Complete Metalsmith

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complete metalsmith

Professional Edition

The smith also sitteth by the anvil, and fighteth with the heat of the furnace, and noise of the hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears, and his eyes look still upon the pattern of the thing that he maketh. He setteth his mind to finish his work, and waiteth to polish it perfectly. Ecclesiasticus

complete metalsmith

Tim McCreight

Brynmorgen Press

Acknowledgments So many people contributed to this book that it is impossible to mention them all. The students I’ve worked with in college classes and at workshops have helped clarify many of the descriptions. I owe a huge debt to the generous authors whose books have been so valuable in my professional life. With each new edition of this book I have been privileged to call upon a wider circle of colleagues, too many, in fact, to name. I would be remiss, however, if I did not specifically thank these talented goldsmiths for their help: Chuck Evans, Gary Griffin and Bob Ebendorf reviewed the original manuscript in . Their wisdom rolls through the subsequent editions. Peter Handler, John Pirtle, Paula Dinneen, Will Earley and John Cogswell have given valuable advice, as have Alan Revere, Charles Lewton-Brain, Kate Wolf, Blain Lewis, Bill Seeley, David LaPlantz, Steve Midgett, Tina Rath, Kevin Whitmore, and Darnall Burks. For editorial insight, hats off to Abby Johnston, Jenny Hall, Katie Kazan, Margery Niblock, and Kate O’Halloran. And thanks to Mark Jamra, for his careful typographic eye, and this lovely font. For the charm and ease of use in the electonic edition, we can all thank Jodie Stackhouse. Wyatt Wade of Davis Publications has supervised all three revisions of the book, consistently offering a blend of support and sound judgment. And most of all, I especially want to thank my family: Jay, Jobie, and Jeff. Tim McCreight Portland, Maine

Copyright  Brynmorgen Press, Inc. Portland, Maine, U.S.A. Printed in Hong Kong Library of Congress Catalog Number: ISBN: ---

        

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine, newspaper, or broadcast. The author and publisher specifically disclaim any responsibility or liability for damages or injury as a result of any construction, design, use, or any other activity undertaken in conjunction with the information presented in this book.

Contents



Materials





Tools





Shaping





Surfaces





Joining





Color





Finishing





Casting





Stones & Stonesetting





Chains & Clasps





Findings & Mechanisms



Appendix



Index



v

Introduction

This book represents years of intensive research and experimentation. Information from hundreds of sources has been collected, distilled, and illustrated. It is intended to be both a text and a tool, a blend of instruction and reference. Like other tools, its value increases as you bring to it your own perceptions and skills. It is designed to make the information easily accessible, and built to stand up to years of benchside use. This book was originally published in , then revised and enlarged in . With the coming of a new century, plans were made to revise it again. The challenge we faced was to deal with two elements that were important to the book’s success—thoroughness and ease of use. The question became, “How can we make it basic and advanced at the same time?” The solution was to create three editions, each with its own virtues. This Student Edition gives solid, must-have information that is appropriate for entry level students, hobbyists, and casual metalsmiths. The Professional Edition covers the same material, but goes into greater depth. The ProPlus Edition is a package that includes the Professional print edition plus a CD with the full text rendered as an electronic file. It also includes calculation software, video clips, and two additional books by the same author, Practical Jewelry Rendering and Design Language. Metalsmithing involves some chemicals and procedures that are potentially dangerous. Great care has been taken to omit hazards where possible and to give clear warnings wherever they apply. These will be only as effective as you make them. So, be wise.

ix

Chapter 

Materials

Metallurgy Crystals Metallurgy is a complex, highly technical field that is worthy of our attention. It is helpful for a metalsmith to understand the structure and behavior of metals because this can help explain events in the studio.

Metals exist at room temperature as crystals, regularly shaped units arranged in an ordered recurring pattern called a space lattice. There are  crystal systems and  lattice configurations. Here are the three lattice arrangements most relevant to metalsmiths. It is not a coincidence that easily worked metals share the same crystal structures. Crystal shape is one factor that determines malleability.

Face-Centered Cubic

Body-Centered Cubic

lead copper aluminum gold silver nickel iron (at high temps)

chromium lithium molybdenum potassium sodium vanadium iron (at room temp)

Hexagonal Close-Packed beryllium cadmium cobalt magnesium titanium zinc

Recrystallization When a metal is heated to its melting point it loses its crystalline organization and becomes fluid. When the heat source is removed and the metal cools, it re-establishes its crystal pattern, starting with the first areas to cool. Many clusters of crystals start to form simultaneously, all having the same order but not necessarily the same orientation.

Crystals start to form as the metal cools.



Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy

As they grow, crystals bump into one another, forming irregular grains.

Solid metal; the red line traces grain boundaries.

Metallurgy Crystals Crystals move most easily within a semiordered structure. Crystals at a grain boundary are caught in a “logjam” with the result that the metal is tough and difficult to work. When metal is worked, large crystals are broken into smaller ones, which creates more annealed work-hardened grain boundaries. We refer to such metal as work-hardened. A similar condition is created when metal is rapidly cooled. Because crystals do not have time to grow into an organized structure, the metal recrystallizes into many small grains. In time, even at room temperature, crystals will realign themselves into an organized lattice. By heating the metal we accelerate the movement of atoms and the subsequent recrystallization. This process is called annealing.

Deformation When force is applied to a metal, it yields in a process called elastic deformation. If only limited stress is applied, the metal will bounce back. There will come a point, though, when the force is enough to permanently bend the metal, a process called plastic deformation. Each alloy has unique limits of elastic and plastic deformation.

I am trying to check my habits of seeing, to counter them for the sake of greater freshness. I am trying to be unfamiliar with what I am doing.

John Cage

elastic deformation

plastic deformation

Annealing Annealing is the process of reducing stress within metal by heating it to a prescribed temperature. This can be done with a torch or kiln. Temperatures are usually gauged by watching the heat colors change, something best seen in a dimly lit area. Alternatively, paste flux can be painted onto metal to serve as a temperature indicator: it is clear at ° F (° C). Quench a piece in water to cool, then slide it into pickle to dissolve surface oxides. In its annealed state, the crystal arrangement contains irregularities called vacancies. These facilitate crystal movement and so contribute to malleability. Heat to a dull red; quench as soon as the redness disappears. • K gold • K gold • red golds • sterling • fine silver • copper

Heat to medium red; quench as soon as the redness disappears. • bronze Heat to bright red; air cool. • white gold (nickel-based) • brass

Materials > Precious Metals > Metallurgy



Gold Gold

Au

Melting point

° F ° C –.

Hardness Specific gravity: Cast Worked Atomic weight

. .–. .

Fluxes When pouring gold ingots, sprinkle an even mixture of powdered charcoal and ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) on the metal while melting. This will yield a bright, tough ingot that will withstand rolling. Dangerous fumes are produced, so ventilation is required. If iron or steel is present (for instance as a result of file wear), purify the scraps by melting with a flux of  part potassium nitrate (saltpeter) and  parts potassium carbonate. After cooling, remelt with the sal ammoniac flux and pour the metal into a mold.

Voluntary Product Standard – This US law has set legal tolerances for gold since . It allows variation of  parts per thousand (.K) on unsoldered goods and  parts per thousand (.K) on soldered objects. This is called plumb (i.e., accurate) gold. Manufacturers were given until  to dispose of their old merchandise made at lower standards.



Materials > Precious Metals > Gold

Gold > Gold was probably the second metal to be worked by early humans, being discovered after copper. Quality gold work can be found from as early as  .. > If all the gold ever found (about , tons) were cast into a single ingot, it would make only a -yard cube. > One ounce of gold can be flattened to a sheet that will cover  square feet, or drawn to a wire almost a mile long. > Gold can be made into a foil that is less than five millionths of an inch thick. At this point it is semitransparent. > Pickles for gold include Sparex # or a mixture of  part nitric acid (reagent grade) with  parts water. > Gold dissolves in aqua regia and solutions of chlorine with potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide.

Purity of Karats Fine (pure) gold is too soft for most uses so it is alloyed with other metals to achieve a desired hardness. During this process the color, malleability, and melting point can also be altered. Silver and copper are the two most common additives but many other metals can be used. The relative amount of gold in an alloy is called the karat. This word signifies proportion and should not be confused with carat, which is a unit of weight (except in the UK, where both words are spelled with a “c”). Think of karat as a fraction with  as the denominator, e.g., K—eighteen–twenty-fourths or 3⁄4. This tells us that the alloy is  gold. By law, a metal described as K must be at least  gold. The remainder of the alloy is not restricted by law, which only specifies the proportion of precious metal.

Gold-filled This term refers to a material on which a layer of gold has been bonded by fusing. The resulting ingot is rolled or drawn to make sheet and wire. A standard practice is to clad the base with  (weight) K gold. Since K is half pure this means that the final result, if it were melted down and assayed, would equal  pure gold. This is marked as 1⁄2 GF. This technique has two advantages over plating: a thicker layer of gold can be achieved, and the gold is denser because it has been worked. The term rolled gold refers to a similar material that has only half as thick a gold layer: 1⁄4.

Scientific Notation An alternative system describes the precious content in parts per thousand (ppt), typically written as a decimal. An alloy containing 3⁄4 gold becomes / or . or Au . Here are some common decimal equivalents.

Au  Au  Au  Au  Au  Au  Au 

 3⁄4 karat  3⁄4 karat  1⁄4 karat  karat  3⁄4 karat  karat  karat

 gold  gold  gold  gold  gold . gold . gold

Gold Alloys

Electrum

Decimal Equivalents 1K 2K 3K 4K 5K 6K 7K 8K 9K 10 K 11 K 12 K 13 K 14 K 15 K 16 K 17 K 18 K 19 K 20 K 21 K 22 K 23 K 24 K

.0417 .0833 .1250 .1667 .2083 .2500 .2917 .3333 .3750 .4167 .4583 .5000 .5417 .5833 .6250 .6667 .7083 .7500 .7917 .8333 .8750 .9167 .9583 1.0000

• A mixture of roughly equal parts of gold and silver is called electrum. Maximum hardness of this alloy is at a / mix. • The hardest alloy of gold, silver, and copper is reached at //. This will be  karat yellow. • An increase of the copper content in a gold alloy up to  will lower its melting point. To continue lowering, as when making solder, add silver. • Many kinds and colors of gold solder are commercially available, but in a pinch, a lower karat gold may be used. • White gold usually has  to  nickel and can contain zinc, copper, or manganese. It has no silver.

Testing With a small file, make a scratch in an inconspicuous spot. Wearing rubber gloves, use a wood, glass, or plastic stick to apply a drop of nitric acid to this spot. Observe the reaction. When done, rinse everything well in running water. > no reaction > bright green bubbling all over > green only in scratch > milky in scratch

gold base metal gold layer over base metal gold over silver

What karat is it? Determining karat requires a testing kit: • nitric acid and aqua regia • metal samples of known karat • touchstone (slate or ceramic) Rub the object to be tested on the stone (called “touching”) to leave a streak. Make a parallel line on the stone with one of the test needles. Flood both marks with acid and observe the reactions. When the two streaks change color at the same rate, a match has been made. Nitric acid is used for low-karat golds and aqua regia is used for high karats.

Formulas Alloying Down (to lower karat)

Alloying Up (to raise karat)

. Multiply the amount to be lowered by its karat. . Multiply the same amount by the desired karat. . Subtract the amount you found in Step  from the amount in Step . . Divide the difference (Step ) by the desired karat.

. Multiply the amount to be changed by its karat. . Multiply the same amount by the desired karat. . Subtract the amount in Step  from the amount in Step . . Subtract the desired karat from . . Divide the answer to Step  by the answer to Step . Materials > Precious Metals > Gold



Silver Silver

Ag

Silver

Melting point

° F .° C . . .

Silver, known in the ancient world as argentum, was at one time thought to be more precious than gold because it appeared less commonly in nature. Pure silver, like pure gold, is soft and is therefore often alloyed. Though many metals may be used, copper is preferred because it greatly toughens the alloy without detracting from the bright shine of silver.

. ° F ° C .

Sterling

Hardness Specific gravity Atomic weight Sterling Melting point Specific gravity

Sterling is the alloy most commonly used in jewelrymaking and silversmithing. It was adopted as a standard alloy in England in the th century when King Henry II imported refiners from an area of Germany known as the Easterling. The product they made was of a consistent quality and was used as currency by , when it was known as Easterling silver. Coin silver, an alloy once used in currency, contains more copper ( to ) than sterling. It melts at a lower temperature than sterling and is more likely to tarnish. A 

alloy was used in US coins until  but now no silver is used in any US coin. An alloy popular in the Far East uses – silver and the balance zinc, producing a metal with a low melting point and a bright, white shine. In recent years a number of alternate sterling alloys have been patented. Most replace a small amount of the copper with a metal that is less likely to oxidize such as tin, germanium, zinc, or platinum. These alloys are commonly used in casting but have not become widely available as sheet and wire.

Britannia Silver

Strength

Britannia silver (. parts per ) was the legal alloy in England from  to . It was contrived to discourage the melting of coins and is still a legal alloy there. Don’t confuse this with Britannia Metal, which is a form of pewter.

Annealed fine silver has a hardness of Vickers  (tensile strength of  tons per square inch). Cold working increases the hardness to Vickers – (tensile strength of – tons per square inch).

Silver resists aqua regia because hydrochloric acid forms a dense chloride film that resists corrosion.



Materials > Precious Metals > Silver

Silver Heat Hardening In conventional work-hardening, metal is made rigid by upsetting the orderly arrangement of grains. A lesser degree of toughness can be achieved by reducing the number of dislocations and vacancies, that is, by creating extreme regularity. This is achieved by warming the metal sufficiently to begin recrystallization and holding it at this temperature long enough to allow gradual ordered crystal growth. To harden sterling, heat a finished piece to ° F (° C) and hold it at that temperature for at least one hour. Air cool. Pure metals like copper and fine silver cannot be heat hardened because it is the arrangement of alloy ingredients that contributes to the hardness. Though there is validity to the theory of heat-hardening, in practice, tumbling with steel shot is more commonly used to harden jewelry items. It is faster and significantly more effective. The inner life of a human being is a vast and varied realm and does not concern itself alone with stimulating arrangements of color, form, and design.

Edward Hopper

Argyria

Electrolytic Cleaning

Argyria, a condition caused by ingestion of silver, is evidenced by a blue or blue-gray skin color. Until the s silver was used in several medicines, and it is still sold as a miracle cure for such ailments as leprosy, plague, and anthrax. In  the Food and Drug Administration prohibited sellers of colloidal silver preparations from making claims about health benefits.

This kitchen version of electrostripping is safe and easy. It’s especially useful for removing tarnish from flatware and hollowware. In a pot lined with aluminum foil, mix a dilute solution of equal parts of baking soda, salt, and liquid soap. A quarter cup of each to a gallon of water is a typical mixture. Set the sterling in the pot; bring the mix to a simmer and allow it to stand for – minutes as the oxides are transferred to the aluminum, which you’ll see is darkened. Throw that away and wash the silver before using it.

Materials > Precious Metals > Silver



Platinum Platinum

Pt

Platinum

Melting point

° F ° C  – . . .

Platinum is a dense white metal that has a high resistance to corrosion. It was discovered by Spaniards in South America in . They called it platina because of its similarity to silver, plata. Today we refer collectively to six related metals as the platinum group: platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium.

Hardness Specific gravity Atomic weight Palladium Melting point Specific gravity Atomic weight

° F ° C . .

Rhodium

Working with Platinum

Rhodium was separated from platinum in  and takes its name from the Greek word rodon (rose) because of the colors of the metallic salts. Rhodium is often plated over sterling articles to provide a bright, tarnish-resistant outer layer. Its reflectivity index ( of the visible spectrum) is slightly lower than sterling’s but this lack of shine is generally imperceptible. Worked rhodium has a Vickers hardness of  but electroplated rhodium has a Vickers of –, indicating that it is extremely wear-resistant.

Platinum group metals can be cast but because of their high melting points, a special investment must be used. When you buy this, request a data sheet and follow the mixing directions carefully. No flux is needed when melting. Cleanliness is very important when heating metals of the platinum group. An oxidizing flame is recommended. Contamination by silver, aluminum, iron, or lead will cause intercrystalline cracking at the grain boundaries. If contamination occurs there is no way to correct the problem metallurgically. The damaged area must be cut out and replaced with a patch.

Platinum group metals dissolve slowly in aqua regia.

Platinum group metals require an oxygen torch for soldering or casting because of their high melting points. These metals are well suited to settings for precious stones because of their toughness and great resistance to tarnish.



Uses

Is it platinum?

More than half of all platinum metals mined are used by the jewelry industry. Other uses include: > medical implants > architectural decoration, as leaf > plating on the tips of fountain pens for durability (especially osmium)

To determine whether a piece is platinum, heat a sample to bright red and air cool. Metals of the platinum group will remain bright and shiny. Because of this resistance to oxidation, no flux is needed when soldering.

Materials > Precious Metals > Platinum

Copper Copper

Cu

History

Melting point

° F ° C  . .

Copper was probably the first metal to be put to use by our ancestors and remains important to us today. It conducts heat and electricity very well, can be formed and joined, and combines with many elements to form a broad range of alloys.

Hardness Specific gravity Atomic weight

  Copper was discovered.   Egyptians used copper weapons.   Beginning of the Bronze Age.   Evidence of controlled bronze alloying.   Egyptians made copper pipes.

Copper is sold in standard sheets " x " (' x ') and in coils  and  inches wide. When ordering, specify Hard, Half-hard, or Annealed. When copper is hot-rolled it develops a slightly rough surface. For this reason most craftspeople prefer cold-rolled material. Copper alloy # is a common choice. When exposed to moist air, copper forms poisonous acetates, sulfates, and chlorides known collectively as verdigris. The name comes from vertde-grice, Old French for “Green of Greece,” a reference to metal sculptures of antiquity. Because of these compounds, you should always wash your hands after handling copper. Copper cookware and serving pieces should either be plated with a noncorrosive metal such as tin or washed before each use. Most copper is electrolytically refined, i.e., electrically deposited on an anode. This product is pure but contains oxygen atoms scattered throughout the metal. When heated, this forms CuO₂, which breaks down the bond between crystals and can weaken the metal as much as . To alleviate this problem, most copper is alloyed with a deoxidizer such as phosphorus. Copper cannot be heat hardened, but responds to work-hardening.

Copper is available in more than  alloys. Comprehensive data is available from: Copper Development Association  Madison Avenue New York, NY  -- www.copper.org

Japanese Alloys Shaku-do

. to  gold, with the balance copper. Melting point: –° F (–° C). This alloy is valued for the deep purple color achieved through oxidation.

Shibu-ichi

 copper,  silver. Melting point ° F (° C). This is a silvery pink alloy that darkens and reticulates easily.

Materials > Base Metals > Copper



Brass & Bronze Yellow Brass



Brass Facts

Melting point

° F ° C .

> The practical limit of zinc in a copper alloy is . Beyond this the alloy

Specific gravity

> Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and it can achieve a wide range of properties and colors.

becomes too brittle for most uses.

> Low zinc brasses that contain up to  zinc are grouped under the term

Jewelers Bronze  Melting point Specific gravity

° F ° C .

“gilding metals.”

> Brass is mildly antibacterial. > The bronze of antiquity was a mix of – tin with the balance being copper. Today the term bronze refers to any tin-bearing brass or goldencolored brass. > To distinguish brass from bronze, dissolve a small sample in a  / solution of nitric acid and water. Tin is indicated by the white precipitate metastannic acid. Alpha brasses

less than  zinc

good for cold working; have a rich yellow color

Beta brasses

more than  zinc

good for hot working; have a pale color

Brass

Common Alloys Gun Metal

Historically an alloy of  copper,  tin, and  zinc, it was used to cast cannons and large industrial products.

Pinchbeck

An alloy of about  copper and  zinc that was invented by the English watchmaker Christopher Pinchbeck in England around . It resembles gold, and was used to make costume jewelry and inexpensive accessories. By extension, the word has come to mean “cheap imitation.”

Nordic Gold

Alloy of  copper,  aluminum,  zinc, and  tin that is used for euro coins.

Bell Metal

An alloy of roughly  copper and  tin, used for, you guessed it, bells. It makes a rich tone when allowed to vibrate but is notoriously brittle when the blows are confined. For proof, visit Independence Hall in Philadelphia.

The afternoon knows what the morning never suspected.

Swedish Proverb



Materials > Base Metals > Brass & Bronze

Nickel Nickel

Ni

Nickel

Melting point

° F ° C . .

The word nickel means “deceiver” in German, and was given to the ore (niccolite) because it was easily mistaken for copper ore. Nickel is a hard white metal used primarily as an alloying ingredient. It increases hardness and resistance to corrosion without impairing ductility.

Specific gravity Atomic weight

Nickel Silver Copper Nickel Zinc

  

The term “nickel silver” refers to several alloys with roughly the proportions shown above. The alloy was originally developed in the Far East and came to be known as Paktong (a.k.a. Pakton, Pakfong, Paitun, Baitong, Baitung, and other derivations). Other names include Alpacca, Argentium, Electrum, Stainless NS, and Nevada Silver. Nickel silver gained in popularity after  when electroplating created a need for an inexpensive silver-colored substrate. This origin can still be seen in the abbreviation EPNS which stands for electroplated nickel silver. This metal is used in jewelry because of its low cost and generally favorable working properties. It can be forged, stamped, soldered and polished. Though it can be cast, its high melting point and tendency to oxidize make casting difficult.

Common Alloys Nickel silver (German silver)

Cu  Ni  Zn 

This is the alloy most commonly used for jewelrymaking. In strength, cost, malleability, and ductility, it is similar to brass.

Monel Metal

Ni  Cu  Balance: Fe, Mn, C, Si, S

This tough, oxide-resistant metal has many uses in industry but is rarely used in the crafts. It melts at ° F (° C).

Nichrome

Ni  Cr 

Because of its ability to resist oxidation and its high melting point (° F, ° C), this metal is used in wire for the heating element of electric kilns.

Nickel Alloy #

Cu  Ni  Zn 

This alloy will “swell” when heated above ° F (° C). When its reticulated oxide skin is removed in a nitric acid pickle, the metal will be found to be dramatically perforated. It can be soldered and polished.

Materials > Base Metals > Nickel



Aluminum Aluminum

Al

Melting point

° F ° C . .

Specific gravity Atomic weight

History

Properties Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element on the planet, making up  of the earth’s crust. Because of its light weight, resistance to corrosion and ability to alloy well, it is used structurally (buildings, aircraft, cars), as architectural trim (siding), and in functional objects like cookware. It is the second most malleable and sixth most ductile metal. It is usually found in bauxite as an oxide called alumina: Al₂O₃.

Though the existence of aluminum was theorized in the s it was not isolated until . When the Washington Monument was completed in , a  oz. pyramid of aluminum was made to crown it. At the time, this was the largest mass of aluminum ever made— before placement, it was displayed in Tiffany’s window in New York City. Commercial production was devised in  and many alloys have been developed since then.

Alloys As is the case with many metals, industry organizations have developed a universal system to identify components of an aluminum alloy. The first digit of a -digit number designates the principal ingredient, with the remaining numbers specifying their proportions. xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

pure or almost pure aluminum copper alloys manganese silicon magnesium magnesium & silicon zinc other elements

The , , and  series are commonly preferred for anodizing, but many other alloys will work. Joining Aluminum can be soldered and joined only with special solders, many of which are sold with their own flux. Welding can be done with S or # wire used with # flux. Check with your supplier for detailed information. Welding is made easier with a TIG (tungsten inert gas) welder, but can be achieved with gas/oxygen systems. Popular Alloys S — pure aluminum S — Al + . Mn S — Al + . Mn and  Mg S — Al +  Cu, . Mn, . Mg  — SAl + . Cu, . Mn, . Mg



Materials > Base Metals > Aluminum

Anodizing This is a process of electrically causing the formation of a resistant oxide film on the surface of aluminum. The film may be colored with dyes which can give finished aluminum products a wide range of color possibilities. For more information, see Chapter .

Reactive Metals Titanium

Ti

Reactive Metals

Melting point Specific gravity Atomic weight

° F ° C . .

Niobium

Nb

This term refers to a group of six tough gray metals that are lightweight, have a high melting point, and are resistant to corrosion. In order of importance, they are titanium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, tungsten, and hafnium. The first two are of interest to jewelers principally because of the colors produced by their oxidation films. The others are included in this group by scientists but are not important to jewelers.

Melting point

° F ° C . .

Specific gravity Atomic weight

Working Properties Titanium and niobium cannot be soldered or annealed in the jeweler’s studio but both metals lend themselves to all other traditional processes. They can be drilled, filed, drawn stamped, or raised, with conventional tools. Pure titanium is ductile and shows low thermal and electrical conductivity. It is twice as dense as aluminum and half as dense as iron. Its resistance to corrosion, combined with light weight and toughness, make it well-suited to use in prosthetics. It is added to steel to reduce grain size, to stainless to reduce carbon content, to aluminum to refine grain development, and to copper to harden it.

Titanium

Niobium

Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the earth’s crust and can be found in most rocks, clay, and sand. It was first identified in  but has been commercially viable only since  when the Kroll refining process was invented. Titanium dioxide is a white powder used in paints and enamels.

In its pure form, niobium is soft and ductile and polishes to look like platinum. There is a good bit of niobium on the planet; it is more plentiful than lead and less common than copper. Niobium is extremely ductile. In drawing wire, for instance, the cross section can be reduced by as much as  before annealing. This property can of course be a drawback for applications where strength is required. When this metal was first discovered in  it was called columbium, but it was rediscovered and renamed in . After years of confusion the scientific community formally adopted the name niobium, but the older name is still sometimes encountered.

See the Chapter  for information on anodizing reactive metals. Materials > Metals > Reactive Metals



White Metals Britannia Metal

White Metals

Melting point

The term “white metals” refers to several malleable, gray-colored metals and alloys with low melting points. These are also called easily fusible alloys, pot metal, and type metal, the latter coming from the use of these alloys in making printers’ type. Because of their low melting points, white metals can be melted with almost any torch or on a kitchen stove. Melting is best done in a smallnecked crucible or ladle to help reduce oxidation. Protect the metal from oxygen during melting with a coating of olive oil, linseed oil, or lard. These float on the surface of the melt and will slide out from underneath when the metal is poured.

Specific gravity

tin

° F ° C .

Health & Safety The fumes produced by these metals are potentially unhealthy. Heat under a ventilating hood or arrange a fan over your shoulder to move fumes away from you. Lead can be absorbed through the skin. Wash well after handling any lead-bearing alloy. It is especially unwise to eat, drink, or smoke in an area where white metal is being worked.

Pewter

Contamination

Pewter, as used in antiquity and associated with colonial America, was an alloy of lead and tin. In the late s a substitute alloy was developed in England and named Britannia Metal. Today the words pewter and Britannia are used interchangeably and usually refer to an alloy of:

When heated above their melting points, white metals will burn pits into gold, platinum, silver, copper, and brass. Use separate files and soldering tools to keep these metals away from each other.

 tin . antimony . copper Pewter can be sawn, soldered, fused, formed, and cast. Keep separate tools for pewter and don’t let filings accidentally mix with silver or gold. Finishing can be done with fine steel wool and a mix of lampblack (soot) and kerosene blended to a paste. Fine steel wool ( /) also leaves a pleasant finish.



Materials > Base Metals > White Metals

Removal To remove white metal that is fused onto sterling or gold: File, scrape, and sand to remove as much as possible, then allow the work to soak in either of these solutions for several hours.  oz. glacial acetic acid  oz. hydrogen peroxide  oz. fluroboric acid . oz.  hydrogen peroxide  oz. water

Iron & Steel Iron

Fe

Properties

Melting point

° F ° C . .

Iron is the world’s most widely used metal. It can be alloyed with a wide range of elements to produce many diverse properties. Iron ore usually contains sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and carbon. When all but – carbon has been smelted out, the resulting metal is poured into ingots and called cast iron or pig iron. Further refining is necessary to make a steel of good working qualities.

Specific gravity Atomic weight

Mild steel Melting point Specific gravity

° F ° C .

.–. carbon .–. carbon .–. carbon > . carbon

mild (low) carbon steel medium carbon steel high carbon steel malleable iron

cannot be hardened used for tools specialty tools for cast and machined parts

Steel Designation Nomenclature This is one of several systems devised by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel Industry (AISI). > An initial letter indicates type of furnace used in smelting. > The first two digits indicate major alloying material, in code. > The last two digits indicate the percent of the material in this alloy. Example: B

In iron we possess a substance from which can be made the thick, heavy ribs of the vessel of war, the slender blade of the surgeon’s knife, or the exquisitely artistic leaf work of the chancel screen.

Paul Hasluck, Metalworking, 

This is a plain carbon steel made in an acid Bessemer furnace that contains . carbon. It would be used for springs, tools, and blades.

Code

Type of steel

Hardening Steel

xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xx xxx xx /xx xxx xx xx xx xxx /xx

plain carbon (non alloy) steel manganese steel nickel alloy steels . nickel . nickel nickel/chrome steels molybdenum steels carbon/molybdenum chrome/molybdenum chrome/molybdenum/nickel molybdenum/nickel chromium alloy steels low chromium content medium chromium content high chromium content chromium/vanadium alloys nickel/chromium/ molybdenum

Not all steel alloys can be hardened; only steels with . to . carbon will work. Hardening is a two-step process. First, heat the object to a bright red (called the critical temperature) and quench it in the appropriate media, most commonly oil. This leaves the steel in a hard but brittle condition. In the second step, called tempering, heat the steel to temperatures between –° F (–° C), depending on the desired balance bewteen hardness and flexibility. An alternate method, called case hardening, diffuses carbon into the outer layers of mild steel to create a thin shell that can be hardened.

Other metals used for steel alloys are: • chromium for corrosion resistance; – used in stainless • manganese increases hardenability and tensile strength • molybdenum increases corrosion resistance; high temperature strength • tungsten forms hard abrasion-resistant particles called tungsten carbide; used for cutting edges Materials > Metals > Iron & Steel



Organic Materials Organic Materials: Some organic materials may release unhealthy dust when they are sanded; ventilation and a respirator are recommended.

From its earliest beginnings jewelry has taken advantage of the diverse beauty of wood, bone, antler, and other organic materials. Each has special characteristics, but a few general ideas apply to all. Most organics: • Burn easily. • Have growth lines or grain that change the appearance and sometimes affect strength. In wood, for instance, it is important to consider grain direction when orienting the piece. • Contain oils that will affect adhesives and may rub off on clothing. • Are often porous and can be discolored by polishing compounds.

Wood

Antler

Tusk

• Light-colored woods: maple, ash, holly • Dense, close-grained woods like apple, cherry, pear, walnut, pecan • Rain forest trees: cocobolo, paduck, rosewood • Woods that are not recommended include soft woods like pine and fir, and woods that split easily like mahogany and oak.

> Antlers come from deer, elk, moose, and some goats; they are dropped and grow again each year (as opposed to horns, which grow additional layers each year). > Cut and file with jewelers’ tools. > Protect against dust when machine grinding and sanding, which create an unpleasant odor. > No finish coat such as wax or varnish is needed. Polish with fine abrasive papers or by buffing.

Tusk is an external tooth. Like our own teeth, tusks grow and (we hope) stay with their bearers for life. Some tusk material is called ivory, a term that should always include a descriptive term, as in “walrus ivory.” Sale of tusks is carefully controlled to protect species.

Leather In addition to its use as pendant cord, leather has a long history of use as hinges, as a backing for small ornaments, and for knife handles. Occasionally it is used as an inlay material. Cutting with a sharp blade is usually best, but leather can be sawn and filed. To train leather to a shape, wet a piece thoroughly in hot water and secure it around a form until completely dry. Vegetable-tanned leather is required for this process. Oiltanned or chrome-tanned leathers will not mold when wet. Exotic leathers include skins from snakes, alligators, lizards, frogs, sharks and stingrays.

Bone The strength, density and beauty of bone will depend on the species and age of the animal and the bone’s role in the body. A cow’s leg bone, for instance, needs to be stronger than its shoulder blade. To degrease bones Fresh bones are preferred because as the marrow dries, it weakens the bone. Keep bones cold or frozen to delay the natural decay of the marrow. Start by scraping away as much tissue as possible, then boil the bones in a large container of water to remove the remaining gristle, then use any of these solutions: • Soak for about three hours in a / solution of bleach and water. Note that prolonged exposure can weaken some bones. • Soak overnight or longer in a / solution of ammonia and water. Though slower, this does not risk damaging the bones. • Soak overnight or longer in hydrogen peroxide at full strength, as it comes from the drugstore.

Warning: Never mix ammonia and bleach; the result is highly toxic. To color bones • Polishing compounds like rouge will impregnate bones as they polish them. The choice of rouge (it is available in green, blue, black, and red) will give a subtle color to the bone. • Dilute paints with the appropriate solvent (water for acrylics, turpentine for oils) and paint on generously. Wipe off to achieve the intended effect. • Porous bones can be subtly darkened by boiling in strong tea.



Materials > Nonmetals > Organic Materials

Glass Ways to Work with Glass

Casting Molten glass is dropped, blown or extruded into molds. Lampworking Glass tubing and rod is manipulated and welded in the flame of a gas/ oxygen torch. Fusing Sheets of glass are melted together in a furnace, either flat or slumped over a form.

Expansion & Contraction Not all glass products are compatable. Various chemistry, viscosity and expansion rates can create stresses in objects made of several pieces. The property of glass that makes a piece swell when heated and contract when cooled is described as a numerical value called the coefficient of expansion (COE). This is determined by each manufacturer according to a standardized test. The most popular glasses used by artists have a COE of  or . Viscosity is equally important but because there is no standard designation, it is mentioned less frequently. Mark all glass with relevant data and keep supplies clearly separated.

It took more than a year to anneal the huge -inch (-centimeter) telescope lens for the Palomar Observatory in California.

Annealing

Tempering

Annealing removes the stresses and strains remaining in glass after shaping. If it is not annealed, glass may shatter from tension caused by uneven cooling. Annealing is done by reheating the glass and gradually cooling it according to a planned time-and-temperature schedule.

In the tempering process, a finished glass article is reheated until almost soft. Under carefully controlled conditions, it is chilled suddenly by blasts of cold air or by plunging it in oil or certain liquid solutions. This tempering treatment makes the glass much stronger than ordinary glass.

Dichroic To make dichroic, or “two-color” glass, a layer of colored material is fused onto a layer of glass in a vacuum. The result transmits one color and reflects a different color, both of which can be vibrant. By manipulating the layers with construction and etching, manufacturers can create specific patterns. Common Temps ° F – ° F ° F – ° F

Fusing Stage Brittle zone Tack fuse

° F – ° F

Full fuse

Glass Stages Do not open the kiln in this range. Edges become round; glass sticks together. Layers fuse together; flow to uniform thickness. Materials > Nonmetals > Glass



Plastics Safety Thermosetting plastics produce fumes that can have severe side effects, even in small doses. Excellent ventilation facilities are a must. Skin irritation is also likely to result from contact, so you should wear gloves. Anyone intending to work with these materials should do some serious reading of specific literature on the topic before getting started.

Thermosetting Plastics Thermosetting plastics are generally available as liquids that react with a catalyst or hardener to cross-link large molecules (polymers) with small ones (monomers) in a process called polymerization. After curing, the resulting material cannot be returned to its original state. Thermosetting plastics are usually epoxies or polyesters. History of Plastics Year

Name



Parkesine

Alexander Parkes

Inventor

alternative for rubber

Use



Celluloid

John W. Hyatt

billiard balls, photo film



Rayon

Louis Hilaire Bernigaut

substitute for silk



Cellophane

Jacques Brandenburger waterproof layer of fabric



Bakelite

Leo Baekeland

electrical parts, housewares, jewelry



Saran

Ralph Wiley

waterproof packaging

s

polyvinyl

Waldo Semon

housewares, upholstery, plumbing

chloride

Embedding Any water-free object can be embedded in plastic. The process is as above, with the object set into place midway into the pouring. As long as the first layer is gooey when the second is poured, there will be no division line. Thicker castings require a smaller proportion of catalyst. casting thickness

1⁄4" 1⁄2" 3⁄4" "



 catalyst

  .  . 

Materials > Nonmetals > Plastic



polyethylene Fawcett and Gibson

insulation, packaging, housewares



Nylon

stockings, then many products from variations called acrylic, neoprene, etc.

Wallace H. Carothers & DuPont Laboratories

Casting Because they are liquid, thermosetting plastics are commonly used to fill a mold or encase an object. This sequence provides a general introduction to the process. . Careful measurement is important, so you will need a sensitive scale. Waxcoated paper cups make handy containers for measuring, mixing, and as molds for small slabs. Pour out the desired amount of resin. . Weigh and gradually stir in additives. Add pigments to achieve the desired hue; usually a little goes a long way. . Weigh and add the catalyst. Mix thoroughly (several minutes) but avoid whipping up bubbles. . Pour the mixture into the mold. A release agent such as polyvinyl alcohol on the mold will make removal easier. The mold can be made of plastic, rubber, wax, plasticene, or sealed plaster. For castings over " thick, mix fresh resin and add layers. These will bond seamlessly. . Curing will usually take about  hours, less for castings under 1⁄2" thick. Even when cured, the plastic will have a gummy layer on top. Test by poking through this goo with a pin. When the plastic is solid, scrape off the gummy layer. Cured plastic can be sawn, filed, sanded, and buffed.

Plastics Safety

Thermoplastics

Beware of > Dust created by cutting and sanding. > Toxic fumes released by the heat created by machining. > Toxic vapors given off by solvents and glues.

Thermoplastics are long, chainlike molecules (polymers) that lie side by side. When heated they can be bent and formed. When reheated the polymers will return to their original position, a phenomenon called memory. Thermoplastics are solid at room temperature. They are commonly available as sheets, rods, tubes, and blocks. These subdivisions and familiar brand names are types of thermoplastics.

When cutting thermoplastics on a power machine, ventilate and wear goggles and a respirator. These same precautions are needed when cementing.

Cutting Thermoplastics can be cut, drilled, and turned like wood. When possible, the paper coating should be left on for these operations. Sheets of 1⁄4" or thinner can be broken along a straight edge. Make a deep gouge using a scribe and straight edge, then break over a table edge or dowel; use pliers for small pieces. Finishing Edges can be smoothed with a file, then scraped with a flat piece of steel like the back of a hacksaw blade. Fine abrasive papers can also be used. A muslin buff with White Diamond or a plastic compound will remove scratches—use a light touch to avoid building up heat.

> acrylic – Plexiglas, Lucite, Perspex, Acryloid > polycarbonate – Lexan > polystyrene – Styrofoam Joining Thermoplastics can be held together with epoxy or cyanoacrylates (e.g., Super Glue), but a stronger and neater joint is made with a glue devised just for this purpose. It is a solvent that penetrates a seam by capillary action and chemically welds the joint. The area should be scraped and filed but not polished. Remove the protective paper and temporarily secure the pieces with masking tape. Apply the solvent to the joint with a brush or syringe, but take care not to spill any outside the joint because is will mar the plastic. Practice on a few scraps to get the hang of it.

Heat-Forming Acrylic Thermoplastics can be formed at temperatures around –° F (– ° C). Specific temperatures will depend on the material, the degree of deformation, and the thickness of the section. Forming may be done by hand, in forms pressed together, or with vacuum pressure. The following sequence is given to provide a general introduction to the possibilities of this technique. Before trying this, read further and look for advice from someone familiar with plastics. A local supplier will have manufacturers’ data sheets and can often help with specific projects. . After removing the protective paper, set the sheet or rod into a kitchen oven and heat to the point where the plastic will bend when pushed with a blunt tool (° F, ° C). . Wearing clean cotton gloves, pull the plastic out and bend it or push it over a rigid form. Hold it in position until it cools—usually just a minute or two. If the plastic cools before forming is completed, return the piece to the oven to rewarm it. . Use a strip heater to achieve straight bends. These may be bought at a hobby shop or plastics supply company. Materials > Nonmetals > Plastic



Rubber & Paper History Natural rubber is produced from the sap of the Hevea brasiliensis tree and was probably first developed in South America. Christopher Columbus described a game the natives played with what we would recognize today as a rubber ball. The material received its English name when the scientist Joseph Priestley discovered that pencil marks could be “rubbed out” with it. The synthetic rubber industry grew dramatically when supplies of sap were cut off by World War II. Today about  of all rubber is synthetic and probably falls into one of these categories. Rubber

Tarnish Alert Rubber is made with sulfur, which makes it a natural enemy of polished silver. To demonstrate the power of residual sulfur compounds, wrap a rubber band around a sterling object and set it aside for a few days. A gray line will soon appear. Silver can be tarnished in dishwashing machines just from the sulfur contained in the rubber hoses.

It takes a long time to become young.

Pablo Picasso



Sources Early natural latex came from the Amazon Valley of Brazil, until , when an English botanist had them taken to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Malaya. Almost all the plantation trees in the Far East come from these seedlings. The control of this concentrated source by Japan during WWII accelerated the development of synthetic rubber.

Paper In ancient Egypt paper was made by layering softened papyrus leaves. The Chinese invented a fiber-based paper that is similar to most papers used today. To make paper, a fibrous material (wood, bark, leaves, cotton, wool, etc.) is broken down to small pieces and mixed with water to make a thick slurry. This is spread on a fine mesh called a mold. The water is drained off, the sheet is removed from the mold, and pressed between sheets of felt to remove the moisture. The sheet is set aside or hung up to dry. As a jewelry material, paper brings color, rich textures, delicate edges, and light weight. Disadvantages include the possibility of tearing, staining, or fading. Paper elements can be protected by coating them with lacquer, acrylic medium, or similar clear finishes. Rag papers tend to be more resilient than wood pulp-papers.

Materials > Nonmetals > Rubber & Paper

Chapter 

Tools

Handtools Anyone reading this book already knows about tools, knows about the timeless and universal appeal of the Right Tool. You know the way a well-designed tool not only fits into your hand but educates it as well, like a dancer whose nuanced movements turn clumsiness to grace. The hand tools of our field—files, pliers, shears, and hammers—these and a dozen others have been handed down intact across centuries. They impart a wisdom that traces its roots not to brilliant thought but to a genius of touch. Value in handtools falls into several categories: design, quality, and spirit. The first two are somewhat objective, while the last is clearly up to you. Duke Ellington said about music, “If it sounds good, it is good,” and the same thing applies here. If it feels good and works well, it’s the right tool for the job.

Design A really good tool will do exactly what you want, exactly where you want it, without hurting you or the material. Pliers, for instance, will grip tightly enough for the task at hand without making scratches or causing your hand to cramp. A good file will remove metal efficiently while allowing control and comfort. To say this the other way around, a poorly designed tool fails at ease, control, or efficiency. This provides an opportunity for redesign. Stay alert for minor adjustments that will improve your tools. Sometimes something as simple as sanding a hammer handle can transform a crampy bludgeon to a favorite tool.

Quality It seems pretty obvious that a tool made of premium material using precision techniques makes for a superior tool. If your resources allow it, buy the best. In most cases you can let the price be your guide—better tools cost more and expensive tools are usually the best. Most of us need to work within a budget, so the question is when to economize and when to buy top quality. Take note of which tools wear out first. If your round-nose pliers go slack and lose their grip before other styles, this tells you which pliers to invest in. Similarly, watch how you divide your time at the bench. Some people use needle files an hour a day while others won’t use them that much in a week. You see how easy this is? Also, bear in mind that you can sometimes buy tools of high quality from flea markets, antique tool dealers, or on-line auctions. Careful reading of tool catalogs will tell you what brand names and features to look for.

Spirit The favorite tool in any shop is rarely the shiniest one on the bench. There’s a good chance it will be a hammer with tape on the handle or a graver with a wrap of wire replacing a lost ferrule. Tools gain character through use because of the intimate connection between the work and the hand. This is a subjective matter, crucial to some metalsmiths and less relevant to others, but for those who value the spirit of a tool, each year of use contributes added power and pleasure.

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Tools > Handtools

Layout Tools Rulers A ruler, like any other tool, requires some care in use to do its job well. • When measuring or drawing a line, use a sharp pencil or scribe that can slide smoothly along the ruler’s edge. Buff the tip of a scribe so it has a rounded tip. • Work in lighting that does not cast shadows. • Steel rulers are more precise than plastic ones. • Do not take measurements from the end of a ruler. It could be worn and therefore inaccurate. • The smallest division of any ruler is printed near one end.

Sliding Calipers A casual tool like this brass model should not be used for extreme precision, but it is handy for quick reference. Other sliding calipers are equiped with digitial readouts or precise gauges. These can be as accurate as a micrometer.

Gauge Plate

Micrometer

This is a thick piece of steel cut with slots of specific size. It measures both sheet and wire in the Brown and Sharpe system (also called American Standard and American Wire Gauge, AWG). The other side often shows thousandths of an inch. To use a gauge plate, find the slot that makes a snug fit, but don’t distort the metal by jamming it in. Be careful not to measure where the edge has been thinned by planishing, or thickened by shears.

This is a precise and accurate tool used for measuring thickness, usually in thousandths of an inch. The barrel unscrews along the shank, rotating through the digits  to  at A. Marks on the shank indicate units of  thousandths each. The small numbers on the shank indicate hundredths (i.e., four units of .) In the example, the space at B is . inches.

Degree Gauge In this spring-activated tool the size of the opening at the top is indicated by the scale at the bottom. Also called a  gauge or douzième (“twelfth”) gauge from the French watchmakers’ measurement.  douzièmes =  ligne = . inch.

A B

Dividers In addition to making circles like a compass, the dividers can be used to hold a measurement for quick reference. Another use is to lay out parallel lines by dragging one leg of the tool along the edge of a piece of metal. It is handy to have several sizes.

Tools > Handtools > Layout

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Bench Accessories Bench Pin Any hardwood can be used to make a bench pin. This shape is a common starting place, but in practice the pin is filed, drilled, and carved to meet specific needs. You might find you want different interchangeable pins to meet a variety of specific needs. Avoid drilling holes in the bench pin because they trap metal and eventually make the surface irregular. Keep a block of wood handy for drilling. An exception to this is a few well-placed holes that make it possible to work on objects with pinbacks and similar projections.

Bench Knife

Which Side Up?

Squares

A knife can be improvised by grinding and resharpening a kitchen paring knife. These can often be bought at flea markets.

Many people flip the pin over depending on the work being done—flat for sawing and sloped for filing. A variation on this is to create a sloped edge on the flat side.

A small square can be made from steel or brass rod. One side is thicker than the other to allow the square to rest against the item being marked. File a notch and solder the pieces together carefully. Test against a commercial square, if it is not right, reheat and adjust. Do not try to fix by filing.

Scraper A scraper can be made by breaking off an old triangular file and grinding a point. Faces should be ground smooth and polished.

Sanding Boards Make these boards by gluing papers of various grits to panels of Masonite or Plexiglas. Both sides can be used, so three boards will provide a thorough range of grits. These are especially handy for truing up flat areas. A hole in the corner of the boards will allow them to be hung out of the way.

Pliers Rack A pliers rack can be made from a piece of coat hanger wire or a 1⁄2" strip of steel or brass.

Saw Blade Holders

Sweeps Drawer Cut a small hole in a back corner of the sweeps drawer and cover it with a piece of window screen. Below this, attach a shallow box that can be removed. The box and track that holds it can be made of brass, tinplate, wood, or plastic. Sweep scraps over this to quickly sort the larger pieces from filings.

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Tools > Handtools > Bench Accessories

Bending Tools Standard Pliers Pliers come in several grades and a couple sizes. The word watchmaker indicates a smaller than average pliers. Generally the higher the cost the better the steel and manufacture. Box joints (which trap on piece inside the other) are preferred over the weaker lap joint.

Specialty Pliers Pliers can be purchased or modified in the studio to deliver specific results. Here are a few possibilities… • File one jaw of a round-nose pliers to make a wedge. A pinch with this will notch a wire for bending. • To make a large version of a round-nose pliers, solder short pieces of copper or brass pipe onto pliers. Some filing of the jaws might be needed to make a good fit. For softer work, epoxy short pieces of plastic pipe. • Sometimes the width of pliers is not exactly the right width for a design. To modify this, solder a piece of steel, nickel silver, or brass into a notch cut in the pliers. Bending Tubes Tubes will collapse when bent unless they are supported. Historically, tubing was filled with lead or sand and capped by soldering a bit of sheet on both ends before bending. A modern alternative is to use nylon monofilament fishing line to fill the interior space. The plastic can be burned away after completing the bend. Wire forming tools are steel springs that circle a tube and distribute stresses throughout the piece. These can be purchased in sets of several sizes or you can make your own by wrapping steel or hardened brass wire around a rod slightly smaller than the tube you need to bend (to allow for springback). For relatively minor bends, pull the tube through a drawplate, pulling at an angle. Lubricate with a light oil and anneal frequently.

Bending Jigs Simple jigs with movable pins are used to make multiple geometric forms. Use hardwood or plastic for the base and mark the holes carefully. To ensure vertical holes, use a drill press. Pins can be made of steel (nails) or brass (brazing rod) and must make a tight fit. They should extend no more than 1⁄2" above the base. To expand the options, make pins in several sizes using dowels, washers, or plastic brushings. The jig should be attached to the workbench or should be able to be held in a vise. For larger curves or unusual shapes, cut templates from Masonite or aluminum. To improve leverage, slide a piece of pipe or tubing over the end of the piece.

Ring-Forming Pliers One of the most versatile and effective specialty pliers has one flat and one curved jaw. These have the advantage of a curved bending mandrel matched with a flat tangent face. Note how this differs from round-nose pliers which focus energy at a single point, almost always making a dent on the convex side of a bend. To make standard ring-forming pliers, file, then sand one jaw of a flat-nose pliers. To make a larger version, solder a curved piece of brass, nickel silver, or steel to one jaw of a large pair of pliers.

Tools > Handtools > Bending Tools

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Cutting Tools Tips for Using Files The teeth on all files point away from the handle and therefore cut on the push stroke. Lift the file or ease pressure on the return stroke. Press down on the top of the file with your index finger while filing. It is important to hold the workpiece stable so the file meets resistance. Cut notches in the bench pin as needed. Don’t file while walking around. Dust files with chalk or talc to prevent clogging, especially when filing soft materials like plastic, white metals, or soft wood. Keep files clean with a file card (a wire brush) or by scraping with a thin piece of brass. As it is used, the brass will develop serrations that reach into the file’s grooves.

Hand files are described by the length of the working area, usually , , or ". Needle files are usually sold by total length.

Without any doubt, good and accurate use of files comes from practice

hand

half-round

warding

crossing

round triangle

and more practice.

Charles Jarvis

flat

knife

slitting

joint

Nomenclature Single cut

Double cut

Soft metal

Storage Most damage is done to files when they rub against each other. Arrange some method at your bench to keep files apart.

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Tools > Cutting Tools > Files

Conventional American-made files use these names: rough, bastard, second cut, smooth, and super smooth. Foreign-made files are often called “Swiss” files. They are usually graded by number from  (coarsest) to . Americanmade files that emulate high quality files are called Swiss Pattern and you’ll find these only from specialty suppliers. Rifflers Rifflers, also called die sinkers files, have a small curved tooth section at each end. They are particularly handy for reaching into tight places.

Handles Files should be equipped with handles to provide increased leverage and to protect your hand from being poked by the tang. Handles are usually held on by friction, though some have a threading mechanism inside the ferrule.

Cutting Tools Sawframes Though available in several styles, the only significant difference—the only reason to have more than one—is depth, the distance from the blade to the back. Smaller frames (–") are easier to control, while larger frames might be needed for large-scale work. Cheap sawframes are false economy because they result in broken blades and wasted time. (This is also true of cheap saw blades.) To improve gripping comfort, slide a foam bicycle handgrip over the saw handle. Why do they make so many sizes of blades?

Saw Blade Specifications blade size

use on B&S

drill

teeth per inch

8/0 7/0 6/0 5/0 4/0 3/0 2/0 1/0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

26–28 24–26 24 22-24 22 22 20–22 18–22 18–20 16–18 16–18 16–18 16 14 12 12

80 80 79 78 77 76 75 73 71 70 67 67 65 58 57 55

89 84 76 71 66 61 56 53 51 43 40 35 35 33 30 28

There is an ideal relationship between blade size and the thickness of the metal being cut. When three teeth engage the metal, the first one cuts on the left, the next tooth cuts on the right, and the third tooth keeps the blade running straight. If the blade is too small for the metal being cut (more than three teeth per thickness) it will clog and is more likely to break. If the blade is too large (only two teeth on the metal) it will be difficult to control and will cut with a jerky motion.

Blades The teeth of a saw blade are angled outward alternately in a pattern called the set. This allows the corner of each tooth (yellow) to engage and shear off a chip. The chip is then passed along the tooth and ejected out of the cut (red). When a sawblade is dull it is usually because the set has worn away.

Snips Snips cut by creating stress that breaks the molecular bonds of the material. Side cutters: most familiar, all-purpose wire cutter.

Sprue cutters: compound action device that provides increased leverage; the snip version of aviation shears.

End cutters: designed to reach into tight corners, usually more delicate therefore not recommended for thick wires.

Fingernail clippers are handy wirecutters. Modified tweezers: file tips to make sharp edges.

Spiral Blades In soft materials like wax and plastic, the cuttings tend to build up and melt because of friction heat, which makes the blade bind up. A spiral blade solves these problems by cutting a kerf that is wider than the blade itself. These commercially available blades are made by twisting a blade so that the teeth project outward in all directions. In a pinch these can be made in the studio: Grip a sawblade at each end with pliers or a pin vise. Hold the blade in a torch flame until a one-inch section becomes red, then twist while still in the flame. Move to the adjacent section and repeat until the entire blade has been twisted.

Snips & Shears

• Plate shears — are sturdy scissors with a short cutting edge made for cutting metal sheet. Kitchen scissors are equally useful. • Bezel scissors — delicate, with short jaws. Manicure scissors are weaker but often handy. • Compound action (aviation) shears — versatile shears that, like a block and tackle, provide increased leverage. These often come with serrated jaws that keep the metal from slipping but leave a mark on the edge. To avoid this, grind off the serrations. • Spring shears — have the advantage of easy grip-and-snip and are often preferred by bead stringers. Tools > Cutting Tools > Saws & Shears

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Ventilation Push versus Pull

It takes roughly  times more force to pull a contaminant than to push it. Think of it this way: a given thrust of air can push a cotton ball from " away, but to pull that ball with the same amount of suction, the intake must be no more than an inch away. A small fan behind you pushing fumes out a window is more " effective than a large fan trying to draw them from within the window.

Vent Tables A much better form of ventilation uses a vacuum system working at the level of the bench top. These pick up fumes before they have a chance to rise to the height of the operator’s face.

Respirators Respirators filter air before it enters your system. They are generally considered less effective than active ventilation since they can be a little uncomfortable and therefore are often set aside. Use respirators only for temporary or mobile situations when a proper system is not an option. A worthwhile respirator will have a canister or cartridge filter to chemically remove impurities and will cost at least  with cartridges. A paper dust mask is intended only to capture relatively large particles and should not be considered adequate protection for professional craftspeople.

> Look for the NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) seal of approval.

> Choose a filter made for the danger to which you are exposed. > Your mask must make a tight and comfortable fit. Buy the right size and have it properly fitted to your face. Do not borrow or lend a mask.

> Change filters as needed—you’ll know it’s time when you are aware of Exhaust Table Cap one end of a piece of " PVC pipe as long as the table and connect the other to the hose of a shop vacuum. Drill several dozen 1⁄4" holes along one side, angled down. The shorter and smaller the pipe, the more powerful the exhaust.

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Tools > Studio Tools > Ventilation

odors entering the mask or when intake becomes difficult. If you have trouble breathing or a history of respiratory illness, consult a doctor at the first sign of breathing difficulty.

