father/Master • Besides being a Jew, he is also an old fath er with a young daughter who escapes fro m him to escapes from him to marry the m an she loves. • Shylock's function in this play is to be the obstacle, the man who stands in the way o f the love stories; such a man is a tradition al figure in romantic comedies.

• He is also a cruel master who refuses to al low his servant (Launcelot Gobbo) being stuffed, which results in Launcelot Gobbo’s betrayal.

Duke of Venice Who He is

As judge over the court case between Shylock and Antonio, he has the power to pardon a death sentence

What He does and what happens to Him In the play, he is put in a difficult position by Shylock; he doesn't want Antonio to die, but to ignore Shylock's legal rights would be to place all of Venice in disrepute as a place to conduct business.

Key words: generous noble warm-hearted kind upright

Antonio Who He is A Venetian merchant of considerable wealth, he makes his money from "ventures", or mercantile enterprises using his fleet of ships. What He does and what happens to Him Much liked by his friends, Salanio, Gratiano and Salarino, Antonio is owed money by his friend Bassanio. The title of this play is considered to be derived from this character as well as the character of Shylock.

Jessica

Key Words: Keen-witted intelligent brave merciful well-educated

Portia Portia Who She is The heroine of this play, Portia is a wealthy and beautiful woman who is desired by many, so much so that her father has devised an ingenious test all suitors must perform to win her hand in marriage This consists of a suitor choosing one of three chests in which her portrait lies. What She does and what happens to Her Far from being merely beautiful, Portia also possesses a sharp mind, one, which saves Antonio from doom at the hands of Shylock.

• Quick-witted, wealthy, and beautiful, Portia embod ies the virtues that are typical of Shakespeare’s h eroines—it is no surprise that she emerges as the antidote 解毒药 to Shylock’s malice 恶意 . • At the beginning of the play ， she is a near priso ner, feeling herself absolutely bound to follow her f ather’s dying wishes. This opening appearance, h owever, proves to be a revealing introduction to P ortia, who emerges as that rarest of combinations —a free spirit who abides rigidly by rules.

• In her defeat of Shylock Portia prevails 获 胜 by applying a more rigid 刚硬的 stand ard than Shylock himself, agreeing that his contract very much entitles him to his pou nd of flesh, but adding that it does not allo w for any loss of blood. • Anybody can break the rules, but Portia’s effectiveness comes from her ability to ma ke the law work for her.

• Portia rejects the stuffiness that rigid adher ence to the law might otherwise suggest. • In her courtroom appearance, she vigorous ly applies the law, but still flouts 藐视 conv ention by appearing disguised as a man. • After depriving Bassanio of his ring, she sto ps the trick before it goes too far, but still ta kes it far enough to berate Bassanio and Gr atiano for their callousness 无情 .

• As many people have pointed out that Portia seems like an extremely merciful person , both in the court scene and in her treatment of her suitors. • Portia, one of the play’s leading characters, is functioning as a mere mouthpiece( 代言人 )in the play’s climactic( 高潮的 ) scene. She speaks words of a character who never even appears.

Nerissa Who is She Portia's waiting-maid. What She does and what happens to her She tends to Portia and also helps Portia save Antonio's life. She later marries Bassanio's friend Gratiano.

The prince of Morocco Who He is? He’s one of Portia's suitors. What He does and what happens to Him? He chooses the gold casket, which is the wrong one and loses the right to marry Portia.

Launcelot Gobbo Who He is A clown and servant to Shylock.

What He does and what happens to Him He aids in the escape of Jessica from Shylock and works for Bassanio.

The prince of Arragon Who He is As one of Portia's suitors. What He does and what happens to He This suitor also fails to win the fair Portia's hand in marriage when he incorrectly chooses the silver casket.

"If you prick us, do we not bleed? if you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison us, do we not die? and if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?". – (Act III, scene I). "The devil can cite scripture for his purpose". -(Act I, sce. III). "I like not fair terms and a villain's mind". - (Act I, scene III) I hold the world but as the world, Gratiano, A stage, where every man must play a part; And mine a sad one. (Act i. scene. 1.) Superfluity comes sooner by white hairs, but competency lives longer. (Act i. sce. 2. ) I dote on his very absence. (Act i. scene. 2.)

