Bench Work In Wood

/o

\

v/o (i

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Bench Work

in

Wood

A COURSE OF

STUDY AND PRACTICE

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

W.

F.

M. GOSS,

Professor of Practical Mechanics, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.

^ oi^c

BOSTON: PUBLLSIIED BY GINN & COMPANY

1888.

Entered according

to

Act of Congress,

W. in

in the

year 1887, by

M. GOSS.

F.

the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

Typography by

J. S.

Cushing

Presswork by GiNN &

^--

&

Co., Boston.

Co., Boston.

'^/t^o>1

PREFACE.

To

avoid

confusion,

subject

tlie

I.

common bench

concerning

facts

tial

herein

Part

sidered in three divisions.

treated

is

con-

contains the essen-

tools

for

wood

;

it

describes their action, explains their adjustments, and shows

how

they

may be kept

practice

of

quired

by which

and Part

;

in order.

Part

use

ability to

II.

the

presents a course tools

may be

ac-

such forms and adaptations

III. discusses

of joints as will meet the requirements of ordinary construction.

is

not expected that the student will complete Part

before entering

I.

before

II.

in

It

using

upon Part

commencing

them

II.,

He

Part III.

together.

or that he will finish Part will find

greater profit

For example, a shop exercise involv-

ing the chisel (Part II.) should be accompanied or preceded

by a study of the

chisel (Part I.)

;

again, the various forms

of mortise and tenon joints (Part III.) will be better under-

stood and more easily remembered,

if

considered during the

time when types of such joints are under construction in the

shops (Part II.).

In the writer's experience with classes of

students, one hour has five

been given

hours given to shop work.

I.

and

is

in

III.

can be mastered

to class-room

By

in the

this

work

for every

apportionment, Parts

class-room while Part

II.

progress in the shops.

The equipment necessary

for carrying

out the course

of

PREFACE. practice given in Part first

II.

is

much

trestles,

hook, the following-named tools are needed

I

Rule.

2-ft.

I

I

Framing-Square. 7-inch Try-Square.

I

may

expensive than

less

Besides a bench, a pair of

appear.

:

—

24-inch Ripping-Saw, 6 teeth.

I

lo-inch Back-Saw.

I

8-inch Drawing-Knife.

1

8-inch Bevel.

I

Fore-Plane.

2

8-inch Marking-Gauges.

I

Jack-Plane.

I

Chalk-Line, with Chalk.

I

Smooth-Plane.

I

Lead-Pencil.

I

Set Auger-Bits, \" to

I

Scriber.

I", A", f", I

f

,

each, |", i",

i

i",

and

I

J".

each, |", I", |", and

i". I

22-inch

Cross-cutting-Saw, 8

teeth.

pair 8-inch Dividers. pair

I

-inch Matching- Planes.

I

Bit-Brace.

I

Brad-Awl.

I

Carpenter's

I

Mallet.

I

Nail-Set.

I

Oilstone.

by

I

Hand-Scraper. doz.

(Jiiill

I

Miter-Box.

Plow.

I

Grindstone.

is

to

Bits, assorted

be

made

for

more than one

student, the

One

items printed in small type need not be duplicated. of these will suffice for writer

is

from \"

down.

i-inch Beading-Plane.

if provision

Hammer.

\

j\-inch Beading-Plane.

The

i"

i6ths.

Firmer-Chisels,

Gouges,

at

and a bench-

any number

less

than

set

thirty.

indebted to Mr. M. Golden, of the School

of Mechanics and Engineering, Purdue University, for the execution of

many

of the drawings and for valuable suggestions.

W. Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

F.

M. G.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION. I.

2.

4.

Method

OF

ken Drawings.

— 7.

Scale.

PART Bench. 13.

—

—

Bench-Stop.

10.

8.

Dimensions.

— BENCH

I.

—

—

Vise.

11.

Sections.

5.

Incomplete Sections.

Cross-hatching.

PAGES

3.

of showing Parts Obscured from Sight.

Section Lines.

9.

— INTERPRETATION

MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. Mechanical Drawings Defined. — Plans. — Elevations. —

6.

Bro-

Dimension Lines,

1-6

TOOLS.

—

Bench-Hook.—

12.

Trestles

y-9

Measuring and Lining Appliances. 14.

Early Standards of Length.

—

15.

English Standard Yard.

— Framing-Square. —

United States Standard of Length.

— — 24.

18. Rules.

21.

— 19.

"Miter-Square."

viders.

—

and Rule.

25.

20.

The Troughton

— 16. Scale.

Board-measure Table.

—

23. Bevel.

Try-and-" Miter " Square.

—

—

26. Di-

—

28. Combining Square Combining Square and Bevel. 30. Setting an Angle of 60 Degrees. 31. Setting the Bevel at

—

—

29.

—

any Given Angle.

—

—

7.

Try-Square.

27. Scribing with Dividers.

the Bevel at

—

— 22.

Brace-measure Table.

1

—

34.

Panel-Gauge.

37.

Scriber.

—

38.

32.

—

Marking-Gauge. 35.

— 33.

Cutting-Gauge.

Pencil

—

Mortise-Gauge.

36.

Chalk-Line. .

9- 20

CONTENTS.

VI

Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 39.

— 41. Corner-Chisels. — 44. Drawing-Knife. — 45. Action of Cutting Wedges. — 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in 20-26 Chisel and Gouge. — 47. Grinding. — 48. Whetting — 40.

Firmer-Chisels.

— 43.

42. Gouges.

Framing-Chisels.

Chisel Handles.

.

.

.

—

53.

Saws. 49.

Efficiency.

—

Form. —

50.

Set.

51.

—

52. Size

of Teeth.

—

Ripping-Saw and Cross-Cutting-Saw Defined. Ripping-Saws. 55. Teeth of Cross-Cutting-Saws.

—

—

Saw.

54.

—

Teeth of 56.

Back-

Compass-Saw

57.

26-36

Appliances for Filing and Setting Saws. 58.

Files.

—

Sets for

59.

the Tooth.

— 61.

Bending the Tooth.

Saw 62 Top-Jointing.

— 60.

Sets for

Swedging

Clamps

— 63.

36-38

Filing and Setting.

Setting.

—

64.

— 65.

Filing.

Side-Jointing, 39-41

Planes and Plane-like Tools. 66.

—

—

68. Plane-Iron. 67. Length of Stock. Angle of Cutting Wedge. 69. Outline of Cutting Edge. 70. 71. Action of Smooth-Plane Use of Different Bench Planes.

Description of Planes.

—

—

and Fore- Plane Compared. Mouth. 74. Adjusting the

—

Iron Planes.

—

Circular-Planes.

77.

—

Rabbeting- Planes.

Rounds.

—

84.

tion Planes.

—

Planes of 79.

—

—

Block-Planes.

— 82.

—

Narrowness of

73.

— — Spokeshaves. —

75. Jointing a Plane.

Wood and

Iron Combined.

— 80.

Matching-Planes.

Beading- Planes. 87.

The Cap.

72.

Iron.

—

— 85.

—

•

Plows.

83.

76. 78.

81.

Hollows and

— 86.

Combina-

41-52

.Scrapers

Boring Tools. 88.

Augers. Bits.

—

—

— 90. Sharpening Augers and Auger— 92. Expansive — Small Bit-Braces. — 95. Angular Bit-Stock. — 96. Automatic

— 91.

94.

89. Auger-Bits.

Center-Bits.

Boring Tool

Bits.

,

93.

Bits.

53-59

CONTENTS.

Vll

Miscellaneous Tools.

Driver. 103.

— 98.

— 100.

Miter-Box.

—

—

—

Clamps.

106.

Water on a Grindstone. Truing Devices for Oilstones.

— 115.

— 113.

Form

II.

— 119.

EXERCISE 120. Material.

— in.

of Oilstones.

Oilstones.

— 114.

—

—

— 121.

— 117.

No.

Oilstone Slips.

"Gauging" Lines:

129. Lining:

—

128.

No. 3

EXERCISE

No.

132. Chiseling

by Hand.

Location of Points.

—

118.

2.

— 133.

71-73

and

Lining.

— 122. Lining: Chalk-Lining. — 124. Lin-

Pencil and Rule.

— 123. — 125.

Lining: Pencil and Bevel.

Pencil and Rule.

Lining:

Scriber,

— 130.

Scriber and Bevel.

for Exercise

— 127.

Spacing:

and Try-Square.

Gauge-Lining.

— 131. 73-79

— Chiseling

and Gouging.

Chiseling by Use of Mallet.

— 134.

Gouging

80-83

EXERCISE 135.

—

No.

3.

— Sawing. — —

Handling the Saw. 136. Guiding the Saw. ing the Angle of the Cut. 138. Rip-Sawing.

—

137. Correct139. Cross-

cutting

83-86

EXERCISE 140.

Handling the Plane. ing.

— 143.

59-69

WORK.

— Measuring

i.

Spacing:

and Rule.

10.

Working-Face

and Framing-Square.

Scriber

1

112. Oil

.

ing: Pencil, and Try-Square.

Lining

Use of

Truing a Grindstone.

— BENCH

a Necessity.

126.

— — 108.

Truing an Oilstone

Good Lines

—

Grindstone.

107.

— 109.

Jointed Face.

Pencil,

—

for Grindstones.

PART 116.

— —

Hand Screw-Driver. 99. Brace Screw102. Mallet. Hammer. loi. Hatchet. Sand-Paper. Iron 105. Wooden Miter-Box. 104.

97. Winding-Sticks,

—

141.

No.

Why

Planing to a Square.

4.

— Planing.

n

Plane Clogs.

— 144.

Method

— 142.

Joint-

of Performing

CONTENTS.

Vlll

—

Operations.

Similar

Smooth

145.

Surfaces.

—

PAGES '

146.

Sand-

Papering

86-91

EXERCISE

— 148.

147. Jointing to Width.

— 150.

Hammer

drawing the Box.

Marks.

and Sawing.

— 158.

ting the Joint.

—

164. Lining. 167.

—

No. 9

EXERCISE

a Pin.

No.

No.

7.

No.

8.

and Cutting.

Fit.

— Splayed

— Keyed

—

Illustrated.

— 161.

— 159.

Toeing Nails

....

172.

— 166.

174. Lining

and Cutting

No.

99-102

.

103, 104

Cutting the Tenon.

104-110

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 1

— Plain Gluing. —

11.

10, ill

Dovetail.

173.

Short

Lining and Cutting the Joint

EXERCISE

Cut-

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint.

Key

No.

96-98

Splice.

Drawboring

— 170.

and Cutting.

....

Splice.

and Finishing the Joint

— 168.

Finishing

91-96

— Halved

— Simple

EXERCISE 171. Lining

Box Bottom.

Using the Auger-Bit

Sawing a

10.

— 149. NaiUng. — 152. With-

Nails.

— Bench-Hook.

165. Cutting the Mortise.

Making

169. Lining

6.

Length.

Value of Working-Face

— 160.

163. Cutting

EXERCISE

No.

— 156.

EXERCISE 162. Lining.

to

.Setting

Nails.

EXERCISE 157. Lining.

Sawing

— 151.

— 153. Fastening the — 154. Planing End Grain EXERCISE

155. Lining

5.—-Box.

No.

Method of 112, 113

12.

— Lap

Dovetail. 114, 115

CONTENTS.

EXERCISE 175. Lining

and Cutting.

and

No.

Door Described.

Rail.

— 181.

— 179.

A

— 178.

Finishing the Panel.

EXERCISE Making

PART

— 183. No.

— 187.

Form

— Frame

of the Joint

.

11 5- 11

and Panel.

Maicing the Joint between

— 180.

Keying the

Stile

Joint.

Fastening Panel to Frame.

Using the Brad-Awl

.

.

.

117-121

— Frame and Panel — 185. Plowing. — 186. and Rail.

Forming the Panel

121-124

— ELEMENTS

III.

Dovetail.

15.

Joint between Stile

Beading.

Modified

14.

PAGES

— Blind

Cutting Chamfers.

182. Inserting Screws.

184.

13.

— 176.

EXERCISE 177. Panel

No.

IX

OF WOOD CON-

STRUCTION. TIMBER. 188.

Timber

Defined.

Shrinkage.

—

189.

Felling.

— 193. Cross-section. —

— 192.

Shrinkage on

Swelling.

—

190.

Seasoning.

— 194.

Warping.

195. Effect

of

— 191.

Eftect of

Shrinkage on

Length

124-129

CARPENTRY. 196.

Work

of Carpenter and Joiner Compared.

sional, Tensional,

Cross-Strain.

Timber nnd

and Cross-Strain Defined.

Neutral Axis. its

— 197. — 198.

CompresEffect

of

Relation between the Depth of a

Resistance to Cross-Str-iin.

Principles concerning joints and lastenings

— T09. .

Rankine's

...

130-132

CONTENTS.

X

PAGES

Joints Connecting Timbers in the Direction of their Length. 200.

Lapped 203.

Joint.

— 201.

— 202.

Fished Joint.

Scarfed Joints.

— 204.

Scarfed Joint for Resisting Compression.

Joint for Resisting Tension.

— 206. Compression. — 207. Cross-Strain.

— 205.

—

Scarfed

Scarfed Joint for Resisting

Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and

I33-I35

Cross-Strain

Joints Connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 208. Halving.

— 209.

Notching.

— 212.

— 210.

Cogging.

— 211.

Mortise-

Tenon Joining a Vertical Mortise and Tenon Joining to a Horizontal Timber. 213. 214. Mortise and Tenon a Horizontal to a Vertical Timber. 136-139 Joining One Horizontal Timber to Another. Tusk Tenon and-Tenon

Joints.

Mortise and

—

—

Miscellaneous Joints. 215. Oblique Mortise Joint.

— 218.

and Tenon.

— 216.

Bridle-Joint.

Chase-Mortise

— 217.

Tie-

139-141

JOINERY. 141, 142

219. Joinery Described

Beads and Moldings.

— 221. Use of Beads. — 222. Chamfer. — 223. Stop — 224. Moldings Described. — 225. Round Nose. — 227. Joints Some Typical Forms of Moldings.

220. Beads.

Chamfer. 226.

Fillet.

142-145

in Joinery Defined

Heading- Joints, or Joints Uniting Pieces their Length. 228.

Square Heading-Joint.

in

Splayed Heading- Joint

the Direction of

145

CONTENTS.

XI PAGES

Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width. 229. Their

Office.

ing.

— 230.

Butt-joint.

Filleted

Rabbeted

Joint.

— 231. Glued Butt-joint. — 232. CleatSide Cleats. — 234. End Cleats. —^235. Relieving

Matched

Joint.

— 233.

Joint.

Cleats from Strain

145-14S

Joints Uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 236.

— 239.

and-Tenon at

— 238.

Strengthening of Miter-

— 240.

Proportions of Mortise-

Joints.

Haunching.

— 241.

— 243.

an Angle

Tenon

Miter-Joint.

Dovetail-Joints.

— 237.

Butt-joint. Joints.

in the

Four Tenons.

Work.

—

Single and Double Tenons.

— 245.

— 244.

242.

Mortises and Tenons

Modifications of Mortise-and-

148-152

Joints

P.\NEL1NG. 246. Panel.

—

Frame.

247.

—

248.

Joints

between

and

Panel

Frame

152-155

FASTENINGS. 249. Pins.

— 250.

— 253. Brads.

— 251. Blind-Wedging. — 252. Keys. — 254. Nails. — 255. Size of Nails. — 256. Tacks. — 258. Screws. — 259. Glue 155-161

Wedges.

Dowels.

— 257.

.

.

.

INTRODUCTION.

INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. Most of

I.

the iUustrations presented with

chapters are in the form of Mechanical

may appear

novice, these

some of

;

him

following

To

the

but careful attention to

the principles underlying their con-

struction will enable

Fig. 1

readily to interpret

meaning.

their

A

confusing

the

Drawings.

mechanical drawing, as distinguished from

a perspective drawing, or picture, instead of giving

all

the characteristics of an object at a

them

glance, presents

view one

set

in detail, giving in

of elements,

one

another view

in

elements, and so on, until the form of the object

is

trig. 2.

accurately defined.

For example.

Fig.

of an object which

by

another set of

Fig. 2.

By

Fig.

i

is

a perspective view

represented mechanically

is i

it

will at

that the object represented Fig. 2 there

is first

that the object

is

is

once be seen

a cylinder.

In

presented a />/an, showing cylindrical

;

and, secondly,

an elevation, showing the height of the cylinder.

From solid

the combination of these two views, the

may be

as easily

imagined as from Fig.

and the knowledge obtained of

it is

i,

much more

definite.

A is

perspective view of an object

had by looking from some one

is

that

which

point, as

ELEVATION.

A, Fig.

3,

while a

view represented by a mechanical drawing supposes the ob-

BENCH WORK

WOOD.

IN

number of

server to be looking from an infinite

always 2.

in parallel lines, as

A

and

points,

indicated by A, Fig. 4.

Plan of any object it as it would

i^^'s-

3

represents

appear

if,

standing on

natural base,

down upon

it

its

were looked

A

as

vertically,

indicated by the arrows A, as a rectangular block,

object,

If the

Fig. 5.

base, any one of

its

faces

may be

has no fixed

taken as such.

5

TTiK.

<—

< '

<

<

3.

An

appear

if,

Elevation of any object represents standing on

its

natural base,

it

it

as

arrows B, Fig.

The

5.

elevation

is

angles to the plan.

always

at

right

There may be

several elevations of the

same

object,

each differing from the others as the point of observation changes.

For

example, the plan and elevation of the object represented by Fig. Fig.

7,

Fig. 9.

but they

6,

are usually

may be made

as

made

it

would

were looked upon

horizontal direction, as indicated by

as

shown by

shown by Fig. 8 or

—

<

in

a

INTRODUCTION. These angular views, indeed, cannot be avoided when the form is so compHcated that its faces are neither par-

they represent

allel,

Fig. 8

nor at right angles to each

other.

lo

Fig.

a perspective

is

view of an object which

repre-

is

sented mechanically by Fig. ii. It is is

evident that

shown

B B

faces of face of

if

the

in

one face of

appear

will

;

shown, two of

is

A

two

elevation, if

one

A

will

appear.

In the representation of simple objects, the plan

in

is

some

cases

omitted, and two elevations employed. elevation,

These may be designated as side elevaticn and end which terms signify an elevation of a side and an

JTi-.

lO

elevation

of an end.

example,

if

surface

a

side

A

the

the base of Fig. 6,

elevation

equivalent Fig.

For

we consider

would be

the elevation

to

and the end elevation

7,

would become equivalent the plan of the 4.

Sight.

Method The

—

same

of

showing Parts obscured from which

outline of details,

view of an object are

shown by dotted

to

figure.

hidden,

is

in

any

frequently

Thus, in Fig. 12, the

lines.

general outline of the plan and elevation shows a rectangular

block

;

if

the circle in the plan

lines in the elevation,

it is

not

is

associated with the dotted

difficult to

imagine a round hole

extending through the center of the block. trates to only half the

If the hole

depth of the block, dotted

placed as shown by Fig. 13;

if

the hole

is

pene-

lines will

be

larger at the top

BENCH WORK

4

than at the bottom, the drawing if

smaller at the top, as

Kis- ^3

PLAN.

will

shown by

IN

WOOD.

appear as shown by Fig. 14 In Fig. 16 dotted ;

Fig. 15.

Fig. 15

INTRODUCTION. Cross-hatching parallel lines

5

a term applied to the uniformly spaced

is

which are employed

to indicate the cut surface

See Fig. i8.

of a section.

TTis. 1-8

Different pieces of material appearing in the

same section are

cross-hatched

different

at

angles, as in Fig. 19, which represents a cross-

section of a lead-pencil

and

;

different kinds of

material are frequently indicated by cross-hatch'''"°" *

ing in different colors.

""• "•

"'

Incomplete sections show only the cut surface, to the exclusion of

common

all

and omit the

A

other portions of the object.

to place such sections

and

goblet. Fig.

partly in elevation,

may be made

as in the

partly

drawing of the

21.

Broken Drawings.

6.

is

lines,

See Fig. 20.

letters.

single view of a symmetrical object

in section,

It

on the section

— To

Fig. 21

economize

space in representations of simple objects, a of the drawing

portion

Ki^.

so

sometimes

is

I

omitted.

In such cases, that which is

given

indicates

the

character of the omitted

and the dimen-^- portion, sion figures show exits

An example

tent.

is

given in Fig. 22.

— Drawings are

Scale.

made

ELEVATION.i SECTION

"to which every dimension agrees exactly with the similar dimension of the object it represents. A drawing to scale is one in which every dimension 7.

scale."

bears the

A

full-sized

same

the object

it

drawing

is

either "full-sized" or

one

in

fractional relation to the similar

represents.

AVhen a drav/ing

is

dimension of

^^\)^ the size of

BENCH WORK the object,

The

and so on.

on a

said to be

it is

as frequently written, i in,

=

=

scale 6 in.

WOOD.

scale of

ft.

1

IN

i

j

is

ft.

^ inch

^th the

if

to the foot, or,

=

size, as 2 in.

i ft.,

often expressed as "half

size."

— The various dimensions of an object repre-

Dimensions.

8.

sented are shown on the drawing by appropriate figures, which l^iji.

express feet

23

when as

two

the

when followed by and inches ". Thus 2' should be read ',

followed by feet,

same

and 2"

as

two inches.

as twelve feet

12'

yf"

is

and seven and three-

quarters inches.

The sented

figures always

show the dimensions of the thing

repre-

they do not agree with the dimensions of the drawing

;

except when the

latter

full-sized.

is

See dimension figures in

Fig, 23.

Dimension

lines.

near, lines along

— Dimension

In drawings these lines are

may be

dotted, black, as in Fig. 23.

usually in color (red), but

When

convenient, they are placed within the outline of the

drawing at

one

figures are always placed on, or

which they apply.

;

but

side,

if

the drawing

is

small or crowded, they are placed

and are connected with the

each side of the dimension

which line,

it

applies.

its

own

by per-

arrow-heads, one on

figure, locate the points

Several dimensions

each being limited by

parts they limit

Two

pendicular, colored or dotted lines.

may be

between

given on the same

arrow-heads.

PART

1

oi^c

BENCH TOOLS. Bench.

g. Its

length

—A

simple form of bench

A may vary

from

of work to be done.

Its

the character of the

work

—

heavy

as well as

6'

shown by

is

Fig. 24.

upwards, according to the length

height

B should

— high

also

for light

be regulated by

work, and low for

by the height of the person who

is

to use

it.

Carpenters' benches are usually about 33" high, while those of cabinet and pattern makers are from 2" to 4" higher.

Scale, 1^

=

1

'ri'+k-.-.?.

N jI

END ELEVATION.

The

SIDE ELEVATION.

surface of the bench, particularly of the thick plank that

forms the outer edge of

When

plane. injury.

saw.

is

2"

X

and shellaced,

The Bench-Stop a being planed.

2",

it,

should be perfectly

flat

—a

care must be taken to protect

it

true

from

should never be scarred by the chisel or cut by the

If oiled

10. it

It

in use,

It

is

it is

likely to

be better kept.

intended to hold the work while

may be simply

a piece of

wood about

projecting through a mortise in the top of the bench

;

BENCH WORK

8 but

have some form of iron

far better to

it is

Fift-.

WOOD.

IN

many of The char-

fitting,

which are suppHed by the trade.

35

acteristics of all of

them are

by the one shown

in Fig. 25.

A

is

C

The hook

face.

The frame

bench even with

into the

let

well illustrated

its

sur-

held in position at

is

any height above the bench by the action

C may

of the screw B.

be fastened even

with the surface of the bench, or

removed

entirely.

II.

The Vise

Fig. 24,

(/,

poses has long been

it

To

hold the work well, the jaw

as nearly as possible parallel to the

should be

which

of a form that, for general pur-

is

in use.

If

acts.

^.

it

is

d

face g, against

not parallel, the space between should

„^

be

less

tom

at the top

— an

sures a

than at the bot-

arrangement which

much

better grip

in-

upon the

work than the opposite conditions. Adjustments

for

made by changing one hole

parallelism

There are

another.

to

are

the pin c from

various mechanical appliances for

preserving automatically the parallelism of this vise, but

none are

in

common

use.

Iron vises can

be had which are adapted to the same uses as the one

just

described; they maintain their parallelism, and are easier and

more perfect in action. An iron bench vise, such useful for small work, and,

should supplement the vise

on the bench

The

holes,

at e,

as if

is

shown by

expense

d, in

is

Fig. 26,

is

extremely

not to be considered,

which case

it

may be

located

H. in the

bench are

which may be used

to support

while the other end

is

for the

reception of a plug,

one end of a long piece of work

held by the vise.

BENCH TOOLS.

A

12.

Bench-Hook, Fig.

shown by

Fig.

167,

applied

178,

provides

the

to

stop to prevent

a

bench as work from

shding across the bench. The flat faces which rest on the bench and receive the work, should be true planes and par-

A

allel.

length of from

14" to

16"

convenient, though

is

bench-workers fretiuently have several of different lengths. Trestles, or "horses," are used in various v/ays to sup-

13.

port

material,

and

also

to take the place of the

^^

pj^, fz

bench when large pieces of material

are

venient

form

by Fig.

27.

is

be

to

A

operated upon.

con-

shown

Measuring and Lining Appliances. 14.

Early Standards of Length.

need of

units of measure,

nearest at hand, and

it

— To

was natural

common

meet the

to

earliest

adopt the means

consent, no doubt, brought into

use the pace, the forearm, or cubit, the foot, the hand, the etc.

These were

might go, every individual carried

his units of

measure with him.

Variations in their length, however, were inevitable, and

attempts were English

made

statute,

the

to

substance

of which date,

barleycorns, round and dry,

make an

a foot, three feet a yard, etc.

;

mode

it is

to

" that

inch, twelve inches

three

make

be no doubt

to

of obtaining a standard was actually resorted

individual grains,

—

old

descended

enacts

and there seems

But setting aside the objection due taken,

has

many

An

reduce them to a standard.

American arithmetics of modern

that this

nail,

certainly convenient enough, for wherever he

— unless

the average of a large number be know how much of the sharp end must be removed to make it round,' that

so difficult to

of a grain of barley

to.

to the varying size of the

'

BENCH WORK

lO the definition

is

not of

much

WOOD.

IN

Nevertheless, in spite

value.

of numerous attempts at legislation on the subject, to the year 1824,

yard of

this

covered."

down

this,

was the only process by which the standard

country [England] could,

be legally

if lost,

re-

^

Previous to the institution of a national standard of lengtli in

Great Britain, influential

men and prominent

societies pro-

vided themselves with so-called standards, which were accepted

and used

in different localities.

By comparison with many of

these, the present standard of length

was made, and

From

defined by law as the British standard yard. fifty

copies have been made.

sent to the United States,

of the Coast Survey. 15.

and

I

"

Two

about

in the

are described as follows

Each standard of length

length

of these copies were in 1855

and have since been

They

its

this,

is

:

keeping

—

a solid bar 38 inches long

One inch from each

inch square, in transverse section.

is

sunk

At the bottom of the

wells,

extremity a cylindrical well, one-half inch in diameter, one-half inch below the surface.

in each bar, is a gold pin about o.i inch in diameter, upon which are drawn three transversal and two longitudinal lines. The wells are protected by metal caps. The length of one

English yard at a specified temperature tance from the middle transversal line

in

is

defined by the dis-

one well

to the

middle

transversal line in the other, using the parts of those lines

are

midway between

16.

the longitudinal lines."

The United States Standard

which

-

of Length.

— " The stand-

ard yard of Great Britain was lawful in the colonies before T776. is

By

the Constitution of the United States the Congress

charged with fixing the standard of weights and measures,

but no such enactment has ever been

*'

Workshop Appliances."

made by

Congress, and

"*

1

Shelley's

2

Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No.