Replacement Air It’s true: the universe abhors a vacuum. When you pull air out of your studio, the universe finds some new air to take its place. If you supply this, the task of pulling out the old air is much easier. In other words, before you try to draw fumes away, start by supplying fresh air from across the room.

Tube Cutting & Scoring Tools Tube Cutting Tubing cannot be cut with shears or snips because it will collapse. When sawing a tube, the blade encounters a wide section at the tangent (first and last cuts) and two thin walls at the equator (mid-cut). Because of this, it is difficult to saw a square-ended tube. For light work use an X-Acto blade, rolling the tube across a flat surface as you press down. For more accurate cutting, use these alternatives. Bench pin Clamp a board onto the side of your bench pin and drill holes of several sizes centered on the place where the board touches the pin. Make sure the holes are exactly perpendicular to the top of the pin. Remove the board and you’ll have a series of grooves that will secure a section of tube as you file across the top.

Tube-cutting jig The sawblade (held in its usual sawframe) should fit right between two hardened steel plates. Press the blade against one of these plates as you saw to make a flat cut. It is also possible to file the end of a tube or wire while it is held in the cutting jig. These are available in handheld and benchtop varieties.

Scoring Tools

Scoring with a File Use either a square file or the corner of a flat file to cut a Vgroove. To reach the midsection of a long line, bend a triangular or square needle file to expose the teeth. Heat the file red, bend it with pliers and quench immediately in water.

Miter-cutting jig Clamp a piece of tubing or other material into this hardened steel frame and saw against it, allowing the blade to scrape against the tool. Finish with a file to achieve a precise angle. Unlike a tube cutting jig, this has both º and º angles.

… from a file . File a point on the end of a file, such that it resembles a roof. The angle should be º if the goal is to make square corners. . File both planes so they tilt back. . Heat about 3⁄4" of the tang to bright red and bend with pliers to a right angle. Reheat to achieve a bright red-orange and quench in oil (preferred) or brine. . Sharpen the tip on a whetstone or with fine sandpaper.

… from square bar . Saw a line about 1⁄2" from the end, crossing the section diagonally. . Heat to red and press the tip of the bar against a brick so it bends back about º. . Heat to red and quench in oil or brine. . Polish the sawn edge with a stone or fine sandpaper.

Compression Scoring

Milling

Use a rolling mill to force a wire into a sheet. After annealing, the sheet will bend along the thinner section.

Clamp a knife-edge bur or Hart bur in a flex shaft to improvise a milling machine. It’s possible to move the tool over the metal, but for more control, make a jig that allows the work to slide under the bur, which is held stationary.

Tools > Forming Tools > Tube Cutting & Scoring Tools

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Hammers & Mallets Hammers

Planishing

Forging

Chasing

The heart of the metalsmith’s shop is in the hammers. In fact the word “smith” is derived from the verb “to smite” which means “to hit.” While only a couple hammers are needed to get started, most smiths collect specialized hammers as their shops grow. Metalworking hammers can be bought new, but many smiths acquire and alter old hammer heads to suit their needs.

Care

Cast versus Forged

Hammer faces that will touch a workpiece should be free of pits and scale. Many smiths keep a piece of crocus cloth at hand to rub the face of each hammer before using it. Use a stiff muslin buff with a tough abrasive compound like White Diamond, Simichrome, or Lea compound to polish hammers and stakes. For long-term storage protect hammer faces with a layer of Vaseline, wax, or oil.

Cast hammerheads can be reshaped easily by grinding. Forged heads are tougher because the steel has been densely packed during manufacture. These are made in a machine-driven tool called a drop hammer and are sometimes called drop-forged.

Mallets Riveting

Ball peen

Tools in this family will bend metal without stretching or marring it. Probably the most popular material for mallets is treated rawhide. Other choices include wood, horn, fiber, plastic, and rubber. A popular material for raising mallets is Ultra High Molecular Weight (UHMW) plastic, which is rigid and inexpensive.

Deadblow Mallets Modified claw

This old anvil laughs at many a broken hammer.

Carl Sandburg

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Most hammers bounce back (recoil) when they strike something, a phenomenon that makes the blow seem alive. This style of mallet is designed to kill the recoil, hence the name. A deadblow mallet has a hollow interior partially filled with sand or small pieces of a heavy metal like steel or lead. A split second after the blow is delivered, this mobile weight slams against the recoil and cancels it out. Deadblow mallets can be purchased from suppliers of metalsmithing and industrial equipment. To make one yourself, attach a handle to a length of pipe for which you have prepared end caps of wood, plastic, or leather. Add BBs or buckshot to fill the chamber about two-thirds full and secure the caps in place.

Tools > Shop Tools > Hammers & Mallets

Handles & Mandrels Handles These must be strong without being bulky or heavy. Dense fibrous woods like hickory and ash are commonly used. A long-handled hammer delivers more power but is more difficult to control than a short-handled one. The correct length will provide a comfortable balance between power and control. For smithing, a rounded end on the handle is usually more comfortable than a squaredoff shape. A cross section that is oval or faceted generally provides a more efficient and comfortable grip than a round handle. Rubberized coatings are available but many people prefer the feel and grip of smooth untreated wood. It will acquire a hand oil finish during use. Mandrels It seems impossible to have too many mandrels. The most common varieties are the tapered mandrels named for their uses—bezel, ring, and bracelet—but any hard object that will lend you its shape will work. Here are some economical substitutes for conventional tools. • • • • • •

drift pin (hardware store) drive pin (auto parts store) machine shop rejects chair or table leg (junkyard) machine parts (junkyard) baseball bat (local team)

Grip Improper handle design is one factor that can lead to repetitive stress injuries (RSIs), described in more detail in the Appendix. Hand and arm muscles get stressed when a handle is too large or too slim. At the first sign of cramped or sore muscles in your arm, wrist or hand, modify the hammer handle. If it seems large, use a file or wood rasp to make it thinner. If it is too thin, wrap the handle with tape. The best tape for this purpose is a slightly spongy material sold at bicycle shops. Some metalsmiths find it helpful to wear a lightweight glove that cushions their grip. These gloves are available through medical supply companies; a bicycling glove is often an acceptable and less expensive substitute. Chasing Hammers These hammers combine light weight, comfort, and snap. European style chasing hammers have a broad face to easily find the tool. Asian hammers use a short piece of steel rod. A bamboo chopstick makes an effective handle; wrap with cord to enlarge the grip.

Handling File the top of the handle to a gradual taper that fits snugly into the eye, which has its larger opening upward. Make a saw cut in the top of the handle a little shorter than the long axis of the eye. Tap the handle into place and check the alignment. Slide a wooden wedge into place, dab some white glue on it, and pound it into position. Trim off excess after the glue dries.

Tools > Shop Tools > Handles & Mandrels

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Anvils & Stakes Anvils There was a time when every farm had an anvil and most cities had a supplier, but nowadays they are increasingly difficult to find. Used anvils occasionally turn up at auctions and scrap dealers. For an anvil in decent condition you can expect to pay about a dollar a pound. The face of an anvil can be ground smooth by a machine shop. Attempts to weld on a new face or fill recesses with welding rod are generally unsuccessful or prohibitively expensive. In grinding the face, take care not to cut away the hardened steel plate that makes up the top 1⁄2" of the face. A good anvil can be made from a piece of railroad track. Find these at a junkyard or foundry. The surface should be ground smooth, either by a machine shop or with a belt sander. A point can be cut with an oxyacetylene torch, but that is optional. Other flat pieces of steel may be used as anvils. Though it helps to have hardened steel, it is not essential. Keep it heavy, smooth, and well-anchored, and it will work.

Anvil Stands

Stakes

sand

By the hammer and hand, all the arts do stand.

Traditional

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Tools > Shop Tools > Anvils & Stakes

Occasionally you will turn up a piece of scrap steel with a useful shape. Some smiths forge their own stakes or make patterns in wood to be cast at a steel foundry. Maple wood can be used in many cases and has the advantage of not marring the work piece; see page  for a wooden side stake for crimping and raising. A new generation of stakes is being made of hard plastics like nylon, Delrin, and Ultra High Molecular Weight (UHMW). Thermoplastics, which can be shaped when warm, offer many possibilities.

Weight The greater the mass, the better an anvil can absorb the shock of a blow, which translates to greater efficiency. For light work a small  pound anvil is OK, but for real forging and raising you’ll want at least  pounds. Older anvils are marked with a three-digit number. The first digit indicates the number of whole hundredweights, the second indicates the number of quarter hundredweights and the last number indicates the number of pounds remaining. A hundredweight (abbreviated cwt.) is actually  pounds. A quarter cwt. is twenty eight pounds. To calculate the weight of the anvil in pounds: multiply the first number by , multiply the second by , and add the two results to the third number. A -- anvil weighs  pounds: ( x ) + ( x ) +  = . Simple, huh?

Vises Vises Woodworkers, cobblers, machinists, and all sorts of metalworkers have relied on vises for many years. Vises are available in a wide range of sizes and quality. An inexpensive vise is acceptable for light duty, but if you push, pull, or hammer on your vise you will want a professional quality tool. Vises are described either by weight or by the width of the jaw.

Pin Vise

Bench Vise

Leg Vise

This is a small handheld tool that grips small parts for filing, bending, engraving, and other tasks. They are usually about the size of a short pen and come in open-jaw and collet versions. A free-rotating handle is a nice feature.

The basic model is fixed; some vises can be rotated. While this feature can be handy, these vises are not quite as strong. Sizes are given by the width of the jaw or total weight. Some models have reversible jaws to allow a smooth or textured grip.

This venerable tool is mounted on the front edge of a bench and is especially stable because force applied to it is transferred to the ground.

Jaw Protectors Many vises come with double-sided plates across the jaws that can be mounted to expose either a smooth or a heavily textured side. Jewelers usually want the smooth side out, but even this can damage nonferrous metals, so removable jaws are helpful. These can be made from copper and cut out so they have fingers that curl around the edges of the vise to hold them in place. Alternate jaw guards are made from leather, rubber, or plastic. Secure these with rubber bands or a magnetic strip, sold in hardware stores, which often has an adhesive on one side. Mounting Options There is only one way to mount a vise—securely. If it wiggles, any filing, hammering, or measuring will be compromised. Attach vises to strong and preferably heavy tables or stumps. If this is impossible, anchor the table into a wall with a strong brace, making sure you connect with the studs in the wall. Use screws or bolts that fit the holes vise in the mounting plate on the vise, and include wall washers as necessary.

Tools > Shop Tools > Vises

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Wire Drawing Tools Drawplates Drawplates are plates of hardened steel with conical holes of decreasing size. Their primary use is to make wire, but they are also used to change the cross section of wire, make tubing, harden wire, and shape chains. Drawplates are available in a wide range of quality, from very precise to crude. In ancient times, wire was made by twisting strips of metal cut from sheets, but drawplates were used in the th century by monastic goldsmiths and Viking craftsmen. A good drawplate… > will have a uniform progression of sizes, > will have symmetrical and gradual tapers, > will have a polished bore, > will be of quality steel and well hardened.

Draw Tongs These heavy pliers are equipped with coarse gripping jaws and a hook-shaped handle to facilitate a muscular pull. The front edges of the jaws are curved to encourage a leveraging action early in the pull. Vise-grip pliers can substitute but they are not as good as the real thing because the tips do not grip as well and the straight handles are more difficult to grasp. When the gripping plates wear out, fold strips of coarse sandpaper into the jaws. Lubrication Wax is often used to lubricate drawing but this leaves a dirt-laden waxy buildup that needs to be removed. Don’t try to burn it off! Instead, soak the drawplate overnight in kerosene, then scrub with an old toothbrush. Draw lengths of string through the holes, doubling or tripling as needed, to clean away debris. Instead of wax, lubricate with a light oil.

Available from: Hydrosorbent Products PO Box   School Street Ashley Falls, MA  -- -- fax: -- [email protected] www.dehumidify.com

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Tools > Shop Tools > Wire Drawing

Drawbench This tool increases leverage by using a turning wheel to effect the pull; the larger the wheel, the better the leverage.

Rust Prevention To reduce rust on tools you use every day, place a silica gel pack in drawers and toolboxes. These are familiar as the small bundles that are packed with cameras, stereo equipment, and computers. Toss these in your toolbox instead of throwing them away. Silica gel is a porous, granular form of silica, synthetically manufactured from sodium silicate. The internal structure of each small silica gel granule has microscopic pores that attract and hold moisture. Silica gel is inert, nontoxic, and safe enough to protect foods, medicines, and electronics. Even when saturated with moisture, silica gel looks and feels dry to the touch. To be most effective, the gel packs should be placed in contained spaces such as tool boxes and drawers. When the gel becomes saturated it can be reactivated by warming it for a few hours in an oven. See the manufacturer’s instructions for your particular product – some change color to indicate their moisture content.

Magnification Microscopes A microscope is the top of the line for clarity, magnification, and ease of use. A proper setup will include a versatile mounting, a wrap-around light source, and a stable bench that does not vibrate. The working zone is usually only an inch or two across, making microscopes most useful to engravers and stonesetters. Used microscopes are sometimes available from medical and scientific suppliers, but you’ll want to try it out before buying. Microscopy is a complex science and most instruments are made for specific purposes. A microscope designed to function primarily with light passing through a translucent sample will not be helpful to a metalsmith. Recently the addition of video cameras and monitors has changed the way magnification is used in the studio. It is possible to buy a microscope in which the image is transmitted onto a video monitor. These are widely used in medicine. A less expensive variation is to use a conventional video camera run through a TV. Because the camera can zoom in closely, it mimics the effect of a microscope, though its range is limited. Where a microscope can make the head of a pin fill a TV screen, a video camera will typically stop at the point where a postage stamp will fill the screen. This setup is useful when teaching because it allows a group of students to see close-ups of what is being done, but it is impractical for working because the angle of the camera is not the same as what the jeweler sees in real space.

Lenses Since the development of lenses in the th century, magnification has been helping jewelers. The small handheld loupe is an icon of jewelers and gem dealers. Loupes are available in many versions, the principal factors being: • quality of lens material (glass is better than plastic) • quality of grinding • range of magnification (some offer x, x, and x) • adjustment for distortion of color and shape

Contributing Factors • Power — The strength of a device is called its power and is the result of two or more lenses working in conjunction. Power is indicated by an “x” (as in x, which means the image is seen at  times its actual size). • Resolution — the quality of the image, usually the result of well cut lenses. • Proper lighting — A broad, nonreflective light source is important. • Stability — It is important that the camera or microscope be securely mounted to a surface that will not vibrate with foot traffic or building use. Headgear

Magnification versus Depth of Field

Several companies make headbands that provide medium-range magnification (–x) at a comfortable working distance such as –". These allow the use of both hands, swing up when not needed, and move around the studio with you. They should be comfortable, lightweight, and appropriate in magnification to the needs at hand. An optional attached loupe is handy for people who need frequent close-up observations (e.g., stonesetters).

These two factors are usually at odds: the greater the magnification, the shallower the depth of field. A contoured object will be out of focus except for a small section at the optimum distance from the lens. For this reason it is very difficult to work under a loupe.

Using a Loupe To use a loupe, hold it up to the eye (remove glasses) and bring the work into the proper range. If possible, avoid squinting—it tires face muscles. Tools > Shop Tools > Magnification

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Flexible Shaft Flexible Shaft Machine This relatively new member of the studio has become extremely popular because of its versatility. It is used to drill, grind, sand, carve, and buff. With the addition of a reciprocating hand piece (which converts rotation to backand-forth motion), it can be used for light hammering. What we call “flex shaft” is actually four elements. Flex shafts are usually sold in packages with all the necessary parts, but individual components can be replaced or upgraded. Not all parts are interchangeable, so consult suppliers for details. • Motor — A compact precision motor capable of speeds of , – , rpm (revolutions per minute). Available in ⁄, 1⁄8, ⁄, 1⁄4, and 1⁄2 horsepower. • Electronic Foot Control — A rheostat pedal that controls speed with foot pressure. • Shaft — A steel spring encased in a rubber-clad sheath that carries the rotary motion of the motor to a handpiece. • Handpiece — A steel and aluminum cylinder that connects the power to a variety of tools and provides a comfortable way to hold and manipulate the tool.

Mounting Flex shafts should be mounted at a height that allows comfortable use while allowing the shaft to hang in gentle curves. 3⁄4" threaded steel pipe (about  feet) with a floor flange that can be screwed into the benchtop.

Two washers welded into a piece of angle iron. Split the bottom " and bend out to make legs.

Drill and saw two parallel lines in a sheet of steel, brass, or nickel silver and pound the strap portion through vise jaws.

What is torque? We can think of torque as the ability of a motor to deal with a heavy load. If a motor has low torque you will be able to make it slow down or even stop by applying pressure (drag). A machine with high torque uses better machining and precision gearing to adapt to load. A machine with high torque will perform better and last longer than one with low torque.

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Tools > Shop Tools > Flexible Shaft

Chuck Keys To keep this important tool close at hand, mount it into a file handle or solder it to a screwdriver handle. Make a loop of copper or brass to attach it to a cord that is fastened to the bench.

Hanging Chuck Key A retractable keychain mounted on the front of the bench is an elegant solution.

Grinders & Sanders Safety Check frequently for cracks in a wheel. Discard if even a hairline fracture is found. Goggles and gloves, oh yes. The tool rest must be close to the wheel. A gap here is an invitation to snag the work.

What looks good can change, but what works, works.

Ray Eames

Bench Grinder

Belt Sanders

This compact, bench-mounted motor is mostly used by blacksmiths and studios working on a largerthan-jewelry scale. Do not rig up a grinder from a general-use motor. The steel sleeves and tool rest are vital to safe use. Most wheels are made of fired ceramic material that has been impregnated with abrasive grit. Imagine putting a dinner plate on a machine that spins it around really fast and you get an idea of how dangerous this can be.

These versatile machines are available in several sizes, most having belts that are ", ", or " wide. In most cases belts are purchased as continuous loops that are held on the driving and guide wheel by spring tension.

Tips > Be certain the belt is oriented properly; look for an arrow on the inside. These fade quickly so it’s a good idea to go over them with permanent marker before you first install a belt. > To test tracking, turn the machine on and immediately off again. If the belt slides sideways, adjust the tracking screw slightly and repeat. > If a combustible material (e.g., wood) was used, be sure to clean the machine thoroughly before grinding steel. Sparks can start a fire deep inside where it can smolder unseen. > Because the belts move so quickly, grits usually give a finer finish than the same paper used by hand. > Be careful that friction heat doesn’t destroy temper, damage stones, cause adhesives to break down, or scorch organic materials.

Tools > Shop Tools > Grinders & Sanders

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Compressors & Ultrasonics Air Compressors Centuries ago soldering was accomplished with a blowpipe but, human lungs being what they are, moving air was not used for other tasks around the studio. Metalsmiths embraced air compressors when they came into widespread use. Compressors use a piston to draw air from the environment and capture it in a storage tank. The air is released on demand and can be used to power rotary tools, hammers, sandblasters, torches, and dozens of other tools. Pneumatic (i.e., air-driven) tools are generally easier to maintain than electric equivalents because they have fewer moving parts.

Blowpipe

Bellows

Compressor

Mechanics Air compressors vary according to: • size of motor (measured in horsepower) • volume of air that can be held (measured in the capacity of the tank, usually in gallons) • maximum force that can be delivered (measured in pounds per square inch, psi) • rate at which the air can be moved gauge (measured in cubic feet per minute, cfm) (in psi) compressor • the duty rating:  means the machine is built to stand up to constant use; a rating of / means the machine should rest for periods equal to use. storage tank A small sandblaster might require # psi at  cfm. A machine delivering this will typically have a  gallon tank and a 3⁄4 horsepower compressor.

drain valve

hose & nozzle

Tip:

Ultrasonic

Plastic-coated wire will avoid scratching finished work. Make hooks from wire discarded by telephone installers.

Ultrasonic machines transmit high-frequency sound waves through liquid. When the waves strike a solid object they bounce off; if the surface is irregular they bounce like a ping-pong ball in a phone booth. This action loosens particles of dirt and debris (such as polishing compounds). Ultrasonic cleaning has become standard practice before undertaking repairs and after all polishing is complete. For maximum effect, suspend the work in a bath of solvent, usually soap. Some machines include a heating element because heat helps dissolve residue.

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Tools > Shop Tools > Compressors & Ultrasonics

Sandblaster & Hone Sandblasters This straightforward tool shoots particles of grit at a surface—sandpaper without the paper. Forced air provides the muscle. In outdoor situations (like scouring a building) the grit is thrown once then swept up and discarded. In studio applications, the apparatus is contained in a box that drops the sand to the bottom where it can be suctioned up and recycled. Grit is available in several materials and shapes, including glass beads. When using those, the process is properly called beadblasting.

Process . Select the correct grit. Too coarse can leave the metal dangerously thin; too fine wastes your time. . Open the lid and place the work inside the box. Turn on the interior light and the compressor. . Lock the lid closed. . Reach into the box through the attached gloves, grasping the gun in one hand and the work in the other. . Rotate the work in your palm to guarantee consistent exposure. For small pieces, attach a cord to facilitate grip.

When you get a thing the way you want it, leave it alone.

Winston Churchill

Sandblasting as Miracle Cure It isn’t. For jewelers, sandblasting is primarily a surface finishing technique (unlike mechanics, who use it to remove rust, for instance). Don’t use sandblasting to substitute for careful sanding: the form should be completely refined before blasting.

Power Hone This specialized tool was developed to sharpen gravers, but if you have one in the studio you’ll probably find other uses. A diamond-impregnated steel disk is driven at a relatively slow speed. Drip a little water on the disk to lubricate the cutting action. Do not use any compound. Wipe the disk dry with a cloth when you’re finished.

Tools > Shop Tools > Sandblaster & Hone

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Basic Bench Basic Jewelers Bench This bench has been designed so it can be made from easily available materials without sophisticated woodworking equipment. People with woodworking skills might use these ideas as a point of departure.

Materials 1

4' x 8' x 3⁄4" plywood or MDF

1

4' x 8' x 1⁄4" tempered Masonite

2

2' x 4' x 8' (s straight as possible)

Plywood or MDF

Masonite

A

E

25' 1 x 3; random lengths 18' 1 x 2, randoms lengths 6' 1 x 6

F

B C

C

D

D

G H

G

G D

box 11⁄2" plaster nails 4

3" flat head wood screws

extra

extra

Parts List Plywood or MDF A B C D

Top (1) Back (1) Case Sides (2) Case ends (2)

Masonite 48 x 24 48 x 12 18 x 22 113⁄4 x 22

E Top (1) F Sweeps (1) G Drawers (3) H Case back (1)

48 x 24 29 x 22 111⁄2 x 22 133⁄4 x 18

Directions . Cut the pieces, except for the sweeps drawer components. The dimensions given do not allow for a saw kerf. If you are using a handsaw, this space is not too important, but you should allow for an 1⁄8" kerf if you use a table saw. . Glue pieces A and AA together to make the top. Use a white glue like Elmer’s or Tite-bond, set the pieces together, and clamp or weight them overnight. Traditionally, jewelers benches have a “belly hole” to allow closer access. Benches without cutouts are preferred by watchmakers. Use a saber saw after the parts have been glued together if you want a hole.

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Tools > Studio Tools > Basic Bench

Basic Bench . Make both leg assemblies, using a square to be sure that the pieces are at right angles. Glue and screw each joint.

. Screw the xx"cross brace into the leg braces. Glue and screw. Attach the back (D), allowing half of it to project above the legs.

. Lay to top in place and use the " screws to join it to the legs. Use four screws across the back (D) to anchor it to the top.

. Nail the top and bottom between the sides. Lay the box face down and nail a Masonite panel on the back.

. Flip the bench upside down and set the box into place. Attach it with screws into the top and the legs.

make



"

Leave space for the cross brace.

"

. Make a plywood box to hold the three drawers. This will be fully assembled, then screwed onto the underside of the top. First, cut 3⁄4" by 3⁄4" strips from a x to make the cleats. Nail and glue these onto what will be the inside walls of the box. make



"

"

3⁄4"

. The drawersides, fronts and backs are made from of x. Nail or screw them together, then glue and nail a Masonite panel on the bottom. Sand all the edges to make them round.

. The sweeps drawer slides between . You can be cut on the dotted line the two cleats on each side. If all for easier access, but don’t cut away other measurements were accurate, it too much of the sides or the drawer will be " wide, but this might have will tip forward when open. Rub the changed. Measure the space and make drawer bottom and the cleats with the drawer to match. Assemble like soap to help them slide easier. the other drawers, using x boards for the sides, front and back.

cleats

Tools > Studio Tools > Basic Bench

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Advanced Bench Advanced Bench This sophisticated bench costs a little more and is a bit more difficult to make than the one on the preceeding page, but the extra effort will be repaid by years of efficient work. Use this pattern as a starting point, but feel free to make changes to suit your individual needs. Materials This bench is made of maple or a similar hardwood. Construction requires a table saw and cabinetmaking skills. The sizes given are standard, but of course you can change them to suit your needs. An advantage of this bench is that it breaks down tof travel and can be fit in the trunk of a car. All measurements refer to inches.

36"

22"

36"

10"

Parts List Top (1)

36 x 22 x 11⁄2

Legs (4)

36 x 3 x 11⁄2

Short Braces (4)

20 x 3 x 11⁄2

Long Braces (2)

36 x 3 x 11⁄2

Drawer Sides (2) Front (1) Back (1) Sweeps Sides (2) Front (1) Back (1)

20 x 6 x 3⁄4 34* x 6 x 3⁄4 32* x 6 x 3⁄4 20 x 3 x 3⁄4 34* x 2 x 3⁄4 32* x 3 x 3⁄4

* approximate

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Tools > Studio Tools > Advanced Bench

Advanced Bench . Make the top, either from plywood laminated with Masonite, by gluing up strips, or from commercial butcher block. The heavier the better, since this helps anchor the bench.

. The two leg units are made with mortise and tenon joints and permanently glued up. Drill 3⁄8" holes across the top pieces.

make



. Cut additional mortises at right angles to the leg units to hold two cross braces. Corresponding tenons are cut on the ends of the brace pieces.

. With the braces in position, drill 3⁄8" holes directly through the tenons from the outside. These will be joined with bolts that will hold the legs together but allow them to be disassembled. A 1⁄2" hole in the brace allows access for a washer and nut.

. Flip the bench upside down and set the top into position. Attach it with lag bolts and washers.

. Make two drawers, one with " sides that will be close to the top and another with shallow sides that will catch sweeps. The dimensions will depend on the space between the legs and the clearance needed for the drawer glides— calculate this before starting the drawers.

. Cut a dado on the front piece and either dovetail or lap joints on the back corners. Set a piece of 1⁄4" plywood or Masonite into a groove along the bottom edge.

. Install drawer glides as specified by the manufacturer.

. To divide the drawer into smaller units, cut a center divider with a shelf track. Set small board of the same height along the walls, and make small open boxes about half the depth of the drawer to slide along these tracks.

. To hold a bench pin, buy a " x " x 1⁄4" piece of steel. Route an opening this size at the front edge of the top.

. Cut away an additional area equivalent to the tang of a bench pin. Drill a 1⁄4" hole centered in this space.

. Insert a 1⁄4" T-nut, matched with a thumbscrew. This will hold the pin in place. Secure the steel with countersunk screws in each corner.

Tools > Studio Tools > Advanced Bench

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Hammering Table Hammering Table This page shows an inexpensive design for a sturdy table built of familiar lumberyard materials. These plans show a low broad table that uses a full sheet of MDF as a top. It would be appropriate for mounting vices and stake holders, surface plates, and a rolling mills. A narrower version would look much the same, and might fit better into small studios. Adjust the height and width to suit your needs.

Materials List Top

1 sheet of 3⁄4" MDF or plywood Shelf 1 sheet MDF or plywood (thickness depends on your use) Lower Frame 4 pcs. 2 x 3 x 8' * Frame & legs 7 pcs. 2 x 4 x 8' * Legs 1 pc. 2 x 6 x 8' *

. The table will be built upside down. Select a workspace that is flat and large enough to allow you to move around. Lay out the frame pieces then screw them together, using two screws in the end of each strut.

. Attach a x onto the end of each short side, making it flush to the outside edge of the frame. Use at least three screws here. Repeat at all four corners.

. Attach a x onto each existing leg. These will overlap the narrower leg piece; attach both into the frame and into the edge of the first leg pieces. Repeat for each leg.

. Make a second frame, which will add support and also provide a shelf. It can be made of xs as shown or xs if more convenient. A single cross brace is sufficient because this does not carry much weight.

At least a pound of 21⁄2" screws. *clear and straight

Slide the second frame into position, so the top edge will be about " above the floor when the table is inverted.

. Attach a ° brace at each corner. This will overlap the first frame and butt up against the legs. Repeat for all four legs.

. Invert the table and set the top in position so there is an overlap of " on all sides. This is handy for clamping. Secure the tabletop by screwing it to the frame. Countersink these screws to make a smooth table surface. Climb onto the table and jump up and down. Pretty solid, right?

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Tools > Studio Tools > Hammering Table

Chapter 

Shaping

Layout Guidelines > Avoid making scratches that will need to be removed later. > Before any surface is applied, the metal should be degreased. Clean the it with a solvent like alcohol or a waterless hand cleaner, or scrub it with pumice powder, fine sandpaper, or Scotch-Brite. To allow drawn lines to show up better, rub abrasives in a circular motion. > To show pencil marks or scribed lines, paint the metal with white tempera, white shoe polish, or a proprietary layout fluid. > Drawings can be made on label paper, available from office supply stores or printing shops.

When storing metal, use paper between sheets to protect against accidental scratches.

Multiples

Computer Layout

Photocopies can sometimes speed layout. Copy graph paper onto label stock or duplicate production templates. Set the copier on its lightest setting so the grid is pale.

Computer graphic programs can be a fast way to develop forms, especially geometric shapes. As an added bonus, these are easily saved for future reference. Print onto label paper and paste onto the metal for cutting.

After piercing, remove paper with solvents or by burning. Ventilation is suggested.

I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.

Chinese proverb

Storyboard Most jewelry pieces are built in a series of steps. In some cases, the sequence of operations is important—sometimes even critical. Plan the construction process by assembling the piece in your head. It is often helpful to jot down notes, either in words or as a cartoonlike story board. This simple operation can save redundant efforts, like polishing a piece too soon, then needing to to it again.

cut pieces  ga.



Shaping > Cutting >Layout

make tubing assemble with H solder

remember to allow for clearance

Sequence Sometimes several pieces can be laid out at the same time, but in other cases the dimensions of one piece are affected by others. In those cases it might be best to cut out (and bend, solder, etc.) the first element before laying out the next. Consider these factors and plan the sequence of events before you get started.

Drilling Safety

General Rules for Drilling

At the moment the cutting edge breaks through the underside of the piece being drilled, there is a tendency for the bit to snag. This can be dangerous, especially when a large blade is being used on a thin material. The workpiece can be forcefully yanked out of your grip and left spinning like a propeller in the drill press. To avoid this, always start with a small bit and move sequentially to larger bits.

> Run the drill slowly. > Avoid wiggling. > Keep the bit at a constant angle. > Let the bit do the work; don’t push. > Avoid creating friction heat; lubricate as needed with beeswax (health-food stores), oil of wintergreen (drugstore), or proprietary coolant (Bur-Life, etc.) from jewelry suppliers.

Step Bit A step bit is a single tool that accomplishes this without spending a lot of time changing bits. These can be purchased in several ranges, and while they are expensive, they can pay for themselves in saved time (and saved fingers).

Drill Bits Twist Core Pump Pearl

Spade

Impact Method Probably the earliest method of making holes was to pound a pointed rod through the metal. You can use a nail, but a hardened, tapered point is more effective. Do not use a scribe; this is a drawing tool and will be damaged if struck with a hammer. Work on a piece of scrap wood to avoid making holes in your bench. Strike a solid blow to create a crater, then flip the piece over and file off the tip of the conical projection. Insert the tool from this side and strike again.

Drills Pin Vise For light use, grip a bit in a pin vise or glue it into a dowel or similar rod. The tool will be more comfortable to use if it has a freely rotating knob on top, like the example shown here on the left.

Electric Many jewelers today use electric and battery-pack drills or flexible shaft machines to drill holes. While these are hard to beat for ease, care must be taken not to run them too fast. Whenever possible, a drill press is preferred over a handheld model because it guarantees a perpendicular angle of attack.

Pump Drill

Bow Drill

This variation allows one-handed operation. A string is tied to the shaft (or passes through a hole) and connects to a bar that is free to ride up and down along the shaft. A heavy wheel captures the momentum. To start, twist the shaft so that the string wraps around it. With a little practice you’ll get the hang of an up-and-down, wrapunwrap rhythm.

This ancient mechanism increases rotation speed and uses a graceful motion to rotate the bit. The bowstring is wrapped once around the shaft and the bow is sawn back and forth to spin the drill. A block of wood with a loose-fitting hole is used to secure the top end of the shaft. Alternately, the shaft rides in a depression in the bench and the workpiece is held in the hand. Shaping > Cutting > Drilling

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Chisels & Shears Chisels Chisels have been used for centuries to cut metal. Work on a piece of scrap copper or brass set on an anvil to protect the edge from damage. A chisel with two angles will cut most efficiently, but a single-faced chisel can be used when a neater edge is needed.

Shears Chisels and drill bits cut when enough force is concentrated at a specific area to break the molecular bonds of the material. This point (called shear strength), varies, which is why we can cut aluminum faster than steel. In the case of these tools, all the action comes from one direction and must be supported by a stable support below. Think of chiseling with work set on a pillow and you see the idea. Shears are more effective than a chisel because force is applied from both directions.



Shaping > Cutting > Chisels & Shears

Aviation Shears

Leverage

Most shears use a single pivot. The rules of leverage dictate that force is greater close to the fulcrum, so always slide the work well into the blades when cutting. A compound-action shear uses two pivot points to increase leverage. Aircraft manufacturers developed a conveniently sized compound action shear, now known as aviation shears, that is widely used in metalsmithing. Aviation shears are available with straight jaws (most versatile) and with jaws that track left or right, designed for cutting curves. Small serrations on the jaws help prevent the metal from sliding out. These can be sanded or ground away if you prefer a smooth edge.

To get the best mechanical advantage, grip one handle in a wellanchored vise and extend the other arm by slipping a length of pipe over it. Be careful though—this might exceed the strength of the tool and break it.

Nonjointed Shears Shears of this design are found in many cultures, for uses as varied as sheep shearing and embroidery.

A miniature version, bought or made yourself, should be sized to coordinate with specific tasks.

Sawing Access Video Library on CD Blade Size Ideally there will be three teeth on the metal at all times. Slight differences are okay, but if you are way off, the blade will be difficult to control and more likely to break.

Piercing Piercing is the term given to sawing when working within a piece. Begin by drilling a hole in each compartment to be sawn. Only a tiny hole will be needed. With the blade secured into the frame at one end, thread the other end of the blade through the hole and connect to the frame as usual. After the cut is complete, it is often helpful to refine the shape by filing with the blade, rubbing it along the sawn edge. To remove the blade, loosen either end and withdraw it. Holding Strap Measure the distance from your bench pin to the floor and make a loop of strapping or fabric that is almost twice that length. Drape it over the work as it sits on the pin, and set your foot into the bottom of the loop. This added pressure will take some of the load off your hand, which you can use to position the work.

Process When done correctly, sawing is a relaxed and rhythmic experience. Muscles are loose and fluid, time seems to slow down and the saw propels itself. By contrast, when one factor is out of whack—timing, blade tension, or blade size—the whole enterprise is frustrating. > The piece being sawn should be horizontal and held securely. A wooden bench pin is the typical arrangement. Clamping in a vise is not recommended because the angle is wrong and action becomes stiff. > The blade must be tightly strung in the sawframe; see below. > The teeth of the blade must point toward the handle. To determine the direction, look closely or stroke the blade against fabric. The blade will snag in only one direction. > The blade should always travel at a right angle to the workpiece. > The hand holding the sawframe should be relaxed. Do not clench or jerk the frame.

Blade Insertion METHOD ONE

Clamp one end of the blade in place and tighten the screw finger-tight. Adjust the length of the frame so the tip of the blade just overlaps the other gripping plate, then tighten the frame screw. Lean the frame against the bench, blade uppermost, and press hard enough to collapse the frame. Slide the loose end of the blade into place and tighten the screw. When you release tension, the frame will spring back and put tension on the blade.

METHOD TWO

After loosening the screw on the back of the sawframe, set the blade into position, being sure the teeth are pointed outward and toward the handle. Tighten the gripping plates at each end of the blade. Use both hands to slide the frame open as shown, laying a thumb into position to hold the back of the frame once it is fully extended. While holding it, tighten the screw on the back of the frame.

Lubrication Though lubrication is not necessary, it sometimes speeds sawing, especially on “gummy” metals like sterling and copper. Beeswax or a proprietary wax (e.g., Bur-Life) can be warmed and fused onto the base of the bench pin. Or, put a bit of fabric in a small container with a hole in its lid, then saturate the cloth with oil of wintergreen. As you saw, pause periodically to touch the blade to the cloth. Shaping > Cutting > Sawing

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Filing & Filework Files It’s easy to think of a file as a simple tool that rounds off sharp edges, but in skilled hands, files can do much more. Skill consists of using the correct file, proper stroke, and stable grip. See the Tools chapter for information on the files themselves.

Stroke All files cut on the push stroke, away from the handle. To extend the life of the tool, lift up slightly on the return pass. This prevents the teeth from being pushed down and is especially important when working on tough metals such as steel, platinum, or titanium. Files cut in proportion to the force behind them—without a solid pressure, even a sharp file will have little effect. Place your index finger on the top face of the file to improve control and increase leverage. A downward force is only as good as the upward support beneath it, which is why the bench pin is so important. It must be stable, at a comfortable height, and shaped so it prevents the workpiece from slipping. Don’t file while walking around or holding the work unsupported; you’ll do more harm than good. Exercises Time spent mastering the use of files will be rewarded in confidence and efficiency. Here are several time-honored exercises designed to teach and test proper filing. Brass rod is ideal for these because of its low cost and clean cutting.

Sweeps Filings of precious metals are caught so they can be recovered. Most craftspeople send the small particles to a refiner for this, after pulling out small clean pieces they will recycle themselves. In other studios it is more efficient to send everything to a refiner. Traditionally, leather aprons were attached to the underside of the bench, a system that guarantees almost total capture. More common now is the watchmaker’s variation in which a drawer is pulled out to catch filings as needed. If you work mostly in one metal, let all your filings mingle and let the refiner sort it out. If you work equally in gold and silver it will be worth your while to keep the sweeps separated. Make two drawers, or use trays that stack into the sweeps drawer, putting the appropriate tray on top.



Shaping > Cutting > Filing & Filework

Cutting Dies Disk Cutting Die This precision tool allows rapid and consistent cutting of disks. It is usually sold in two sizes, one running from 1⁄4" to 1⁄2" and the other from 3⁄8" to ". The method of use is the same for both. Hardened cylindrical punches are held vertical and in alignment by passing through a top plate before resting on the metal to be cut. A single solid blow will shear metal. A hole punch is a familiar example of a cutting die. A positive shape is matched by a tight-fitting negative hole of the same shape. When a material is pressed between them, its shear strength is exceeded and the piece is cut out. Cutting dies must fit perfectly together, be aligned, and be tougher than the material being cut.

. Set the die block on a level solid surface at a good striking height. If an anvil is used, cover it with a piece of wood to avoid damage. . Slide the workpiece into position, sighting down through the hole as needed. Sometimes it’s helpful to draw crosshairs. . Slide the snug-fitting die into position, taking care not to shift the parts. . Strike a blow with as large a hammer as you can control. . Do not drive the die all the way through! Turn the block over and tap the die out with a wooden or plastic rod. Do not use steel for this because it will ruin the punch.

Angle Cutting Jig

Blanking Dies

You can make a jig by attaching a bench pin to a piece of wood that can be gripped in a vise. Attach a piece of steel to the top of the pin to make a solid seat for the magnetic base of an angle gauge. Clamp the tool in a vise at the angle that is needed for the steel you are using. This only works if the sawblade is kept vertical, so use a square or a plumb bob behind the tool to provide a sightline. steel plate

In the s, Douglas Aircraft developed an ingenious way to make relatively inexpensive and simple cutting dies from a single sheet of metal. These tools, sometimes called “pancake dies,” remove the need for an external apparatus to ensure alignment by attaching the two parts of the die at one end. The outline of a desired shape is cut so that one edge remains attached to its base plate. It is free to lift and fall like a diving board, punching out a shape when dropped under pressure. In the s Roger Taylor brought this approach to the jewelry world in a form he called the RT Blanking System. What follows here is a basic introduction; for more information see Die Forming for Metalsmiths and Artists, by Susan Kingsley. Making a Die In a normal cut, the saw kerf will remove material and make the positive smaller than the negative shape. By sawing at a specific angle, the inner and outer edges of the cut slide against each other to create a shearing action. This angle is determined by the thickness of the die material and the sawblade being used. In order to keep it consistent, a guiding device of some kind is needed. Several companies sell a rig that holds a sawframe vertical and allows the sawing plane to be adjusted. Some drill presses have a tilting table that can be improvised to accomplish the same thing. Buy a magnetic angle reader and tilt the table to the correct angle for the die thickness you are using. Sight against the column of the drill press as you work to be sure the saw travels vertically. Care at this step is vital to a functioning die—don’t rush.

Shaping > Cutting > Cutting Dies

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Forging Forging Forging can be defined as the controlled shaping of metal by the force of a hammer. This technique lends itself to graceful transitions from plane to plane and appealing contrasts of thick and thin sections. It is equally appropriate for large and small work. Gold, sterling, and copper forge very well. Low-zinc brasses can also be forged but require frequent annealing. It is a sign of good forging to require very little filing. Force and control must work together. Control in forging comes from the cross-peen. Its wedge shape can push the metal in only two directions. This push can be directed along the axis to increase length or outward from the axis to increase breadth.

Tips > Sit or stand close to the work in a posture you can comfortably maintain. > Work on a smooth, hard, stable surface. > Keep your fingers and thumb wrapped around the hammer handle, not pointing along it. > Anneal as needed; don’t press your luck. > Keep the hammer face polished. > The hammer must make solid contact with the anvil; don’t strike with a “jelly wrist.” > Don’t hold the workpiece where you intend to hit it. Forging Jig

Forging a Taper Strike a series of blows along each side of a square rod, starting first at the top of the intended taper (), then a second series, starting further down (). Repeat as much as necessary to complete the taper. Planish out bumps by rotating. 

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Rhombus Overhand the hammers swing, overhand slow, overhand so sure, They do not hasten, each man hits in his place.

Walt Whitman

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Shaping > Forming > Forging

This homemade tool uses the curve of a round bar to make two forging peens. It is especially good for small work.

This refers to a cross section shape that is easy to make but hard to correct. It is usually the result of striking with an angled blow. Continued striking will only make the workpiece thinner (and the problem worse), so correct these as soon as you see them form. Either file off the red areas or forge the piece into a round rod and from there return to a square section.

Double sided forging Most people forge on the flat face of an anvil, but an alternative method uses the curve of an anvil horn or stake to force the metal to flow outward from the point of contact.

Shallow Forming General Rules

Do not Keep hitting when the metal has nowhere to go. Use a punch that is larger than the die. Use wet or hardened metal.

Working Surfaces pitch

soft wood

microcrystalline wax

leather

lead—scrub hands and metal after using

Dapping Rings Shallow domes can be made by hammering into rings made of steel or brass rod. Heat round steel rods to red and bend into a symmetrical hoop. Short lengths of PVC pipe can also be useful. Punches can be made from wooden dowels and, for some sizes, a hammer or mallet may work.

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Use your fingers as much as possible. Wood, plastic, or rawhide tools are used next, and steel tools (hammers, pliers, etc.) only when absolutely required.

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Whenever possible, anneal the metal. This step takes less time than removing the marks that can result from working on unyielding material.

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To achieve a sharp bend, score the metal at least three-fourths of the way through. After bending, reinforce the groove with solder.

Shallow Forming Shallow forming (also called “bossing”) is a method of giving a minor curvature or doming to sheet metal. It usually makes a piece look thicker and, because curved surfaces show more reflections than flat sheets, the result is often brighter and more dynamic. Bossed areas are structurally rigid in the same way that corrugated cardboard is stronger than flat paper.

. Saw out the shape. . If the piece is to be stamped, chased, textured, or have married metals, do these things next. . After annealing, work the metal on a yielding surface with a mallet, hammer, or punch. . If the edges do not blend into the piece, they can be formed over a dapping punch or hammer held in a vise.

Dapping This term refers to a process that uses a die and punches to create domes from disks of sheet metal. Dapping dies are made of steel, brass, and wood, either in the form of a cube with depressions on each side, or as a thick rectangular plate with similar hemispherical depressions. A variation used by blacksmiths is called a swage plate. Dapping punches are short rods, usually steel, with a symmetrical dome or sphere on one end. A full set typically contains  punches but a partial set can often prove adequate. Neither die nor punches are usually hardened. . Cut out and anneal a disk. . Select a die cup that is a little larger than the disk, then find the punch that makes a loose fit in it. . Set the die on a solid surface, drop the disk into the cup and strike a few light blows. Stop when the punch makes solid contact in the cup, or “bottoms out”). . Transfer the dome to a smaller die cup and strike it again with the appropriate punch. Shaping > Forming > Dapping

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Repussé Repoussé Repoussé is one of the oldest metalsmithing techniques in the world. Virtually every ancient culture with a tradition of metalwork has left examples of this technique. It is a versatile process appropriate to any scale and all malleable metals, from aluminum to steel. Many approaches are used, so the outline below should be taken only as an introduction and point of departure. The word comes from the French verb meaning “to push back.” Simply stated, repoussé is the process of creating volumetric forms by pushing metal. The pushing is usually done on both the front and the back.

Support The material used to support the metal is very important. The most commonly preferred support is pitch. Too hard: metal is thinned. Too soft: difficult to control. Good pitch: hard enough to hold its shape, but soft enough to yield.

Pitch

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 parts Burgundy or Swedish pitch  parts Plaster or pumice  part Linseed oil or tallow Mix in a double boiler over low heat and pour into a sturdy vessel. Pitch Containers Pitch can be held in whatever vessel best meets your needs and budget. Here are a few popular options:

Ready to use pitch is available from:

Pitch pot Allows rotation and can be tilted to any angle.

Northwest Pitchworks  th Ave., NE. Seattle, Washington  () - Wooden tray Leaves a lip for clamping.

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Shaping > Forming > Repoussé

Cake pan Weighted with lead or cement.

Cast iron skillet Doesn’t tilt, but provides good weight.

Repussé Tools for Repoussé Although tools can be bought, many people prefer to make their own. Only a few are needed to begin but a collection of  or  is typical. These tools, especially the modeling punches, do not have to be hardened and tempered but most people prefer to do this. Tool steel may be bought or salvaged from broken tools.

To make a matting tool, file a line around a tool steel rod, harden it, then snap it off. A fine grain pattern will result.

Tracers, for making lines

Modeling & planishing

Curved punches

Matting tools

Process . Draw the design on annealed metal. . Warm the pitch with a gentle torch flame or hot air gun and set the metal right-side up onto a smooth area of pitch. Pull a rim of pitch onto the metal with a dampened finger or a stick to achieve a better grip. . Go over the lines lightly with a tracing punch. . Lift the metal out of the pitch by prying, rapping the pot, or warming it and lifting with tweezers. Remove excess pitch by burning or (better) by dissolving it in baby oil or turpentine. If burned, do not allow ignited pitch to drip back into the bowl. When it burns, pitch becomes brittle and must be discarded. Ventilation is recommended when burning pitch.

What we see depends mainly on what we look for.

John Lubbock

. Turn the metal over and set it back into the pitch. Boss up forms with whatever roundtipped tools will fit the shapes. When the metal feels stiff and the corners are curling out of the pitch, remove the work, clean off the pitch, and anneal the metal. . Dry the sheet and return it to the pitch for further work on either front or back as needed.

Shaping > Forming > Repoussé

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Sinking Sinking Sinking is a versatile technique used to create domed forms in sheet metal by pounding the metal into a hemispherical die. Sinking can be used by itself or as a first step in raising.

Process . Strike a small dimple in the center of a sheet and scribe a circle with dividers. Cut out the disk with shears or a saw. A typical thickness for small vessels is  or  gauge sheet.

. Draw pencil guidelines with a compass on the inside of the form at 1⁄2" intervals.

. Place the disk so the edge is across the center of a depression carved into a stump or wood block. Strike with a ball-faced hammer or mallet, progressing from the circumference inward toward the center.

. Repeat to achieve the desired depth, annealing as needed. When the desired depth has been reached, smooth the form over a mushroom stake.

Ugly things are ugly in much the same way the world over.

Bruno Munari

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Shaping > Forming > Sinking

Tools Sinking blocks are usually made of wood, preferably using the end grain. Carve depressions with gouges or turn them on a lathe. The die shapes are general forming aids and do not need to exactly fit the final shape. Mallets are generally preferred over hammers because they cause less stress on the workpiece, but the added weight of steel hammers has the advantage of speeding up the process.

Stretching Stretching Stretching is a technique that causes sheet metal to dome by forging it against an anvil. As tension is created between expanded (stretched) and unhammered areas, the metal is pulled upward. Repeat this on a disk and the result is a dish; a volumetric form. This transformation can be controlled by the shape of a hammer and the angle at which the metal is held.

compress expand

Advantages > Stretching requires only a few simple tools. > Stretching makes it easy to create a thick rim. > When starting from an ingot, stretching saves a step over raising because it thins the sheet while creating the form. > The size of the finished circumference is the same as the starting disk. This might be important when fitting, as in the case of a lid.

• Stretching an Asymmetrical Form It’s probably a good idea to learn on a round vessel, but once you understand it, stretching lends itself to irregular forms. Because the process is immediate and direct, some people liken it to working clay on a potter’s wheel. In the case of an asymmetrical form, each blow is laid on with sensitivity to force and angle, which makes it possible to feel the shape develop at your fingertips.

A disadvantage is that, since all the hammering is done from the inside, stretching is limited to shallow forms.

Process . Start with an annealed disk of relatively thick metal. The thickness will depend on the diameter of the disk and the intended height of the vessel. A typical thickness for a small bowl or cup is – gauge B&S (– mm). . Polish a ball-peen hammer. For a tall vessel, you will need a hammer with a long reach. Also polish a section of an anvil or a flat stake. . Starting in the center, strike a spiral of strong, overlapping blows. As soon as the form begins to curve upward, angle the resulting dish so that the metal is flat on the anvil at the point of contact. . When you reach the rim, anneal the metal and take a moment to shake out your hands and arms. . Dry the metal and repeat as many courses as necessary to punch the form into shape. Hammers with a smaller radius will pull the metal up at a sharper angle, but they will also make rounded dents on the inside of the form. Planish over polished stakes to smooth away irregularities. Shaping > Forming > Stretching

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Raising Raising There is only one right way to raise—the way that works. Methods . Make an actual-size drawing and a will differ depending on the size template from it. The diameter of the and shape of the piece, the tools starting disk is the sum of the widest available, and the metal being and tallest measures (AB + CD) or, for a dome, twice the length of line AB. raised. This page illustrates the steps in raising a vessel and should be enough to get you started, but only when you actually do the work will these tips synthesize into a method.

In an open vessel, planishing is done after the form is complete, but for necked-in shapes, the lower section might need to be planished midway in the process while the stakes still fit inside.

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Truth is something you stumble into when you think you’re going some place else.

Jerry Garcia

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Shaping > Forming > Raising

. Centerpunch the sheet and scribe a circle with dividers. Cut with shears then file and burnish the edge to make it smooth.

. Keep in mind that material at the edge . Draw concentric guidelines about 1⁄4" has to cover a greater distance than apart with a pencil compass. Give the the metal near the base line. Because sheet contour by sinking or angle of this, it is easy to accidentally create raising. The goal is to convert the disk a “bugle horn” shape. If the bowl flares from a flat plane to a volumetric form out too much, raise a course or two as efficiently as possible. If the vessel starting at mid-height. is to have a flat bottom, leave the floor area untouched. The progress from the base line to top edge is called a course. . When the curve of the form restricts access for a hammer, continue work from the outside over stakes made of wood, plastic, or steel. Start at the baseline with the sheet held at about a ° angle, and strike the hammer so its leading edge touches the metal first. The idea is to compress the metal, pushing it into itself.

. As work proceeds, rotate the disk and drop the hammer in even blows. After going around the form once, slide the disk back about 1⁄2" and continue raising. The idea is to make a bulge and then work it to the edge.

. As raising continues, the top edge will thicken slightly. To exaggerate this, tap the edge with a cross-peen at the end of each course. Support the work on a sandbag or in your hand while doing this.

. Check the straightness of the form with a surface gauge or by drawing lines with a stationary pencil. Cut the top as needed and file it smooth. Planish as described on the next page.

Raising Crimping Crimping is a technique used in the early stages of raising to quickly change a flat sheet into a volumetric form. Some people prefer to begin raising by sinking, but the advocates of crimping hold that it is a faster method. Mark the disk into segments and hold it across a notched stake so the line is over the center of the notch. Use a cross-peen mallet or hammer to make a fluted bowl shape. Smooth out these flutes over a T-stake in a standard raising operation. Always raise from the point of the crimp out to the edge.

Planishing This word comes from the Latin planus, which means to flatten or level. It refers to the smoothing, toughening, and polishing of metal by hammering. The effect of planishing can be only as good as the surfaces of the tools being used. Hammer faces and stakes or anvil must be mirror-finished.

A hammer held in a vise can be used like a stake…

… and so can a dapping punch held in a vise.

Raising Stake

Hammers

Mallets

You can make your own raising stake from a piece of hardwood, or even a common two-by-four. A valley in one end is used for crimping, and the rounded tip of the other stands in for a T-stake.

Any smooth-faced hammer can be used for planishing but the ideal tool has one flat face and one slightly crowned face. To get maximum contact but avoid leaving marks, use the flat face on curved surfaces and the domed face on flat or nearly flat surfaces. A heavy hammer (– oz.) is best for quick work and flattening wire, but a lightweight hammer (– oz.) is recommended for final finishing.

Raising with mallets goes slower than with hammers, but the time might be saved because less planishing is needed. Use wood, horn, nylon, delrin, or other plastics.

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Shaping > Forming > Raising

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Seaming Seaming Although any shape can be raised from a flat sheet, it is sometimes more efficient to fabricate a shape that approaches the desired end result and use forming techniques from there. The solder seams in such pieces will receive a lot of stress so some special provisions must be made.

Interlocking Finger Joint . To provide more surface area for the solder, file or planish a bevel equal to about five thicknesses of the metal. Angle the two ends of the strip in opposite directions so when they connect they will mate to make a smooth joint. The two edges to be joined should thin out evenly over about a 1⁄2" area. . To prevent the two edges from sliding over and past each other, cut and bend tabs in each end. Mark a line 1⁄4" in from each edge and lay out the same number of tabs on each edge. Generally, the tabs are of equal size, but variations are possible as long as the two ends are identical. The tabs can be so small they hardly show up or large enough to be important to the design. . Saw these lines on both sides, stopping at the 1⁄4" mark. On stock under  gauge a single cut is sufficient but for heavier sheet, cut a skinny V. Cones with straight sides are the starting point for funnel and nosecone shapes.

. On one edge, bend the even-numbered tabs up slightly. On the other edge bend the evennumbered tabs down. Paint the whole area with flux, slide the edges together, and wrap the form with binding wire. . Set the form over a stake and mallet the tabs down. Sometimes it helps to use a burnisher or bezel pusher to press the end of each tab. . Apply solder generously to the joint—remember, there is a lot more surface area here than meets the eye. Wire solder lends itself to this job. After soldering, quench in water and examine the joint. If there are voids, planish the seam, reflux, and remelt the solder. When the joint is solid, raising and planishing can proceed as usual.

