Loading documents preview...
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Metallurgy of Welding
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Metallurgy of Welding Introduction Welding and heat treatment Physical changes Metallurgical property changes Conclusion
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welding A Major Fabrication Process General Engineering Construction - Earthmoving equipment, cranes
Infrastructure - Buildings , bridges , roads, flyovers, tunnels Projects - Refineries, fertilizers, steel plants, chemical & petrochemical plants
Automotive sector - 2- wheelers, cars, trucks, buses Railways - Coaches, locomotives, wagons Shipbuilding and aircraft
Power plants & pressure vessels Consumer durable - Refrigerators, ACs, Almirahs Defense - Tanks, APCs, Aircraft, Rockets
Food processing - Dairy, brewery, cooking etc.
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Why Should Welding Technologists Learn Metallurgy? Welding is mostly done for fabrication of metals and alloys The final properties of the welded assembly will depend on the metallurgical structure of the parent metal and the weld. All welding processes involve heating and cooling of the components being welded Thus to ensure a satisfactory welded component, it is necessary to understand metallurgical structures and how they and the weld thermal cycle, determine the properties of the weld joint.
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Joining of Materials Joining Mechanical Fasteners
Soldering
Metallurgical Brazing
Welding
Bolting Riveting
Adhesive Bonding
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welding Metallurgy
Prior to welding as a useful fabrication, riveting was extensively used for joining Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Joining of Materials Mechanical Joining- Demerits Interfaces- fretting fatigue, fretting corrosion, crevice corrosion…. Extra manufacturing steps Additional weight- energy inefficient Cost- materials, manufacturing and above all…. Stress concentration!
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Joining of Materials Metallurgical Joining- Scores over Mechanical joining due to No interface Less weight Faster Ease of operation, in situ welding….. Suitable for different joint types Cost effective
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welding Metallurgy Welding dispenses with the disadvantages Is it totally free of disadvantages? No, but advantages often outweigh such demerits- faster, safer, cost effective…
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welding Metallurgy Welding almost always requires application of heat
Temperatures as high as 1000 to 1600 deg C! Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welding Metallurgy
Physical Changes- effect of local heat Distortion Residual stresses
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Much more profound is the metallurgical structure change
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Inherent Heat Treatment in Welding Welding causes Melting at the interface- fusion zone or weld zone (WZ) Adjoining regions experience temperatures up to but not exceeding MP, called Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Dendrites in fusion zone
Is grain size change/orientation only the change? Does not „heat treatment‟ take place? Yes! Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Treatment and Welding Heat treatment is applied to whole component Temperatures and soaking times are well defined Heating and cooling rates are well defined Intended properties are predictable/ achievable
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Treatment in Welding Localized heat application Peak temperatures vary at different regions Time at temperature also varies Heating and cooling rates vary widely due to the above High level of unpredictability
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Treatment and Welding The joint cools after welding The cooling rate depends on Heat input Base metal thermal conductivity Geometry of the joint Thickness, Type of joint Ambient temperatures
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Cooling Rate Cooling rate depends on R∞ 1/T0*H Where R is cooling rate, ºC/sec T0 is preheat temperature, ºC H is Heat Input, kJ/mm
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Input During Welding Is calculated from the Arc energy divided by the welding speed Arc voltage X Welding current ----------------------------------------------Welding speed ( mm / sec ) X 1000
kJ / mm
For other welding process divide by following factors SAW ( single wire ) - 0.8 GTAW - 1.2 GMAW - 1.0 Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Treatment During Welding Under such conditions, what is the response of base material? Chemical composition Mechanical properties Prior microstructure
Hence, it is time to understand the principles underlying heat treatment!
