2 Nature Of Instructional Materials

INSTRUCTIONA L MATERIALS 1 Nature of Instructional Material 2 Kinds/Types/Forms of Teaching Materials 3 Principles/Roles of Material Development 4 Functions of Materials 5 Benefits of Instructional Material 6 Factors Affecting Materials Preparation 7 Proper Use of Materials 8 Authentic vs. Created Materials Jundelle Marie Bagioen, LPT BatStateU-JPLPC Malvar [email protected]

1.Instructional

materials refer to the human and non-human materials and facilities that can be used to ease, encourage, improved and promote teaching and learning activities. They are whatever materials  used in the process of instruction. They indicate a systematic way of designing, carrying out and employing the total process of learning and communication and employing human and nonhuman resources to bring out a more

2.

Instructional materials are defined as resources that organize and support instruction, such as textbooks, tasks, and supplementary resources (adapted from Remillard & Heck, 2014 ).

 “Instructional

material is defined as content that conveys the essential knowledge and skills of a subject in the public school curriculum through a medium or a combination of media for conveying information to a student.  The term includes a book, supplementary materials, a combination of a book, workbook, and supplementary materials, computer software, magnetic media, DVD, CD-ROM, computer courseware, online services, or an electronic medium, or other means of conveying information to the student or otherwise contributing to the learning process through electronic means, including open-source instructional material.  Education Code 31.002

“Open-source

instructional material” is electronic instructional material that is available for downloading from the Internet at no charge to a student and without requiring the purchase of an unlock code, membership, or other access or use charge, except for a charge to order an optional printed copy of all or part of the instructional material.  Education Code 31.002

“Technology

equipment” is hardware, a device, or equipment necessary for instructional use in the classroom, including to gain access to or enhance the use of electronic instructional materials; or professional use by a classroom teacher.  Education Code 31.002

VIEWS ABOUT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL UTILIZATION

According

to Ibe (1998), utilization of instructional material in teaching associated with the function of the teacher as the manager of instructional process is important to the teacher to arrange the mechanics of the presentation and also plan to make the materials meaningful to the audience.

Learning

is enhanced commenting on the use of resources in learning, Lewis (1994) believed in “hear and forget, see and remember, do and understand.”

This

view was supported by Cohen (1996) Positive

effect of IMs in teaching in schools Great deal of cognitive change in the school system could be made possible through the use of audio-visual such as charts, tape recorder, radio and television programmes, pictures and programmed materials,

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KINDS/TYPES/ FORMS OF INSTRUCTION AL MATERIALS

Year

Name

Kinds Reading, Audio-visual and community resources Reading, Audio-visual, community resources and Human Resources Material which offer content, Material for presenting the content

1980

Michealis

1981

Dubey and Barth

1981

Kissock

1986

Jarolimek

Reading and Non-Reading

2009

Ofeogbu

Human resources and Non-human

Agu Okogbuo (2000) Visual Material

Material/ Software

Non-Projected Media

Audio Material

Equipment/ Hardware

2D Instructional Material

Electronics

3D Instructional Material

Audio-visual Material

PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

Penalflorida (1995) reports her use of the six principles of material design identified by Nunan (1988): a) b) c) d) e) f)

Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task Materials should stimulate interaction Materials should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills, and skills in learning Materials should encourage learners to apply their developing skills to the world beyond the classroom

Principles in the preparation of IM 1.

2. 3.

4.

Organization. It reflects and support a particular philosophical orientation. (Teacher-centered or learnercentered) Sequence. It can improve the effectiveness of formal instruction. Completeness. The extent to which materials supply the learner with the information and support needed determine how the instructional goal will be attained. Modality. It determines the types of stimuli that will be present during the learning experience.

ADDIE Instructional Model 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Analysis. The process of defining what is to be learned. Design. The process of specifying how learning will occur. Development. The process of authoring and producing the materials. Implementation. The process of installing the instruction in the real world. Evaluation. The process of determining the impact of instruction.

Thomas Nagel’s PPPF

 Prepare

yourself. It simply means that you should know your lesson objective and your expectation from the class after the session. There should be a planning ahead on how you're going to proceed  the discussion and evaluate after. 

 Prepare

your students. It implies setting class expectation and learning goals. This comes by throwing them guide questions and motivating them as a way of keeping them interested and engaged.

 Present

the material. It means you should rehearsed first the materials you are going to use before presenting them to the class. This is important especially if the materials you are using are mechanical in nature, for example, PowerPoints and other multimedia presentations. This is to avoid what they call as R.O.G. Syndrome of Running Out of Gas. This syndrome usually occurs due to lack of planning.