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Shaping > Forming > Seaming

Shell Structures Shell Structures When two or more formed pieces of metal are soldered together the resulting hollow form is called a shell structure. In making hollow forms, remember these rules: Pieces to be joined must be clean and tight-fitting. When using binding wire, allow for expansion by putting a zigzag in the wire. Allow for the release of air from enclosed spaces.

Process Shell structures can be classed as mono-, bi-, or tri-shell, depending on the number of parts that come together to make the object. Each case is unique, but most will follow this general sequence. . Make the largest element by raising, die forming, foldforming, etc. Planish and smooth the edges to make the form as resolved as possible. . Lay a piece of stiff paper against the form and trace the edge to develop a pattern. Cut outside the line and test again, then cut the metal for the second shell, leaving a flange. Form as needed. . Tie the pieces together with binding wire. Make notches in the flange as needed to keep the wire from slipping. Flux well and solder with a large bushy flame. Quench in water, remove all wires, and pickle. . If additional shells are needed, repeat these steps. For extensive coverage of this topic see Form Emphasis for Metalsmiths, by Heikki Sëppa Kent State University Press, Kent, Ohio, .

. Cut off excess material with shears then file and sand all edges.

Shaping > Forming > Shell Structures

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Anticlastic Raising Terminology The word synclastic describes a form in which the dominant curves both move in the same direction. When the two dominant axes curve in opposite directions the result is known as an anticlastic form. A bowl is a synclastic form and a saddle is an anticlastic form.

Making a Spiculum

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Sinusoidal Stakes A flat sinusoidal stake can be made of hardwood or plastic. A metal variety is made by bending a tapered steel rod. All curves should be smooth, uniform, and symmetrical.

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. Grade roll a sheet so one end is thinner than the other.

. Cut a shape from annealed sheet and file the edges smooth. Anneal and dry.

. Lay the metal along a groove in a wooden block. Strike with a crosspeen along a line just inside one edge. Overlap blows, taking small steps from one to the next.

. Reverse the form and and repeat the hammering along the opposite edge. If the form curls, bend it back to straight in your hands.

. Continue in this way, striking lines that run along the axis of the form, each time moving closer to the center. It may be necessary to switch to a narrower groove in the forming block. Stop when the form is slightly oval, with the opening at the longest axis of the oval.

. To close the seam, hold the spiculum in a V-groove or (better) a rounded groove and tap it with a cross-peen hammer. When done correctly, the form will close as if with a zipper, and the result will be round in cross-section.

Shaping > Forming > Anticlastic Raising

Anticlastic Raising Making a Curved Double Spiculum

Bending a Spiculum Modest curves can be made in a tapered tube by bending it in your hands. Use a mallet to tap the tube lightly so that its round cross section becomes oval. Note the location of the solder seam. Anneal and bend gingerly, distributing the force along the spiculum such that the curve lines up with the tall axis of the oval. Stop when the cross section returns to round. If needed you can repeat this process a couple of times, but more than that and the cross section will become square.

. Cut a graceful form and file the edges smooth. Shapes do not need to be symmetrical but this is recommended in early learning exercises. Trace the pattern for future reference.

. Bend the annealed sheet into an even curve and lay it over the stake while holding the legs together. With a smooth cross-peen hammer or mallet, strike the metal to begin the curve. Do not allow the legs to pull upward.

. Move along the edge, starting in the center and moving outward, left and right. Reverse the metal and repeat on the opposite edge.

. Continue in this way on the long axis to gradually roll the form upward. Resist the temptation to move too quickly. Use gentle overlapping blows, stopping as needed to manually twist the piece back to symmetry.

. Stop when the form is oval in cross-section. Anneal and dry. Hold the form beside a curved stake like an anvil horn or a ring mandrel gripped in a vise. Tap on the edge directly opposite from the point of contact, rolling the form and advancing along that point.

Grade Rolling Control of anticlastic raising requires an understanding of the thickness-todiameter ratio. Imagine using coat hanger wire to make a series of rings. A two-inch hoop will be easy, a one-inch hoop will be challenging, and a half-inch hoop will be almost impossible. As the diameter gets smaller, the metal needs to be thinner. To create a situation where the thickness-todiameter remains constant, the metal must be made thinner as it goes to the point. This can be done by careful planishing or with the help of a rolling mill. Rolling can be done before or after cutting out the blank, but it will slightly distort the form, so some filing will be needed in either case. Set the jaws so they equal the metal thickness, then close them a quarter turn. Roll the metal almost all the way through, then back it out. Close the gap another quarter turn and roll almost as far as last time, then back it out. Continue in this way to create a subtle stair step progression. Planish the ridges lightly with a polished hammer to make a uniform ramp. Anneal, file the edges, and proceed as above. Shaping > Forming > Anticlastic Raising

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Die Forming Defining Dies In general terms, metal forming is done by forcing the material over a rigid object. When the rigid form has the shape and contour of the desired result, it can be called a die and the process is called die forming.

Categories of Die Forming

Uses Die forming has many applications but is especially good for: • matching halves, like spouts and fabricated containers • matching parts, as with a box and lid • production situations where interchangeable parts are important • designs with repeated elements

Sequence This shows the usual progression of tooling, moving from outside edges inward. Hold the punch at a slight angle and the hammer blows will push it along.

Non-conforming punch dies Non-conforming silhouette dies Embossing dies Conforming punch dies Cutting (blanking) dies Combination (e.g., silhouette with detail)

Silhouette Dies The silhouette dies described here are modern versions of an ancient process. Cut an outline (silhouette) of a desired shape in a rigid material that will become the die. In use, metal is held against the die and pushed into the open area. Variations involve the die material, the ram, the force behind the ram, and the method of holding the workpiece to the die.

Silhouette dies allow a variety of depths to be made in a single die.

The Flange A unique feature of die forming is the flange or skirt that surrounds the form. Leave the flange around a die-formed shape to keep the form intact through surface decorating. If serious deformation is planned, fill the piece with pitch by pouring from a pan or melting lumps right in the formed area. Keep the flange intact for later refitting into the die. Before cutting it off consider its use as…

a latch

legs a hinge bearing

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Shaping > Forming > Die Forming

handles

Die Forming Wooden Dies

Supports When dies are thinner than the form being generated, they must rest on something to keep them up off the table while forming. > Styrofoam

> wood frame

> sandbag

. Masonite will create a stronger edge than plywood so it is used on the outer surfaces. Make a die block by gluing together pieces of plywood and tempered Masonite. Use a white glue and clamp or weight the layers until the glue dries. . Mark the design on the Masonite and cut out the die hole, usually with a coping saw. Take care in sawing that the sides of the hole are vertical. The opening in the top must be the same size as the opening in the bottom. If you use a band saw, the sawn opening must be glued closed. Insert a strip of wood (like a tongue depressor), add glue, and clamp. . Plan the location of hold-down screws and drill holes. These should be about 3⁄8" ( mm) from the die hole. . Make a rubbing of the die and use this to cut the metal and locate the holes for screws. The holes should be a little larger than the threaded part of the screws. . Fasten the metal onto the die with 3⁄4" sheet metal screws. To reveal the outline of the form, tap the metal lightly with a mallet or hammer handle. While working, the die can sit on a bench, sandbag, or opened vise. . To anneal the workpiece, remove the screws and take the metal off the die. If the piece is symmetrical (like a hemisphere) both pieces can be made on the same side of the die. For asymmetrical designs, turn the die over and start with Step .

Reinforcing the edge

Semi-conforming dies

A Masonite-faced die can be used several times before the edge starts to break down. For a more lasting die, cut a piece of thin steel sheet with the same hole as the rest of the die and fasten it onto the Masonite with countersunk flathead screws.

When a specific contour is needed, like the angle shown here, it may be built into the die by filing the Masonite to the correct shape. Note that this is not a reversible die; two dies must be made for matching halves.

Shaping > Forming > Die Forming

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Die Forming Steel Silhouette Dies

Process

Because steel is stronger than wood, a thinner die will give equal support. Steel dies are less cumbersome and more durable than wooden dies, but they take longer to saw out. Because the die material is thinner, it is easier to guarantee that the wall of the die hole is vertical.

. Draw the design on 1⁄8" steel sheet with a permanent marker. Any kind of steel will do.

. Pierce with a jewelers saw using a large blade (e.g., #). After sawing, smooth the edges with a file and sandpaper.

. Plan the location of screw holes about 1⁄4" from the die hole; centerpunch for each. Use oil when drilling. Match the size bit for the tap to be used next.

. Cut threads with a tap using oil to lubricate. Individual taps and handles can be bought at a hardware store for a few dollars. Advance a quarter turn, then reverse to clear the chips. Short screws will make the screwing and unscrewing go faster.

. Make a pencil rubbing of the die to determine the sheet of metal needed and the location of the holes for the hold-down screws. These holes should be a little larger than the screws.

. With the annealed metal screwed onto the die, the forming proceeds as usual. After each annealing, begin forming from the outside edge.

Sheet metal screws When the die hole is fairly small—say less than  square inches—you can use steel thinner than 1⁄8". Instead of threading this (step  above), use sheet metal screws (also called self-tapping screws). Drill a hole only as large as the shank of the screw and force it in. It can be unscrewed without damage and will work from both sides.

Press Dies A press die consists of a matched pair of complementary shapes. When a softer substance is set into position between them, the positive and negative parts of the die are pressed together, causing a deformation of the softer material. The space between parts will determine the slope of the form.

Common items like screws and wire can be used to construct a press die.

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Shaping > Forming > Die Forming

. Draw a cross section plan. Cut pieces from . When the pieces are in place on one wood, Masonite, brass, or steel. As you side of the die, contrive a method of measure, allow clearance, remembering transferring location points from one side that the greater the clearance, the softer to the other. This could include using the form. The chalk dust, tempera paint, carbon paper, thickness of the or clay. Complete the work metal will also die assembly by gluing, affect the sharpness soldering, and/or screwing of the contours. the second die. . Test with thin metal or aluminum foil.

. File, carve, or build up with epoxy or auto body filler if needed.

. Join shallow dies with a hinge. Deep dies can track along pins. Drill holes through the assembled parts, then attach metal rods or wooden dowels. Rub the rods with soap to help the parts slide easily.

. Put annealed metal into position, slide the die into a large vise, and squeeze. Use a thin metal like heavy-duty aluminum foil to check the results.

Die Forming Hydraulic Forming The word hydraulic comes from the Greek word hydros (water) and aulos (tube). A hydraulic jack uses fluid to exaggerate a movement of one piston into a greater movement of another piston. Such a jack can be positioned in a stable frame so that the pushing action of its ram is trapped behind a fixed plate. This is called a hydraulic press; when it is used to form metal in a die, the process is called hydraulic die forming. Accessories

Containing the Action

Equipment

The hydraulic press brings two steel plates called platens together with an even and controllable force. The force can be manipulated by using accessories such as domes, T-stakes, and holding collars that are attached by bolts to the platens. Development of innovative accessories in recent years has enlarged the possibilities of hydraulic forming for small-scale metalsmithing studios.

A simple version of a press die would have a punch coming down on a sheet of annealed metal as it rests on a rubbery pad. In this configuration a lot of the “give” of the pad is dispersed outward which wastes the force of the ram. To eliminate this wasted energy, the yielding pad (usually urethane) is fitted into a steel box or cylinder. This allows the press to operate more efficiently, which speeds up the operation.

Presses are available in several sizes and with jacks of varying pressure. Press frames are simple in concept and exacting in practice. Dimensions and tolerances must be well understood to make a press that can use the full potential of the jack. Joins must be strong and alignment precise or the frame can literally tear itself apart. This seems to be one of those cases where the smart money is to buy a well-engineered and wellbuilt tool from the beginning.

Blunder ahead with your own personal view.

Robert Henri

Urethane In ancient times, lead was used to force thin sheet metal into bronze dies. A modern synthetic material called urethane is preferred today because it is safer and more efficient. Urethane can be manufactured to include a variety of properties, including a wide range of hardness, known as Shore Hardness. Because it is measured with a tool called a durometer this term is also used. Urethanes run from  durometers (pencil eraser soft) to  durometers (used for car bumpers). Urethanes are impervious to water, oil, and oxidation but will start to break down at temperatures above º F (º C). Never heat, burn, saw, or sand urethane because dangerous gases are released. Always cut with scissors or a knife.

Shaping > Forming > Die Forming



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Wire Drawing

Uses: > to make wire thinner > to change section, e.g., to make round wire into square wire > to make tubing > to make wire springy by work hardening

Drawing Wire

Annealing Wire

Process

Coil wire closely so individual strands are not overexposed to heat that might melt them. Wrap the coil with wire; if the wire is steel, be avoid sure to remove it before this putting the coil into pickle. If stainless, brass, or copper is used, the work can go directly from water quench to pickle.

. Clamp the plate horizontally in a vise. . File a gradual taper at the tip of the wire. This filing is made easier by cutting a notch in your bench pin. . Feed the tip of the wire through the unnumbered side of the plate into the first hole where it fits snugly. Use heavy-duty gripping pliers called draw tongs to pull the wire through the plate in a slow, smooth motion. . Pull the wire through successive holes until it feels tough and springy. Anneal and dry, then continue drawing. The point might need to be refiled as drawing progresses.

Cross section Drawplates are made in a variety of cross section shapes such as triangular, star-shaped, and oval. These are somewhat rare and have limited use because the shapes are so specific. The force needed to pull wire through a fancy plate usually requires a drawbench.

No vise? If a vise is not available, hold the drawplate on a pair of boards across a door jamb. Native American silversmiths used to anchor their plates against pegs in the ground, a position that has the advantage of using leg muscles, which are usually stronger than arms.

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Shaping > Forming > Wire Drawing

Historians cannot be sure exactly when drawplates were invented, but they were in use in Europe in the th century. The monk Theophilus, writing at that time describes “two iron plates … thin and pierced thoughout with three or four rows of holes of diminishing size.” The drawplate we use today hasn’t changed much from its ancestors.

Lubrication

Specialty Wires To make special shapes in standard drawplates, start by soldering two wires together for a length of about 1⁄2" at one end. File this area to a gradual taper.

> Use a round plate to make half-round wire and a square plate to make rectangular wires. > To make triangular wire in a square plate, first make half-round wire. Anneal it, but do not pickle—the oxide will prevent parts from bonding, which is a good thing here. Hold a thin knife blade diagonally across the square in the plate as you draw the wire.

Clamp a piece of rag or sponge onto the plate and moisten it with a light oil such as wintergreen or olive oil. The wire may also be rubbed with wax, but this can clog small holes.

Fancy Mixed Metal Wires

Homemade Drawplates

About those numbers…

Drawplates for tubemaking and chain drawing can be made of plastic or a hard wood like maple. Drill a series of holes and carve a funnel shape with a bud bur or tapered reamer.

The numbers on a drawplate have no correspondence to wire size. The largest hole on any drawplate is labeled # regardless of its diameter. A few manufacturers offer drawplates with holes in B&S sizes.

Use the process described above with metals of contrasting color such as silver and copper. After drawing and annealing, these wires can be twisted to alter the effect.

Tubemaking Tubemaking

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Precise Inside Diameter To achieve a desired inside diameter, set a steel or brass wire of the intended diameter into the tube midway through the process. Oil the wire lightly and be sure it is longer than the tube. To remove it, pull the wire through the plate from the front and pull it out with tongs.

Calculations For a given outside diameter: od + thickness* x . (pi) π For a given inside diameter: id – thickness* x . (pi) π *Thickness of the sheet being used.

. With scissors, cut a strip of thin gauge metal with parallel sides; dividers are handy for marking this. Cut a point on the strip.

. Lay the annealed strip in a groove to start the form. This can be a trough cut into the endgrain of a log, a V-block, or the open jaws of a vise. Set a rod along the center line and strike it with a mallet.

. With pliers or a mallet, continue bending this trough into a tube. Take special care that the point is symmetrically curled. If this is well formed, the rest of the strip will usually roll evenly.

. Pull the strip through the drawplate just like wire. Pull the tube straight out, perpendicular to the drawplate.

. Continue pulling until the edges just meet. If the seam looks rough, pause before closing to even the edges with a needle file. Do not overlap the seam. If the tube ripples, anneal it before proceeding.

. Solder the seam, usually with hard solder. Prop is up on a brick so the seam remains upright and easy to watch during soldering.

Commercial Tubing Most dealers of metals sell something called extruded tube. This has been made using a continuous casting technique and so has no seam. Though it is never essential, in some applications this is a handy feature.

Thick Walled Tubing Tubemaking works best with metal  gauge or thinner. To make thickwalled tubing, follow the directions above to make a tube of a larger diameter than what is needed. Solder the seam. After pickling and drying, continue drawing the tube. This will make it smaller in diameter, longer, and thicker walled. Shaping > Forming > Tubemaking

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Foldforming Types The hundreds of variations can be grouped under four headings Line folds T-folds Woven folds Scored folds

Foldforming The term foldforming refers to a group of procedures pioneered by Charles Lewton-Brain in the early s. These techniques and the ever-increasing variations developed by other metalsmiths share the idea of using the internal property of metal to assist in the development of form. A sample that is uniformly annealed will bend equally in all directions and so a stake or mandrel is needed to control the shape. If the sample is selectively workhardened, the internal stresses can be used to guide the form. This is the kind of thinking that led to the invention of foldforming.

Line Fold Anyone who has folded and creased a paper knows that this permanently alters the material. The crease will never completely disappear. Line folds use this fact to create a ridge or raised line along a surface. . Fold a sheet of metal (experiment with thin gauge). . Crease the fold by striking it with a mallet or passing the fold through a rolling mill. . Anneal, quench, and dry. . Open out the sheet, ideally using only fingers. . Planish the ridge to press the line into the sheet. This step is called confirming and can also be accomplished with a light pass through a rolling mill.

Less is only more where more is no good.

Frank Lloyd Wright

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Shaping > Forming > Foldforming

T-Folds To start a T-fold, bend a sheet of metal over and grip it in a vise so that the fold portion extends above the jaws. Make sure the loop at the top is open and strike it down against the vise to create a “T” section. Planish the folds, either in the vise or against an anvil. Anneal, quench, dry, and open.

Variations > Multiple lines can be made by going through the process described above, several times on the same sheet. > Partial lines are made by hammering only a portion of a fold, for instance, by planishing between a domed stake and a curved hammer. > Forged lines start with a basic fold but use a crosspeen hammer to thin the metal just inside the fold. This will cause a rectangle to arc and, if taken far enough, will create a helix.

Variations • Angle the position of the metal in the vise. • Planish only part of the fold. • Use the process multiple times on the same sheet. • Use a cross-peen hammer to stretch the folds. Uneven thinning will create curving forms.

Foldforming Rolled Folds These are variations on T-folds in which a rolling mill is used to press layers of metal together. The ability of the mill to apply extreme pressure and to yield a uniform thickness gives these foldforms their unique character. Plunkett Fold . Make an angled T-fold. . Bend up the top of the T to make a Y, then keep going until the sections touch. . Mallet the top sections closed and pass the piece through the mill just enough to press the layers flat. . Roll again, this time under pressure, starting from the pointed end. Continue additional passes, tightening the rollers each time until the metal feels almost ready to split. . Anneal, quench, dry, and open. Variations > Fold a strip repeatedly on the diagonal. Tap, roll, anneal, open. This is called an Eckland fold.

For more detailed information about fold forming, see Forming Using Metal Characteristics Charles Lewton-Brain Brain Press: , revised 

Scored Folds Traditional metalsmithing uses files or cutting tools to remove metal along an intended bend line in a process called scoring. The foldforming approach is to simply compress and anneal the fold path. While traditional methods lend themselves to straight folds and are less effective on curves, the reverse is true of this method—curves are easy but straight lines can be difficult. . Bend a wire to the proposed curve. The wire should be no thicker than the metal being formed. Nickel silver, annealed binding wire, or brass is typical. Note that curves will open out when rolled, so compensate by making the curves a bit tighter than the intended result.

. Set the wire onto sheet and position the sandwiched assembly in a rolling mill so that very firm pressure is needed to move the rollers. Send the assembly through in a single pass.

. Anneal, pickle, rinse, and dry. Bend the metal along the incised line, using only fingers if possible.

. Flux and flow solder into the fold to strengthen it. To convert this into a line-fold, mallet the sample flat and confirm the raised line. Shaping > Forming > Foldforming

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Scoring Scoring Scoring is the process of removing metal along the line of a proposed fold. On thin sheet, it can be achieved with a sharp scribe. On metal over  gauge, scoring is done with a graver, a file, or a scraper made just for this purpose. To Score a º Groove in a Narrow Band

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Compression Scoring For simple jobs you can compress metal rather than remove it. Strike over the edge of an anvil or use a hardened bar such as the corner of a punch. Strike a single blow, anneal, and bend.

. File one edge smooth and straight, then use a square against the edge to scribe a perpendicular line. . With the metal braced against the bench pin and angled, file a notch at the edge with a triangular file or the corner of a flat hand file. . Repeat this file stroke, tilting the workpiece a few degrees further with each pass. The file will cut a tall V that extends across the band with each stroke. Continue until this V reaches about two-thirds of the width. . Turn the workpiece around and repeat the process from the other side. . Switch to a square needle file and refine the groove to a uniform depth. . Bend with fingers, check against a square, flux, and solder.

To Score a Wide Panel . File one edge so it is smooth and straight. . Use a square against this edge to scribe a clear perpendicular line. For largescale work use a fine-tipped permanent marker. . Clamp the metal onto a workbench using C-clamps and protective pads. To prevent damage to the table, set the work on a piece of scrap wood. At the same time, clamp a straight piece of wood or steel beside the marked line to guide the tool. . Set a sharp scoring tool near the top edge and against the fence and pull it firmly toward yourself. Pull many times with medium pressure rather than a few times with extreme force. . To score the top edge, use a file, or turn the piece around and repeat the process. . Continue until a raised line is visible on the reverse side of the sheet.

Scoring and Measurement It’s easy to get confused when scoring because the fold will happen at the base of the V-groove. When laying out multiple bends, think in terms of the exterior dimensions and allow a little extra material to compensate for the bend area. To make all the corners look the same, score then break off the end piece. For curved scoring with a wire, refer to foldforming earlier in this chapter.

break off this piece

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Shaping > Forming > Scoring

break off this piece

Metal Clay Concept In the s scientists in Japan developed a combination of binders and metal particles to create a material with the working properties of modeling clay, known as precious metal clay, or PMC. This water-soluble product is available from several manufacturers in the form of lump, sheets, slip, and ready-touse syringes. An organic binder provides elasticity while holding very tiny grains of metal in suspension. After the water is driven off, the object is heated to the fusing temperature of the constituent metal. During heating, the binding material burns away, which causes the object to shrink to a degree equal to the volume originally occupied by the binder. The process is easiest with pure silver and pure gold because these noble metals resist the formation of oxides and fuse at easily attainable temperatures. Platinum (the other noble metal) can be made into a clay but requires temperatures beyond the reach of most kilns.

Working with Metal Clay

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slow firing; less dense quicker firing; more dense fast firing; most dense

The working properties of metal clays are related to moisture content. Avoid working in a draft or using materials that will absorb water (like paper and cardboard). Take only the amount to be used at the moment, sealing the rest in plastic wrap to keep it moist. Put a few drops of olive oil or an organic skin lotion in your palms and roll the metal clay to apply a thin layer of oil. This will help seal in moisture. To make sheets of metal clay, roll it out like cookie dough, using a convenient length of plastic pipe as a rolling pin. To ensure uniform thickness, set matching spacers on each side of the clay. Tongue depressors, pieces of matte board or stacks of playing cards make good spacers. Cut metal clay by dragging a needle through the material or with a knife, (which leaves a neater edge). A long, razorlike medical industry tool, called a tissue blade, is a useful (though dangerous) cutting tool. Plastic picnic knives make a nice alternative when children are involved, and the edge of a playing card works too. Crystal Structure Metals are made up of small clusters of molecules called grains that arrange themselves according to several external conditions including heat, stress, and time. Metal clays are, by their nature, loose-packed compared to traditional metals, which are compressed into rods and sheets under great pressure. Because pure metals are almost always more malleable than their alloys, these two factors explain why basic sintered metal clay is more malleable than wrought metals. Metal clays with shorter firing times (e.g., PMC+) use several sizes of particles to yield a denser and therefore tougher material. Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay

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Metal Clay Slip

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To make slip, either smear water into metal clay with a palette knife, or rub a dried piece of clay on coarse paper to reduce it to dust, and mix this with water. To retard the rate of drying, add a drop of glycerine, but be careful not too add too much or the clay will never harden properly.

Metal clays can be thinned with water to make a paste (called slip or slurry) that is useful to join elements, repair cracks, and as a surface texture. Because the material is very dense, simply stirring is not sufficient to blend additional water into the mix. Instead, use a palette knife or similar flexible blade to blend clean water into a small piece of PMC. Seal the mix in an airtight container and allow it to rest for a few hours, after which it will be ready to use. The water and binder will separate if it is left unused for several days, but at this point they can be stirred together easily and used immediately. Some people find it useful to have several consistencies of slip available—just change the proportion of water to make these.

Carving . Make the shape by molding the fresh clay into an object that suggests the final form.

. To allow the work to dry, lay it on foam rubber or a crumbled wad of paper (to increase air flow). You can also dry it in an oven, on a warming tray, or with a hair dryer. Do not set it on aluminum, including foil.

. Shape with knives, files, and sanding sticks. Catch the dust on a piece of paper and add it to your slip jar with a little additional water.

. To engrave lines, use a V-gouge such as those for linoleum engraving. Use the small bits for surface decoration or rehydrate with water. High-quality miniature gouges are available from Prairie Craft (--, prairiecraft.com).

Textures Metal clays are great at capturing textures. Textures without undercuts can be collected by simply pressing the metal clay against an object. If a release agent is needed, use cooking spray (e.g., Pam) or roll the clay between oiled palms to create a film on its surface. When working with delicate objects that are also combustible, it is usually easier to leave the textured object in place and simply allow it to burn away during the firing step. Examples include leaves, flower petals, fine fabric, lace, feathers, and thread.

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Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay

Metal Clay Firing Equipment The ideal tool for firing is an electric programmable kiln. These kilns combine the benefits of accurate control with freedom since they do not require monitoring. Several kilns have been developed just for metal clay and can be purchased through jewelry supply companies. Next best is a manual kiln with an accurate pyrometer. As the kiln approaches the desired temperature, regulate the heat by adjusting the knob or cracking the door open. Kilns appropriate for this method include enameling kilns, burnout ovens, test (glaze) kilns, and many kilns used to fuse or anneal glass. Large ceramic kilns are not recommended because the internal temperature varies throughout the chamber. Some metal clays have been created to have relatively short firing times. These open the possibility of alternate firing techniques using a torch, campstove, or alcohol-based fuel. Because technology is changing rapidly, consult the Web or contact a supplier of metal clay for the latest information.

Look for points in common which are not points of similarity, it is thus that the poet can say, “A swallow stabs the sky,” and turns the sparrow into a dagger.

George Braque

Firing Surfaces To make it easy to set objects into the kiln and remove them after firing, place your work on shelves or trays. These can be soldering blocks, bisque tiles (ceramic supply), most floor tiles, terracotta saucers, and slabs of kiln bricks. If in doubt, run a test firing. All these materials will eventually break from use, but their lifespan can be extended by reducing exposure to thermal shock. When a shelf has been unloaded it should be put back in the warm kiln to cool slowly. These materials can be stacked using pieces of soldering block as supports between layers. Shelf materials are brittle so use common sense in providing support and avoiding stressful situations.

Solderite boards cut into one-inch blocks make handy stilts to stack trays.

Setting a heavy dish like this on an elevated shelf is tempting fate. Better to put the saucer on a low shelf. The single blocks make it easier to lift the tray with a spatula.

Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay

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Metal Clay Firing with a Torch Some versions of metal clay are made of such tiny particles that they can be fused quickly enough to make torch firing practical. A few minutes at fusing temperature (indicated by a glowing red color) is enough to make the metal solid. Simply set the dried object on a soldering or firing surface and heat it evenly with a torch. An alternate approach is to jerryrig a furnace from a flower pot. Line the terra cotta pot with aluminum foil to reflect the heat, and find a way to prop a jeweler’s torch so that its flame is directed into the chamber. This method reaches around ° F (° C), which is good for several versions of metal clay. It is practical for -minute firings; something that isn’t comfortable when you’re holding the torch the whole time.

Creativeness often consists of merely turning up what is already there. Did you know that right and left shoes were thought up only a little more than a century ago?

Bernice Fitz-Gibbon

Patterned Rollers To make a patterned roller, carve a pattern into a length of PVC pipe with linoleum cutters, wood carving tools, or gravers. You can also make a patterned roller by gluing a sample of a textured material onto a piece of pipe. For instance, cover a clean length of PVC with glue and press a piece of lace into place, securing it with rubber bands until the glue dries. If a specific repeat length is desired, use a cylinder with a diameter of one-third the intended repeat. A mark on a " pipe will reappear about every three inches when rolled.

Embedding Acceptable materials include: > brass > some glasses > fine silver > high-karat gold > laboratory-grown gems > titanium and niobium > stainless steel > ceramic elements

Materials that can withstand firing temperatures can be pressed into clay. Allow for shrinkage by leaving a gap around the implant. One way to achieve this is to wrap the piece with tape or coat it with wax equivalent to the shrinkage. Sometimes it is enough to wiggle the element to enlarge its socket. Don’t quench after firing—allow the work to air cool. Remember that metal clay shrinks from all sides in all directions. Material beneath the implant will often push it upward as it contracts. Before & After Note space left around the implant.

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Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay

Before & After Without space, the implant is bent.

Metal Clay Laboratory-grown gems Natural and synthetic stones are likely to break and discolor under prolonged heat. The exception to this is a specific category of gemstones created at very high temperatures. These are always translucent and may be cut either as cabs or as faceted gems. They will be clearly identified as “lab-grown” by reputable vendors.

Setting a Round Faceted Stone

Shrinkage Around Stones The natural shrinkage of the process will curl metal over the top of the stone, which is what we want. But it will also push the stone upward from below. For this reason, press the gem down far enough into the clay that the table is below the level of the PMC.

. Make the object, creating a thickness equal to the height of the stone where the gem will go.

. With a pencil point, sharpened dowel, or similar tool, poke a conical hole roughly the same size as the stone.

. Use a needle (wiggled in a circle) or a small straw to remove clay from the bottom of this hole. While not mandatory, this both conserves material and makes a more elegant setting.

. Lay the stone in position and press it down securely into the clay. Be certain the stone is level and seated below the surface of the metal clay.

Setting Heat Sensitive Stones For stones that cannot withstand the firing temperature of PMC you’ll need to make a socket into which the stone is set conventionally. While the clay is soft, press the gem into position to create a starter hole. Because the clay shrinks, you’ll need to enlarge this socket by either  or  depending on which clay you are using. This is often nothing more than wiggling the stone in all directions. In the case of a round stone, the math is easy and because there are hundreds of cylinders in our lives, it’s easy to come up with a tool. Imagine a  mm round cabochon set into PMC+, which has a  shrinkage rate. Locate a dowel, pen, nail head, or similar tool that is – mm in diameter and press it into the clay to make the proper socket. After firing and finishing you can put the stone into place and press the fine silver over it with a burnisher.

Finishing After firing, metal clays are  metal and can be soldered, filed, sanded, oxidized, patinaed, and polished like any other metal— almost. Because of their porous nature, high-shrinkage materials like original PMC should be burnished or tumbled to compact the structure before finishing. This is especially important before soldering and machine buffing, procedures that will otherwise soak up solder or compounds. Shaping > Forming > Metal Clay

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Electroforming Electroforming Conventional plating deposits a thin film of metal onto the surface of an otherwise finished piece of work. Electroforming uses this technology to build up a substantial layer of metal, often on a matrix of a nonmetal such as wood, plastic, or paper. As anyone blessed with bronze baby shoes knows, it is possible to electroform over nonmetallic objects. The only requirement is a coating of a conductive paint. This can be painted onto a matrix of wood, plastic, paper, stone, or about anything else. In some cases (like baby shoes) the object will remain encased in its metal shell. In others, the original form is burned away once the metal is sufficiently strong to stand without it. Equipment

An extremely simple experiment can be conducted with two  volt lantern batteries. The process will work, but this setup lacks power and control. For higher voltage, use a battery charger or a car battery. In order to have control, either of these will need to be fitted with an ammeter and rheostat. By the time you’ve invested in these, you probably would have been better off buying a rectifier, which combines all these parts in a single system. The initial cost is justified by the greater control and the more efficient and cheaper use.



Shaping > Forming > Electroforming

Process . Create a model using any combination of materials and techniques. Be certain that the final assembly is completely free of oils by washing it in an alcohol solvent. Everything to be coated with metal must be conductive, either as clean metal or by coating it with a conductive paint, which is available at electronics stores. Porous materials (paper, leaves, etc.) should be sealed with several coats of varnish or acrylic medium before this step. All metal parts to be left unplated should be covered with stop-out varnish. Delicate objects such as shells, organic gems, and so on should be stopped out to protect them from the relatively harsh electrolyte solution. . Prepare enough electrolyte to completely submerge the object. Using protective clothing and ventilation, mix one pound of copper sulfate with  cc of sulfuric acid and a half gallon of distilled water. Stir gently until the copper sulfate dissolves. This solution is used at room temperature. . Clean a piece of copper roughly equal in surface area to the piece being electroformed and connect it to the positive (+) pole. This is the anode. The copper can be a single piece bent around the object or several pieces hanging from bus bars that are connected by a wire. The objective is to provide sufficient and evenly spaced supply of copper to the solution. Allow at least 1⁄2" between this copper and the object. They must never touch! . Suspend the workpiece from a stout copper wire that is connected to the cathode, the negative (-) pole. When you are certain that the elements are not touching each other, turn on the rectifier (or connect the wire to batteries). . The thickness, texture, and speed of the plating reaction depends upon many factors including heat and strength of the solution, voltage, amperage, and the size and shape of the anode. Experiment to learn how to control your setup. . When the object is sufficiently rigid, turn off the power and remove the work. Cut away support wires and, if appropriate, remove the matrix material. Wax can be removed with boiling water. Neutralize the work by soaking it in a baking soda solution, then finish as usual. Electroformed objects can be soldered and colored but they are too brittle to withstand much forming.

Chapter 

Surfaces

Hammer Marks Hammer Marks There is something intrinsically appealing about hammer marks on metal. They celebrate the process of transformation—from flat, smooth raw material to embellished, contoured object. Along with this, hammer marks carry the gesture of the maker, the imprint of the human hand. Like fingerprints in clay, they remind us of the unseen maker. Mastery doesn’t interest me— there is a world full of virtuosos. I like to work as if I’m at the beginning.

Betty Oliver

Martelé In the early years of the twentieth century, Gorham Silver, a large American manufacturing company, introduced a line of hollowware influenced by the Arts and Crafts Style that was then popular. This line, called Martelé, (French for hammered) replaced the company's production methods with handwork to achieve the rich surface that only hand hammering can achieve.

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Modified Hammers Hammer faces can be altered with files, burs, and punches to create unique texturing tools. Pick up damaged and discarded hammerheads at flea markets and garage sales to have a ready supply. Sample marks first on clay then by striking annealed metal. To achieve the best impression always work on a heavy and stable base like an anvil. You can also create a rich surface by hammering the metal onto a texture, such as rusted steel or concrete.

Improvised Hammer

Double-Sided Textures

To make a punch into a hammer, grip it in vise grips or a hand vise. Fingerprint Protection: Hammer marks can be used strategically in places where handling will create unsightly fingerprints. Use a rough texture to hide tarnish on handles, flatware, and the backs of pins or pendants.

To mark both sides of a piece of metal, secure a punch or hammer in a vise and pinch the metal between this surface and a hammer.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Hammer Marks

Roll Printing Roll Printing To transfer texture and pattern from one material to another (e.g., fabric to metal), make a sandwich of the materials and pass it through the rolling mill under great pressure. This embosses the reverse image of the material into the metal.

Procedure . Anneal and dry the metal to be embossed. . When appropriate, anneal the texture material. An example is a paper clip. . Set the rollers by eye and test the tension. Adjust the rollers so the handle is difficult to move, but not so difficult that it requires two people. . Roll the assembly through the mill in a continuous movement so the texture is created in a single pass.

Suggested Materials Burlap Sandpaper Lace Netting Templates

Screen String Binding wire Coarse paper Tissue paper

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Paper Templates Cut a paper pattern with scissors or a blade and lay it between the annealed work metal and a stiff backing sheet (such as brass). Each paper template can be used only once, but where duplicates are desired, you can photocopy the image. Each variety of paper will leave a different surface when rolled. Experiment with card stock, drawing paper, and tissue. Printing from a Metal Matrix To create a raised pattern on the workpiece, prepare a matrix by making indentations in a metal sheet, for instance by stamping, engraving, etching, or roll printing. A tough metal like brass or nickel silver is recommended. Follow the steps above to transfer the pattern to an annealed workpiece.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Roll Printing

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Stamping Stamping Stamping is a noncontinuous series of indentations made by a tool, usually driven by a hammer. It is like leather tooling. > Work on an anvil, preferably polished. > Anneal the metal before starting. > Use stock thick enough to absorb the blow. > Hold the handle where it is comfortable. A lower grip increases power.

Thickness

Factors

Material under the stamping tool will compact but there is a limit to how far it can go. Thicker material provides more metal within which to distribute the blow. This means that a strike on thick sheet will yield a deeper mark than the same blow on thin sheet.

Tool Design

Working end should be exactly perpendicular to tool’s axis, flat, and crisp.

Metal

Should be annealed and reasonably thick (at least  ga).

Force

The hammer blow must be confident and forceful.

Resistance

If the workpiece is on a yielding surface like a wooden table, the impact of the blow is severely compromised. To demonstrate, strike blows on various surfaces in the studio using the same hammer and punch. The difference will be dramatic.

The drama and clarity of stamping are affected by these elements. If one of these is faulty, the results will probably still be OK, but if two or more are bad, the stamping will be disappointing.

Letters & Numbers

Top

Commercially made letter and number stamps can be used for surface enrichment.

– This area should be symmetrical and rounded so the crown is centered over the axis of the tool. – Avoid square corners; they can deflect the tool sideways if the hammer blow is angled. – When the top starts to mushroom over, grind, or file the edges smooth to avoid the risk of splinters being thrown off when the tool is struck.

Shaft – Thick enough to prevent the tool from bowing or wobbling when struck. – Comfortable to grasp; no sharp corners. Some people like to wrap their tools with cord or leather. – If the stamp has a specific orientation, it is helpful to build in a tactile reference, for instance, a notch you can feel under your thumb.

Face – Square to the axis. – Flat (not crowned). – Chamfered edges, especially on large tools; this helps the material flow outward.

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Surfaces > Mechanical > Stamping

Chasing Chasing Chasing is an ancient and often misunderstood technique used to incise lines into metal. The result can look like engraving, and the process resembles stamping, but chasing is a technique by itself. Unlike engraving, no metal is removed. Unlike stamping, the tool moves in a steady, unbroken motion. Chasing can be used to create linear patterns on flat or shaped sheet metal, and is used to sharpen details on castings.

A twisted shank provides sure grip.

A gradual taper on the shank makes it easier to guide the tool.

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Tips > The tool is usually drawn toward the worker, held at such an angle that it propels itself along as it is struck. > Use a lightweight hammer and sit comfortably. The process should be delicate and controlled. > For small radius curves, tilt the tool more or switch to a smaller tool. Since a sharper angle may cause the tool to slip, a new tool is the better solution. > It is important that the workpiece be securely held. > In some applications, a raised element is created by lowering the surrounding metal.

Tools

Securing the workpiece

The workpiece can be nailed to a block of wood. Insulated staples are already cushioned with cardboard. How handy!

To keep clamps at a distance, use a strip of steel or a thin piece of wood. Protect against scratches with a rubber band.

The tongue on this wood block is not essential, but it allows the wood to be clamped more securely in a vise.

Though any light hammer can be used, this one has evolved over the years just for this technique. It is light enough to be used for hours, has a large face to find the tool, and fits on a comfortable pistol grip handle. The handle is thin and springy, so the hammer “spanks” the tool.

When clamping directly onto the bench, use a wood, leather, or cardboard pad to prevent scratches. Surfaces > Mechanical > Chasing

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Engraving Engraving Engraving is a cutting process in which a steel tool called a graver or burin slices small bits of metal as it is pushed along the surface of a sheet. Gravers are made of high-quality tool steel and are usually sold in the hardened, untempered state.

Cutting

Styles of Gravers flat knife

round spitstick

liner

Wiggle Cut Use a flat graver or liner to make this simple and versatile cut. Hold the tool at a steep angle and “walk” it forward, rocking from side to side. The amount of swing in the wrist will alter the cut from being closed to open. Any size graver may be used.

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Surfaces > Mechanical > Engraving

Proper cutting involves a sliding rather than a scooping stroke. Press the graver straight down into the metal at the beginning of the cut, then slide the tool forward at a consistent depth. The scooping stroke can be recognized by a telltale scar left behind the intended beginning of the line. To vary the width of a line, don’t dig deeper, but instead, roll the graver on its side as it is pushed along. To cut a graceful curve, roll the graver and return it upright. In most cases the work is brought in to the graver. This is especially true of curved lines. Curves and circles are generally cut counterclockwise.

Holding Devices It is impossible to engrave with control unless the metal is securely held. Here are several common solutions. Engraving Block

Shellac Stick

Vise Stick

(a.k.a. Graver’s Ball)

This is a platform and handle that is held against the bench pin while cutting. This can be as simple as a piece of tree limb. Coat the platform with a layer of flake shellac, sealing wax, or a mixture of the two. Gently heat both shellac and the object and press them together. Though not as rigid, the glue sticks used in hot glue guns will work for this.

This homemade device is especially useful when engraving several objects of the same shape. Carve the outline of the piece into the endgrain of a wooden shaft and add a thumbscrew to tighten. The long saw cut down the center allows the clamp to open and close.

This is a heavy steel sphere with vise jaws on top. It sits on a donut-shaped pad that allows it to tilt universallly. The top element rotates on a bearing; these two features combine to make any motion possible.

Engraving Handles

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To determine the correct length of a graver, hold a pencil like this. The end of the tool’s handle will press into the heel of the hand where the flesh is thickest.

Plastic Thermoplastics like Aquaplast, Ditto, and others offer a clean and quick holding material. Soften the plastic in hot water, press it around the work, and allow it to cool (a minute or two). For small pieces, the plastic can become the handle, or it can be shaped for a vise or fitted onto a handle. To release the work, reimmerse in hot water. These plastics can be reused indefinitely.

Graver handles are available in several styles; choice is a matter of personal preference. Since large bulbous handles can get in the way when making shallow cuts, those with a flat face are generally preferred. Because gravers will get short with repeated sharpening, some engravers start with a short handle and later switch to a longer one to prolong use of the tool. An EFB adjustable handle is often used with a square graver. The tool is held in place by a cone-shaped metal sleeve slid tightly along its shaft. A notched piece of brass provides for the changing length of the tool. Most gravers are available with flat or bent shanks. The curved shape is usually preferred for working on a concave surface and other areas not easily accessible.

Grip

Position

Hold the graver between your fingertips and along the length of your thumb. This will feel awkward at first but is worth getting used to. The handle should rest in the fleshy part of your palm. This is where the push comes from.

Work should be at mid-chest height. When using an engraving block, a table lower than a jeweler’s bench will be needed. Most engravers rely on a magnifying headset or microscope. If you can’t see it, you can’t cut it. There is more information about magnification in the Tools chapter.

Layout Because engraving is a precise and demanding process, it is usually unwise to design as you cut. Careful layout will allow you to concentrate on one task at a time. Drawing directly on the metal with a pen or pencil will create a wide line that can easily smudge, so it’s better to coat the metal with white paint (Chinese white, tempera, white shoe polish) and draw on this with a sharp pencil. Trace over the design with a sharp scribe or a sewing needle held in a pin vise, then wipe off the white layer. Though it takes a little longer, this kind of systematic approach is recommended for good engraving. Centuries of experience is worth paying attention to. Surfaces > Mechanical > Engraving

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Graver Sharpening Graver Sharpening All engraving requires a keen, precise edge. Repeated sharpening will be needed to keep the cutting edge in shape. Although sharpening can be done by hand, an indexing device is recommended to keep each surface absolutely flat.

> To speed up the sharpening process, reduce the size of the tip. Use a grinding

Changing the Length Most tools are too long as purchased, so they need to be shortened. Determine the desired length as shown on the preceding page, taking into account the length of the handle. Tighten the graver in a vise at the correct length with the tang sticking out and hit it with a sharp blow. For safety, catch the broken piece in a towel.

wheel (any size; flex shaft is OK) and quench often to retain the temper. If the graver gets blue you have canceled out the heat treatment. Refer to the page on hardening steel to reharden and retemper. > The face angle for most gravers is °—less for soft metals and slightly more for hard materials. Set both a sharpening stone and the indexing jig on a smooth flat surface, such as a piece of glass or Plexiglas. Clamp the graver into the jig and rub the tool face on a stone that has a coating of light oil. Follow the coarse stone by a similar stroking on a fine stone. Continue this until all the obvious scratches are gone. > To remove burs, jam the tool a couple of times into a block of hardwood. Polish the graver by rubbing it along a piece of fine sandpaper held on a hard flat surface. A couple of slow, steady passes are usually sufficient. A properly sharpened graver will “bite” against your thumbnail, rather than slip. When it passes this test, stroke the face and belly of the tool lightly on a piece of crocus paper impregnated with rouge until they are mirrorlike.

Sharpening a Square Graver

The angle can be modified to make a tool that will cut lines of various widths. . Grip the tool in the sharpener and set the bottom edge of the graver flat The angles do not need to be identical, against a whetstone. Raise the tool to but their points should meet. an angle of about °. Use a protractor for guidance.

. Turn the barrel around so the face points downward and set the angle at ˚. Grind the face on the coarse and fine stones.

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Surfaces > Mechanical > Graver Sharpening

. Rotate the tool and count the markings on the sharpener. Grind this surface (called the belly) first on a coarse stone and then on a fine stone. Rotate the barrel back to its original position, then continue turning to the same number of notches used on the first side. Grind as before.

. Fix the graver into its handle and polish its three cutting planes by rubbing them on fine sandpaper held on glass. Test the point against a thumbnail; the tool should stick to the nail without pressure. Polish the face and belly facets on crocus paper.

Special Engraving Types of Engraving Manual Machine Assisted

Machine Pantograph

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

The tool is pushed along by hand in a smooth stroke.

Deep, lasting, expressive cuts; great versatility; low cost.

Requires practice and skill.

A precision machine thrusts a point forward and backward in tiny movements.

Ease of control; low fatigue rate; relatively quick to learn.

High cost, delicate equipment, not mobile.

A rotating bur is passed across the surface, guided by a fixed pattern or template.

Uniform result: no layout skills required; easy to learn.

Shallow cuts; lack of expressive line, not much versatility.

Speed versus Stroke

Pantograph Engraving

The rate at which the tip of the tool moves out and back is controlled by a foot rheostat. While some tools can achieve speeds as high as , strokes per minute, they are not meant to run that fast all the time. Aim for speeds in the , range. Generally it is best to slow down as you go around corners or make deep cuts. The length of the stroke is controlled elsewhere on the tool, often by a knob on the controller. This is adjusted for various jobs depending on the tool, the metal being cut, and the nature of the design.

Machine engravers do for (or to) engraving what the typewriter did for calligraphy. Hand engraving is more expressive, more versatile, and more demanding than machine engraving. Just as anyone can make a legible word with a typewriter, the demands of using a pantograph machine are modest. Unfortunately there is no way for personal expression to affect the result. The work is gripped in a vise on the bed of the machine and pre-cut brass letter templates are locked into position. A steel nib slides along each plate to guide a rotating bur that is attached to a small precision motor that rides over the workpiece. Holes along the pantograph arms allow the scale of tracing to be changed, which means that a single set of letters can cut the same shape in a variety of sizes. Machines generally cost from -.

Process

Machine Assisted Engraving

. Prepare the metal as for other engraving. It should be securely anchored in a holding device that can be rotated, with a neat line scratched lightly into the surface. . Make sure the tip of the graver is sharp and polished. Test it on a piece of scrap or your thumbnail. . Set the tip of the graver into position, press down lightly to bite into the surface, and step gingerly onto the rheostat to start the cutting action. . Guide the tool along the design, constantly making subtle adjustments of lift, tilt, speed, and pressure. Unclench your jaw and remember to breathe.

Machines are either electrical or pneumatic (air-powered), and must deliver a reciprocating action in the range of – strokes per minute. Air tools are slightly preferred because they are quieter and have a better maintenance record. Electrical motors have the benefit of simplicity—plug them in and you’re ready to work.

Surfaces > Mechanical > Special Engraving

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Etching Safety (yours!)

Etching

> Work only in a ventilated area. > Wear rubber gloves, an apron,

Etching is a technique that uses acid to cut a design into metal. It has been used in many cultures and in a wide variety of applications, from armor in Medieval Europe to printing plates. Etching is often associated with printmaking, and in fact the history of decorating metal and making an impression from a metal plate are intertwined. The etching process consists of covering part of the metal with an acid-proof material (resist) while leaving areas exposed to the corrosion (bite) of the acid.

goggles, and a respirator.

> Keep baking soda handy to neutralize acid spills.

> When mixing, always add acid to water. Acid is the denser fluid of the two and will fall to the bottom of the dish and begin mixing. > Store acids in narrow-necked glass or plastic jars with glass or plastic lids. Store in a cool dark place; never store up high. Acids (a.k.a Mordants) Chemically pure (CP) Reagent approx. Commercial approx.

  

By its nature, acid is a temperamental commodity. Up to a point, diluting makes it stronger. In some cases it gets stronger as it absorbs other chemicals, so acid that has been used for a while is better than a fresh mix. Increased temperature will accelerate the action of acid but once it gets going it produces its own heat and so will continue a strong bite. The only rule is that there are no rules and each time you etch you must pay attention to what is happening. Gas Bubbles During etching, gases are released in the form of bubbles. If these remain on the metal they will prevent the acid from reaching it and will cause an uneven bite. To remove bubbles, brush the work lightly with a feather or a mop made from string.

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Surfaces > Chemical > Etching

Traditional Etching Solutions Most acids are available in three grades. The first is expensive and not necessary for studio purposes. Most people use reagent grade and most formulas are written for this. If you have a more dilute acid, modify the formulas accordingly. Gold

 part nitric,  parts hydrochloric (aqua regia)

Sterling, silver

 part nitric,  parts water

Copper and copper alloys

 part nitric,  part water

Aluminum

. oz. ammonia,  gm copper sulfate,  oz. sodium hydroxide,  gallons of water

White metals (lead, tin, etc.)

 part nitric,  parts water

Iron, steel

 parts hydrochloric,  part water

Process Either paint resist onto the area that is to remain at the original height or cover the whole piece and selectively scratch the resist away after the paint dries. To achieve different heights, etch a while, pull the piece out, rinse it, and apply resist over the areas that have sufficient depth. Allow the fresh resist to dry then return the work to the acid bath. The opposite approach can yield the same effect. Scratch out only that part of the design you want deepest and begin etching. After a while pull the piece out, rinse, and scratch away more of the design. The first design will continue etching deeper along with the newly cut design. This may be done repeatedly to achieve several distinct layers. This technique is especially appropriate to subsequent basse-taille enameling.

Etching Ferric Chloride

Low-Tech Photoetching

Ferric chloride (a salt rather than an acid) gives a clean etch on copper and brass. The work must be level, and should be suspended just below the surface of the fluid. Use electrical tape or contact paper can be used to protect the back. In addition to the resists listed above, permanent felt tip pen and photocopy toner can be used with this mordant. The etch will usually take – hours, but each case is unique so remember to check the work regularly. Rinsing in water will not stop the corrosive action: scrub the metal with ammonia. Alternate methods for ferric chloride etching are to spray the acid onto the metal in a sealed tank or to attach the metal to a wheel that dips into and out of the acid like a millpond water wheel.

In this process the toner used in photocopiers and laser printers is transferred to a metal plate where it becomes the resist for traditional etching. Make copies from a high contrast black-and-white image onto acetate film, then transfer the heatsensitive toner with an iron.

Retrieving work Use a loop of string to safely lower work into the acid bath. If you use tweezers, be careful that they don’t scratch the resist. Wooden tweezers or chopsticks work well.

. Photocopy the image onto a sheet of . The metal must be clean. Use Scotchplastic film. For most copiers you’ll Brite or pumice to remove surface oils need to be sure the acetate is a and create a little roughness. Follow this standard size. Tape with a wipe of solvent like nail polish small pieces onto remover, acetone, or paint thinner. a standard sheet of paper to help feed them through the copier. If there is any sign of dirt or oil on the film, gently clean the acetate with solvent. . Lay the film, toner side down, onto the clean metal and make a tape hinge along one edge.

. Set a piece of paper or light fabric on top of it and press with a hot iron at the cotton/linen setting (–º F, –º C). Use a firm pressure and allow the heat to soak through the plastic. Insufficient heat will result in an incomplete transfer, but too much will cause the lines of the image to bleed outward. Make a practice piece to get the feel of the process.

. An alternate method is to set the metal on a hotplate or an inverted iron. Allow the heat to flow upward through the metal until it softens the toner image, then burnish through the plastic with a jewelers burnisher, a brayer, or a small graphics roller.

. When the metal has cooled, peel away the film to reveal the transferred image. Do this slowly so you can make repairs if necessary. If you are not going to etch immediately, leave the film in place to protect the resist. Etch as usual, then remove the transfer with paint thinner or a similar solvent.

Resist

Solvent

asphaltum oil based paint shellac lacquer

turpentine turpentine alcohol lacquer thinner (e.g. nail polish) turpentine or thinner

press type

None of these resists will bond well to unclean metal. Clean by scrubbing with pumice or Scotch-Brite to remove oils and simultaneously create a slightly rough surface. Rinse the sheet, pat it dry, and hold it by the edges to avoid contamination. Surfaces > Chemical > Etching

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Overlay Overlay This ancient process has been a metalsmithing standard for centuries and the possibilities are far from exhausted. The concept is as simple as a layer cake, where pieces are applied on top of a base, typically to create pattern and image. Here are a few broad possibilities:

Stilts Ever notice how flat strips have a tendency to fall over just as solder starts to flow? Putting a small bend in the strip will help it stay put.

Solder Stops To prevent solder from overflowing from an overlay, file a slight bevel on the underside of the piece on top.

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Surfaces > Physical > Overlay

Layers with see-through openings.

Layers with contrasting textures or colors (or both).

Layers that are not parallel.

Layers on stilts or spacers.

Work that is formed after layering.

Combinations of several of these.

Process . Make tracings from an actual-size drawing to determine the pattern for each piece. Transfer to label paper. . Saw out each element and remove the paper with solvent or by burning. . File the edges that will be difficult to reach later. Don’t bother with edges that will need to be reworked after soldering. . Clean and flux the surfaces to be joined. Pre-melt the solder onto the back of the smaller piece. . Preheat the other piece until the flux becomes fluid, then flip the top piece into position. Working under the flame (to keep the flux liquid), slide the piece around with a needle tool as needed. . Heat the assembly, focusing on the bottom piece, until both pieces reach the solder temperature. You will usually (but not always) see a line of shiny silver glistening at the edge of the upper piece. . Allow the work to cool for a few seconds, then quench it in water. Do not pickle until you are sure the soldering is complete. Quenching in pickle will pull the acid into the joint, which makes it difficult to resolder.

Overlay Even Heat

Clamps

The challenge of many overlay projects is to heat the larger, hidden base sheet without overheating the decorative overlay element. Find a way to get the heat under the piece. Any of these methods will work; find your favorite or invent another.

To prevent pieces from sliding out of position, make clamps from steel, nickel silver or brass. Coat hangers and large paper clips provide handy material. A simple clamp is bent like a hairpin.