12.

BENCH TOOLS.

I I

England previous

therefore that yard which was standard in

1776 remains the standard yard of the United States to ^

day."

"The Troughton Scale is made for the survey

17. silver

scale,

States

by Troughton, of London.

a bronze bar with an inlaid

of the coast of the United

The bar

and one-half inch

long, 2^ inches wide,

a

little

the whole length of the bar, save where perforations,

"The

zero

is

thin strip of its

It

surface

extends

interrupted by two

about o.i

parallel lines

The space

silver.

divided transversely into tenths of inches.

mark of

one end of the

A

the bar.

inch apart are ruled longitudinally on the

between them

nearly 86 inches

inlaid with

it is

Two

one near each end.

is

thick.

more than o.i inch wide, is with the brass, midway the width of

silver,

flush

to

this

the graduations

about 3.2 inches from

is

Immediately over

bar.

surmounted by the motto,

£

it is

Plurihiis

engraved an eagle,

Uuiiiii,

and thirteen

Below the 38 to 42-inch divisions is engraved 'Troughton, London, 18 14.' The bar is also perforated by a hole above

stars.

the scale and near the 40-inch division, and by one below

between the words

"The

'

Troughton

and

'

'

London.'

.

.

it,

.

yard of 36 inches, comprised between the 27th and

63d inch of the Troughton comparison to be equal

scale,

which was found by Hassler's

to the average

36 inches of the

scale,

is

the actual standard yard of the LTnited States, having been

adopted by the Treasury Department

as such in

1832, on the

recommendation of Mr. Hassler.-"" 18.

usually

Rules are measuring

made

of boxwood.

strips,

Their

and are size

expressed by their length in inches or as a " 6-inch rule," a " 2-foot rule."

For convenience, they are made ^

2

is

feet,

to fold,

Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey.

Hassler was the

BENCH WORK

12

and one

said to be

is

" four-fold " when

by a

rule.

preserve the rule from wear, the better class are

strip of brass

bound," ing

"two-fold" when made of two pieces, of four, and "six-fold" when made of

shows a four-fold

Fig. 28

six pieces.

To

made

WOOD.

IN

which covers each edge

"bound"

others are " half-

;

hav-

17^

only one

edge covered;

and

Eig.

others

still

SD

are " unbound," having no edge protection.

Carpenters' rules are usually graduated to eighths

of inches on one side, and to sixteenths on the other. Besides the regular graduations, other numbers are frequently represented

;

but their purpose

is

so varied

that their interpretation cannot be given here.

The Framing-Square,

19.

implies,

is

would seem

29, as

its

name

to belong to the builder rather than to

the bench-worker it

Fig.

intended primarily for use in framing, and

;

but

its

range of usefulness makes

valuable to any worker in wood. All but the very cheapest are of steel,

nickel-plated.

The

and many are and gives

nickel prevents rust,

clearness to the lines

and

figures.

The

figures of the

graduations along the several edges, begin at the angle

and extend

to the

these, there

is

at the

On

ends of the

on one side a

legs.

In addition to

line of figures

end of the long leg and extending

beginning

to the angle.

the reverse side, represented by Fig. 29, there

on the long leg a board-measure

table,

is

and on the

short leg a brace-measure table.

20.

The Board-measure Table.

— Lumber

square foot, and the value of the table

of a board, or of any surface, feet

and

its

in

square

lies in its

feet,

breadth in inches are known.

is

sold

by the

giving the area

when

its

length in

Bench tools. The

13

belong to the outside graduations,

figures that

i,

2, 3,

and so on up to 24, are employed to represent the width of the board to be measured, and all the lengths included in the table are given in a column under the figure 1 2 belonging to the out-

On

side graduations.

29, they are

Fig.

square,

this

14, 10,

and 8. To find the surface of any board, first look in the column under 12 for a number representing its length, and having found it, run the finger along in the same line until it

comes under sponds

that figure of the outside graduations that corre-

Example

— How many

i.

figure nearest the finger in

area of the board in

this fine represents the

10'

The

to the board's width.

long and 7" wide?

Under under

12 of the outside graduations, in Fig. 29, the 10

second

in the

7

and the

line,

ExaDtple

— What

2.

As for 8

in ;

Example

is 6,

under

2

1

of the outside graduations, will be

column under

that the

will

be clear when

will

contain as

it

many

is

is

figures

remembered

given under

length to which lumber

is

cut,

reciuired. 12, forming, as

does,

it

taken to represent the length,

surface feet as

a board 12" wide and 14' long

8, 10, 14, 16,

which represents the

21"?

a part of the body of the table,

The

is

most nearly

the surface of a board whose length

is

is

found the 14 which represents the area

feet.

line

look under 12 of the outside graduations

i,

in this line,

The reason

this

feet.

and whose width

is 8'

in

figure

of the outside graduations,

area required, in

is,

feet.

square feet are there in a board

it

that

any board 12" wide

contains linear feet

;

that

will

have an area of 14 square

12

correspond to the usual

and on most squares they are

and 18; and, since the

figure

representing the

area differs from the figure representing the length only be-

cause the width varies, of the column under

than 12.

1

we must go to the right or when the width is greater

2,

the

left

or less

H

Fig,

BENCH WORK

30

IN

WOOD.

BENCH TOOLS. by

as will be seen

The blade

Fig. 32.

beam

the

angle with

;

15 adjustable to any

is

C

thumb-screw

the

fastens

it

when

set.

The

size

of a bevel

is

expressed by the length of

its

beam

in

inches.

"Miter-Squares" derive

24.

name from tended

to serve.

struction

is

their

the purpose they are in-

A

"miter"

in con-

one-half of a right angle,

In the or an angle of 45 degrees. " miter-square " the blade, as in the try-square,

is

permanently

set,

but

an angle of 45 degrees, as shown

at

by

Fig. II.

The

made

con-

bevel, while neither so

venient

nor

so

accurate,

often

is

to answer the purpose of the

25.

Square

A is

'

miter-square.

Combination Try-and-" Miter

shown by

Fig.

"

This, while

34.

perfect

as

square,

is

formed

a

"mi-

into a

ter-square " the

AB

against

when

of

face

beam

try-

trans-

the

is

placed

the

work-

ing-face (iig) of the material. 26. Dividers are

and

much used

in laying off circles

in spacing

and arcs of

The form shown by Fig. 35 dividers." The two points

is

circles.

known

as

"arc and set-screw

are held at any desired distance

from each other by the action of the set-screw arc

B.

In setting, the

final

adjustment

A

upon the

may be made more

BENCH WORK

i6

by use of the thumb-nut C, which, acting

delicate

tion to the spring

lengthen

27

it,

as

D, shortens

may be

B or allows

the arc

:

Example

i

.

of a table are of unequal length, and prevent

— The

four legs

from standing

it

Scribe the legs to length.

even. First,

make

in opposi-

the spring to

required.

Scribing with Dividers

.

WOOD.

IN

by means of blocks or wedges under the shorter

the top of the table to stand parallel to face, as a

36

Fig.

it is

bench

top, or

good condition,

in

may be

legs,

some plane even the

sur-

floor

either of

if

which

designated as F, Fig. 36.

Set

the dividers equal to or greater than the

height of the thickest blocking, so that

while one point, a, touches the leg, the

upon

other, b, will rest dividers, ca,

F in

which,

if

Move

vertical line. line

on the

Without changing the dividers, mark

F.

two adjoining faces on each is

same

the

leg, as

the dividers are properly handled, will be parallel

to the surf'ice

It

the

keeping b on F, and producing by a a

e\ ident

leg,

and cut the

that lines thus scribed will all be at

distance from the surface j^i„_

F

;

and the

an equal

table top, having

made

3^

at least

legs to line.

parallel

follows

that

scribed

are

the

top,

to

the

been F,

parallel

or

that

it

lines

to

the

length of the four legs, as defined is

Example

2.

—

It is

required to

the outline abed oi A, Fig. 37.

fit

by the

the end of a board

at

a and the other at

B

to

Place the board in the position

shown, and set the dividers at a distance equal to

one point

lines,

the same.

e, let

them be moved

.v.

With

together,

one following the outline abed which the other produces on B,

BENCH TOOLS. Cut

as shown. angles, as

and the board

at /, enter into

be attained base line

to line,

if

the point

17

/

the is

fit.

When

sharp

located by measuring from the

hi.

Combining Measuring Appliances.

28.

will

outline, greater accuracy will

— To

find the hypot-

enuse of a right-angled triangle when the other two sides are rule and framingshown by Hg. 38.

known, use the square,

as

Suppose ab

= 9^"

;

Fig. 30 the length and the length ac

in

= 5I-", to

find the length be,

apply one end of the rule to

mark on one leg of the and bring its edge to / coincide with the 5-^" mark on the other leg, as shown by Fig.

the 9^"

square,

where

it

The reading

38.

of the rule

coincides with the 5^" mark, or io|", will be the length

The length many purposes.

thus

be.

found

If the

will

be

sufficiently

accurate

distance to be measured

imagine every inch on the sc^uare to be equal to a read the result

in

for

in

feet,

foot,

and

is

feet.

If the proportions of the triangle are very large, the figure

may be drawn

at full size

on the shop

floor,

and the extent of

each part determined by direct measurement.

29.

Setting the Bevel.

— To Fig.

set the bevel at a miter (an angle

of 45°), place the

beam

30

against

one leg of the square and adjust the blade so that

it

will

agree with

equal distances on both legs, as

4" and 4", Fig. 39. the

same on both

Any

legs.

distance

may be

taken, but

it

must be

BENCH WORK The bevel

WOOD.

IN

carpenter frequently describes an angle to which the set, as " i in 2 " or " i in 4," by which is meant

may be

that while the

beam

shown by Fig. 39, the blade mark on one leg, and the 2" mark on i" mark on one leg, and the 4" mark on is

applied, as

1"

corresponds to the the other; or to the

the other. 30. Fig.

To

Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees.

set the

40 the board

.J

has a jointed edge a

^. ,^ Fig. -to

from

;

this,

With any '

line dc.

— In

square the radius. '

the dividers to strike

use

the arc be

with the same

;

from

radius, strike

/

Place the

the arc

l>

beam

of the

bevel against the working-

move

face a, it

b

and

/

the blade

till

coincides with the points

and the bevel is set at an angle of 60 degrees with one beam, and 1 20 degrees with the other.

side of the

31-

To

set the

Bevel at any given Angle.

Fig. 41

is

made

rectly will

—

an attempt

If

to set the bevel di-

from

lines

be found

on paper,

difficult to

it

de-

termine when the tool agrees with the parts of the drawing. It

is

therefore,

better,

transfer such

an angle

to

to a

board, from the working-edge of which the bevel set.

set

Thus,

if it is

may be

required to

the bevel at the

abc, Fig. 41, a

angle

board as A,

should be lined as follows

from the working-edge gauge the

line a'b'

;

:

with the dividers,

BENCH TOOLS. at

any convenient radius, describe from

^'

the arc

e^d'

;

with the

radius describe from b the arc ed ; set the dividers so that

same

with one point on e the other will

tance on e\f locating /' ,

will

19

As

be equal to abc.

a'b^ is

on/, and lay

fall

connect

;

and /'

b^

off this dis-

the angle «'^'r'

;

by construction

parallel to

the

working-edge of the board, the angle between the working-

edge and

b'c' is ecjual

to the angle abc.

If,

then, with the

of the bevel on the working-edge, the blade cide with

b'c' ,

marking-gauge.

The

—

Fig.

beam

to coin-

42 shows the usual form of a

steel point, or

narrow edge, so that

to a

made

the bevel will be set at the angle abc.

Marking-Gauges.

32.

is

"spur,"

e,

should be

it 1^-ifr.

make a sharp line. The graduations along length of the beam B,

filed

-43

will

the are

not to be depended on unless

the spur. is

known

is

it

zero line

is

that

the ^^"'"'^^'^

exactly opposite

When

the zero

frequently the case,

is

it

measure from the head

mark and

A

the spur

do not agree,

as

necessary in setting the gauge to to the spur

c.

A

when

set, is

pre-

vented from moving on B, by the screw C. 33.

A

Mortise-Gauge, shown by Fig. 43, has two spurs, a

being fastened to the beam, and b to a brass slide which works in a

The

groove in the beam.

spur b

may be

set at

any

dis-

tance from a by the action of the screw

c.

The gauge may,

therefore, be set to line both sides of a mortise at the

34.

same

time.

Panel-Gauges, Fig. 44, are

for use in

considerable distance from the working-edge.

making

lines at a

BENCH WORK

20

IN

WOOD.

The length of the head A is sufficiently increased to receive good support from the working-edge, which guides it.

Cutting-Gauges, having a long, thin blade in the place

35.

of the usual spur, are in form similar to that shown by Fig. 42.

They

are useful in cutting strips of thin material.

Chalk-Lines are very seldom used

36.

are often convenient in applying such

The cord used

On

strength.

in lining should

work

be as small as

most surfaces blue chalk

is

bench work, but

in

to larger structures.

consistent with

is

more

easily seen than

white.

The

37.

Scriber, as

known

to the trade, takes a variety of

forms, from that of an awl to that of a peculiar short-bladed

A

knife.

well-kept pocket

found a good substitute •

The Pencil used

38. soft,

for

knife of convenient size will

be

any of them.

in lining

on board surfaces should be

and kept well-pointed by frequent sharpening. Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. Firmer-Chisels have blades wholly of

39. fitted

40. steel.

They

are

Framing-Chisels have heavy iron blades overlaid with The handles are stout and are protected at the end by

ferrules.

and

steel.

with light handles and are intended for hand use only.

is

This chisel

driven to

its

is

used

in

work by the

heavy mortising and framing, mallet.

1

BENCH TOOLS. Compare

Fig. 45,

21

which shows a firmer-chisel, with Fig. 46,

which shows a framintr-chisei.

mr

The

size

of chisels

is

indicated by the width of the cutting

edge, and varies from ^" to i" by sixteenths, and from

i:^" to

2" by fourths. 41.

A

Corner-Chisel

edges are

it

useful in

a mortise.

making Its

shown by

Fig. 47.

each other, and

is

is

like that

Gouges have blades

the cutting edge ;

two cutting

form renders

of a framing-chisel.

The

size

indicated by the length of one cutting edge. that,

throughout their length, are

When

curved in section, as shown by Fig. 48.

gouges "

Its

this

inside angles, as, for example, the corners of

handle

of a corner-chisel 42.

is

at right angles to

the bevel forming

on the concave

is

when on

side, they are called "inside the convex side, " outside gouges." For

general purposes the outside gouge

is

most convenient, and the

carpenter, with his limited facilities for the care of tools, can

more

easily

keep

it

by the length of a

in order.

The

size

of a gouge

straight line extending

the cutting edge to the other.

is

indicated

from one extremity of

BENCH WORK

22 Handles

43.

for chisels, gouges,

general classes, light and heavy

;

WOOD.

IN

and

similar tools, are of

two

the former are intended prin-

hand use, and are shown in connection with the firmerand gouge the latter, which are re-enforced at the end

cipally for chisel

by a

;

may

ferrule that they

withstand blows from the mallet, are

connection with the framing-chisel and the corner-

illustrated in chisel.

Handles may be shank-litted, like the one shown oy Fig. 48, shown by Fig. 47. The better class of tools

or socket-fitted, as

have socket-fitted handles.

The Drawing-Knife, shown by

44.

wide

chisel,

though

The handles into

it,

as

effective

The

is

drawn

The Action

to perform

:

first,

widening the cut

work.

is

in reality

a

from a chisel in form.

into the work, instead of being

The to

drawing-knife

wood

pushed is

very

be considerably reduced.

by the length of the cutting edge.

of Cutting less acute.

Wedges.

— Every

In action

it

wood and, secondly, may penetrate into the

the cut, the fibers of the split), or the fiber

cutting tool

has two operations

cutting the fibers of the in order that the tool

;

and thus allow the cutting edge

To widen

apart (the rial

Fig. 49,

different

on narrow surfaces that are

a wedge more or

material,

tjuite

the case with a chisel.

size is indicated

45. is

is

is

are so attached as to stand in advance of the cut-

which

ting edge,

it

to

go on with

its

wood must be pressed

ends crushed, or the mate-

on one side of the wedge must be bent, thus forming a

BENCH TOOLS. shaving.

It is

edge forward result in the

evident that a unit of force tending to drive the

under

will,

like

same amount of

conditions of material, always

entering the material, than able depth, and, hence,

to

it is

But much

incision.

when

required to carry the tool forward

due

23

when

assume that

just

this difference is

solely to the resistance that the material offers in

make way

is

has advanced to a consider-

it

fair to

less force is

the cutting edge

opening

for the tool, this resistance increasing as the

tool

The resistance offered to a tool by a bending shaving, therefore, may be many times greater than that offered to the cutting edge by the wood fibers. An obtuse-angled wedge will cut as easily as a more acutegoes deeper.

angled one, but the more obtuse the angle

must be the turning of the shaving

;

is,

the

and since the

more abrupt latter factor

more important, as regards the absorption of force, it follows that the more acute the cutting edge is, the more easily

is

the

it

will

46.

accomplish

Angle

its

work.

of Cutting

Wedge

in Chisel

and Gouge.

— The

acuteness of the angle cannot be defined in degrees since,

being limited only by the strength of the the duty required of

angle

may be used

it

varies.

steel,

it

must vary

as

For example, a more acute

in soft than in

hard wood

;

again, a chisel

handled as shown by Figs. 147 and 148, is not so severely strained as when used in the manner illustrated by Fig. 149. If the

maximum

degree of delicacy were insisted on under

every condition of use, the cutting edge would need to vary with every turn of the chisel, and almost with every shaving cuts. all

these requirements

expressed as follows

metal

it

This would be impracticable, and

will allow

:

let

to

a single

wood workers reduce principle which may be

the cutting edge be as acute as the

without breaking,

experience with a given tool

is

when

fairly

the readiest

the angle suited to a given class of work.

used.

A

little

means of finding Carriage makers,

BENCH WORK

24

who work almost wholly would

hard woods, are

in

using what pattern makers,

who work

habit of

in the

principally in soft woods,

style blunt chisels.

— A new

47. Grinding.

chisel, or

one that has become con-

With the handle of the

siderably dull, must be ground.

Fig,

its

hand

the proper angle

until

cated by the

full

outline

d.

/>,

on

Fig. 50, the

If the stone

raise the

a good supply of

is

move

in

is

the tool gradually

good

fairly

the

order,

tool

motion, in the manner shown

its

motion being

is

and then

to the other.

that the stone

should be applied relative to

arrow

a,

See that there

Ik

from one side of the stone

by a and

resting

reached, a position indi-

is

water, and, as the grinding progresses,

Assuming

hand

left

cutting edge, apply the chisel to the stone,

shown by the dotted outline

Fig. 50, as

chisel

SO

hand, and the fingers of the

in the right

the blade near

right

WOOD.

IN

the direction of the

in

not round or does not run true, there

danger that the cutting edge may dig into it, to the injury of both stone and tool. Under such conditions, it will be best for is

the operator to

move round

in the position indicated by

to the other side,

The

c.

chiefly because of two reasons

more

steadily

;

first,

and, secondly, there

production of a " wire edge." thin

:

by grinding,

it

first

is

and hold the

position

the tool

less

is

tool

preferable,

may be

held

tendency toward the

As the extreme edge becomes away from the stone, and

springs slightly

allows the chisel at points thin, thus resulting in

still

farther

from the edge to become

an extremely delicate edge which must be

removed before the tool can be made sharp. remove thij wire edge, it frequently breaks off

In the farther

effort to

back than

BENCH TOOLS. is

and the process of whetting

desired,

chisel held at r (instead of

tion of the

motion

l>,

is

2$

With the

prolonged.

the proper position) the direc-

relative to the tool aggravates this

tendency

of the light edge to spring away from the stone.

The

grinding process

is

reaches the cutting edge

holding the tool to the

complete when the ground surface

—a

light.

condition readily determined by If

it is

peared, the tool

which,

as sharp as

is

persisted

if

in,

it

48. chisel,

To whet apply

dull, there will this line

be a

has disap-

can be made by grinding,

The

only result in a wire edge.

will

action of the grindstone, however,

good cutting edge, and whetted (107 -no).

still

When

bright line along the cutting edge.

is

too severe to produce a

the chisel, after being ground, must be

the

it

to

the oilstone A, Fig. 51, in the position

shown by the dotted outline /^, and as it is moved back and

forth along the length

arrows, gradually bring

the angle between cutting edge c

it

it

of the stone, as indicated

to the position

and the stone

comes

is

to

shown

l)y //.

be increased

in contact with the stone

;

this

l)y

the

That until

is,

the

])()silion

can be recognized by the sensation imi)arted to the hand, and the behavior of the first

thought,

the bevel

a/',

it

oil

with which the stone

may seem

Fig. 52,

is

lubricated.

At

that

c

which was

«
r^iix.

'r:

produced by the grinding, should be maintained in whetting to

do

this

;

but

would require so much

time that one corresponding very nearly to

a/>,

Great care

as af, is

is

taken.

necessary on the part of one unskilled to avoid

giv-

BENCH WORK

26

ing the tool a rocking motion

^/

on the oilstone in,

p,.„ j_3

WOOD.

IN

shown by

^

sharper

the light, will

sufficiently whetted, the

show a

along the edge,

it

is

dull, grayish

flat

indulged

face,

and

will be no had the form

if it

by the

dotted

cutting edge,

if

The whetting

turns a light

an exaggeration of which

shown by

detected by the finger

moved by a',

Fig. 51.

It

is

;

may be it

is

re-

a single stroke of the

blade with

shown by

is

This can-

a, Fig. 54.

not always be seen, but

stone, as

outline

held to

If a bright line appears

hue.

not yet sharp.

wire edge over on the

if this is

Fig. 53,

than

indicated

When

a/>c.

;

the edge will appear rounded, as

the

flat

face

on the

necessary, however, that

every precaution be taken to prevent the production of a bevel indicated by the dotted line

already existing.

To guard

Fig.

c,

against

54,

this,

and opposite

that

the chisel should be

applied to the stone in the manner illustrated by the outline a,

(111-H5).

Fig. 51

A

must be whetted often enough to keep the edge in good condition it is dull whenever it fails to cut well. When, by frequent whetting, the whetted surface becomes so broad as tool

;

to require considerable time in the production of the edge,

it

should be reground, and the process just described repeated.

This method of sharpening the chisel to the gouge, drawing-knife,

and

all

will, in

general, apply

similar tools.

Saws. 49.

force

efficiency of any saw is measured by the amount of absorbs in making a given cut or " kerf." For example,

The it

one saw severs a 4" x 4" timber with half the force required by another, it is evident that the second saw is only one-half if

as efficient as the

first.

Almost every element that enters

into

BENCH TOOLS. saw construction has Chief among them

effect

its

is

the

on the

2^ efficiency of the

tool.

thickness of the blade, which, of

course, determines the width of the kerf ; for a wide kerf will

removal of more material than a narrow one, and

recjuire the

some

the force absorbed in each case must bear

relation to the

amount of material removed. In recognition of this fact, the people of some eastern countries use saws designed to cut when drawn towards the operator, a method of handling that

— too great

allows great thinness of blade

to stand the thrust

But the

which our saws are driven into the work.

is

The shape

is

B

represented by Fig. 55, its work with re-

*^'-

accomplishes

markable ease.

by

Fig. 5-5

that the Chinese saw, for example,

which

result

of such a saw, however, and the

awkward manner of applying

force to

neutralize the advantage gained from

it,

its

probably more than delicacy, although in

the abstract^ the thinner the blade the better the saw. 50.

The form

of our

own saws

is

not the result of chance,

on the contrary, has been developed after a careful study of the conditions under which they are required to work. Other things being equal, pushing a saw gives better results

but,

than pulling to

make

Under

it.

a thrusting force,

the blade sufficiently thick

it

is

and strong

found necessary to resist

ing tendencies, but with no surplus material to

In view of these facts the outline of the blade

sary weight.

tapered, as

shown by

Fig. 56.

handle than at the point. ITig.

the kerf,

it

bend-

add unneces-

is

To

The blade

is

is

thicker also at the

assist in giving

it

clearance in

56

tapered from the teeth to the back.

ence in thickness

is

accomplished

in the process of

This

differ-

manufacture,

BENCH WORK

28

WOOD.

IN

by grinding the rough blade perfections

left

be detected

by Fig. will

after it has been hardened. Imby the hardening or the grinding process, may

saw by bending the blade,

in the finished

If

57.

it

as

shown

uniformly ground and hardened, the curve

is

be regular as shown

;

if it is

thick in spots, or

if it

varies in

hardness, the curve will be uneven, as indicated by the dotted

hne. 51.

edge

Set.

— The thinning of the blade

will not, in

most

pressing against the saw. are bent

make

— one

to

back from the cutting

cases, prevent the sides of the kerf

one

To meet

this difficulty, the

side, the next to the other side

from

saw teeth

—

so as to

the width of the kerf greater than the thickness of the

of such bending, or " set," as well as

The amount

blade.

its

uniformity, can readily be seen by holding the saw to the light

with the back of the blade next the eye

Fig.

shown by

58

;

it

will

then appear as

Fig. 58.

In very hard material the sides of the kerf are

scarcely any set

is

material

and spongy, the

soft

is

required

left

smooth and even, and But if the

sometimes even none.

;

fibers spring

away from the

advancing teeth, and then come back again on the blade after the teeth have passed

For most purposes

when

it

can be

52. Size of

;

hence, a large amount of set

is

required.

bench, however, the set

is

sufficient

at the

easily

and

Saw

Teeth.

should begin to cut when ting until

it

clearly seen.

it

— For

proper action, each tooth

enters the work,

and continue

each tooth must contain the material removed by city of the

cut-

leaves the kerf, and, since the space in front of it,

the capa-

space must be increased in those saws which are

required to work through a considerable depth of material.

two-handed cross-cutting-saw

A

for logs, therefore, has the teeth

widely placed, thus making the intervals large.

In panel-saws, such as are used at the bench, except in spe-

BENCH the space

cial cases,

When

tooth.

is

TOOr.S.

29

of the same size and form with the

the spaces are large, the teeth must be large,

and, since the size of the spaces has a direct relation to the

amount of

material removed,

may be

it

said that the size of

the teeth depends on the size of the material in which the saw is

to work.

The

one point

one that

line is

Thus

another

to

is

expressed by the number contained

" 6 teeth " is

^

means

rt'/^.

is

used

the grain, as indicated by cd, Fig.

An

59.

shown by

wood be

oblique kerf, such ef.

Fig.

59,

may

the cross-cutting, but the

by the

is

as

^^e^

latter. it

A

-

_j^

__^-

^j^

''

will

/

work

faster

than

be more smoothly done

large knot in the course of the ripping-saw

best to substitute the cross- cutting-saw until the

passed through, after which the ripping-saw

used again.

^^^.^

is

in soft

work

wood, as on the

j^.^^,

cut with the ripping-saw, which will

may make

— A ripping-saw

in cutting with the grain of the

Across-cutting-saw

Fig. 59.

intended for use at right angles to

knot

that the distance from

".

Ripping-Saws and Cross-cutting-Saws.

53. is

of saw teeth

size

an inch.

in

A

may be

cross-cutting-saw for the bench should have

Sec.

A

B.

ELEVATION.

a 22" or 24" blade with 7^ or 8 teeth to the inch; a ripping-saw should have a 24 " or 26" blade, with 6 or 6^ teeth.

BENCH WORK

30

WOOD.

IN

—

The Teeth of Ripping-Saws. Fig. 60 shows a plan, and section of three teeth as they are usually made The following paragraphs present a consida ripping-saw.

54.

elevation, for

eration of the action of an individual tooth. All

wood

and any

fibrous,

is

along the length of the at

which

tool

fibers, as the

produce a cut

to

is

saw kerf

ab. Fig. 59, must,

each period of action, take something from the ends of such

fibers as

may lie

in the path of the

proposed opening.