 Follow

Up. The main function of using instructional material is to achieve an objective and that is ultimately the learning of the students. Using this is not an end in itself but a means to an end so there is a need for follow up to know if you have attained your objective.

FUNCTIONS/BENE FITS OF MATERIALS

UNESCO (1962)  Writing

on the need to use learning resources, state the importance of IM in teaching:  Inspiring

students to be curious in learning  Serving to make concepts more readable to students  Serving as a source to answer questions.

Okwudiba (2005) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Provide increased interest in learning Hold the learner’s attention Provide the learners with opportunities of interacting with their social and physical environment Offer learners opportunity for independent and individualized learning Supply concepts basis for conceptual thinking Offer opportunities for learners to develop their abilities and skills Promote the acquisition and longer retention of knowledge

Rhert Heinrich (2001)

Hoban and Zizzman (2006)  The

value of audio-visual materials is function of their degree of realism.

Nwaji (2002) 1.

2.

3. 4.

Enrich the lesson as they help the teacher to illustrate and explain aspects of the lesson for better understanding. Provide opportunity for the development of skills of observation, manipulation and construction in the learners. Provide learners the opportunity to interact with the social and physical environment Stimulate interest and hold attention

5. Prevent boredom and frustration, which hinder learning. 6. Encourage thinking, development of imagination, independent and individualized learning. 7. Offer variety of concrete experiences for the acquisition and better retention of learned materials. 8. Save a lot of time in making verbal explanations and breaks the monotonous voice of the teacher.

(Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998) As

a source of language As a learning support For motivation and stimulation For reference

FACTORS AFFECTING MATERIALS PREPARATION (ORNSTEIN)

1. Understanding the operational functionality Since educational communication and technology is a fairly new area of importance in education, it is a lightly technical field, and to understand how it can affect the instructional delivery, one first has to understand the operational functionality of the resource kits 2. Teachers’ knowledge - This has a great impact on the effective application of teaching aids or instructional materials, this is because the teacher uses need to understand the sequential presentation of the instructional gadgets so as to suit the interests of the learners and its appropriateness with the instructional tasks.

3.Student Population Part of the application of teaching aids or instructional materials process is the target population for whom the materials are to be used and the setting or vicinity where the learning should take place. 4. Time  -is also a serious problem or factor that delay the effective use of instructional materials ineffective instructional delivery in the class, because in most cases the time that is allotted for a subject on the timetable might not be enough for the teachers to present his contents alongside with effective use of the materials which will affect the wholesome delivery of the content.

5. Lack of supply of materials This factor seems to be the handicap why most educational institutions are unable to acquire relevant teaching equipment and materials. In line with this, students and teachers will lack on the opportunity to learn and use new techniques in the field. There are sophisticated teaching aids or instructional materials that can make learning easier and faster such as computer-aided program but lack of funds has effects on its importation and use in schools. 6.Lack of Funds Materials available for the effective instructional delivery are poorly manhandled by both the teachers and some school authority.

7.Poor handling of Materials Schools are affected by non-availability of resource room for the proper keeping of both the locally manufactured and the commercially purchased teaching aids thereby limiting its use as at the time needed. 8.Non-availability of resource room  Another pressed issue about teaching aids or instructional materials for use is that, the materials are grossly lacking in the schools. There was scarcity of both printed and audio-visual materials in most of the instructional neither printed nor audiovisual materials were available in sufficient quantity or quality.

9. Sufficiency of printed and audio-visual materials The few institutions indicates the availability of these materials but were rather in poor condition. 10.Poor condition - requires matching the materials to the learners’ abilities and prior knowledge. If the students did not understand the materials, frustration sets in and making it more difficult.  The teacher should must know the materials if it is suited on the level of understanding of the students.

11. Understanding -involves organizing the material so that it is clear to the students. Directions, objectives, and main ideas are stated clearly. Internal and final summaries cover the content. Transition between main ideas is smooth and well integrated. Sufficient examples are provided. New terms are defined. Adequate practice and review assignments reinforce new learning. 12.Structuring/Clarifying -refers to the arrangement of the materials to provide for continuous and cumulative learning where complex concepts are taken only after prerequisite skills and concepts have been mastered. The four basic ways of sequencing a material are (Simple to complex, Parts to whole, Whole to parts, and Chronological arrangements.