> Prop the work on several pieces of pumice or firebrick.

To make a spring clamp: . Wrap a length of wire at least twice around a mandrel, ending so the legs are parallel.

> Support the work on a screen made of nichrome wire. Rest this on a tripod or bend the corners to lift it off the soldering pad.

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. About an inch out from the coil, bend the wire º, then bend it to return the end to parallel with the other leg. . Repeat for the second leg. . Squeeze at the arrows to make the legs pass each other. Adjust the shape and tension to match the job.

> Lift the work off the soldering pad with a needle. > Set the work on a nest of binding wire.

Troubleshooting Problem

Reason

Solution

Firescale leaves a ghost image around the overlay.

Piece got too hot for too long. More flux might have helped.

Don’t try to sand it a way. This will only make it worse. Use patina or texture with gravers or burs to make the best of the situation. Next time, use a hit and run approach with your torch.

The overlay piece is not fully attached.

Uneven heat, dirty metal, insufficient flux.

a) If all extremities are secure and the result is visually acceptable, overlook this. Do better next time. b) If the metal was only quenched in water, apply paste flux, mallet the parts down and reheat. c) Get creative with rivets.

Edges and layers are worn thin.

Too much sanding, abrasives were cushioned, metal was too thin to start.

Stop sanding. Buff lightly or not at all. File edges back to a thicker area. Burnish the edge to thicken it. Learn from the mistake. Surfaces > Physical > Overlay

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Inlay Puzzle Inlay In this process pieces are cut out to fit together in the same way that the elements of a jigsaw interlock. While considerably more tedious than the lamination inlay, this method ensures an undistorted image that is visible on both front and back. One-Step Process Clamp or glue pieces of metal together and saw through both pieces simultaneously. This pretty much guarantees a good fit. Some cunning is needed when piercing to get started. Drill and saw to the proposed line before positioning the second sheet. Two-Step Process First, saw out one unit, either the positive or the negative. Next, trace around it on the other piece of metal with a sharp scribe. A sewing needle in a pin vise works well. Saw the second unit carefully; the two pieces should make a perfect fit, like parts of a jigsaw puzzle. File or planish as needed, then solder the pieces together. Soft solders like Sta-Brite and TIX work well for inlay, but after they are applied, the piece can’t be heated above º F (º C).

Use gold solder on: • steel • nickel silver • copper • brass • bronze • sterling Use silver solder on: • steel • nickel silver • copper • brass • bronze • K gold • K colored gold • K white gold



Surfaces > Physical > Inlay

Solder Inlay In this simple and versatile technique, solder is allowed to flow into grooves made by hammering, engraving, roll printing, or etching. . Prepare a recess that is at least 1⁄2 mm (.") deep.

. Flux the piece well and flood the recess with solder. Remove the torch as soon as the solder has filled the recess.

. After quenching, file away the excess solder, being careful not to file away so much that the design is damaged or lost.

. To show up the pattern, dip the piece into a liver of sulfur solution during filing. A high polish does not show the effect of contrasting metals.

Kerf In complex shapes, the kerf of the saw becomes a factor. This space will need to be filled by solder, so it must be kept small—use a blade no larger than 4 /0.

Sequence Because the inlay material is solder and is flowed into place with heat, subsequent heatings must be thought out carefully. If the inlay is done before fabrication, use IT or hard solder. If the inlay is going to be a final step, use easy solder.

Inlay Lamination Inlay

Relief This technique takes advantage of the fact that gold is not dissolved by most acids. . Prepare a base plate of sterling, copper, brass, or nickel silver with recesses made by engraving, etching, stamping, or rolling. . Flux and flood the recesses with gold solder, K or higher. . Cool, pickle, rinse, and file to remove overflow. . Mask off the back and edges of the piece with asphaltum or wax so they will not be attacked by the acid. . Etch away the metal around the solder inlay. Remember to wear protective clothing and use ventilation. . Finish with a scratchbrush or similar low-impact media so you don’t compromise the effect.

In this simple process, sheets of metal are soldered together and then pressed until they are flush. This gives the appearance of an inlay. A rolling mill is helpful but not necessary for lamination inlay. . One piece of metal must be thicker than the desired goal and the other should be very thin, around  gauge. Clean the two pieces and solder them together. The bond must be complete, extending all the way to the edges. Achieve this through careful preparation and heating, not by using surplus solder. Excess solder will make a yellowish ghost image around the inlay in the finished piece. . After pickling and drying, pass the sheet through a rolling mill or planish it with a polished hammer until the two surfaces become flush. If rolling is to take place in both directions, anneal before changing the direction of the stretch. Lamination inlay is not recommended where specific shapes are required since distortion is inherent in the process. . Finish conventionally with files, paper, and buffing if desired. Subsequent soldering could spoil the effect. As a precaution, use a lower melting solder and protect the inlay with yellow ocher.

Variations

Self-Clamping

Complex patterns can be developed by borrowing a technique used by beadmakers and sushi chefs. Solder wires together to make a length of material (cane) whose cross section reveals an interesting pattern. Use wires of contrasting color, either in a planned or random way. Slice thin sections from this and solder them down to a base sheet. Roll this through the mill or planish it until the surface becomes flush.

Here’s a neat trick to hold two pieces together while sawing: Cut slots into the larger sheet to form fingers that bend up over the top sheet. Pierce the rest of the form, leaving the fingers for last. After all the sawing and filing is done, saw off the fingers of metal and the two pieces will fall apart.

Surfaces > Physical > Inlay

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Mokumé Mokumé-Gane In mokumé-gane (MO-ku-may GAW-nay), layers of contrasting metals create a multicolored woodgrain effect. There are several ways to create the billet of laminates, and several ways to make a pattern in the metal.

Creating the Pattern

Whatever method you choose to create a billet, after all the work you will have a rather boring stack of metals, a sort of miniature plywood. Additional steps are needed to bring the piece to life. Roll or forge the laminate to  or  gauge and anneal. Set it on a medium soft surface and strike it with small punches to create a bumpy sheet. File, sand, and polish the metal using conventional techniques. If a bump is made deeper than the thickness of the sheet, a hole will result when the tops of the bumps are filed off. The richness of the pattern will not show until the mokumé has been colored. Using a Furnace This variation uses a firing chamber made from soft brick to contain and magnify the heat of a torch. The system has been researched and described by Steve Midgett in his book and videotape, Mokumé Gane in the Small Shop, Earthshine Press, .

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Surfaces > Physical > Mokumé

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Diffusion Diffusion is the best method of joining the layers of a stack because the resulting block will be seamless and can be treated like any other metal mass. . Prepare panels to be flat, clean, and similar in length, width, and in thickness. Preparation is critical: time spent here is an investment in success. . Wrap the stack in stout binding wire (as you would wrap a package for mailing). . Set the bundle onto charcoal or pumice pieces and heat it with a large bushy flame. Once you begin, keep the flame on the metal—taking it off invites oxygen into the region. . Heat the stack evenly until you see the surfaces shimmer and appear wet (this is called sweating). Press down firmly on the stack with a steel rod, starting at the center and moving outward to the edges. Diffusion requires that parts being joined are in contact, the point here is to close any gaps caused by warping. . Continue to heat until the entire stack is glowing with one color. The layers will seem to disappear. . Air cool, examine, and repeat if needed.

Soldering Soldering is handy when a small piece of mokumé is needed and when very little forming is to be done. A disadvantage of this method is that subsequent soldering can endanger the bond between the layers. Use hard solder for stacking and minimize soldering around the mokumé in the construction of the piece. . Flatten small sheets (say, " square), and scrub them with pumice or Scotch-Brite. . Roll or planish pieces of hard sheet solder to make them as thin as possible. . Flux each panel on both sides and stack the alternating colors with a piece of solder between each one. This pile can have  to  sheets, not counting the solder. . Heat the whole pile with a large bushy, reducing flame. If your torch cannot be adjusted to a reducing flame, work on charcoal with another charcoal block set behind. Continue until you see the solder flow at the seams. . Air cool. Do not quench, especially in pickle. . Forge or mill the sheet to about half its original thickness. Clean the two exposed surfaces with sandpaper and cut the piece in half. Using another piece of solder, join these two pieces. This will double the number of layers in the stack. Again, air cool. . Thin the composite sheet, cut it again and repeat the last step until the desired number of layers is achieved. A stack of – layers gives attractive results.

Carving Drill the still-thick block, taking care not to go all the way through. Use a spherical bur to convert the pointed recess of the drill tip to a round-bottomed hole. Further possibilities are opened by engraving or machining the recesses. Forge or mill the carved ingot to cause the pattern to emerge. Use repeated carving and forging steps to bring out the full pattern.

Keum-Boo Keum-Boo keum “gold” boo “attached”

Tools and Equipment > a standard electric hotplate or gas ring > a piece of steel sheet to diffuse the heat (for instance " x " x 1⁄4") > polished steel burnishers of various sizes > gloves (to protect your hands from heat) > a cup of water (to cool the burnishers)

Gold Keum-boo requires pure gold, also known as  karat or . Au. The ideal thickness is .–. mm (.–."). Thinner material, called leaf, is more difficult to cut to shape, fussier to apply, and thin enough that the silver base shows through, making the color pale. If thicker sheet is used, it springs back when burnished and, again, the process is made more difficult than it needs to be. Often keum-boo starts with preparation of the gold sheet. Sandwich the gold between sheets of paper or plastic and set this stack between two pieces of copper. Roll this through the mill in several passes at high pressure, tightening the gap until it appears that the paper and gold are taking up no space at all. Anneal by setting a sheet of brass, copper, or steel on a hotplate and allowing it to heat up. Lay the gold on this and remove it with tweezers when it becomes red. To anneal with a torch, lay a diffusing sheet between two bricks or use a tripod.

This ancient Korean technique takes advantage of the ability of pure gold to join readily to other pure metals with moderate pressure and temperatures. Historically, the process was used to ornament and empower silver utensils and vessels by applying symbolic characters to the interior surfaces. In this way foods and beverages would be touched by gold (a health-giving metal) and by the character being used (fortune, for instance), making that cup of tea especially beneficial.

Process . Complete all soldering and finishing steps (except stone setting, cold connections and patinas, which can be done after keum-boo). . The silver surface must be clean and neutral. Pickle, rinse, and scrub with a toothbrush dipped in baking soda and water. . Cut the desired shapes from the gold foil with scissors. For more control, sandwich the foil in a fold of tracing paper. . Set the work on a hotplate and allow it to warm up. For small pieces, use a sheet of steel or thick brass to spread the heat. . Set a gold shape onto the work with a damp (not wet) brush and press it down lightly to ensure contact with the silver. . Allow the work to reach –º F (–º C). If you don’t have a pyrometer, the color can be read by placing a sanded piece of steel (a nail will do) on the work. It will turn pale yellow at the beginning of this range, shifting through brown to blue. If the steel gets blue, turn down the heat, and lift the work so it can cool slightly. Have a couple of sanded nails standing ready so you can continue to monitor the heat. . Use one hand to hold the work steady and with the other, burnish the gold so it makes perfect contact with the silver. This is the key—when molecules of silver and gold touch they bond. Pressure is required only to remove any microscopic gaps that will prevent adhesion. Start in the center of a shape and work outward, constantly monitoring the heat so it stays in the critical range. You’ll probably adjust the hotplate from high to medium and back to high as you work. As the tip of the burnisher gets hot, dip it into water, shake off excess, and continue. . Repeat with additional pieces until the keum-boo is complete. Allow the work to cool and examine the edges of the gold with a loupe to be sure diffusion was successful. If not, rework the piece and burnish again. When the gold is attached, the work can be pickled, rinsed, and lightly polished.

Surfaces > Physical > Keum-Boo

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Granulation Granulation This demanding process was highly developed in ancient times, particularly by the Greeks and Etruscans. It uses a delicate, solderless bonding to attach small pieces such as granules to a surface. The techniques involved can be used for other shapes of applied ornament and rely on a diffusion process related to eutectic bonding. The term granulation is often expanded to include all aspects of the procedure. The stunning quality of proper granulation is achieved by having granules adhered to the surface by an almost imperceptible bond at the tangent point. Because this fine precision is impossible with conventional soldering, a different sort of bonding is needed. In brief, a small amount of metal (usually copper) is introduced to the contact area and, when appropriate heat is reached, an alloy of a lower melting point is created at the point of contact.

Process When working on fine silver or high karat gold, you’ll need to introduce additional metal to make up the low-melting alloy that will create the bond. Metal-Laden flux Coat the metal and granules with a mixture of flux (containing a metallic salt) and a glue that contains carbon. At high temperatures the metal becomes an oxide (such as CuO₂). The carbon from the glue then unites with oxygen and passes off as carbon dioxide gas (CO₂). This leaves a small amount of metal at the joint. For flux, use Prip’s, antimony trioxide, copper chloride, verdigris, or copper nitrate. To make copper nitrate, dissolve copper scraps in a closed jar of ammonia until the solution turns blue (about  hours). Any organic glue can be used for granulation: gum tragacanth, mucilage, hide glue, etc. Thin these with water to a pale, soupy consistency. Do not use epoxy, DuCo cement, Elmer’s, or other glues made with petroleum or mineral products.

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Surfaces > Physical > Granulation

Pre-Coated Granules Copper can be supplied by plating the granules before applying them. Set the granules in a steel container such as a jar lid and pour in coppersaturated pickle. The plating should be thin (rosy colored) because too much copper will cause a flooding of the bonding alloy. When using coated granules, any flux may be used and the glue can be omitted. When granulating on sterling, the copper content of the alloy itself provides the metal needed to create a low-melting solution at the point of contact. Use any flux and a trace amount of glue. A disadvantage is the proximity of the fusion point (º F, º C) and the melting point of sterling (º F, º C).

Granulation Two Ways to Make Granules   . Line a coffee can with about 3⁄4" of powdered charcoal, made by pulverizing briquettes or charcoal soldering blocks. . Cut tiny chips of metal and sprinkle them on top of this layer, keeping the number small enough that the chips aren’t likely to touch each other. Build up alternate layers of charcoal and metal chips. . Set the can into a kiln until it glows red hot and hold it at this heat for about  minutes. Ventilate well because this process creates carbon monoxide. . To test for granule formation, scoop out a spoonful of the mixture and drop it into a dish of water. Pour off the carbon debris and you’ll be able to examine the granules. If the shot is not completely spherical, continue heating. . When ready, air cool the can and pour the contents into a dish of water. The charcoal will float off, leaving the granules on the bottom of the dish.   . Cut the metal into chips and sprinkle them onto a clean flat charcoal block. . Hold the block in a gloved hand about " above a dish of water. Use a torch to melt the metal, holding the block at an angle that allows each granule to roll off as it draws into a sphere.

Learning stamps you with its moments. It isn’t steady. It’s a pulse.

Eudora Welty

Firing Set the granules onto clean metal with tweezers or a brush. You can scribe a line to help locate the tiny beads. Avoid a single line of granules if possible because it is weak. Dip the granules in the flux/glue mix before applying, but pick up excess liquid with a tissue. Allow the work to dry thoroughly before applying the torch. With a broad flame, bring the whole piece to bright red. Remove the torch when the joints flash (which looks like solder flow). Many people find the process easier to control if heat is supplied from both above and below the work. Place the prepared metal on a small heated pad called a trinket kiln. These are available from many jewelry supply companies. Pickle and finish, avoiding rough handling. Scratch brushing is recommended.

Surfaces > Physical > Granulation

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Niello Niello Niello (nee-EL-o) comes from the Latin nigellum, meaning “blackish.” This is a mixture of copper, lead, and sulfur used to fill an incised design. The process was used in ancient times by goldsmiths and armorers. In modern times its use has been confined principally to Thailand and Russia.

Making Niello Though the recipes seem complicated, niello is really a simple mixture of three metals and all the sulfur they can hold. In general terms: • Sulfur causes blackness. • Copper deepens the blackness. • Silver raises the melting point. • Lead provides for fusion and ease in spreading.

Ventilation The process of making niello will always involve lots of nasty fumes. To contain and vent the eyewatering, throat-clenching fumes of sulfur smoke, create a structure that surrounds a window from stiff cardboard. With the window open and a fan positioned to force the smoke away, it’s possible to make small quantities of niello in almost any studio. Be sure the fumes that go outside are not traveling into someone else’s breathing space.

. Melt the metals in a borax-lined crucible and stir them with a carbon rod. The crucible cannot be used for other metals once it has been contaminated with niello. . Add sulfur and continue to stir. The smoke that results is dramatic and acrid. Provide very good ventilation. . When no more sulfur can be absorbed, pour the mix into water or a warm ingot mold. . To make powder, grind the resulting chunks of niello in a mortar and pestle. Mix with sulfur and remelt. Pour and regrind. The niello is now ready to use. . To make rods of niello, pour into an ingot mold, a carved charcoal block or a length of angle iron.

Recipes

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Surfaces > Physical > Niello

Heinrich silver or sterling copper lead sulfur

1 oz. 2 3 6

Augsberg # silver copper lead sulfur

1 1 2 8

Ruklin # silver copper lead sulfur Persian silver copper lead sulfur ammonium chloride

1 2 4 5

1 2.5 7 25 2.5

Niello Applying the Niello Powder Process . This process is similar to the way enamel powders are fused onto metal. Grind the prepared niello to a powder, being sure it contains no impurities. To be sure, wash the niello powder by swirling it in a shallow dish under running water. . Complete the workpiece through a medium sandpaper stage. All soldering should Contamination Alert be done, but stones should not be set. The niello will fill grooves as deep as  mm; Keep files, sandpaper, and solderand these can be made by etching, stamping, chasing, roll printing, or engraving. ing block (if torch firing) reserved After cleaning thoroughly, coat the metal with diluted (milky) paste flux or a thin for this work. Traces of niello will solution of ammonium chloride and water. damage sterling and gold when . Lay the niello into place with tweezers, a brush, or a small spatula. Dry it in a they are heated to their usual warm place like under a lamp or on top of a warm kiln. soldering temperatures. Because . When all the moisture has been driven off, heat the of the lead content, wash your piece either with a torch or in a kiln. The kiln should hands thoroughly after working be set at –° F (–° C) depending on the with niello. recipe of niello you are using. When using a torch, heat from below and avoid touching the niello with the flame. The niello will bead up and glow red-orange as it melts. If it does not flow, spread the niello with a steel or carbon rod. Be careful not to overheat it. Even with high-melting niello, the metal to which it is being fused should never go above a dull red. Most niello fuses around ° F (° C). Try to keep the fusing operation brief because prolonged heat can cause the niello to pit and attack silver and gold. . Remove the heat as soon as the recesses have filled. Air cool. Finish by filing, burnishing, and sanding. Machine buffing should be avoided because it will wear away the niello faster than the metal around it and contaminate the buffs. . If the finished niello contains pits, the process can be repeated once, but no more than that. Overheating threatens to burn off the lead, creating more pits.

Solid Method . Prepare the metal as for the powder method. Complete all soldering, finish through medium grit sandpaper, pickle, rinse well, and dry. Set the object on a firebrick that will be reserved for this purpose. . Apply diluted paste flux or a solution of ammonium chloride and water. . Heat the object with a soft flame until the flux becomes active, stopping before the metal glows red. . Withdraw the torch a few inches and touch a solid piece of niello rod to the workpiece. If the metal is at the correct temperature, the niello will melt like wax and flow into the low areas of the design. Continue applying the niello, passing the torch flame across the piece intermittently to maintain the necessary temperature. . Allow the piece to cool naturally, then file off excess niello. Catch and discard this lead-filled powder. Repeat Step , if needed, to fill in pits. Take care to keep the entire coating from becoming fluid. Surfaces > Physical > Niello

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Reticulation Reticulation Reticulation is a process by which metal is made to draw itself into ridges and valleys, creating a unique texture. Many alloys can be made to reticulate, but a formulation of  silver and  copper yields particularly dramatic results. The buckling is the result of the different cooling rates of the two strata created in the sheet. The copper oxide layer at the surface will remain solid while the interior of the sheet becomes molten. When heat is removed, the interior contracts, pulling the skin into ridges. The effect may be achieved by careful heating of most nonferrous metals (heat scarring), but it is much more dramatic when the metal is prepared as described here.

Process

Because copper plays an important role in reticulation, higher copper content generally enhances the results. K yellow or rose gold will work better than K green or white or any color of K. An alloy of  parts silver (balance copper) produces especially dramatic results. You can make your own reticulation silver by adding  copper (by weight) to sterling, or it can be purchased from Hauser & Miller Inc. or Hoover and Strong (see Appendix for addresses).

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Surfaces > Physical > Reticulation

. Because the process is somewhat unpredictable, work on a piece of metal a little larger than your actual need. – gauge sheet will produce the best results. Heat the piece to º F (º C) and hold at this temperature for  minutes. This is most easily done in a kiln but can be done with a torch by keeping the metal at a dull red. Do not use flux, since the purpose of this step is to create a layer of copper oxide. Air cool. The metal will be dark gray. . Pickle in hot fresh Sparex or a  sulfuric acid solution. This removes copper oxide from the surface, leaving a silver-rich skin and locking in the copper oxide layer beneath. . After rinsing, heat as before to the same temperature, this time for at least  minutes. Oxygen cannot react much with the silver-rich skin so it penetrates and promotes growth of the copper oxide layer into the sheet (i.e., interior oxidation). Air cool. The sheet should be only slightly gray. Pickle as before. . Reticulation is done with a torch. In order to make the metal molten throughout its interior, either preheat a soldering block and then allow the heat to rise up into the sheet, or work on a wire mesh. Bring the sheet to red with a sharp, hot flame, then quickly pass the torch over an area, allowing it to cool. The cooling is what causes the metal to buckle. The skin may melt but try to minimize this because surface melting softens the sharpness of the ridges and diminishes the effect. Allow the piece to lose redness before quenching. . Reticulated metal can be soldered, colored, and finished like its original stock. Because it is brittle, extensive forming is not recommended. The copper oxide layer is porous and soaks up solder so you should burnish edges before soldering.

Chapter 

Joining

Tabs & Staples Tabs Tabs provide a simple and secure cold connection by bending a finger of metal on one piece over another piece. Bending is usually begun with pliers and finished with a mallet. Finishing is typically done before the pieces are joined.

Collars Collars are straps of metal that are wrapped around several pieces then hammered down to secure the joint. They can be any size and range from simple wraps to complex, puzzle-like devices.

Variations > Tabs can reach from inside a pierced form outward. > Tabs can provide graphic or textural interest. > Tabs with steps can be used to create space between layers as they hold parts together. > Instead of folding down, tabs can grip by being rotated. Cut slots along the bottom edge to facilitate the twist. > Rather than lay flat, tabs can curl or take other interesting shapes.

Tips When Using Wire Start with annealed wire. Anchor the first end well. When wrapping wood or plastic, drill a tight hole, file a point on the wire and push it in securely with pliers. If this won’t work use a small amount of epoxy and let it dry before continuing. Plan ahead to provide a way to tie or twist the other end. If you can arrange for an eyelet for instance, the binding is stronger and neater.

Lashing It’s hard to get much simpler than binding elements together with wire. Countless examples can be found in farm tools, kitchen utensils and ethnic jewelry from around the world. For suggestions on specific knot structures consult books on macramé, sailing, and scouting. For extra points, what do you call the art of knot tying? Marlinespike Seamanship

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Wrapping with a Buried End This is a neat trick that makes a tight wrap. Besides holding parts together, this is a great wrap for stamping tools and hammer handles. . Make a long loop that covers the area you want wrapped. . Starting at the end opposite the loop, wrap the cord neatly around the rod, covering the loop. . Thread the end of the cord through the loop. . Pull the end of the loop that extends out the bottom of the wrap. When the other loose end is pulled tight, trim it to 1⁄4" and pull until it disappears beneath the wrap. . Cut off the pulling string as close as possible to the wrap. Though not necessary, it can be interesting to lightly coat the wrap with wax, lacquer, plaster or dirt.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Tabs & Staples

Basic Rivets Basic Rivets Rivets are ancient, universal and brilliant examples of a mechanical joint. A metal pin is fed through holes in the parts to be joined, then a projecting tip on each end is hammered back on itself (upset) to create a head that locks the stack together. Rivets are used to hold steel girders together, to grip handles to knives, and in a thousand other uses from aircraft to xylophones. There are dozens of varieties of rivets, each with its benefits and appeal. All versions, though, will share these basic rules.

> Complete all the parts before riveting them together. > Fit the pin tightly to the hole. > Don’t allow too much material for the rivet.

Guidelines

. Select a drill and wire of the same size. If you don’t have a perfect match, start with a larger wire and sand a gradual taper. . Drill all the holes you need in one piece; drill one hole in the other piece. . Insert the wire, snip and file so a tip equal to roughly half the thickness of the wire extends on both sides. . Set the work on a solid surface, suspended so that the wire still sticks out of both sides. Strike the end lightly with a sharp crosspeen hammer. . Flip the piece over and repeat; continue as needed until heads form on both ends of the wire. . Drill another hole and repeat. When two rivets are in place, drill and set all the remaining rivets.

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Nailhead rivets are recommended for – gauge wire. Smaller wire doesn’t leave enough head to show and heavier wire does not easily form a bead. Traditional rosette: Use four angled blows of a ball peen hammer to make this traditional rivet head.

Nailhead Rivets This popular version of rivets is useful when a larger head is needed, either for the look of it or because the material being held requires a wider grip. It is also handy when one end of the rivet is difficult to reach, for instance inside a cup or when the material is fragile enough to warrant minimum hammering. . Draw a bead on a wire with a hot, sharp flame point.

. Slide the wire into a tight hole on the numbered side of the drawplate. Strike with a planishing hammer to flatten the bead.

. Shape the resulting nailhead with punches or a nail set while still in the drawplate, or remove it and file to a desired shape.

. Slide the wire into the workpiece, trim to the correct length and form a standard rivet head on the other end.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Basic Rivets

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Special Rivets Tube Rivets These gentle rivets are recommended when hammering might cause damage. This would include enamels, shells, delicate mechanisms, and stones.

Getting Started Some people like to form a head on one end of a wire before inserting the rivet into the pieces being joined. Grasp a short length of annealed wire in parallel-jaw pliers, rest these on the edge of the bench, and tap the wire with a cross peen hammer to pre-form a head.

Polished Rivet Heads To make symmetrical polished rivet heads, first form a basic rivet as usual with a hammer. Next, set a beading tool into a drill press or flex shaft and press it over the head as it spins. A little lubrication is a good idea. You can buy beading tools or make your own from a nail using a ball bur.

. As with other rivets, the first step is to drill a hole through all the pieces being joined. This must make a tight fit with the chosen tube.

. Slide the tube into position and saw it so no more than half a diameter is sticking out on each side. The tube seam should be soldered and the tube annealed.

. Set a scribe into the tube and swing it around to flare out the mouth. Repeat this on the other end of the tube.

. Set the rivet on a round punch and tap it with another round punch to curl the edges outward.

Washers

Plastic Rivets

When a material can stretch (like leather) or enlarge through wear (like pewter) it’s wise to include washers in the rivet assembly. Washers offer a great opportunity for interesting solutions. They can be… > round (but it’s been done) > square > asymmetrical > used for several holes at once > richly ornamented > inlaid (e.g.,into wood)

Plastic rivets can be made from rod or sheet, in either opaque or transparent material. Besides being a low stress connection, plastic rivets add color, especially where light can be seen through the rivet. Buy plastic scraps or scavenge from housewares and toys. . Drill a hole or slot in all the pieces to be joined. Plastic can be easily filed or sanded to fit.

To be effective, the washer must make a tight fit on the rivet. When riveting in tight spaces, you might need to devise special tricks, like here, where the end of a stamping tool is clamped in a vise to support a rivet.

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Joining > Mechanical Connections > Special Rivets

. Slide the plastic and cut it to the appropriate length. . Heat a steel tool in a torch or alcohol lamp and press it onto the plastic while supporting the rivet on the other end. The tool should not be too hot to hold in the hand. Avoid heating the plastic to the point of bubbling. . Invert the piece and repeat to form the other rivet head. Finish plastic with files, sandpaper, and polishing compounds. Use a carpenter’s nail set or similar tool to shape round rivets.

Special Rivets Cutler’s Rivets This ingenious mechanical closure works because of friction between its parts, all taking place inside a tube. Cutlers rivets were developed to attach handles to knives (cutler, get it?) and enterprising metalsmiths will find many other uses. > The solid rod should be slightly larger than the interior of the tube. Only slightly, though. > File a chamfer on the solid rod to help it track into the tube. > The hole in the material being joined must be a bit larger than the tube because it will swell as the parts are engaged. > Use a vise or C-clamp to apply even pressure as the parts are squeezed together.

Making Flush Rivets Start by making holes that match the wire size, as usual. Bevel the upper edge of each hole so that the swell of the rivet will be below the surface of the materials being joined. Use a bud bur, a setting bur, or a cone bur. Either or both ends of a rivet can be made flush. If the rivet is made of the same metal as the piece it is holding, the rivet will blend in completely. This is called a disappearing or invisible rivet. After forming the rivet head with a small cross peen hammer, planish, file, sand, and finish to match the rest of the piece.

Variations • bezels (use a spacer to avoid crimping) • inlaid (recessed) • hollow connection • cast elements as rivet caps

Blind Rivets

Projecting Rivets

These useful rivets are built with a head already formed on one end. They are ideal when location or ornamentation makes it difficult to hammer one end of a rivet. Blind rivets can be made of round wire, tubing, or strips. To locate the rivet: . File the end of the pin flat. If two or more pins are used on a single head, file them to the same height. . Dab a bit of paint, ink, or correction fluid on the tips of the rods and lower the piece onto the joining material. This will leave inky dots that indicate the location of the holes. . Lift away, centerpunch, and drill the holes. . Cushion the decorative rivet head on plastic or leather so it won’t be damaged and form the rivet head as usual.

Use lengths of tubing to extend the reach of a rivet. If the tube and rivet pin are of the same metal they can be made to appear as one unit. If they are contrasting metals the rivet head can provide an interesting highlight. An alternate way to create projecting rivets is by filing blanks like these from thick wire.

Rotating Parts Sometimes rivets are used to connect pieces that need to pivot. In this case, insert a piece of thin cardboard into the joint. Make the rivet as usual, then either burn the cardboard away or wet it and rotate the parts until the paper shreds.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Special Rivets

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Threaded Connections Threaded Elements The idea of an ascending spiral is credited to Archimedes, a mathematician who lived in Sicily in the third century . Anyone who has watched a moving spiral like an old fashioned barber’s pole knows how powerful the attraction can be. Because screws, bolts, and jar lids are ubiquitous in modern life, we can easily forget their magic.

Uses

Thread Size

Threaded mechanisms offer diverse attributes, often several at once. Threads provide: A low pressure grip for fragile and brittle materials. Removable cold connections that can facilitate repair and also allow owners to modify pieces. Tightening (sizing) mechanisms Closure for boxes, necklaces, and bracelets. A playful, potentially dramatic way to initiate movement.

The two most common systems in the US are called National Coarse (N/C) and National Fine (N/F). Sizes are identified by two numbers, the first referring to diameter (or in small screws, a number from –) followed by the counted threads per inch. Two common sizes, for instance, would be written as N/C / and N/F –. These screws have the same diameter but the second one has finer teeth. The metric system is slowly gaining poularity here; in this system, threads are measured according to the diameter of the threaded shaft. There is only one pitch.

Dies Are Brittle Dies are designed to cut away material between threads—do not rely on them to cut a rod down to size. These cutting tools are hardened and (in order to retain maximum edge cutting power) usually left untempered. This means they are brittle, so handle them carefully.

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Taps and Dies There was a time when metalsmiths made their own dies, but today most workers find a trip to the hardware store more efficient. The tool that cuts an interior thread is called a tap and looks like a tapered screw with several channels cut along its long axis. Threading dies are used to cut threads on the outside of a rod or cylinder, and usually take the form of a thick steel disk with four holes in the center. Both tools are made with a specific size and pitch, which means that you must use a matching set. Tapping a Hole . Drill a hole of the correct size. This is important: too large and the threads are shallow; too small and the tap might break. . Mount the tap securely in a handle and anchor the workpiece in a vise. . Hold the tap so it is perpendicular to the work, and screw it in until it bites into the metal. Add light lubrication and screw it half a turn further. . Reverse the action, unscrewing enough to clear the cuttings from the tap. . Screw in a full turn and reverse a half turn, continuing this rhythm until the tap no longer cuts. . Do not force the tool because it will easily snap. Add lubricant (any thin oil) and be patient. Allow the tool to do the work.

Joining > Mechanical Connections > Threaded Connections

Using a Threading Die . The diameter of the starting rod should be equal to the finished outside diameter of the threads. Roll, draw, or file as needed to get to this size. File a short taper on one end, then anchor the rod in a vise. . Grip the die in a handle and screw it onto the tapered end slowly. Rotate a full turn then unscrew a half turn to clear away the chips that were just cut. . Continue in this way—full turn forward, half turn back—until the die spins easily. Add a few drops of light oil every few turns to lubricate and wash away the chips. . It is important to keep the die perpendicular to the axis of the rod. When the rod is gripped close to the vise, the jaws provide a point of reference. If this is not the case, rig up a visual guide.

Access Video Library on CD

Torches Flame Types Torch Safety

> Secure tanks so they cannot tip over, for instance by chaining them to a table leg. > Use only correct fittings. Never modify a fitting or use tape to enhance a joint. If the threads are not sufficient to prevent leaks, return the tank, and fitting to a dealer immediately. > Check each junction with soapy water each time the tank is changed out. > Never allow grease or oil to come in contact with oxygen. > Do not use excessive force when tightening fittings or when turning off a torch. This can impair the fit. > Get in the habit of sniffing the air before soldering. If there is a trace of fuel smell, open a window, disconnect the torch, set it safely outside, and call a supplier to come and pick it up.

Eye Care Most jewelers use a low intensity flame for relatively short periods of time, and in this context eye protection is not usually needed. Of course everyone is unique, and your eyes might need special care. Dark lenses are sold at welding supply companies in a wide range of eyeglass and face shield configurations. The darkness, or shading, is rated by a numbering system that ranges from  (lightest) through  (darkest). For oxy/acetylene welding, lenses of at least a Shade  are suggested. Electric welding requires Shade –, but in this, as in other safety issues, let your personal needs dictate the safety devices you use. If your eyes sting, form tears, or if you see spots for a minute after soldering, move up to a darker shade.

Reducing – Bushy, pulsing flame, deep blue color. This fuel-rich flame absorbs oxides and is best for annealing, though cooler than a neutral flame. Neutral – Sharp point, gentle hiss, medium blue color. All the fuel gas is being burned. The hottest point is 1⁄2–3⁄4" in front of the cone. Oxidizing – Thin cone, angry hiss, pale lavender color. This fuel-starved flame has no advantages when soldering.

Types of Torches > fuel / atmosphere (a.k.a Presto-Lite) The flow of the fuel draws air into the torch. > fuel / forced air A blowpipe, bellows, or compressor provides atmospheric air. > fuel / oxygen Pure oxygen ( times richer than atmospheric air) is combined with fuel in the torch.

Acetylene Acetylene is perhaps the most widely used gas in the jewelry community. It is derived from petroleum today but was originally made from limestone and coal; a technique that holds promise for the future. It was discovered in England in  but saw limited use because of the danger of exploding. A technique developed in  by Gustaf Dalén that made it safe to store and transport acetylene, opened the door to many uses, from welding to illumination. Jewelers are aware that they use a “B” tank, but did they know that the letter stands for Bus, since this size tank was originally developed to fuel headlamps on buses?

Natural Gas Natural gas, also called “city gas”, is supplied through pipes and requires installation by a certified plumber. It is inexpensive and easy (no tanks to change) and does not require a regulator. Temperatures with air reach ° F (° C); with oxygen, ° F (° C).

Propane Propane is similar to natural gas, but considered slightly cleaner and hotter. It is familiar from the squat white bottles used in barbeque grills. Temperatures in air = ° F ( °C); with oxygen =° F (° C).

Butane

Butane (C₄H₁₀) is another liquid petroleum gas, LPG, that is finding increased use in jewelry torches. It is commonly used in cigarette lighters, and because of this, refill cannisters are easily available. Joining > Hot Connections > Torches

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Soldering Surfaces Charcoal

Ceramic Soldering Boards

Charcoal creates a reducing atmosphere and is soft enough to embed work, but it’s expensive and messy. Charcoal can be a fire hazard because it will smolder for a long time after being used. Quench the block in water when you are done for the day. Extend the life of the block by wrapping it with a strip of thin copper or brass or a piece of binding wire. Blocks are available as natural (solid wood) and in a composite made from charcoal powder.

Most suppliers offer several versions of soldering pads that fall into this category. All are good; generally more expensive pads are denser and therefore they last longer. Some ceramic blocks give off an unpleasant odor when first used. To cure a block, bake it in a slow kiln for an hour, ideally when you will be out of the studio.

Coiled Refractory Paper

Fire Brick

This is a flat and relatively soft coil of refractory paper fitted into a shallow metal pan. Older versions were made of asbestos and should be discarded but new versions are safe. They are especially good for pinning work into position.

The more I design, the more certain I am that elimination is the secret of beauty.

Gustav Stickley

These soft, inexpensive bricks are available from ceramic suppliers, where you might be able to buy broken bricks at a discount. Ask for soft bricks; they will often be referred to with a number, as in G-, which is rated at ° F. Bricks without numbers are too hard for soldering purposes.

Wire Nest and Pumice This is an old standby. It is very good for annealing or in cases where a flat surface is not needed. Wrap binding wire around a pencil to make a coil, then stretch, and bend this to make the nest. A cake pan makes a convenient dish— attach a lazy-susan turntable for greater versatility.

Maintenance Like any other tool in the shop, soldering surfaces need periodic attention to provide consistent service. The greatest problem is the build up of flux glass, especially when paste flux is used. To avoid this, apply flux while holding the work in your fingers instead of when it is sitting on the soldering block. Most surfaces will become irregular after normal use. Use a piece of coarse abrasive paper to dress a soldering block, or rub two blocks against each other. Work over a waste basket and wear a respirator. Fire bricks can be trimmed with a hacksaw blade.

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Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Surfaces

Fluxes Flux Flux comes from the Latin word for flow, and refers to the chemicals that facilitate the flow of solder by preventing the formation of oxides. Generally fluxes work by forming a coating that protects metal from oxidation. Most fluxes are thinned with water to make a liquid that can be sprayed or painted onto a workpiece. When heated, the water evaporates leaving a clear glassy coating. This acts as an “oxygen magnet” by providing a compound that is more attractive to oxygen than the metal being soldered. As oxygen and other elements combine with this coating, its protective power diminishes; a change signalled by a blue or green tint in the flux.

Boric Acid & Alcohol This is a time-honored way to protect against oxidation and firescale. To make the solution, add boric acid to denatured alcohol until it stops dissolving (i.e. make a saturated solution). The resulting thin paste will need to be shaken or stirred periodically. To use it, dip the work into the solution, set it on a soldering block and ignite it. The alcohol will quickly burn off, leaving a white film of borax. Many jewelers paint a little Handy Flux on the joint in conjunction with this. This is a highly flammable liquid and must be used carefully. For safety’s sake, keep only a small jar on the soldering bench.

Borax sodium borate Na₂B₄O₇ x H₂O This mineral is usually ground to a powder and mixed with water to form a paste. It is probably the most commonly used flux worldwide, though it is less common in the US. It can be purchased in solid form as a cone that is ground into a dish and mixed at the bench as needed. Borax melts at ° F (° C).

Battern’s (My-T-Flux, etc.) A fluoride-based flux with a watery consistency that is often yellow or green. It is called self-pickling because it doesn’t leave a resilient flux glass like boron-based fluxes. This does not have the oxygenabsorbing power of the borax fluxes and it is not recommended for metals that oxidize rapidly such as copper, brass, and nickel silver.

Handy Flux (paste flux) A white borax-based compound available from jewelry and welding supply companies. It provides substantial oxide protection and leaves a tough glassy skin. The flux becomes clear and fluid at ° F (° C) which makes it a reliable temperature indicator. It is effective up to °F (°C). Remove flux glass with pickle or hot water. A black version (B-) is formulated for higher temperature applications, such as brazing stainless steel.

Cupronil This is a commercial flux similar to Prip’s but especially good at preserving a finish through a heating operation. This makes it valuable for repair work.

Prip’s Flux Borax Tri-Sodium Phosphate (TSP) Boric Acid

 ml  ml  ml

Boil these ingredients in two quarts of water until dissolved. If the solution crystalizes, slowly warm it again.

This flux is a popular protection against firescale. To build a thick glassy coat, warm the work slightly, and quench it in Prip’s solution. Repeat several times. An alternative is to warm the work then spritz solution from a spray jar. Again, several applications are recommended. The resulting glassy skin is waterproof, so it can be sustained throughout several solderings if you quench only in water. It will dissolve in pickle. Joining > Hot Connections > Fluxes



Pickle Pickle Pickle is a strong chemical bath used to dissolve surface oxidation and flux residue from a metal surface. Pickles work at room temperature but the reaction is hastened with heat. In bygone eras, vinegar was used to clean metal as well as to preserve food, and it is from this overlap that we derive the name we use today. If you’re in a bind, you can still use vinegar.

Pickle Solutions

SAFETY WARNING - When mixing, always add acid to water. Protect yourself from splashes by wearing safety goggles, an apron, and rubber gloves. Always wash hands after working with pickles or other acids. Keep baking soda close at hand to neutralize spills.

Hydrogen Peroxide Normal pickle will remove some oxides from brass, but usually leaves a thin, rosy-colored layer of copper. To remove this color: . Clean the work in warm standard Sparex to remove the dark gray oxide. . Mix a tablespoon of Sparex crystals into a cup of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂ – available at drugstores). Quantities may be multiplied as needed for larger scale work. . Warm the piece slightly and dip it into the peroxide solution. Repeat as necessary to remove the pink layer. The peroxide solution will give up its extra oxygen atom to the air, so it is only active for a short time. Mix fresh solution as needed. If brass is left in the solution overnight it can be damaged by etching.

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Joining > Hot Connections > Pickle

When Good Pickle Goes Bad

> Ferrous metals

Sparex #

> Non-ferrous metals

Sparex #

> Sterling > Gold

 part sulfuric acid  parts water  part nitric acid  parts water

Sparex Sparex (sodium bisulfate) works best at about ° F (° C ). It should never be heated to a boil because dangerous fumes will be generated. A convenient vessel is a crock pot that has had its seams sealed with tub caulk. As a substitute for jewelers pickle, use a swimming pool additive intended to raise the pH of the water. It has the same active ingredient as Sparex.

Pickle absorbs oxides like a sponge soaks up a spill. Like a sponge, pickle will reach a point where it has taken on about all it can carry. It is chemically possible to “wring out” the pickle but it is cheaper to discard the used pickle and make a fresh solution. The first indication that pickle is reaching saturation is that it will become blue, but don’t discard it at the first sign of color because even at a bright blue, the pickle has some life left. Warm pickle should dissolve oxides and flux residue in a minute or two. When it takes longer than this, it is time to replace the solution. Before discarding, neutralize the pickle by adding baking soda. This will cause the solution to froth up, so work in a sink. When the bubbling reaction slows down it is safe to flush the solution down the pipes. An alternate solution is to fill a bucket with limestone chips. Pour used solution over the rocks and eventually it will become totally neutralized.

Pickle Plating When pickle is used to clean sterling or karat gold, it absorbs copper ions, creating what’s called a super-saturated solution. This is a copper plating solution, loaded with excess copper to transfer to a metal object. The plating reaction can occur at room temperature in an inert bath, but both heat and electrical charge will increase the plating response. The introduction of steel into an acid creates an electrical charge, so copper, brass, or wooden tongs are used with pickle to avoid creating such a charge. A steel item in pickle will create a thin coating of copper to be deposited on everything immersed at the time. The thickness of this coating is dependent on the strength of the solution. Heavily used, (blue) pickle will create the thickest coat. Freshly mixed pickle has no copper and therefore no plating reaction will occur. When the steel is removed, the pickle is “de-activated” and will no longer cause the plating reaction. Saturated pickle does not need to be discarded, as long as the steel can be entirely removed.

Fusing & Diffusing Fusing It is possible to connect pieces of metal by heating them to their melting point and allowing the puddled surfaces to commingle. This technique has limited control but can create rich textures and unusual effects.

Eutectic bonding

Fusion

The term eutectic defines the specific proportion of metals in an alloy that have the lowest melting point. This alloy is characterized by changing directly from a liquid to a solid without passing through a slushy state. Technically, this is a meeting of the solidus and liquidus temperatures. See the phase diagram in the Appendix for further information. When two pieces of metal are coated with their eutectic alloy, they will easily join as soon as heated to the eutectic temperature. This is the principle used in bonding granulation.

When two pieces of metal are heated above their melting point, molecules from the two pieces intermingle. When the material cools and solidifies, the interface between the two units has disappeared. Another name for this, usually referring to ferrous metal, is welding. Metals that are good heat conductors (like silver and gold) fuse well, but because it is difficult to localize the heat, fusion is not practical for precise work. An important exception is platinum, for which fusing is a common fabrication technique. Where control is not essential, fusing can be used to generate interesting forms and textures. Coat pieces of metal with flux and heat them to their melting point, taking care to heat all units simultaneously. If you are not careful, the metal will draw up into a lump, but if the torch is lightly played over the surface, it can guide the mirror-like flashes of fusion. Precious metals will respond better to this than copper, brass, or nickel silver.

Diffusion Diffusion is related to fusion and refers to the fact that electrons are constantly wandering (technically, delocalized). If two pieces of metal are clamped together and left at room temperature, this electron exchange will eventually bond the two pieces together, especially if the relative valences and crystal structures make the metals compatible. The movement of electrons, and consequently the rate of diffusion, is accelerated by heat. Diffusion is best between similar metals. Alloys of gold, silver, and copper are commonly used. Parts to be joined must be clean and perfectly fitted together. When sheets are being fused together to make a laminate (for mokumé-gane, for instance) the pieces are piled up and clamped securely between sheets of steel. No flux is used. As the stack heats, the metal panels expand more than the steel around them, which has the effect of squeezing the laminates together. This tightness prohibits oxygen from entering and allows diffusion (electron migration) between the sheets. Heat the prepared stack in a kiln or forge until it glows red and shows a liquid film (sweating). Pull the pile out, tap it with a hammer, and quickly remove the steel jacket. If it is still red, the billet can be forged to insure that all areas are in contact and diffused. When done properly, diffusion results in a bond that is as strong as the parent metals. Subsequent forming and soldering won’t disturb it. Joining > Hot Connections > Fusing & Diffusing

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Soldering Soldering

Access Video Library on CD Soft Solder Soft soldering uses an alloy of tin, lead, and bismuth. Soft solder flows at about one-third the temperatures needed to cause the crystal spaces to open. The holding power of soft solder comes from its ability to fuse onto clean metal. Because the grip is only surface-to-surface, soft solder cannot be filed flush without weakening the joint. This is not true of gold or silver solder.

Zinc Content The amount of zinc in silver solder controls its melting point. When making solder, care must be taken to avoid overheating, because the zinc will go off in a vapor, and change the proportion. Because of this vaporization, each time solder becomes fluid its melting point is raised. Overheating a previously soldered joint will burn out the zinc and can leave a pitted seam. Prolonged exposure to pickle can also make seams visibly pitted because the pickling acid attacks zinc. This is why you shouldn’t leave fabricated objects in the pickle overnight.

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Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering

When a metal is heated to temperatures approaching its melting point, the crystals of which it is made move apart, opening up microscopic spaces. The idea behind brazing (also called hard soldering) is to introduce an alloy that is fluid just at the point of maximum expansion. This alloy, called solder, flows into the spaces of the expanded metal and bonds to the crystals there.

tight fit

crystals expand

solder (red) enters by cappilary action

soldler diffused into the structure

Gold

Brazing

Gold parts can be joined with silver solder, but to achieve a color match a gold-based alloy is usually used. Gold solders are available in many colors and melting points. Any gold of a lower karat can be used as a solder. K will be a solder for K; K will solder K, etc. “Repair solder” will be a karat or two lower than the metal it will join. “Plumb gold solder” assays at the stated karat, and uses other alloy materials to lower its melting point. When ordering, specify the color and karat of the piece you are working on, and ask for nominal or plumb solder.

In brazing the parts being joined are heated to a temperature approaching their melting point. A non-ferrous metal, like brass or a silver alloy, is introduced and drawn into the host metal by capillary action. The dividing line between soldering and brazing is placed at º F (º C). What jewelers call silver soldering is properly called silver brazing.

Common Soldering Problems 





Incomplete or unsoldered joint

Not enough heat; metal was dirty; no flux; prolonged heating

Avoid playing the flame directly on the solder.

Solder balls up

Metal or solder may be dirty

Reflux and try again.

Solder jumps to one side of joint

One side is hotter than the other

Keep the torch moving so all parts heat equally.

Solder spills out into a large puddle

Too much solder; too high a heat

Use smaller pieces of solder; level the heat as you approach the flow temperature.

Soldering Methods Rules for Soldering

Access Video Library on CD White Metal Contamination Lead/tin alloys (like soft solder) will create pits in gold, silver, copper or brass when heated above º F (º C). Where scraping or filing won’t work to remove white metals that have accidentally adhered to a workpiece, soft solder can be chemically removed. Mix  oz. glacial acetic acid with  oz. hydrogen peroxide. Heat but do not boil. Brush onto the affected area and allow several days to work. The tin will be left as a white powder that can be brushed off.

Solder Preparation Clean a piece of sheet solder with sandpaper or Scotch-Brite. With scissors, make a row of cuts no more than one millimeter apart, perhaps  millimeters deep. Uncurl the strips with pliers. Cut across this, catching the pieces on your finger and letting them drop onto a sheet of paper. By cutting at different intervals you’ll have a range of solder sizes. Because solder will tarnish, don’t cut up more than a month’s supply.

. The pieces must make a tight fit. . The joint and solder must be clean: no grease, finger oils, tape, pickle, buffing compound, or pencil marks. . Use flux to protect the metal from oxidation. Reflux for each reheating. . All the pieces being soldered should reach soldering temperature simultaneously. Heat the adjacent areas to reduce the flow of heat away from the joint. Take into account heat sinks such as binding wire, steel mesh, and locking tweezers. . When possible, position the torch so as to draw solder through a joint. Generally, avoid directing the flame at solder. Instead, allow heat to travel through the piece. Solder flows toward heat. . Use just enough solder to fill the joint; don’t settle for whatever piece is handy. It takes less time to cut the correct size piece of solder than to remove excess later. . When soldering an enclosed area, provide an escape for the steam trapped inside. If not vented, this will expand and can cause the piece to explode. . Metal temperatures are judged by color changes which can be seen best in a dimly lit area. Whatever your lighting, keep it consistent. Soldering Methods Each metalsmith develops a personal approach to soldering. Here is a summary of the most commonly used methods. Chip (pallion) • Probably the most commonly used method. • Puts the correct amount of solder at the right place. • The solder itself serves as temperature indicator. .

Sweat (tinning) • Keeps solder out of sight when doing overlay. • Provides more control when soldering large and small pieces together. • Helps direct solder flow.

Probe (pick) • Especially good when the configuration of work makes placement of solder difficult. • An efficient method. • Good for production work.

Wire (stick) • This has the advantages of the probe method and eliminates cutting the solder. • Good heat control is important or excess solder is used. Mud (paste) • Commonly used in commercial assembly line soldering. • Good for delicate work such as filigree. • Flux can splatter, leaving a scar on sheet. Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Methods

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Soldering Alloys Solder Alloys The amount of zinc in a silver solder alloy controls the melting temperature; more zinc means a lower temperature. When making solder, take care to avoid overheating because the zinc will go off as a vapor, changing the proportions. This waporization is also a factor when soldering. Each time solder becomes fluid, its melting point is raised. Overheating a previously soldered joint will burn out the zinc and can leave a pitted seam.

Silver Solders Name

Ag

Cu

Zn

IT





Hard



Medium

°F

°C

























Easy











Easy Flo











Yellow Gold Solders

CD



Karat

Au

Ag

Cu

Solidification begins °F °C

Solidification complete °F °C

Semi-solid range °F °C



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 



.

.

.

 

 

 

From Working in Precious Metals, Ernest A. Smith. N.A.G. Press, London

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Joining > Hot Connections > Soldering Alloys

Investment Soldering Investment Soldering This technique uses a plaster-like material to hold small pieces into position for soldering. It takes a little longer to set up, but in some cases it is the best way to achieve a desired precision.

Criticism comes easier than craftsmanship.

Zeuxius,  

. Prepare the pieces to be soldered in the usual manner. That is, they should be well finished, the edges should be refined and the surfaces being joined must make a good fit. . Hold the pieces into position by pressing them partially into clay or use an adhesive like Super Glue to temporarily locate the parts. The glue will burn away during soldering—avoid breathing the fumes. . Mix a small amount of investment to a thick paste. Conventional investment is okay and in fact even plaster of Paris will do in a pinch, but the best material is true soldering investment. It has the advantage of curing quickly and remaining tough at high temperatures. Mix in a paper cup or in the palm of your hand. . Gently trowel the mixture over the workpiece, taking great care that it doesn’t penetrate the seams to be soldered. Use a brush, stick, or finger, depending on the scale of the work. . Set the result in a warm place to dry. This can take from  minutes to an hour depending on the wetness of the mix, the thickness of the application and the choice of material. Abbreviating the drying step can cause the investment to shatter when soldering, which means you have to start all over. Patience, patience. . Apply a thick flux (one that won’t remoisten the investment) to each of the seams being joined. Soldering proceeds in the conventional way, remembering that the investment will act as a heat sink. . When all soldering is complete and verified, quench the work in water. This will break off a lot of the investment, but some scrubbing with a toothbrush or a bath in an ultrasonic will be needed. Note that there is a similar product that does not harden and can be reused. In that case do not quench, but follow the manufacturer’s directions.

Joining > Hot Connections > Investment Soldering

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Firescale Firescale The Jeweler’s Bane, firescale is an insidious deposit of cupric oxide that grows within the structure of some copper alloys such as sterling and low karat gold. It is also called Fire Coat, Fire Mark, Fire Stain, #*!!*!

What Happens

Bright Dipping

When copper-bearing alloys are heated in the presence of oxygen, oxides are quickly formed. Cuprous oxide (CuO) is a black surface layer that can usually be dissolved in pickle. Cupric oxide (Cu₂O) is a purplish compound that forms simultaneously within the metal. This is firescale.

If firescale has formed, it can often be removed by dipping the work in a strong solution of nitric acid and water. After all soldering and rough finishing are done (but before stones are set), attach the piece to a wire and dunk it for only a few seconds into a / solution at room temperature. Firescale will turn dark gray. Rinse and scratchbrush. Repeat until the scale is gone, neutralize the piece in baking soda and water, then polish. Wear rubber gloves, protective clothing, and a respirator.

CuO Cu₂O

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Joining > Hot Connections > Firescale

Prevention

Depletion Gilding

Strictly speaking, the only way to eliminate firescale is to heat the metal in an oxygen-free environment. This is the solution used in industry, but it is rarely appropriate for the craftsperson. By following these suggestions, however, it is possible to minimize the growth of firescale. Avoid prolonged heating—use a “hit and run” soldering technique. Use a big enough flame to get the job done efficiently. A small flame can cause rather than prevent firescale because it extends the soldering time. Use enough flux. Flux absorbs oxygen and prevents it from combining with copper. Flux will become saturated, so be sure you have enough. Do not overheat when soldering. There is no advantage to keeping the work hot after solder has flowed. Silver and gold alloys should never need to go above a medium red when soldering.