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
After Heat Treatment
Before Heat Treatment
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
In metals the atoms are arranged in well defined geometric arrangements/ patterns that get repeated in all three directions. These are called crystal structures
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Single Crystal
Unit Cell Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Poly-crystal
Grain boundary
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Grain Boundary
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Crystal boundary or Grain boundary In these regions there exists a film of metals, some three atoms thick, in which atoms do not conform to any pattern This crystal boundary is of amorphous nature Metallic bond acts within and across the crystal boundary and therefore not necessarily an area of weakness Impurity atoms has got tendency to segregate at grain boundary or crystal boundary. Depending on the nature of impurity atom they may strengthen or weaken the boundary Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Defects in Metals - Dislocations Any real crystal always has defects in its structure and deviates from perfect periodicity These defects are called Lattice defects / Lattice imperfections / Dislocations Metals and alloys get deformed when dislocations are forced to move by the application of force Any solute atom, phase or inter-metallic that resists the flow of dislocations are the strengthening agents in any alloy system Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Structural Changes Metal/alloy may be of: Single crystal structure up to melting point More than one structure within the solid state
It is pertinent to discuss only STEEL here since it is the most important industrial alloy extensively used for welding
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
•
Body centered cubic crystal (BCC)Structure of iron at RT- α iron up to 910 deg C
• • • •
• •
Face centered cubic crystal (FCC)High temperature structure of ironγ iron between 910 deg and 1400deg C Reverts back to BCC (δ iron) between 1490 and 1530 deg C Melts at 1530 deg C
Body centered tetragonal (BCT) Structure of martensite - metastable Mr. R.D.Pennathur
A plane of atoms of Iron
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Principles of Heat Treatment Steel is an alloy with principally carbon and other elements. How do these elements participate in the crystal structure?
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Principles of Heat Treatment Two ways by which the atoms of the element can participate without destroying the arrangement of crystal.
Either they can substitute the iron atoms in their equilibrium sites or can settle in the “gaps” between the iron atoms. Substitutional and interstitial solid solutions Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Substitutional Solid Solution Nickel
Iron Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Interstitial Solid Solution Iron
Carbon Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Crystal Structure Is there a limit to solid solubility? What happens if it is limited? What happens beyond its solid solubility? Alloying elements beyond solubility limits are present as different phases/compounds/precipitates The limit varies with temperature
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Principles of Heat Treatment What changes to these arrangements happen when we start heating the steel? Are there any re-arrangements? What is the extent to which solid solution can take place? What happens beyond that? A Phase diagram or Equilibrium diagram explains all these.
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
STEEL The uniqueness of steel as the most widely used engineering material depends on its ability to get heat treated to different levels of strength and toughness! Heat treatment itself is made possible because of two factors: Different crystal structures in solid state Solubility variation of these structures Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Various Regions In HAZ Formed During Welding
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mr. R.D.Pennathur 48
a. Temp. below A1: a. Mixture of ferrite & pearlite grains; hence microstructure not affected.
b. Temperature below A3: a. Pearlite transformed to Austenite, A3 temp is not exceeded, hence not all ferrite transforms to Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains will be normalized. Mr. R.D.Pennathur 49
c. Temperature just exceeds A3, thereby causing full Austenite transformation. a. On cooling all grains will be normalized.
d. Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. 1. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a coarse pearlite will form inside the grains. 2. A coarse grain structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if the cooling rate between 800°C to 500°C is rapid, a hard microstructure will be formed –(brittle fracture may occur in this region) Mr. R.D.Pennathur 50
Microstructure & Hardness Of HAZ In Steel
Preheating helps reduce hardness of HAZ by extending time it spends between 800-500deg C Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Carbon < 0.80%
Carbon 0.80%
Carbon > 0.80%
Slow cooling condition is called equilibrium rate of cooling. But, do we get such condition in heat treatment or welding? Far from that!! Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Temperature – Time – Transformation T-T-T Diagrams
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagram Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat treatment enables different structures to be obtained from the same material
Figure 2 Microstructure of medium carbon steel resulting from normalizing heat treatment, showing ferrite and pearlite
Figure 4 Martensite microstructure of medium carbon steel resulting from water quenching
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Heat Treatment
Normalized
After Spheroidizing
Microstructure of 0.40% carbon steel Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Martensite