In

ling this condition, the action of a ripping-saw's tooth

unlike the action of a chisel

Each tooth which takes

it

its

when used

removes

in its turn

its

and lengthens the

slice

that of a chisel,

and

is

as

it

is

its

motion being

tion of the arrow.

^^

^

Fig. 62

made

;

to

But the

,-,

V'Y:

^^^ this

cut fact

^

lii^*^

tool, '^i^,

applied to a saw kerf in

as part of a complete saw,

appear as represented by Fig. 61, ting

because

the

This defect

It is

in

the that

it

position of the

advancing face of the is

more

same manner

as

will

in the direc-

defective as a cut-

of the

clearly

shows how a chisel would look

is

cutting edge of

bounded, by a more obtuse angle than Thus, if one a cutting tool is inferior.

would occupy

__

not

Fig. 149.

change of position

The

cut.

of the three teeth shown by Fig. 60 the position

shown by

share from the fiber ends over

passes, just as the chisel at every

a saw tooth, however,

/

as

fulfilis

tooth.

illustrated

if its

that of a

by

edge were

saw tooth.

a great discrepancy exists between the

form of the saw tooth and that of the

been demonstrated that a

chisel,

to

give

chisel,

good

for

it

results,

has

must

BENCH TOOLS. be

acute

as

at least

as

is

3

I

indicated by the dotted line a

would seem that the former might be improved by bringing it more nearly to the outline of the latter. Sup-

and

it

pose

be attempted, and that the face of the tooth

this

dicated by the line

Fig.

cd,

60,

be changed to

in-

Such

cl>'.

a change must result either in removing material from the

and thereby weakening

tooth,

it,

ened, the space between

make

it

the advancing face

if

^//'

accepted, and the tooth

is

weakened), there

the tooth

if

and the next

Again,

to

or in changing the line cd

In other words,

to a position cd'.

is

still

more

made

not

not weak-

is

be

will

reduced.

acute, the line

smaller (that

be no space between

is,

and the next tooth. Having no spaces, there can be no teeth, and consequently the attempted change is impossible. It will thus be will

it

seen that the angle of the advancing face of the ripping-saw tooth cannot, unless is

shown by

The form the outline

be gained while

is

it

weakened, be much more acute than

60 and Fig. 61.

Fig.

may be

of the tooth

shown by in

Fig. 63,

wholly changed, however, to

and some advantage may thus

respect of the cutting angle

suitable

for

;

but such a tooth,

machine-saws of considerable

size,

too

is

complicated for small saws.

Nothing remains, then,

means of improving the

as a possible

cutting edge of the saw tooth, except a modification of the

angle

f>cd,

Fig. 60.

If

it

could be shown that there

needed

of strength in the tooth, above what

is

work, the angle might be changed to

d'c(f,

to

is

an excess

perform

or even to

i>'^cd,

the value of the tooth as a cutting tool be increased. over,

it

does not

change, for

it

is

its

and

More-

seem unreasonable to attempt such a evident that the cutting wedge of the chisel at first

(which we have regarded as the typical cutting tool), while

much more

acute than the angle

/n-d,

is

yet strong

enough

to

be entirely satisfactory.

A more

carefiil

comparison of the saw and

chisel,

however,

BENCH WORK

32

discloses the following facts

than a chisel in order that softer,

is

made, and,

tage

and,

tion

;

it

lieved

thirdly,

this

;

is

respect also,

using

in

given entirely to

is

time

in

its

a

filed,

and being

secondly, the width

;

chisel

a disadvan-

at

is

it

the

operator's

one cutting edge, and

likely to receive too

while

and

set

substance

its

than half the width of the narrowest

less

is

chisel

a saw tooth must be softer

may be

it

therefore weaker in

of the saw tooth

first,

:

WOOD.

IN

much

strain,

it

at

is

atten-

any

at

if

once

re-

each saw tooth, on the contrary, forms but a

small part of a tool that receives

orous handling while

it

is

little

and much

attention

vig-

being driven through straight grain,

crooked grain, or hard knots, as the case may be. consideration of these points,

it

From

a

seems clear that the cutting-

angle of a saw tooth must be less acute than that of a chisel.

But the degree of acuteness can be determined only by use. Fig. 60 shows the form

which years of experience have proved

some bench-

the most practicable for general work, and while

workers do to dch\ as

file

their saws " under,"

producing a tooth similar

many more go to the other extreme and use a tooth The typical form given is easily kept in order,

similar to dcf.

and,

when

55. is

in that condition, will cut freely

The Teeth

of

Cross-cutting-Saws.

used directly across the grain, the Kij?. G-i

and

—

well.

ripping-saw

If a

fibers of the

material will

^^ torn from each other without being

properly cut

saw that cut."

by

;

hence

necessity for a

the

its

will " cross-

Fig.

64 shows

three views a

representative

form

of tooth for this saw. It will

be seen by the figure that the tooth terminates in a

trian-

P.ENCH TOOLS. gular point

;

and

also, that while the point

side of the blade, the next, a',

thus throughout

its

is

33 a

is

formed on one

formed on the opposite side

;

length, the points of any two adjacent teeth

This arrangement makes

being on opposite sides of the blade.

the end view of the blade show two parallel lines of points, and

between them a triangular depression, which, when exaggerated by the "set," will appear as shown by

AB,

section

Fig. 64.

In action, the points a and

a',

Fig. 65,

score the work, and the friction between the teeth and the cut fibers breaks up the latter, and they are carried off by the saw.

Assuming

that

is

it

a matter of convenience to have these

teeth, as well as those of the ripping-saw, equal to the space

between any two of them, there are three questions which may First, what shall be considered concerning their proportions. be the inclination of the advancing edge or " face " of the

compared with the line bd. work on "The Art of Saw-Filing," of action between the advancing edge ab

tooth, as represented

64? shows the similarity

by the

Holly, in his

Fig.

line al)

little

and the edge of a pocket knife when made to cut across the and asserts that a knife with its cutting edge perpendicular to the surface upon which it acts (a position equiva-

grain,

lent to

bd)

to carry

it

will

make

a rougher cut,

and require more force

forward at a given depth, than

in a position similar to that of the line ab.

when it is inclined The result obtained

from such an experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive, because of the great difference in the character of the cutting

edges compared.

But,

if

it

is

keen cutting edge behaves more to the work,

it

seems reasonable

edge of a saw tooth inclined.

A

found that the knife with satisfactorily at

to

its

an inclination

conclude that the rougher

will give the best results

when much more

consideration of these points justifies the belief

BENCH WORK

34

WOOD.

IN

that an angle of 60 degrees with the work, that

passing through the points a

show

practice goes to

'

and

a, is

none too

is,

with a Une

great,

smooth work, but cut with ease and rapidity. Secondly, what shall be the angle of the advancing Since this

face of

as acute as

is

e'e

consistent with strength.

being required for action in hard

Greater strength

wood than

in soft,

it

follows

that this angle should be varied with the material in which

used.

all

and ef, Sec. £F, Fig. 64? angle forms the cutting wedge of the tooth, it should

the tooth, as represented by lines

be

and

formed not only do very

that teeth so

For general work

it

may correspond

it is

to the angle e'e/.

Thirdly, what shall be the acuteness of the point as indicated

by the angle

iaj,

Sec.

AB,

Fig.

by the character of the material obtuse, as iak, for hard

acute, the scoring will be

to pass

down Kiir.

will

into

66

to

wood than

cause additional strength

tween the scores

64?

is

This, also,

be

cut.

for soft

It

is

determined

should be more

wood, not only be-

required, but also because,

done so

easily that the

if

fibers

too be-

not break out, and the saw, being unable

new work,

will

slide

along on the

Fi

old.

BENCH TOOLS. cutting-saw, except that

35

Hne of the advancing face

the

brought forward as indicated by

is

increase their

bkl, Fig. 64, to

when used with the They are, however,

efficiency grain.

much finer, there being many as sixteen

as

usually

the

to

This saw cuts slowly as

inch.

compared with a panel-saw, but may be used work.

It is

used to cut

The bur

of the wood.

a sufficient

any direction

in

by the

left

file

in very delicate

relative to the grain

after sharpening, forms

set.

The blade A,

Fig. d^,

thrust necessary to drive

by an iron "back," B.

in itself too thin to withstand the

is it

into the work,

and

is

strengthened

This, being thicker than the blade, will

not allow the saw to penetrate beyond a depth represented by the distance C.

For

this

reason the blade

is

uniform in width

instead of tapering.

The Compass-Saw, shown by

57.

sawing in curved Vis-

lines.

Its

GO

blade

Fig. 69,

is

intended for

extremely thick, and the

is

teeth are given an enor-

mous amount of sections

AB

Sec.

AB

(.Enlarged)

it

See

CD,

If the curve in

Fig. 69.

which

set.

and

to

is

be used

is

very small, only a short of

portion

the

blade's

length next the point can

be used. of longer radius, a greater length of blade

With a curve

may be brought

action. i^^i^r.

Its

70,

teeth are of the form

shown by

Fig.

having the square face of the ripping-

saw, and the point of the cross-cutting-saw.

^.^

ro

into

BENCH WORK

36

They

IN

WOOD.

are thus adapted for use in any direction relative to the

grain of the wood.

Appliances for Saw Filing and Seti'ing.

A

58.

Fig. 71.

"Triangular Saw File"' is of the form shown by A " shm " saw file is represented by Fig. 72 it is ;

n

Fig.

n-ic..

Fig. rs

REGULAR.

two

inches

same

longer than a "regular" saw

cross-section.

Fig. 73,

A

"

double ender

and a cross-section of

all

saw

"

file is

files,

of the

shown by on an en-

larged scale, by Fig. 74. 59.

The

Saw

Sets.

—

Fig. 75

tooth to be bent

is

shows a simple form of

set.

placed on the surface A, with

Frequently called " three-square saw

file."

ra

BENCH TOOLS. adjacent teeth in contact with B,

the

blade

is

allowed to

from

Thus placed,

the

blow

D

hammer on

a

B

rest

A

on the screw C.

37

bends or "sets" the tooth,

and a spring returns

D to

the position shown. ^

The

amount of by the

set

and

the lower

C is

is

regulated

of

position C,

screw

is

is

the

greater,

C

If

fixed.

raised to coincide with

AE,

the dotted line

tooth

not be

will

the

B,

set.

the tooth to which the set 60.

Swedge and,

small ones ing, they

Z>

is

large

on

generally speak-

do not concern the

bench-worker.

^

on

occasionally, ;

can be adjusted to the depth

to take effect.

Sets for Ripping-Saws, illustrated by Fig. 76,

are in general use

saws

B is

not well

The

shown

set

is

in the engraving.

tooth at a time, the end A'

is

wedge-shaped.

Since

it

must

act

on only one

BENCH WORK

38

IN

WOOIX

driven against the edge of the tooth, as shown by Fig. 77 ; by is forced back, as

using one opening the center of the tooth at

H

;

and by use of the other opening the points are spread, at G. A tooth thus set is more

completing the work, as perfect in

its

action than

when

bent, since

it

cuts the

width

full

of the kerf. 61.

Saw Clamps

are convenient for holding the saw during

Fig.

the filing process.

clamps similar

rs

Carpenters frequently

to that represented

make

by Fig.

for

themselves

It

consists of

78.

two pieces of hard wood joined face to face by two screws (one near each end), by means of which the clamp p"ig.

TO

may be

fastened rigidly to the blade of the saw.

ened

It

the

in

may then be vise

or

the knee while the saw filed.

A much

the saw clamp

fast-

on

held is

being

better device

shown by

is

Fig.

79, which, while fastened to the

bench, so holds the saw that

may be

in almost

any

thus

enabling

the

direction,

workman light.

it

turned

to obtain a favorable

BENCH TOOLS.

To 62. !t

Top- Jointing^.

by running a This

Fig. 80.

and

file

is

39

File and Set a Saw.

— With

the saw

clamped teeth up,

done

The

Fig.

so

jointing should leave a small

on each

facet

height,

form of the saw, which, along the

of the teeth, should be slightly con-

vex.

same

to bring all the teeth to the

also to maintain the

line

joint

along the tops of the teeth, as shown by

tooth,

which

be rec-

will

and

tangular in a ripping-saw

triangular

in a cross-cutting-saw. PI

— Beginning

AN.

one end, bend outward every second tooth, then turn the saw and bend the remaining teeth 63.

Setting^.

at

toward the opposite side of the blade. ping-saw,

if

the swedge set

is

In the case of the rip-

used, the setting should be

done

before jointing. 64.

—

Filing.

of great importance that the saw be

It is

properly supported during the operation of

amount of noise shows or that the

file is

that the blade

movement. filing

not going on as

being injured.

file is

sure be very light.

be done

is

Carry

Never take

in this

it

If the

file

An

filing.

;

it

is

fast as

is

new,

it

also a sure

might, and the pres-

let

across the work with a slow, steady

short,

way, and the

quick strokes, as but

file will

suffer

beyond

movement should be

a ripping-saw, the

unusual

not properly clamped,

not being properly handled

indication that the filing that the

is

little

will

repair.

In

^^^ ^^

exactly perpendicular to the plane of the blade, as indicated

by plan, Fig. 81, and the outline

of the teeth maintained by an even contact, as

shown by the elevation if

in the

the form of the teeth

must be turned either

is

in the

by the arrow, Fig. 81, or In

filing

to

same

figure.

be changed, the

But file

direction indicated

^^'''

in the opposite direction.

a cross-cutting-saw, the angle between the

file

and

BENCH WORK

40

IN

WOOD.

the blade must be varied in accordance with the following considerations

:

the outline of the

first,

manner

or changed in the the ripping-saw {eUf,

Ing. 64)

may be

teeth

preserved

connection with

just described in

secondly, the angle of the advancing face

;

is

determined by the inclination of the

by the

plan.

file

shown

to the blade, as

Fig.

82

thirdly, the angle of the

point

Fig.

{iaj, Fig. 64) is determined by the incli-

83

nation of the

end

elevation. Fig. 82.

The form

SIDE ELEVATION.

END ELEVATION.

to the

file

shown by the

blade, as

of the

^^^^

j^^^^j^^^

teeth

dCCided

upon from principles already given, it may be produced without difficulty by attending to the foregoing directions. In

filing

any of the teeth herein discussed, the

should

file

always be in gentle contact with the face of one tooth, as Fig. 81, while

most of the cutting

is

next one a, which, as usually considered,

being

filed.

he

files

when

is

the tooth that

This tooth should be one which, by

away from the operator.

Beginning

at

its set,

is

is

bends

one end of the blade,

every second tooth until the opposite end

the blade

h,

done on the back of the

reached,

is

turned, and the remaining teeth

filed

from

the other side.

No

saw, even though the teeth are not bent, should be filed

wholly from one side, for the and, since this increases the

file

turns a slight edge, or bur

set, it

on both sides of the blade. The filing on each tooth should continue produced by the jointing disappears. plished, a single stroke will

than the others.

To

avoid

make

;

should be evenly distributed

until

After this

the facet is

the tooth receiving

this, it will

accomit

lower

be found best to leave

BENCH TOOLS. the teeth filed from the

41

side a Httle dull, for, in filing the

first

intermediate teeth after the saw has been turned, the advancing faces of the others (the teeth

first filed)

proportions

may

dictate.

dull points are

if

may be sharpened from

be seen, they

to

somewhat reduced.

are

After every tooth has been passed over,

still

either side as their

Regularity in the size and form of

when viewed from good workmanship.

the teeth, and a similarity of appearance either side of the blade, are the tests of

ing

saw

finished, the

is

will cut

is

more smoothly

of the

sides

— Usually, when

Side-Jointing.

65.

Side-jointing

of either a

file

;

A

fil-

is

it

jointed on the

B

is

side-

produced agreeing with

jointed, the surfaces

the dotted fines

if it

In Fig. 83,

teeth.

the

ready for use, but

is

not side-jointed.

may be accomplished by or an oilstone.

It

is

use

always

necessary after a swedge set has been used.

Planes and Plane-like Tools. 66.

The

plan and the section, Fig. 84, show a smooth-plane.

when of wood, is usually of beech. In it is an i^ig- ^-^ opening, or " throat," b, which receives the

The

stock a,

iron c

The

;

this is

held in place by the wedge d.

lower part of the opening

mouth

;

is

called the

and, as shown by the figure, the shav-

ing passes into the mouth, and out through

The bottom of the plane, which rests upon the The iron usually stands at an angle face." called its

the throat.

work,

is

''

of 45 degrees with the face.

The bench-worker's Fig. 85,

which

is

set of planes

about 8"

in

comprises a smooth-plane.

length; a jack-plane. Fig. 86,

which is from 12" to 14" in length; a fore-plane. Fig. 87, from 22" to 26" in length and a jointer, from 28" to 30" in length. ;

BENCH WORK

42

IN

WOOD.

Similar purposes are served by the jointer and the fore-plane, the former being unnecessary except tor large surfaces that are to be planed with accuracy. IPig.

83 Fig.

The Length

67.

Fig.

8G

ST

of the Plane-Stock determines, in a measure,

Thus, a smooth-plane,

the straightness of the work.

Fig. 88

an uneven as

if

used on

surface,

shown by

will,

Fig. 88, rise

over elevated portions and settle in hollows, taking its

shaving without interruption, and

producing no great change

in the outline of the surface, while

jj.j„_

a

go

fore-plane

similarly

shown

or

applied

by

Fig.

jointer will,

as

cut

89,

only on the higher parts,

and by so doing, produce an even

The

stock of a smooth-plane

a surface

may be smoothed

straightening

The

The

it

made

short so that, by

its

use,

without incurring the necessity of

it.

fore-plane will

not until

is

surface.

has

jack-plane

smooth

as well as the smooth-plane, but

straightened the surface.

first

is

used for cutting heavy shavings, and

its

length bears no relation to the character of the work expected

of

it,

and

but

is

such as

68.

A

"Plane-Iron"^

in part with steel.

the

will

enable the

workman

to grasp

it

easily

firmly.

same way

for a

Its cutting

wooden plane edge

as that of a chisel.

1

Known

is

is

of iron overlaid

maintained in precisely

See 47 and 48.

also as " plane-bit."

The

angle

BENCH TOOLS. of the cutting wedge, however, for

may be more 69. is

The

all

43 except the jack-plane

acute.

outline of the cutting edge, unlike that of the chisel,

never straight, being for the jack-plane slightly curved, as

shown by Fig. 90, and for the smooth-plane and fore-plane (also for the jointer) of the form shown by Fig. 91.

rrip..

01

Being used for

heavy work and frequently removing shavings as thick as one-sixteenth of an inch,

the jack-plane, straight,

if

its

cutting edge were

would produce

in

the

work

at

each stroke a rectangular channel from

which the shaving must be torn

Such

as well as cut.

a shaving would be likely to stick fast in the throat

of the plane, or, under most favorable conditions, would require a large amount of force for its removal. A shaving removed by the iron represented by Fig. 90, however, in the

is

not rectangular in section, but thick

middle, tapering gradually to nothing at

This form of iron

is

amount of material

the

edges.

best adapted to the removal of a large

at a stroke, but

it

leaves a succession of

grooves upon the work which must be smoothed off by another plane.

70.

The form

of the cutting iron in the smooth-plane and

the fore-plane, as

shown by

greater portion of

its

The

Fig. 91,

is

straight throughout the

width, and slightly rounded at the corners.

objections urged against the use of such an iron as this in

the jack-plane,

do not apply

to

its

use in the smooth-plane or

the fore-plane, because the jack-plane, to

fulfil

its

office,

must

remove a heavy shaving the smooth-plane or the fore-plane, unless the surface upon which it acts is very much narrower ;

than the width of the plane,

whose thickness

is

required to remove a shaving

rarely exceeds that of a sheet of paper.

The

BENCH WORK

44

IN

WOOD.

groove caused by the removal of so delicate a shaving, ficiently

blended with the general surface of the work,

rounded corners of the

is

suf-

b)'^

the

iron.

71. If a rough board

is

to

be made smooth, or

a consider-

if

amount of material is to be removed to bring a piece of wood to size, most of the surplus stock should be taken off by able

the jack-plane, after which the smooth-plane should be used to

give the surface desired.

If the finished surface

is

to

be straight

as well as smooth, the fore-plane should follow the jack-plane. It is

never necessary to follow the jack-plane with both the

smooth-plane and the fore-plane. 72.

The Cap.

—A

Kig.

supplementary

02

iron, or

^,

I^ig-

"cap," shown by

92,

is

fastened

most plane-irons. is

well

illustrated

Its

to

use

by the

two sections. Figs. 93 and 94.

the grain of the

grain

becomes

wood

is

favorable,

The

obstinate, as at d, the shaving,

the iron, acquires a leverage which causes

it

iron

single

do smooth work as shown at a.

will

as long as

When

the

by running up on advance

to split in

BENCH TOOLS.

45

of the cutting edge, below the reach of which a surface extremely rough.

The

the shaving as soon as possible after

prevent a gain of leverage on

its

it

it is

breaks, leaving

cap

is

to break

cut, Fig. 94,

and thus

office of the

part.

The

distance at which the cap is set from the edge of the must vary with the thickness of the shaving taken. For a smooth-plane or a fore-plane, a thirty-second of an inch is freiron,

quently not too close, while for a jack-plane an eighth of an inch

A

may

not be too great a distance.

cutting iron

and cap together are frequently spoken of

as

a " double iron."

73. in the

Narrowness

Mouth

of

in a plane

production of smooth surfaces.

tion of the stock in advance of the iron, ing, the shaving,

is

If,

having nothing to hold

the chief element

in Fig. 94, that por-

marked it

c,

were want-

down, would rarely

be broken, notwithstanding the presence of the cap.

mouth would produce a

similar effect.

ever other conditions there

may

This being

be, the wider

the

A

true,

wide what-

mouth

is,

the less frequently the shaving will be broken and, in obstinate grain, the rougher will

be the work.

BENCH WORK

46

— To

To Adjust the Iron.

74.

may be

a heavier cut

by the arrow

e,

WOOD.

IN

set the iron deeper, so that

taken, strike

a Hght blow, as indicated

it

If a hghter cut

Fig. 84.

blow

right position, a Hght

required, strike the

is

When

stock as indicated by the arrow /. will tighten

the iron

in the

is

To remove

the wedge.

and wedge, turn the plane over so that the face

the iron

is

uppermost, grasp the iron and wedge with the right hand, hold

thumb and finger of the upon the surface of the bench.

the back end of the plane between the left,

A

and

strike the stock at

blow

single

Never

is

f

usually sufficient.

strike the plane while

support that everything

is

firm.

but, if this

;

is

it is

resting

should be held

It

on the bench or any in the hand clear of

not convenient, one end

may

rest

on

the knee.

To way

set the iron in a

wooden

may extend

finger

allowing

keep

it

its

down

across the mouth.

Put the iron

and by a

Insert the wedge, push

beyond the

until its projection

on the wedge

it

down

with

blow with the hammer drive the iron

light

level of the face

to the thickness of the shaving that the plane

gle tap

fore-

in place,

cutting edge to rest on the forefinger, which should

from projecting.

the thumb,

plane, hold the stock in such a

on the hand, the end of the

that, while the face rests

will

to take

is

then tighten the iron

distance that the iron projects, can easily be

is

equal

;

a sin-

in place.

The

determined by

sighting along the face of the plane.

The wedge must not be so distorted

doing good work. the

wedge

is

driven too hard, for a plane

by a hard-driven wedge

The

as to

make

it

may be

incapable of

iron will be held in place even

so loose that

it

may be drawn

when

out with the fingers.

Notwithstanding the fact that wooden plane-stocks are made

from material

little

affected

by atmospheric

influences,

they

warp enough, especially when nearly new, to bring the face When, from this cause, the considerably out of a true plane.

will

plane

fails to

do good work,

it

must be jointed.

BENCH TOOLS. 75.

To Joint a Plane, fasten it front end to the right. The

47

in a vise with the

and the

face

cutting edge well back within the mouth,

and the wedge driven

as for work.

up

iron should be in place, the

It is

05

now

7^

necessary to determine whether the plane

be jointed

to

is

Ap-

twisted or not (97).

ply two parallel strips, or "winding-sticks," (the longer legs of two framing-squares will

answer), one across each end of the plane, indicated

as

by

Fig.

making

After

95.

sure that they are parallel, sight across one

As the eye

to the other.

one farther away

same

is

is

lowered,

lost sight

time, the plane

is

of

all

end of the straight-edge

;

but, if

that

one

farther

is

from the eye, disappears before

ELEVATION.

other

its

end, as in the elevation. Fig. 95, l>,

the

"out of wind," and

needs only to be straightened

corners a and

if

at the

it

evident that the two

is

diagonally opposite, are high, and

be taken from them than from the other corners. understanding, the fore-plane or the jointer the

until

plane

is

jointed, that

is,

the

until

more must With this

may be face

applied a

is

true

plane.

During the planing process, frequent with the parallel strips, to are

being brought

down

make

sure

properly.

tests

must be made

that the high

In the

corners

early stages

of

may be used occasionally to keep as nearly as may be at right angles to one side, straightness of the face may be determined either

the work, the try-square the face

and the

by sighting or by use of the framing-square as a straightA true face having been produced, the sharp angles edge. between

it

and the two

sides

should be

chamfers, inasmuch as the sharp edges, likely to splinter off.

if

changed

to

slight

not removed, are

BENCH WORK

48

A

drops

few

planed surface,

of

WOOD.

IN

lubricating

rubbed

oil

prevent wear and

will

on

newly-

the

keep shavings from

sticking.

Wooden bench

planes have had their day, and are going out

of use.

76.

Iron Bench Planes possess the general characteristics of the to

wooden ones, but are superior them in several respects. They

are always perfectly true and, therefore,

The

never require jointing.

cutting " iron," which, in this case, is

not of iron at

wooden

planes,

greater thinness

which

it

is

but of

all,

and is

steel, is

therefore,

is,

made

supported.

much

more

thinner than that in

readily sharpened.

Its

by the thorough manner in may be set and accurately adjusted

possible It

in a very short time.

The arrangement

of parts in Bailey's iron planes

understood by reference "

The

plane.

wedge

admits the screw

E

A

"

E to

A

is

E

is

is

may be

which represents a jack-

of iron of the form shown

take effect.

made

to press

By

a

slot,

movement

upon the

clamp presses against never moved. The cutting iron

cutting edge, while the

screw

Fig. 96,

through an enlargement of a short

drops down, allowing

clamp B, the wedge

to

it

is

;

of the

iron near at

F.

it

and its

The

adjusted for

depth of cut by the action of the thumb-screw D, which, when turned in one direction, moves the iron downward, and when

motion is reversed moves it upward. Thus a single mo\'ement of B releases the wedge and iron, and a reverse movement secures them again, while furnishes a ready and positive means for adjusting the cutting edge with a degree of delicacy which it is impossible to attain in wooden planes. These planes, all having the same adjustments, are its

D

made

in

every

size.

BENCH TOOLS.

Wood and

Planes of

77.

may be

made up

had,

ments mounted

in

49

Iron Combined

of the Bailey move-

a suitable frame, to which

Fig. 97 shows fastened. a Stanley combination smooth-plane.

wooden

a

A

78.

face

is

Circular-Plane has a thin steel face, straight free,

but capable of having

down

its

when

ends thrust

drawn up, thus making the

or

face concave or convex,

and adapting it work on an outside or an inside curve. Fig. 98 shows a Bailey's adjustable cir-

to

cular-plane.

Block-Planes are small, and are intended

79,

on end

They

grain.

which turns the shaving on the bevel of on

instead

the

for use chiefly

generally have a single inverted iron,

face

of

the

I<"ijr.

00

iron.