A commercially popular solution is to electroplate a coating of oxide-free metal over an object to cover scale. This is especially good for work that is subject to little wear. In the studio, a process called depletion gilding can be used on sterling and karat golds to simulate this action without special equipment. Copper in the alloy is converted to copper oxide by heating, and this is then selectively removed in pickle. In essence, the alloys are broken apart, leaving a thin coating of pure silver or gold on the surface. After all soldering and finishing is complete (but before patination or stonesetting) heat the work until a gray oxide forms and quench it in clean pickle. Repeat the procedure  to  times, rinsing in water and lightly scratchbrushing each time. Remember to protect yourself against splashing pickle.

Welding Welding The term welding refers to a variety of processes used to join metals, especially steel. Welding is an ancient technology that is widely used around the world in hundreds of industries.

Forge Welding This granddaddy version is familiar to blacksmiths. Iron or steel parts are fluxed with borax and brought to a high temperature, then struck with a hammer. The pressure of the blow forces the exchange of crystals between the units and results in a bond.

Gas Welding A fuel and oxygen torch is used to heat the edges of parts to their melting point. As the molten metal puddles and starts to flow together, a supply of addition material, usually steel, is added to the melt.

Arc Welding Electric current is divided between the two parts to be joined. When they are very close, the current jumps the gap (called “arcing”) which generates enough heat to melt steel. Arc welding is the most important form of welding used today.

Spot Welding

Do what you can, with what you have, where you are.

Theodore Roosevelt

In this process, (also called resistance welding), electrodes are placed on either side of the parts to be joined. This has been used for several decades in industry, where it lends itself to jigs and repetitious joints. Advantages are speed, low cost, and ease, since little clean-up is needed. A popular jewelry-scale spot welder is called Sparkie®.

Inert Gas Welding In this version of arc welding, an inert (nonactive) gas like argon or helium is directed onto the weld area. By preventing oxygen from entering the weld, a cleaner and more solid joint is made. Since the development of TIG (tungsten inert gas) and MIG (magnesium inert gas) welding during and after World War II, the equipment has come down dramatically in cost and size.

Joining > Hot Connections > Welding

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Adhesives Adhesives Adhesives used as a substitute for properly made mechanical or soldered connections are generally considered a sign of poor craftsmanship. There are situations however, when adhesives are a legitimate and important technique of heatless connecting. There are countless glues with more being developed each year. Here is a summary of the basic categories.

Type

Material

History

Advantages

Disadvantages

Hide glue (a.k.a rabbit glue)

Animal collagen (fibrous protein from skin, cartilage, bone and sinew). The word collagen derives from the Greek kolla which means glue.

One of the oldest of all glues; identified in objects of great antiquity. The Egyptians used hide glue , years ago in their furniture.

Easy to make, especially if you kill and clean animals for food. Inexpensive, water resistant, quick drying.

Hygroscopic (takes moisture from the air) which can weaken the joint. When it gets very dry this glue becomes brittle.

Casein

Milk proteins

Used by woodworkers for centuries and currently used to bind cigarette papers. Developed industrially in  by Adolph von Baeyer (the asprin guy) and widely used in the s in the construction of wooden aircraft structures.

Low cost, ease of use, and broad application. Most are water resistant and can be easily thinned to allow them to penetrate porous materials.

Not entirely waterproof. Subject to mold.

Polymer (Elmer’s, SOBO, Duco Cement, etc.)

Polyvinyl acetate (or similar)

The first plastic polymer was made from cellulose nitrate (from wood). It was used to replace ivory in billiard balls.

Very strong, waterproof, some versions set rapidly.

Moderate strength, low resistance to heat.

Epoxies

Thermosetting resins such as diglicidyl ethers of bisphenol A

A thermosetting plastic.

Clear, very tough, waterproof.

Relatively expensive, must be thoroughly mixed, breaks down around º F (º C).

Cyanoacrilylate (Super Glue, Krazy Glue, Black Max) C₅H₅NO₂

Acrylic resins

A thermosetting (nonreversible) glue developed by Kodak in  and sold as Eastman #. It is anaerobic, meaning that it hardens when air is excluded.

Hardens instantly when air is excluded; strong, clear, waterproof.

Not good on porous surfaces, hard to position work, relatively expensive.

Other glue materials include vegetable adhesives (mucilage) made from starch and dextrin derived from corn, wheat, rice, or potatoes, serum albumen (blood, used in plywood), and various gums derived from tree sap and nuts.

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Joining > Chemical Connections > Adhesives

Chapter 

Color

Patinas Preparation It is always important to clean metal before any coloring operation. The best way to achieve this is to avoid greasy materials like steel wool and buffing compounds in the first place. Alternate finishing materials include pumice, sandpaper, Scotch-Brite, and a scratchbrush. When grease is present, clean the work in an ultrasonic machine or scrub it in a solution of ammonia, soap, and water. When metal is thoroughly clean, water will “sheet” or cover the whole surface rather than bead up. When the work passes this test, dry it with a soft cloth or drop it in a box of absorbent material such as sawdust. From here on, handle the work only by the edges.

Preservation

Some metals, such as pure gold or platinum, do not react to the chemicals around them, but they are the exception. Most metals react with their environment, which is what produces their color. A few metals, such as tin, oxidize to a stable film, but most metals will continue to change. In choosing a particular patina we are singling out one point on a continuum and trying to preserve it. If this change is undesirable, the metal must be either returned to its original finish periodically (as most silver hollowware is hand-polished) or sealed off from the environment. A hard film such as lacquer will resist marring but can eventually be chipped away. A soft film such as wax is more likely to be vulnerable to wear but will probably just smudge across the protected surface, keeping the film more or less intact. In articles to be worn, wax can rub off on clothing.

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Color > Chemical > Patinas

Lacquer

Wax

Use only top quality lacquer. You can buy this as a liquid or a spray at an art supply store. For small areas, use clear nail polish. If the lacquer needs to be thinned to spread smoothly, buy lacquer thinner at a paint supply store. Apply a thin coat, taking care to avoid bubbles and trapped dust. A couple of thin coats are preferred to a single thick one. Porous materials (ivory, wood, clay, etc.) are likely to contain unremovable oils that will cause lacquer to bead or discolor; test first. If the lacquer does not readily bond to the work, clean it off right away with thinner. An acrylic (plastic) substitute for lacquer is sold as fixative, used to protect drawings from smudging. It is typically in an aerosol spray can and is available from most art supply stores. Follow the same guidelines as for lacquer, especially the warning to avoid spraying on too much at once.

Beeswax and paraffin are commonly used to protect metal objects. Popular commercial preparations are Museum Wax or Renaissance Wax. To make your own, start with clean beeswax or wax from a white candle. Hobby stores sell wax granules for candlemaking that are reliably pure. One method of application is to warm the object and rub the wax over it. Another method is to reduce the wax to a paste that can be rubbed on and buffed. To make this, melt the wax in a large spoon or disposable can (using a double boiler for safety) and pour it into turpentine, using roughly a / mix. When it cools, the solution should have the consistency of toothpaste. Apply the wax in a thin even layer; allow several minutes for the solvent to escape, then buff with a soft cloth. Repeat several times to develop a durable layer. Furniture wax (such as Butcher’s Wax) can also be used, but avoid heavy-duty waxes like car polish.

Applying Patinas Application Methods The method of application depends on the size and shape of the work. Note that various solutions can be layered on top of one another. Sound like experimentation is needed? You bet. Immersion This method is standard practice when coloring sterling with liver of sulfur. Clean the work and dip it into a patina solution. Drop the piece in and retrieve it with tweezers, or use wire and string to lower the work into a patina bath. Rinse in water and reimmerse as needed. The results will be affected by the temperature of the metal, the temperature of the solution, and the duration of immersion. Many of the solutions work best on slightly warm metal. Hold the piece under running hot tap water, dip it into a solution, and flush again with hot water while scratchbrushing. Repeat this warm—dip—rinse cycle until the correct color appears.

Spray After cleaning, dry the work, and spritz it with patina solution, sometimes at room temperature and sometimes with the addition of heat. • Put the work on a turntable to facilitate even coating. • Set a cardboard box behind it to catch overspray. • Place a fan behind you to direct spray away from yourself. • If climate allows, work outside. The sun will warm the metal and the fresh air is healthier for you. • To avoid overheating, use a hair dryer rather than a torch. • To take advantage of drips, you may need to reposition the piece during the process. • Some patina compounds will clog a nozzle when they dry. To clean the spray head, put the feeder tube in water and pump until clean water comes out. • Remember to label all bottles clearly.

Brushing Some patinas can be applied like paint. Use brushes, sponges, wads of cheesecloth, and other improvised tools to dab solution onto the metal. To thicken patina solutions so they can be applied without running, mix cornstarch or flour into a liquid patina solution to make a thick paste. Spread this on the metal where you want the patina, then wash it off with running water. An interesting halo effect is sometimes created by fumes escaping from the lump.

Vapor Create an airtight environment appropriate to the work. Trap chemicals in the tent to create the vapor and allow the work to sit untouched until the desired effect is achieved. If possible, use a transparent container so you can monitor the patina without releasing the vapor.

Heat Coloring It is possible to heat color with a torch, but the hue of the flame makes it difficult to observe color shifts. Instead, use a hot plate or stove, preferably in natural light. Set the piece on a burner and watch it oxidize to a desired shade, then quickly lift the work off with tweezers. Quench in water. Color > Chemical > Patinas

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Patinas Application Methods (continued)

Burying This method uses sawdust, leaves, or similar porous materials to hold patina solutions against randomly selected areas of a piece. . Mix a patina solution. . Prepare the metal by cleaning it. . Half-fill a plastic bag or disposable container with a dry porous granular material such as sawdust, kitty litter, pine needles, confetti, or dry leaves. Add a small amount of solution and toss (as you would a salad) to slightly dampen the nesting material. Add more patina compound sparingly as needed to moisten the mix. When you squeeze a handful it should feel just barely damp. . Bury the metal object(s) in the saturated material and tightly seal the container. . Label the container with the ingredients and the day/time the process began. . The time needed to develop a rich patina depends on temperature, saturation, potency, and size. Allow at least  hours before pulling the piece out to check it. If the patina is pale or the coverage is incomplete, bury the piece again, seal the container, and wait. When done, rinse the surface gently under water to remove patina chemicals.

Wrapping This is similar to the burying process but fabric, bark, leaves, or strings are used to bring the patina solution into contact with the metal. • Various strings and fabrics will offer a range of effects. • If the string or cloth is very wet, it will create vertical drips. To avoid this, wring out the application material slightly. • In addition to patina recipes, this technique will work with ammonia on copper and brass and with salt water on steel. Urine will also produce an interesting patina (and lots of questions).

Fuming Green and Blue-Green Suspend the work in a calcium carbonate environment. Create a closed space; this could be in a deli container or a plastic tent depending on the scale of the work. Use a transparent material if possible so you can watch the reaction. Within this space, place the work, either on a pedestal or suspended, again depending on the shape and size of the work. Also set a bowl of water and a second bowl of very diluted hydrochloric acid or vinegar. Drop bits of chalk into the acid (vinegar) periodically. Allow several days to produce a color. Warm environments work faster. To increase the amount of blue, spray the piece with salty water. To create splotches of blue, wet the surface with water and sprinkle on table salt.

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Color > Chemical > Patinas

Patina Recipes Recipes These recipes have been culled from the scores available in the literature of metalsmithing. Collected here are a few simple mixtures that provide a wide range of color potential. Recipes that use dangerous chemicals have been omitted, as have those that more or less duplicate effects possible with the solutions listed here. Many variables will affect the results you get. For instance, different

Liver of Sulfur

brasses will react in different ways to a single solution. The temperature of the mixture and the metal will alter results, as will the finish and cleanliness of the piece. Even the weather can be a factor. In each case, experimentation is required. Because some projects will require a large quantity of solution and some will need only a spoonful, the following recipes use the unscientific system of percentages.

Usually, measurements do not need to be precise; either weight or volume units may be used. Ingredients usually dissolve faster when warm. Solutions are generally best when fresh and often do not remain potent when stored. Small quantities of chemicals are sometimes available through the chemistry department of a local high school or college.

Dissolve a small amount of liver of sulfur in warm water. A rice-size piece to a cup of water is usual. If the solution is too strong the resulting sulfide layer is brittle and will chip off. The solution can be warmed, but should never boil. Use the dip–rinse–brush method to slowly create a sequence of colors.

Golden > scarlet > blue > plum > gray > black on silver alloys

Commercial oxidizer e.g., Silver Black, Black Max, etc.

On gold, steel is required to create the reaction. Use a nail or piece of wire (paper clip) to color specific areas. For broader applications, daub with a bit of steel wool held in tweezers. To color small pieces or chains, put a piece of steel wool in solution and immerse the work. Available through most jewelry supply companies. Avoid contact with skin and especially protect against contact with eyes.

Black—no transition colors

Green Patina #

 part ammonium chloride ()  parts copper sulfate ()  parts water ()

Variegated green layer Apply the solution to the metal and allow it to dry. Repeat several layers, allowing each to dry. Scratchbrushing will alter colors.

Green Patina #

 part zinc chloride ()  parts acetic acid ()  parts ammonium chloride ()  parts table salt ()  parts copper sulfate ()  parts water ()

Dissolve all ingredients together and mix well. Brush or spray onto the piece, or immerse the work.

Gun Bluing

Use full strength by brushing or immersion. On brass or bronze, apply the solution with steel wool. This commercial preparation is available at most sporting goods stores.

Gray > deep purple

Barium sulfide

Dissolve a pinch of barium sulfide in a cup of water. Brush on or immerse the work.

Scarlet > blue > brown > gray

Gray > purple > black on copper

Variegated green layer

Color > Chemical > Patina Recipes

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Patina Recipes Simple Copper Plating Brass, gold, and platinum are notoriously difficult to darken. One solution is to plate the work with a thin layer of copper, a metal that can be readily colored. Because it is thin, the copper layer will not withstand wear, but if the darkened area is recessed, this method offers a useful solution. Saturated pickle (blue-green in color) doubles as a copper plating solution because it is an acid charged with free copper ions. These have a tendency to attach to a metal object, especially when electricity is introduced. An easy way to create a slight electrical charge is to put into the same acid solution a ferrous and a nonferrous metal. The electrolytic reaction is further increased with heat. . If used pickle is not available, set copper scraps in pickle overnight or until the pickle turns blue. . Wrap the object lightly with iron or steel wire. Binding wire works well; paper clips are handy for small objects. . Set the object into warm pickle. Note that everything in the pickle at this time will be plated. After the steel is removed, the pickle can be used as usual. It has not been damaged. . Rinse the object and apply the chosen patina to the copper layer. When the desired color is achieved, use fine sandpaper to remove the copper plating from the raised areas.

Coloring Selected Areas Most patinas are applied to the entire object—whether you want it that way or not. It is difficult to localize the effect because even when the solution is carefully applied it often drips or fumes and affects exposed metal. Masking Bare Metal After all assembly is complete, make sure the metal is clean and dry, then mask off areas that are not to be colored. After the patina is complete, gently remove the mask. Mask cake frosting rubber cement liquid wax (available through ceramic suppliers)

Remove with warm water rub off with finger Boiling water

Controlled Patina Removal Color the entire object, allow the patina to stabilize, then use frisket tape or rubber cement to mark areas where the color will remain. Sandblast or scrub the piece with pumice, Scotch-Brite, or sandpaper to selectively remove the patina. Remove the masking material gently so it doesn’t lift the color.

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Color > Chemical > Patina Recipes

Patina with rubber cement

After sandblasting

Enameling Materials The science of glass chemistry can be traced back to Egyptian enamelists , years ago. Over the centuries it has grown in variety and knowledge. This brief introduction is intended only as an overview of a complex topic; interested readers are encouraged to pursue specific literature. Glass is a compound based on oxides of silicon, borax, and aluminum or other metals. By manipulating the ingredients, it is possible to control the melting point of a mixture and to render it transparent, translucent, or opaque. Additional ingredients will change its color, and the rate of heating and cooling can alter its physical properties. Most enamelists today take advantage of commercial suppliers, but purists can still create their own glass, cast it into blocks, and break it down to powder as it used to be done.

raw materials

Color comes from metal oxides: cobalt blue copper turquoise & green platinum gray antimony yellow manganese purple tin white iridium deep black gold red

cast into a block

broken into pieces

ground into powder

Recipe

• silica (sand) • borates (borax) • alkali (soda & potash) • alkaline earths

… provides the body of the enamel. … facilitates mixing of ingredients; lowers temp. … improves polish, sparkle, and elasticity.

(lime, magnesia, lead) • oxides of metal

… affects the melting point. … provide color.

Gums Various organic fully combustible solutions are used to bind enamel particles together before firing. Gum tragacanth is a gelatinous substance derived from several plants of the species Astragalus, found in Turkey and Iran. The hard sap dissolves easily in water to form a thick gooey liquid. Dissolve a 1⁄2 oz. lump overnight in a quart of water; thin as needed. Add a germicide to prevent the growth of bacteria. Gum arabic is a sap from several species of acacia trees. It can be dissolved in water to yield a thick, colorless glue. Agar (formerly called agar-agar), is a gelatinous colloidal material harvested from several species of sea algae. It is used in candies, creams, lotions, and winemaking, and also as a laboratory medium for growing bacteria. Klyr Fyr is a manufactured flux. Do not mix Klyr Fyr directly into enamels; this will make thousands of tiny air bubbles, which in turn create a frosty effect.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Materials

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Enameling Equipment Equipment Though enameling can be done with a torch, most enameling today is performed in a small electric kiln. This provides a clean, contained environment where heat can be sustained and measured. Modern kilns use lightweight refractory (heat-resistant) materials that can be formed over the wires that carry electric current. Older, heavier kilns are lined with bricks and reveal a wire coil that generates heat when electricity is run through it. Either style of kiln works equally well for enameling, though the exposed coils are potentially dangerous and more likely to corrode.

Pyrometer Diligent experimentation and notation of time and temperature are essential to control and repeatability in enameling. Clearly the wonderful enameling of the Middle Ages proves that it is possible to learn to read colors by eye, but we can bet the Medieval goldsmiths would have used a pyrometer if they had had one. Pyrometers work by measuring what happens when two different metals are exposed to heat. This arrangement is called a thermocouple. In an analog pyrometer, the two metals produce electric currents that are minutely different and this imbalanced charge is used to push a hand across a dial. Because the charge is so small, the hand must be very lightweight, which is why the needles in pyrometers are almost invisibly delicate. In digital pyrometers the current difference of the thermocouple is converted to readouts, making these devices both easier to read and more durable. When replacing parts in a pyrometer, it is important to buy components that are properly calibrated for each other.

Miscellaneous

Stilts and Shelves

Forks

Other equipment for enameling:

In the course of enameling, objects are set into the kiln and removed many times. A variety of racking systems have been devised to accommodate this—each enamelist will have several. Good stilts will hold objects securely while making minimal contact that might damage the enameled surface. A traditional material for firing flat objects is mica, a naturally occurring heat-resistant mineral. Do not allow moisture to enter between the layers because this can cause the mica to split when heated.

Forks are used to insert and withdraw objects from a kiln. They should be sturdy enough to avoid vibration and thick enough to slow down the conduction of heat. Most have two tines (which should fit the shelves) and a guard to shield the user’s hand from the heat of the kiln. This is intentionally left loose to discourage heat transfer from one part to another. It is helpful if the handle is rectangular or oval and oriented to communicate the position of the fork directly to the user’s hand.

• heat-resistant gloves • assorted sieves • several small glass dishes for washing enamel powders • jars to store enamel powders • glasses with protective lenses • good quality watercolor brushes • a kitchen timer

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Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Equipment

Enameling Process Firing Tips > The enamel layer must be completely dry. Moisture left in the enamel will expand rapidly and flick the enamel off. Set the prepared work on top of the kiln or under a lamp to insure that it is completely dry. > Even when using a pyrometer, confirm the temperature periodically with a visual inspection. > Do not stare into the kiln for extended periods— glance away frequently, or it will become difficult to perceive colors. > If using a torch, avoid directing the flame at the enamel. To create a simple baffle, set a screen between two cans. > Heat the kiln to º F above the desired temp, turn off the kiln, and set the work into the chamber. Remove it when it becomes exactly the same color as the kiln walls (i.e., when it almost disappears through camouflage). > Enamel particles cannot be mixed to create new colors. A mix of colors will, at best, yield a speckled result. This is why many separate hues are needed.

It ain’t what you do, it’s the way that you do it. Sy Oliver & James Young

Test Panels There is very little resemblance between enamel powders and the rich vibrant colors they reveal after firing. Besides this, enamel offers variations depending on the recipe and metal on which it is fired. A universal fixture in every enameling studio is a collection of small copper panels that show the results of each enamel. While every enamelist will have a slightly different approach, the goal is always the same—to illustrate the potential of each enamel in a series of conditions. For opaque enamels

For transparent and translucent

name and number two layers over copper

color over silver foil color over gold foil

name and number

color over flux color over opaque white

one layer over copper

color over copper

Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Process

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Enameling Process Washing Enamels Glass is formed into large blocks from which it is broken into chunks, then gravel, which is ground in a mortar and pestle where it shatters into both solid grains and tiny flakes. The latter are not good for enamels because they trap air in the mix and make the glass murky. To separate the flakes, put a small amount of enamel powder in a shallow dish—preferably one with sloped walls like a custard cup. Add four to five times as much water as powder and swirl the dish gently. After a few seconds, pour off the cloudy water. Repeat this process at least three times or until the swirled water is no longer cloudy. In some localities it is wise to use distilled water or to use tap water that has set uncovered overnight. This allows chlorine gas to escape, avoiding possible color influences from the chlorine.

Terminology Grit (Sieve) Enamel powders are sorted by passing them through screens of increasingly finer mesh. This is described by the number of crossings of the wires in a square inch. Typically, enamels range from  mesh (table salt, coarse) to  mesh (flour, very fine). Hardness In enameling this word refers not to physical strength, but melting point. Soft enamels have a low melting point; enamels that fuse at a higher temperatures are said to be harder.



> Soft

–º F –º C

> Medium

–º F –º C

> Hard

–º F –º C

Color > Applied Surfaces > Enameling Process

Counterenamel A layer of enamel applied to the back side of a piece to offset the difference in contraction between glass and metal. Work that is domed or has edges is often rigid enough that counterenamel may not be needed. Stoning Using a carborundum stone to abrade enamels; typically done as a trickle of water flushes particles away. Warping Large pieces that have no corrugation or similar contouring are liable to warp as they cool. To prevent or at least minimize this, set the work on a solid surface and trap it beneath a steel weight. To avoid thermal shock, keep the weight on top of the kiln so it will be warm when used.

Champlevé Applications It’s worth remembering that the early inventors of what we now think of as distinct approaches or techniques didn’t set out by defining a process. Rather, they were exploring possibilities for interesting visual effects. There is room for overlap and interpretation of the techniques below, gathered and named as a convenience, not a limitation.

Champlevé Champlevé (shomp-le-VAY) comes from the French, meaning, literally, “raised field.” This is perhaps the oldest form of enameling and was the dominant technique from the age of the pharaohs through the European Middle Ages. Early champlevé was made by pouring molten glass into recesses in metal, a technique favored by the Celts in the third century . Today metal is prepared with recesses that are filled with enamel powder that is then fused in place. Recesses can be of any size and shape and may be made by engraving, chasing, etching, embossing, laminating (overlay), casting, chiseling, or in metal clay. . Prepare recesses that are at least . mm deep (.",  ga). It is ideal if the walls are slightly undercut but this is not essential.

. Counter-enamel (if necessary), applying a layer of flux or Klyr Fyr to the recesses to protect the metal from oxidation. Fire and cool.

counter -enamel I am not yet so lost in lexicography as to forget that words are daughters of earth, and that things are the sons of heaven.

Samuel Johnson

. Pack the recesses with clean enamels to a height above the surface of the metal. This will compensate for the fact that enamel powders take up less space after fusing. Dry, fire, and cool.

. Repeat as needed to fill the chambers, unless you prefer the effect of leaving the chambers with miniscus curves.

. Stone the surface to make the metal and glass flush. Either work under a trickle of water at the sink, or dip both work and stone into a basin of water frequently during this process. Scrub with a glass brush and dry completely.

. To polish, either progress through finer abrasives and polishing compounds or return the work to a hot kiln and pull it out as soon as the enamel becomes fluid. This is called “flash firing” or “fire polishing.” Color > Applied Surfaces > Champlevé



Cloisonné & Basse-Taille Cloisonné Cloisonné (kloy-zo-NAY) from French cloison, “compartment, partitioned area.” In champlevé and basse-taille, enamel is contained in miniature chambers that have been carved out of thick metal. Seen this way, it is a small step to fabricating these chambers by creating walls from wire. Cloisonné work has been found from as long ago as the fourth century BC. As with every technique, variations abound, but here is a basic sequence of steps.

Basse-taille Basse-taille, (Bas-TY), from the French “low cut.” We are all familiar with the effect of looking into a brook to see the shape and pattern of the creek bed—dim and mysterious through the watery filter. Similarly, we have seen how the sloping depth of a swimming pool is revealed by a color change in the transparent water. These effects are the essence of basse-taille enameling. In general the process is the same as for champlevé, with a few refinements. The floor of the recess is often patterned or ornamented. This can be part of the recess-making step or a second process altogether. For instance, recesses could be created by piercing, then ornamented by engraving. Depending on the colors being used, the depth of the recess and the desired effect, layers of clear flux might be used over a color to fill up the recess. After all firing is complete, stone and polish to a bright luster to take full advantage of the effect.

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. Prepare the metal with counterenamel on the back and a layer of flux on the front. Dry, fire, and cool. . Bend lengths of wire to create the various compartments of the design. The wire is usually rectangular in section (set vertically) and made of fine silver or fine gold. If necessary the wires can be lightly glued in place with gum tragacanth. . Dry and refire. As the flux melts, the wires will sink into the gooey flux where they will be securely anchored. Withdraw and cool. . Fill the various chambers (cloisons) with clean and dampened enamel, using a watercolor brush or miniature spatula. Dry and fire. . Repack as necessary until the chambers are filled or nearly filled. . Stone the surface until it is flush and either leave it matte, polish with abrasives, or flash fire after careful cleaning.

Variations • In addition to commercially prepared cloisonné wire, make your own wires of varying thickness. • For lines that change from broad to narrow, forge wires with planishing hammers. • Use transparent or opaque enamels—or a combination of both. • Decorate the floor of the cloisons as in basse-taille. • Allow the enamel to slump naturally by filling each space less than full. The resulting surface has many concave facets that increase the play of light. An additional variation of this uses flattened twists of wire to form the cloisons. • The wires can be soldered in place rather than fastened with flux. • The initial layer can be white rather than the clear flux. This will brighten colors, even opaques. • Wires can be used to subdivide chambers made through other methods— a combination of cloisonné and champlevé, for example.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Cloisonné & Basse Taille

Plique-á-jour Plique-á-jour Plique-á-jour, derived from the French words for “applied walls” and “open to the light.” One way to describe plique-á-jour is to imagine carefully grinding away the base (or back) of a champlevé or cloisonné panel until light could pass through the glass. The effect is like a stained glass window. Method  . Fabricate a lattice by soldering wires together. . Set it onto a sheet of mica and pack the chambers with cleaned transparent enamel. Moisten this slightly with gum tragacanth to cement the result in place. . Dry thoroughly and fire. . Cool, repack, dry, and refire as needed to fill the openings. . Stone and either flash fire or polish. Method  . Assemble the design with gold wires upon a thin copper base—at this point it looks like cloisonné, and the process is the same. . After all firing and polishing is complete, submerge the work in nitric acid at a solution of one part acid to two parts water. Wear protective clothing and use ventilation. . Once the copper base has completely dissolved, remove the piece from the acid solution, rinse, and dry. . Stone and either flash polish or polish by abrasion.

Gaiety in objects, enjoyment in their construction, in making them work —this to me seems very important.

Method  . This method relies on the surface tension of the glass or capillary action of the openings to hold the gooey molten glass in place. Create an openwork pattern (usually by piercing) in which no chamber has an opening larger than ⁄" ( mm). . Pack this with enamel powder mixed with gum tragacanth as a binder. Fire as usual but be careful to withdraw the work from the kiln as soon as the glass fuses. . Stone and either flash polish or polish by abrasion.

Olivier Mourgue

pierced metal mica

Color > Applied Surfaces > Plique á Jour



Full Coat Enameling Full Coat Enameling In all the techniques described above, both the enamel and metal components are visible and rely on each other for the final effect. In the European Renaissance a technique became popular in which the enamel covered the surface completely. In this style, the metal is to the enamelist what canvas is to an oil painter. This was the dominant approach to enameling from the th through the th century. These styles of enameling are sometimes collectively called Limoges after the city in France where this technique became popular and reached a high level of skill.

Grisaille From the French word for gray. In this variation of Limoges, the metal piece is first fired with a smooth, even layer of a dark color, usually black. Mix extremely fine white enamel ( mesh) with water, turpentine, and either oil of lavender, or oil of clove. This makes what we might call a silica-based paint. Apply this with a top-quality brush, using thick layers for light areas and thinner layers to create shades of gray. After thorough drying, fire the piece to fuse the layers together. The one serious conviction that a man should have is that nothing is to be taken too seriously.

Samuel Butler

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Sifted Sprinkle enamels onto prepared metal with a small sieve. These three methods are only a few of many possibilities. A. Sift and fire a first coat, then sift on and fire a second layer of the same color. B. Sift a second color over the base coat and fire it. The effect will be different than in Method A. C. After firing a first layer in place, use stencils to control the location of additional layers. • Use a piece of damp paper towel; this is especially good for irregular or curved surfaces. • Use tape to achieve straight lines. Allow the enamel to dry completely before removing the tape. Spray the whole surface, including the top of the tape, with gum tragacanth so the enamel will stick where it lands. • If the stencil is held above the surface, the outline will be diffused.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Full Coat Enameling

Full Coat & Sgraffito Foils As can be seen in the test panels, transparent, and opalescent enamels will look quite different when fired on silver or gold. Of course the entire object can be made of gold (especially if your name starts with Pharaoh), but a more economical approach uses foils of fine metal to provide the effect. The process is the same for silver and gold. . After completing all metalwork, fire a layer of either flux or colored enamel. Counterenamel if needed. Allow to cool. . Cut a piece of foil to the desired shape with small scissors, working through paper. The ideal foil is around .–. mm thick (about ."). . If the foil is simply laid into place it is likely to trap tiny air bubbles. These will cause the foil to lift and can make the enamel frosty. To prevent this, poke the foil with hundreds of tiny, almost invisible holes. To make a tool for this purpose, bind – sewing needles together with wire and flood with lead solder. . Lay the foil in place, using a small amount of gum tragacanth to glue it down if needed. . Sift a layer of transparent color or flux over the foil, allow it to dry, and fire as usual.

Spatula This basic technique resembles painting in that a tool is used to apply the color to a desired location. Enamels are dampened with water (which makes them easier to control) or gum tragacanth (to hold the grains in place). For some designs it is helpful to use a wire as a temporary wall to contain the enamel. Lift this away and lay the second color up to the first, and so on.

Sgraffito From Italian, meaning, “to scratch”. In this expressive technique, sift a layer of fine mesh enamel over a previously fired and cooled layer of flux or color. Spray the dusted layer with a thin solution of gum tragacanth, then drag a smooth rod (like the back end of a paintbrush) through the enamel powder to reveal the first layer. The process can be repeated multiple times with additional firing between layers. An alternate way to create lines is to paint on an enameled surface with glycerin or gum tragacanth thinned with water. Use a brush, pen, or stick to draw. Add a few drops of ink to make the otherwise clear gum/glycerin solutions visible. Dust the entire form with fine enamel powder, allow it to dry, then pour off the loose enamel. Glycerin is preferred for complicated designs because it remains wet longer.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Sgraffito

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Anodizing Aluminum Anodizing Aluminum SAFETY Anodizing involves the use of acids and electric current. Working safely with either of these requires considerably more expertise than can be presented here. This much for sure: Always turn off electric apparatus before handling. Always ventilate the area well and wear protective clothing, gloves, and goggles before handling acid or caustic solutions. Always.

Equipment & Supplies As with any process, there is almost no limit to the maximum cost. People interested in experimenting with anodizing on a small scale are generally more interested in the minimum investment required. You will need a rectifier or battery charger, a number of stout plastic vessels, a stainless steel pot, several immersible thermometers, an acid-proof apron, gloves, goggles, and several chemicals. A small experimenting setup can be assembled for –.

The Process

Dyes Because the anodized surface is porous, it will absorb many kinds of colors, including most dyes, inks, and stains. To ensure color fastness, richness, and control, dyes made specifically for coloring aluminum are recommended. These are generally sold as powders to be mixed with water as needed. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions, paying special attention to the need for chemically pure water. The dyes can be mixed to achieve a new color (e.g. red and blue may be combined to achieve purple). A more popular approach is to achieve mixes by overdyeing the original hues. In this way the original colors can be kept pure, leaving the fullest palette available. Of course, where production runs of a specific color are required, mixing the desired hue is a more reliable and efficient solution.

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Anodizing is the process of using an electric current to create an oxide coating on a metal. In the case of aluminum, the coating is tougher and less reactive than the unoxidized metal. Because it is porous, this coating is susceptible to dyes, allowing an infinite range of colors on the surface.

In its relatively brief history (the process was patented in ), anodizing has matured to a complex and exact science. What follows is a brief summary; for more details, visit your library or search the web. To the casual observer, the process of anodizing aluminum is similar to coloring Easter eggs. In both cases you dip, rinse, and dip again to manipulate colors. The next page illustrates a top view of an anodizing setup for a jewelry studio, as if you are looking down on a series of pots. . Create the desired finish: steel wool for matte, and buffing or tumbling for a shine. What you create here will remain after anodizing. . Wash well to remove oils, either with soapy water or proprietary anodizing prewash cleaner. . Attach a stout aluminum wire securely to each piece. Fit is critical. . Prepare a bath of – sulfuric acid to water. Always add acid to water. Always wear rubber gloves, goggles, and a protective apron. . Set cathodes, typically on opposite sides of the tank so they stick up out of the acid. These can be lead or / aluminum, and should be about four times larger than the work being anodized. . Attach a battery charger, ideally a  volt,  amp model to the setup. The negative pole connects to the lead cathode, and the positive lead connects to the work. For several pieces, set an aluminum bar across the tank and connect (firmly) to this. . With the part submerged in the acid bath, turn on the rectifier. You’ll see bubble form on both anode and the cathode. Be sure the metal parts never touch. Anodizing will raise the temperature of the acid. It should not exceed about ° F; cool between jobs as needed. . Time will depend on size, temperature, and voltage. Allow - minutes. . After rinsing, dip the part in dye—the longer the immersion, the deeper the color. This might be a quick dip or a  minute bath. . After rinsing, seal in hot water or (better) nickel acetate sealer.

Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Aluminum

Anodizing Aluminum To anodize, a piece of aluminum is attached to the positive pole of an electric current, called the anode, and immersed in a solution of – sulfuric acid (the electrolyte). When current is passed through the electrolyte, oxygen is compelled to combine on the metal’s surface, creating clear, tough, porous aluminum oxide.

Bleaching Familiar jeweler’s pickle (Sparex) can be used to bleach out unwanted colors. Reserve a container of pickle for this purpose and keep it at room temperature. Other acid solutions can also be used, but they involve more dangerous chemicals.

Resists You can create special effects by using resists such as lacquer, nail polish, rubber cement, asphaltum, and tape. The process is as described except that after the first color is applied and the metal is rinsed, the piece is stripped in a nitric acid etch. It is then dyed, rinsed, remasked, and restripped for each additional effect. When the process is complete, gently remove the masking material with the appropriate solvent and seal the aluminum as usual.

Structure

Racking

When aluminum combines with oxygen, it forms a thin, transparent coating called aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃). When this process is accelerated by electricity and performed in an acid bath, the result is a thick layer that looks like a microscopic honeycomb. These pores or tubes allow the anodized layer to accept dyes. As a final step, the oxide layer is sealed, either with hot water or a nickel salt.

One of the keys to successful anodizing is the unobstructed flow of electricity. This requires clean solid contact between the power source and the workpiece. Use titanium or an aluminum wire of a similar alloy to that being anodized.

Process The whole process should take about 1⁄2 hours but you will not be constantly working during that time.

- min.

 minute

– min.

 minute

Degrease

Rinse

Caustic (lye)

Rinse

– min.

 minute, each time

- min.

 minute

Anodize

Rinse

 minute

Nitric bath

Rinse (x )

baking soda

 minute, each time

- min.

Neuralize

Rinse (x )

Dye

 minute Add’tl. dye

Rinse

Rinse

- min. Seal

Rinse

Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Aluminum

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Anodizing Reactive Metals Anodizing Reactive Metals When titanium, niobium, or other metals are heated they form a stable oxide film. The thickness of this film bends light in predictable ways that allow us to achieve consistent colors. Control the thickness, and you control the color. Colors are possible with heat, but control comes through electricity—when measured voltages are passed through a sample in an electrolytic bath the result is a repeatable pallete of brilliant colors.

Can I use the same rectifier to anodize reactive metals and aluminum? Not really. The two processes require different voltages. Aluminum requires relatively low levels of electricity, like – volts. To anodize titanium and niobium, you’ll need variable direct current of – volts and . to  amps.

Preparing the Metal Anodizing does not cover finishing mistakes or shortcuts—if anything, the brilliant colors accentuate scratches. Finish with standard sandpaper or tumbling, but anticipate a longer process. Natural oxidation films on these metals is noticably tougher than other jewelry metals. Titanium, especially, requires an acid etch to prepare the surface for best color values.

Bath Method . Prepare the metal by sanding, sandblasting, chasing, or any other surface technique associated with jewelry. Polished surfaces offer the brightest colors, but if viewed obliquely they will appear dull and dark. For this reason scratch finishes are the most common. Degrease and handle only by the edges. . Set up the equipment as shown, being certain that the power is OFF. Make the electrolyte by dissolving a tablespoon of trisodium phosphate (TSP) or Sparex in a quart of water. This will be used at room temperature. With a tight lid to prevent evaporation, the solution will last indefinitely. Do not allow clips or leads to touch the electrolyte (bath). Doublecheck that the anode and cathode do not touch. Wear rubber gloves. . Turn on the power supply and increase the voltage until the desired color is achieved. It’s natural to see bubbles forming on the surface. Colors are not apparent during the process; to check midway, turn the power off and lift the workpiece out of the bath and dry the metal to reveal the actual color.

This material is drawn from Studio Preparation and Coloring Titanium, by William Seeley, . Used with permission and thanks. Sample above by Ruthann Glazier.

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. The piece can be reimmersed for further coloring. Remember that changes will occur only at higher voltages. If you pass the color you want, you’ll have to abrade the surface and start over. . To stop the process, turn off the power.

Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Reactive Metals

Anodizing Reactive Metals Applicator Method (Anodic Painting) Safety Note When using food containers for studio chemicals, always mark them—boldly and permanently— so they will never end up in the kitchen by accident.

. Prepare the metal by sanding, sandblasting, or polishing. Degrease and handle only by the edges. . Prepare the electrolyte as described in Step  above. . Connect the anode ( ) to the workpiece and secure it to the table. Doublesided tape is handy. . A brush with a metal ferrule can be used as a cathode. With all power disconnected, attach the negative lead to the ferrule, then cover it with a nonconductive material, such as a rubber sleeve or several layers of electricians’ tape. . Be sure the machine is OFF and connect the lead from the applicator to the cathode ( ). Wear rubber gloves. . Dampen the tip of the applicator with eletrolyte solution and turn on the power. When you touch the applicator to the metal the colors will start to appear. If the reaction is too rapid, decrease the voltage. If it is too slow, increase the voltage. The smaller the applicator, the lower the current needed. Too high a current (amperage) will create localized heat and subsequent etching of the metal, leaving brown spots. Always wear rubber gloves and be careful that metal parts of the applicator don’t touch the anode. This will cause a short circuit. The liquid electrolyte is the carrier of the electric current. By keeping an area dry you can prevent oxides from forming. Typical masking materials include electrical tape, high quality masking tape or frisket, dilute asphaltum, and fingernail polish. When using tape, burnish down the edges. If electrolyte seeps underneath the tape, the edges of the colored areas will be uneven and fuzzy. electrical tape

+

-

Masking To achieve lines between colors and to create specific shapes, mask selected areas between coloring steps. Use electrically resistive tape and burnish the edges with a fingernail to insure a sharp line.

Equipment and Supplies The electrical current that comes out of the wall needs to be controlled for anodizing, so the trick is to reduce it to a managable level. In the process, you’ll want to devise a way to see the voltage level and build in some safety measures. To assemble components yourself, get a Variac with a full wave rectifier and fuse or an autotransformer. Or, buy a unit designed for this purpose that has all these parts built into a compact unit. Besides the anodizer, you’ll want a sealable plastic container for the electrolyte (e.g. Tupperware), rubber gloves, masking tape, and paper towels.

Color > Metallic Surfaces > Anodizing Reactive Metals

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Paint & Resins Chemical Coatings Though the idea of painting on metal seems foreign to traditional goldsmiths, the concept is well-founded and has its own rich history. • As long as  years ago the Greeks and Egyptians painted marble statuary with encaustic, a mixture of pigments and wax. • Armorers in the medieval period used paint to ornament armor and to protect it against rust. •  First recorded paint mill in America •  D.R. Averill of Ohio patents “ready mixed paint.” •  Henry Ford makes the Model T available “in any color as long as it’s black.” This was because black varnish dried faster than other colors, speeding up the production process. • s Alkyd resins first used in paints. These were tough and dried faster but did not yield a bright shine. •  Aerosol spray can invented. • s Acrylic paints developed; these led to two-part hardening epoxy paints.

Colored Pencils Pigments are mixed with wax to create a large variety of drawing tools, most of which offer possibilities for metalsmiths willing to experiment. Typically these will require three steps:

Process . Clean with a mild abrasive (pumice, Scotch-Brite, sandblasting) to expose bare metal and create a slight tooth.

. Apply paint either by spraying or with an appropriate brush. If the paint is too thick, thin it slightly with lacquer thinner, mixing well.

. Use a lamp or other mild heat source . Prepare the metal with a base coat . Avoid the temptation to apply too to speed up drying but be careful of paint, patina, or oxide. much, especially when spraying. not to develop a temperature that . Apply the color. Allow the first coat to dry completely will melt the paint—usually around . Seal with lacquer or a plastic before applying the next coat. º F (º C). Because it contains coating such as acrylic fixative. wax, encaustic paint melts at lower temperatures: º F (º C).

Resins In this context resins are two-part thermosetting polymers that can be colored with dyes. Effects can include a coating that is opaque, translucent, opalescent, layered, matte, or shiny. Additives

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Fillers

These are used to reduce cost and to add certain properties. Examples are calcium carbonate, kaolin, talc, and mica.

Pasticizers

These allow the resin to flow.

Stabilizers

These prevent the plastic from breaking down, a result of ultraviolet light or oxidation.

Colorants

These allow the material to be colored throughout.

Color > Applied Surfaces > Paint & Resins

Chapter 

Finishing

Abrasive Materials Overview A polished appearance is the result of a perfectly flat surface. Under magnification, the cross section of a scratched surface looks like a series of ridges, and grooves. Light is reflected between the scratches like sound being echoed in a mountain valley. A flat surface, on the other hand, bounces all the light back, which we see as a bright shine. Good finishing begins the moment you first handle metal. Store it carefully to avoid making unnecessary scratches. Don’t scribe a line until you are sure of your plans.

When light hits an irregular surface, it gets trapped in the valleys.

By contrast, when light reflects off a flat surface, most of what hits bounces back.

Abrasives We can loosely divide the long history of abrasives into three segments. For a long time the field consisted of finding new rocks that were harder than the materials to be abraded. Research consisted mostly of identifying new sources, and refining the vehicle that carried the grit to the work—paper, cloth, and leather. The second phase, about a century old, is driven by synthetic abrasives such as aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, both developed in the s. These and other compounds are much tougher than natural abrasives. The third phase is in its infancy and focuses on control of the size, shape, and distribution of particles. Somewhat surprisingly, uniformity and lack of uniformity in size have a significant effect on the results of abrasives. Recent years have seen huge leaps in those industries that directly Traditional sorting establishes only a maxiaffect metalsmiths. Microsorted mum size (nothing larger than x.) abrasives are available as papers, on plastic sheets, and backed with foam rubber. Experimentation Micrograding sorts out both larger and is recommended. smaller particles.

Types of Abrasives



Bobbing

natural pumice

Tripoli

natural sandstone removes scratches, creates a low shine.

removes scratches, creates a low shine.

White Diamond synthetic

removes scratches, leaves a good shine.

Blue rouge

synthetic

cuts light scratches, leaves a high shine.

Zam

synthetic

removes scratches, leaves a bright shine; especially good on soft gemstones and natural materials like wood, shell, etc.

Finishing > Mechanical > Abrasive Materials

Abrasive Materials The Science Progression from files to coarse papers to medium papers involves removing metal. Rough tools leave scratches; finer abrasives make smaller scratches. For centuries it was assumed that polishing compounds continued this pattern, but early in the th century researchers discovered that this was not true. Precious metals flow under the action of polishing compounds, filling in the low spots with material from higher areas the way a footprint in soft mud will erase itself. An aggressive compound applied with high pressure at right angles to scratches can exaggerate this process to the point that high spots are pushed over the low spots, trapping microscopic voids underneath. Subsequent wear will reveal these and disclose an imperfect finish.

Filed surface before buffing.

Rolled surface after aggressive buffing.

Compounds Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it kills all its pupils.

Hector Berlioz

Nowadays when we think of sand it’s in the form of a picturesque sloping beach in a travel ad. Early metalsmiths would have been alive to the more practical aspects of size and relative hardness. When a distinctive type of sand was located it often took the name of the region and was shipped from there and sold as a product. One example is tripoli, a decomposed sandstone from Tripoli, Libya. In more recent times, natural abrasives have been supplemented by human-made materials. In both natural and manufactured abrasives, the finer particles resemble flour and would fly away if used in powder form. For this reason they are mixed with a thickener such as wax or tallow and formed into solid bars. These are used to coat the wheels used in machine buffing.

Rouge Rouge is ferric oxide that has been reduced to a fine powder. While red rouge is still the most familiar member of the family, there are variations that work better on selected metals. name

ingredient

used on…

Red rouge

ferric oxide

gold, silver, brass, copper

Green rouge

chrome oxide

steel, stainless, brass, aluminum, nickel, chrome

White rouge

calcite alumina

steel, stainless, zinc, brass

Black rouge

silver

Gray rouge

silver

Yellow rouge

platinum, stainless steel Finishing > Mechanical > Abrasive Materials



Scraping Scraping It was Homer who said, “Control thy scraper and be your own master.” Okay, maybe he didn’t, but we can be certain that somewhere in his hometown there were goldsmiths who used scrapers. Oddly, these tools are rarely used today, perhaps because of the availability of sandpapers and electronic grinding. Still, they have a lot to offer. Any kid would know to whittle a stick to change its shape, but few metalsmiths remember that a hardened steel knifeblade (Mohs ) can do a lot of work on a silver object (Mohs ). A traditional scraper is a rod with a triangular cross section, polished faces, and a comfortable handle. Scrapers can be any size or shape—from a dental tool to a hatchet; what makes them work is a crisp edge and a proper stroke.

Hollow Scrapers A flat scraper has several planar surfaces—usually three. The crispness of the edge created where two sides meet is what makes the scraper sharp. This is different from the sharpness of a knife, which depends on the thinness of the edge. In some tools, the edges are flat, but the center of the blade has been hollowed out to create a space for the shavings to collect. These are most useful when scraping soft materials like wood, plastic, bone, pewter, or aluminum.

It is often said, “The public does not appreciate art!” Perhaps the public is dull, but there is just a possibility that we are also dull, and that if there were more motive, wit, human philosophy, or other evidences of interesting personality in our work the call might be stronger.

Robert Henri



Finishing > Mechanical > Scraping

Whittling While it is not exactly the same as scraping, this familiar-but-forgotten technique is worth inserting here. Silver, gold, copper and brass have a Mohs Hardness of around –, while the average knife blade comes in at about . This means that knives and X-Acto blades can be valuable tools at a jewelers bench. Use a knife to shave off excess solder, to shape a point for drawing, or to create an interesting texture on wire.

Sanding Sticks Process Grits s s s s s

very coarse coarse medium fine very fine

Advance from coarse to fine papers, taking care not to skip or abbreviate any step. As you switch grits, change the direction of your stroke. This will make it easier to tell when the marks of the previous abrasive have been worn out. For a mirror finish, go to a  paper and from there to polishing papers. Keep in mind that there is no universal “right” finish. You can stop at any point that complements the piece.

Sanding Sticks

Sanding boards

Abrasive paper should be wrapped around a board or dowel to increase leverage. The cutting power of the paper depends on the force behind it. Polishing sticks can be made by gluing leather or felt onto wood and then saturating it with a polishing compound.

Start with three " x " pieces of Plexiglas or Masonite and attach a full sheet of sandpaper with rubber cement or spray adhesive. By using both sides of each, you’ll have a sequence of six grits. Drill a hole for hanging and mark each board plainly. Keep these close at hand for leveling edges, truing the underside of bezels, and other similar tasks.

Using Boards Hang a collection of boards on the side of your bench for easy access. To sand a flat plane or straight edge, pull the full set onto your lap or benchtop and work systematically through the sequence of grits. Clean the boards periodically by holding them over the sweeps tray and tapping them with a mallet.

Sources Sanding sticks can be purchased, but handy strips are easy to come buy. Lumberyards sell a knot-free pine called lathe, and paint stores regularly give out stirring sticks that can make excellent sanding sticks. Popsicle sticks, tongue depressors, and rulers or sections of yardsticks all offer possibilities. Attach the sandpaper with masking tape, staples (on the edge of the board), or spray adhesive. Finishing > Mechanical > Sanding Boards & Sticks

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Strops & Thrumming Polishing Cloths In bygone times jewelers made their own polishing cloths. The first step would be to collect iron oxide (FeO₂) by scraping rust from steel. The fine grains were washed and reground to make a red powder. This was mixed with oil to make a paste, smeared onto a smoothed piece of silver or gold, and rubbed aggressively with a bit of cloth. After a few uses this cloth would become so loaded with compound that no additional oxide was needed. Today most jewelers are content to buy commercially produced compounds and pretreated flannel cloths. Recent advances often combine the cloth’s burnishing action with chemical tarnish solvents and sulfide inhibitors. In one motion these cloths soften and remove tarnish while depositing a film that helps prevent oxidation.

Thrumming Thrumming or polishing small spaces with string is more effective than you might think. Any sort of string, ribbon, or thong can be used. To make a traditional device, cut about a dozen " lengths of medium weight cotton or hemp string (like you’d use to tie a package for mailing). Double this with a soldered ring in the middle and wrap the hank near the top. Hang this from a hook on the face of the bench. To use it, take up a strand, pull it taut, and stroke a piece of tripoli or rouge along to charge it. With the string pulled tight, slide the jewelry back and forth along it to cut or polish between prongs, in small piercings, and inside links.

Stropping This term is most familiar from nostalgic references to a thick leather strap against which straight razors were stroked to refresh their cutting edges. The concept of using abrasive-coated leather to achieve a high shine is as useful to jewelers today as it was to barbers years ago. Glue a strip of leather onto a piece of wood—rulers, tongue depressors, and popsicle sticks are all useful sizes. Inexpensive sources of leather are old handbags and belts. Be certain the glue reaches to the outer edges of the stick, allow to dry under pressure, then trim with a knife. Rub polishing compound into the leather, which will accept it better if it is wet. Rub forcefully against metal to achieve a bright shine. This method is especially appropriate to polish prongs and bezels.

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Finishing > Mechanical > Strops & Thrumming

Machine Sanding Power Sanders Many styles of electrical sanding devices are available, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Here are a few defining characteristics to jump-start further investigation. Belt Sanders These machines have a continuous loop of abrasive paper that is held under modest tension between at least two wheels, one of which is driven by a motor. The handheld version is especially useful for finishing anvils and large stakes. Band Sanders This version has a " wide loop of sandpaper. Disk Sanders A steel or aluminum plate is connected to a motor so it rotates counterclockwise. Sandpaper is glued onto the plate and often comes with pressure sensitive adhesive so application is an easy matter of peel-and-stick. Disk sanders are often combined with a belt sander. Angle Grinder This compact, handheld tool is especially useful for reaching into tight areas. It is often found attached to a blacksmith or sculptor. Orbital (Eccentric) Hand Sander These compact units are portable versions of a disk sander but with the important distinction of replacing a uniform rotation with a wobbly erratic motion. This irregularity makes it less likely to wear gouges in the surface. Flex Shaft Machine This can be used with a variety of sanding attachments. In most cases the advantage of this tool is that it can be moved around the work, but in some situations it is helpful to use a jig to convert the flex shaft to a miniature belt or disk sander.

Finishing > Mechanical > Machine Sanding

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Machine Finishing

!

Rules for the Buffing Machine > Pay attention! If your mind wanders, turn off the machine and take a break. > Use a pinch, or breakaway, grip. Don’t entwine your fingers into the work. > Wear goggles. Keep long hair and loose clothing tied back. > Work only on the lower quarter of the wheel. Buffing Machine polishing is an extension of sanding. A tough, gritty material is dragged forcefully across a surface and the high spots get broken off. In sandpaper we see the grit (media), feel the paper (vehicle) and provide the motion. In machine buffing, the abrasive particles are usually so fine they don’t feel like much and the vehicle is a disk made of fabric. The motion is provided not with elbow grease but by flipping a switch.

Buffing Wheels The size, shape, and material of buffing wheels influence the effectiveness of various compounds. Start here, but watch what is happening in front of you and make adjustments as needed. Fabric Felt These wheels are made by stitching These wheels are made by together a thick pile of sheets of compacting randomly oriented woven fabric. Muslin is usually used, wool fibers. They are sold in several but wool is preferred for coarser hardnesses and a dizzying variety of polishing. Fabric wheels are most shapes. Because they are stiff, felt rigid near a layer of stitching and wheels touch only at the tangent quite floppy away from the stitching. point, which makes them ideal for polishing selected areas. Because of this crisp edge, keep the work moving or you can quickly wear an unsightly trough.

Speed Most polishing machines have two speeds. The slower,  rpm (revolutions per minute) has the advantage of reducing the friction heat. The faster speed,  rpm, exaggerates the effect of the abrasive particles against the metal, increasing the ability of the buff to remove metal.

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Finishing > Mechanical > Machine Finishing

Tapered Spindles Most jewelry buffing machines have a threaded tapered spindle mounted on the machine axle. These make it quick and easy to switch from one wheel to another. When buying, make sure you get a right- or lefthanded spindle, depending on the setup of your motor. Also, be sure to match the diameter of the axle.

Machine Buffing Preparing and Maintaining Buffs All wheels are sold naked (with no compound). Once they are charged (loaded with abrasive), they should be used only for that compound. Mark the wheels clearly with permanent markers or colorcode them with spray paint. Before loading a muslin wheel, prepare the buff by removing loose fibers. This is a messy, potentially dangerous business that creates a cloud of lint. To prepare a new wheel, put on goggles and a dust mask, thread the wheel securely onto a tapered spindle, turn on the buffing machine’s exhaust, and start the motor. To release the first flock of threads, hold a scrap of wood against the wheel as it turns. When the flurry subsides, stop the motor and let the buff come to a natural stop. Pull loose threads out with your fingers and trim off stubborn threads with scissors. Turn the buffing motor on again and repeat the first step, but this time use a fork to rake the wheel, releasing more lint. Stop, trim as needed, and clean up the debris (which is a fire hazard). The wheel is now ready to use. The same process is used for felt wheels, but you can skip the fork. With use, all wheels will become caked with compound and will need to be cleaned. To rake out stiff compound, mount the buff on a machine and run it against a tool that can reach between the layers of fabric. Use a commercial rake, a fork, or a piece of wood about a foot long with a few dozen nails pounded through one end. If your buffs get stiff and need raking more frequently than once a month, try using less compound and a lighter pressure.