Martensite : Very hard and brittle phase. Formed on rapid cooling below Ms temperature Tempered Martensite : However has a good combination of strength and toughness and is a useful structure and is developed by reheating martensite Hardness depends on carbon content of steel Carbon %
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
Hardness Rc
38
44
50
57
60
63
65
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Bainite Formed in alloyed steels when austenite is cooled rapidly passed the nose of the C-curve . Extremely fine mixture of ferrite + carbide but not lamellar like pearlite Formed between 500 – 220 C Upper Bainite or lower Bainite depending on temp. Has higher hardness and toughness than pearlite
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
How is the HT Discussion Relevant for Welding? Martensite is the hardest condition of any steel Primarily used for high strength and wear resistance, but lacks toughness Fabrication requires good formability- derived from ductility- hence lower carbon steels are used Fabricated structures require not wear resistance but good toughness Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Micro – Alloyed HSLA steels Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by precipitation hardening Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine grain size ASTM 12 – 14. Also improves strength. Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved strength and toughness without impairing weldability. Covered by IS:8500 - 1991 Gives comparatively lower elongation but better toughness than low alloy HSLA steels Properties : UTS 600 – 650 MPa YS 400 – 500 MPa Elongation 20 – 22 %
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Properties Of Typical Micro-alloyed Steels Grade / Trade name
%C
% Mn
% Si
% MA
YS MPa
UTS MPa
ASTM A633 Gr C
0.20
1.50
0.50
0.05 Nb
350 min
600 min
SAILMA 410
0.25
1.50
0.50
Nb+V+Ti =0.20
410 min
540 - 660
SAILMA 450
0.25
1.50
0.50
Nb+V+Ti =0.20
450 min
570 - 720
SAILMA 450HI
0.20
1.50
0.50
Nb+V+Ti =0.20
450 min
570 – 720 CVN = 19.6J Min at – 20C
TISTEN 60
0.20
1.80
0.50
0.20
440 min
590 min
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Welded & Higher Strength Structures Introduction of welded structures implied High heat input of the welding arc / heat source and influence of arc atmosphere Solidification of the molten filler metal and fused portion of base metal into a separate weld zone Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected by the weld thermal cycle – Heat affected zone ( HAZ ) Metallurgical effects on both reheating and cooling
Introduction of higher strength steels to reduce weight and cost of structure Alloying elements added to develop strength Lead to more complex metallurgical changesMr. R.D.Pennathur
Toughness Welded structures require good toughness, ability to absorb impact Measured by Charpy test Charpy values are specified for welds requiring good toughness – RT as well as at subzero temperatures Mr. R.D.Pennathur
How is the HT Discussion Relevant? Since low carbon steels have poor hardenability, martensite seldom forms during welding But when hardenable steels have to be used, precautions have to be used during welding
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
What if Martensite forms? Affects toughness, possibility of brittle failure Susceptible to hydrogen cracking at vulnerable regions of HAZ in toe and under bead; if hardenable steel is to be welded precautions to be taken Preheat to slow down the cooling rate Post heat to temper the martensite
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Hydrogen Cracking
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Mechanism of HAZ cracking 3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid cooling in HAZ area heated above A1 line Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process Presence of contractional and residual stresses Mechanism Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts additional stress on the susceptible microstructure In combination with existing stresses causes cracking generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass welds Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Factors influencing HICC Presence of Hydrogen – Process Presence of stress – Weld design Formation of hard microstructure Chemical composition ( intrinsic to material ) Cooling rate - Combined thickness of joint - Heat input of process - Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temp
Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon equivalent C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the material to form a hard microstructure ( martensite ) Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with Weldability of a steel C.E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V ) / 5 + % (NI + Cu) / 15
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Weldability Steels with Carbon Equivalent (C.E.) value less than 0.40% have good weldability This means that no detrimental hard microstructures result in WZ and HAZ Such steels do not require any pre or post heating C.E.> 0.40% require either pre or post heating or both. Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Why Preheating? The cooling rate, particularly from 800 deg to 500 deg C (ΔT800-500), is important that decides the microstructure, from TTT diagrams The nose of the TTT curve is shifted towards right for hardenable steels and hence harder microstructures tend to form
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Post Heating When martensite cannot be avoided, post heating is carried out PWHT reduces the brittleness by tempering the martensite
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Combined Thickness Of Joints Butt welds & corner welds of equal thickness - T1 + T2 Butt welds & corner welds of unequal thickness Av of T1 over 75 mm + T2 Fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3