They have many different forms, from among which Fig. 99 has been selected as

a type.

or wide as

In this plane the throat is

desired

;

the

may be made narrow

adjustment

is

controlled by the

screw A. Fis.

100

80.

Spokeshaves have the action

of planes, but are not usually classified

with them.

shown by tion

it

A

Fig. 100.

will

simple form

By

be seen that

it

has almost

no guiding surface corresponding cction

A B.

the

face

(EntargcS)

adapts

to

work of

is

set in the face of the plane obliquely,

This

to

feature

irregular outline.

Rabbeting-Planes have narrow stocks.

81.

edge

it

of a plane.

is

the cross-sec-

The and the

cutting iron

is

wide enough to extend beyond the sides of the stock, as shown

BENCH WORK

50

WOOD.

IN

Rabbeting-planes are designed

by Fig. loi.

angles, as Imk, Fig.

The oblique

146.

for use in interioi

position of the iron

produces a shearing cut which pro-

motes smoothness

The shaving

in action.

of the rabbeting-plane

instead of passing through the stock

turned in such a way as

charged from

one side

;

to

be

is

dis-

an arrange-

ment common to matching-planes, beading-planes, moldingplanes, and plows (82, 83, 84, and 85). Matching-Planes are used

82.

to

groove, as shown respectively by a and

Wooden

matching-planes,

Fig.

form a tongue and a b, Fig.

are

102,

102.

Via. 103

sold in pairs, one plane being fitted with a

form the groove, the

single cutting edge, to

other with a double cutting edge, to form the

moves

C, which

of

face

" fence "

Both are guided by the

tongue.

the

in contact with the

working

upon.

operated

piece

The

groove and the tongue should both be carried to as great a depth

as

the

plane will

cut.

An

iron matching-plane, designed to serve

the purpose of the two Its

fence

is

turned end for efid

103

wooden

ones,

is

now

in general use.

pivoted to the face in such a way that in

;

and the plane

when

its

it

can be

one position two cutters are exposed is

position

adjusted to form the tongue is

reversed, the fence covers one

of the cutting edges, and puts the plane in shape for

making the groove.

The

size

tliickness

match.

of matching-planes

is

indicated by the

of the material they are intended to

BENCH TOOLS.

51

Hollow and Round are terms applied to such planes shown by A and B, Fig. 103. They are used, as their forms suggest, in producing hollows and in rounding projecting edges. Their size is indicated by a number, or by the width of 83.

as are

the cutting edge.

Beading-Planes are used

84.

they

may be

forming beads (220), and

in

single or double, that

form one or two

is,

they are provided with a fence, A, Fig. 104.

made

use away from the edge, they are

Fig.

lOG

or

more beads

no guide,

at the

For

form three

same time, and have

The

beads are made with the

jjlane

edge temporarily fastened

first

as

three

guided by a

straight-

to the surface of the

work

;

formed by using those already

the remainder are

made

to

which case they are known

in

reeding- planes, Fig. 105.

work

vi-^. 10-i

For beading on the edge of work,

beads at a time.

as a guide, the plane being at the rate of only

one bead

moved

into

at a time.

new

Other

more complicated than those described, are conthe same principle as a plow. The size of a beading-plane is indicated by the width of the bead it will form.

beading-planes, structed on

much

Plows are used

85.

making rectangular

in

slots or "

plows

"

of any width, depth, and distance from the working-edge of

The width of

the material.

ordinarily determined

the iron used.

A

set of irons

plied with the tool, which Fig.

T06.

the cut

A plow

is

by the width of

is

wider

sup-

is

shown by than

widest iron can, of course, be

the

made

by going over the work a second time.

The depth a

little

of the cut

is

regulated by

shoe (not shown), which

screw A.

When

this

is

is

raised or lowered

by the

adjusted, the tool can be used until

BENCH WORK

52

IN

WOOD,

comes

the lower surface of the shoe

in contact with the

of the work, after which the cutting ceases.

taken that the

depth

full

The

length of the work.

working-edge

by nuts

C

is

is

reached at

all

face

Care should be points along the

distance between the groove and the

regulated by the fence B, which

acting on the screws

When

D.

is

adjusted

ready for use, the

fence should be parallel to the narrow iron face-piece E. 86.

Combination Planes whicli may be used

plow, beading-plane, rabbeting-plane,

market, and 87.

many

Scrapers. XPiR-.

of

them

etc.,

in place of the

found on the

are

are serviceable tools.

— Hand-scrapers are made of saw-plate — ma-

loT

of about the thickness of a panel-

terial

saw blade, and having the same degree of

They

hardness.

are usually rectangular,

and about 4" x 5", but may be of almost any size and shape. The cutting edge is most easily formed by the production of at right angles

a surface

_.5

as indicated

two cutting angles, ccf and acute cutting edge Fig. 108 is little

is

dfe.

by

the

sides,

When

desired, the form

maybe adopted;

to

ab, Fig. 107, thus giving

a more shown by

^"'

but, as a rule, there

gained by the keener cutting edge, and

double the labor

is

required to keep

Scrapers are sharpened by

smooth work

is

to

filing

sharp. If

be done, the roughness of the

edge may be removed on an rougher edge

it

or grinding.

will

oilstone, but the

cut faster and, generally, will

be more satisfactory. Fig. 100 Fig. 109 shows a scraper mounted somewhat like a plane. The scraper blade A, by

means of the two nuts B, B, may be changed from a position inclined to the to

one perpendicular

face, as

to the face.

shown,

BEN'CH TOOLS.

53

Boring Tools. Augers. —

88.

Fig.

a form generally used

They

are

made

no Ijy

shows a double-twist spur auger,

carpenters.

in sizes varying

^" to 4" (in diameter), but are not

much used below Fig. Ill,

is

in the

i".

Fiy.llO

from 3SSXiXSZz

The spur A,

form of a tapered

screw, which, besides centering the auger in

"feeds"

and the

it

The two

into the work.

lips C,

C

nibs

its

B,

B

motion, draws or score the work,

cut and remove the shavings, which are carried I<

ig.

Ill

B

to the surface

by the screw-like action of the body of the

112 shows part of a single-twist auger which, as

Fig.

be seen, has but a single nib B, and a single cutting

The

cuttings are thrown into the center of the hole,

tool.

will

lip

C.

and de-

Ki^c. 11-^

livered easily to the

by

this auger,

and, in

tliis

respect,

it

is

superior

double-twist, which crowds the cuttings to the outside

of the hole, where they are likely to the tool and the work.

become jammed between

This characteristic of the single-twist

auger particularly adapts it

to the boring of

holes.

of

this

deep

" Ship augers " are kind,

and have

handles like the one shown by Fig. 113.

This form of handle

BENCH WORK

54

IN

WOOD.

has the advantage of allowing the use of both hands, without the

no.

interruption experienced in using the one illustrated by Fig.

Augers are seldom required by the bench-worker, but are presented here because of their relation to other boring 89.

— The

Auger-Bits.

Fig. 114.

It is

auger-bit most in use

tools.

shown by

is

sold in sets of thirteen bits each, varying in

by sixteenths, from \"

size ^^*

Each

to i".

bit

marked

is

by a small figure on the shank, which size in the scale of sixteenths.

Thus

indicates

the figure 9

its

to be inter-

is

preted as y\". go.

Augers and auger-bits are sharpened by

scoring nib B, Figs,

in

and 112, which

is

The

filing.

usually the

first

part

become dull, should be filed wholly from the inside. If filed on the outside, the diameter of the cut it makes will be The cutting lip C smaller than that of the body of the bit. to

should be sharpened from the lower side, the to preserve the original angle.

tool refuses to " feed,"

whenever the

file

With the spur it

is

being inclined

in

good

order,

clear that the bit

needs sharpening somewhere. 91.

Center-Bits are convenient for boring holes

diameter

in delicate material,

under the action of an auger-bit.

By

will

B

-^

"^^IKr

'

""

""

:-y

^^^

sure applied to

work,

is

bit

m

the

triangular in section.

it.

The

accordance with the degree of pres-

point, or "nib,"

center-bit

B cuts

the fibers about

and the cutting lip C removes the material. does not work well in end grain. When dull it

the proposed hole,

easily

it

This form allows the bit to feed

rapidly, or very slowly, in

The may

reference to Fig. 115,

be seen that the spur A,

which centers the

=^

of large

such as would be likely to spht

be sharpened by whetting.

BENXH TOOLS.

55

Expansive Bits are so constructed

92.

as

be adjust-

to

able for holes of any size, within certain limits.

forms

several

without

This,

use,

in

one of which

the

There are

shown by

is

116.

Fig.

Fi-. IIG

movable cutter C, bore

will

a

hole

f " in diameter, the

A

screw

centering

and feeding

into the work,

it

advance of

B

inserted as

shown is

and

is

and a cutting

lip

in

When C

a supplementary action on the part of C,

described, there

C

scoring,

is

in the figure, in addition to the action just

nib, B', scoring,

cutter

B

(not shown) removing the shavings.

its

held in place by the screw

may be moved from

its

The By loosening D, C

cutting edge removing the chips.

D.

or towards the center of the

bit,

or taken

out altogether, and replaced by a cutter of different length.

By

using a short cutter in the place of C, a hole of any diameter

from I" to 2" may be bored, and with the cutter shown, any hole from 2" to 3" may be bored. The range of the bit, therefore, is

from |"

Small

93.

eter are of

to 3".

Bits.

many

—

Bits for boring holes less than

\"

in

forms, but by far the most satisfactory

diamis

the

"quill " bit '

'°'

117.

it

rial

it

;

enters the

and when ing.

dull

work

can

It will not,

rapidly,

easily

bits

not

however, work with the grain.

common

Gimlet-bits are illustrated by Fig.

Most

of this class are too

weak

will

to render the ser-

split the

makes a round, smooth

matehole,

be sharpened by whetting or grind-

small as y^g" in diameter are in

of the best forms.

It

shown by Fig. has no delicate

\ 1

Quill bits as

use.

8,

which represents one ,,„

^.

BENCH WORK

$6

vice expected of them, and soon

are Ukely to split the

Bit-Braces.

94.

WOOD.

IN

become bent

work and are not

— The

They

or broken.

easily sharpened.

well-made wooden brace, which

for

a long time ornamented the walls of the cabinet-maker's shop,

has disappeared, and the lighter and more

brace

is

used

in its stead.

To

resented by Fig. 119.

holding

it

shank, put

the jaws, C, are it

convenient iron

simple form of iron brace

insert a bit, grasp the sleeve

opened

in place, reverse the

is

rep-

A

and,

by using the other hand on

firmly, turn the brace out

When

B.

A

sufficiently to

admit the

bit

motion of the hand on B, and

the bit will be fastened.

Fid. 110

A

ratchet brace

is

shown by

120.

Fig.

Its office is to

turn

making a complete revolution, has only a forward and backward movement. As represented by the section AB, the frame c is fastened to the body of the brace of which it becomes a part, d is a spindle which terminates in the socket c, and / is a ratchet-wheel, the bit forward while the brace

which is

is

fastened to d.

a pawl which,

when

On

itself,

instead of

each side of the ratchet-wheel there

free to

move

in

response to the action of

a spring, engages the notches in the ratchet-wheel /.

pawls thus engaged, the brace

way g,

as the

may be used

one already described.

one of the pawls

is

With the same

in precisely the

But, by turning the ring

disengaged, and the other acting alone

BENCH TOOLS. will

move

the spindle

direction, the

ratchet-wheel bit

may be

the brace

d

when

only

57

the brace

is

moving

in

one

pawl simply slipping over the notches of the

when

the motion

is

In this way, a

reversed.

movement of By a the bit may be

driven to any depth although each

may be

less

than half of a complete turn.

proper movement of the ring

g,

the motion of

reversed.

120

Kig.

Section

A

B,

(Enlarged)

The

ratchet-brace

corners where

The

size of

it is

is

useful in boring holes near walls, or in

impossible to turn a

any brace

by the diameter of the

is

circle described

better class are nickel-plated, rusting.

common

indicated by

its

brace.

" swing," that

by B,

Fig. 119.

is,

The

and are thereby prevented from

BENCH WORK

58

A

95.

parts

A

is

apphed

at

such, that,

for

many

A, and a

repre-

common

The mechanical arrangement

of the

the brace turns the spindle C, the part

bit is also turned,

one part

is

purposes, more useful than

bit is inserted at

C.

when

which holds the

clination of

is,

The

the ratchet-brace. is

WOOD.

"Universal, Angular, Bit-Stock," such as

sented by Fig. 121,

brace

IN

to the other.'

notwithstanding the

Compared

in-

with the ratchet-

brace, this has the advantage of producing a continuous motion

of the

bit.

By

easily as in the

The

its

use a hole

may be bored

in the corner as

middle of a room.

angle of the joint

may be changed from at D.

that

shown

to

one of 180 degrees, by an adjustment 96.

—

A convenient substitute for Automatic Boring Tool. The drill, or bit, A is is represented by Fig. 122.

a brad-awl

1

Considered as a mechanical movement,

this is

known

as

Hooke's

joint.

BENCH TOOLS.

59

held in a suitable chuck C, at the end of the bar Z>, which runs in B.

The

drill

is

brought into contact with the work,

and pressure in the direction of the arrow, slides B down upon with the drill to revolve. The D, and this movement causes full extent of the movement having been reached, a relaxing of

D

D free to return

pressure leaves

to

its first

position, as shown,

These

rotary motion of A, meanwhile, being reversed.

the

impulses can be imparted to the

work

the

is

indicate the

quickly done. full

nished with the

The

drill

with great rapidity, and

dots below the figure,

diameter of the different

drills

122,

which are

fur-

tool.

Miscellaneous Tools. 97. Winding-Sticks, or "parallel strips," are

wooden

strips

of any convenient length, the edges of which are straight and parallel.

in effect,

son,

an

applied to a surface, they increase

its

breadth

show whether the surface

is

" in wind," or twisted.

For

illustration of their use, see 75.

98.

by

When

and by thus giving a better opportunity of compari-

Hand

Fig. 123.

have parallel

Screw-Drivers are

The

part which

sides, as

ITio-.

shaped. Fig. 125.

shown by

in

is

form similar to that shown

engage the screw should

to

Fig.

1

24,

and never be wedge-

123

In the latter case,

it

will

be seen that force

applied in an attempt to turn a screw, will have a tendency

toward

A

lifting the

screw-driver from

its

set of three or four screw-drivers,

place.

having blades varying in

BENCH WORK

6o

IN

WOOD.

size to suit different-sized screws, so that a fairly

good

fit

may

always be made, are indispensable to good work where screws

Fig. lJ2o

are

much

used.

Brace Screw-Drivers, instead of having

99.

wooden

handles, are provided with shanks for

A

use in a brace.

The brace

Fig. 126. tion,

good form

is

shown by mo-

gives a continuous

and

Ki^.

IQG

the screw

may set its

much more

be

rapidly

by There are many

cases,

shows a carpenter's hammer.

The

use than with the hand screw-driver,

however, in which a brace

Hammers.

100.

head

A

is

—

wholly of

is

Fig. 127

useless.

The

steel.

to be injured by repeated blows

face

B

upon the

paratively soft, but the idea prevailing

workmen,

that

the

hammer

is

is

hardened so as not nail, w^hich

indestructible,

is

a false

When

two bodies are brought together forcibly, as a

and a

nail,

its

form.

the softer

body

yields,

is

com-

among inexperienced one.

hammer

and a change takes place in hammer, it would not

If the nail were harder than the

be injured, but the hammer would show an impression of the Careless or ignorant workmen sometimes take an nail head.

BENCH TOOLS. old

file

The

punch or a

for a

file

is

nail-set,

6l

and use a hammer upon

harder than the hammer, and the result

face of the latter

C

The claw withdrawing

is

it.

that the

badly scarred.

is

makes the hammer a very

tool

effective

for

nails.

Hammers

vary in

size

from seven to twenty ounces

;

bench-worker usually employs one weighing from fourteen

the to

sixteen ounces. loi.

The Hatchet

of material to

is

a useful tool for bringing large pieces

size roughly,

and

used with accuracy as well as with the

hammer,

it

will

in skillful

effect.

hands

When

it

is

it

may be

compared

be seen that a blade C, Fig. 128, takes

B

As an instrument

the place of the claw C, Fig. 127.

clumsy, and the opening

ing nails

it is

amounts

to but

little.

d, for

for driv-

withdrawing

In sharpening, the hatchet

is

nails,

ground on

both sides of the blade, and whetted on an oilstone.

—

The difference in effect between a blow hammer and one given by a mallet is so great that, although similar in many respects, the two tools are adapted to widely different uses. A blow from a hard, elastic hammer is 102.

Mallets.

given by a

sharp and decisive, and it

is

received.

must be for

local.

its

force

is

absorbed almost as soon as

Comparatively speaking, therefore, If

such a blow

example, a large part of

its

is

its

effect

received on a chisel handle,

force

is

wasted in affecting the

BENCH WORK

62

WOOD.

IN

handle, a part only being transmitted through the handle to the cutting edge, the only place where

blow from a general in

soft,

less

its effect.

elastic mallet,

Much

where

is

it

can be of use. is

A

more

of the force remains for an instant

stored in the mallet, by which ually, allowing

it

on the contrary,

it

is

given out somewhat grad-

time for the impulse to pass beyond the point

The

received.

effect of

two different explosive

As compared with nitroglycerine, powder burns slowly, and, when put into a rifle barrel, gradually develops its force upon the bullet until, when the latter reaches the end of the barrel, it has gained velocity enough agents will serve as an illustration.

to carry

But

a mile or more.

it

if

a charge of nitro-glycerine,

having a total explosive force no greater than that of the powder, ity

be substituted, the

result will

be very

with which nitro-glycerine burns

impulse

—

is

such

that, before the bullet

ence, the breach of the barrel

The blow powder on a

is

different.

— the

The

rapid-

suddenness of the

can respond

to its influ-

destroyed.

of a mallet on a chisel resembles the action of bullet.

It is

a.

pushing a.c\.\or\, and,

in this respect,

hammer. A chisel, therefore, will be driven deeper into the work by a blow from a mallet than by one of the same force from a hammer, while a chisel handle is

unlike

that

of the

which has withstood blows from a mallet for years, may be shattered in a single hour by use under a hammer.

An

excellent form of mallet

is

shown by

Fig. 129.

BENCH TOOLS. Sand-Paper

103.

is

63

neither a tool nor an appliance, strictly

speaking, but, on account of

its

action,

tool-like

The "sand" used

mentioned with them. is crushed quartz, and

is

should be

it

making sand-paper It is very hard, angular, and sharp. in

graded as to degree of coarseness, by precipitation, and then glued to paper.

The

the gradations run o,

sand-paper

finest 4^,

i,

i^, 2, 2^,

Miter-Boxes are useful

104.

wood

3,

adapted

to cutting at other angles.

an angle of 45 degrees

00, from which

which

in cutting

strips of

at

marked

is

and

;

is

the coarsest.

ends of

the

light

they are fretjuently

When

of wood, like the

one represented by Fig. 219, they are usually made by the

workman himself. A wooden miter-box is composed of three pieces a bottom and two sides. It is necessary that the bottom piece

—

be uniform

in

width and thickness, and have jointed edges, and

well to prepare the other pieces in the

it is

the box

is

same way.

After

nailed, the sides should be square with the outside

face of the

bottom piece

Lay

a working-face.

;

this surface

may now be used two

off across the working-face

as

lines at a

distance apart equal to the width of the face, thus forming with the outside edges of the box, a square.

The

diagonals of this

square will represent the two oblique cuts, one marked the one taken by the saw, Fig. 219.

from the points thus

lines

cuts

;

the sawing

fixed, as will

directions are required for laying off the cut

105.

now

Iron Miter-Boxes are

The

in general use.

curacy with which work

be done by the will

,^

and

be useful in making the

No

then done with the back-saw.

is

c,

Project up the sides such

^

special

t/.

fi-.

iso

ac-

may

of one

use

more than compensate any

bench-worker invested in

it.

for

the

Fig.

1

money

30 may be taken as a type

;

the

work

A

BENCH WORK

64 is

supported by the frame as shown, while the proper position of

the saw

is

maintained by the uprights B, which, in the sawing

process, slide at

WOOD.

IN

down

The saw may be

into the standards C.

set

any angle with the back of the box D, by swinging the frame

^

E, which supports the standards C; suitable fastening operated

Bench Clamps

io6.

held in position by a

is

by F.

are useful in holding two or

of material together temporarily.

They

more pieces

are particularly valu-

able for keeping pieces that have been glued, in place until they are dry.

Wooden clamps, or hand-screws, Fig. 131.

be made

The whole

to bear evenly

certain points, as

AA^

or

shown by and A^B\ may

are of the form

length of the jaws,

AB

upon the work, or

to bear harder at

BB\

Iron clamps are illustrated by Fig. 132, but the mechanical

arrangement

differs in different

makes.

Such clamps are very Fis.

13S

Fig. 131

useful in

many

kinds of work, but,

all

things considered,

it

is

doubtful whether they are as serviceable to the bench-worker as the

107.

A

wooden ones

just described.

Grindstones are selected with reference to their "grit."

coarse, soft-grit stone will

idly than

one of

remove material much more rapsurface produced will be

finer grit, but the

very rough compared with that produced by the other.

Thus,

BENCH TOOLS. when

it is

65

necessary to remove material for the purpose of giv-

ing shape to a casting or forging, the coarse, soft-grit stone better

;

but

a smooth cutting edge

if

grit

should be used.

fine

and

soft

must vary from 500 pending upon with which

it

For wood-working

1000 circumferential

to

feet a minute, de-

diameter, and the accuracy and

its

runs.

may

It

beyond the minimum limit, while one of 4' or run beyond the maximum. As a at its

is

maximum

would throw water from

By

its

circumferential speed

ence of the stone. of the stone, in

This

by

feet,

5'

may

speed when,

if

give

good

a stone for

rule,

run

faster,

it

face.

meant the speed of the circumfer-

is

found by multiplying the diameter

is

3.

steadiness

not be well to run a 20" stone

results if

tool=grinding

a stone rather

tools,

The speed of a power grindstone

found best.

is

is

required, one of fine

is

14 16 (ratio of diameter to circum-

ference), which will give the circumference of the stone, in feet,

and ^

this

product by the number of revolutions per minute.'

Example

/.

— A 4'

stone

is

run at 30 revolutions a minute; what

is its

circumferential speed?

The circumference 4'

of a 4' stone

X 3.1416=

is

12.56'.

This would be the speed of the stone per minute; but, since

it

12.56'

Example tial

II.

— It

is

makes 30

X 30=

if it

were

revolutions,

to

its

make

speed

but

i

revolution

is

376.80' or 377' (nearly).

desired that a 30" stone should have a circumferen-

speed of 280' per minute.

How many

revolutions should

it

make?

30" =2.5'.

The circumference

of a stone 2.5' in diameter

2.5'

X 3-1416=

This would be the speed of the stone minute. the

if it

But the circumferential speed

number

of revolutions

is

were

= 36

to

make

i

revolution per

280' per minute, and therefore

made must be

280' H- 7.85

is

7.85'.

(nearly).

BENCH WORK

66 1

Water

08.

IN

WOOD.

used on a stone as a means of carrying

is

the heat resulting from friction between stone and tool

washes away the particles of stone and

steel that

the grinding, and which, without the water, w^ould

off

also

it

come from the inter-

fill

between the cutting points of the stone, and make the

stices

smooth

surface so

A

;

grindstone,

Water

water.

moisture

will

more

in use, should not stand in or over

softens a stone,

be found

When

exposed.

as to be useless.

when not

and one unequally exposed in

softest

such

places

Water

it

may be

shut off

when

the stone

running, the drip-pan under the stone being at drained.

To

is

not

times per-

all

After every precaution has been taken, the

stone will in time 109.

become "out

best supplied from a tank, or from service

is

pipes, so arranged that

fectly

to

most

brought into use, the softer parts wear away

rapidly than the others, causing the stone to

of round."

are

as

become untrue and need

True

a Grindstone.

— When

attention.

a

stone

becomes

untrue, or the outline of the face, which should be slightly convex,

becomes concave,

it

may be

corrected by using a piece of

soft iron as a turning tool, the stone

of the tool

may be

being run dry.

explained as follows

small particles of the stone to

:

The

action

the soft iron allows

imbed themselves

in its surface,

from which position they act against the revolving stone, and the cutting is done by these imbedded particles and not by the

The

is worn in the process, however, and, as its enlarged, it should be turned to bring becomes cutting surface

iron.

a

new

latter

angle or face into action.

This operation

formed by using a piece of gas pipe (about

i

is

easily per-

") for a turning tool.

no. Truing Devices are now generally attached to power They are of several forms, of which that shown by Fig. 133 may be taken as an example. The base of this atgrindstones.

tachment

may be

is

secured to the grindstone frame as near the stone as

convenient.

A

is

a hardened steel screw v/hich revolves

BENCH TOOLS.

^y

B

bearings B. The frame in which runs is pivoted such a way that by a movement of the hand-wheel will move forward in the direction of the arrow. By

on

freely

its

at C, in

D,

B

D,

adjusting the hand-wheel face of the

moving

The

begins to revolve.

move

it

not prevented by

its

thread would it

A

and

stone,

brought into contact with the

is

at

once

action of

its

endwise, were

The

bearings.

advancement of the thread, which is not met by a effect of this angular

corresponding

When

stone.

movement

lateral

the parts in contact,

of

a shearing cut across the face of the

is

becomes

the screw

dull

may be

softened and

of

oilstones

it

recut.

111.

— The

Oilstones.

most useful

found near Hot Springs, Arkansas.

known

classes,

Washita

much

to

the trade as the

The former

stone.

like white marble.

It

instruments, and

delicate

keenness.

They

The Washita

all

are

are divided into two

Arkansas stone and the

is

of very fine grain, appearing

is

used

in

sharpening the most

produces an edge of remarkable

stone

is

much

coarser in grain, with a

color sometimes almost white, but lines of a reddish cast.

It cuts

more frequently shaded by with rapidity, and with much

greater delicacy than would be expected of so coarse a stone.

Probably no better oilstone exists for sharpening wood-working

and

similar tools.

112.

water

Oil

is

used on an oilstone

used on a grindstone.

is

as free as possible

A good oil is

quality of

frequently

113.

from

sperm

all

for the

To be

same reason

serviceable,

it

that

should be

tendency to become thick or gummy.

oil,

or even lard

oil,

may be used

;

olive

recommended.

—

Form of Oilstones. It is evident that if oilstones made round, and mounted like grindstones, they could

could be

BENCH WORK

68 be used more

effectively than

WOOD.

when only

a small block

reason they are not so mounted

The

able.

IN

is

is

avail-

that, in their

native bed, the whetstone layers are traversed in every direction

by veins of hard quartz, which, stone,

allowed to enter into a finished

if

would destroy the cutting edge of any

be applied to

It is

it.

so

uncommon

might

tool that

to find large pieces of

whetstone free from the quartz, that disks above 4" or 5" in

diameter can be afforded only by those to whose work they are indispensable.

For bench purposes, Washita stones are about i" x 2" x 7" but no attempt is made to have them Fig. 134 Such a stone, when qJ- ^^j^y uniform size. set into a block

and provided with a

cover to keep out the dust, for

See Fig.

use.

134.

ready

is

Its

surface

should be kept as nearly as possible straight, in the direction of its

length,

When

and should never be hollowed across

out of shape

114.

it

whose cross-sections are round,

Slips of Washita stone

i^'i ^-.

i:jo

breadth.

its

must be trued.

^

7

s(iuare,

triangular,

i)y

trade.

is

i\^Q

A

represented

by

etc.,

supplied

are

wedge-shaped Fig.

135

;

it

slip is

a

form extremely useful to the benchworker.

115.