Scratchbrushes These brass-bristled brushes will give a delicate shine to gold or sterling that has been finished to a uniform matte with sandpaper or pumice. Lubricate the scrubbing action with soap and work in all directions. Motorized Scratchbrush Small rotary brushes of brass and stainless steel are available for flex shafts. Run them at a slow speed and lubricate with soap. For occasional use this is fine, but for frequent use or where larger work is being done, it might be worthwhile to invest in a fullsize unit. Use a standard  rpm, 1⁄4 horsepower motor, but reduce the speed by putting a small wheel on the shaft of the motor and a larger wheel on the arbor, aiming for about  rpm. Rig up a water drip to keep the wheel wet and position the unit to drain into a sink or bucket. Finishing > Mechanical > Buffing & Scratchbrushing

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Sandblasting Sandblasting

forced air

The concept is simple enough: Forced air picks up loose grit and throws it against a workpiece. If this happens in a closed container the sand falls to the floor, where it can be picked up and thrown again. The process involves four parts: forced air, nozzle, container, and media (grit).

> Air is usually supplied by a compressor, an electric motor that draws in and captures atmospheric air. Commercial sandblasting units will specify the volume of air needed (in cubic feet per minute, cfm) and the most appropriate size storage tank (in gallons). The common-sense analysis is that a big windstorm will pick up a lot of sand and push it far and fast while a small breeze doesn’t make anything happen. More air means a more aggressive result. > Media are usually purchased for this purpose and fall into two basic categories. One type shatters on impact, exposing sharp edges for a microsecond. The other type is a tougher particle that more or less holds its original shape through repeated impact. Most sandblasting media are made of synthetic abrasives such as silicon carbide or aluminum oxide. A milder abrasive of particular interest to jewelers is glass beads in the form of small spheres. With a hardness equal to or less than silver and gold alloys, glass beads create a matte surface but remove no material. Technically this process is called beadblasting. > The nozzle or gun uses a ventura to draw sand into the airstream. We all know that when we blow across the top of a narrow-necked bottle a hollow sound is produced. The air we’re blowing forward makes a detour into the bottle, then comes back out the top. If the bottle was replaced by a tube, the same effect would cause anything in the tube to be pulled upward. > Sandblasting can happen in any container or in no container at all. It is used to clean the outside of buildings, in which case the sand drops to the ground, and is swept up later. For the control needed in jewelry (and to prevent a Sahara-motif in the studio), the process is contained in a box that allows viewing, handling, and easy recycling of the media. These boxes can be built or purchased.

Gravity Sandblasting In this elegantly simple and impressively effective process, a grit mixed with water is dropped onto metal. Use a commercial garnet media and a scrub bucket. Put several pounds of grit in the bucket (at least " deep) and cover with water. Hold your finger over the bottom of a large plastic funnel while you scoop up the slurry. With the work over the bucket and the funnel several feet above it, move your finger to allow the abrasive to cascade over the piece. Repeat until you get the desired effect. The grit can be used indefinitely.

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Finishing > Mechanical > Sandblasting

Hand Burnishing Burnishers Though not widely used today, burnishing was a principal finishing technique for untold generations of metalsmiths. It uses the malleability of metals to literally push the metal around to achieve a flat surface. Anything smooth and hard can be used as a burnisher. Traditionally, smooth stones such as agate were used, but polished steel is more common today. A popular burnisher is the size of a child’s finger. It has a tapered point and is often bent at the tip, which has the benefit of creating a convex and concave surface. Smaller tools can be made by reshaping screwdrivers and flatware. A full-size handle is important to allow adequate pressure.

Action In order to achieve a good result, the surface must be prepared before burnishing. If the tool is dragged across a cornrow surface, it will push the lumps up higher and press the valleys deeper—probably the reverse of what you want.

Burnishing a coarse surface only blunts the crests and valleys of the surface.

The universe is full of magical things patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper.

Sand to nearly level first, then burnish to bring out the final shine.

• File and sand the metal to make the surface uniform. Continue through a fine enough grit that the metal has a glowing satin sheen. • Burnishing is ideal for soft metals like fine silver, high-karat gold, sterling, and copper. It is less suitable (but still possible) for brass, stainless steel, steel, and nickel silver. • Lubricate the burnisher with a drop of oil or saliva and rub it either in circles or perpendicular to the path of the last sanding. • Start with light strokes, increasing pressure until the metal shines evenly. • Burnish forcefully with rouge on either a cloth- or leather-coated polishing stick.

Eden Philpots

Finishing > Mechanical > Hand Burnishing

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Tumbling Tumbling Tumbling has been used industrially for years to pulverize ore and, on a smaller scale, by lapidaries to shine cut-off pieces of gem material. Since the s it has seen increased use in the jewelry industry. Though the process looks quite different from hand burnishing, machine tumbling is a variation of the same technique. Instead of a single tool that is rubbed back and forth over the surface, thousands of small bits of polished metal cascade onto a piece repeatedly as both the work and tool rotate in a drum.

Equipment

> Rotary tumblers — The most common and inexpensive tumblers, these drums usually rest on a pair of rollers, one of which is driven by an electric motor.

> Vibratory tumbler — An electric motor is connected to a plastic drum by an eccentric (off-center) link that shakes the drum in a complex, almost random motion. These are a little more expensive but work much faster than rotary machines.

> Magnetic tumbler — In this type the container remains stationary but powerful magnets stir up the steel shot and pound it against the work in the container.

Media In recent years a huge variety of tumbling media have been developed. Many consist of abrasive particles in a plastic matrix, a sort of tumbling version of sandpaper. Others add to the drum a combination of walnut shells charged with powdered rouge, or similar combination of a natural material with an abrasive. Specialty media can be fine-tuned for sequence, duration, and volume. Usually this is more appropriate for high volume industrial situations than for studio artists. Steel shot in several shapes provides a versatile all-purpose burnishing medium. The weight of the individual pieces ensures a reasonable impact, while the diverse shapes are likely to reach most areas.

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Finishing > Mechanical > Tumbling

Tumbling Tumbling Solutions

Maintenance

Machine burnishing requires a lubricant to allow the media to tumble freely over the work. At the very least a few drops of soap should be mixed into enough water to cover the shot. Plain soap, however, tends to create a lot of froth (which makes a mess) and often contributes to a gray patina instead of a bright shine. Proprietary solutions (usually sold as concentrates to be mixed with water) offer lubrication and pH balancing that improves the process. To make your own tumbling solution:

It is critical that shot be highly polished. Because the burnishing medium spends most of its life wet, the threat of rust is always real. In normal use, keep the shot immersed and tightly sealed. If the tumbler will not be used for a few weeks, take these precautions:

 qt water  Tbs. “JOY” dishwashing soap 1⁄2 tsp. glycerin Combine, stir, and put in a tumbler to cover the shot. Solutions will become dirty and should be changed with each new tumbling cycle.

Pour off all the water (a sieve is useful). Spread the shot on a towel, or

warm it with a hair dryer, lamp, or in an oven until completely dry.

Store in a wellsealed container.

Tips • Steel shot has a way of getting lodged into small spaces—permanently. Tie a bit of string through beads, piercings, and other likely trouble spots. • Use a string to tie small parts together for easy retrieval. • Delicate surface decoration can be erased by overburnishing. If this is an issue and you are worried about forgetting to check the tumbler, use a timer, available at hardware and kitchen supply stores.

Finishing > Mechanical > Tumbling

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Depletion Gilding Depletion Gilding The definition of gilding is “depositing a surface layer,” while depletion entails taking away. This apparent contradiction is, in fact, an accurate description of the process. Depletion gilding selectively removes one component of an alloy (depletion) with the result that an object has a surface skin of pure metal (gilding). Pickles like Sparex leach copper oxides into solution. With sterling, for instance, the first step is to convert the copper in the sterling to copper oxide, which is done by heating the piece without flux. Cleaning the piece in fresh pickle pulls minute amounts of copper into the solution. When the heating step is repeated, oxygen penetrates a little deeper into the sterling, linking with copper to make more copper oxide that will again leach out in pickle. The process can be repeated five or six times with similar effects each time. After that, the outer layer of fine silver is thick enough to prevent oxygen from getting through to the alloy layer.

My advice, in the midst of the seriousness,

Alloys

Alternate Pickles

Alloys suitable for depletion gilding:

shuffle, the flying of kites,

> K yellow gold

and kindred sources

> K yellow gold

Most jewelers use Sparex, but historically these alternate fluxes were used in depletion gilding. In each case, mix the chemicals with enough water to make a paste.

> Silver alloys with at least 

A. Equal parts oxalic acid and salt.

is to keep an eye out for the tinker

of amusement.

> Sterling

silver > Electrum ( Ag,  Cu)

Jerome Bruner

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Finishing > Applied > Depletion Gilding

B. Equal parts alum and salt, with enough water to make a paste. C.  potassium nitrate,  alum,  salt.

Electroplating History of Electroplating The process of using electric current to induce migration of a metal from solution onto a prepared object was patented in England in  by G. R. Elkington. Like Sheffield plate a century earlier, electroplating made it possible for people of a lower economic class to decorate their tables with silver objects. The process is still widely used today, not only in jewelry manufacturing, but in auto parts and housewares.

Process In electroplating, a clean metal object is submerged in a solution called an electrolyte that is supersaturated with the metal to be plated. A positive lead is attached to a sheet of metal that will supply the solution, and the negative lead is attached to the object. When a low voltage direct current is activiated, metal ions travel through the solution and are deposited on the object. Pen Plating This relatively recent development makes electroplating possible through a handheld cathode. It is appropriate for only small scale work, but has the advantage of making it easy to plate only selected areas.

Equipment

Solutions

Electroplating requires a transformer, which converts household current to DC, and a rectifier, which allows specific control of the electricity. In recent years it has become possible to buy small scale plating units that combine these two functions into a compact and affordable unit. Besides that, you’ll need a few beakers or plastic containers, goggles, rubber gloves, copper wires with alligator clips, and the appropriate solutions.

A glance at a jewelry industry catalog will illustrate the wide variety of plating solutions available. These are sold as ready-to-use liquids or as salts that are dissolved in distilled water according to specific proportions. The chemistry of plating is precise and demanding, and focuses on these solutions. Because they contain precious metals, they are expensive, so a proper understanding becomes especially important. Keep all solutions well marked, tightly capped (to prevent evaporation), and absolutely clean.

Sequence Summary . Complete all soldering, polishing and assembly. . Clean thoroughly with soap and water, then electroclean with a proprietary solution. Rinse in water. . Pre-plate with a nickel solution. Not required but recommended to get the best shine in a gold plate. Rinse in water. . Immerse in plating solution, using the manufacturer’s suggested settings. Keep track of time, voltage, and temperature for future reference. Adjust as needed to achieve the desired results. Finishing > Applied > Electroplating

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Gold Leaf Gold Leaf Gold leafing has more to do with adhesives than metalsmithing, but it’s such a flexible and appealing technique that it deserves a page here. In summary: a surface is prepared and painted with a varnish. When this is almost dry, thin sheets of gold are pressed onto the sticky surface and rubbed smooth. Sign makers and framing shops make up the largest users of gold leaf. For instruction or supplies, you might try a local studio.

Nonprecious Leaf Besides gold, silver, and platinum, leaf is also available in copper and imitation gold. Application is the same as for gold leaf.

Leaf

Size

Gold leaf is available in several colors and weights. The color names vary among suppliers but the size designation seems to be universal. Leaf that is intended for outdoor applications like architectural embellishment is often sold affixed to paper so it is less likely to blow away. Most leaf is K or K, and is sold in " x " sheets separated by paper. A book consists of  sheets.

Traditional size is a refined varnish made from tree sap. It is painted on and allowed to dry just until it becomes tacky, which could be anywhere from – hours, depending on the temperature, humidity, the substrate and the size. To test, touch the surface lightly with your knuckle. When pulled away, you’ll hear a click if the size is ready. Recently a water soluble acrylic quick size has been developed for casual indoor use.

Preparation Gold leaf is thinner than any other material you’ve ever seen. Our usual reference points—tissue paper, onion, skin, sheer silk—are clunky by comparison. Though it is a solid material, gold leaf will do no more to fill in surface irregularities than a layer of smoke. Prepare the surface so it is exactly as you want it. Textures and scratches will not be covered up, and might in fact show up more prominently because of the play of light. Sand, burnish, etc. as needed. If the material is porous (e.g., wood, plaster, bone), seal it first with a coat of shellac, lacquer or paint. Traditionally this layer is red, which gives added luster to the gold. The size should be used in an environment that is not too humid, between –°F, as well as free of dust and drafts.

Application When the size is ready, apply the leaf by any combination of these techniques. If the work is small, roll it across a leaf to cover as much as possible and gently press down loose areas with a dry brush. If the object being covered is large, cut the spine of the book so each leaf clings to its paper sheet. Place the leaf against the size, peel off the paper, and smooth the leaf into place with a dry brush. To fill in small areas, gather a bit of gold leaf (perhaps a half inch square) onto a dry brush and lay it into place. Though not ideal, it is possible to paint a second layer of size onto an object to address sections that were missed in the first application.

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Finishing > Applied > Gold Leaf

Tarnish Removal Tarnish Prevention Tarnish on silver results primarily from the action of oxygen and atmospheric sulfides. Museums prevent tarnish by sealing metals in an environment that contains no contaminants. A localized version of this is to cloak an object in a tight-fitting skin that prevents exposure. This would typically be lacquer (which reduces luster) or wax (which rubs off). These solutions have their place, but offer little for objects that will be worn or used.

Hard coatings can crack away.

Soft coatings can smear off.

Removal The time-honored way to remove tarnish is by rubbing metal with a mild abrasive or fine burnishing compound like rouge. While effective, this approach has the disadvantages of tedious labor and eventual damage to the object. Chemicals that remove tarnish do so by a chemical reaction. Several proprietary solutions are available and you generally get better results with the higher-priced name brands. Follow the manufacturer’s directions and wash well in soapy water as a last step. Immersion cleaners should not be used on objects with an intentional patina such as an antique finish. The dark recesses are the same compound as tarnish and will be dissolved, leaving the piece naked.

Electrostripping The pursuit of truth and beauty is a sphere of activity in which we are permitted to remain children all our lives.

Albert Einstein

In a reverse plating operation, tarnish can be motivated to leave a silver object and travel to a stainless steel cathode. Use with a commercially available electrolyte which should be refreshed with distilled water to renew loss through evaporation. Attach the anode wire (+) to the tarnished object and have a piece of stainless steel of roughly twice the surface area of the piece being cleaned attached to the cathode. Usually a low current for a few minutes is sufficient to pull tarnish off. A nonelectric version of electrostripping can be done on a kitchen stove. Line a stainless steel pot with aluminum foil and pour in a solution of about a quart of water to 1⁄4 cup of baking soda (measurements can be approximate). Add tarnished silver and warm, but do not boil, the solution. Tarnish will migrate from the silver to the aluminum foil, which is then discarded. The time required will depend on the thickness of the tarnish layer—usually – minutes.

Finishing > Tarnish Removal

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Problem Solving

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Finishing > Problem Solving

Problem

The surface is wavy and the edges are rounded. The whole form lacks precision, and even though it’s bright, the shine seems phony.

Reason

Not enough sanding and too much machine buffing.

Solution

This piece may be too far gone to save, depending on how thick the metal was to start with. In the future, use files and sanding sticks to refine the form because they allow precise control. Move to the buffing machine only after the piece has been refined with  grit paper.

Problem

A casting that doesn’t get shiny, even after extended buffing.

Reason

Porosity, pure and simple. Uneven cooling has created microscopic voids within the metal. These openings cannot be polished, and create a surface that is like a mix of bright spots and black spots. To the naked eye, we see a dull sheen instead of a bright shine.

Solution

Avoid this by proper spruing, described on page . To try to repair a porous casting, planish the surface with a polished ball been. Follow this with heavy burnishing, then sand with a fine abrasive paper.

Problem

A sterling piece shows a subtle brown mark, even after polishing.

Reason

This is fire scale, a deposit of cuprous oxide inside the structure of the metal. It was caused by overheating.

Solution

To reduce firescale in the future, use ample flux, and heat only as hot and for as long as absolutely necessary. To remove stain, either abrade it away (sandpaper, sandblasting, or bright dip), or plate over it.

Problem

I want to have polished areas adjacent to patinas or matte areas.

Reason

This is not a problem, but it does present an engineering challenge.

Solution

Plan the assembly to allow for parts to be assembled after polishing and surface treatments. This will probably involve cold connections like rivets, tabs, screws, etc.

Chapter 

Casting

Ingot & Charcoal Molds Ingot Molds Either buy a commercial ingot mold or make your own from sheet steel and square steel rod. Use small Cclamps to hold the mold together. File tiny air vents slanted upward along the mold so the air inside the mold can escape.

Process

Water Casting You can pour metals directly into water to create unusual shapes and to reduce large pieces to smaller, easier to melt pieces. Use a deep enough bucket to allow the pieces to cool before thery hit the bottom. The size and shape of the pieces will be affected by the height of the crucible above the water and the speed of the pour.

Casting Wire When you need a short piece of heavy wire, you can improvise an ingot mold by drilling a hole in a charcoal block. Use a pouring crucible or carve a melting recess in the block and tilt to pour. The hole must be at least 1⁄8" in diameter or it won’t fill.



. Lubricate the mold with soot, Vaseline, or mineral (baby) oil. . Heat the mold until the lubricant starts to smoke. Set the mold into a pan of sand or a cast-iron skillet to catch accidental spills. . Heat the metal in a pouring crucible, adding flux a couple of times. When making an alloy, start with the precious metals, then add the base metals. . Pour the metal through a reducing flame in a single even flow. Allow the red color to fade before removing the ingot from the mold. Quench in water.

Charcoal

METHOD ONE

METHOD TWO

. If the surface of the block is irregular, start by sanding it flat. . Carve a recess in a flat block of charcoal to the thickness and shape of the desired piece. . Melt the metal directly in the mold cavity. Flux is not usually needed because of the purifying atmosphere created by the charcoal. . When the metal is molten, bring a second charcoal block down on the first with even pressure. Work while standing to avoid an accident that would give new meaning to the term “lap dance.” The mold can usually provide three or four castings.

. Carve a depression in a flat charcoal block or blocks. . Carve a sprue and funnel. . Tie the blocks together with binding wire. . Pour molten metal from a pouring crucible, or carve a melting reservoir in the top of one of the charcoal blocks and connect it to the sprue with a channel. When the metal is molten, grip the whole assembly in tongs and tip it so the metal flows into the mold. . To prolong the life of the mold, sprinkle it with water as soon as the casting is removed. . For economy, flatbacked objects can use firebrick or a plaster block for the reverse side of the mold.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Ingot & Charcoal Molds

Plaster Molds Plaster Lost wax centrifugal casting is the dominant method in use today, but for those not ready to make that commitment, here are several variations that require nothing more than a jeweler’s torch, a crucible, and a box of plaster from a hardware store. Simple Flat-Backed Object . On a piece of glass or Plexiglas, set four strips of wood into a rectangular frame and anchor them with clay or wax. . Mix plaster as directed on the package then pour the thick slurry into the frame about an inch deep. . Let the plaster harden for – minutes, then use a ruler and a knife to cut lines that divide the slab into blocks of convenient size, say " x ". . Allow it to dry further, then slide the block off the glass and crack the scribed lines over the edge of a table. . Either set these blocks aside to dry for several days or put them in a slow oven for several hours. The drying step is important—don’t rush it. . Carve a negative of the intended shape into the flat (glass) side of a block. Use a knife, carving tools, or whatever tool gets the job done. Position the thickest, plainest section close to one edge and carve a channel from this to the top of the block. Enlarge this to make a funnel shape. . Place another block on top of the first, smooth sides together. Bind the blocks together with wire or duct tape and set them into a dish of sand. . Melt the metal in a pouring crucible and pour it into the mold. Allow the metal to cool until the red disappears, then remove the casting. A mold like this, without much detail, will last about a half dozen times for sterling. Gold will wear the mold out more quickly and pewter more slowly because of their respective high and low melting points.

Self-Evacuating Molds Most casting involves a three-step process: Make mold, remove model, fill mold. This elegantly simple process combines steps  and . Self-evacuating molds can also be used with sandcasting. . Make a model from Styrofoam. A lightweight, less dense version is preferred; the green material used by florists is a great choice. . Create a sprue and funnel, also from Styrofoam, and glue them onto the model. . Encase the model in plaster, either by dipping it or by mounting the model on a base, sealing the joint around the bottom, and pouring the plaster over it. Use a box, milk carton or can to contain the mold. . Allow the mold to dry. This can take as long as a week and it is critical to the process. To speed it up, especially if you are in a damp climate, set the mold on a stove, under a lamp, or on a coffee warmer. . Melt aluminum, brass, bronze, or silver in a ceramic pouring crucible. For pewter use a cast-iron crucible. . Pour the molten metal onto the Styrofoam in a smooth continuous stream. The hot metal vaporizes the plastic as it simultaneously fills the cavity. Ventilation is needed to draw off the plastic fumes. . Allow the metal to cool, then break away the mold with a hammer. Working on a newspaper will facilitate clean up. Casting > Gravity Methods > Plaster Molds

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Cuttlefish Molds Cuttlefish For centuries goldsmiths have used cuttlefish skeletons as molds. This technique provides rich texture and immediate results at a low cost and with very little equipment. A disadvantage of the process is that it is limited in size and thickness. Most cuttlefish are about " wide and " long.

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Freehand Carving . Use two bones or cut one in half. Remove the pointy end.

. Rub the pieces on coarse sandpaper or against each other (soft side to soft side) in a circular motion to make flat surfaces. Work over a trash can.

. Carve an indentation for the desired form. Remember that the depth of the cut equals the thickness of the final piece. Position the cavity about 3⁄4" from the bigger end.

. Carve a sprue funnel in both sides. Scratch vents upward to allow the escape of gases from inside the mold.

. If you want to emphasize the grain pattern, stroke the cuttlefish with a soft dry brush. The material between the grain ridges is soft and will quickly fall away.

. Tie the mold halves together with binding wire or masking tape.

. Set the mold into sand or pumice to hold it upright.

. Melt the metal in a pouring ladle and fill the mold in a smooth pour.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Cuttlefish

Cuttlefish Molds Using a Model Note: The model must not have undercuts. . Prepare flat-sided mold halves. . Push stubby pieces of wood (dowel, pencil, match) into one side, staying well away from the cavity and sprue area. . Lay a wood or metal model onto one half, then set the other half in place and carefully press the two sides together until they meet. To avoid breaking the cuttlefish, distribute force with your hands. . Open carefully, remove the model, and brush the mold to show grain if desired. Carve a sprue and vents. . Set the halves together using the pins for proper alignment. . Bind the halves together with tape or wire and pour the metal. The mold can be used only once, but because the model can be used indefinitely, this method lends itself to making multiples.

Three-Part Molds

Be yourself, because somebody has to, and you’re the closest.

. Cut off three bone pieces.

. Rub B and C together until flush. Bind with tape. Rub A along the top edge of BC until flush.

. Open BC, position alignment pins, and set the model, into place as described above. Press B and C together and secure them with tape.

. Press A down on the part of the model that extends out of the mold. Mark the location of the mold sections with tape or ink lines.

. Open the mold and remove the model. Carve a sprue and pouring funnel.

. Put the mold back together, tie, and pour molten metal into the mold.

Jack Kent

Casting > Gravity Methods > Cuttlefish Molds

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Sand Casting Equipment If you do a lot of sandcasting you’ll want to buy a manufactured mold frame, but for occasional use, or to sample the process, homemade versions are adequate. Here are the proper terms along with the relevant requirements for each part. > Cope and drag (also called mold frame). These two parts are identical except that one piece has pins projecting from one side while the other has sockets that receive the pins. The frame should be at least 1⁄2" larger than the object all around. If the frame is a lot bigger than the piece, it requires extra sand and bother. The interior walls should be rough enough that sand can get a grip. One version uses angle iron tilted º, which puts the walls of the frame at an angle. For most uses it is helpful to have a cutaway gate section. > A sieve. > A pounce ball (see below). > Two smooth flat boards that are at least a couple of inches larger than the mold frame. > A short length of wood for pounding down the sand. > A couple of C-clamps or some other way to hold the mold parts together. Pounce A powder used to keep mold sections from sticking together. Talc, cornstarch, chalk dust or graphite can be used. It is often kept in a bag of loosely woven material like gauze or muslin for dusting onto molds.

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Preparing Sand Almost any sand can be used, but bear in mind that the finer the sand, the better the detail on the resulting casting. . Get a bucket of sand from the hardware store, or playground. . Sift it through a coarse sieve several times to remove debris. . Sift through screen or cheesecloth to remove large grains. . Mix baby oil, glycerin, or motor oil into the sand by repeated stirring. Avoid making the sand too wet. If you goof, you’ll need to add dry sand, so keep some aside just in case. To test for proper consistency, squeeze a handful of sand into a ball. You should be able to break the lump cleanly in half without having it crumble to pieces.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Sand Casting

Sand Casting Casting a Flat or Thin Object

Small Scale Mold Frames Have a friend come over for lunch and see that you use two cans of tuna. Cut the tops and bottoms off both cans and wash them well. Follow the instructions at the right; in step #, use a nail or a golf tee to poke a hole through the sand to the model. This will be the gate and sprue, the point where the metal enters the mold. Pick out enough sand to make a funnel, tipping it upside down to clear out any sand that falls into the sprue.

Two-Part Patterns Patternmaking is a complex and demanding art, and for generations has been among the most respected skills of the casting industry. To make a simple two part turned pattern (as an example), glue two pieces of fully cured wood together with a sheet of newsprint between. Turn on a lathe, separate the parts, and drill holes and pins to realign the pieces.

. Set one half of the mold onto a flat surface and fill it with prepared sand. Pack it down firmly with a block of wood and scrape off the surplus (called striking off ).

. Set the other mold frame on top of the first. Dust the packed sand with pounce and lay the model into position. If the model is not flat, carve away a little sand, then press it halfway into the sand. Sprinkle sand over the model and pack it layer by layer until the second can is full. Strike off as before and carefully flip the assembled mold upside down.

. Carefully separate the cans and remove the model with tweezers. Clear away stray grains of sand with a soft brush.

. Set the mold parts back together and pour molten metal into the mold using a pouring crucible.

Casting a Heavy Ingot . Sprinkle prepared sand into a pan that is " deeper than the ingot you intend to make. . Fill the pan half full and pack it firmly. . Prepare a model of wood, plastic, or metal by coating it with pounce. . Slide the model into the sand, leaving about an inch of sand below the model. . Add enough sand to cover the sides of the model and pack it hard. Create a funnel. . Carefully slide the model out, then pour molten metal into the mold.

Casting > Gravity Methods > Sand Casting

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Lost Wax Process Lost Wax Process When the metalsmiths of ancient cultures first developed this technique they made models of beeswax and coated them with layers of clay reinforced with straw or linen. The dried assembly was set into an oven to harden the clay and simultaneously burn away the wax. This left a cavity into which molten metal was poured. The clay shell was broken away to retrieve the finished casting. Because the mold is destroyed in the process, the technique is called a waste mold casting. Most jewelry casting today uses a variation on the lost wax method developed in ancient times. This page provides a summary of the process, which is explained in more detail throughout this chapter.

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. A model is made of wax or another completely combustible material.

. The model is mounted on a wax rod called a sprue.

. The sprue is mounted onto a base and positioned within a steel cylinder called a flask.

. A plaster like material called investment is mixed to a creamy consistency. Steps are taken to ensure that this mix is free of air bubbles.

. The smooth investment is gently poured over the prepared model as it stands in the center of the flask.

. The investment is dried and then burned out in a kiln. This cures the mold and removes all traces of the model.

. While the mold is still hot from the burnout, molten metal is poured or forced into the mold, where it assumes the shape of the original model.

. After brief cooling, the mold is quenched in water. This breaks the mold and releases the casting.

Casting > Lost Wax > Process Overview

Equipment & Supplies

Homemade Lamp Use a glass jar with a metal cap. A piece of rope or shoelace can be used for a wick. To make the hole for the wick, pound a nail through the cap from the inside. This makes a sharp bur that will grip the wick. Note the small air hole.

Fuel Commercial lamp fuel. Never use gasoline, kerosene, or stove fuel. Methyl alcohol; also called wood alcohol, methanol, carbinol.

Flasks – Stainless steel cylinders are used to contain the mold. These need to match rubber sprue bases, so many studios limit their flask selection to two or three sizes. To improvise a flask, cut both ends off a steel can. Check with a magnet because aluminum soda cans won’t work. Even steel cans normally last for only a few uses. Sprue base – Buy rubber bases matched to your flasks; most studios can get along with fewer bases than flasks since they are only needed for about half an hour in the process. For irregular flasks (like cans) press clay onto a board or plastic lid. Mixing bowl – Using a rubber dish makes it easy to clean. Allow the investment to harden, then flex the bowl and the hardened investment will pop off. Alternatives: cottage cheese or deli containers. Vacuum pump – This is used to remove bubbles from investment. While not essential for occasional casting, this device becomes important to consistently guarantee smooth castings and efficient cleanup. First choice: buy a small vacuum pump and mount it into a table. A smaller device called an aspirator uses the flow of tap water to draw a vacuum. These are available from suppliers of laboratory equipment. Vibrator – This is an alternate way to remove bubbles. You can buy a small box-shaped vibrator made for this use or jerry-rig a massage vibrator. Even cheaper, make an off-centered tool for a hand drill or flex shaft and use it to agitate the walls of the investment bowl. Kiln – Any furnace that will safely reach º F (º C) will do. But the best kiln will be well insulated and will have a reliable pyrometer and a programming unit to control the rate and maximum temperature. New units use lightweight insulation instead of bricks, but either will do the job. Coils and switches burn out with use but they are easy to replace. Contact the kiln manufacturer with the model number to be sure you get the correct replacement parts. Tongs – For small-scale work, kitchen tongs can be substituted. Gloves – Heat-resistant gloves are a good investment for casting studios, but in the meantime, work gloves offer some protection from heat. Goggles – Sustained viewing of a torch flame is part of casting and can damage eyesight. Wear dark goggles—sunglasses are not sufficient. Quench bucket – A plastic scrub bucket or joint compound container will do. It’s useful to have two so you can trade off and allow one to settle out. The sludge is easier to discard when it is dry. Casting > Lost Wax > Equipment

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Hard Wax Tools You can make carving tools from discarded dental tools, steel wire, bike spokes, coat hangers, or old silverware. Handles can be made from a dowel or a chopstick. You can also use a pin vise. This nonclogging wax bur is used in a flexible shaft. You can buy these or make your own by soldering brass or nickel silver pieces to a nail. To shape the tool, run it against sandpaper. Coarse files (also called soft metal files), rasps, and utility knives are used to shape wax models. Use coarse paper towel or fabric to remove scratches. Use a spiral blade fitted in a standard sawframe to cut off sections of wax.

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Casting > Lost Wax > Hard Wax

Accidental Forms

Stippling

Create interesting effects by pouring melted wax onto water. Variations include pouring wax onto ice, steel, wood, and concrete.

Uneven carved surfaces can be made more uniform by stippling with a scribe, needle tool, or beading punch. If you do this a lot, it might be worthwhile to make a tool by soldering or gluing several large needles together.

Hard Wax Ring Forms Wax tubes are a good starting point for ring carving. You can buy these or make them by drilling blocks with a large spade bit (3⁄4" = size ). Cut off the width you need for your ring and enlarge the size from here by one of these methods: • Use a cylinder bur on a flex shaft. • Wrap sandpaper around a dowel or mandrel. • Use a mandrel with a blade attached. • Warm a steel mandrel and slide the wax on, twisting slightly to prevent seizing. Stop just short of the desired size and smooth the interior with Scotch-Brite.

Building a Starting Block For some forms, you can save yourself time, effort, and expense by welding chunks of wax together. As an example, this ring could be carved from a single block, but it would waste a lot of wax (and effort). Instead, hold two blocks in a flame until both surfaces are gooey. Press the parts together with a sliding/twisting motion to force out air bubbles, and allow the wax to cool. Scraps Collect scrap pieces and keep them separate from metal, sawdust, and other debris. Put the scraps into a cardboard box and heat them slowly in an oven or kiln until they melt. Allow the block to cool slowly, then tear away the box.

Watch Your Weight Because wax is lightweight, inexpensive, and handled in large blocks, it is easy to make models too large. Final weight can be calculated by multiplying the weight of the wax by the specific gravity of the metal to be used. To reduce the weight of a model, carve out the inside with chisel points or a flex shaft bur.

Casting > Lost Wax > Hard Wax

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Soft Wax Working with Modeling Waxes > Store wax sheets in a cool place, between pieces of paper, to keep them from sticking together. > Before bending sheet wax, soften it by dipping it in warm water or breathing on it. > Cut sheet wax with a utility blade. Because wax is transparent, a design drawn on paper can be traced. > Soft wax can be folded, twisted, stamped, pinched, pierced, built up, or pressed to receive a texture. > All kinds of wax can be used together. > A biology or clay needle makes a handy and inexpensive tool. > To add wax to an area, heat a needle, touch a wax wire to it, and allow the wax to slide down the needle and drop off the end. > When heating a needle, hold it so the flame touches it at mid-length. This will preserve the tip and keep the needle warm for a longer time.

I exist as I am, that is enough.

Walt Whitman

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Casting > Lost Wax > Soft Wax

Composition

Smoothing Techniques

Soft wax is made of a combination of natural and synthetic waxes. Color is added at the discretion of the manufacturer—there is no universal system. Because soft wax is sold in sheets and wire (like metal), beginners sometimes make objects that could more easily be fabricated than cast. Try to take advantage of the textures, joints, and forms unique to wax.

To smooth the surface, some people run the model quickly through a flame. A less risky method is to warm a needle and pass it just above the surface. You might like the convenience of a battery-powered hotwire pen. These were developed for medical use as surgical tools but are available for about  from casting equipment suppliers.

Soft Wax Impressions > Soften sheet wax in warm water or warm air (for instancce, by breathing on it), then press it onto a textured surface.

> Place wax against a template and roll both pieces through the mill. Use this as a starting point for further work.

> Soften the wax, trap it between layers of plastic wrap and roll the bundle into a typewriter (Remember those?).

> Bite down hard. > Step on it. > Brush melted wax onto existing forms or into impressions in clay. Use earthen clay, not plasticene, which melts when hot wax is applied. Never melt wax directly on a burner because it can ignite. Use a double boiler, which can be as simple as a small can of wax set in a large can of water. Brush thin layers of wax to build up the proper thickness for the piece. Use a cheap brush and be prepared to throw it away.

Establishing a Ring Size

Electric Wax Pen

Wrap tape around a wooden dowel or short piece of PVC pipe to make the correct size. To allow the wax pattern to slip off easier, lubricate the tape with Vaseline or oil. Make a simple stand to hold the mandrel and you’ll have both hands free for modeling.

These tools are preferred by professional wax workers because of their consistent temperature and ease of use. They can be bought from jewelry supply companies or you can make one. Attach a light dimmer switch to a plug and connect an inexpensive soldering iron. These come with several tips, and you can easily make your own.

Casting > Lost Wax > Soft Wax

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Organic Models Organic Models Many organic objects (such as leaves, twigs, flower petals, and insects) will burn out completely when encased in an investment mold. This means they can be cast directly, often with very clear detail. Burnout usually takes longer for organic materials than for wax and higher temperatures may also be needed. Experimentation is required.

Process Seal porous materials such as paper, cardboard, or popcorn by spraying, or painting with lacquer, wax, or thinned white glue. Spray delicate models like flower petals, or insect wings with several coats of hair spray, fixative, or paint to thicken them. Reinforce thin sections by adding wax on the back.

Plastic Models

Styrofoam

Most plastics will burn out completely, so found objects like these can be cast in accurate detail. Plastics can be modified by heating them and they can be combined with wax. Glue pieces together with white glue or sticky wax.

Styrofoam can be used to make models. Hold pieces directly in the flame to shape them or carve the Styrofoam with a heated needle. The fumes of burning plastic are nasty and should be ventilated.

Hold a piece of dense insulation foam over a small flame for interesting effects.

Copyright Is this another one of those cases where I need to be concerned about copyright infringement? You betcha. You probably won’t go to jail for casting a gumball machine charm for your Mom, but you are not allowed to make multiples of someone else’s design. You wouldn’t want someone else copying your work, and fair is fair.

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Casting > Lost Wax > Organic Models

Spruing Sprues and Spruing Sprues hold a model in its correct position while making the mold, provide a passageway for the escape of melting wax, and allow entry for molten metal. Arrange sprues to supply sufficient metal to each section of the model. Plan the location of sprues to avoid flowbacks and sharp curves. Attach sprues where they will cause the least damage to the model’s surface texture and where they can be easily removed. Avoid spruing work dead level. Sprues should not enter at º angles. Sprue to the thickest section of the model. The sprue itself should be the thickest mass of the whole assembly.

Spruing Metal is expected to go through small passages to fill several larger areas.

Avoid constricted, pinched-neck sprues. These will spray the metal, causing it to chill and harden prematurely.

The metal is expected to flow back on itself.

The sprue is attached to a thin section. This will cool first and stop further entrance of metal into the mold.

The location of the sprue will damage the pattern.

Models should be centered in the flask and oriented parallel to the walls for smooth, efficient flow of metal.

WRONG

RIGHT Separate sprues are provided for each mass.

This arrangement puts all the model downstream from the point of entry.

By attaching to the thickest section, porosity can be avoided.

Attaching the sprues to the edge of this ring will protect the surface pattern.

Porosity As metal cools, it contracts, so additional metal is needed to fill a space that was previously filled by molten metal. If no extra material is supplied at the instant of contraction, the metal will crystallize with voids as it tries to fill the cavity. If the sprue and button are the last area to cool, porosity will occur here and no damage is done to the piece. To achieve this, set the thinnest (first cooling) area of the model furthest from the sprue base. Attach the sprue to the thickest area and make the sprue thicker than any part of the model. Casting > Lost Wax > Spruing

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Investing Safety Note Investment is a plaster-based material that has been made heat resistant with the addition of silica cristobalite. This fine dust can cause permanent damage to lungs, so always wear a certified respirator when mixing investment.

Concept The clay molds used in ancient times have been replaced by investment, a plaster-like material that has additives that allow it to stand up to high temperatures. The idea is still the same—to cover the model with a material that is creamy enough to pick up surface details, and hard enough to survive the stress of inrushing molten metal.

Investment In the last two decades, scientists and manufacturers have made significant developments that make modern investments tougher, more flexible, and less likely to separate in transit. Also, today’s investments shrink less and can withstand faster ramping speeds. Contact manufacturers for specfic suggestions on which product will best suit your specific needs. Platinum and palladium white gold require special investments because of their high melting temperatures. Timing Investments have – minutes of working time. If your pace is too slow, the investment will harden before it can coat the model. If you work too quickly and the investment is poured into the flask too soon, water in the mix is free to come out of solution and will travel along the model. This will result in raised streaks on the finished casting. To avoid these problems, time yourself as you invest and adjust your pace accordingly.

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Casting > Lost Wax > Investing

Hard-Core Method This is a time-tested method that is an alternative to vacuum investing. While this method is not quite as good at removing bubbles, it’s possible to get very clean castings if you follow these steps carefully. . Mix investment and vibrate the bowl to remove bubbles.

. Paint investment onto the model with a fine brush. Spread the mixture slowly to avoid trapping bubbles, especially in crevices.

. Sprinkle investment powder onto the coated model to absorb moisture and hasten the setting of this shell or core.

. Set a flask over the model and pour in the investment. Keep weight off the model by pouring it down the side of the flask. Be sure to hold onto the base while pouring.

Investing Vacuum Method For consistently good results, most professional casters use vacuum chambers to draw air (i.e., bubbles) from investment. When more than a few castings are being made, the cost of a system are offset by the time saved in removing blemishes that might otherwise be left from porous investment.

Tips To speed up the setting time of investments, use warm water. To extend the time, use cold water. If your tap water contains minerals, use distilled water. If your vacuum is weak, or if you live at a high altitude, add a drop or two of liquid detergent to the mixing water. This acts as a surfactant, which helps to break up bubbles. Cristobalite (SiO₂) is mined in Cristobal, Mexico.

Process . Mix the investment thoroughly with your hand or a spatula. The mixed investment should look like sour cream.

. Set the bowl on a vacuum table, wet the rim of a bell jar, and set it over the investment. Turn on the motor and direct vacuum to the table. Press down on the bell jar to guarantee that suction is achieved.

. Leave the vacuum at maximum (–" of mercury) for about one minute. The investment will swell and bubble. When it spits and the jar condenses, turn off the vacuum.

. Pour the creamy investment down the side of the flask. This way the weight of the investment won’t knock the model off the base.

. Set the flask back onto the vacuum table and repeat the debubbling process. If the investment is starting to thicken (looks like pudding), omit the second vacuum operation.

. Remember that the investment will swell in the flask during the vacuum process. Allow for this by leaving room at the top of the flask or by attaching a collar of rubber, plastic, paper, or masking tape.

Casting > Lost Wax > Investing

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Calculating the Charge Determining How Much Metal to Use Guess, pray, ask a wiser person. Attach the sprued model to a wire and push it into a container of water. A graduated cylinder is handy but not necessary. Note the raised level. Remove the model and add metal to bring the water back up to the marked level. Multiply the weight of the model by the specific gravity of the metal being used. Add about a third more to allow for the button. example: wax with sprues x specific gravity = total needed  dwt x . (for sterling) = . dwt or 1⁄2 oz

Specific Gravities aluminum brass (–) Nu-Gold (–) K yellow gold K yellow gold K yellow gold iron lead nickel silver platinum fine silver sterling

Wetting the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plastics The specific gravities of common plastics range from . to .. To calculate the metal needed for a plastic model, add  to the specific gravities listed, then multiply as before.

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Casting > Lost Wax > Calculating the Charge

To help investment coat a wax model, brush on a wetting agent. You can buy this, or make your own by mixing  hydrogen peroxide and  liquid soap. In a pinch, paint the model with alcohol, using a lamp wick as a brush.

Burnout Ventilation Wax fumes are not good for your body. Plastics are worse. Keep the kiln in a large room, near a window, and in a cross draft. An exhaust fan is recommended.

Burnout

Goals

Burnout is usually done in a small electric kiln, though gas kilns can also be used. Burnout is best done within  hours of investing. If casting must wait, remoisten the flask by soaking it in water for a few seconds before burnout. Recent developments in investment technology have created a product that will tolerate faster temperature changes than were possible a few years ago. The progression and pace of burnout will vary depending on the size and number of flasks in the kiln, the temperature of the kiln, and the preferences of the caster. As a rule of thumb, allow two and a half hours for a typical burnout.

The purpose of burnout is to: . Harden the mold. . Eliminate wax or other model material. . Heat the mold for compatibility with the molten casting metal. Temperatures (approximate) ºF ºC      

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wax melts and drips out wax ignites woody materials ignite plastics vaporize wax residues vaporize gypsum binder in investment breaks down, releasing sulfur that will cause oxidation. Do not go to this temperature.

Tongs

Steaming the Flasks

Handle hot flasks with large tongs or (for small flasks only) with household jar lifters sold for canning.

The volume of fumes can be significantly reduced by melting out the wax at temperatures around º F (º C). Set a shallow vessel such as a cake pan on an electric hot plate and add about half an inch of water. Set a grille or mesh on the pan and set the flasks, upside down on the grille. Trap the steam by setting a large bowl over the whole thing. Bring the water to a boil then reduce the heat to simmer. Add water as the level gets low. The wax will melt out and drop into the water where it can be thrown away easily. Especially with soft wax, it’s possible to evacuate as much as  of the wax—this makes burnout shorter and less smelly. Wax caught in this way cannot be used again. Because this process saturates the flask with moisture, it is important to dry the flasks in a warm kiln (around ° F, ° C) for two hours before heating them to ° F (necessary to remove wax residue). Kiln Position Place flasks in a kiln with the sprue holes facing down. Prop them to allow the wax to drip out.

lump of investment

pieces of pumice

steel mesh

Casting > Lost Wax > Burnout

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Centrifugal Casting Centrifugal Casting Centrifugal force has been used for centuries to develop quick and reliable force in a small space. From medical labs to yo-yo tournaments, centrifugal force turns up all over the place. In a casting studio, this usually takes the form of a commercially manufactured device, though variations are possible.

Machine Supports Casting machines must be solidly mounted and surrounded by a splash screen. Screw a washtub to a workbench, or fill a garbage can two-thirds full of rocks. Position bolts into a piece of wood to insure their proper location, then set this on the rocks and add cement. This arrangement is stable, safe, and can be moved around the shop. Another alternative is to build a table to contain the casting machine, which saves valuable countertop space.

Process Casting machines differ slightly, but the process will be pretty close to the one described here. . Before burnout, test the machine to ensure that the flask and crucible fit, and that everything is in working order.

. When burnout is complete, wind the machine, typically three rotations. Be sure your feet are well planted and that you understand the locking mechanism before you begin. When complete, lock the arm in place.

. Put the charge of metal into the crucible. A tidy way to achieve this is to wrap the bits of metal in a tissue. Place the hot flask in the cradle of the casting machine.

. Heat the metal until it is molten, adding flux a couple of times in the process. Direct the torch flame onto the lip of the crucible to prevent a cooling effect as the metal passes over this area.

. When the metal draws up into a smooth oval blob, plant your feet firmly and grasp the arm of the casting machine (not a weight or attachment, but the arm itself). Pull back slightly so the holding mechanism is released. Count to three, then simultaneously release the arm and lift the torch a few inches. Though dramatic action ensues, resist the urge to scream and jump away. It makes people nervous.

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Casting > Casting Methods > Centrifugal Casting

Vacuum Casting Vacuum Casting Unlike centrifugal casting, which pushes metal into a mold cavity, this process pulls metal into the mold, much the same way a vacuum cleaner pulls dust bunnies to their doom. The process is especially preferred for large-scale operations, where there is potential hazard and loss in spinning heavy charges of molten metal. After burnout, set the hot flask in place on a silicone rubber pad and turn on the vacuum pump to check the seal. If the pressure gauge does not go into the s, press down on the flask with tongs. Melt metal in a pouring crucible, add flux and pour into the mouth of the flask with a smooth even flow—imagine that it’s honey. Cool and quench the flask.

Equipment You’ll need a vacuum pump that can produce a vacuum equal to –" of mercury for vacuumassisted casting. Conveniently, this same pump can be used to draw bubbles from investment in the earlier moldmaking step. Jewelry supply companies carry several models that are set up to perform both tasks. A pouring crucible. This can be as simple as a shallow ceramic dish attached to a long handle, or as sophisticated as an electric induction furnace. These units come in two varieties, both of which use household electric current to melt metal in a graphite crucible the size of a drinking glass. In one style, the crucible lifts out, while in the other you lift the entire unit. A silcone rubber pad. Though it looks like ordinary rubber, this material can withstand high temperatures. Because it is flexible, it will make a seal against the inevitably irregular edge of the flask.

Process . During the investing step, make sure there are air passages to facilitate even distribution of the vacuum. This can be done by leaving a 1⁄4" recess at the top of the flask, or by inserting drinking straws or wax rods along the edge. . Burnout as usual. . Melt the metal in a crucible, adding flux once or twice. . Set the hot flask, opening upward, on the silcone rubber pad. . Turn on the vacuum pump and watch the gauge to be sure you are getting suction. It is sometimes necessary to press down on the flask with tongs to make a seal. . Pour molten metal into the mouth of the sprue. . After  seconds you can turn off the vacuum. Casting > Casting Methods > Vacuum Casting

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Steam Casting Steam Casting This ingenious process uses the heat of the molten metal to create steam pressure that forces metal into a mold cavity. It requires very simple equipment and can yield consistently fine results.

Surface Tension The ingenious element of steam casting and sling casting is the way both methods remove the need for a crucible. Instead, metal is melted directly in the mouth of the sprue (a.k.a. the gate). Remember from school science when you saw water drip through a cloth, while honey wouldn’t pass through the same cloth? The reason is the surface tension of the liquid, and this applies to molten metal too. For both these techniques, the trick is to make the sprues small enough that the surface tension of the metal prevents it from going in. This will be  gauge round wire, or strips that are no thicker than  gauge (. mm) and no broader than 1⁄4" (. mm).

Melting

Process

Care in melting is important in every kind of casting.

. If the sprue base did not form a large enough reservoir for melting, carve a funnel shape in the top of the invested flask. Use a knife and work over a wastebasket. . After standard burnout, remove the hot flask and set it on a heatproof surface (e.g., a brick) on a sturdy table, preferrably no more than waist high. . Melt the metal in the mouth of the flask with a torch. Flux as usual. . When the metal is molten, withdraw the torch as you simultaneously clap the steam handle firmly onto the flask. Hold it in this position until the metal solidifies. . Allow the button to lose all redness, then quench in water. Avoid breathing the silica-laden steam.

Use a flame that is hot enough to be efficient but not so hot it will burn the metal. Use a fuel-rich reducing flame. This is a bushy or feathery flame. It should not make a hissing sound. When the metal is red and again when it is molten, sprinkle on borax, boric acid, powdered charcoal, or a commercial flux.

Access Video Library on CD

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Steam Casting Handle Attach a jar lid to a comfortable handle. This can be a length of dowel, a file handle, a section of a tree branch or piece of wood. Use a screw for strength, and epoxy to prevent it from rotating. Line this with at least 1⁄4" of newspaper or paper towels. Keep the tool in a bucket of water as you prepare the casting. When you’re ready, lift the handle and allow excess water to drip off. The paper should be completely saturated but not dripping.

Casting >Casting Methods > Steam Casting

Sling Casting Sling Casting In this technique, molten metal is forced into the mold cavity with centrifugal force generated by hand. The prepared flask is set into the casting handle and swung in a large arc. It involves just enough risk to keep the process exciting. Though perfectly safe, this is not recommended for low-ceilinged studios or for the timid.

(Sprue) Size Matters

Process

Because this technique calls for the metal to be melted in the mouth of the flask, the sprues must be small enough for the surface tension of the metal to prevent it from dripping into the mold cavity prematurely. For silver, gold, and brass, sprue with  gauge or smaller wax sheet or wire. If the model is large or thick and therefore requires a lot of metal, compensate by using many sprues. The carving of the model, location of sprues, and mixing of investment follow the same basic method described elsewhere.

. Make a sling with a linkage about a foot long. For small flasks, the pan can be a jar lid. For a larger sling, fabricate a ring and base from copper, brass, or steel sheet. . Prepare the model with  gauge sprues. If the sprue base did not form a large enough reservoir for melting, carve a funnel shape in the top of the invested flask. Use a knife and work over a wastebasket. . After burnout, set the hot flask into the basket of the sling as it rests on a fireproof surface. Melt the metal to be cast in the funnel at the top of the flask. Flux as usual. . When the metal is molten, pull the torch away and swing the flask in large even arcs. A steady motion is more important than a fast or mighty swing. Start with a pendulum-like back and forth motion, then arc into four or five full rotations. Giddy-up!

Alternate Sprue Base

Sling Handle Make your own sling handle from a jar lid, welding rod, and a file handle. Note how the screw and washers at the end of the handle alow the links to rotate freely. It’s possible to use steel chain instead of rigid links, but the device is a bit harder to control.

This technique works well for unusual flasks, such as a coffee can bent into an oval to accommodate a specific piece. In a case like this, make a sprue base by pressing clay onto a piece of Masonite or an old tile. Shape a mound that will become the melting area, and press the can into the clay to make it watertight.

Casting > Casting Methods > Sling Casting

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Implants & Stones Implants In most cases, castings are made and completed, and only then are other elements or gemstones added. Usually… but not always.

Providing a Grip When a model is made and pieces are set into it, they are held in place by wax. Keep in mind that during burnout the wax will be removed. If precautions are not taken, the small pieces may become loose and drop into the mold cavity, ruining the casting. Investment has an adhesive quality and will probably grip small pieces as long as sufficient surface area is available. A slightly rough surface will hold better than a smooth one. Each situation will require its own solution. In some cases a design may be modified to provide a “finger” of investment to grip the implanted piece on each side and hold it in place. Sometimes an extension can be soldered to a small piece to lock it in position. This can later be sawn off the finished casting.

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Casting > Casting > Implants & Stones

Bezels

Casting Stones in Place

Unless you have a delicate touch, it can be difficult to accurately shape bezels in wax. A neater job is likely to result when a bezel is made of thin metal strip. To make a subtle transition between the bezel and the work, set the metal bezel into the wax and model the area around the bezel. Any metals with a melting point above burnout temperature (º F, º C) are safe to use in this way. Sometimes molten metal will fuse solidly onto the bezel but usually the oxides accumulated in the flask during burnout prevent a strong bond. Solder the bezel in place immediately after pickling the casting, before the perfect fit has a chance to be distorted.

Some stones can withstand burnout temperatures and the thermal shock of inrushing molten metal so they can be cast in place. This process especially lends itself to irregular gems and crystals that might be difficult to set otherwise. Implanted stones are handled as above except that after casting the flask should be air-cooled rather than quenched. Remember that impurities may cause even a heat-tolerant stone to crack. Even though diamonds can withstand high temperatures for a short time (such as during soldering) they will burn up at prolonged heat. Better not risk it. Gem materials that are likely (but not guaranteed) to withstand casting in place are: > sapphire > ruby > tourmaline > laboratory-grown gems

Double Metal Casting Double Metal Casting It’s possible to embed metal components in a mold so that when a casting is made, the two parts will be joined together. The effect is especially effective with metals of contrasting colors.

Mechanical Connection Wherever possible, arrange for a mechanical grip between the parts. Provide a way that the metal being cast wraps around, penetrates, or in some other physical way clutches onto the embedded piece. Examples of this would include hooks and pegs soldered onto the back, beveled edges, holes, and loops.

Internal Support When a large piece of metal is being used, its weight can cause the sprue to bend over. Use a secondary support to hold the model during investing. Because this connects outside the funnel area of the flask, no metal will enter this cavity even though it has burned out. Making the Elements Create parts by sawing, filing, carving, or using any traditional jewelrymaking techniques. If parts are soldered together, use hard or IT solder. Cast and silver clay pieces can also be used. Make the work in the usual way, completing them through the finishing stage. In the case of castings, you might be able to locate sprues so that they can be left as pins. Either build in hooks or solder them on after forming.

Inlay To inlay, saw the pieces out, and file beveled edges to lock them in place. Drip soft wax over the edges and push it like putty over the piece. As described above, provide a grip to hold the piece into the mold during burnout.

Process . Make one of the components first, either the larger unit or the embellishment. It doesn’t matter what metals are being used because the flask temperature will never be above melting point of silver, sterling, gold, copper, nickel silver, or brass. Complete this through the fine sandpaper stage. . If you are working in hard wax, warm a surface until it is gooey, then press this firmly against the metal unit. For soft wax, it might be best to construct the form, then press it against the metal. Strategies will vary from piece to piece. . Model the wax to create the final form. . Add sprues, more or less as usual. The location, size and angles are the same as usual… what makes the process unusual is the need to work around the metal parts. . Sprue, invest, and cast as usual. It’s sometimes necessary to support the metal unit with additional, non-supplying sprues. Casting > Special Effects > Double Metal Casting

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Cured Molds Reusable Molds In lost wax casting the investment mold must be destroyed to retrieve the finished casting. To make multiples, a supplementary step is needed to produce multiple wax models. These are made by injecting molten wax into a rubber mold that will flex sufficiently to allow the model to be removed.

Putty

Alginate

A relatively new product is a twopart silicone-based material with the consistency of Silly Putty. The two component parts are of different colors, so blending is foolproof. Pull off equal parts and knead them together until the color is uniform. Depending on the brand, the setup time will be from  to  minutes. Press the putty over an object, or texture and allow it to sit until a fingernail poked into the rubber fails to leave a mark.