The devil can cite scripture for his purpose. (Act i. sce. 3.) Mislike me not for my complexion, The shadow’d livery of the burnish’d sun. (Act ii. scene. 1. ) It is a wise father that knows his own child. (Act ii. sce. 2.) In the twinkling of an eye. ( Act ii. scene. 2. ) But love is blind, and lovers cannot see The pretty follies that themselves commit. (Act ii. sce. 6.) All that glisters is not gold. (Act ii.)

• Shakespeare’s four comedies • • • •

：

A Midsummer Night's Dream As you like it Twelfth Night The merchant of Venice

• The four misers in literature ： 　　 Harpagon （ French 　 Moliere The Miser ） 　　 Grandet （ French 　 Balzac Eugenie Grandet ） 　　 Plyushkin （ Russian 　 Gogol Dead souls ） 　　 Shylock （ English Shakespears The merchant of Ve nice)

1 、 What’s the s tory about?

2 、 Who are the p eople involved in t he conflict?

Duke

Antonio

lawyer Lawyer Potia

defendant

accuser

Shylock

judge judge 　　 　 　 　 　 被 　 a pound of flesh 　 告

Bassanio friend s

Potia

A contentious case

Gratiano

nerissa

3 、 What’s the c onflict of the two sides?

The first half ： Shylock intended to revenge and punish Antonio . （ Shylock’s pla y） The second half ： Potia intellege ntly defended Shylock and won t he case.

1 、 In the first half of the debate,what’s the attitudes of the accuser and the defendant ？ What’s their personalities ？ What’s the r hetorical device used here? Antonio concede

kind

“a pound of flesh”due bi ll

　 Shylock

insist

greedy

friendship

cruel

mercy

cunning

contrast

2 、 The two rounds of debate can be devided 1 、 The battle between Potia and Shyl into three 4.From the parts. two rounds of debate ， what’s t ock canwhat be devided two rounds. 3 、 In way didinto Potia won ？ he feeling impacting on the audience ？

Potia

Shylock Ask for mercy Triple payback Ask for doctor

Ups and downs

Concede 3times

sus pen ce

Refuse 3times

Must cut ， law permission ， verdict of the court

Threaten the life of the citizen,confiscate property, lose the suit

Play hard to get con ver sio n

What’s the personalities of them ？ Wha t’s the rhetorical device used here? win

lose

Shylock vengeful

Cut a pound of flesh

Potia intellegent kind

Money-oriented

courageous

Callous&cunning

　　　　　

contras

Theme In the play Shakespeare praises friendship, love and the wisdom of kind people. It is a story of friendship and love versus greed and money; good versus evil; Love and money versus religions; the law was used justly. This is the humanism during the Renaissance.

Commentary The Merchant of Venice is classified as a comedy in the first folio but the play is more remembered for its dramatic scenes, and it is best known for the character of Shylock. We consider the Merchant of Venice one of the best Shakespearean plays, because through the character Shakespear represents many features of the English society, such as friendship, love and racism. So we recommend this play to those who want to know more about key issues in the English Renaissance society, which are also extremely up-to-date.

Shylock

• Shylock asked for a poun d of Antonio’s flesh as a guarantee for Bassanio’s debt, which is definitely t oo unusual to not be sym bolic. There’s a bunch of different ways to interpre t why on earth Shylock w ould want a pound of fles h, and why Antonio woul d be into giving it up.

• It emerges most as a metaphor for two of the plays closest relationships, but a lso calls attention to shylock’s inflexibl e adherence to the law. • The fact that Bassanio’s debt is to be p aid with Antonio’s flesh is significant, s howing that their friendship is so bindi ng that it had made them almost one.

• Shylock’s determination is strengthened by J essica’s departure as if he were seeking reco mpense for the loss of his own flesh and blo od by collecting it from his enemy. • lastly, the pound of flesh is a constant remin der of the rigidity of shylock’s world, where n umerical calculations are used to evaluate ev en the most serious of situations. shylock ne ver explicitly( 明确的 ) demands that Antonio to die , but asks instead in his numerical min d for a pound in exchange for his 3000 ducat s （达卡银币） .Where the other characters measure their emotions with long metaphors and words, shylock measures everything in f ar more prosaic( 无聊的 ) and numerical quan tities.