13. Sequencing  -require establishing vertical and horizontal balance or relationships. Vertical relationships refer to a building of content and experiences in the lesson, unit and course level. Horizontal relationships establish a multidisciplinary and unified view of different subjects (e.g. the content of the social studies course is related to English and Science. 14. Balancing materials  -refers to the way headings, terms, illustrations, and summary exercises integrated with the content. Does the example illustrate major concepts? Are the major ideas identified in the objectives and overview? Do the headings outline a logical development of content? Do the materials show relationships among topics, events, facts to present an in-depth view of major concepts?

15. Explaining  -refers to how much and quickly the lessons in the books are presented. The volume or the length should not overwhelm the students. There must be enough to have an effect. 16. Pacing  -refers to the extent to which the material allows students to link new ideas to old concepts in a form of review. Less proficient learners would need more review or linking than the more proficient ones.

 17.

Reviewing  -It refers to the extent to which the material allows students to link new ideas to old concepts in the form of a review. Highachieving and older students can tolerate more rapid pacing than low-achieving and younger students, thus less proficient learners would need more review or linking than the more proficient ones.

18. Elaborating  -ensures that students learn better through a variety of ways. The idea is to provide in the textbook opportunities for students to transform information to one form to another, and to apply information to new knowledge - by using various techniques such as comparing and contrasting, drawing inferences, paraphrasing, summarizing and predicting.

Other factors to be considered…  the

materials should present the precise and true ideas of the topic or subject being discussed  the materials should add meaning to the content of the topic and these  should help you achieve your instructional objectives  the materials should be appropriate to the age, intelligence, and experiences of the students

Other factors to be considered…  the

materials should be satisfactory  the materials should have a teacher's guide for effective use  the materials should develop the student's higher critical thinking skills  the materials should be accessible and affordable for the students

Authentic vs. Created Materials

Authentic

materials:

Teaching resources that are not specially prepared for pedagogical purpose Created

materials:

Text books and other specially developed instructional resources

Advantages of authentic materials  have

a positive effect on learner motivation  provide authentic cultural information about the target culture  provide exposure to real language  relate more closely to learners’ needs  support a more creative approach to teaching (Phillips & Shettlesworth, 1978; Clarke, 1989; Peacock, 1997)

Critics of using authentic materials  Created

materials can also be motivating for

learners  Authentic materials often contain difficult language  Created materials may be superior to authentic materials because they are generally built around a graded syllabus  Using authentic materials is a burden for teachers

Advantages of using commercial textbooks  Provide

structure and a syllabus for a program  Help standardize instruction  Maintain quality  Provide a variety of learning resources  Be efficient  Provide effective language models and input  Train teachers  Visually appealing

Negative effects of commercial textbooks May

contain inauthentic language May distort content May not reflect students’ needs Can deskill teachers Be expensive

Evaluating textbooks Before evaluating a textbook, information is needed on the following issues: The role of the textbook in the program ex. Will it be used with small classes or large ones?  The teachers in the program ex. Are teachers free to adapt and supplement the book?  The learners in the program ex. What do learners typically expect in a textbook? 

Criteria for textbook evaluation They should:  Correspond to learners’ needs.  Match the aims and objectives of the language learning program.  Reflect the present or future uses  Take account of students’ needs  Have a clear role as a support for learning (Cunningsworth, 1995)

A checklist for textbook evaluation and selection ( Appendix 2) Organized under the following categories (p. 274)  Aims and approaches  Design and organization  Language content  Skills  Topic  Methodology  Teachers’ books  Practical considerations (Cunningsworth, 1995)

Factors involved in textbook evaluation and selection  Program

factors  Teacher factors  Learner factors  Content factors  Pedagogical factors

Adapting textbooks A good provider of materials will be able to:  Select

appropriately from what is available  Be creative with what is available  Modify activities to suit learners’ needs  Supplement by providing extra activities (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998)

Forms of adaptation Modifying

content Adding or deleting content Reorganizing content Addressing omissions Modifying tasks Extending tasks

Preparing materials for a program Advantages: Disadvantages ‧Relevance ‧Develop expertise ‧Reputation ‧Flexibility

‧Cost ‧Quality ‧Training

BLACKBOARD VS FLIPCHART VS OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

Blackboard

ADVANTAGES • Cheap. • Easily found. • Transportable (some). • Can be prepared in advance.

DISADVANTAGES •  Often neglected and in poor condition. • No memory-once you have rubbed something out its gone. • Dusty, and the trainer needs to turn away from audience to write.