Alginate is a short-life mold material that might be familiar to people who were fitted for braces. It is a water-soluble material made (delightfully enough) from seaweed. Mix with water to the consistency of mashed potatoes and press it onto the shape or texture you are duplicating. The mold will set up relatively quickly (– minutes) and can be used right away. Alginate molds will dry and contract within  hours. To extend the life, keep the mold in a dish of water for a day or two.

Room Temperature Vulcanzing (RTV) This relatively new development in moldmaking uses a two-part compound that cures chemically without special equipment. These molds are not quite as durable as vulcanized rubber and can lose detail because of bubbles, but they are simple and almost foolproof. Mold frames can be bought or made, using a strip of aluminum and glass or plastic sheet. A suitable aluminum molding is available at most hardware stores. To avoid wasting the mold compound, have several sizes of frames on hand. When the model is in position, hold the sheets in place with rubber bands. The model and sprue can be of any nonporous (or sealed) material. Mix the compound thoroughly according to the proportions given on the can. Allow the mold to cure (usually  hours), and cut it open to remove the model. See the section on cutting the mold for more details.

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Casting > Moldmaking > Cured Molds

Vulcanized Molds Vulcanized Molds

Vulcanizer This machine will maintain the temperature, typically ° F (° C) and firm pressure needed to cure the rubber.

Mold Cutting Use a scalpel to slice into the mold. This is easier if the mold is peeled apart as you work. To make a third hand, attach a bottle opener or similar hook to the benchtop, or grasp it in a vise.

Registration As you cut the molds, leave irregular notches that will force the two sides to align. Alternately, place three or four metal tabs on one side.

The state of the art for reliable, long-life molds consists of slabs of raw rubber that are cured in a device called a vulcanizer. Because of the temperatures and pressures involved, a model used in this process must be of a hard material. Metal is usually used but wood or a hard plastic such as nylon or Delrin will work. Wax models cannot be used in a vulcanizer. . Cut pieces of rubber to a size that will fit snugly into an aluminum mold frame. Leave the protective plastic film on the pieces until all the parts are ready. Use enough pieces so the mold is slightly overfilled. . Lay half the sheets into the mold form, removing the protective sheets as you go. Lay the model and four small locator pins into place. . Dust the surface lightly with talc, cornstarch, or a commercial pounce. . Lay the rest of the rubber slabs onto the stack, again removing the protective sheets only as each sheet is laid in place. The rubber must be very clean to bond well. . Capture the stack between thick aluminum plates and set it into the vulcanizer. . Turn on the heating element and screw the top plate down to a firm but not hard contact. Curing takes about  minutes per 1⁄4" of mold, or about an hour and a half for an average piece. . When the plate becomes too hot to touch (– minutes depending on the machine), turn the screw a little more, though still not as if you’re trying out for the Olympics. . After  minutes, turn the screw again, continuing to increase pressure every  minutes until a small rubber thread squirts out a hole in the mold frame. . Turn off the heating element and allow the mold to cool to room temperature while still under pressure.

Two-Part Molds One method is to bury the object in the mold and slice it open as in traditional rubber molds. Alternately, press the model up to its parting line in clay. Add a few craters around the model to help with registration. Add sprues and a funnel at this point or carve them later. Mix up an appropriate quantity of mold putty and press it over the model. Without being too brutal, make certain you’ve avoided making voids or pockets. Allow the mold to cure. Peel off the clay and repeat the process to make the other half of the mold. No parting compound is needed to keep the parts from sticking together. When the second piece has cured, remove the model, align the mold halves, and inject wax. Casting > Moldmaking > Vulcanized Molds

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Molds & Hollow Castings Plaster Mold This traditional method has been used by sculptors for centuries. Though it is not commonly used for jewelry scale work, there is no reason why the method cannot be used to advantage on a smaller scale. . Make a model in clay, plasticene, or wax. This base is made of wood and wire. . Make a wall by pushing thin brass or aluminum shims into the model. This will be the parting line, so avoid undercuts as you determine its location. . Drip plaster or investment onto the model, trying not to trap air bubbles. Build up several layers, ending with cloth strips pressed into the plaster.

Using Cores A core is a lump of mold material (investment) that is anchored within the mold where it creates a cavity or hollow in the finished casting. . With coarse files and/or knives, carve a block of hardened investment to the shape of the desired interior. This will be smaller than the final casting. . Cover this core with wax, either by painting on hot wax or by dipping the core into melted wax to build up successive layers. . File and model the wax. . To anchor the core once the wax has burned out, drill holes into the core, and insert wires of the metal to be cast. These pins, called chaplets, can be snipped off and filed flush after casting.

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. When the plaster is thoroughly dry, pry the mold pieces apart and remove the clay or wax. . After lubricating the mold with liquid soap, paint melted wax into it. The thickness of the wax will be the thickness of the metal when you’re done. . When the wax is hard, pull it out, and make repairs if needed. Add sprues, join the halves with a hot needle, and work the seam to make it blend in. When investing, start by filling the interior to make sure no air pockets become trapped there. Burnout and cast as usual.

Rubber Mold Method This technique is recommended for models with intricate textures or many small undercuts. It will also work for a hard model, (such as shell or metal) where shims can’t be attached. . Attach the model to a stand or handle. Dust it lightly with talcum powder or cornstarch. . Coat the model with an RTV or latex rubber mold compound by dipping the model repeatedly or by brushing the compound on. . When the rubber has set, cover it with a layer of plaster to add support. When this has cured, cut through it with a sharp blade, pull the mold pieces apart, and remove the model. . Paint wax into mold halves—casting can be done before or after the parts are joined together, depending on the shapes involved.

Casting > Moldmaking > Molds & Hollow Castings

Plug holes with wax

Wax Injecting Wax Injecting Wax is viscous so it requires some force other than gravity to coax it into a rubber mold. Years ago this was done with centrifugal force, but now most jewelers use air pressure to squirt molten wax forcefully into a rubber mold.

Mold Release

Mold Holding

Some wax patterns pop out of rubber molds easily but others seem welded into place. Contributing factors:

Even a properly made mold can yield poor results if it is held incorrectly during injection. If it is held too loosely, the parting line will be pronounced; if too tightly, the mold can be pinched in the center. To distribute pressure, hold the mold between two pieces of Plexiglas, Masonite, aluminum, or thin plywood. To make this into a onehanded operation, use welding rod or similar material to make tongs.

Type of wax: Some contain release agents. Injection temperature: Too hot promotes sticking. Purity: If the wax is reused too much it is more likely to stick. Shape of mold: Delicate complex forms tend to grab the wax. Surface of the mold interior: Textures with microscopic undercuts will clutch at the wax.

Release Agents Apply a very light coat after every second or third injection. > commercial silicone spray > talc > cornstarch > cooking oil (PAM etc.)

Air Pressure A more sophisticated and safer injection machine uses air pressure to squirt molten wax on demand. As in the unit above, a thick-walled steel vessel contains an electric heating coil to melt the wax and keep it at a desired temperature. . Check the volume of wax in the pot and add more if necessary to ensure that the container is at least half full. . Turn on the heating element and allow sufficient time to insure that the wax is uniformly melted— to  minutes is typical. . Check the rim and lid to be sure there are no bits of debris that will disturb the seal, then clamp the lid tightly onto the pot. . Attach the hose from an air compressor (or use a hand pump or canned air, depending on the model). The idea is to fill the space between the wax and the lid with pressurized air. . Lubricate a mold with a thin layer of silicone spray or talc and hold it between two flat plates. Press firmly against the nozzle for a few seconds to fill the mold. Experiment to determine the correct pressure, temperature, and pace. Casting > Moldmaking > Wax Injecting

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Problem Solving

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Casting > Problem Solving

Problem

The casting is covered with warts.

Reason

There were air bubbles in the investment. Unfortunately, these voids often lodge in details, where they are difficult to cut away.

Solution

Make the investment thicker next time, and extend the vacuum time. For now, cut away the beads with snips, a graver, or grind with a flex shaft bur.

Problem

Incomplete casting. Ouch!

Reason

If there is a large button, this means that the metal wasn’t fully melted and didn’t get into the mold. If only the top portion of the casting fills, this might mean there simply wasn’t enough metal. If the edges of the partial casting are round, it probably means the metal encountered air trapped in the mold cavity. This indicates that the mold wasn’t made hot enough to vaporize wax residue. If the edges are sharp this indicates that improper spruing prevented the metal from being distributed throughout the mold.

Solution

Learn from the mistake by thinking through exactly what happened until you understand the logic of the problem. Do better next time.

Problem

Porosity.

Reason

This area of the piece cooled a split second after the thinner adjacent areas. As the metal cools it pulls itself into a more compact structure, creating microscopic spaces. Because there was no additional metal coming into this region, the spaces were not filled.

Solution

Sprue to the thickest part of the piece and make the sprue thicker than the area to which it attaches. Read more about this on page .

Problem

When I quench the mold, not much happens. It’s taking me a long time to scrape the hard investment off the casting.

Reason

You are waiting too long between completing the casting and quenching. Usually about a minute is enough.

Solution

This is not a problem, except for the increased chore of removing investment. You can heat the casting with a torch and quench it in water, but be careful not to breathe the silica-laden vapors.

Chapter 

Stones & Stonesetting

Gem Information Introduction Lapidary, the art of working with gemstones, is a complex field of study all by itself, and few metalsmiths can give it as much time as they would like. The following pages make an attempt to provide some working knowledge for those who deal with stones as a complementary aspect of their craft. It is not complete, but will lay a foundation for further investigation. There are over  minerals in the earth’s crust, and as you might imagine, the information defies easy organization. Color and hardness, for instance, don’t always work since a stone may occur in several shades and kinds of crystals. Chemical and mineralogical divisions similarly confuse rather than clarify the matter. This chapter contains an alphabetical list of fifty popular stones with some information, history, or tips for each one. Where possible, I have included folklore, including, in some cases, the magical qualities ascribed to specific stones. No guarantees are offered, but who knows…

Birthstones Today the commercial jewelry industry has effectively blunted any charm or seriousness concerning the relationship between earth materials and the season of one’s birth. There was a time, however, when such relationships played an important part in daily life. The list below is borrowed from The Curious Lore of Precious Stones by George Frederick Kunz (Dover ), a book that is recommended for further investigation.

Speak to the earth and let it teach you.

Job  : 

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Stones > Gem Information

Birthstones January Garnet, sapphire February Amethyst, sapphire, pearl March Bloodstone, jasper April Diamond, sapphire May Agate, emerald, chalcedony, carnelian June Emerald, agate, pearl, chalcedony, turquoise July Ruby, carnelian, onyx, sardonyx, turquoise August Carnelian,moonstone, topaz, alexandrite September Sapphire, lapis lazuli, coral October Opal, aquamarine, beryl November Topaz, pearl December Turquoise, ruby, bloodstone

Wedding Anniversary Tokens                       

rose beryl, paper crystal, cotton chrysoprase, leather moonstone, silk carnelian, wood peridot, sugar coral, wool opal, clay citrine, willow turquoise, tin garnet amethyst, linen agate ivory, lace topaz silver pearl jade ruby sapphire golden emerald diamond

Gem Information Gem Cutting Brilliant Cut

table

crown girdle pavillion

culet

upper girdle facet

Gems are cut by first using a diamond saw to slice a slab from the rough lump of stone. The general shape is made by cutting off corners; then abrasive wheels are used to create the desired shape. Wheels of progressively finer grit are used, ending in a buffing operation. To evaluate the quality of a cutting job, look for a regular symmetry on a faceted stone and a smooth and even curvature on a cab.

Examples of poor cutting.

star facet

Gem Evaluation > Color > Cut standard cabochon (cab)

high cab (bullet)

double cab (lentil)

buff top

rose cut

marquise

baguette

tapered baguette

octagon (emerald cut)

> Hardness

> Light > Luster > Inclusions

In many cases, such as agates, color is entirely a matter of taste. In others, such as emerald, a deep color is a major factor in value. The planes or curves should be symmetrical, well polished, and arranged to compliment the material. A gem that will not retain its polish is of limited value to jewelers. In setting, it is important to know the hardness of the material being used. Soft stones should be set in a way that will protect them. Cat’s-eye and iridescence are examples of this. Brightness of the shine—some stones have a lesser value because they will not polish. Some stones, such as rutilated quartz or moss agate, are valued for their inclusions. In other stones, such as amethyst, inclusions lower the value.

Mohs Scale of Hardness Each material will scratch those with a lower number and will be scratched by those with a higher number. The steps along the scale are not regular. For example, # and # are close in hardness while #, diamond, is  times harder than #.

         

talc gypsum calcite fluorite apatite orthoclase quartz topaz corundum diamond

Miscellaneous Hardnesses . fingernail, fine gold, fine silver, lead 

copper



sterling

. window glass . knife blade, file 

silicon carbide sandpaper

Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Summary Chart The Big Fifty Fifty popular gem materials are briefly described in the following pages. They are summarized below with particular thought to their use in jewelry. In some cases these materials exhibit wide differences from one specimen to another.

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Stones > Gem Summary Chart

Name agate alexandrite amber amethyst ametrine ammonite aquamarine aventurine carnelian chalcedony chrome diopside chrysoberyl chrysocolla chrysoprase citrine coral corundum cubic zirconia diamond emerald garnet hematite iolite ivory jade jasper jet labradorite lapis lazuli malachite moissanite moonstone onyx opal pearl peridot quartz rhodochrosite ruby sapphire sardonyx serpentine sodalite spinel tanzanite tiger’s-eye topaz tourmaline turquoise zircon

Colors many purple-blue yellow purple purple/yellow mixed browns light blue green-brown red blue green many blue-green light green yellow red, pink, black many many clear green many black cab blue white many red-green black cab blue-black deep blue green clear or green many many mixed many green many banded pink red many brown green blue many blue blue-brown yellow green-pink blue many

Cuts Hardness O/T Heat Sens.? Notes cab 7 o yes often banded facet 8-9 t changes color cab 2 both very organic fac/cab 7 t yes facet 7 t bi-color cab 7 o yes fossilized shells fac/cab 8 t very cab 7 o yes sparkles cab 7 o yes cab 7 o yes facet 51⁄2-6 cab 8 both cab 6 o yes cab 6 o yes fac/cab 7 t yes cab 3 o very organic facet 9 t facet 9 t recent synthetic facet 10 t fac/cab 8 both yes cleaves easily fac/cab 7 t yes 6 o facet 7-71⁄2 t pleochroic cab 2 o very organic cab 6 o yes greasy luster cab 7 o 4 o very organic cab 6 o very iridescent cab 6 o yes cab 31⁄2-4 o very often banded facet 91⁄2 t no 2nd hardest cab 6 t yes adularescent cab 7 o yes cab 6 t very interior colors natural 3 o very fac/cab 7 t yes fac/cab 7 both cab 4 t yes fac/cab 9 both star or cat’s-eye fac/cab 9 both star or cat’s-eye cab 7 o yes cab 2-6 o dust has asbestos cab 6 o facet 8 t facet 61⁄2-7 t pleochroic cab 7 o yes silky interior fac/cab 8 t yes cleaves easily fac/cab 7 t yes dichroic cab 6 yes facet 7 t cleaves easily

Gem Information AGATE (Ag it) Hardness:  > A type of chalcedony; a cryptocrystalline quartz. This means the crystals are so tiny they do not show up under normal magnification. > The name comes from an ancient, now untraceable Sicilian river, Achates. Red Green Green with stripes Gray Moss agate

Protection from spiders and scorpions. Relief from eye trouble. A woman who drinks water in which such a ring has been washed will never be sterile. Worn on the neck to prevent a stiff neck. Also called dendritic (Greek, dendron, “tree”); worn by a farmer on the upper arm to insure a good harvest; placed on right horn of oxen to protect them.

ALEXANDRITE (al x ZAN drite) Hardness: 1⁄2 > This natural stone is a type of chrysoberyl that shows a range of transparent colors, from blue in daylight to reddish-yellow in artificial light. > A synthetic stone, more widely available, is actually a treated corundum, H. > The stone was named for Czar Alexander II who, according to legend, came of legal age on the day the stone was discovered. AMBER (AM bur) Hardness: –1⁄2 > This is not a stone but the naturally hardened resin of the amber pine, Pinus succinifera. > Transparent amber is – million years old. Opaque amber, called copal, is  million years old (give or take an eon). > The name comes from the Arabic anbar. The Greeks called it elektrum from the Phoenician word for sun/golden. Because amber will hold a charge, this gave us our word electric. Rub it on a sweater and it will hold enough static electricity to lift hair or bits of paper. > Amber will dissolve in acetone or nail polish remover. It will be quickly worn down by mechanical buffing with compounds like tripoli. > Some amber contains thousands of tiny air bubbles. This is called bone amber and can be cleared by heating in mineral oil. > Amber is easy to fake. To test a sample: • brush it with methyl alcohol or ethyl acetate. Nonfossil resins (a.k.a. plastics) will dissolve. • Set a sample into brine: real amber will float but artificial amber will sink. • Touch a sample with a hot needle. The smoke created will smell either like a pine woods or a plastics factory. Magical Uses Amber dust mixed with honey or water was used to treat ears, eyes, stomach, liver, and kidneys. The smell of burning amber helps a woman in labor. Holding an amber ball will keep you cool on a hot day. It was used to treat fever victims. Amber beads mitigate the effects of rheumatism, toothache, rickets, jaundice, and goiters. Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information AMETHYST (AM e thist) Hardness:  > Amethyst is a form of quartz. The top grade is a deep purple and has no flaws or inclusions. > When heated to around ° F (° C) amethysts turn dark yellow or reddishbrown and are called citrines. Because they are more richly colored than natural citrines, they are more expensive. > From the Greek for “preventing drunkenness,” the gem was believed to protect from the effects of wine, especially if held under the tongue while drinking. > The color can fade if the stone is left in strong sunlight for a long time. > Tibetan monks believe the stone is sacred to Buddha and wear beads made from it. AMETRINE (AM e treen) Hardness:  > Unique bi-color quartz crystals of amethyst and citrine that grow together. > These stones come from the Anahí Mine in Bolivia. > Citrine is associated with the third chakra (self esteem) while amethyst is connected to intuition and introspection. It follows that the stone signifies the transition between corporeal and spiritual attributes. AMMONITE (AM o nyt) Hardness:  > An ammonite is a cephalopod (phylum Mollusca) that once swam in shallow marine seas and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period about  million years ago (along with the dinosaurs). The closest living relative to the ammonite is the chambered nautilus. > Over the years, the bodies of these creatures that were buried under layers of earth decomposed to create a void. These spaces were filled with minerals, primarily quartz, to create the fossils we find today. These are split in two and polished to reveal the spiral form, often glittering with crystals. AQUAMARINE (AUKWA mareen) Hardness: 1⁄2– > The name comes from the Latin beryllus aquamarinus, “beryl resembling seawater.” > It is traditionally a sailor’s talisman. > This gem increased in popularity around  when heat treatment was developed to turn pale blue-green stones into deeper blue shades. AVENTURINE (a VENT chu reen) Hardness:  > A fine-grained quartz with many flake inclusions, occurring in several colors, mainly green, brown and gray. > The characteristic sparkle of this stone is called aventurescence.

Selected gem photos courtesy of Rio Grande.

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Stones > Gem Information

CARNELIAN (kar NEEL yan) Hardness: 1⁄2– > The color of this red chalcedony is due to the presence of iron. > The opaque variety is called sard. When it occurs in brown and white layers it is called sardonyx. > Carnelian was said to stop nosebleeds and to prevent blood rising to the head. > It is a strong protection from the evil eye.

Gem Information CHALCEDONY (kal SED nee) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A cryptocrystalline quartz—that is, quartz with very tiny crystals. Carnelian, onyx, agates and chrysoprase are all forms of chalcedony. > In the world of jewelry, the word refers to a light blue, translucent stone. These stones may be made by dyeing agates but the naturally occurring variety is more desirable. CHROME DIOPSIDE (krom dy OP syd) Hardness: 1⁄2– > These translucent gems have a vivid green color. > The primary source is Siberia, Russia. > Though mined for decades, it is only recently that the gem is receiving widespread attention. > Chrome dioside is found mostly in small stones, which is okay since larger stones appear dark owing to the richness of the color. > Similar to tsavorite garnet, which is also a deep green color. CHRYSOBERYL (KRIS o burl) Hardness: 1⁄2 > This stone occurs in both a transparent and a cloudy variety and can be yellow, green, or brown. Clear stones are usually faceted while the cloudy specimens are cut as cabochons. > Chrysoberyl has one of the most attractive cat’s-eyes of all stones. This occurs as a bright silvery line that travels across the curved surface of a polished gem as it is moved. The effect is called “chatoyancy” from the French word chatoyer, “to shimmer.” CHRYSOCOLLA (kris o KOL La) Hardness: – > A hydrous silicate formed by the decomposition of copper ore near the surface. > From the Greek chrysos (gold) and kolla (glue). In ancient usage the term included malachite. Both were used as a flux for soldering and fusing gold. > Occurs in variable shades of blue and green and can resemble turquoise. > Chrysocolla from the site of King Solomon’s Mines in Eilat, Israel is called Eilat (Elat) stone. > Because this is a copper-bearing ore it will be damaged by pickles that are designed to attack copper oxides (e.g., Sparex). CHRYSOPRASE (KRIS o prayz) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A light green translucent chalcedony, the most valuable of the chalcedony family. > From the Greek words for “gold” and “leek,” referring to its golden-green color, which is caused by nickel salts. CITRINE (SI treen) Hardness:  > This yellow quartz can be found naturally or made by heating amethyst (purple quartz) to around º F (º C). Treated citrines have a deeper color and are more expensive than natural stones. > The yellow-brown gemis called “cairngorm” after the place of origin in Scotland. > Dark reddish-brown quartz is called sang de boeuf, French for “ox blood”. Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information CORAL (KOR l) Hardness: 1⁄2 > This is not a stone in the usual sense but a rock-like material formed from the underwater deposit of many tiny skeletons of invertebrate animals. > From the Geek korallion, originally derived from the word for pebble. > Coral can occur in many shades of reddish-pink, white and black: the black form is called akabar. > Coral was thought to stop bleeding, guard against poison, and protect dogs from rabies. > This is a soft material and should be treated gently. It will not tolerate harsh cleansers, abrasion or heat. CORUNDUM (kor UN dum) Hardness:  > Until the Middle Ages corundum was called “hyacinth” and was thought to exist only as a blue stone. When it was discovered that other colors of corundum existed, the name sapphire was used for the blue variety. > Corundums of other colors are usually identified by a color name, such as yellow sapphire and green sapphire. Red corundum is called ruby. > Besides blue, corundum occurs in yellow, green, reddish-yellow, pink, mauve, brown, and black. CUBIC ZIRCONIUM (KU bik zir KON iyum) Hardness: 1⁄2 > A transparent, singly refractive, man-made gem produced from the element zirconium. > It is available in many colors, as well as a bright white that resembles diamond. Because of its fire and low cost, CZ has replaced  (synthetic garnet), spinel, and stontium titanate as a diamond substitute. DIAMOND (DI mund) Hardness:  > From the Greek adamas, “unbreakable, indomitable”. > Diamonds were believed to render all poisons harmless. Ironically, they were also considered to be poisonous themselves. Benvenuto Cellini reports a thwarted attempt on his life when an assassin attempted to put powdered diamond in his food. > Diamond powder was at one time considered to be medicinal. In , physicians administered gem powders, including diamond, to the ailing Pope Clement VII. Didn’t work. > Diamond has long been credited with powers in keeping with its unique properties. It is said that diamonds will drive away madness, night spirits, and evil dreams. Diamonds will promote virtue, generosity, and courage, and are said to protect a house from lightning and other natural disasters. > In ancient times diamonds were found only in India and were not highly regarded because they could only be used in their natural octrahedral shape. In  Louis de Berqueur developed a way to cut facets that revealed the brilliance of the gem and led to increased popularity. By the European Renaissance, noblemen and ladies were wearing the highly fashionable gem. In subsequent waves of discovery, diamonds were mined in Brazil (s), and South Africa (s).

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Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information > Current production leaders, in order of the quantity of carats mined, are Australia, Botswana, Congo, Namibia, Russia, South Africa, Angola, Canada, and Brazil. > Famous diamonds include the Hope Diamond, the Koh-i-Nor, the Great Mogul, and the Star of Africa (Cullinan I). > The largest sites of diamond cutting can be found in Belgium, India, Israel, South Africa, and the United States. EMERALD (EM e ruld) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A bright green beryl, very valuable if free of inclusions and of strong color. > Inclusions are called the jardin (garden) of the stone. > Emeralds are notoriously brittle and require great care in setting. For this reason faceted stones with a thick girdle are preferred. > Do not clean emeralds in an ultrasonic machine. The solution may penetrate the stone and cause it to shatter. > Linked to fertility and the Earth Goddess, emerald is a birthstone of spring (May). > Sacred to the Goddess Venus, it is worn by women to ease childbirth. > Emeralds are said to stifle an epileptic fit. > The sight of an emerald is said to bring such terror to a viper or cobra that their eyes leap out of their heads. > This stone is said to protect the wearer from helplessness caused by fascination. It was also used to treat diseases of the eye. GARNET (GAR net) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2 > From the Latin granum, “grain or pip,” which in turn came from the Phoenician word for pomegranate, punica granatum. > When worn on the body, garnets are said to prevent skin diseases. > Garnet assures the wearer of love, faithfulness, and safety from wounds. > When danger approaches, the stone loses its brilliance. > Garnets will protect the wearer from evil and from terrifying dreams. > For obvious reasons red garnets have been associated with blood. As recently as  native soldiers in Kashmir fought the British with bullets made of garnet, in the belief that these would find their way magically to their targets. Types of garnets: Pyrope: a deep red color. Its name in Greek means “fiery eye.” Almadine: dark red with a tinge of mauve. The especially purple variety is called rhodolite. Spessartite: red-orange or orange-brown; shows internal wavy veil of fluid contained in the stone; rare and expensive. Grossular (Grossularite): speckled green stone resembling jade. Hessonite is a subspecies. Uvarovite: rare, intensely green stone. Andradite: This contains iron; it is rarely cut.

Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information HEMATITE (HE ma tite) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2 > A lustrous black stone often cut with facets or carved with a warrior’s head. > Though the stone is black, it will leave a red streak when scratched along a rough surface. The stone appears to bleed and so takes its name from the Greek word for blood, haima. > Hematite (also spelled “haematite”) is the world’s most important iron ore. > Powdered hematite is known as red ochre when used as a pigment and as crocus when used as a polishing compound or abrasive. > Hematite can form naturally as a cluster of thin plates and, in this configuration, is known as alpine rose or iron rose. IOLITE (EYE o lyt) Hardness: –1⁄2 > These gems show a deep blue with a hint of purple. > Iolite is strongly dichroic, which means it shows different colors depending on the angle of viewing. IVORY (I vree) Hardness: 1⁄2 > Ivory comes from the tusks of elephants and is becoming increasingly rare as the elephant approaches extinction. In parts of the world it is illegal to use ivory. > True ivory is made up of many translucent layers and has a soft sheen caused by the partial penetration of light. > Ivory can be identified by a characteristic grain pattern that becomes more obvious with age. > Other similar materials should be identified with an adjective, such as whale ivory. JADE (JAYD) Hardness:  > The word refers to two distinct minerals not differentiated until . These are properly called jadeite and nephrite. > Because of its waxy luster, the Chinese called it wet stone, and believed it could slake thirst. > Jade occurs in white (muttonfat jade), yellow, lavender, earthy brown, and black as well as the familiar greens. > Spanish conquistadors found many objects of carved jade and, believing it to ease kidney pains, called it piedra de ijada (loin stone). European doctors called it palis nephriticus from the Greek nephros, kidney. > Jade can be confused with californite, grossularite, sausserite, pectolite, chrysoprase, and aventurine. > This stone was believed to protect from lightning, to aid in battle, to bring rain, to drive away beasts and evil spirits, and to aid in childbirth. JASPER (JAS pur) Hardness: 1⁄2– > From the Hebrew yashpeh and Assyrian yashpu; referred to in cuneiform writings of   Originally the word referred to any green stone. > Jasper occurs in many colors and patterns, including stripes and pictures. These are really fossilized algae made when decomposed organic matter was replaced by silicon oxide (i.e., jasper).

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Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information > > > >

Green chalcedony with flecks of red jasper is called bloodstone or heliotrope. In ancient Egypt, red jasper was associated with the blood of Isis. Green jasper was associated with St. Peter by the early Christians. Said to drive away night spirits, to stanch bleeding, and to help during pregnancy. Green jasper was used in rainmaking.

JET Hardness: – > A dense black coal found in many places around the world; especially popular during the reign of Queen Victoria, who wore jewelry of carved jet in her year mourning for her deceased husband. Most British jet came from the town of Whitby. > Burnt and powdered jet is said to drive away snakes and reptiles, and to heal toothaches and headaches. > Jet nullifies spells and charms. > Traditionally Irish housewives burned jet during their husband’s absence to ensure his safety. LABRADORITE (LAB bra dor ite) Hardness:  > This is a blue iridescent feldspar found off the coast of Labrador. > A similar gem mined in Finland shows a wider range of colors and is called spectrolite. > Black moonstone is usually labradorite from Madagascar. LAPIS LAZULI (LAP is LAZ u lee) Hardness: – > From the Latin lapis, “stone” and Arabic lazuli, “blue”. > Known for its deep blue color, sometimes found with flecks of gold-colored pyrite or whitish-gray mottlings of calcite. > Lapis is still being mined at the oldest mines in the world in Iraq. When mining began there  years ago, the country was called Babylon. Think of that. > Lapis was sent to Egypt as tribute. There it was carved to make cylinder seals and ground to a powder for eye makeup. > In Ur, kings sharpened their swords on lapis in the belief that it would make weapons invincible. > Sumerians believed that a wearer of lapis carried the presence of God with him. > In ancient Egypt, the stone was symbolic of truth (Ma) and was worn by the chief justice. > from the Middle Ages through the th century, painters mixed oil with powdered lapis to make the color we call ultramarine. > The gem is believed to ease eye troubles, treat asthma, induce sleep, and relieve anxiety. MALACHITE (MAL a kite) Hardness: – > A copper ore made up of deep and pale green stripes or concentric circles. > Malachite powder was used in ancient times as eye makeup. > It was commonly held to ease labor, protect infants and children, and soothe their pain when they were cutting teeth. > Because of its high copper content, malachite will be damaged by jeweler’s pickle. Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information MOISSANITE (MOY zan yt) Hardness: 1⁄2 > This man-made gem traces its origins to the discovery of silcon carbide in  by Henri Moissan. The fragments he found in a meteor in Arizona were too small for practical use, proved that such a compound was possible. When high temperature Industrial furnaces were developed it became possible to manufacture silicon carbide, but it was not until research by CREE Company in the s that a gem quality material was created. Since  Moissanite has been manufactured and sold by Charles & Covard company. > It is second in hardness only to diamond. > Created in a near-colorless version and a pale green version. > Moissanite is roughly - the cost of diamonds. MOONSTONE Hardness: –1⁄2 > A feldspar of orthoclase with thin layers of albite. This yields a play of light called adularescence as light is spread by the fine particles or layers. The effect is a cool frosty glow that accounts for the name of this gem. > Moonstone occurs in white, gray, pink, green, blue, chocolate, and an almost clear variety that looks like a water droplet. > When worn around the neck, moonstone is believed to protect against epilepsy and sunstroke. It is used to treat headaches and nosebleeds. > When hung on fruit trees it produces abundant crops and generally assists all vegetation. ONYX (ON ix) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A chalcedony composed of black and white bands. In common usage the term often refers to an agate dyed uniformly black. > Onyx with brown and white bands is called sardonyx. > When cut to show concentric circles, onyx forms an eye-like amulet that was worn by the Sumerians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans to ward off evil. > This stone was widely disfavored except when cut as a protective eye. It was said to incite contention between friends, to give the wearer broken sleep and terrifying dreams and, when worn on the neck, to cool the fires of love. > The Arabic name for this stone, el jaza, means sadness. OPAL (O pl) Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2 > From the Sanskrit upala, gem. > A highly praised stone that shows a range of color flashes, usually including red, blue, green, and violet. > Opal is hydrated silicon dioxide. The play of colors is the result of water (– by weight) trapped in the stone. Care should be taken that opals do not dry out. A periodic coating of baby oil is recommended. > Opals from Mexico and Brazil usually contain more water and are less stable than Australian opals. > During the Middle Ages. It was the custom that breakage during cutting had to be paid for by the lapidary: since opals fracture easily, it is understandable that some would consider them unlucky.

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Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information Types of Opal: > Fire: bright orange-red; translucent to transparent. > Flame: as above when showing red. > Flash: undivided flashes of a single color as the stone is rotated. > Harlequin: a mosaic of iridescent color. > Pinpoint: a multitude of tiny specks of many colors. > Matrix: stone cut so as to leave the opal attached to the rock in which it was formed. This is done to add strength to an otherwise dangerously thin specimen while simultaneously getting the most from a vein of opal. > Doublet: opal glued to a backing of obsidian or onyx to increase color play. > Triplet: a doublet with rock crystal glued on top to increase luster and strength. PEARL (PURL) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A lustrous deposit formed inside a living bivalve mollusk, often in response to an irritation felt by the animal. Though many mollusks form such deposits, most species do not make pearls with attractive surfaces. > Pearls are formed in saltwater and freshwater clams. They are identified by their place of origin, for instance, Mississippi River pearls. > The largest source of pearls is Lake Biwa in Japan where extensive pearl farming is done. > Pearls sometimes grow attached to the shell of the animal, rather than in its tissue. These are called blister pearls. > Cultured or cultivated pearls are made inside a mollusk but have human help to get started. A bit of tissue or a bead is inserted in the animal and allowed to collect nacreous secretions for about four years. > Imitation pearls are much less valuable. They are made by repeated dipping of a plastic bead into a coating made of glue and ground sardine scales. When lightly rubbed on the front of a tooth, the imitation pearl will feel smooth. Genuine (Orient) and cultured pearls will feel slightly rough. > Pearls are attributed to the goddess Venus as the symbol of innocence. > Care should be taken that pearls are not subjected to sudden temperature changes. Wash them in lukewarm soapy water and restring when the cord becomes worn. Knots should be tied between pearls to keep them from rubbing against one another. PERIDOT (PER i doh) Hardness:  > A transparent gem, sometimes called chrysolite, occurring as pale to deep yellow-green. > Peridot is associated with the astrological sign of Libra (September –October ) and is assigned to the sun. > In ancient Hebrew writings this stone is linked with the Tribe of Simeon. > Peridot is believed to cure liver disease and dropsy, to free the mind from envious thoughts, and to dispel terrors of the night. For full magical power it should be set in gold.

Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information QUARTZ Hardness:  > Quartz is the most common of all minerals and accounts for as much as  of the volume of the earth’s crust. It occurs in two forms: a) crystalline, a single crystal that is generally transparent and either clear (rock crystal) or colored by minerals to be purple (amethyst), yellow (citrine), or brown (smoky quartz). b) chalcedony, a microcrystalline version that is usually translucent. Examples include flint, onyx, aventurine, jasper, carnelian, agate, and chrysoprase. RHODOCHROSITE Hardness: 1⁄2–1⁄2 > A bright luminous pink gem often banded with lacy white stripes. > Rhodochrosite is an ore of manganese; chemical formula MnCO₃. > Found in many sites around the world with the best specimens coming from Colorado. > One way to test this stone is to expose it to acid. Because of its calcium content, even a mild acid such as vinegar will usually cause a bubbling reaction. RUBY Hardness:  > A corundum that occurs as a transparent deep red stone and as an opaque reddish-gray material. In this form it may exhibit a star (asterism) or a singleline chatoyancy. > When flawless, a ruby is more valuable than a diamond of equal weight. > Synthetic rubies are produced for jewelry, watch bearings, and laser equipment. > The largest fine quality star ruby known is called the Rosser Reeves Star Ruby. It weighs . carats and can be seen at the Smithsonian Institution. > Historically, ruby is associated with royalty and the power of life and death. > Rubies were attributed the power to prevent loss of blood and to strengthen the heart. SAPPHIRE (SAF ire) Hardness:  > This form of corundum can occur as blue, yellow, pink, brown, black, lilac, and green, both as transparent and opaque, the latter sometimes showing a star (asterism) or cat’s-eye (chatoyancy). > Until the Middle Ages, sapphires were called hyacinths because of their pale blue color. When it was realized that the mineral occurred in other colors, the term sapphire was adopted for the blue variety while others use a color description, e.g., yellow sapphire. > Possibly from a Sanskrit reference meaning, “Dear to the planet Saturn.” > Sapphires are traditionally connected with the eye and the sky and therefore with vision and the ability to read the future. SARDONYX (sar DON ix) Hardness: 1⁄2– > A kind of chalcedony made brown by the presence of iron. Specifically, the name refers to specimens that include bands of white. > Sardonyx was a popular stone in ancient times and was credited with many

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Stones > Gem Information

Gem Information powers. The stone was thought to make warriors victorious, protect against poisonous snakes, make a suitor more appealing, neutralize the malevolent influence of black onyx, increase intelligence, make the wearer fearless, and to protect against witchcraft, sorcery, and incantation. SERPENTINE (SURP en teen) Hardness: – > An opaque green stone with mottled reddish-brown or milky patches. This, along with its waxy appearance, makes it look like snakeskin, hence the name. > Serpentine is common and occurs in many color and hardness variations. It is used architecturally and to carve objects such as bowls and sculptures. > This stone was believed to protect against snakebite and other poisons and was thought to be most effective if kept in the natural, uncut state. > Drinking medicine from a serpentine vessel was thought to increase the healing power of the medicine. SODALITE (SO da lite) Hardness: – > A popular opaque stone most widely known for its blue color, which somewhat resembles lapis lazuli. It also occurs in lavender, mauve, yellow-green, green, and pink. Purple shades can fade in sunlight. > White and grayish-white mottlings are often found in sodalite; in poor grade material these will be obvious. > The name of this mineral comes from its sodium content. SPINEL (spin ELL) Hardness:  > A transparent stone of red (the most valuable), pink, green, blue-green, and purple. > Synthetic spinel is produced in large quantities and is associated with inexpensive jewelry in imitation of diamonds, aquamarine, sapphires, and other gems. Air bubbles inside the stone often betray these synthetics. TANZANITE Hardness: – > This light violet to blue-colored gem is trichroic, which means it can show three distinct colors depending on the angle of viewing. > This stone, discovered in Tanzania in , is particularly sensitive to ultrasound and should never be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner. > Tanzanite is similar to iolite, which is also pleochroic. > Most samples are heat treated to achieve a dark blue. TIGER’S EYE Hardness: 1⁄2– > Blue, violet, and golden brown translucent stones showing a silky interior that shimmers as the stone is rotated. It can sometimes be cut to show a cat’s-eye. > The effect is the result of asbestos fibers that have been partially replaced by quartz. > When the fibers are coarse, the stone is called a hawk’s eye.

Stones > Gem Information

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Gem Information TOPAZ (TOW paz) Hardness:  > A transparent stone usually of golden yellow but also occurring as pink, red, blue, green, and colorless specimens. From Sanskrit tapas, to glow. > Topaz cleaves easily and therefore requires care in cutting and setting. > Some varieties can fade in sunlight. > In ancient times the word topaz referred to several other stones; today it is often mistakenly used for smoky quartz and citrine. > Rubbing or gentle heating of topaz electrifies it, causing it to attract bits of paper or hair. TOURMALINE (TUR ma leen) Hardness: –1⁄2 > A transparent stone of many colors, most notably green, blue-green, and pink. > Often several colors appear side by side. Crystals cut to reveal a pink semicircle with a green rim are called watermelon tourmaline. > The name comes from the Sanskrit turamali. > Tourmaline is dichromatic; it shows a bright color from one direction but will look almost black when seen from another. Like topaz, this stone will hold static electricity when rubbed or gently heated. TURQUOISE (TUR kwoyz) Hardness: – > A blue or blue-green stone, usually opaque but occasionally translucent. > From French pierre turquoise which means Turkish stone, a reference to its popular use in Turkey. Arabs call it fayruz or firusaj, the lucky stone. > Blue material will turn green as it absorbs oil from the skin. After polishing, most turquoise is sealed with a plastic that soaks into the stone and closes the pores. This is called stabilizing. > Reconstituted material (bits of turquoise compressed with adhesive) is sometimes used in cheap jewelry. To test a sample, lay a hot needle against the stone — if it contains adhesive, the resulting smell of plastic will give it away. > Some pieces of turquoise are cut so as to contain some of the rock in which they were formed. This is called matrix turquoise. Some varieties show fine dark lines running throughout the stone; this is called spiderweb turquoise. > Turquoise is thought to protect the wearer from poison, bites of reptiles, and diseases of the eye. > Some people think these powers are in force only if the stone is received as a gift. Giving turquoise is also said to improve its color. > Since the thirteenth century this stone was held to give sure-footedness to a horse. This explains why it is often found on bridles and harnesses. ZIRCON (ZIR kon) Hardness: –1⁄2 > A transparent brittle stone occurring as brownish or green material, usually heated to turn it pale yellow and blue. It can be found naturally colored as orange-red (most valuable), purple, reddish-brown, and brownish-yellow. > Because its brittleness makes it difficult to cut, stones of more than a couple of carats are rarely seen. > Zircon is said to drive away evil spirits and bad dreams, to banish grief and melancholy, restore appetite, induce sleep, and protect against lightning.

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Stones > Gem Information

Setting Tools Holding Tools Stonesetting is better (and less stressful) when you can see the details clearly. Almost all setting is done under magnification nowadays.

It’s hard to overestimate the importance of getting a good grip on a mounting before setting a stone. If the object wiggles or slides away under pressure it is impossible to properly move the metal that is intended to hold the gem in place. The ideal arrangement … holds the item (brooch, ring, etc.) securely. … doesn’t mar the metal. … can be released easily once the stone is set. … allows full and comfortable access for the setter (i.e., you).

Shellac Stick

Other Holding Devices • engraver’s block • ring clamp • pin vise • A clean piece of pine makes a handy base. Drill holes for earring posts and pin backs.

This traditional tool is also described in its connection to engraving but it bears repeating here. A resinous material such as shellac is fixed to the top of a wooden shaft about the size of a small flashlight. Warm the shellac and press the mounting firmly into place. When it cools to room temperature the piece will be locked in place. To remove the piece, warm the shellac slightly, and pry the work out. Bits of shellac that stick to the metal can be dissolved in alcohol. In place of shellac you can also use sealing wax or dopping wax. Variations Include: • pitch (harder to dissolve) • hot glue (not as rigid as shellac, doesn’t dissolve) • thermoplastic (Ditto, Protoplast, Friendly Plastic) • epoxy (difficult to dissolve)

Pushing Tools

Bezel Pushers

Bezel Rockers

Bezel pushers are nothing more than a short rod of steel or brass in a squat handle. They can be purchased or made—use a graver handle or a golf ball and a large nail.

To make a bezel rocker, saw this curving T-shape from thick brass sheet. File the edges smooth and mount it in a file handle. To use it, hold the tool like a pencil and rock it vertically at several points around the stone. Turn the tool face to horizontal and swing back and forth to smooth the bezel.

Punches

Pliers

Some people prefer gentle taps of a hammer to the force of a bezel pusher. Use a short, hardened punch with a flat, unpolished face. A variation on this method is a hammer handpiece. These mechanical tools use either air pressure or a flex shaft to make a punch move in and out at high speeds. Most devices allow control over the depth and speed of the stroke. This method is especially practical for professional setters.

Setting prongs with pliers increases leverage and control. For occasional use any jewelry pliers will work but serious setters will want to buy or modify pliers so one jaw extends further than the other. Cut a groove in the shorter jaw to help keep the prong straight as it is being pressed onto the stone. Parallel-jaw pliers are preferred for this, especially when setting stones over  mm in diameter.

The face of a bezel pusher should not be polished because this might make it slip. To provide a little grip, sand the face of the tool with mediumgrit paper. These tools will become worn with use and should be sanded periodically to restore their shape. On soft or delicate materials (shell, enamels, etc.) use a plastic pusher made from the handle section of a toothbrush.

Stones > Setting Tools

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Setting Tips Designing the Setting As you select a setting for a particular design, consider these factors.

> How dominant should the gem be in the whole design? > What are the special requirements of the stone? Is it brittle, soft, etc. > How can the stone be gripped for maximum security? > Which is the stone’s best side? Prongs

Typical Progression

Whether the mounting is simple or complex, a successful prong setting must follow these guidelines:

It is impossible to give a rigid formula for the steps of stonesetting, but here is a typical progression. . Complete all soldering. . Pickle and neutralize the piece by soaking it in a solution of baking soda and water. File, sand, and buff to the desired finish. Wash and dry it well. . Oxidize or patina, if desired. This includes bringing up the fine silver. . Lay the stone into position and check to be certain it is level and seated. Adjust the setting if necessary. Ideally the stone will snap into place. . Push the bezel or prongs over the stone. Work your way around the stone, taking several courses to achieve the setting. . Use a pumice wheel to smooth irregularities. Do not use sandpaper, even the finest grit. . Burnish the bezel or prongs to polish and toughen the metal. . Polish the bezel with a leather coated stick. For prongs, use a bristle brush with a small amount of compound.

> Prongs must reach over the stone’s girdle to hold it securely. > Prongs must be located so the stone cannot slip out in any direction. > The stone must be supported from beneath. > The prongs should not cover so much of the stone that the result is cumbersome. > Prongs must not snag on fabric.

Wax Stone Lifter Use a piece of beeswax of a convenient size (typically about the size of a grape) to handle gems as you test size and shape. Rub it between your palms to shape it into a blunt cone. If the wax is too sticky to easily release the stone, mix in some charcoal or graphite powder.

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Stones > Setting > Setting Tips

Finishing

Scratch Removal

There are only two ways to goof when finishing a setting—to quit too soon or to polish too long. Polished gems, almost by definition, are smooth, shiny, and geometrically regular. Since the bezel or prongs are next to this, anything less than precise finishing looks exaggeratedly wrong. Use files, pumice wheels, and burnishers (in that order) to shape and polish the metal around a stone. In the enthusiasm to remove all scratches it is possible to remove too much metal and weaken a setting. Remember, the primary purpose of a setting is to securely hold a gem. No one will pause to admire the shine on an empty setting when the stone has popped out.

For the scratches, use a pumice wheel with a light, sweeping motion. Do not focus on a scratch but feather in the whole area. For reshaping, use a small file with a fine cut (e.g. ). Avoid touching the stone. When the proper shape has been restored, switch to the pumice wheel. For a reflective surface, use a polishing compound like White Diamond or ZAM. For bezels use a leather-coated stick or a felt wheel. For prongs use a loose muslin or bristle brush. Thrum with polishing strings for hard-to-reach areas under and around the stone.

Basic Bezels Basic Box Bezel A bezel is a thin band of metal that surrounds a stone and is pressed over its edge to hold it in place. It is probably the oldest and most widely used setting in the world. . Wrap bezel wire or a similar strip of metal around the stone; mark, and cut. For small stones, bend the loop by eye and fit to the stone. For larger stones, bend the metal directly on the stone.

. File the ends to make a tight fit. Use as little solder as possible—solder alloys are stiff and difficult to push over a stone.

. Check the fit. If the bezel is too small, . File or sand to the correct height. stretch it on a tapered mandrel or by planishing with a steel hammer. If it is too loose, remove a piece of bezel and resolder.

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Bezel Height The taller the stone, the steeper the angle at its base. For this reason, tall stones require a higher bezel to securely hold the stone.

. File or sand a knife edge around the top of the bezel. Stop just before the rim disappears. If this is lost it’s easy to go too far.

. Rub the bezel on sandpaper to true and clean the bottom edge, then recheck the fit. After soldering to a flat sheet, pickle, and check the joint. It is important that the bezel is attached all the way around.

. Where applicable, trim away excess sheet, using a saw or scissors. To avoid bending with the scissors, cut on tangents.

. Solder the bezel into position on the workpiece.

Thin

Medium

Heavy

– B&S. Economical but more difficult to solder, especially when used on a shallow stone and kept low, this weight will almost disappear. Lends itself to cup settings.

– B&S. This is a good balance of ease and security; it provides enough metal to stand up to moderate finishing.

– B&S. Sometimes called a collar, this thick bezel is doing more than holding the stone. It provides visual weight, either accentuating the stone or calling attention to the metalwork, depending on the treatment. These will usually require hammer setting. Stones > Setting > Basic Bezels

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Fancy Bezels Step Bezel The advantages of this kind of bezel are: • It uses less material, saving cost, and reducing weight. • It can be faster to make than a box bezel, depending on the type used. • It allows light to show through the stone and reveals the back of the gem.

Styles Step bezel is available commercially in fine silver and K gold. Some distributors also sell a fancy style called gallery step bezel. You can also create the step bezel by soldering two strips together before bending the bezel around the stone. To avoid an excess of solder, file the angle shown. A variation on this is to use half-round or square wires to provide the ledge. An alternate method is to make a bezel that fits the stone, then make a second ring (bearing) that fits snugly inside the first. If a base is used on the bezel and the fit is tight, this ring does not need to be soldered in place. For faceted stones, file a bevel on the inner ring before soldering the two pieces together.

Gallery Gallery wire is a decorated strip of wire used as molding or as a bezel. It can be bought in many patterns. The decorations shown here are made by filing, stamping, drilling, and engraving. Some patterns can only be done when the strip of metal is flat (such as stamping) but most are easier after the bezel has been made. It’s also possible to prepare sheet by roll printing or etching. Decorate a panel, then cut it into strips for bezels.

You can also cut a bearing with flex shaft tools or gravers. Make the bezel of heavy stock such as  or  gauge. The corners of rectilinear stones will be subjected to a lot of pressure in setting. To reduce this, cut away the bearing under the corner (shaded) with a graver or flex shaft bur. Back to Back If both stones are a snug fit, slide the stones into an open ring and work both sides of the setting simultaneously. Press the assembly into a forming block or dapping die to curl two points at the same time. or, Solder a wire at the mid-depth of the setting to hold the stones. Set each stone in place using conventional techniques.

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Stones > Setting > Fancy Bezels

Multiples When constructing bezels that sit side by side, it is important not to solder the walls together. If the design allows, insert a wire between the bezels as a spacer. If this isn’t appropriate, fold over the touching sections with pliers. Curl the metal upward again after soldering is complete.

Fancy Bezels Raised Bezels For a Round or Oval Cabochon . Make a bezel that has most of the back open. You can do this by soldering the bezel to a sheet and then cutting out the interior space, or by soldering a ring of square or rectangular wire inside the bezel.

. Solder short lengths of wire or tubing onto the underside of the bezel at regular intervals.

One repays a teacher badly if one always remains a pupil.

. Make a small conical section whose larger diameter is the same as that of the bezel, either by bending an arc or by soldering a loop closed and forming it in a dapping block.

. Rub the spacers on sandpaper to make sure each one has a flat face. Solder the cone onto the spacers, then cut and file them flush with the bezel. For a ring, cut the cone to accommodate the curve of a finger.

Cut Down Setting . Make a collet (tube) with an inside diameter smaller than the stone. A thick wall is important.

. Use a setting bur or graver to cut a seat for the stone.

. Mark a line around the base and file a bevel to this line.

. Mark out prongs and cut the edges lightly with a fine sawblade

Friedrich Nietzche

. File away material between the prongs. Solder the setting to the piece; finish. Set the stone as usual.

Stones > Setting > Fancy Bezels

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Tube Setting & Thick Bezels Tube Setting Bezels for round stones under about  mm in diameter can often be made most efficiently from tubing. The process will vary slightly depending on the stone, the materials available, and the design of the piece being made. Here are several tips that can be used in any combination that meets your needs. If the tubing has a thick wall, cut a bearing with a setting bur or a thin graver. In a pinch you can use a standard drill bit of the proper size. If the tube wall is too thin for this, draw down a piece of the tube so it slides into the first piece to make a bearing. To set stones in a production situation, buy or make a rod with a hemispherical depression on its end. Mount this in a flex shaft, lubricate with light oil, and press it over the tube while rotating at a slow to medium speed. When tube-setting diamonds, it’s possible to set the stones into tubes then solder the setting into position. In this case, mount the tube in a flex shaft, and hold a bur against it to make the bearing. Press the diamond into the seat and rotate the tube against a burnisher or round-nose pliers to press the rim over the stone. Hold a sawblade against the rotating tube to cut it off, but be careful that the setting doesn’t pop off and get lost.

Tooled Edge

Collar Settings

This setting is similar to the collar bezel but uses chisel-shaped punches to create a pattern on the top edge of the bezel. Start with a bezel made of thick metal, keeping it a little bigger than usual so the stone makes a loose fit. Grip the work securely as described above and push the bezel over the stone. When the stone is securely held and the bezel is pressed uniformly onto the stone, hold the tool vertically and move it around the bezel with many light taps, creating the pattern. The punch should have a rounded corner so it doesn’t chip the stone.

Construct a bezel as you would for a box bezel, but use a thicker wall, for instance,  gauge for a stone under  mm and  gauge for a larger one. Push the bezel wall over the stone with a planishing punch. Use a chasing hammer with repeated light taps.

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• The object must be firmly anchored. Use a pitch pot, engraver’s ball, shellac, or sealing wax on a board, or grip the work in a vise. Support rings on a wooden wedge or in a ring clamp. • Lock the stone in place with four sharp blows evenly spaced around the bezel. In successive courses around the stone, raise the angle of the tool until it is vertical. • Use a planishing punch around the bezel to smooth away hammer marks. Define the shape with a file or a pumice wheel–no sandpaper! Buff the collar either by machine or with a polishing stick. The profile can be rounded or have crisp angles. Up to this point, the process is the same.

Stones > Setting > Tube & Thick Bezel Settings

Gypsy Settings Gypsy Setting The gypsy setting, also called a rubbed setting has a lot in common with a bezel because a continuous rim of metal is pressed onto the stone to secure it in place. Unlike a bezel, this setting uses metal from the body of a piece. It is probably more common in cast than fabricated work, and certainly easier in soft metals like high karat gold than in other, less malleable metals, but these are observations, not rules.

Process (as shown for a ring) . Make a ring shank large enough to accommodate the stone’s diameter and if faceted, its height. . Drill a hole about half the size of the stone’s diameter. . Enlarge the setting with a bur or graver to hold the stone. When correct, the stone’s girdle should be just below the surface. For a cabochon the hole should have a flat, level floor. Use a graver or cylinder bur to carve it out. . File away a small bit of metal just around the setting. This will create a tiny rim that will be pushed over the stone. . With the stone in place, set four “corners” with a bezel pusher or a chasing hammer and a small planishing tool. Check to see that the stone is level and that there is a consistent rim to cover the stone. If so, continue with the setting and follow with a burnisher, pulling the metal up onto the stone. It is important to secure the work well, especially if you choose to use hammered punches to push the metal onto the stone.

My play was a complete success. The audience was a failure.