To True an Oilstone, mix water with sharp sand until Apply a quantity of this is thin enough to run.

the mixture

to the surface of a flat is

to

be trued

in

board or plank, and, with the face that

contact with the saud-covered board,

the stone about, frequently changing the direction of

Under up

this

rapidly.

may be

its

move

motion.

treatment, the surface of the stone will be evened If the

sand that

replaced by new.

is

first

applied becomes dull,

it

BENCH TOOLS.

69

Another, and usually a more convenient way, consists in substituting for the

sand a sheet of sand-paper tacked over the

edge of the board. Coarse paper may be used at first, and afterwards a finer grade selected for finishing the work.

PART

II.

oi*;o

BENCH Ii6.

No work

-WORK.i

bench (9-13) is more important than and production of lines. Careless-

at the

that relating to the location

ness or want of

skill in this will

To

ished work.

the beginner

always be manifest in the it

fin-

may seem monotonous, and

bench several hours before turning

even hard,

to stand at the

a shaving

but he must understand that a scratch cannot be

;

called a line, and

that

patience and accuracy are the chief

requisites in skillful manipulation.

117. Location of Points (14-17).

begin somewhere.

more chances

to begin, the

1

Note.

— The

—

there are for mistakes.

material, or "stock,"

needed

course should be straight-grained, free from

machine-dressed. to he preferred.

A

measurements must

All

The greater the number of points from which

good

for the

Thus

exercises of the

knots, well-seasoned, and

quality of either white pine or yellow poplar

Good work cannot be done

in

in

is

poor material.

By easy steps the operations to be performed become more and more The student should not advance to a new exercise until the pre-

difficult.

ceding one has been completed in a good, workman-like manner. ure, unless the result of accident, trial

of the exercise.

The

course

Otherwise, a careless habit

may appear

brief,

it

leads.

is

fail-

encouraged.

but experience has demonstrated

pleteness as a preparation for constructive

which

A

should invariably be followed by another

work

in

any of the

After the fifteen exercises have been finished,

remains, any ordinary piece of bench work

may be undertaken.

its

com-

lines if

to

time

BENCH WORK

72 measuring from take.

If

G

is

E to F,

IN

WOOD.

Fig. 136, there

is

one chance

for a mis-

located by measuring from F, then in the loca-

Fig. 13G

BENCH WORK.

73

but not both if it is to receive lines on four faces, as A, B, and D, two of them, as A and B, for example, must be working-faces ; if on six faces, three must be working- faces. For example, suppose lines are to be made on the surface A, Fig. those running across the piece, 136, from ^ as a working-face face,

;

C,

;

as ad, will then

be made perpendicular to B, and those running

lengthwise, as rd, parallel to B. ing-face

is

B and

some from D, truth of B and as parallelism, and hence

there

on

A

Z> can be

and

C can

A

the

beam

and

be made on

B

It will

will

all lines

on

The

No.

r.

stock required

be well to

is

it

1

in

necessary to use

— Measuring is

and Lining.

i| inches thick, 4 inches wide,

indicated by Fig. 137 as

A

Fig. 137 directions,

work A, B,

(End

C,

and

Elevation), and

and B, working-faces.

Operations to be performed on Face A, from Working- Face, Fig. 137. 121.

all

and

be seen, therefore, that

letter the four faces of the

mark two of them,

pencil

B

of the square on only two faces.

Z), respectively, as

to

four sides,

all

and 4 feet long, or, as usually written, if" x 4" X 4'. shows the completed exercise.^ To aid in following it

Only

are the working-faces,

true square in section,

EXERCISE 120.

a double chance of error.

made from B, and

be

made from A.

making a piece a

is

be used from which to do the lining

If lines are to

A, B, C, and D, and

lines

made from

depend not only on the individual surfaces, but also upon their

face, therefore, should

for a given surface.

as

the lines are

their truth will

D

one

on the contrary, the work-

If,

some of

disregarded, and

^

as

—

a

Spacing with Pencil and Rule (i8). By use of and rule, lay off points a, 1" apart along the whole

Fig. 137

is

broken

in

accordance with the principles given in

6.

BENCH WORK

74

WOOD.

IN

length of the piece, the Hne of points being kept straight by

preserving a uniform distance between face

B.

and

will

may be

This distance

is

convenient,

determined by the eye.

sufficiently accurate if

be

them and the working-

anything that

2),

n L 4

-idY

I

a

I

I

ft

ft

ft

I

ft

1——J ft

ft

III

^

((

ka

K

I

a

I


1

a

Working Face B.

,

Face A.

II


END ELEVATIOr

Face B.

Face 122. 21). line,

Cross-lining with Pencil

— The as

C.



and Framing-Square (19-

points having been located, draw through each a

(Face A), using the framing-square and pencil.

BENCH WORK. While a

75

being produced by the outside of the shorter

line is

leg of the square be, Fig. 138, allow the longer leg ab to drop

down

so that

its

inside

edge may be firmly pressed against the

working-face, as indicated by the arrows

When

d.

the progress

Fig. 138

JIT

of the lining causes the leg ab to project beyond the work so

much

as

shown

at a'h\ Fig. 138,

to

be imperfectly guided by the working-face, as its

position should be reversed as indi-

This method must be observed

cated by the dotted outline. in using

ad

apart, the

working-face. to

tool, as the try-square, bevel, etc.

Chalk-Lining (36).

123. 1^"

any similar

first

— Lay

off points

on

lines

ab and

point in each case being |" from the

Through the points thus

located, chalk-lines are

be made, as shown by face A, Fig. 137. Insert the awl at the

first

point on the line ab, and drawing

the cord tight with one hand, apply the chalk with the other,

beginning at the awl. chalk

is

make

it

Care must be taken that the cake of

not cut to pieces by the cord.

A

easy to hold the cord under the

thumb

as to form a small shoulder

little

practice will in

such a way

on the chalk, Fig. 139, which by

BENCH WORK

7^

WOOD.

IN

the friction of the cord will be gradually carried across the face

of the cake

;

another

is

then formed to take

the cord has been chalked, stretch

Fig.

that corresponds to the point

awl

is

Then

When

place.

its

over the point on the line

140

ad

inserted.

it

raise the

on the

line

ab

which the

at

cord near the middle as shown

by Fig. 140, and by suddenly releasing it, cause it to " snap " on the surface of the work. In snapping, the cord should be drawn up vertically, for if drawn at an inclination as shown by a, Fig. 141,

a wide blurred line will

be produced.

141

this

operation

each of the points, finishing face

A

as shown.

clear S.

Repeat

for

Each

line

and well-defined.

should be

Try

to

make

each one better than the preceding.

Never snap more than once same points.

be-

t\veen the

Operations to be performed on Face B, from

Working- Face,

beam

^

as a

137.

Lining with Pencil and Try-Square (22).

124. the

Fig.

— Hold

of the scjuare firmly against the working-face, and,

using the outside edge of the blade as a guide, continue across face

B

the lines on the working-face which were

of the framing-s(iuare. lines will etc.,

be

Face B,

sharj), straight,

Fig. 137.

made by

use

work has been well done, the and parallel, as shown by ab, cd,

If the

BENCH WORK.. 125. is

to

be

77

Lining with Pencil and Bevel (23-25). set at an angle of 45 degrees, and the

— The bevel lines ag, fg,

drawn from the points made by the intersection of the lines already drawn and the working-face, Face B, Fig. 137. Let the beam of the bevel bear firmly on the working-face. etc.,

"Gauging" Lines with Pencil and Rule.

126.

lines, as ik, hi, etc., are

to

— These

be spaced \" apart, as shown by

Face B. Grasp the

proper distance from

rule at a

its

end, in the

left

hand, and press the forefinger against the working-face, to

which the

rule is perpendicular, as shown by Fig. 142. With hand apply the pencil to the work, and at the same time press it against the end of the rule. In this way, the pencil against the rule, and the fingers of the left hand against

the right

the working-face,

ducing a

move along

the length of the work, thus pro-

line parallel to

Fig.

.

the working-face.

It

142

is

not necessary to lay off points, since the distance

between the pencil and the edge can always be

known by

obserx'ing the

graduations of the rule.

In making pencil will be

a

line,

more

kept in position siderable force

is

the

easily

if

con-

used in pressing

it

against

prevent this force from displacing the rule,

by a greater force acting c

and

it

the

rule

;

to

must be met

in the opposite direction.

See arrows

d.

This

is

a rapid

method of producing lines parallel is not demanded.

working-face, where exactness

to

the

BENCH WORK

78

WOOD.

IN

D

Operation to be Performed on Face Working- Face, Fig. 137.

Spacing by Use of Scriber (37) and Rule. made with a pencil, while accurate enough

127.

and

^

from

lines

as a

— Points for

many

purposes, are too inexact to define the proportions of different parts of a joint.

Where good

made make

with a scriber.

The

of any kind

fitting

the pencil should not be used, but

is

points and

all

required, lines

be

and should

scriber should be sharp,

a clearly-defined cut, not a dent.

Using the

rule, then, to

determine the distances, substitute

the scriber for the pencil, and, following the dimensions given

(Face D, Fig. 137), lay

off points

through which the lines ah,

along the length of the work

cd, etc., are to

be drawn.

— Through

Lining with Scriber and Try-Square.

128.

the

points already placed, scribe lines, as ab, cd, etc., with the trysquare.

is

Care must be taken that the advancing edge of the scriber not turned out from the scjuare blade ; in such a case,

it

is

likely to "

line.

run out " from the square and give a crooked

Neither should the scriber be turned

crowd the square from its position. can be scribed easily and rapidly. 129.

After a

Lining with Scriber and Bevel.

angle of 45 degrees and, using

so

in

little

much

as to

practice, lines

— Set the

bevel at an

as before, scribe lines from

it

the ends of the try-square lines, as

shown by 130.

35).

he, ad, etc.

Gauge-Lining

most ready means production

curate parallel

to

As shown

beam

(32-

The gauge provides

a in

the

for the ac-

of

lines

working-face. Fig.

of the gauge

143,

B

the

carries

BENCH WORK.

79

B

a steel spur C, which does the marking.

head D, which

To

is

also

carries

a

adjustable on the beam.

use the gauge, adjust the head so that the distance be-

it and the spur C is equal to that between the workingthen close the fingers over the and the required line head and extend the thumb on the beam towards the spur, as shown by Fig. 143. Holding the gauge in this manner, bring

tween face

;

the head against the working-face,

work, and the

line

will

be produced.

To

pre-

move

the gauge along the

^^^p^"^^'

vent the spur from sticking,

the

first

make a which may be should

stroke

light line,

strength-

ened by a second, and

r

^.:-

'

:^ n^ f_2: JL-

-^-—^—-^-^^^^j'-y

^Ig^;:g?^-r^--=;^37^~ -— --Jj^^^.^ ^^Xp

even a third passing of the gauge.

The depth of

the line in each case

is

regulated by

turning the gauge as indicated by the relative position of

and X,

Fig. 144.

when this By use

tool

is

It

to

is

obvious that no spacing

is

Y

necessary

be used.

of the gauge, lay off the lines _//;,

eg, etc..

Face D,

Fig. 137-

Operations to be performed on Face

Working- Face,

Fig.

C,

from

j5

as

a

137.

131. The lines on this face are to be used in Exercise No. 3. By applying the principles already developed (121, 122) locate

This the lines as shown by the drawing. Face C, Fig. 137. work may be done with the pencil, the lines ab and a^b' being " gauged " by use of the rule (126). The line cd. End Elevation, may be made in the same way.

BENCH WORK

Bo

IN

WOOD,

^,/ '

/

\

/

I

11

'

1/

H » /

if

IP

!

1

I

/ 1

I I,

'

1

\

I!

If

}!( I

/

(ill I

\

\

li iihi

'f'

\

BENCH WORK.

EXERCISE

8i

No.

2.

Practice with Chisel and Gouge (39, 40, and 42).

The

is |" X 4V' X 8". shows the Hnes that are needed,

stock required

Fig. 145

produced

as

arcs of circles,

A

B are

and

piece

is

all

of which are

explained in the foregoing exercise, except the

which must be put

in with the dividers (26);

An end

working-faces.

elevation of the finished

represented by Fig. 146.

Fig. 146

132. best, in

To remove the Portion abc, Fig. 145. removing surplus wood with the

the

grain, as

the

grain

is

any attempt sure

quite

to

to

carry the

result

splits

ahead

of

it,

and

the

work should be held

the working-face

A

its

In removing the portion abc,

A

in the vise

with

toward the operator.

i" chisel will be found of convenient

size.

Beginning at one end, make suc-

cessive cuts with the chisel, as

by Fig. 147.

Each

should cut almost to the quired

[i.e.

shown

stroke of the chisel full

depth

re-

remove a shaving from the

face of nearly the whole triangle abc),

the thickness of the cutting varying with

the character of the material

and the

always

cut across

edge along

cutting

a splitting

pre-

vents the operator from controlling course.

It is

action, the

wood,

chisel following the grain of the \Mtiich

in

—

chisel, to

:;.

14=r

BENCH WORK

82

Strength of the operator.

IN

It is best,

WOOD. however, to go slowly, for

the chisel will not be properly guided strength

KMs. 14=8

The

the wood. will

workman's whole

the

if

required to push

is

not be smooth, but

To smooth

the line.

it

will

through

it

produced

surface thus

be true to

a wide chisel

it,

should be used, as shown by Fig. 148, to

it

at the

It will

same time

and a longitudinal movement imparted being pushed forward.

it is

be noticed that both chisels are applied

work

to the

such a way as to turn the shaving from the bevel, and not from the flat face. This is done that the flat face may be avail-

in

able as a guiding surface, which, solid

when kept

material back of the cut (see

straightness in the forward

b,

movement

in contact with the

Fig.

148), will insure

of the cutting edge, and,

consequently, accuracy of work.

133-

—

To remove the Portion defg^ Fig. 145. With the work flat on the bench, face A Kisr. 1-tO uppermost, place a f " chisel so as to bring its cutting edge in

the

which

cally

drive

the

downward,

by the

about

is

end of the work.

mallet,

r.

occupied

position

the

line hi,

|^"

chisel

depth of the required chisel should

the

position a, to

cut,

j^^

is

to

be repeated

position

until the

the

again

to

make room

for the next cut, after

operation

by

to the

be pushed over

which

may be withdrawn and Se^iimiAB.

verti-

as indicated

When down

Fig. 149.

from

With the

at

e.

it

placed

This

whole length of the piece

BENCH WORK.

83

has been passed over, making the work appear as indicated, in

The cuttings may then be repart, by Sec, AB, Fig. 149. moved. The sides of the opening will be even and fairly The distance the chisel is advanced (/) must desmooth. pend on the

material,

and the depth

to

which

it is

driven

;

it

should never be so great as to risk the breaking of the chisel

when it is moved from position To remove the portion jkon, in the last exercise,

c to d.

Fig. 145.

— Using the

chisel as

remove the portion jklm, and afterwards

the portion Imon.

To remove the Portion pqr, Fig. 145.

134.

with the gouge, which, unhke the chisel, grain, as indicated

— This

may be used

is

done

with the

by Fig. iso, the

concave surface of the work allowing

individual

its

fibers

greater support to one

a

resisting will

tendency.

It

be seen that the bevel of the

gouge

is

especially

To

only guiding surface.

This being necessarily short,

a difficult one to use.

Light cuts should be taken,

is its

the tool

lines

splitting

give

to

another in

when

the grain of the

Exercise No.

finish

fg and

no,

and

2.

wood

also the part

line ks, to agree with the finished

smooth

all

The I

stock required it

;

not favorable. the part between the

between the point

m

and the

form shown by Fig. 146, and

chiseled surfaces not already finished.

EXERCISE No.

is

— Round

is

to

be cut

No. is

3.

the

— Sawing finished

as indicated

(49-55).

piece

by the

from

lining

Exercise

on Face C,

Fig. 137-

135.

Handling the Saw.

— The

saw should be grasped

firmly with the right hand, a better control of

it

being secured

BENCH WORK

84

WOOD.

IN

by extending the forefinger along the side of the handle. In starting a cut, the side of the saw should be pressed against the

thumb of

the

hand, which then acts as a guide, as shown

left

by Fig. 151. The saw must not be crowded against the work, but, on the contrary, to prevent the teeth from penetrating too

movement should be accompanied by a liftThe saw should always be moved with a long stroke, bringing as many teeth into action as possible. A short, jerky movement is at no time necessary or desirable. It deeply,

its

forward

ing action of the wrist.

is

good practice

for the

beginner to keep up the proper motion

of the saw, while maintaining a very light contact between

and the work.

Success in

this exercise is to

uniformity of contact throughout

There are two first,

errors

sawing off the line

;

all

which are

it

be measured by

points of the stroke.

likely to

be

made

sawing

in

and, secondly, sawing at a wrong angle.

Fig.

1G2

Kis. 151

136. line, the

To guide the Saw. blade

to take, as

may be

shown by

a change in

its

soon as the error

If the

saw tends to run

slightly twisted in the direction

Fig. 152.

course. is

—

The

discovered.

It will

off the

it

ought

immediately respond by

correction should be

made

as

BENCH WORK.

85

To correct the Angle of the cut, the saw should be bent, shown by Fig. 153, and at the same time moved vertically, as shown by Fig. 154, instead of in the usual direction, which is indicated by the dotted line ab in the same figure. 137.

as

Eip-sawing on the line ab and a^b\ Face C, Fig. 137. the saw on the lines ab and cd (the latter shown in End

138. Start

By

Elevation). the

line

first

following

the

Kig.

1G4

proper

direction of the cut will be

and by keeping

insured,

on the second the piece be cut square with the

will

The

working -face.

once

saw

started, the truth of

the angle

may be

ally tested

occasion-

by the try-square

applied as shown by Fig.

matter at

this

soon make Fig.

155

Fig.

15G

Attention given to

155.

the

first,

sufficiently skillful to

the

angle

enough

will

operator

judge

accurately

most work.

for

After cutting on the line ab, cut

also

on the

line

a'bK

In sawing a piece from

one end to the other one

cut, the saw, in

coming

be allowed to injure the

may be met by will

trestle.

slanting the

in

out, should not

This danger

board so that

it

be supported by one corner, thus leav-

ing an

open space between the trestle and the point where the shown by Fig. 156.

cut will end, as

BENCH WORK

S6

WOOD.

IN

139. Cross-cutting on the lines e/ axidg/i, Face C, Fig. 137.

— Observe the general When is

directions that have already been given.

the piece that

being cut

is

is

almost divided, there

danger that the uncut portion may break and

splinter.

This

tendency must be guarded against by properly supporting the work, either by the hand or by a suitable arrangement of the trestles.

EXERCISE The No.

stock required

No. is

4.

— Planing (66-74).

the pieces resulting from

Exercise

3.

140.

is always shown a disposition hand on the right side of the

In grasping a plane, there

to place the

thumb of

the

left

This should not be done

for, as will be seen by Fig. 157, drawn back, the arm, by contact with the body, becomes stiffened, and the motion of the plane restricted.

plane.

when

the plane

The hand, on the

therefore, should

left

the plane

side, as

may be Kij;.

When

to bring the thumb Held in this manner, forward and well back.

be so turned as

shown by

Fig. 158.

easily carried well

157

T^iu-.loS

the surface of the

right-hand end.

;

is

With a

work

is

large,

begin to plane at

its

series of easy strokes pass across the

face of the work, then step forward

and take a second

series of

BENCH WORK. Strokes,

In the

and so on

first

until the

whole surface has been passed over.

series of strokes

work, as shown

the

8/

necessary to draw the plane off

it is

by Fig. 159.

In doing

sufificient

this,

pressure must be exerted in the direction of the

arrow to overcome any

tendency to

tip,

dotted outhne

as indicated in the

;

last

by the

series of

,

._

same on the back of the plane.

strokes the wrist may, for the reason, be rested easily

To make

the strokes between the ends properly, the plane should be

shaving

lifted so that the

movement

bodily from the work.

ment of will

may be finished before the forward The plane need not be lifted The natural, slightly-upward move-

of the plane ceases.

the

arm when stretched

accomplish

that

all

out, as

shown by

Fig,

160,

necessary.

is

Fig. 160

If the plane

backward

is

allowed

duced, especially

shown by

ever,

is

it

best

to

is

it

entirely, or turn

position

work

the

if

such circumstances,

work

full

contact with the work on the

stroke, a dulling effect

it

Fig.

is

on the cutting edge rough and

better to raise the plane

on 160.

its

edge, or draw

On

it

Under from the

back

small, clean surfaces,

disregard this caution, since

pro-

is

gritty.

in

the

how-

sharpening

BENCH WORK

88

IN

WOOD.

takes less time than placing the plane before beginning each stroke.

In planing a narrow surface, ITig.

for

example, the edge of a

board, difficulty in keeping the plane

161

on the work may be overcome by grasping

it

in

such

a

way

that

the

fingers of the left hand, while press-

ing against the face of the plane,

may

with

the

maintain

a

light

contact

work, as shown by Fig. i6i.

The mouth

141.

and, as

a

result,

of a plane sometimes

the cutting

becomes clogged,

This

ceases.

may be caused

which scrapes off fibers which it cannot cut; or by the low set of llie cap on the iron; or by a bad fit between cap and iron, which allows a shaving to find its way between them, thus forming an obstruction to the passage In new planes, the stoppage may be due to of other cuttings.

by a

dull cutting edge,

narrowness of the mouth, which to pass.

It

not allow a thick shaving

an element in the production of smooth work, and reason the opening should be no wider than is abso-

of mouth for this

will

should be remembered, however, that narrowness

is

lutely necessary.

To

preserve the face of the plane, apply occasionally a few

drops of lubricating

oil.

Jointing the sawed edge of the i|" X 3" x 16" piece from Exercise No. 3, to finish at i|" X 2|" X 16". Set the 142.

Fig. 1G3 Scale,

U = l'

1~ 2r' 16" i

B gauge at 2|" and from the working- face

^B /?,

Fig.

162, gauge

BENCH WORK. lines all

around the piece, as

the vise with the sawed edge

if/"

up

and ;

89 Fasten the piece in

/>g.

plane nearly to line with the

jack-plane and finish with the fore-plane.

Planing to a Square each of the four if" x 2" x 16"

143.

pieces from Exercise No. 3, their finished size to be if" x if" X 16". Select a straight face, or, if none is exactly right, correct the best

on each of

and mark

it

as a working-face.

Let

Suppose Fig. 163 represent an end of one of the pieces, and let be its working- face. With the fore-plane, joint the four pieces.

from A, and mark

Repeat

^

A

d

B

'^''

as a second working-face.

Set the gauge at i|" (the width to which each side

A

and from the working-face

B

joint

remaining piece. set as before,

C

to line,

From

produce

gauge a

line

and perform

B

lines

on B.

this

is

to finish),

From work-

operation on each

as a working-face with the

on

A

and C, and plane £>

gauge

to these

This done, the four pieces should be of the same

Hnes.

and

be done

j^.„ -j^g

operation on each of the other pieces.

this

ing-face

this

to

size,

true squares in section.

144. Whenever a series of similar operations is to be performed on two or more pieces, the method developed by the foregoing exercise should always be followed. By carrying all the pieces along together, the

work

more

if

rapidly accomi)lished than

will

each

is

be more easily and finished as a separate

piece.

145.

plane.

work

Smooth Surfaces cannot always be produced by a

The presence

to split in

face results.

of knots or a crooked grain causes the

advance of the cutting edge, and a rough

A

sharp plane set to take a fine shaving,

surwill

do much to remedy this evil, but it cannot be entirely overcome. Surfaces, such as a table top or a door panel, which are not required to be true,

may be made

as

smooth

as possible

BENCH WORK

90

WOOD.

IN

with a plane, and the rough spots reduced afterwards by means

A

of a hand-scraper, appHed as shown by Fig. 164. ^^^^

Fi" ie4

required to

^^

smooth,

best

is

mounted

smoothed by a scraper a

like

Such

plane-iron.

may be made

scraper

surface

be true as well as

to

a

act uniformly

over an entire surface, whereas the handscraper

The

useful

is

smoothness,

True but

joint,

the

On

by a plane.

and

be

will

is

necessary

are

is

one which

sufficiently true

if

made

is

and

unusual.

about

smooth enough

are

only.

truth

very

the other hand, a surface that

be perfectly smooth,

to

both

of

however,

surfaces

of a joint

parts

on rough spots

requirement

is

to

as

a left

required

be seen,

the eye does not detect

its

inaccuracy.

146.

— The use of sand-paper should

Sand-Papering (103).

be confined to the removal of the minute fiber which

and

left

presence

by the plane.

may be

This fiber

is

is

raised

usually invisible, but

its

detected by comparing a surface newly-planed

with a similar surface upon which sand-paper has been judiciously used ; the latter will be much smoother. In applying sand-paper, the motion should be " with the grain." To pre-

vent the destruction of sharp corners or delicate features of any sort, the

block of

work

—a

sand-paper should be held about, or fastened

wood corresponding somewhat flat

block for a

A

curved surface. instead of the it

to

Sand-paper

will

surface,

fit

block,

and

is

to,

a

form of the

a curved block for a

piece of thick leather

wooden

may be bent

flat

to the

often

is

sometimes used

more convenient,

as

almost any surface.

not satisfactorily reduce irregularities in a

and should never be substituted for the scraper. As has been implied, it will simply remove the fiber, and a few surface,

BENCH WORK.

91

Strokes arc generally found to be sufficient

more

;

are likely to

result in injury.

EXERCISE The

stock required

is

|^"

shown by Fig. 165, and cut is shown by Fig. 166.

No.

5.

— Box.

x 6"x 24V'

;

it

must be lined as

The

into five pieces.

finished

box

Fig. 165 Scale. l}

= l'

r I

lO'-l-

^10--

-I

J_ 147.

on each of the

If

five

ciently true for a working-face,

otherwise, a working-face should

From

be made. face

it

is

a surface

suffi-

should be marked as such JFig.

;

100

Scale, li

— 1'

one edge on each

joint

mark

piece and

the working-

pieces there

it

as the

work-

Set the gauge at 2f (the inside depth of the box)

ing-edge.

and gauge the

side

and end

pieces to this depth, after which joint

them

to line.

working edge, square, scribe face of

all

with

From

the

the

try-

on the working-

the pieces, including 3i"

the bottom, a fine about 5" from

one end.

With the back-saw ELEVATION

(56) cut these ends, being careful to keep on the outside of the line (148).

may be

held

The work

on the bench-hook, as shown by Fig.

167.

BENCH WORK

92

In starting the cut, the saw

WOOD,

IN

may be made

to act across the

angle of the work in the direction of the Hne ab, but should gradually be brought to the position shown,

and

parallel to the face of the work,

The

bring every tooth into action.

motion being

its

stroke long enough to

its

position of the saw in Fig.

167, together with the dotted outline, shows a proper range of

movement.

The

ends,

when sawed, should be square with

the work-

If the cut is a poor one, a and working-edge. second may be taken by removing just enough material to

ing-face

hold the saw

;

if it

is

only a

" out,"

little

a time.

this case, to pass the error for

it

be best, in

will

One end

of each hav-

may now be brought

ing been squared, the pieces

to length.

On

one of the two pieces which are to form the ends of the Measbox, lay off and scribe a line 4" from the squared end. ure the second end piece by the for both,

first

whether the measurement

is

same length Next, on

to insure the just

4" or not.

one of the two side pieces, 9!" from the squared end, scribe a line for

sawing and, using the

similar line

All the pieces having

piece.

first

piece as a measure, lay off a

on the second side piece and been thus

with the back-saw, after which

all

also

on the bottom

lined, they

may be

but the bottom piece

will

cut

be

of the dimensions required.