HOW TO USE THE BLACKBOARD

1. Plan in your notes what is going to be written down. 2. Compile a running picture of the total coverage of the board. 3. Do not draw a good drawing and then doodle over it. 4. Resist temptation to fill up every bit of space-one idea at a time. 5. If often takes a lot of good audience time if you have to write a lot of things out ‘before their very eyes’. Can you write or draw in advance?

6. Check your lettering by standing at the back of the room before the group arrives. 7. Check coloured chalk too. Purple is inevitably invisible. Orange is not much better. 8. The correct place for a board if you are right handed is on your left hand side. 9. The correct place stand is to the side of the board so that when you write on it you can swing your hips. This minimizes the problem about losing eye contact. 10. Do not talk while you are writing on the board if you can help it.

Flipchart

ADVANTAGES • Easy to transport.

DISADVANTAGES • Can run out of paper.

• Has a memory. You can

• All the problems with eye

prepare lots of things in

contact that you get with a

advance and refer to

blackboard if you don’t

them when you want to.

prepare in advance • Paper and markers might be too costly.

HOW TO USE THE FLIP CHART

1. It is used in much the same way as a blackboard but you can use marker pens or crayons 2. You can present a little information at a time and move onto a new page. 3. You can refer back to what has been said. If you want to refer back often to one page you can put a marker on it like a piece of sticky paper which you can use as a handle. 4. You can make notes in light pencil on the paper of the flip chart page. This means your notes are right next to what you will be writing. The audience will not see them and it does not matter if they do.

5. You can prepare drawings or information in advance but remember that it will have to be fixed on the chart in the vertical position (called portrait) and that your desk in your office is nearly horizontal (called landscape). Be sure that you get the paper fixed carefully in position before you start to train and make sure that it will flip over without falling off, tearing etc. 6. If you move on to a new point in your development and you no longer need the flip chart page that you are using, turn it over and get rid of it. Otherwise it will be very distracting. 7. Anticipate when you are going to run out of paper before you actually do.

OHP

ADVANTAGES • Can be used in normal day light. No need to darken the room. • Can keep eye-contact with the audience either sitting or standing. • Can be used to project transparent copies of real documents in original detail. • Transparencies- Can be prepared or drawn in advance, are small and easily transported • Good with colours

DISADVANTAGES • Relatively expensive. • Bulky. • Bulbs blow at inconvenient times. • Tends to gather dirt and dust. • Requires a minimum projection distance onto a screen or else blurring occurs. • Not appropriate in areas without electricity or irregular electricity.

HOW TO USE THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

1. If you are sitting, the top of the projector should be at the same level as your table top and your right hand side (if you are right handed.) 2. If you are standing the projector should sit on the table. This makes the top just about at writing height. Make sure the projector bulk does not obscure anyone’s’ sight. 3. Make sure you know how it switches on and how to change the bulb before your audience arrives.

4. You buy transparent acetate either cut in boxes or in rolls. You can use either permanent pens or water washable. Water washable are essential if you want to use the acetates again but if your hand is sweaty you will need it use the permanent ones. 5. If you cannot get acetate you can use glass, but you have to wash it each time. 6. When you change a transparency over switch the machine off and switch it on again when the new transparency is in place.

7. Do not use an overhead projector if you have a hangover or other reasons for trembling hands. 8. If you want to point to something point to the transparency not the screen otherwise you block out the light. 9. People see illuminated visuals better than unilluminated ones and therefore will tend to remember them better.

10. When you write on a transparency use capitals and as a check try reading the transparency held fully at arms - length away from you. If you can read it easily - so will your audience after it is projected. 11. You can frame your transparency in a cardboard frame which is made to fit the projector. You fix the acetate in with masking tape. Then you can write notes in the margin of the frame.

CHARACTERISTI CS OF GOOD INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

The greatest value of instructional aids lies in:  Their

appeal to trainees senses and perceptions  Their ability to attract and hold trainees attention and interest.  The ability in developing understanding of the material to be learned.  Helps the trainees to learn faster and save instructional time.  Helps trainees to understand the relationships between different concepts or ideas.

Sources:  

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http://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/instructional-materials/48956 http:// www.tsbvi.edu/e-policy/1676-efaa-instructional-materials-selection-and-adop tion-textbook-selection-and-adoption http://www.gistarea.com/instructional-materials-teaching-examples-importa nce / https://www.academia.edu/8216343/II._DISCUSSION_Principles_and_Procedur es_of_Materials_Development_1._ Developing_Principled_Frameworks_for_Materials_Development http:// collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/uk/d/Jgtz017e/6.13.1.html#Jgtz017e.6.1 3.1