• Early on, there’s some brouhaha （躁动） about the fact that Christi ans will eat the flesh of anything. O n the other hand, Shylock, as he is Jewish, will not eat pork. Though h e says Antonio’s flesh isn’t worth a s much as beef or mutton, there’s st ill a sense of some secret delight he might get from taking this forbidde n flesh.

• Another controversial interpretation hinges o n the religious significance of the pound of fle sh. Gareth Armstrong’s 2005 interpretation of The Merchant of Venice, called “Shylock,” acc ording to the Freudian （ 弗洛伊德 ） interpret ation, hinges on the penis （ 阴茎 ） . The thou ght here is that the taking of a pound of flesh i s Shylock’s own iteration of the Jewish ritual （ 宗教 ） of circumcision （ 净化 ） , or the cut ting of the foreskin （ 包皮 ） from the penis. Shylock can’t get Antonio to come around to J udaism by proselytizing （ 劝诱改宗 ） , so he has Antonio lose flesh and thus become more like a Jew.

Venice & Belmont

• Venice, as in Shakespeare’s time, is the city of c ommerce where wealth flows in and out with ea ch visiting ship. Venice is also a cosmopolitan ( 世界性 )city at the frontier of Christendom （基 督教世界） , society in Venice is a predominantl y （支配的） male world. • Belmont, on the other hand, is the home of Porti a and her mysterious caskets, it is a place of ro mance and festivity. Belmont is idealized “green world” that is removed from the ruthlessness （无情的） of the real world, unlike Venice, it is controlled by women.

• One of the play’s most obvious symbol s are the three caskets of gold, silver, a nd lead. This gimmick of choosing a ca sket to choose a suitor was an old folkt ale, and Shakespeare likely took it from the medieval Gesta Romanorum( 中世 纪拉丁文献，以短小故事的形式讲述了罗 马时代的风俗和传奇 ) which had been tr anslated into English in 1577.

• In the play, Portia’s father left behind three ca skets to symbolize three different kinds of lo ve. There’s also some serious paternalism ( 家长式制度 ) caught up in the game – Portia must marry whomever chooses the correct c asket, regardless of her own feelings or prefe rences. It points out that Portia’s father was a wise man – his game is likely carefully devise d so that only one who truly loves Portia can have her. Unlike many other challenges in the play, the casket game relies on nothing but m erit for judgment. Every man – regardless of r ace, creed, or country – has a shot at her han d. The suitors’ own wisdom, and not any prej udice against them, will decide their fate

• The Prince of Morocco chooses the gold che st. He reasons he wants Portia, to him, love, as represented by gold, is not about the cont ents of the casket but its outer appearance a s a coveted thing of value. This love symboli cally runs no deeper than a surface level, and so Portia’s father wouldn’t have so perfuncto ry and material a man win his daughter. • The Prince of Arragon is undone by the silver chest, as he reasons he is as deserving as an y man. Unfortunately, he is not.

• Bassanio is the one who chooses the right cas ket, finally. He dismisses gold because appear ances are often deceiving, and he dismisses si lver because it is so base and material a metal that it is used as common currency in coins. N either of these uses reek of love to him. His ch oice of lead is very symbolic: it is probably ho w he imagines himself, as he has less ornamen tation to offer than the other suitors. Still, it’s t he script that seems to move him –he’s willing to twice risk what he’s lost as a means to getti ng it all back. He’s rewarded for this because it seems Portia’s father believes that true love is about being able to risk it all.

• Characteristics • • • • •

Humanism Art Science Religion Self-awareness

Humanism •

In some ways Humanism was not a philosophy per se, but rather a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis', that being the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome". Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind."

Art • One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique. The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. To that end, painters also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method, was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists. Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello another Florentine and Titian in Venice, among others.

Science • The upheavals occurring in the arts and humanities were mirrored by a dynamic period of change in the sciences. Some have seen this flurry of activity as a "scientific revolution", heralding the beginning of the modern age. Others have seen it merely as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day. Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods with which philosophers sought to explain natural phenomena.