Sawing " outside of the line" may be

148.

lows

:

if

two

lines are

made on

illustrated as fol-

a piece of work just 12" apart,

and the portion between cut out by sawing exactly

07i

the lines,

BENCH WORK. it is

obvious that the piece

will

be

less

93 than 12" long by half

the width of the saw kerf at each end, or, adding the two deficiencies, by the width of one kerf, Jg " or more. ^^°' The appearance of an end when cut outside of a line will line

The smooth

be that shown by Fig. 168.

^l^^^^l

along the upper surface, represents the cut

made by the scriber work of the saw.

in lining the material

;

the rest shows the

—

The side and end pieces are to 149. Nailing (254-256). be nailed, as shown by Fig. 169, three 6-penny casing nails being used at each angle. When brought together, the pieces must be Nails,

flush

—

pretty nearly right will not do.

when seen

in a certain position,

throughout their length. A, Fig. angles to the

first,

1

70

;

appear equal in width while a view at right

shows them wedge-shaped, B, Fig.

i

Fi-. IGO

Fi-.iro

A

WORKING EDGE

70.

In

BENCH WORK

94 150.

who

is

Hammer Marks

WOOD.

IN

One on the work must be avoided. hammer, can drive a nail slightly

skilled in the use of a

below the surface of the work without leaving a scar ; but it is better to stop driving before the hammer head touches the

work than 151.

to risk

damage.

Setting Nails.

— When nearly

Fig.

in

the nail has been driven as

"home"

as possible,

head

at least Jg- "

until the

is

surface of the work. set, rest

the

on the work, press the will

set

little

as

set

"set"

it

below the

In applying the

finger of the left

shown by

hand

Fig. 171,

firmly against

it

;

and

there

then be no trouble in keeping the

on the head of the

nail.

—

Withdrawing Nails. It sometimes happens that a when partially driven, is found to be tending in a wrong direction, in which case it must be withdrawn. If the hammer, when used for this purpose, is allowed to get into the position shown by Fig. 172, it will mar the work, the nail is likely to splinter the wood around the hole in coming out, and an unnecessary amount of force on the hammer handle is required to draw it. A better way is to keep the hammer from contact with the work by a block of wood, as a, Fig. 173. The block152.

nail,

Eig.lTa

FiK.irS

ing should be increased in thickness as the nail If

the

work has been

well done,

is

withdrawn.

the nail will not be bent.

BENCH WORK. Never attempt

to

or,

start

a

*nail

The second

been withdrawn.

prevented from doing

95

a hole froni which one has

in

nail will either follow the first

this, will

take an opposite course no

nearer right.

Fastening the Box Bottom.

153.

of a box,

when

nailed together,

may

— The

and end pieces

side

not be exactly rectangular,

although each piece has the required length, and the fastening

cannot be depended on to retain them with certainty given form.

But when the bottom piece

come

fixed.

It

be

proper form when the bottom

in

The bottom pieces,

and

square

it

made

;

added,

all

in

therefore, important that the rest of the is

any

parts be-

box

nailed.

piece has been cut the same length as the side

has a working-edge with which both ends are

it

a

is

is,

is

little

wider than

is

necessary, but this can be

right in finishing the box.

Place

bottom

the

piece

with the working-face inside,

and the working-edge even with the outside edge of one

of the side pieces, as shown

by Fig.

174,

and drive the

Now since

nails a.

the angles

b are right angles, the

end pieces of the box,

square with the side, to which the bottom

in

is

must agree with the ends of the bottom piece. agree, but shp past, as

spring points

The

them

shown by

to place, after

which

Fig. nails

1

If they

do not

74, slight pressure will

may be

driven at the

c.

nails in the

bottom of a box must be so placed

avoid those which hold the sides to the ends. driven at the corners

Finishing the box. all

order to be

already nailed,

No

nail

as to

can be

d.

— With the smooth-plane take

a light cut

over the outside, keeping the sides and ends square with the

BENCH WORK

96

IN

WOOD.

bottom and with each other. The ends of the box, where the end grain of the bottorn and side pieces is encountered, present the most difficulty.

154.

and

In planing end grain, the cutting edge must be sharp

set to take a fine shaving.

be taken

off,

the

that the cutting

movement edge

will

If only a little material

Fig.

The motion

175.

to

not extend beyond the work, two

cuts being taken in opposite directions, as indicated by

B,

is

of the plane should be so limited

A

and

of the plane in both directions.

FiK-lTG

F'ig.1'7'6

EZl

ceases near C.

If

much

is

to

be removed, and

it

seems best

to carry the plane the entire length of the surface, a bevel

be made which

will

may

allow the cutting edge of the plane to leave

the work gradually, and shown by Fig. 176.

EXERCISE

at a little distance

No.

6.

from the edge, as

— Bench-Hook

(12).

stock required is if" X 2f" X 16" from Exercise No. 4. shown with the necessary lining by Fig. 177, in which figure the Plan, face A, represents the working-face, and the The finished piece is Elevation, face B, the working-edge. shown by Fig. 1 78.

The

It

is

155. ject

Lay

off the lines

ab and cd on face B, Fig. 177. Proae, and project cd across

ab across face A, as shown by

BENCH WORK.

C

face

97

(not shown), and from these, project on face

similar to

ab and

cate the point

/

on

cd,

lines

of the opposite face

ab and

!>/=

PLAN fFACE

and

cd,

D, measuring

Scale

in

also

on the

ij

and

A.)

B.)

and similar

ik,

Lo-

similar lines

each case from the work-

ing-face A, as indicated by the dimensions given.

draw

Hnes

l'

ELEVATION fFACE

straight-edge,

D

which are already located on B.

lines

By

use of a

on the opposite

face.

Cut along the two

w.3,ys

sufficient to

and

surface, eg,

ik with the rip-saw.

when

hold the blade.

along the line

the

lines iJ

of starting the saw

eg,

and the

on which

There are

the material, as at k,

First, a

is

not

saw cut may be made

triangle cqk chiseled out, giving a flat

to begin

;

secondly, a block of

same breadth with the work may be fastened

wood

of

in the vise

BENCH WORK

98 with the

latter, as

shown by

Fig.

IN

1

WOOD.

79, thus, in effect,

the second plan

ik,

block

A

extending

In the case of the hne

the surface ok.

is

preferable.

The

should bear well upon the work

B at k. The

lines ij and ik having been sawed, and ai with the back-saw. With the chisel produce the bevels repreBore the hole sented by mn and op. R., Fig. 178, and the piece is fin-

cut di

ished.

With reference

156. bit is

(89)

will cut

to

R,

it

may be

said that while an auger-

smoothly when entirely within the material,

sure to splinter

when coming out on

it

the face opposite the

starting point.

To

prevent

this,

may be used from one

the bit

side until

its

spur appears on the opposite side, and then withdrawn, and started in the opposite direction in the hole

or the work

left

may be

by the spur

held firmly to

another block, as shown by Fig. 180,

and the

bit

allowed to pass into the

block as though

the

two were one

piece.

An

auger-bit should cut freely, and advance into the

without

much pushing on

the brace

;

if it

does not,

it is

in

work poor

condition and should be sharpened.

EXERCISE The it

is

No.

stock required

7.

is

— Halved

i|"

X i|" X

shown with the necessary

pleted piece

is

shown by

lining,

Fig. 182.

Splice

(202-203).

16" from Exercise No. 4

by Fig. 181.

;

The com-

BENCH WORK.

99

BENCH WORK

lOO

WOOD.

IN

the material, and their united thickness,

when put

together,

as in Fig. 182, would be greater or less than the material else-

ELEVATION. FaCC B.

where.

The

Then

the gauge line

if

if

pieces cut out, therefore, are from opposite faces.

bhgf\?, thicker than

one

and the

side,

is

is,

the smaller piece will be taken out on

on the other

larger piece

the two remaining parts

be

not in the center of the piece, that

ij/k,

when put

and the sum of

;

together, as in Fig. 182, will

ec{ual to the full size of the material.

159.

gf and

To

cut the pieces,

ij

next, with the back-saw, cut the lines bf

;

first

run the rip-saw

next the hnes

Kig.183

ful

in all

and

c

down c,

the lines

and

/J

being care-

of these cuts to keep the

proper side of the line (148).

Finally,

cut on the line a, and try the pieces

\

together as in Fig. 182.

If the

work

has been well done, the joint will be

'"T

not good, the faults

good.

If

may be

corrected.

it

is

END ELEVATION. ij,

to

it

by using the

if

chisel as

The cuts gf and may be brought To facili147.

not quite to line,

shown by

Fig.

BENCH WORK.

hne

make chamfers on each

operation,

the

tate

to the

sawed

shown by

surface, as

from the

side

Fig. 183, to be used

Such chamfers present a twofold advan-

instead of the hne. tage

lOI

they are both visible from the same point, and they pre-

;

vent splintering on the side on which the chisel comes out.

The

fitting

on the

line ab, Fig. 182,

pose that the heading-joint ac

having been finished, supbut

fits,

B'iS.

hd does not

that

neither

fits

suppose

or

;

shown by

properly, as

If the discrepancy

184.

the joint

sawed

may be

to a

-^^^^ Fig.

^

not great,

corrected by use of the chisel, or

it

may be

fit.

"To saw a

160.

is

184

that

Fit," the two pieces should be

hand

together, or held by

in the

position

shown by

clamped Fig. 184,

sawed into. This will make c at least as Without changing the relative position of the pieces, turn the work over and saw d, which will also become at least as wide as the saw kerf, and, consequently,

and the

joint at c

wide as the saw

equal to If in

kerf.

c in so far as the joints

each case the joint

is

close

come

pieces after sawing will ing

is

have been affected by the saw.

enough

to hold the saw, the

together perfectly.

If

one saw-

the pieces may be brought together and

insufficient,

sawed a second, and even a third time. This method of

fitting

When

is

the joint

may be

end with 4-penny casing as illustrated

by

widely apphed.

perfect, the pieces are to be nailed at each

Fig.

185.

nails

driven

While

obhquely, or

" toed,"

nailing, rest the pieces

A

BENCH WORK

ro2

and

B

on the bench C, and,

IN

WOOD.

to

retahi

them

^

D^

block

the

position,

in

one to bear on

allow

in turn

which

held by the

is

The block

bench-stop.

protects the ends of the

work, which would be mutilated by the benchstop in

if

they were placed

contact with

direct

it.

Toeing Nails.

i6i.

— The advantage

to

be

derived from toeing a nail lies in the fact that it

y

" draws "

always

hi' •^__,/

driven.

If driven

shown by a. will draw

Fig. 185,

it is

as \

c

in

the direction in which

I

•.

it

B

both

in

A

upon

a horizontal

and

in a vertical direc-

tion,

and will thus ingood contact be-

sure

tween the parts of the joint.

The

nails

driven and the

having been set,

four sides

given

a

final

each of

may be smooth-

ing by a stroke of the

-k

plane.

BENCH WORK.

EXERCISE The

stock required

— Splayed

8.

if'x if'x

is

the necessary lines are is

No.

103

shown by

16",

Splice.

from Exercise No. 4

Fig. 186.

The

;

finished piece

represented by Fig. 187.

I

W±

/,

A and and from

Let the faces

162. off

on face

A

Hne

a,

and project these Hnes on

the working- faces.

J? be a,

all

the hnes

d, c, d, e,f, g, h,

1I

Lay and

Set the

four faces of the work.

an angle of 45 degrees with its beam on A, as indicated by the dotted outline, lay off on B lines dj, bk, gj, and Connect points on both ik, and repeat these lines on face D.

bevel at

B

;

and D, forming

portions

marked r

To

163.

lines

which on

B

appear as

are to be removed.

cut the joint,

first

/'J

and

ij.

The

ITi-.lSS

use the

and iJ, and afterwards the back-saw on the short The backoblique lines gJ and bk. rip-saw on the lines

saw can piece

is

easily

bj

be started

if,

while the

held in the vise, a stroke

given in the to carry the

direction a,

Fig.

is

188,

saw into the work a distance equal

to

the depth

BENXH WORK

104 of

its

teeth, after

which

it

IX

may be

WOOD.

turned into the desired di-

rection b.

dj and ik

The splayed ends

By

the bench-hook, Fig. 189.

may be

cut with the

work on

following the directions given in

the previous exercise the joint

may be

shown by

finished, as

Fig. 187. Kijj.

EXERCISE The

No.

9.

— Mortise-and-Tenon

stock required

is

if"

X if" X

shown with the necessary piece is shown by Fig. 191. it is

Let

164.

A

and

lines

B represent

one end of the piece, on face A, lines h, line

(f,

c,

and

the line

d,

Measure

d.

face A,

and

Joint (211-215).

Fig. 190.

and

/

on

and from

D,

all

From

a, lay off

same on each

B

on

side of

lines e

four faces of the piece,

the two faces adjoining A.

;

finished

carefully the width of the piece

and d on

B and

The

the two working-faces. lay off line a,

lay off one-half of the

c,

No. 4

16", from Exercise

by

and through the points thus fixed make

Project the lines a, lines e

ISO

and/.

and

th

j

Set the

gh and a and carry it around the end of the work to the line d on face D. Set another gauge at i^" (|" -|- f ", the width of the mortise and

gauge

at ^",

similar line

and from

face

A, gauge on

on the opposite face D.

the line

Gauge the

line ij

of the tenon), and gauge between the same lines as before, pro-

BENCH WORK. ducing

The

g'h', i'f, etc.

mortise and the tenon are formed

by cutting out the portions

marked

r.

The method

of "lay-

ing off" the width of the

and the tenon

mortise to be

is

especially ob-

The

served.

distance

between the two

lines

which define the width of the mortise, and those

which define the width

r

of

I

the

being

tenon,

equal to the difference in the setting

gauges,

of the two

must

The

same.

are

^

as

I

concerned,

would not be

different

the piece containing

the mortise were twice as thick as that carrying

the tenon.

It is best to

use two gauges to avoid the mistakes which might arise

from

single one.

changing a

Then,

if

it

should be found neces-

them

sary to

use

the

first

lining, precisely

the

same measurements

will

be obtained.

process

can be

-

•'

the

the mortise and

far as

tenon

if

be result,

after

This short-

lOS

.t

BENCH WORK

io6

IN

WOOD.

ened by using a mortise-gauge (33), which makes both the same time. 165.

Cutting the Mortise.

—

It will

lines at

be remembered that the

which appear on face B, Fig. 190, have their counterparts

lines

'/(

SIDE.

on the opposite face D.

To

cut the mortise, select a chisel

having a width as nearly as possible etjual to the space between the gauge lines, and, beginning on face B, near the middle of the mortise, advance toward one end, as

shown by

end of the mortise having been reached,

The

Fig. 149.

commence

to the other end.

at the

Always loosen

starting point

and advance

the chisel by a

backward movement of the handle a movement would injure the ends of the mortise. ;

in the opposite direction

(See Fig. 149.)

After the

first

few cuts, each deeper than the

preceding, the chisel can easily be

made

to penetrate

If the

depth

is

or more, in pine or poplar.

an inch

equal to half the

thickness of the work, no attention need be given to the chips. side of the mortise having been cut in this manner, turn work over and repeat the operation on face D, the chisel

One the

BENCH WORK. being driven

down

After the cutting

to

is

meet the opening made from the first side. may be dug out with a

finished, the chips

by use of a wooden plug.

chisel or driven through

them through by using the

to drive

parallel to the grain, as is

107

chisel with

its

Never

try

cutting edge

such use

very likely to split the work.

The

chips

having

been

re-

moved, the truth of the mortise

may be

tested

by using the

flat

side of the chisel as a straight-

edge,

The

shown by

as

Fig.

192.

sides of the finished mortise

should agree with the chisel, as

Compare a with

at a.

Remember

b.

that at least one-half the

thickness of the line should remain on the work.

The Tenon may next be

166.

both across the grain and with

it.

cut by using the back-saw,

The

sawing,

if

to line, leaves

nothing to be done except the pointing of the tenon

;

this

is

accomplished by a stroke of ^ ^°"

the chisel on each side, which

makes Fig.

it

appear as shown

193.

The

pointing

b}' is

necessary, because a square-

ended,

tight-fitting tenon,

if

^'

#^

=^ PLAN.

driven to place, will splinter the sides of the mortise.

length of the tenon cient to

make

it

is

The suffi-

project be-

yond the mortise a distance more than ecjual to the part pointed. cut

ELEVATION.

After the fitting has been done, the i)rojccting part

is

off".

When

both the mortise antl tenon are finished, cut the piece

BENCH WORK

io8

on the

line

c,

Fig. 190,

and

try the

should enter at a light-driving

do not make a good is, if fit,

WOOD,

IN

tenon in the mortise.

If the shoulders of the

fit.

It

tenon

joint with the cheeks of the mortise, that

the joint at S, Fig. 191,

is

not good,

When

as in the case of the splice.

may be sawed

it

all

is

satisfactory,

to a

bore

the pin hole, insert the pin, cut off the projecting portion of the

tenon and of the pin, and take a faces

shaving from those sur-

light

on which a plane may be used.

—

Select a piece of straight167. To Make a Pin (249). grained material, in this case 4" or 5" long, and, by use of the chisel,

reduce

it

section to a square whose side

in

greater than the diameter of the hole

the corners,

making

it

an octagon

it is

to

fit.

in section,

is

slightly

Then

take off

and point one

Ki-. 10-4

end.

All this will

by the bench-hook, 168,

be best accomplished as indicated

Drawboring

is

by Fig.

1

the piece

if

held

is

94.

a term ap])lied to a

method of

locating

make

pin holes so as to

Kis. lO'"

the pin draw the tenon into

the

Fig.

mortise.

195 shows

the

relative

position of the holes before the pin It

is

is

inserted.

evident

that

tight-fitting pin will

a tendency

to

make

the

holes

in

the

mortise

coincide, and thus draw the two pieces together.

and

The

a

have

tenon holes

BENCH WORK.

109

hiay be located on the mortise and tenon by direct measure-

ment

or the cheeks of the mortise

;

may be bored through and

-r

1-

-i

5

t

S^.

f-

t\ the tenon inserted, and

by putting the already

bored

point against

tenon

marked

bit into the

and forcing the

tenon.

its

The

may then be withdrawn

and bored, the point of the

o^

hole

bit

5

° '

^

being placed a

shoulder of the tenon than the mark.

little

nearer the

no The if

BENCH WORK practice of drawboring

indulged in at

In

cised.

many

nearly equal to is left

to

cases,

its

it

do the work

for is

commended, and,

not to be

and discretion must be exer-

puts a strain on the joint which

maximum

the mortise or tenon

is

great care

all,

WOOD.

IN

and but

resistance,

which the

joint

little

made.

is

is

strength

Frequently,

spht and rendered practically useless.

EXERCISE

No.

lo.

Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (240-245). The

stock required "Fig.

is

if"

X if" X

from Exercise No. 4

= 1'

cessary

^^=^

by Fig.

lining

The

196. is

;

shown with the ne-

it is

isr

Scale, 3

16",

finished piece

represented by Fig.

197. PLAN.

The

169.

from

fers

lining dif-

of

that

preceding

the

exercise

in

the following respects

:

the position of the line b

changed

is

indi-

as

cated by the dimension

and the position

figures,

of lines e and /, which

extend around the piece,

changed

is

as indicated

by the dotted

the mortise

is

made

longer on face

B

ing line

/,

corre-

;

than ELEVATION.

to

spond

face

A

on face D, one

oblique

giv-

end,

BENCH WORK. As regards the tenon, the

d

line

g

I I I

added

is

the point h

and the

from

at a distance

equal to the thickness of the piece on the line

A

face

d,

located on face A, and on the opposite face

is

line g/i

drawn on both

;

C,

The mortise r' is to be made oblique as

faces.

cut as in the preceding exercise, and one end

indicated by the figure.

To form First,

the tenon the portions

beginning at

ginning at

g, cut

the two lines k/

k,

marked r are

to be

along the oblique line ;

and,

of the tenon by cutting on the line

finally,

g/i

then, be-

define the shoulders

This order

d.

removed.

;

will

save

all

the lines as long as they are needed.

A

170. is

study of the finished piece will show that the tenon

inserted from the face

edge of the tenon, /,

leaving an

g/i,

D, and pushed over

so that the splayed

bears on the splayed end of the mortise,

open space

end of the mortise

at the other

be

to

by the key.

See Fig. 197. The key should be planed from a piece 5" or 6" long.

filled

It

should be uniform in width and nearly so in thickness, there

being but a slight taper near the end which

advance

;

this

to drive the

end should be pointed

key from the inside

to

is

be driven

like a tenon.

in the direction

It

is

in

best

indicated by

the arrow, Fig. 197.

The

piece

is

to be finished in accordance with the appear-

ance and dimensions shown by Fig. 197.

EXERCISE The

stock

edges jointed

required parallel,

may be worked up

as

being planed to width,

No. n.

— Plain

Dovetail.

is two pieces, each and one end squared.

one piece ^" x

may be

3

in

preparing the material

the lines.

To

X

(The material 8", which, after

cut in two with the back-saw,

thus giving the squared ends rec^uired.)

used

J"

|"x3f"X4",

may

also

avoid confusion one piece

The working- faces

be used will

in laying off

be called

X

and

BENCH WORK

Il2 the Other

K

Lay

Xand Y

Fig. 198 shows the Hning necessary for

The

respectively.

171.

WOOD.

IN

finished joint

on

off

all

is

shown by

Fig. 199.

four faces of each piece, |" from the

squared end, the Fasten A^

line ad, Fig. 198.

squared end lay

its

lines as g/i,

off

Remove

Fig. 198.

and on

the vise,

in

the piece from

the vise, and with the bevel set

"i

faces

A

(29), project on the

and

The

ef.

ELEVATION (FACE

4"

to

C

oblique lines as

portions which are to be

removed to form the mortises, are marked r. Put the piece in the vise again, and with the back-saw

A.)

cut

down

With a

the oblique lines as

chisel,

used as

e/.

in cutting

an ordinary mortise, remove the

r

material r

between the

preferred, part of

it

moved by boring a

lines.

If

can be

re-

hole as indi-

r'

The

cated by the dotted outline. hole will

but in so small a piece of work anything gained. in the vise,

The

piece

it

is

make

the chiseling easier,

doubtful whether there

X having

been

finished, fasten

working-end up and working-face outward.

the working- face of

X on

the working-end of V, as

Fig. 200, taking care that the line a/>

on

X

is

with the working- face of V.

Holding the work

and guided by the mortises

in

oblique lines as with the

beam

g/i,

Fig.

198.

in the

Y

F

Place

shown by same line

in this position,

X, scribe on the end of

Remove

is

from the

V

vise,

the

and

of the square on the working-end, project to ad

from the extremities of the oblique lines just made. The portions marked r and r' are to be removed to form the

lines as e/

BENCH WORK. marked

Tliose on the outside

"pins."

113

may be removed

r'

saw; those on the inside

entirely with the

(r), partly with the

chisel, as in the case of the mortises in the piece

The

172.

joint

ought to go together by

X.

light driving,

and

be perfectly square on the

between

inside

the working- faces.

found to be

it is

factory, take

it

If

satis-

apart,

apply a light coating of glue, and drive toELEVATION

gether again.

(B.)

the glue joint

is

may be smoothed and

When

hard, the

squared, and

the ends of the pieces cut to the dimensions

shown

173.

then (A.)

be seen that one part of made, and the second part is

It will

the joint ELEVATION

in Fig. 199.

is

made

to

fit

proportions of the

determined with great exactness.

The

first

part need not be

the piece

X (if

them

all

;

skilled

bench-worker usually proceeds as follows treats

hence, the

the first

:

Ki-. SiOO

on

there are several pieces, X, he at the

same time) he

lays off

the lines ab and cross-lines as gh, the latter

without

measuring, and

then saws obliquely

without the use of lines as ef; on

Khe

WORKING FACE-^

lays off

the lines ab and oblique lines as gh, and saws without making lines

as

ef.

In

this

way the

joint

though not perfectly symmetrical, well-fitted.

it

is

soon made, and,

may be

al-

well-formed and

BENCH WORK

114

EXERCISE The

No.

— Lap,

12.

stock required

WOOD.

IN

or Drawer, Dovetail,

one piece

is

'

X 3f " X 4" and one X 3I" X 4",

piece i"

edges jointed parallel

and one end of each

The finished

squared. piece 201.

shown by

is

that the piece ELEVATION (FACE

B.)

Fig.

be seen

It will

Y does

not extend across the full

thickness

of the

piece X, and, consequently, the end grain

does not

ap-

pear in ElevaScale,

tion

B,

3

—

1'

Fig.

201. PLAN (FACE

ELEVATION (FACE

Fig.

202, scribe

(the

thickness

working- end,

174.

A.i

On

the line ab, |"

of

X)

and

from the

continue

it s-

across the working-edges.

—

A-

e-C

Set a

and from the workgauge the line cd on the working- end, and extend it on the edges until it meets the ex-

gauge

D.)'

y.

at |",

ing-face

A

ELEVATION (FACE

A.)

tended line ab, as shown by face D, Fig. 202. From the workingend of X, with the same gauge,

make

the line ab on the two faces

•-C

A

and C. Produce the remaining lines on X, cut the mortises, and lay off exercise.

Y

by X, as

in

the

B

last

ELEVATION (FACE

A.)

END.

BENCH WORK.

I

'5

In cutting out around the pins (F), the dehcacy of the work

does not is

demand

the most dehcate chisel, but one as large as

convenient should be used.

sions given

by

Finish the joint to the dimen-

Fig. 201.

EXERCISE

No.

13.

— Blind

Dovetail.

The

stock required

is

two

I"

X 3I" X 4"

each

pieces,

jointed

edges

and

parallel

one end squared. The finished joint

by ELEVATION (FACE in the

B.)

Fig.

dovctall

is

shown

The

203. is wholly

with-

square a^cd, and, consequently, no

end grain shows on any

face.

With the square,

175.

lay

on the

off

working- faces and two edges of each piece of material, Fig. 204, the lines ^a, ELEVATION fFACE

cd, dk,

A

on the ends of each piece the

line

ef.

Scale,

PLAN (FACE

d

8

d D.)

a

at,

A

and from the working- face

=

l'

a>

PLAN.

a

De

I

A--

, h

d

0,

-fi

T, ELEVATION (FACE

A.)

END

ELEVATION.

and

gauge

BENCH WORK

ii6

IN

WOOD.

Cut both pieces as shown by Fig. 205. Taking one of the which will be called X, space and lay off on the reduced ^

pieces,

end surface

lines as op,

Fig. 206, using the try-square blade

Next, produce oblique

by the dotted outline.

as indicated

lines as gh,

300 3

Scale,

—

l'

marked With in

shown

and

figure,

cut

mortises

in the vise

apply X,

;-.

Y

which the mortises have

ready been cut,

aMa

same

in the

the

al-

shown by

as

may be

Fig. 207, so that points

located along the exterior angle e'

A-

,C

of V, corresponding

openings

in

X.

the

to

Project these

points (shown on line e'f, Fig.

208) from the exterior angle ELEVATION (FACE

A.;

r

J

—

interior

angle

n END.

Next apply 207. shown by Fig. 209

.D,

Y

the

to

X

position the

points

the line

a'i',

Fig.

secured

along

These

points,

to

V,

from

;

shown on angle

the

these lines, project

A.)

to the line d'k'.

portions

marked

mains

make

to

jections

1

206.

No

on

r,

and the dovetail

is

finished.

down

Cut out the It

X and

V.

now

re-

Set the bevel at a miter (an angle of 45

dimensions are given for locating the lines similar to

is

i)',

206.

on the

a miter-joint between the two rectangular pro-

They can be found by measuring

the scale,

a'.

when connected,

working-face lines as ELEVATION (FACE

as this

208, can be

will give lines as gk, V, Fig.

From

e',

Fig.

^',

o/>,

X,

Fig.

the drawing, which, as indicated by

one-fourth the size of the piece

it

represents.