Directly opposed simultaneous fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3 / 2 Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2 Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Hydrogen Levels For Different Processes And Consumables Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content in weld – Rutile electrodes, LH electrodes which have been exposed to moisture Scale B : 10 – 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - LH electrodes redried at 250 C Scale C : 5 – 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content – Gas Metal arc welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 350 C Scale D : below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content – Gas Tungsten Arc welding ( TIG ) process, LH electrodes re-dried at 450 C Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Practical Requirements Of Welding Engineer Given a steel of known composition or C.E. Upto what combined thickness can be welded with normal rutile electrodes, without danger of HAZ cracking Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes Upto what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes properly re-dried as per manufacturers recommendations Above what thickness pre-heat is required and degree of pre-heat. Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat input by the welding process and parameters used Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Combined Influence Of Base-metal Thickness And Carbon Content On Weldability
Both Preheat & PWHT required
Highest carbon content of carbon steel base metal %
Only Preheat is required No Preheat & PWHT required Greatest single thickness of carbon steel base metal Mr. R.D.Pennathur 75
Weldability is defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed, into a suitable designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service
Weldability
Weldability is the ease with which a metal can be welded to give the required service Weldability is the number of problems you face to weld a material
Macrograph of a weld joint & HAZ Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Metallurgical Zones In A Typical Weld
Mr. R.D.Pennathur 77
WELDABILITY PROBLEMS Cracking - In the weld – solidification cracks -- micro-fissuring - In the HAZ – Hydrogen cracking - Liquation cracks Porosity Oxidation of reactive metals Reduced joint strength - In the weld - In the HAZ Reduced corrosion resistance Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Problems In Welding Structural Steels Hydrogen induced cold cracking ( HICC ) HAZ cracking Delayed cracking Hot cracking Solidification cracking Centerline cracking Due to high S & P levels which produce low melting films at grain boundaries Reduced by higher Mn content
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Solidification Cracking
Steels having unfavourable Mn-S ratio are prone to such cracking. Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Lamellar Tearing Is generally associated with welding of fairly large highly restrained structures Occurs predominantly in plate material Due to presence of non – metallic inclusions Difficult to detect by NDT techniques. Maybe assessed by STRA of tensile test in short transverse direction Cracks can occur in parent plate / HAZ and generally run parallel to the plate surface Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Lamellar tearing
Microstructure susceptible to lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing near a C-Mn steel weld
Prevention: Use joint designs that minimise transverse constraint & butter with a softer layer Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Stainless Steel Welding Austentic – Extensively Used Ferritic
Martensitic Precipitation Hardening Duplex Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Sensitization in SS Welding Chromium in solid solution gives corrosion resistance If slow cooled from 950 to 400 deg C, Cr23 C6 precipitates and segregates to grain boundaries depleting the matrix of Cr, particularly close to GBsensitization
Under corrosive environs, the GB gets attacked
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Sensitization in SS Welding Normally SS is quenched from high temperature to retain the Cr23C6 in solid solution- called „solution annealing‟ The treatment is carried out at 1050 deg C in vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere If SS is welded and allowed to slow cool, Cr23C6 precipitates If assembly permits, it can be resolutionized Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Sensitization in SS Welding
HAZ of weld of 316 where the grain Boundaries show Cr23 C6 precipitation.600X
Intergranular corrosion of sensitized SS.500X
Corroded Heat Exchanger Tube
Mr. R.D.Pennathur
Sensitization in SS Welding If it is not possible, use low carbon or extra low carbon SS grades, to prevent Cr23 C6 formation Alternately use stabilized grades having Nb or Ti These with better affinity for C forms the respective carbides which h precipitate within the grains and Cr is not affected Mr. R.D.Pennathur
We are one of the renowned manufacturers of various grades of welding consumables which are second to none in terms of quality. We have the most modern manufacturing facility equipped with latest sophisticated machinery at Pondicherry, India We are manufacturing a vast range of Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes and Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrodes. We also supply tested GMAW and GTAW welding consumables for all the applications. Our hardworking team would always be interested in any opportunity to cater your requirement of welding consumables. Currently we are supplying massive quantity of welding consumables to many world class EPC companies in various range of welding consumables including Carbon steel, Low Temperature Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, Low alloy steel etc. If at all the need arises for a special consumable which is not in our arsenal, our R&D team is fully equipped in developing special electrodes to meet Service Requirements, Impact Test Requirements with strict chemistry controls and as welded hardness test criteria. We built quality and consistency in our consumables. Our manufacturing facility always had the market pulse to meet its demands and fast track delivery requirements without compromising quality and consistency. Willing to be a part of your esteemed organization, we took this privilege to approach and request your kind consideration for providing opportunity to MAILAM INDIA Mr. R.D.Pennathur LTD for the following consumables.