•

•

Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. An exhaustive 2007 study by Fritjof Capra shows that Leonardo was a much greater scientist than previously thought, and not just an inventor. In science theory and in conducting actual science practice, Leonardo was innovative. He set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics; he devised principles of research method that for Capra classify him as “father of modern science”. In Capra's detailed assessment of many surviving manuscripts Leonardo's science is more in tune with holistic non-mechanistic and non-reductive approaches to science which are becoming popular today. Perhaps the most significant development of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather a process for discovery, the scientific method. This revolutionary new way of learning about the world focused on empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and discarding the Aristotelian "final cause" in favor of a mechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus and Galileo. In his 1991 survey of these developments, Charles Van Doren considers that the Copernican revolution really is the Galilean cartesian (René Descartes) revolution, on account of the nature of the courage and depth of change their work brought about. The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy. With the publication of Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica, a new confidence was placed in the role of dissection, observation, and a mechanistic view of anatomy.

Religion • The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Indeed, much (if not most) of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.

• The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages saw a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome. While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform movement know as Conciliarism, which sought to limit the pope's power. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four illegitimate children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power.

• Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament. Indeed, it was Luther who in October 1517 published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to its sale of indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.

Self-awareness •

By the 15th century, writers, artists and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases like modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. The term la rinascita first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568). Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.

Spread • In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread with great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy, and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.

England • In England, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, John Milton, and Edmund Spenser, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.

A Brief Comment on The Social Significance of “The Merchant of Venice”

Key Words: Social Significance Prejudice Hypocrisy Times • The Merchant of Venice is to unmask unr easoning prejudice against the Jews and t o satirize the Christians' hypocrisy.

the social significance of this play in Shakespeare's times • At first, the paper expounds the friendship between Antonio and Bassanio. • Secondly, it sets forth Portia of great beaut y, wit and loyalty • Finally, the paper points out the insatiable greed and brutality of Shylock

the social significance of this play in modern times • Firstly, the paper dissertates unreasoning prejudice against the Jews. • Secondly, the paper discourses upon the Christians' hypocrisy. • the paper expatiates on their false standar ds of friendship and love, and their cunnin g ways of pursuing worldliness

• 1.1 To Praise the Friendship between A ntonio and Bassanio. • The great friendship between Antonio and Bassanio becomes evident in the first act of the play when Antonio loans Bassanio a large sum of money. From Bassanio's wor ds, we realize that this has taken place bef ore

• 1.2 To Idealize Portia of Great Beauty, Wit and Loyalty.

• 1.3 To Expose the Insatiable Greed and Brutality of Shylock. • Shylock is a greedy and cruel miser. As a bloodthirsty bogeyman, Shylock is only interested in money

• 2.1 To Unmask Unreasoning Prejudice against the Jews. • Through the above mentioned Shylock's famous impassioned plea in the middle of the Merchant of Venice, to allow us to see Shylock in a characteristically vulnerable position and to view him as a human being capable of feeling humanity, love and grieve more than greed, parsimony and blackness.

• 2.2 To Satirize the Christians' Hypocrisy. • The traditional theme of the play shows that the characte r of Shylock seems, outwardly, to be a villain and that Ant onio, who, outwardly, seems like a good Christian. The pl ay, however, is much deeper than this. Shakespeare give s reasons for Shylock's actions—if they are acts of hatre d, it is not unfounded hatred. Instead, it is clear that the A ntonio has given Shylock ample reasons to seek revenge . Further, many of the Christian characters exhibit the sa me behaviors that they persecute Shylock for. Upon exa mination of Shylock's motives and the actions of the Chri stian in the play, it is not Shylock's Jewishness that is bei ng criticized, but the hypocrisy shown by Christian chara cters.

• 2.2.1 To Criticize Their False Standards of Friendship and Love. • The Christian characters in The Merchant of Venice assess their own worth and the worth of others according to faulty standards, believe that money and position are more important than friendship and love.

• 2.2.2To Condemn Their Cunning Ways of Pur suing Worldliness. • The more odious hypocrisy of the Christians is th eir cunning ways of pursuing worldliness. In the t rial scene ， at first, the Duke tells Shylock that everyone expects him to give up the pound of fle sh at the last minute, and furthermore, he wishes for him to show further mercy on Antonio. He ask s Shylock

What is the subject of Shakespeare play “the Venetian merchant”? • This is a great irony and comedy. The script is the subject of praise love, friendship and love, • At the same time also reflects the business of early capitalism and the bourgeoisie sharks conflict between the performances of the authors of bourgeois society, money, Legal and religious issues such as the humanistic ideas. It plays an important literary achievement; this Shylock is the shape of the mercenary,