BENCH WORK. degrees) and scribe the dotted line

and

glue,

finish to

on each piece

Fig. 205,

e,

When

then cut to hne with a chisel.

117

the joint has

;

been

fitted,

"Fig.

S09

dimensions.

Fig. a'

aos e'b'

rf'J

X Y tWN V I'm'

176.

instead of cutting out the

If,

one-half only

is

cut out, as

shown by

the dividing line being on a miter, and, outside portions of X, m,

away

;;/,

and

first

last

space of Y,

Fig. 210, if

FiS.

the

210

/

Fig. 206, are cut

to a miter to correspond, the joint will

appear as

plain

a

miter -joint,

instead

of

that

shown by

Fig. 203.

EXERCISE 177.

up of

Fig. 211

tenon joints

;

14.

— Frame

and Panel (246-248).

The frame

shows a small panel door.

is

made

which are fastened together by mortise-andthe spaces within the frame are filled by panels.

and

stiles

No.

rails,

The lower panel is simply a thin board screwed to the back of the frame. The upper panel is composed of narrow strips, which are inserted in a groove made in the frame for their reception. The front of the frame, around the lower panel, is chamfered, .

and around the upper panel this

exercise

to construct

within the rectangle abdc.

is

beaded.

It

is

that portion of the

the purpose of

door included

BENCH WORK

ii8

IN

WOOD.

Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed l^^iy..

C211

TTig.

212

Scale,

3' = !'

dimen-

to

\^/////////^///m'/f

ELEVATION.

sions as follows

for the stile,

:

X 2V' X 9" for the rail, li" X 4" X 6^" and for the The panel i" X 5'' X 5^". i|"

;

;

work

finished

is

shown by

Fig. 212.

178.

both

The

niortise-and-tenon joint between the

in the size

The width

and position of

1

rail.

It will

is

and

stile

shown by

rail,

Fig. 213.

stile

lines are

be noticed that the

extend beyond

This extension, or "horn," as

The nominnl width

width.

parts,

of the mortise and the tenon should be equal to the

width of the f " chisel' so placed as to make the the

its

it

is

the lower edge of called,

is

of a chisel does nut always agree with

for the

its

actual

BENCH WORK.

119

purpose of re-enforcing the end of the mortise during the ting,

— a recourse which must ahvays

in the finished

After

Having

work

closely approaches the

end of the

the jointing has been done, the horns

all

material.

may be

cut

laid off the necessary lines for cutting the mortise

the tenon, very light lines, as cd

made on both

stile

and

rail to

"Fig.

and

guide

fit-

be had when the mortise

c^(f,

off.

and

Fig. 213, should

in cutting the

be

chamfers.

213 3=

Scale,

1

d

!,j--._^j^

.

SIDE OF RAIL.

SIDE OF ST! LE.

Cut and

fit

the

mortise and tenon, and then

EDGE

.1

OF ST LE I

make both

chamfers, as shown in the finished piece, Fig. 212. 179.

Short chamfers (222, 223) like these are best cut by

use of the chisel, a spokeshave sometimes being used in finishing.

Long chamfers may be cut rapidly by the drawing-knife, which may be followed by the smooth-plane. 180.

Before putting the joint together, enlarge the outside

end of each mortise,

room

for

the wedges

as c,

shown by a and c,

d,

Fig. 213, to

which, after the joint

has

make been

BENCH WORK

I20 driven

are

together,

be

to

This method

indicated.

WOOD.

IN

dipped

and driven

glue

in

of wedging

forms

as

a very strong

joint (250, 251).

181. as

Round

shown by

the edge of the panel

a,

and

Fig. 212,

frame by two i" No. 8 screws in the stile

on the bottom and

fasten

— one

it

and one,

in the rail,

b,

In inserting screws, the outside piece (in this case the

182.

sufficiently large to allow the

the

side,

the back of the

(258).

The

panel) must be bored for each screw.

if

to

wood

hard,

is

it

hole should be

screw to pass through easily

must be enlarged

The

terbored," to receive the head of the screw.

which the screw holds

(in this case the frame),

need not be bored unless there

is

which case a hole should be made,

The

that of the screw.

depends

largely

danger that in

if

and,

;

at the top, or "

coun-

piece in

of soft wood,

it

may

split,

\\\

diameter about two-thirds

necessity for a hole in hard

wood

A

short,

on the proportions of the screw.

large-wired screw will stand almost any service, while a long

slender one will frequently be twisted or broken under the strain necessary to

drive

it

wood which

into

is

only moder-

ately hard.

Judgment must determine when the screw is driven sufThe head must bed well into the wood but

ficiently.

there

is

;

danger that

it

" forced so far as to " strip

may be

the thread, and that, as a consequence,

the

screw

will

not

hold (96,98).

Never allow the screw-driver screw while the 183.

screws.

latter

is

to

from the

slot

of the

Brad-awls are useful in preparing the way for small

The

cutting edge should always be placed across the

grain so that the fibers will be cut, to close

slip

being driven.

up again when the

tool

and not simply pressed apart

is

withdrawn.

The

difference

BENCH WORK. in effect

may be

121

seen by comparing, Fig. 214, A, which shows

a proper action, with B.

Fig.

EXERCISE This exercise consists

in

214

No.

15.

— Paneling.

making

that portion of the panel

door, Fig. 211, included within the rectangle efgh.

Fi{;.ai5 Scale,

8'

l'

BENCH WORK

122

IN

WOOD.

Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed sions as follows

panel strip |"

:

X if"

to

dimen-

X 2^" x 9"; rail ii" x 2|" x 6|" X 18". The completed exercise is shown

stile

i^"

by Fig. 215. 184.

In considering the joint between the

shown by

Fig.

216, three

groove, or " plow," which a, Fig.

215

;

new is

stile

and

to receive the panel, as

the beads /,/; and the mitered corner

allows the parts to be plowed

and beaded

as

rail

features will be observed;

the

shown c^/,

at

which

as shown, without

affecting the mortise-and-tenon joint.

Follow the dimensions, and in the

line for the mortise

preceding exercises, supposing the

indicated by the dotted outline

be of the form indicated by Scale,

i'-l"

Fig. 216,

and tenon

as

be of the form

and the

stile

to

This done, add the lines

ec,

(/'j'c',

e/d.

rail to

BENCH WORK.

No

185.

special direction can be given for using the

(85), except that it

will

123

be safe

before applying

it

to

is

to practice with it

to the

plow

be used from the working-edge; but it

on a piece of waste material

work.

Scale,

END.

Next, the beads /,/, Fig. 215, are to be formed on the rail and stile, that is, along the edges

186. inside

edge of both

marked

/^,

What has already been may also be said of the

Fig. 216.

the use of the plow,

said regarding

beading- [)lane

(84).

The mitered

corners are

now

formed by cutting with

to l)e

the back-saw to lines already made, antl then the joint between stile

and

rail, fitted

in Exercise

No.

and wedged as

14.

The frame having been made may be given to The panel strip, althe panel. ready jointed, must be "matched" ready, attention

by forming the tongue groove

a, Fig.

217.

/'

and the

This opera-

tion brings into use the V' match-

ing-planes (82), which should

first

be tried on a piece of waste material.

to be

The bead r. Fig. 217, is made with a ^^V" beading-

*

side.

'

end.

plane.

Cut the panel

strip

into

lengths suitable

for

forming the

complete panel, Fig. 218, using either the bevel or the miter-

BENCH WORK

124 box

IN

WOOD.

in obtaining the angle of the ends.

The

pieces one to another will be most easily done in order, as a, b,


fitting if

of the

they are cut

etc.

187.

In using the miter-box, Fig. 219, the work a, while

resting

on the bottom of the box, must be pressed against the in which position, the saw, guided by the box as shown,

side

b,

will

cut the piece at a miter.

used

in the

square.

To

same manner.

By

The opposite guide cc may be d the work will be cut off

using

hold the pieces of the panel together, and to fasten

the panel to the frame, light brads

oblique ends

what

is,

may be

of the panel strips shown at

perhaps, better, glue

may be

used.

in

the

215,

or,

inserted b.

Fig.

If the

door were

complete, as shown by Fig. 211, the panel would have perfect support in the frame.

PART

HI.

ELEMENTS OF "WOOD CONSTRUCTION. TIMBER.^ "

i88.

which

is

Timber used

in

is

that portion of the

woody

carpentry and joinery."

material of trees

" If the trunks of

timber-bearing trees are cut, they are found to be composed of concentric cyHndrical layers, whose crosssections other,

form

rings,

separated

and evidently quite

during

one each year,

the period of growth in

220

These

distinct.

layers [Fig. 220] are formed,

They vary

Fig.

each

from

of the

thickness, in density,

tree.

and

in

color, according to the rapidity of growth,

the

length

of the

season,

and other

cir-

cumstances which may change from year

"The it is

outer portion of the trunk

usually lighter in color,

and

is

to

less strong

year.

sap-ivood,' and and dense than the

called the

'

interior portions, or heart-wood. "

The

circulation of sap through the

favorable weather.

I-n

winter

it is

sap-wood occurs during to cease, and this

supposed

period of checked circulation causes the lines of demarkation

between successive annual

1

Quotation marks under

Engineering," Part

I.

this

rings."

heading

refer to Thurston's " Materials of

BENCH WORK

126

"The heart-wood

is

vessels being closed up, is

WOOD.

IN

nearly or quite impervious to sap,

and the wood

is

its

dense and hard."

more durable than sap-wood. " Different kinds of trees, and different

It

usually far

same

species,

individuals of the

The

have different proportions of sap-wood.

slower- growing trees usually contain the least."

"'Felling' Timber should always,

189.

ticed at the period of maturity

have acquired tain too

it

greatest strength

and

possible, be prac-

if

if earlier,

;

the

wood

density,

great a proportion of sap-wood

;

and

if later,

will

will

the

not

con-

wood

have become weakened by incipient decay.

will

"The oak age,

and

it

is

said to reach maturity

when about too

years of

should not be felled at less than 60.

" Pine timber should

and ash and elm,

be cut

at

from 70 to 100 years of age,

from 50 to 100. " The season of the year best adapted to at

either midwinter or

August are often selected,

felling

The months

midsummer.

as at those seasons the

timber

is

of July and

sound

trees

remain green, while the unsound trees are then turning yellow.

Healthy trees then have tops uniform

in color, while

foliage,

in full

unsound

and the bark

trees are irregularly

is

covered

with leaves of varying color, having a rougher, and often a loosened, bark, and decaying limbs." After felling, " the trunk should be immediately stripped of bark, and, when heart-wood only

moved

as soon as possible.

trees in spring,

This

is

190. its

and the

is

its

wanted, the sap-wood re-

The bark

is

felling deferred

removed from autumn or winter.

often

till

probably the best course to pursue, usually."

"Seasoning Timber

is

pores by either natural or

simply driving out the sap from artificial

means.

This should

always be done as gradually as possible, otherwise the timber is

liable to

crack or

'

check,' from irregular drying.

" Natural or air seasoning gives the best results.

The timber

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. should in

all

12/

cases be squared as soon as cut,

should be halved, or even quartered.

It

and

all

large logs

then piled in the

is

seasoning yard in such a manner as to be protected as far as possible from the sun

may

air

and

circulate freely

each log

bad ventilation

;

ing thus for joists, if

on

rain.

is

some months,

needed

in

It

all sides,

should be placed where the not only of the

sure to cause rot.

the logs

may be

pile,

but of

After remain-

cut into smaller

such form, or into planks and boards, and

again piled for further seasoning. " For heavy work two years, and for lighter work, four years, is

sufficient time for seasoning

boards

;

but timber

is

rarely

overseasoned." Artificial

ture, are

methods of seasoning by means of high temperarapid in operation than the natural method

much more

just described.

It

is

not impossible,

in this

manner, to season

one-inch material in two days. igi.

Shrinkage

in

timber occurs whenever

In the process of seasoning, shrinkage

it

loses moisture.

may reduce

the width

and thickness of a timber fully "eight per cent," but it has little effect on its length. Wood cannot be so well seasoned as not to shrink whenever the surrounding dryness is increased. It tendency to shrink after having its surface removed, by a plane, for example. This is due to the reopening of the pores, which in the fibers of the old surface had become closed also has a

by contraction

;

in this

way new passages are afforded

for the

escape of moisture. 192. Swelling occurs whenever the timber absorbs moisture. Most woods give up moisture more readily than they receive it,

and, therefore, a timber will not swell so

much when

trans-

ferred from a dry atmosphere to a moist one, as a similar timber will

shrink

when

transferred from a moist atmosphere to a dry

one, the difference in

same.

A

slight

the atmos])heric conditions being the

change, however,

in

the

amount of surrounding

BENCH WORK

128 moisture

is

sufficient to

produce a perceptible change

As a

dimensions of a piece of wood. the

more

193.

readily

it

Warping

and

shrinks in

WOOD.

IN

wood

is

rule, the softer

in the

wood

a

is,

swells.

a change of form resulting from

unequal shrinkage or swelling.

Suppose Fig. 220 to represent the end of a

log.

be

It will

seen that, besides the lines defining the annual ring layers, there are others extending from the center in are

known

all

directions

to the botanist as medullary rays,

;

these

In some woods, they are very

to the carpenter as silver rays. clearly defined

;

and sometimes

The

in others, they are hardly discernible.

medullary rays serve to bind together the annual ring

and are not very much shortened by shrinkage. the outer ends draw together, as at A and B, K'ig.

layers,

In seasoning,

ssa

Fig.

221,

Fig.

and

SS3

produce ragged cracks, which sometimes extend from the exterior to the heart-wood, as

194.

If a log

is

shown.

cut longitudinally into five pieces, the mid-

dle piece will, in shrinking (by the drawing together of the

medullary rays), become thinner at the edges center, as

warp

shown by

Fig.

222.

as shown, the surface of

nearest the center,

The

The

each piece, which

becoming the convex

shrinkage of a square joist

will

position in the log relative to the heart. it

will

be seen

that, in

than at

the

other four pieces will in the log

was

side after shrinking.

vary according to

(See Fig. 223.)

its

Thus,

the cross-section of a timber, changes

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

I

29

from shrinkage can be foretold whenever the character

resulting

of the end grain can be determined.

Timbers

195.

When

warp

also

direction of

in the

not due to the subjection of one

dampness

their length.

part to

to the exclusion of other parts, this

dryness or

can be traced to

unevenness in the grain, which exposes a greater number of

one part of a surface than another.

The more

fiber

ends

fiber

ends there are on a surface, the more readily moisture

in

pass into or out of the wood, and the

more pronounced

will

will

be

the local shrinking or swelling,

For

and consequent warping.

A

example, suppose Fig. 224 to

'r-r^-~^

represent the edge of a board

having

grain

the

Moisture

will

as

"^--m

'"^ ^" "

shown.

escape more readily from the surfaces marked

A

and A' than from those marked B and B'. The contraction of the surfaces A and A', will force the board into the shape

shown by the dotted line. The most fruitfiil cause of warping, however,

One

exposure.

while the other

side of a board is

protected from

or

If a

l)ench, face,

in length

;

unecjual

to the sun

the side exposed will be

will

after a time

all

its

on the

faces, is left flat

be found concave in

its

upper

sur-

a result due to the greater exposure of the upper surface

bench.

A

lower, which remained in contact with

piece

which has been planed end.

and breadth.

board newly planed on it

compared with the

the

to

it

is

Heat from a stove dampness from the ground are common causes of warping.

found concave, both

as

may be exposed

having reasonably straight grain, and all

over, should be left

on

its

edge or

Pieces of irregular shape, that are required to be

made

form accurately, are best when cut roughly almost to the

required dimensions, and allowed ample time to shrink and

warp before being finished exactly

to size.

BENCH WORK

130

WOOD.

IN

CARPENTRY.! 196.

It is

the

work of the carpenter

frame of a building, to construct

complete

all

and inclose the and roofs, and to

to raise

floors

its

parts which give stability to the structure

;

the

makes the doors and windows, erects the stairs, and provides such interior woodwork as will finish the building as a A single mechanic may perform almost every kind habitation.

joiner

of work required in the construction of a building, thus eliminating this distinction of trades fication,

we may imagine

the

but for convenience in

;

classi-

work of the carpenter and

that

of the joiner to be quite distinct. It is

will

be understood

confined

to

neither carpentry nor joinery

that

While

house-building.

properly be classed as joinery,

it

bench work may

all

involves forms

that are the logical outgrowth of carpentry.

and principles

For

this reason,

the following consideration of joints, there are presented,

in

first,

those belonging to carpentry, which will include such as

are used in uniting timbers, as in a frame for a building

secondly, those belonging to joinery, which are used in joining small })lanks or boards.

cannot be rigidly adhered

to,

but

it

will

and,

;

include such as

This classification

serve the purpose of

will

the following pages.

197.

Any two

Timbers united

may be may be united

timbers

their length, or they

in the direction

I

>

united in the direction of at

an angle.

of their length are usually

'

\

!

subject to compressional strain, which has a tendency to reduce their length, as indicated

1

by Fig. 225

;

or tensional strain,

Tredgold's " Carpentry," and " Notes on Building Construction " pubmany of the facts presented under

lished by Rivinglons, have furnished

Carpentry and under Joinery.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. which has a tendency to increase or to two of these strains at the

A

198.

The

their length, Fig.

which has a tendency

cross-strain,

Timber subjected

to

bend them,

226

;

or

Fig. 227

;

same time. must ahvays bend.

to cross-strain

forming that surface which

fibers

131

is

convex or has a

tendency to become so (as the lower surface, A, Fig. 227) will be subject to tensional strain, while the fibers forming the

opposite

strain.

surface

This

is

be

will

shown by

under compressional

brought

Fig. 228,

A

representing a straight

Fig.

227

Fig.

238

C

^^

B

timber, and B the same timber bent. It follows, then, somewhere between the compressed surface and the

tended surface there

will

be a

line

compressional nor tensional strain

which ;

that

ex-

subject to neither

is

such a line

is

called the

timber, and will be located with sufficient

jieutral axis of a

accuracy for the purposes of

this

work,

if

drawn midway be-

tween the upper and lower surfaces, as shown by the dotted line

CD,

Fig..

228.

In the timber that has been forced into a curved form, Fig. 228, the fibers within the neutral axis are under no strain ex-

cepting that reciuired to hold the compressed portion to the

extended portion

;

but the conditions are found

rapidly as the examination extends to fibers

remote from

this

axis.

Fig. 227 represents a 2"

supported

at

change

In other words, the strength of such

a timber increases rapidly as if

to

more and more

its

depth increases.

For example,

X 4" timber (2" wide and 4" deep)

B, B, and capable of sustaining 200 pounds

at C,

BENCH WORK

132 it

can be shown

that, if the

IN

depth

the same, by substituting a 2"

is

WOOD. doubled, leaving the width

8" timber,

X

times the original load, or 800 pounds

sustain four

will

it

while

;

the width

if

timber,

it

will

sustain

The law

pounds.

cross-strain, varies

is

as

only twice

the

original

is

x 4"

doubled, leaving the depth the same, by substituting a 4" load, or

400

that the strength of timbers subject to

the width,

and

the

as

square of the

depth.*

Rankine has given

igg.

1.

"To

principles to be observed in

five

They

designing joints and fastenings.

are as follows

:

—

cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to

weaken the pieces of timber

that they connect as

little

as pos-

sible." 2.

To

"

place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as

possible perpendicular to the pressure which 3.

"To

it

may be

which

it

injury

under the heaviest load which occurs

has to bear, so that the timber

form and

to

has to transmit."

proportion the area of each surface to the pressure

fit

in

safe against

practice,

and

every pair of such surfaces accurately, in order

to distribute the stress uniformly." 4.

To

"

proportion the fastenings so that they

may be

of

equal strength with the pieces which they connect." 5.

"To

place the fastenings in each piece of timber, so that

there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving

way of the

joint

by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way through the timber."

Complicated forms of joints are 1

By what has been

given,

it

will

likely to violate

be seen that

in

Rule

3.

any body of material

the portions most affected in resisting cross-strain are those lying near the

upper and lower surfaces, Fig. 227. receive a cross-strain, especially

formed road

to present a large

rail

if

In view of this

amount of material near

or an I-beam are simple illustrations;

ration of this principle.

fact, parts that

are to

of iron, are, in important structures, these surfaces.

a bridge truss

is

A

rail-

an elabo-

WOOD COXSTRUCXfON.

^33

Joints connecting Timbers in the Direction of their

Length.

A

200.

A

straps

Lapped

A

201.

Joint,

or bolts B,

230, and

shown by

Fig. 229, fastened either

Fished Joint

in

its

simplest form

so called because of the two pieces "fish-pieces " or "fi's/i-/>/a/es." is

iT'ig.

aao

—^j

by

chimsy, but very strong.

is

shown by Fig. marked A called is

Fii.-.i230

u

H^ i^

1

^

i^Va

v^'

Fish-pieces may be of either wood or iron, and may be employed to form the fished joint shown in Fig. 230, or appHed to more complicated joints to increase their strength.

When

subject to compressional strain, a fished joint should

have four plates, one on each strain, the plates, if if

face. When subject to tensional may be indented, A, Fig. 231 or, ends may be tabled, B, Fig. 231, or keys

of iron,

of hard wood, the

inserted as

shown by

A

and B,

;

Fig. 232.

Other things being Viir.

equal,

if

the

'-2:5

number of keys

may be diminished

is doubled, the thickness of each one-half without reducing the strength of

the joint, since the total

amount of abutting

surface will remain

the same.

in

Note. —The student should observe carefully the position of the lines the following representations of joints, so that he may clearly see the

reasons for the different methods of construction. lie should first look for the abutting surfaces, and then note their relation to the rest of the joint.

WORK

BENC^H

'34 For

IN

WOOD. be on the sides of the

cross-strain, the fish-pieces should

shown by

joim, as

The

bolts

Fig. 233.

for securing fish-j)ieces, or

used

emi^loyed as

fas-

tenings for any joint, should be placed checker-wise, Fig. 233, so that

no two

same

will cut the

cross-section.

Fished joints are often used

in

heavy construction.

suitable proportion of parts, the joint can be

strong as the timbers

it

united are so cut and fitted as to

the principles already given closely as possible. ing, but,

in

which the two timbers

make

Some

compared with

(199) should l)e adhered to as by their form are self-sustain-

scarfs

the timbers they unite, are weak,

seldom used unless strengthened by

are

the joint uniform in

In determining the form of any scarf,

with the timbers.

size

as

connects.

Scarfed Joints are those

202.

By a

made almost

bolts, or

by

bolts

and

and

fish-pieces.

203. its

A

scarfed johit for resisting coinprcssion

simplest form by Fig. 234.

and

fish-pieces,

it

When

forms an exceedingly good

shown

in

joint.

Fig.

P'ig.C334

is

strengthened by bolts

235

m 204. 235.

A

scarfed joint for resisting tension

The key

A

strain tending to

is

shown by

Fig.

supplies the abutting surface to receive the

open the

one-third that of the timber.

it

is

equal to

In practice this joint

is

not often

joint

;

in

thickness

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

135

employed without fish-pieces. Fig. 236 shows a modification of 235, which will serve excellently for tensional strain.

205.

A

scarfed Joint for resisting cross-strain

compressional strain in

to

its

upper portion, and

is

subject

to tensional

strain in

its lower portion (198), and must, therefore, embody forms adapted to resisting both, as shown by Fig. 237. A single fish-piece is usually added to the lower side of the joint.

Fig..S37

206.

A

scarfed Joint for

may be made, shown by

as

Fig. 239

Fig.

207. is

A

shown by ;

or,

238

;

secure, as

340

and

or, less

compression

complicated, as

shown by

Fig. 240.

Kis.aso

scaffed Joint for

Fig.

Fig.

238

sometimes made as

ms

more

resisiifig tension

resisting: tension

illustrated

and

by Fig. 241, but

cross-strain this

form

is

Fig.,a41

^mm

not so good as the one shown by Fig. 233, the fish-pieces are indented.

if in

the latter case

BENCH WORK

136

IX

WOOD.

Joints connecting Timbers at Right Angles.

Halving, Fig. 242, forms a very simple joint, and when It is frequently employed. well fastened, a strong one. Beveled-lialving, Fig. 243, is sometimes resorted to with the 208.

view of allowing the load imposed upon the arrow, to hold the joint together. stances, this joint

is

likely to

A

in the direction of

Under ordinary circum-

prove weak, because of a lack of

material at the shoulder near the letter A. I^ig.

Fig. ITis.

243

p g^^

ELEVATION.

243

m

244

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. Double-notching requires a notch

in

137

both timbers, Fig. 246.

X.

210.

Cogging

represented by Fig.

is

247.

has some

It

advantage over notching in point of strength, inasmuch as the timber

B

has

its

depth over

full

makes the union between

its

" cog "

The

support.

A

the two timbers, as a joint, quite as

satisfactory as the double notch.

surrounding conditions require

If the

it,

the cog

may be

formed near one edge, instead of in the middle of the timber. 211.

made on is

Mortise-and-Tenon Joints.

—A

tenon

a projection

is

the end of a timber to form part of a joint

an opening intended

to receive a tenon.

a mortise

;

In Fig. 248,

T

is

a the tenon its

;

M,

shoulders

;

the mortise

and

c,

c,

;

/?,

the root of the tenon

are sometimes

called

the

S, S,

;

abutting

cheeks of the mortise. 212.

When

a vertical timber meets a horizontal timber,

the object of the joint

a

small, short

is

simply to prevent displacement

tenon, sometimes

usually employed.

called

a

" stub

;

and

tenon,"

is

In this case, the tenon should not reach

the bottom of the mortise, but the strain should be taken by

BENCH WORK

138

WOOD.

Sometimes, instead of making a stub tenon,

the shoulders.

the whole end of one timber is

IN

is

let

When

213. joint

first

a horizontal timber meets a vertical timber, the

may be formed

stronger,

if,

as

shown by

in addition to the tenon,

or housed as

shown by

Fig. it is

249, or made much " blocked," Fig. 250,

Fig. 251.

Fig.G^O

Fij

^Vhen one horizontal timber meets another,

214.

common to

and the

into another,

then said to be "housed."

practice,

if

it

is

a

the proportions of the pieces are favorable,

employ a double mortise and tenon.

Fig.

252,

A

being

I'^is-aSl

Fig.

supported by B. ever,

because

With reference

B to

So3

This method cannot be recommended, howis

much weakened

very

B only,

l)y

the

mortises.

the best place for the mortise

is

on

the neutral axis (in the center of the timber), while with refer-

ence to

may be

A

only, the tenon should be

re-enforced by

all

on

its

lower edge, that

the material al)ove

it.

it

If timbers

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. of equal depth are thus joined, they Fig. 253

;

appear as shown by

will

but this combination, while

139

strong,

son, both mortise positions,

the form

and tenon are often placed

For

'if is-

I favor, except the ease with

joint,

is

may

timber

is

this rea-

in unfavorable

and the strength of the joint sacrificed. Sometimes shown by Fig. 254 is used, but this has little in its

Fig.SSS

bination

not always

is

practicable, because of surrounding conditions.

shown by

which

it

is

2i34

l=r-.

made.

A

better

com-

Fig. 255, which, although less perfect as a

serve the purpose quite as well as Fig. 253

long between supports.

if

Tusk tenons are used

the to

overcome the difficulties presented by the forms sho^vn al)Ove when employed in heavy construction. This arrangement of surfaces, Fig. 256, allows the mortise to be in the center of the

timber, and to be small

;

and

it

also allows the tenon,

by means

of the tusk T, to present a low abutting surface on the sup-

ported timber.

Its

strength and compactness fully compensate

for the difficulty of fitting

it.

inia.

2GG

F'is.SST

~=^.-^J^-£_ -^:^

M1SCEL1.ANEOUS Joints. 215.

Oblique Mortises and Tenons

two timbers meeting each other shows a

common

form

in

at

may be used

an oblique angle.

to join Fig.

257 which the abutting surface, repre-

sented by the dotted line A,

is

perpendicular to the cheeks of

BENCH WORK

140

IN

WOOD.

and the strain transmitted in the direction of the between the surfaces represented by the dotted hne A and the full line B. A bearing along the latter line becomes unreliable when the timbers shrink, or when, by the mortise,

arrow,

divided

is

the settling of connected parts, the surfaces change their relative position.

For

the line A, which

this

reason

it

less affected

is

take the strain wholly,

A

is

depend mainly on

better to

by the causes mentioned.

To

should be at right angles to the length

of the tenon-bearing timber. Fig. 258. apparently a well-formed joint,

is

This, however, while

not a strong one, for the

TTiK.SGS

tenon, which

usually equal to but one-third the width of

is

the timber, must alone receive the thrust.

To

relieve the

tenon

by increasing the area of the abutting surface, the end of A may be housed as shown by Fig. 259, or the joint may be strengthened by bolts or straps.

The

mortise for the joint shown by Fig. 258

of the outline

a/>c,

and the

triangle a'/'c

is

not

is

usually

filled.

made

This

done because it is easier to cut down the line be than the a'c. There seems to be no objection to this practice. Ki<;.

is

line

2GO Fig,

il

S61

3??^^!F7

216.

A

Bridle-Joint

is

represented by Fig. 260.

sesses the advantage of having

inaccuracy

in the

fit

is

its

parts so

always apparent.

It

pos-

exposed that any

An

oblique form of

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. bridle-joint, Fig. 261,

is

141

certainly worthy of study.

The width

of the bridle, B, Fig. 260, should not exceed one-fifth

the

width of the timber.

A

217.

Tie- Joint

prevented from

is

falling

shown by away

arrow, by the insertion of the Fig. 197

may be made

H I

i

Fig. 262.

The timber

in the direction indicated tie

A

is

by the

B. The joint illustrated by same purpose.

to serve the

Fig.

263

BENCH WORK

142

equally suitable for the smaller

IN

work

be true that some that are treated are quite as useful in carpentry.

arbitrarily

The best,

in joinery.

It

may

also

in connection with joinery,

As already stated, the classifix in mind a few general

used only serves to

fication here

principles

WOOD.

governing the adaptation of joints

adhered

cannot be

it

;

to.

makes the simplest form of

rule in carpentry that

joint

does not always hold in joinery, because the methods of

the joiner admit of greater accuracy, and

of material used

pieces

are

because the

also

and consequently

smaller,

less

by shrinkage.

affected

Beads and Moldings. Beads.

220.

— A single-quirked

bead'vi

being the quirk; a double-qtiirked bead

.

;

shown by Fig. 264, a shown by Fig. 265,

is

I

\

m222i^ and a

or angle, bead by Fig. 266.

staff,

The term

reeding

bead

is

said

to

be stuck when

material on which l^-i-j;.

it is

it

formed on the piece of

is

used, and planted

when

it

•'

r//

'~"'^

i^ig.

221.

formed on

ser

lyg^S^gl

a separate piece and glued or nailed in place. is

is

aoG

iV-*l''rn

bead

is

A

applied to a succession of beads, as shown by Fig. 267.

The

size

of a

indicated by the distance A, Fig. 264.

Beads are sometimes used wholly

for

ornament, but

they are designed chiefly to conceal cracks by the shadows they cast.

It is a principle

in joinery, that

when two boards

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

143

must be made as one complete board, when with the joint so concealed that no crack is left, either decided very a be should there or first made or after shrinkage are to be joined they

;

crack, which will appear to have been

made

intentionally.

The

but, as the boards glue first kind of joint is made by means of have some freemust width considerable forming a surface of swelling tendenand shrinking of account dom of movement on ;

cies,

it

follows that

when

large surfaces are to be covered, glued

Under such circumstances, it is found joints cannot be used. at a close joint, but to allow the attempt no make best to Fig

BENCH WORK

144

IN

WOOD.

Moldings, while of the same character with beads, are and often much more complex in form. 'I'hcy may be

224. larger

Among

stuck or planted. Fig. 271,

which

is

projecting board

225. all,

and

A is

as

is

round

enough

226.

From

for

Fig. 272,

?iose,

the " tread " of a

types, have part,

— a table top,

is

the ogee,

example. is,

perhaps, the simplest of

where a projecting board

especially useful

to usage severe

the most simple forms

frequently used as a finish for the edge of a

is

subject

to destroy sharp angles or small details, stair.

a few sim])le forms, of which the two shown are

sprung the variety of

styles,

which, for the most

have no designation but the number given them by the

Fig. Qri

ITio..

Ii^ig'

While most of them may be stuck, as

manufacturer.

SVS

is

the

common

ogee. Fig. 271, and the

forms shown by Fig. 273, Fig. 274 shows a molding at A,

they are generally planted. planted on a plain surface

at C, a

272

;

at

B, one planted

in

an angle, and

rabbeted (bolection) molding which overlaps one of

the i)ieces forming the angle.

A

fillet^

is

a

light

strip

of material used in a joint as a

fastening, or, in connection with

beads and

moldings, as a

means of ornamentation. 227.

In joining boards, use

is

frequently

made

of some outside

support, which, though not considered a part of the joint,

1

Fillet, or thread.

is

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. often the one element that

makes

the adaptation of the joint pos-

For example, two boards of a

sible.

other in a variety of ways

;

I45

floor

may be joined

to

each

but they are both supported and

retained in position by being fastened to the " flooring joist."

A

consideration of the joint between the boards, however, need

not involve the

joist

except as a fastening.

Pieces in the

Heading-Joints, or Joints for uniting

Direction of their Length. 228.

The

tice, limited

length to which boards

twenty feet which are supplied

joint

in prac-

— than boards of

as indicated

to

easily

by dotted

—

in other

thirty or forty feet. is

usually

lines, to insure

"cut

a close

surface. if^ig.

ars NAiy*

i)Wf

A

is,

the trade, serve as well as

shows a square heading-joint, which

little,

on the

l)y

They can be handled more

longer ones.

words, more cheaply Fig. 275

sawed,

For most purposes, the lengths of from ten

with economy.

under " a

may be

only by man's ability to handle and transport them

are

iTig.

/ NAIL

.

JOIST

is shown by Fig. As a joint, 276. seem more perfect than Fig. 275, but it is more difficult make, and the latter is in most places (juite as satisfactory.

splayed heading-joint

this will

to

Joints F(m uniting Pieces in 229.

thi'.

Direction ok their

Joints of this class have two offices to perform

prevent shrinkage from making an oj)en joint to distribute to adjoining boards, strain that

by any one of them

at points

;

first,

to

and, secondly,

may be

between supports.

:

\\'ii)rH.

received

BENCH WORK

146

shows

Fig. 277

230.

at

A

a.

WOOD.

IN

plain butt-joint, which has no

provision against opening, and in which the boards port each other

shows

at

B, C, and

no

really,

it is,

;

joint at

do not sup-

The same

all.

£>, respectivel)', a filleted joint, a

figure

rabbeted

and a matched joint. Any of these may be beaded as shown by Fig. 269. The marring of the surface by nail heads may be prevented by "secret nailing," which is shown in

joint,

Fig. 277.

^A^_

B JOIST

S

Joints of this class which have selves,

231.

no support outside of them-

must be held by glue.

A

Glued Butt-joint, shown by

be quite as strong

will

D

r

in the softer

or a glued filleted joint.

made, matched

Fig. 278, if well

woods

as a glued

however, especially

It is difficult,

if

the

boards are long, to keep the two pieces forming the plain joint while the glue

in ])ropcr position

clamped, they are almost sure to finally

become

firm, the

boards

similar to that shown. Fig. 278.

is

setting.

slip,

so that

Even if they are when the joint has

may have assumed a position The fillet, and the tongue and

? groove

(B and D,

Fig. 277) are useful in

place until the glue has hardened. the

same purpose, Fig. 279. and are well fitted, they

vals,

232.

across

Cleating. tlie

—A

cleat

If will is

keeping the parts

Dowels may be used

in for

they are placed at short inter-

add strength a

to the joint.

piece of material fastened

width of a board to prevent

its

warping

;

if

the sur-

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. face

is

composed of

hold them together.

several pieces, the cleat It

may be

147 is

also designed to

applied to the back of the

shown by Fig. 280, or across the ends, as shown by As the grain of the cleat is at right angles to that of the surface to which it is fastened, and since wood shrinks and swells more across the grain than with it, there is likely to be pieces, as Fig. 281.

Kig.

280 Kig. 281

7^//.|\\n|l'M'i'l'lM

3^CLEAT A i!ul

'"'III

l-= /|j|l\A|'/i|n'|'/(

^ELFAHiAsfc

A

BENCH WORK

148 tive

than B.

more

It is

WOOD.

however, to put screws or

difficult,

A

other fastenings through

IN

than through

B

may be

either

;

fastened by screws inserted from the face of the board. 234.

End

appearance, and, when decided

cleats are neat in

warping tendencies are not to be overcome,

To

do good

on the board to

shown 235.

in

service.

may be formed

supplement the fastenings, a narrow tongue

a corresponding groove in the cleat, as

fit

connection with B, Fig. 281.

If only

is

to

be made

— a drawing board,

for

example,

one surface of a cleated board use

of,

— the

strain

on the

cleat

may be

les-

sened by a succession of saw cuts on the lower side, extending the length of the

By

board, as shown by Fig. 282.

this

means, the warping tendency of a seveneighths-inch board

A.B.

Section

may be reduced

to

that of a (juarter-inch, or even a one-

eighth-inch board.

Joints for uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 236.

Butt-Joints.

by Fig. 283.

The

—A

joint

cated by dotted lines

;

plain joint of this kind

may be concealed by

and,

when

the material

desirable to prevent an exposure of

end grain

is

represented

a bead, as indiis

as

thick and

much

it

is

as possi-

may be modified, as shown by Fig. 284. This may be beaded. When great strength is demanded.

ble, the joint

form also

Kig.

283

^is.

QB4

2B6

^m i

a housed joint

may be made,

Fig. 285.

troughs which are required to

The

sides

and ends of

be water-tight, are

frequently

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. made

in this

way.

285, this joint

If there

149

can be no projection, as A, Fig.

may be modified

shown by

as

Fig. 286, but

it

will lose in strength.

Miter-Joint.

237.

—

recommendation

sole

grain, for, faulty

:

Fig.

lies

287 shows a plain miter-joint.

in the fact that

it

from a mechanical point of view,

weak, because

the two pieces

difficult to fasten,

and

forming the joint shrink,

Its

exposes no end it

is

faulty,

each

weak and because, as

will

become

narrower on the lines A, A, and produce the change of form

shown by the dotted lines B and B'. As a result of this change, either the angle C between the two pieces must become smaller, or the joint must open, forming a wide crack on the inside,

which

is

BDB'.

represented by the triangle

Miter-joints between two pieces of different thickness

Fig. L^ST

made

in the

Vi'^.

form

illustrated

288

are

Fis. 289

by Fig. 288.

Occasionally this

is

used when the pieces are of the same thickness, Fig. 289 for while it has the advantages of the plain miter-joint, it is stronger ;

and

less affected

by shrinkage.

Fig.

coo

Fig. iiOl

-A

238. joints,

Glue, and brads or

nails, the

may be supplemented by

a

usual fastenings for miter-

fillet

A, Fig. 290, or by small pieces inserted

made

across the angle of the joint, as

inserted as in

shown by

saw cuts which are

shown by A,

Fig. 291.

BENCH WORK

150

WOOD.

IN

239. Dovetail-Joints have already been discussed (171-176).

They can be made much

stronger than any of the other angle

The

herein considered.

joints

sometimes objectionable because

Fig.

plain dovetail,

is

199,

exposes end grain, but the

it

checkered appearance of a well-made joint almost counterbalances this objection.

In the lap-dovetail-joint, however, Fig.

201, the end grain disappears from one face, and in the blind dovetail. Fig. 203, tainly

combines

all

from both

appearance are concerned 240.

The

faces.

blind dovetail cer-

and

that could be desired as far as strength

but

;

it is

Mortise-and-Tenon Joints

make.

difficult to

in joinery are different

from

those employed in carj^entry, only in the proportions of their parts,

and the accuracy with which they are

thickness A, of a simple tenon

may

;

and

is

the

the same, the

vary from one-third to

two-thirds that of the piece on which

tending toward the larger figure

When

fitted.

thickness B, Fig. 292, of the pieces joined

it

its

is

formed, practice

breadth

C ought

not

exceed seven times its thickness. For the thickness given. The Fig. 292 shows a tenon of the greatest breadth allowable.

to

breadth

is

thus limited because the sides of the mortise derive

their support

become

too

from the solid material

weak

for

good

Fifr.

exceeded.

Again, the tenon,

pressure of wedging, but

is

if

at

when

service

203

its

ends, and they

the limit

named

is

=^

too broad, will not stand the

likely

to

become

distorted, thus

putting additional strain on the mortise, and frequently causing it

to split.

See Fig. 293.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. When

241.

the piece on which the tenon

very broad, a single tenon,

AB,

if

is

to

be formed

to objection,

because of the

tendency of the tenon piece to warp so that

its

D

it

not agree with the surface of the piece

will

Under such circumstances a double This

used.

will give the

violate the principle laid

ever, while they obviate

age

is

tenon. Fig.

support that

down

one

tenons are unyielding, and,

is

the piece

295,

needed, and

is

very wide,

produce a crack between them,

likely to

at

may be will

not

Double tenons, how-

240.

in

surface

joins, at C.

difficulty introduce another.

if

is

employed, leaves wide shoulders,

These are open

Fig. 294.

151

as

its

The

shrink-

denoted by

the dotted lines A, Fig. 295.

Fig.

Fig.

894

295

242. Haunching is a device by which the tenon proper is supplemented by very short tenons, or " haunches," as indicated by the dotted outline. Fig. 296. The entire end of the tenon

piece

is

warping creased.

thus inserted in the mortise piece, and prevented from ;

the danger of If the piece

imperfection

it

Fig.

243.

Four

its

splitting

shown by

illustrates

from shrinkage

is

not in-

294 were haunched, the would be removed. Fig.

296

tenons

may be used

in a single joint

when

pieces to be united are very thick and wide, Fig. 297. their use the parts are

from producing a bad

made joint.

the

By

small enough to prevent shrinkage

BENCH WORK

152

IN

WOOD.

244. In forming a joint at the extremity of the mortise piece,

a single tenon,

shown by or

if

if

employed, must be cut away

Such a

Fig. 298.

at

one

side, as

may be haunched. Fig. 299, wide, two tenons may be used,

joint

the pieces are sufficiently

Fig. 213. "Fis-

^

aOS

200

Fig.

i^

245. Mortise-and-tenon joints in joinery are capable of

made

the modifications of form which they are

They may be housed,

carpentry.

for

to

example, or

all

assume

made

in

any

in

of the obhque forms.

Paneling. 246.

A

ployed to

Panel fill

is

a board, or a combination of boards, em-

an opening within a frame.

Thus,

in Fig.

300 the

pieces J^ constitute the frame, and the pieces A, B, C, and are panels.

The primary purpose of

give an extended surface of w'ood

pieces of which

it

is

made

shall

this

so

arrangement

constructed

is

D to

the

that

be well and neatly fastened,

and, at the same time, the dimeiisions and the general appear-

To

ance of the whole, be unaffected by shrinking or swelling.

enhance the attractiveness of the surface, both frame and panel are frequently embellished, sometimes so richly that sight of the mechanical necessity of the panel,

regard 247.

it

as a

we

lose

and come

to

made up

of

means of decoration.

The Frame taken by

itself

in general,

is,

vertical

and horizontal pieces united

joints.

Vertical pieces extending the

by

full

mortise-and-tenon

length of any frame

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. Kitr.

300

4—

a

Sec.

CD.

h

153

BENCH WORK

154

are called "stiles,"

and horizontal

these parts should be as narrow as

of strength required.

The width

than twice that of the

stile,

four

and a

that,

although the door

A

half inches. is

stiles.

Each of

pieces, "rails."

consistent with the degree

is

of a

rail

should never be more

which, as a rule, should not exceed consideration of Fig. 300 will show

more

three or

whose shrinkage can

faces

WOOD.

IN

affect the

feet wide, the only sur-

width are the two 4-^-inch

Large surfaces are covered, not by increasing the

size

of the parts, but by increasing their number.

The

fillet

e is inserted to

cover the end of the tenons, which

would otherwise show on the edge of the door. 248. The panel may be either fastened to the back of the frame, or inserted in a groove, or " plow," made in the frame to receive

In either case, provision must be

it.

shrinking and swelling.

make a

are usually found to fitted into the frame,

rived from

its

When

It

must

on shrinking, but not so loosely In Fig. 300,

^

is

for

When

sufficiently yielding joint.

no fastening

position.

made

fastened to the back, screws

needed beyond that deloosely enough to draw out

is

fit

as to rattle.

a plain panel screwed to the back of the

frame, and the frame about

it is

This

stop-chamfered.

is,

prob-

In comably, the simplest combination of frame and panel. it is best adapted to way, fastened in this panels mon with all

work

that

is

to

be seen from one side only, as a closet door,

or the permanent lining of a room. B shows a plain panel fastened to the back of a frame which is

ornamented by a molding. C differs from only in being

B

being screwed to the back.

mented by a molding

The

in the

let into

the frame instead of

reverse face c

same manner

may be

as

orna-

C, or by a

chamfer.

D shows a raised The

reverse face


panel embellished by a rabbeted molding. a plain raised panel.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

1

55

A panel and frame may be plain on one side and ornamented on the other, the ornamentation on one side may differ from that on the other, or the sides may be similar and any ;

form of embellishment that

may be used

surfaces,

in

may

properly be applied to board

connection with

work.

this

FASTENINGS. Pins are employed principally as a means of holding

249.

tenons in mortises.

each

joint, its

In carpentry one pin, generally,

width of the tenon.

It is

the abutting cheeks of

length of the tenon. the joint,

its

is

used

in

diameter varying from one-sixth to one-fourth the

commonly placed

the

at a distance

from

equal to one-third the

mortise,

But to secure the

maximum

strength of

exact location in any particular case must be fixed

with reference to the character of the material, and also to the relative thickness of the

In joinery,

it is

tenon and the cheeks of the mortise.

found best to use two or more pins, and, what-

ever the proportions of the joint

may

be, these rarely

They

three-eighths of an inch in diameter.

exceed

are inserted very

near the abutting cheeks of the mortise, so that that part of the mortise between

not shrink enough to

them and the shoulder of make an open joint.

the tenon, will

Square pins are better than round ones, but the

latter are

more easily fitted and, therefore, more used. Drawboring has already been described (168),

— The

Wedges.

250. trated

by

requires

most

common

wedges

to

be dipped

in glue,

tenon and the ends of the mortise. in

use of wedges

Fig. 213 in connection with Exercise

saw cuts made

in

No.

is

14,

illus-

which

and driven between the

Wedges

are also driven

the end of the tenon for the purpose of

BENCH WORK

156 expanding

as illustrated

it,

IX

WOOD.

by Fig. 301, which shows wedges are driven, and

section of a joint before the

section of the

finished

joint.

The saw

a.t

zX

should

cut

A B

is

broad, or

If

a considerable increase in breadth

if

a.

extend

somewhat deeper than the point reached by the wedge. the tenon

a.

is

Fig. 301

more than one wedge must be used. When there more than two, a large one should be inserted in the center, and smaller ones on each side, as shown by Fig. 302, the wedges ready for driving at A, and the joint finished at B. required, are

251.

Blind-wedging

is

sometimes

303, the mortise started in

;

is

when

the

As shown by

Fig.

resorted

mortise does not extend through the piece.

to

enlarged at the bottom and the wedges

then, as the pieces are driven together, the ends of

the wedges strike against the bottom of the mortise and spread

When

the tenon.

driven, the tenon cannot be withdrawn.

TTig. .TO-l

252.

Keys

differ

from wedges

are parallel or nearly so.

shown

in the joint, Fig. 197, or,

wedges. Fig. 304. relative position

upon each ened.

in respect of their sides,

The key may be a what

is

These may be put

better, in

which

single piece, as

place

made when

as

two

in the

shown by A'B, after which, by driving them by A, B, the joint may be tight-

other, as indicated

The

parallelism

contact with the joint,

is

of the outside edges, which are in

always maintained.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

157

Dowels are round wooden pins of small diameter used They should be dipped in glue and

253.

to strengthen a joint.

driven at a tight

may be

fit

into holes

made

for their reception.

They

carried entirely through one piece and into the other,

shown by Fig. 279. at the bench by the plane, or they may When planed, they will be improved in section if

Fig. 282, or inserted as

Dowels may be made be turned.

driven through a round hole in a piece of iron or are supplied by the trade, of

all

steei.

They

ordinary diameters, and in

lengths of several feet, so that the consumer has but to cut

them

to lengths suited to his purposes,

Shoe pegs

ser\-e well as

glue, they should

Whenever

and point them.

small dowels.

After being dipped in

be driven in brad-awl holes.

fastenings are required to be so placed that sub-

sequent operations bring the cutting tools about them, dowels are preferable to brads or nails, since they

may be planed

off

without injury to the tool.

Nails are classified according to the process by which

254.

they are

made

and the use

305

their form and proportions ; which they are intended. Iron and steel are the most common materials, but when ;

the material used

;

for

Fig.iro

these would be destroyed by corrosion, copper and "galvanized " iron are used.

The forms

of most importance to the

bench-worker, 771011

and

may be

fi7tishi7ii;;

classed as covi-

(or

easi7ii;-)

Their comparative proportions are trated

by

Figs,

representing a J

a finishing greater

makes ceive

its it

nails. illus-

170 and 305, the former

common, and

nail.

strength

use desirable properly,

A

when

It is

of the there

the latter

evident that the

is

common

nail

'*""

"'^

sufficient material to re-

and when the appearance of the head on

BENCH WORK

15^

WOOD.

IN

is not objectionable. The finishing nail mav be used in more delicate material, and makes a smaller scar on the work.

the surface

Cut nails each

nail

is

are so called because, in the process of manufacture,

cut from a plate of metal.

equal to the length of the breadth.

nail,

Generally speaking,

all

The

plate has a width

and a thickness equal nails

1 70 and 305 are cut. Wrought, as distinguished from cut

to

its

of the form shown by

Figs.

without breaking

term suggests, such

hammer,

nails,

are those which

sufficiently for clinching.

As the

were formerly wrought under the

nails

being impossible to obtain the requisite quality by

it

machinery

bend

will

and they were 30 made long after common nails to be made by hand. In later years, however,

;

had ceased

wrought nails have in reality been cut, but from better material and by more perfect processes than those which have been technically called cut nails.

now

Steel cut nails are

and

will in

„.

„^ 30G

P^if?.

generally introduced in this country,

time take the place not only of the iron

cut,

but also

of the so-called wrought nails ' for, while less ex° pensive than the former, they are equal in quality

,

:

'

to the latter. IP'ire

flails,

Fig. 306, are at this time

They

unequaled. sizes varying

coming

Their strength and tenacity are

into general use.

are

made from drawn

wire in

from that of the smallest brad to

that of the largest spike.

255to the

'

It

The

length of nails

word "penny,"

is

indicated by numbers prefixed

as 6-penny, 8-penny, terms

^

which are

has been suggested that they once indicated the value or price of a

given number of

and 8-penny

nails,

6-penny

nails for eight

that penny, as here used,

is

nails

being sold

at six

pence per hundred. a corruption of

pence per hundred,

Another explanation

is

pound, 6-penny meaning that

WOOD CONSTRUCTION. now used

arbitrarily,

159

l^ough, originally, they were doubtless

significant.

The

length of nails of ordinary sizes 3-penny

An

nail

is

is

given as follows

:

—

one inch long.

4-penny

"

one and one-fourth inches long.

5-penny

"

one and three-fourths

"

"

6-penny

"

two

"

"

7-penny

"

"

"

8-penny

"

two and one-fourth two and one-half

"

"

A

lo-penny

"

two and three-fourths "

"

A

i2-penny

"

three

"

"

A

20-penny

"

three and one-half

"

"

Brads are small finishing nails, in form similar to the shown by Fig. 305, the smaller ones being thicker, and the larger ones more slender. Their size is expressed in inches and fractions of an inch, and ranges from one-fourth of an inch 256.

nail

to

two inches. 257.

Tacks are

useless for fastening pieces of

other, but are indispensable leather,

is

to

when

be fastened to wood.

wood

They vary

in

Their

expressed by a number prefixed to the word " ounce."

length of the

A

more common i-ounce

each

form and

with the particular use for which they are intended. is

to

lighter material, like cloth or

sizes varies as follows

:

—

^

size

size

The

i6o

work

bp:nch

Common Screws

258.

are

in

wood.

either bright or blued, steel or

round-headed or flat-headed.

brass,

When

Bright screws are finished by polishing.

been taken

luster of the polish has

a deep blue finish produced.

and

easily as bright screws,

off

blued, the

by heat or an acid, and

Blued screws

not rust so

will

most work they look better

in

considerations which apply with

still

—

greater force to the use of

brass as a material instead of steel.

Flat-headed screws, shown by Fig. 124, are the most com-

When

mon.

used on finished surfaces, the heads should be

sunk below the general

When work

this

will

The

body

filled.

appear above the surface, are frequently employed.

size

of screws

fractions of an inch,

the

and the hole above them

level

not convenient, round heads, which in the finished

is

;

this

indicated by their length in inches or

is

and by the diameter of the wire forming

diameter

is

expressed by a numl)er which refers

to a " standard screw gauge."

The sizes of the screw gauge which represents a diameter of a little less than a sixteenth of an inch, to No. 30, which represents a diameter somewhat greater than seven-sixteenths of an inch.

range from No.

o,

The in

size of a screw two inches long and a quarter of an inch diameter would be written 2" x No. 15.

Glue

259.

and

is

fish glue.

chiefly of

two kinds, which are known as animal,

Animal glue

is

a product obtained from the

refuse of tanneries (bone, horn, hoofs,

gives

up the glutinous matter Fish glue

pressure. fish.

As prepared

is

it

and

bits

of hide), which

when

contains

boiled under

extracted from the spawn and entrails of

for the

market, both are generally in the

form of cakes, varying in thickness from an eighth of an inch to very thin chips, according to the quality glue.

and character of the

For bench work, these are dissolved

mixture applied hot. glue-pot

is

For convenience

used, which

is

in water,

and the

in dissolving the glue, a

an arrangement of two

vessels,

one

WOOD CONSTRUCTION.

l6l

within another, the inner being for glue, the outer for water.

Heat

is

communicated

any convenient way

in

The

the water in turn heats the glue.

water

is

to prevent the glue

Gluing.

— When ready

to the water,

from burning. should be hot and

for use, the glue

of the consistency of thin sirup.

must be apphed with

It

brush, in a thin, uniform coating to both surfaces

Too much

be joined.

The

a

that are to

glue will prevent the pieces from

together in the joint.

and

use of the vessel of

application should be

coming

made

as

quickly as possible because the glue begins to cool and set as

soon as

is

it

taken from the pot

the pieces to be

it

;

will

set

less

quickly

if

After the pieces have

glued are warmed.

been put together, they should be rul)bed to squeeze out the surplus glue, and finally clamped in place and allowed to remain until

dry

—

at least twelve hours.

Liquid glues are supplied by the trade.

They

require no

heating and are, therefore, always ready for use.

When end

grain

is

to

coated with thin glue,

and allowed glue that

becomes

is

be glued,

in

it

order to

to dry before the joint

put into the joint

useless as a fastening.

is

must

fill

first

be sized, that

is,

the pores of the wood,

is

drawn

made.

Otherwise, the

off into the grain

and

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