Ashleigh Brilliant

Flat Objects Depending on the shape of the object, it’s sometimes necessary to create a bulge of metal that can then be pulled over the stone. Roll a burnisher or dapping punch concentrically around the setting to press down a groove. As this forms, increase pressure, pushing the metal onto the stone. Be patient — this could take a while. Stones > Setting > Gypsy Settings

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Bezels: Problem Solving Item The stone rocks back and forth in the bezel. Cause Irregular edge; back of stone isn’t flat; bezel is not fully pressed down. Solution If possible, remove the stone, and shave away bits of metal with a graver or bur until the stone seats properly. If you can’t get the stone out, hammer-set the bezel, starting at its highest point. Hold the tool nearly vertical. Issue The bezel is puckered. Cause Bezel was too high. Solution Cut down the bezel or remove the stone and insert a riser of sheet metal or wire. If neither of these is possible, file the bezel to thin it and press down again, perhaps with a hammer and punch. Issue The bezel is worn away in one area making a scalloped edge. Cause Bezel was too thin, either from melting or overpolishing. Solution Use a graver or X-Acto to shave away tiny bits of bezel to camouflage the dip. Issue A scratch on the stone. Cause Someone (no doubt when you had stepped out for a minute) slipped with the bezel pusher and left a skid mark. Solution Polish out the scratch with a leather buff. Glue leather onto a stick, dampen it with water and rub in tin oxide or zinc oxide (Potters use these for glazes). Issue The stone somehow got larger. The bezel used to fit, but now that the bezel is soldered down, the stone won’t go in. Cause Sometimes we make a bezel fit by forcing it onto a stone. This tilts the walls inward and means the top of the bezel is smaller than the base. Because the stone has to go in through the top, this is a problem. Solution With a bezel pusher or something similar, gently coax the bezel outward. It helps to use a little oil or spit to lubricate the motion and, in extreme cases, you can anneal after a first pass and repeat.

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Stones > Setting > Problem Solving

lump of solder

Turtle & Basket Settings Basket Settings . Bend two V-shapes of wire and prop them up on the soldering block. Solder the points where they contact each other. To make a six-prong head, use three V-shapes. . Make a ring to hold the prongs together. This can go on the inside (subtle) or outside (decorative). In either case, start by soldering the ring closed so it can be made round and stretched to the right size. The inside ring is smaller than the stone’s diameter; the outside ring is made to fit around the stone (as if it were a bezel). When the size is right, solder this in place, making sure it sits level. . Attach the head to the workpiece, then pickle and polish. Cut a bearing, trim the prongs to the correct height, and set the stone as usual.

Variations For irregular stones, emphasize the asymmetry with prongs of different sizes and uneven spacing. Ornament the prongs with piercing, filework, or overlay. Decorate the back plate by piercing, roll printing, stamping, or overlay. On thick metal, score the bend, bring the prong perpendicular, then reinforce the scored area with solder. Use a single piece to set two stones back to back. Cut the base larger than the stone to create ornament around the gem.

Turtle Settings This basic and versatile setting offers huge possibilities. In its simplest form it is nothing more than a tracing of the stone with four tabs (legs) added to become prongs. This shape is sawn out of sheet metal (add a head for a pendant loop) and bent to clutch the stone. The first two examples are sawn from sheet, the second is made of wire, while the third example uses both. The shaded areas indicate the size of the stone they are built to hold. Often the tips of the prongs are planished or filed to make them more graceful.

Stones > Setting > Turtle & Basket Settings

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Collet & Crown Settings Crown Setting The basic unit of this setting is a cone. These can be fabricated by bending sheet, or with a bezel block, a steel tool that is a heavy plate with a series of conical holes and corresponding tapered punches. Select a tube whose diameter equals that at about mid-height of the desired cone and be sure it is annealed. Set it into the die and strike the punch with a hammer. . Fabricate a cone that will enclose the stone (see Appendix). . After truing the cone on a mandrel, mark out prongs, first from a top view and then on the sides. Locate the prongs so most of the soldered joint will be cut away. Use dividers to mark a line parallel to the base. . With a saw, cut away the area between the prongs. To hold for sawing, mount the cone on a dowel with sealing wax or shellac, or hold it in pliers that have been specially shaped for this. Use a round file or a bud-shaped bur to make the prongs neat and even. . Invert the head and repeat the last step, this time cutting away the area between the prongs. This is not necessary for small stones. . If you’ve cut out areas from the bottom, make a ring to become the base of the setting. Either use square wire or flatten a ring made from round wire so it will make positive contact with the base of the crown. In large settings, saw off the lower section of the cone, and put it carefully aside. After cutting decorative sections below the prongs, solder the lower section back into place. . Attach the crown to the workpiece, then pickle and file as necessary to perfect the shape. Trim prongs to the correct height, file to shape, and notch the prongs with a file or bur. Setting proceeds as usual.

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Voltaire

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Collet . Lay out an arc as described in the Appendix. For small stones accuracy by eye is often sufficient. . Bend the arc into a cone and close it with Hard solder. . True up the cone on a small mandrel (often a scribe or centerpunch). Set the cone across open vise jaws to stretch it. . File a flat surface on the outside of the cone for each prong. Keep the spacing even. . Cut tapered prongs from - gauge sheet. . Solder the prongs in place on the collet. Poke the prong strips into the soldering block to hold them into position. . Pickle, rinse, and check the fit. The stone should not rest on the collet. If it does, the collet is too big or the angle of the cone is too steep. . Solder the collet to the piece, polish, and cut bearings in each prong.

Stones > Setting > Collet & Crown Settings

Pedestal-Prong Setting Pedestal-Prong This setting can be made with , , , or  prongs and can be used with cabs or faceted stones. It is one of the few settings that looks good with asymmetrical or different-sized prongs. In other words, it’s really versatile.

Pedestal Size To check this, set the stone on the the pedestal, then sight straight down from directly above. No metal should be visible peeking out from under the stone. It is also important that the pedestal not be smaller than the stone. When you move your head a few inches in any direction, the metal should show up.

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. Make a ring of – B&S sheet. The outside diameter should equal the diameter of the stone.

. For a faceted stone, file a bevel around the inside edge of this ring. For round stones, you can use a setting bur; for others use a cylinder bur or a needle file.

. Cut oversize lengths of square or half-round wire for prongs. File a point on each one.

. Push the prong wires into a charcoal block or soldering pad around the pedestal and solder them into position. An alternate approach is to first melt a bit of solder onto each wire, then manually hold each wire into position as the setting is heated.

. Pickle, rinse and check the prongs for symmetry and strength. Make corrections as needed, then trim off the extra material. File the bottom edge and adjust the prong height to make the setting uniform.

. Attach to the body of the piece, shape the prongs, and set the stone with either a pusher or pliers.

Variations

Back to Back

One of the best things about this setting is its versatility. Use it for symetrical and irregular stone, for delicate and large prongs, and for any size gem.

In the construction method described above, a natural byproduct is a setting with prongs on both sides. Use this to set matching stones back to back, or cut the setting in half to make two matching parts.

Stones > Setting > Pedestal-Prong Settings

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Rectangular Frames Making a Square or Rectangular Frame Many settings require a frame that is a perfect fit for the stone. Lack of precision at this early stage will almost always make subsequent steps difficult or impossible. The following method is a standard approach, whether making a tiny setting or a large container. It seems long in the telling, but after a few tries, you’ll see the logic of the steps. . Cut off a piece of flattened wire or strip, a little longer than two adjacent sides. File a notch with a square file and bend the strip into an L shape. After checking with a square to be sure the corner is exactly °, solder the corner. Make two of these shapes. . Measure and cut the small side so its length will equal the desired interior dimension of the box. Repeat this with the other unit, then hold them side by side to be certain they are equal. . Slide the two L-shaped pieces together and mark the place at which they make a frame that is exactly the desired length. Place the solder outside the joint . After soldering, cut away the excess metal and file the sides smooth.

Stress Reduction The corners of rectangular gems are especially fragile. To avoid putting stress on them, cut away the highlighted portion of the bearing with a graver or bur.

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A Versatile Base . Follow the directions above to make two identical frames. . File away the corners of one of them, handling the piece gently as it becomes more fragile. . When each corner shows a V, use a small file or a piece of folded sandpaper to bevel the interior faces of each corner. Tilt each side inward until the corners touch. Solder these joints. . Rub the resulting pyramid shape to clean and refine its larger edge, then solder it onto the other box. There are several uses for this box:

Attach wire to use the box as bezel.

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Stones > Setting > Rectangular Frames

Solder prongs in corners for a rectangular stone.

File off corners, one at a time, and replace with sheet.

Rectangular Settings For a Square or Rectangular Stone . Make a rectangular frame of heavy square wire. The outside of the frame should equal the dimensions of the stone.

. File bevels on the inside edges of this frame.

. Make another frame, a little smaller than the first. It is not necessary to file the inside edges.

. Cut a spacer block from sheet or wire. The size of this will be determined by the depth of the stone. Saw a groove in each spacer and solder it in place. Use two or four spacers.

. Keeping careful alignment, solder the two frames together.

. The setting can be used as a bezel in this form. Clean up, attach to the body of the piece, and press the rim over, starting with the corners.

Adding Prongs . Cut strips from  gauge sheet, score a groove down the center, bend, and file the edges smooth.

. Solder the prongs into position, then solder the head to the workpiece. When setting, press the corners down first.

Box Setting . Use a sheet thicker than the height of the stone. Mark the center and drill a small hole. . Cut a bearing with a graver or bur so the girdle of the stone is below the surface of the sheet. . Carve four grooves with a round graver. The little triangles this forms will become prongs. . Cut away the metal around the hole with a flat graver. . Put the stone into place and use a blunt graver to pry the corner pieces onto the stone. Shape each prong with a cup bur or beading tool, or both. Stones > Setting > Rectangular Settings

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Channel Settings Channel Setting Rectangular Stones In this family of settings, a stone (or stones) is laid into a trench and held as the rim is pressed over. This setting requires very careful measuring and fitting. Depending on the location of the mounting and the toughness of the stone, it is sometimes possible to simply cut a pair of parallel grooves and slide the stone into place. Of course it is important that the metal is rigid, that the grooves are uniform and level, and that the pressure on the stone is sufficient to grip the stone without crushing it. The grooves can be cut with gravers, a Hart bur, or a needle file. Use close magnification to ensure that the angles of the cuts perfectly match the angles of the stone. After the stone is slid into position, press up a small tab of metal at either end of the setting to keep the stone from slipping out. Burnishing a Groove As described in the gypsy setting, it is sometimes helpful to create a small rounded groove beside the stone. This provides access for a tool to gather material to be pushed onto the gem.



Stones > Setting > Channel Settings

Channel Setting Round Stones . To prevent round stones from pivoting on their culets during setting, each stone should have its own bearing. Lay out the stones by gluing them into position on a thin film of wax. Mark the lines between each stone.

. Locate the center of each segment with a crosshair and drill a small hole here. In a ring, these should all be perpendicular to the surface.

. Enlarge the holes with a bud bur, then cut a seat with a setting bur. The stone should rest on the surface of the metal.

. Using gravers and burs, cut a channel to a depth a little greater than the height of the crown. The walls of this cut should be vertical and the groove should be smooth and polished.

. Angle a Hart bur into each hole to undercut a notch for each stone. The slowly rotating bur will undercut a crescent-shaped groove into one wall, then swing down to cut into the opposite wall. Repeat this for each hole.

. Tilt the stone into position and use pliers to press the wall of the channel onto the stones. Use small flat punches to press the metal flat onto the stones.

Pavé Settings Pavé In pavé, stones are set so close together that little metal can be seen. The object is “paved” with stones.

Pushing Tools Though a single graver will do the job, having three gravers with different angles is better. Buy three identical gravers—a # round graver is a good choice—and grind face angles at º, º and º. The first tool is used to cut into the metal, the middle tool levers the metal onto the stone, and the last acts like a bezel pusher to seat the prong securely against the stone. Because all three tools have the same belly shape, each will drop neatly into position when its turn comes.

. It is important to start with metal that is thick enough to provide a bearing from below as well as prongs from above. Well-cut stones with a thin, consistent girdle are preferred for this technique.

. Locating stones accurately is critical. Set them into plasticene modeling clay or sticky wax and take measurements from center to center of each stone with dividers. Transfer these measurements to the metal. Drill holes half the diameter of the stones.

. With a tapered bur, enlarge each hole to be just as large as the stone. At this point the stone should not fit into the hole but should rest with its girdle just flush with the surface of the metal.

. Use a graver or bur to cut a bearing for each stone. Now the stone should drop into the hole so that its girdle is just below the surface.

. Set the stones in place, using a thick . Use a twisting and rolling motion with a polished beading tool to seat, film of beeswax to hold them if they shape and burnish each prong. don’t snap tightly into place. Use a round graver to pull up a bit of metal that will become a prong.

Stones > Setting > Pavé Settings



Specialty Settings Star Setting This is an unusual and relatively easy way to set a cab. It is equally effective for all shapes and works well for either large or small stones. . Trace the stone on sheet metal . Solder a piece of sheet on the and pierce out the footprint of the underside of the hole to make a floor. stone. The fit must be snug, so cut This can cover the whole back, mimic inside the line and file to size. the shape of the stone, or be pierced, either in a pattern or to reveal most of the stone. Finish the piece in preparation for setting the stone.

Backing Sheets The back can be solid, but what fun is that? Cut away most of the opening to reveal the back of the stone, or pierce a pattern into the backing sheet.

. Press the stone into place and draw a guideline in pencil about – mm from the edge, depending on the size and height of the stone.

. With a round graver, pull up fingers of metal (stitches) to hold the stone in place. Set the tip of the graver on the pencil line and push in a straight line toward the stone, stopping about a millimeter from the edge.

. Use a liner, a small screwdriver, or other convenient tool to press the stitches against the stone.

Overlay Setting . Trace a stone onto relatively thick sheet metal, for instance,  or  gauge. Mark a line about a millimeter inside this. Drill a hole, insert a sawblade, and cut accurately to this line. . File the sheet to match the slope of a stone. The fit must be perfect, so you’ll want to check it often as you work. Continue until the sheet drops neatly into place when set over the stone. . Mark and drill holes in the top sheet, and saw it to its final shape. . Locate this layer on the piece and drill one hole into the base. Make the first rivet. . Drill a second hole, rivet, and so on, until the layers are attached. If necessary, burnish the edge adjacent to the stone to make a tight fit.



Stones > Setting > Specialty Settings

Setting from Behind Setting from Behind There are times when, for technical or aesthetic reasons, a stone is best set from the back. A standard bezel may be used — just build it from the back. Another possibility is this frame-and-stitch method.

The principal mark of genius is not perfection but originality.

Arthur Koestler

. Make a bezel to surround the stone, slightly higher than usual. Solder onto a base sheet, then cut away most of the sheet. This is where the stone will show.

. Make a collar to fit inside the bezel. Square or rectangular wire is preferred for this. A snug fit is important.

. When the piece is polished and cleaned, set the stone into place and push the collar in against it from the back.

. Cut small curls of metal (called stitches) with a round graver to lock the collar in place. You can also hold the collar with screws or rivets.

Foil This process uses gold or silver leaf to pack a stone into a prepared recess. While not recommended for high stress settings, there are jewels of the Indian Moguls that were made hundreds of years ago and still look great today. . Carve a hole for the stone, then undercut the edges slightly.

. Set the stone in place and lay a small roll of foil around it. Pack this down into the recess with any convenient tool.

. Continue adding and packing until the stone is secure. Be patient—this takes a while.

Stones > Setting > Setting from Behind



Attaching Pearls & Beads Pearls Pearls are usually set by cementing them onto a post. To make a positive grip, texture, or twist the post. Use epoxy or pearl cement—not Super Glue or any of the other cyanoacrylates.



Pearl Holding Jig

Prongs

To secure pearls for drilling, grind rounded depressions into the tips of two popsicle sticks or tongue depressors and join them with a rubber band. Pinch the parts together to grab onto the pearl enough to hold it without a risk of marring the surface. Drill as slowly as possible.

Don’t put pearls or soft stones in prongs without also cementing them; rotation will cause scratches. Instead, mount pearls on posts. If half-drilled, the gem must be glued onto the post. If drilled through, use a head pin to mechanically hold the pearl.

Drilling

Beads

Pearls can be drilled with conventional bits. Go slowly to allow the pearl to cool. When drilling through, put masking tape on the bottom to protect the nacre from chipping.

Because glue does not adhere well to stones, it is better to set them mechanically. Many methods may be devised, from tying to the use of tiny screws and nuts.

Stones > Setting > Attaching Pearls & Beads

Wire Wrapping The Original Cold Connection One of the first manual skills we learned was how to tie our shoes—at least before the invention of Velcro. If we’d been using wire instead of laces, we could all call ourselves tinkers. Bending a wire around on itself to make a structure is both an ancient craft and a modern hobby. The definitions are loose, but since the techniques are often used to hold stones, crystals and organic charms, we’ll include it here. For projects and more details, see any of the several books dedicated to wire wrapping.

Ornamenting Wires

Practice

Plain round wires are usually used for practice, and sometimes in final work, but variations enlarge the range and provide contrast.

Use round copper or brass wire to sketch a piece. Make a note of all the dimensions and the sequence of steps. Repeat until you can make the piece with efficiency and confidence. Wire is simple, but unforgiving. It’s better to avoid incorrect bends and unnecessary pliers bites, and practice is the best way to do that.

Square

Square, twisted.

 wires twisted together

Wire wrapped with another wire

Constructing the Skeleton A frequently used approach is to create a central spine of several wires that can be opened out to create prongs, curlicues, and spirals. Use this description of a setting for a cabochon to develop your own ideas. . Bend a barbell shape at least 1⁄2˝ taller than the chosen cabochon. Note location of the ends.

. Wrap another length of wire snugly around the spine, form a loop slightly wider than the stone, then wrap the wire around the axis again.

. Wrap a wire around the vertical axis; this will become the two prongs at the top.

. Complete another identical loop, trim to length, and secure the end by bending it around the axis. Polish, add a jump ring at the top and set the stone by folding up the loops. Stones > Setting > Wire Wrapping



Stringing String Whatever string you use, be certain that it fills the bead hole or the resulting strand will be sloppy and insecure. Ordinary sewing thread can be used, but it is generally too thin for most beads. Likewise dental floss can be used, but because it is flattened it isn’t the best choice. Beading cord is produced in nylon threads in about a dozen sizes and many colors. These are often sold on small cards in short lengths that have a needle permanently affixed to one end. The traditional choice (and still probably the best) is silk cord. It resists stretching and is sold in many bright colors and a wide range of sizes. The thinnest cord is called #; sizes move up the alphabet through A, B, and C as they get bigger. From F the series goes to FF and then FFF, which is the thickest silk available.

Stringing Equipment • Use tweezers to hold beads as you work. Protect against scratching soft stones and glass with a couple of layers of nail polish on the tips. • A needle tool is handy for guiding the location of knots and poking old bits of string out of bead holes. A biology needle works well, or a sewing needle can be taped to a pencil. Soften the point by sanding it. • To hold the beads, use a piece of flannel taped to a board or a piece of stiff paper folded into ridges. If you’re doing a lot of stringing, buy a plastic bead tray. Ending with a French Wire This process is a little more involved but yields a more finished look. A French wire is a coil of extremely fine wire (usually brass) that can be purchased from a beading supplier. Slide about a half inch onto a threaded needle and move it  or  inches onto the cord. Slide on the first bead and tie a knot. Repeat this for several beads, then tie off the short thread, and cut it. Dab on a little glue and continue threading on a single strand. At the other end, leave the last three beads unknotted, slide the French wire into position and thread the cord back through the first bead where you will tie a knot. Proceed through the second and third beads, tying as you go. Apply glue to the last couple of knots of the strand.



Stones > Stringing

Bead Tips After stringing, the cord is generally tied off and attached to a hook of some sort. These findings can be bought ready-made or fabricated at the bench. A typical ending is a small device called a bead tip that consists of a small cup with an attached finger. The knot of the cord is settled into the cup and the tip is bent over to hide it as it clutches the finding. An alternate method uses a simple piece of tubing to crimp onto the cord. This can be done with round-nose pliers or dull snips. In either case, lay a dab of glue or nail polish on the knot.

Chapter 

Chains & Clasps

Chainmaking Basics Making Jump Rings Wrap a wire around a rod of the chosen size keeping each coil tight to the one before it. Some handy mandrels are nails, dowels, wire, and knitting needles. Slide the coil off and cut it with a jeweler’s saw or separating disk.

Assembly Sequence



Chains > Chainmaking Basics

. Make as many rings as you think will be needed. Solder half the rings closed.

. Thread a pair of closed rings onto an open ring. Close it and solder the joint. Pick soldering is the most efficient method.

. Connect two of the three-piece units with a new ring and solder it.

. Continue joining units of , , , etc. until the chain is the desired length. Pickle only after the assembly is complete.

Polishing Chains

Cutting with a Separating Disk

Never polish chains on the buffing wheel! (Unless you have an oversupply of fingers...) Instead, pull the chain taut, and rub it with steel wool, Scotch-Brite, a scratchbrush, or a polishing cloth. Use wire or string at each end to allow access to the full length of the chain.

To cut rings made of thin wire with a separating disk, wrap tape over the coil then cut through tape and wire at the same time. The tape holds the wires steady for the cutting disk.

Making Square Links

Should this ring be soldered?

Wire wrapped around a square or rectangular mandrel is difficult to slide off. To provide clearance, cover the form with masking tape, then coil the wire around the rod. Burn the tape away and the wire will slide off.

Where possible, the answer is probably yes. Unsoldered jump rings can look messy and weaken a chain. If you do not want to solder, the proper question is this: What ratio of wireto-ring diameter do I need in order to provide sufficient strength? When you won’t be soldering them, make jump rings from work-hardened wire.

Unsoldered Chains Egyptian Spiral

This is how I try to define design, as having to do with how things fit — how things fit the hand, how furniture fits the body, how people fit in buildings, and how buildings fit the landscape. Design, most of the time,

. Measure and cut a few sizes and bend each one to shape, then choose the one that fits your needs.

. Now, assuming you remember how long that piece was (oops, maybe I should have written that down), cut off pieces of wire, and file the ends to a taper. Bend each piece to make a hairpin shape.

. Make a coil on each end using a combination of fingers and pliers to roll the spirals tight.

. Bend the top of the loop over to prepare this link to accept the next one. Assemble the chain by sliding each successive link through the loop of the preceding link.

Figure  Chain After winding a coil around a rod, pull down four rings, and cut. Open the rings in the middle as you would open a book. Curl out each end and form a small loop at each tip. Repeat. Hook these links together, each one holding the link ahead and behind.

is about finding this sense of fit between people, places, and things.

Akiko Busch

Coil Link Chain Start by deciding the number of rings you want in each link (here, five). Wrap wire to make a coil and pull down the chosen number of rings, cut and repeat. Use pliers to pull out and open the end links. Connect the links, then make the links symmetrical by carefully making minor adjustments to each one.

Chains > Unsoldered Chains



Idiot’s Delight Chains Idiot’s Delight Some people think this chain got its name because it’s so easy that even an idiot can make it. Others maintain that the name refers to the mental degeneration caused by trying to figure it out. Links are usually left unsoldered and so they should be work-hardened by drawing the wire down or twisting it before coiling.

. Make a batch of rings; open half and close the other half. Always open by twisting sideways.

. Feed a second open ring through the same four and close it. Shading indicates two rings, side by side.

E

E

A

. Feed an open ring through four closed rings, then close it.

E C,D

B

The proportion of wire size to loop size is important for a compact chain. Larger loop proportions are easier to assemble, but the pattern they create is less dramatic.

C,D

F F

F

. Flop two rings back and put a wire or paper clip through them to serve as a handle.

. Flop E and F to the left and right. Flop C and D forward and backward to expose the lower section of E and F. Slide a needle through here as a place holder.

G

Wire Size

Inside Diameter

Links/ inch



⁄"

. mm





⁄"

.





1⁄8"

.





⁄"

.



. Slip two closed rings (G and H) on an open ring (I) and feed (I) into the space held by the needle. Let the needle drop out and close the ring. Add a second link (J) beside I and close it.

G

G,H I,J

H H

. Let the chain droop to allow each link to fall into place. When you lay it out the pattern should emerge.

. Continue as before, . Fold G and H out to adding an open ring that expose the lower portion already has two closed of I and J. Slide the rings on it… and so on. needle through here. This is a repeat of #.

Sequential Link I G, H

Follow – above. At this point add two more rings through G and H and close them. These are marked K and L.



Chains >Idiot’s Delight Chains

Repeat the flopping operation: K & L to either side, G and H laid apart to expose the bottom section of K and L. Insert a needle tool here to mark the spot.

As above, add an open ring that has two closed rings on it. Double this joint by adding a second ring in the same place. Now add two more (like K and L) and continue.

Woven Chains Woven Chain

Access Video Library on CD Tips > Grab the end of the wire with pliers to pull each new loop snug on the scribe. > Try to keep the loops uniform in size. > Use wires of various metals for color effects. > You can make this chain with three, four, five, or more loops. In Step # make the number of loops equal to the size chain you want to make. More loops make the chain larger, more intricate in appearance, and hollow. > To create a tapering chain, add a loop periodically by simply creating one as you weave. To reduce the diameter, fold a loop into the chain, and skip over it. This chain will not be able to go through a drawplate, but it can be shaped by rolling it on a table.

. Start with a piece of wire about two feet long. This chain works in any size, but – B&S is typical. Bend an EKG-sort of squiggle so the height of each bump is no more than 3⁄4" ( mm). The number of humps (in this example, ) will determine the size of the chain. Any number between  and  is possible.

. Gather in the loops and wrap them with the short end as if you were tying a bundle. Using pliers, pull the loops into a symmetrical arrangement. This looks a bit like a flower (Okay, a scrawny, ugly flower.)

. Feed the long end through a loop (any loop), going from inside the bunch outward.

. Slide the end back into the loop it just came out of and out through the adjacent loop. Put a scribe in the new loop and pull it tight. Note that if it were not for the scribe, the loop would be pulled through and would disappear. That’s how you can tell you’ve got it right.

. Repeat this process, folding new loops upward (along the chain’s axis) as you go. Pull each loop tight on the scribe.. You can proceed clockwise or counterclockwise, but once you’ve chosen a direction, stick with it.

. Continue until there is only about an inch of wire left. The first step in adding more wire is to make a half stitch. That is, feed the wire back into the loop it is coming out of, but do not send it out the neighboring loop. Feed the end of a -foot length of wire into the loop that would have received the next stitch. Twist the old and new ends together and snip off excess wire. Resume weaving, keeping the twist inside the chain.

. To compress and elongate the weave, anneal the chain and pull it gently through a drawplate.

. To make the chain flexible, anneal the drawn chain, and wrap it around a dowel held in a vise. Pull back and forth vigorously. Anneal and repeat until the chain is pliable. Chains > Woven Chains



Chain Mail Chain Mail Our word “mail” comes from the Middle English maille, which in turn comes from the Latin macula meaning “mesh, net.” We usually associate mail with protective garments worn by chivalrous knights, but strips of the same construction can be worn as chains. Mail appears to have been used by several cultures, and in particular is associated with the Celts of the th century,  who probably passed it along to the Romans. There are hundreds of patterns, with more being invented still. Interested readers will find a wealth of resources on the Web, such as www.chainmailconnection.com. Thanks to all those artists whose sites have helped in this summary.

Four-to-One (each ring connects to four others)

Horizontal Method Some people prefer to assemble the mesh horizontally. Start by making a long series of double rings joined by single ones. Lay out several strands and hook them together with open rings.



Chains > Chain Mail

. Start by making a considerable quantity of jump rings. Workharden the wire before making the rings.

. Close three-fourths of the rings neatly and set them aside. Take four closed rings onto one open ring. Close it neatly and set it aside. Make several of these fivering units.

. Lay out the rings symmetrically like this:

. Feed an open ring (colored) to connect the two units.

. Continue in this way, coupling fivering units together to make a chain.

. To double the width, make two bands as described above, and lay them neatly side by side on a flat surface. Feed in open rings (colored) to join the strands. Continue in this way to make wider pieces. This flat strap can be rolled into a tube, where another open ring is used to close the seam.

Chain Mail Six-to-One This denser mail follows a pattern similar to the Four-to-One, but in this style each ring connects with six others. This is only one of the several ways to assemble this chain. . Start with seven closed rings, linked into three pairs and one single, on the end.

A

B

E

F

C

D

. Fold the top links down and the third set (E,F) side-to-side.

A C

B D

E

. Lay the structure open like this, then slide a three-ring unit onto the center link.

F

. Make several strands in this manner, then attach them side by side by adding a vertical row of single rings, one above the other.

Wire-to-Ring Size As a general rule, a proportion of about  to  seems to give a workable mail. This means a  mm wire should be wrapped around a  mm rod. Making Rings

Start by coiling a tight spring of wire, then pull it evenly from both ends to create even spaces between each wrap. This will leave the rings open after cutting.

Add these three

Italian Pattern This is just one of the hundreds of alternate patterns of mail. Historically most mail was made of steel, but it is possible to use metals of contrasting color, which enlarges the pattern options even further.

Store-Bought Rings If the thrill has gone out of making a couple thousand rings, you can find them commercially available, for instance at: Chainmaille Fashions  Norris Drive Austin, TX  -- www.chainmail.com

Thanks to John J. Palmer whose drawings provided a template for these illustrations. Used with permision. Chains > Chain Mail



Cable Chains Cable This is the chain we probably think of when we think of chains—it’s the chain we made as kids by interlocking and gluing strips of construction paper. Variations on this chain alone would make a book. Here are a few to get started. > The proportion of wire to loop will make huge differences. > Loops can be of different sizes, either in a sequence or distributed randomly. > Loops can be of contrasting metals. > Loops can be doubled up; the whole chain, alternating links, or randomly.

Elongated

Hammering

Round loops are the easiest to make, to open, and to close. Whenever possible, make round links. After assembling a chain with soldered links, catch a link on the tip of roundnose pliers, and pull the handles to stretch the loop. These can also be twisted after stretching by using two pairs of pliers.

  . Count out half of the jump rings and solder them closed with hard solder. Pickle, rinse, and dry, then planish on an anvil. Set these aside. . Spread the remaining rings on an anvil and planish each ring to the desired shape. Be careful to strike the ring evenly all around so the ends remain close together. . Use the method described earlier to assemble the chain, joining two soldered rings with each open ring. Continue until all the rings are used. . Replanish as needed to camouflage the solder joints.   . Make a standard cable chain of round wire as described earlier. Pickle, rinse, and dry the chain. . Working over an edge of an anvil, planish each loop in succession. You will need to strike a few blows then turn the loop to expose a new section.

Prepared Wires Cable chains can be made with wires that are other than round. These can sometimes be bought, but all can be made. In most cases the irregularity of benchmade material will be apparent. Just as a handmade chain looks different from a chain made by a machine, wires made commercially look different from stock you make yourself. Banded

Solder or fuse two or three wires side by side, then use these to make the loops. Work in lengths of about " for convenience. Ornamented Start with square or half-round wire and planish it to create a facet. Decorate this by stamping, light filing, engraving, or roll printing. Anneal the wire before making loops. Composite Solder two or three wires of different character together. These could contrast in shape, size, or color, for instance by trapping a gold wire between silver wires. Sheet Use strips cut from sheet to make the loops. These can be uniform or irregular, plain or ornamented.



Chains > Cable Chains

Curb Chains Curb This style of chain has become familiar in its commercially made versions, so we might forget what an impressive and satisfying chain it is to make. If you file and polish a large facet on each link, a curb chain offers a lot of sparkle. Remember to start with heavy gauge wire so the filing step doesn’t weaken the chain. Why is it called curb chain? Curb: to restrain; a strap or chain in horse harnesses used to restrain the animal.

. Start by making a conventional (basic) chain with round loops, all well soldered. It’s possible to make this chain with almost any loop/wire ratio but it usually looks best with a tight chain. . Examine the chain to see that each link is well soldered and symmetrical. File off any lumps of solder. Irregularities at this stage will be exaggerated in the next step. . Grip the end links in a bench vise and twist the chain while maintaining a firm backward pressure on it. Remove, anneal, and return to the vise, reversing the ends. (The end that turns seems to twist more and this will even it out.) Remove the chain and let it hang naturally. This should reveal a symmetrical twist. For heavy links, twist one link at a time. . Drip a little shellac on the edge of a board whose thickness matches the width of the chain. Lay the chain into the gooey shellac and be certain it is straight. Allow the shellac to harden. . File the exposed surface of the chain, then switch to sanding sticks, progressing from coarse to a polishing paper such as . Buff with a leather stick or felt buff on a flex shaft. . Warm the shellac, lift the chain out, and turn it over. Position carefully, then allow the shellac to harden. File, sand, and polish as before. Warm the shellac enough to pull the chain free, then dissolve the remaining shellac in alcohol. Rinse and polish with a rouge cloth. Figaro > This style alternates clusters of two, three, four, or five links with an elongated link.

Chains > Curb Chains



Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains The Loop-in-Loop Family Chains in this family share a common building block—links that are soldered or fused closed before assembly. In most cases the links are made round and shaped into long ovals before they are slid one into the next. Thanks to Jean Stark, whose excellent book, Classical Loop-in-Loop Chains and Their Derivatives provided a lot of this information, used with permission.

Terminology The wealth of variations within the loop-in-loop family makes it easy to get confused when we start talking about these chains. Here are a few guidelines: Single =  loop through  loop. Double =  loop through  loops. One way = new loops always added along a single axis, for instance, north/south. Two way = new loops are added on two axes, typically each perpendicular to the preceding one. Pinched = any chain in which the links are pinched at the waist (e.g. Sailor's). These terms can be combined to describe all chains, such as, two-way double.

Basic Loop-in-Loop This ancient chain is popular for its versatile beauty. It takes a while to make, but the procedure is simple. Unlike other members of the family, almost any combination of wire size and loop diameter will look attractive.

. Wrap wire around a rod and cut the rings, typically with small scissors. In the basic chain almost any wire-to-loop proportion will look good, but the effect can be quite different. For this reason, it’s a good idea to make a sample before cutting out too many rings. . Bend each loop so the ends come together to make a tight joint. Fuse or solder the rings closed, ideally with an invisible joint. If you use solder, keep the chips as small as possible. Roll a sheet of solder through the mill until the rollers cannot be brought any closer together. Cut this very thin sheet into tiny pieces and use only one on each joint. A biology needle makes a good solder pick. . With round-nose pliers, pull each ring into a long oval. Try to avoid stretching the rings; the goal is to achieve uniform size. To maintain a uniform size, some people mark their pliers, either with ink or by filing a small groove.



Chains > Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains

Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains . To start the chain, bend a loop so that the two ends (which we’ll call wickets) face each other. Add a twist of wire to make a handle. . To weave, bend the tops of the lower loop up and feed a new loop through both wickets. Bend the ends of this new loop up a little to hold it in place. . New loops are added this way, always going through the lowest loop possible. It is often necessary to straighten or enlarge loops with a scribe or similar sharp tool as the assembly progresses. . When assembly is complete, press each link down onto a tapered point to make the form symmetrical. Rotate and press each link down four times.

Chinese proverb

Links per inch

I do and I understand.

Finished diameter

I see and I remember.

Diameter of mandrel

I hear and I forget.

Wire Size (B&S)

. To compress and lengthen the chain, pull lightly through a round drawplate. A wooden or plastic drawplate is sufficient for this step. Anneal the chain before drawing.

22

10 mm

5 mm

13

24

7 mm

4 mm

18

26

6 mm

31⁄2 mm

20

28

5 mm

3 mm

24

Suggested Sizes It’s a good idea to make an inch or two of sample chain to confirm the size of wire and loop that will best meet your needs. Here are some points of reference:

Chains > Basic Loop-in-Loop Chains



Double Loop-in-Loop Chains Double Loop-in-Loop, Single Direction This ancient chain is perhaps the most used and best loved variation in this chain family. Links and assembly are similar to the basic chain except that each new link is inserted through the last two loops rather than just one. The result in most cases is a compact, square chain. . Make loops as described previously. Proportion is important in this style, so make a test before you get too far along. Stretch the links and pinch one end to make it narrow.

. Slide one link through another, then catch both on a twist of wire. This handle will make it easier to hold the chain as you get started.

. Insert the third link under the midsection of both of the first loops. Continue in this way, always adding each new link under the preceding two links.

. In most cases, (depending on the proportion of the loops) you’ll need to open each loop after it has been inserted. That is, each loop first needs to be narrow enough to go through a loop, then open enough that the next link can go through it. For this reason you’ll want a sharp, polished scribe close at hand as you weave this chain. The assembly process goes a little slower, but a pleasant by-product is that the chain usually requires only slight working to become smooth and uniform.

. When weaving is complete, anneal the chain and lay it out straight on a board or wooden tabletop. Tap lightly with a rawhide or plastic mallet.



Chains > Double Loop-in-Loop Chains

Double Loop-in-Loop Chains Two-Way Double Loop-in-Loop This chain uses the same links as the one on the preceeding page but in this case each new loop is added perpendicular to the one before. If the odd-numbered links (, , , etc.) are running north-south, the evennumbered links run east-west. This chain is equally successful whether you make it single (going through last loop only) or double (going through the last two loops). . Make links as described earlier.

. Lay two links at right angles and solder them together. Some people like to solder a short piece of wire onto these to serve as a temporary handle.

. Bend up the lower link and insert a new loop through it.

. Turn the chain ° and bend up the other link. Notice that it is now the lower link—this is the one you always want. Insert a link, bend it up and reshape it as needed so it will be ready to accept a new link when its turn comes.

. Continue in this way. You will see that you are a weaving two basic loop-in-loop chains (page ) one inside the other.

. Like the other double chain, this weave requires a lot of shaping as it goes together. The result of this is that the chain is usually smooth and uniform as it comes together. When complete, anneal and either tap lightly on a wooden surface or pull through a drawplate.

Variations Not only can you use two colors of metal, but you can do it in two ways. If each link alternates you’ll end up with a square chain in which adjacent sides ahave a different color. If you add two of each color in sequence, (e.g.,  gold,  silver, etc.) the resulting chain shows a spiral of colors along its length. Instead of two, start with three or four links. The assembly is as described, and again in these cases you have the option of a single or double weave. Links for these chains need to be quite long and thin—make a test to determine the best starting loop dimensions. Chains > Double Loop-in-Loop Chains

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Sailor’s Chains Sailor’s Chain Apparently this chain takes its name from the common use of a chain like this used to secure anchors to ships. . Make loops as for any loop-inloop chain: wrap, cut, fuse/solder, and stretch.

. Catch the loop on two scribes that are held at a right angle and pinch it at the waist. This can be done in the middle of the loop but the chain is more dramatic if one pair of wickets is larger than the other—in other words, pinch slightly to one side of the center. Repeat on all the loops. . Open the loops so the larger wickets are separated. Planish both ends. Anneal all the links.

. Reclose the links (like closing a book) so the hammered sections lay side by side again. Reshape each link and make them uniform by pressing each one down on a pair of scribes, marked with the appropriate diameter.

When we live in awareness, we can see miracles everywhere.

Thich Nhat Hann



Chains > Sailor’s Chains

. Assemble the chain by feeding one loop into another. Open, twist, and re-form as needed.

. Fold each loop over a round-nose pliers to make a U-shape.

Fold-Over Chains Fold-Over Loop-in-Loop Chain This variation on the loop-in-loop construction was developed by Jean Stark and is included here with her kind permission.

Making Links A. Make a quantity of round loops and fuse or solder the ends together. This is the same starting point for all loop-in-loop chains. Stretch each loop with roundnose pliers to make a long oval, then pinch one end. Holding the loop vertically, use a small hot torch flame to convert the bottom area to a solid ball.

B. An alternate way to make the basic loop is to cut a quantity of identical lengths of the chosen wire. Bend each wire to the ends lay side by side. Make a quantity of small shot, starting with identical chips of metal. Solder or fuse the shot onto the end points of the wires, then shape each link with pliers.

. Planish the wicket end with a polished hammer face.

. Bend each link by folding it over a dowel or round-nose plier jaws.

. To assemble the chain, feed each link into the next, and press the ball down. This must be tight enough that the links can’t come apart but not so tight that the movement binds up.

Chains > Fold-Over Chains



Loop-in-Loop Mesh Loop-in-Loop Mesh This elegant strap can be used as a bracelet, necklace, or component. Just having a piece to carry around in your pocket will make you feel better. In most cases you’ll want to use fine gauge wire to capture the delicacy of the mesh (– B&S). . Make a basic loop-in-loop chain as described earlier. Any size loop will work as long as there is some room in the weave. For this example, make four chains equal to the intended length of the mesh. . After assembling the four chains, shape each link by pressing it onto a scribe point in each of its four orientations. The goal is to create open, uniform links.

. Lay the chains side by side and run a bit of wire through at one end to hold them together. Measure the width of the mesh and add enough to allow a loop to form at each end. Make a sample link, then work backwards to determine the mandrel needed to make these loops. Make the same number of loops as there are links in each chain. Fuse, stretch, pickle, and rinse. Press the legs together leaving a “normal” loop on one end and a much smaller node on the other.

Variations > The long loops and short loops can be made of contrasting metals. > The same concept can be used to join beads, tubes, and other elements. In fact, anything with a hole through it can be joined in this way.

For further and more detailed instructions on this family of chains, see Loop-in-Loop Chains and Their Derivatives, by Jean Stark (Brynmorgen Press, ).



Chains > Loop-in-Loop Mesh

. Starting at one end of the mesh, feed the narrower end through all the chains then bend up the ends of the long loop. Feed the next loop through these as well as the next loops in the chain. Notice that the long loops add width to the mesh. This process can be used to join two, three, four, or more chains.

Alternate Method Jean Stark (who knows a lot about chains) makes mesh differently, though the end result is the same. She starts by soldering together a first link. This has four small loops (“dog bones”) side by side with a long loop laid down the center axis. Fold up the small loops and add a small loop through each. Fold up the ends of the long loop and add another long loop here. In this process the chains are made and joined into mesh simultaneously. This method, unlike the process above, allows for a double version.

Mesh from Coils Mesh from Coils This strap lends itself to a bracelet or watch band.

. Wrap round wire around a rod to create a neat coil. The length will be about half the width of the strap. Make at least a dozen identical coils.

. Using the same mandrel and wire, make another dozen coils, this time wrapping in the opposite direction.

. Pull each coil lengthwise to open the spiral. The space between each wrap should be uniform and a little larger than the wire being used. Insert the edge of a piece of sheet into a space and screw the coil along it to make the openings uniform.

. Slide a right-handed coil into a left-handed coil and insert a wire through the tunnel created by the overlap. Repeat to construct the band.

. Measure the length of the chain that resulted from your initial coils (two dozen in this example). From this you can calculate how many more coils will be needed. Make these and continue building the strap.

. Solder each straight wire to a coil at each end to hold it in place. Snip, file, sand and polish to complete the chain.

Chains > Mesh from Coils



Pantera Chains Pantera Chain The building block of this chain is a long flat loop, typically made from half-round or flattened wire. Use whichever of these methods appeals to you—the result should be the same. A. Wrap half-round wire around a dowel, cut off jump rings, and solder each one closed. Stretch each loop to elongate it, pressing with pliers to make it flat. Count out two-fifths of these and saw them open at the soldered seam.

B. Wrap half-round wire around a strip of copper or brass to form a flat coil. Cut off links with a saw or separating disk. Separate out threefifths, close the joints on these , and solder them.

C. Cut identical lengths of half-round wire and bend these by eye to create flat oval loops. Solder the ends together on three-fifths of these.

. Bend a length of coat hanger wire to make an inverted “L ”. This will support three links during the next step. To establish proper spacing, file three notches in the wire such that the space between them is the same as the width of the half-round wire used to make each link.

. Slide three links onto the rack and insert a fluxed round wire so it spans all three. Solder it in place. Repeat for enough links to equal about half the desired length of chain. . Solder another piece of round wire across the other end of the -ring link. For this step, lean the loop against a piece of firebrick or similar support—this will allow the wire to settle naturally into position.



Chains > Pantera Chains

. Use the open loops to connect two links. Close the gaps and solder. Continue in this way until the chain is completed.

Terminals Terminals There are literally thousands of ways to create ending elements for chains and cords. Here are a few suggestions to get you started. This is about as simple as they come: solder one ring into another, then attach that to the chain. For elegant simplicity, it’s hard to beat.

Solder a length of tube onto a jump ring, then solder or glue the cord into the tube. Use unusual proportions to create an interesting terminal.

Wrap wire around a mandrel that is slightly smaller than the cord (to allow for spring back). Solder the coils together as you solder a ring into position acrosss the top of the coil.

You’ll be able to devise dozens of variations on this style—a length of tubing, capped and fitted with a ring. In this case, saw a jump ring in half to make an interesting hoop.

Tubing can be ornamented with engraving, file work, mixed metals, and other techniques to make fancy terminals.

This ending is fabricated from wire, first by attaching two pieces to form an X. These were then bent down to make a cage, and secured with two jump rings.

This classic terminal starts with a length of tubing and a wire that makes a snug fit into it. Solder them together, then file to create a smooth taper. Anneal and bend the length into a graceful curve.

Cut a sheet of thin metal into the form above. File the edges and bend over a nail or similar tool. Close the sides, solder them together, and attach the cord or chain.

Make a cone from sheet metal and solder a jump ring onto the tip. As shown, this can be embellished, for instance, with shot of a contrasting metal.

Chains > Terminals



Assorted Clasps Introduction to Clasps A wide range of clasps are available commercially but there are some cases where a custom-made clasp is needed to properly finish a necklace or bracelet. The following pages illustrate a few of the hundreds of possibilities, each of which can be modified for your specific needs. Rather than copy directly, examine these examples to learn how they work. Once you understand the logic of the mechanism and the relationships of the parts, it will be easy to adjust the design. A successful clasp will: > be secure. > inspire confidence. > be easy to understand and operate. > contribute to the design, visually and conceptually. > be easy to adjust and repair.

Toggle Clasps This classic clasp combines simplicity, versatility and practicality. It’s easy to make, relatively easy to use, and very secure. The concept lends itself to all sorts of embellishments. Toggles consist of two parts, and while they can be almost any size, the relationship between the parts is important. Both the Ring and the Bar need to be free to pivot, so both have a small loop. The diameter of the Ring (x) is slightly smaller than the distance from the center of the Bar to either end. The Bar-plus-small-loop must be able to pass easily through the Ring.

All the really good ideas I ever had came to me while I was milking a cow.

Grant Wood

x

x+

Magnetic Clasps Magnets have been around for centuries but they were not viable for jewelry fastenings until recently, when it became possible to make a strong magnet that was both tiny and affordable. This is called a Neodymium-Iron-Boron supermagnet, or neodymium or NIB for short. These can be purchased through scientific supply companies. For best results, design a clasp that includes parts that align themselves and construct them in such a way that the magnets can be set into place like a stone. Magnets cannot withstand the heat of soldering. Be Careful At larger-than-jewelry sizes, two of these powerful magnets can slam together with a force similar to a squeeze with pliers, so keep your fingers out of the way. When they collide, they can shoot off splinters, so safety goggles are a must. Also, remember that magnets will damage videotapes, computer disks and credit cards. Pregnant women should also limit exposure to magnets.



Catches & Clasps > Assorted Clasps

Barrel Clasps Barrel Clasp . Make two tubes that fit together. Cut two equal lengths of the larger diameter and solder a cap onto each. Drill a hole in the center of each cap. Cut a length equal to about two-thirds of the length of the clasp. This will become the threaded rod. . The smaller tube needs to be centered onto the end of one piece of the larger tube. On a small piece of sheet, use dividers or a template to mark a centerpoint and scribe a circle slightly larger than the outer tube. Drill a hole in the center that is the same size as the smaller tube. Insert this and solder it to the sheet, then cut around it on the scribed line to make a cap for the larger tube. . Wrap annealed wire around a piece of the smaller diameter tube. Stretch the coil so the spaces between wires are the same size as the wire. Cut off two sections, one that is about three-fourths of a loop and one that is about one and a half turns. Slide the longer coil into the larger tube and solder it into position. Solder the smaller length onto the smaller (inner) tube. . Screw the parts together. If the screw mechanism is stiff, mix tripoli shavings with oil to make a slurry. Spread this on the threads and work the mechanism to loosen it. . Make two eyelets to attach the clasp to a chain. Draw a bead on the end of two lengths of wire, feed each through the clasp units and form a loop. Solder them closed.

J-Clasp In this versatile necklace clasp a piston slides into a sleeve, rotates, and is pushed outward to lock into the hook section of the slot. Though shown in a simple version, this clasp can be embellished. . Make or buy a length of tube and a rod that fits smoothly into it. Cap the outer tube and attach a loop. This can be fixed or free to rotate.

. Drill a hole at what will be the end of a J-shaped loop and saw to this. File the edges to make them smooth and parallel.

. Solder a wire (same size as the slot) on the tip of the rod at a right angle. Attach a loop to the opposite end of the rod.

. Make a spring from thin, hard-drawn brass wire, a little smaller than the inside diameter of the tube. Curl out one end of the spring to hold it in place and force it all the way into the tube. The spring pushes the tongue outward, and locks the peg into the end of the slot. Catches & Clasps > Barrel Clasps



Lentil Clasp Lentil Clasp This rotational catch can be used on bracelets but is most appropriate for necklaces. When closed, the clasp makes a lentil-shaped lozenge. A variation with full hemispheres makes a ball catch. The interior locking mechanism can take several shapes but the location of the loops will be the same in all cases, engineered so the pull of gravity on the necklace keeps the clasp closed.

There ain’t any answer. There ain’t going to be any answer. There never has been an answer. That’s the answer.

Gertrude Stein



Catches & Clasps > Lentil Clasps

. Cut out two identical disks and dap them to achieve the same depth. Rub on sandpaper to flatten the edge.

. With a divider, scribe a circle onto sheet metal (e.g.,  B&S) equal to the diameter of the disks. Be certain the center point is clear.

. Cut out the key shape—a triangle, square, or keyhole—making certain it is centered on the disk.

. Trace the key shape onto sheet ( B&S). Saw it out, cutting a bit outside the lines. The disk should File until the key make a tight fit makes a perfect in the opening. fit in the keyhole.

. Cut out a circle that can rotate inside the key hole. Solder this to the center of the key. Alternatively, cut off a short section from large gauge round wire.

. Solder the raised key onto a piece of sheet. Pickle, rinse, and test the fit into the keyhole. File as needed to make a snug fit. Drill a hole through the center of the key. This allows air to escape during soldering and also helps in transferring the location of the key from one side of the sheet to the other.

. Scribe a circle around the key with dividers. Use a graver to raise stitches up to the scribed circles on both sheets. These barbs will keep the domes in position during soldering.

. Solder the domes onto the sheets. Pickle, rinse, and cut off excess. Mark the location of the key and keyhole with a permanent marker. This will make it easier to get them apart later.

. Lock the pieces together and file, then sand the domes to create a smooth, symmetrical lozenge or sphere.

. Mark the proper location for jump rings, separate the halves, and attach a ring to each side. File a crescent-shaped notch into the rings to make a strong and attractive joint.

Specialty Clasps Spring Plunger Clasp . You will need a short length of tubing and a wire that fits snugly inside it. Cap the tube and attach a loop to connect to the chain. Make a tiny spring by tightly wrapping hard-drawn  B&S brass wire. . File a taper, solder it onto the tube, and bend it into a curl. Be sure that the end of the curl is tucked under. . Solder a bit of sheet on the wire and file it to make a smooth, round cap on the plunger. . After polishing, bend the curl to the side, then slide the spring, and plunger into place. Bend the wire back to hold them. Add a drop of light oil to lubricate the moving parts.

To clasp, push the rectangular tab straight in; the plunger will slide into the tube, then spring back. To unclasp, just pull the tab straight out.

Tension Spring Clasp For pins, barrettes, earrings, etc. . Solder a bar of  or  gauge sheet onto the back of the piece. File a groove on the top edge. . Solder a tube in the center of this piece, resting in the groove. . Solder heavy square wire onto the top File off the back edge of the tube. After soldering, file darker section after soldering. this into a rounded shape. . Cut another piece of sheet as wide as the bar in Step . This piece should be half as thick as that and slightly longer. Solder pins on the sides of this piece. . Saw two lines in from the top edge, centered and the same distance apart as the length of the tube in Step . . Bend up the center tab and cut away about  mm of the side flaps. . File a groove into the shortened ends. . Solder a piece of the same tube used before across the short tabs. Saw out the center section of the tube. . Harden the pins by twisting them, then file and polish a bullet-shaped point on the end. After polishing, assemble with a pin as you would for a hinge. This will require pushing down on the spring unit (the piece with pins). Adjust the center tab by bending with pliers to create the correct amount of tension. Catches & Clasps > Specialty Clasps



Basic Box Catches Basics

It is a common mistake to think that a thicker sheet means a stronger clasp. If anything, the reverse is true. – gauge is typical.



> In all these clasps it is important to measure carefully. Make the receiving side first, then make the tongue oversized and file it to achieve a perfect fit. > The tongue should slide snugly into its bay, with no sloppiness side to side. > The tongue is usually about  gauge. After folding and checking the fit, planish the fold to harden it. > The inside of the snag must be crisp in order to catch not good the leading edge of the tongue. Don’t use too much solder here. good > The amount of squeeze needed for release should be slight. Make the tongue as long as possible;  mm is typical. Too short a tongue requires more push this snag is too long to release and is therefore more likely to break. The release distance is also determined by the length this snag is of the snag. It should be just long enough to catch too short the tongue and nothing more. . Make a rectangular frame, typically from  or  gauge metal. It is important that the corners are square and the sides perfectly parallel.

. Saw off most of one of the short sides to make the opening for the tongue.

. Cut a strip of metal for the tongue, twice as long as the box and quite thin. Cut slightly oversize and file to make a perfect fit into the box (easiest to do now because the box is still open).

. Solder a trigger onto the tongue. To center, set dividers by eye to midwidth, then scribe a line from both sides.

. Solder on the second deck, closing the box. Leave it long enough to make a space for the loop. Polish all parts.

. Scribe a shallow line across the tongue, making sure it is perpendicular to the edge.

. Fold the tongue, planish the fold lightly, then pry the tongue up with a blade.

. Test the fit, filing as needed to make the parts slide together and click. Cut the trigger to its final length and file or saw a few notches for a fingernail grip.

Catches & Clasps >Basic Box Catches

Box Catch Variations Tube Box Catch

In one style, the trigger fits into a slot in the box. An alternative is to position the trigger outside the box.

. Make a jump ring slightly larger than the inside diameter of a tube. File it so all edges are square and crisp, such that it fits snugly into the tube. Solder into place.

. Solder a wire into a second length of tube—this will become the tongue. Planish the wire so it is thin in the midsection where it will bend. This will create the springiness.

. Planish the wire so it is thin in the midsection where it will bend. File a notch and a “ramp” that leads up to it. Bend the tongue, cinch with pliers, then reopen and adjust as needed.

. At least one end of this catch should be free to rotate; otherwise there will be tension on the tongue as the catch rotates during wear.

Safety Catches Any of these styles may be given a safety mechanism by adding a ball and loop.

Unusual Shapes

The advantage of this style is that the location of the hole can wait until the clasp is completed. Paint the tongue and slide it into place. Pull it back out, then drill at the end of the trail left in the paint.

This shortcut clasp is made by drilling a hole, piercing a U-shaped line, and soldering a peg into the drilled hole. Lift the tongue while soldering.

The area into which the tongue fits must be a tight fit, and will almost always be rectangular. The overall shape of the catch can be something else; just create the bay you need internally.

Catches & Clasps > Box Catch Variations



Hinge-Based Catches Hinges as Clasps This family of hinges, most often used on bracelets, consists of a standard hinge with three or five knuckles, usually made of tubing with an inside diameter of about – mm. The clasp is undone by pulling the hinge pin out, either all the way, or enough to clear all but one knuckle. To prevent the pin from being lost, it is attached in some way. When the bracelet has several strands, build the clasps in two pieces of scored and folded sheet metal. This will provide support, solid soldering contact, and alignment. When attaching the pin with a chain, see that it is long enough to allow the pin to be removed, but only that. Excess chain is distracting and likely to catch on clothing.

Folded Tab

Attached Chain Use a short length of chain to safely attach a removable hinge pin to a jewelry piece. Keep the chain just long enough to allow the pin to slide out—too much risks snagging. The chain can be handmade or commercial, as best suits the piece.

Providing a Base When the bracelet has many strands, build the clasp in a bent piece of sheet metal. This will provide stability, better solder contact, and alignment.



. Make a three-part hinge. . Select half-round wire with a diameter equal to the inside diameter of the tube. Fold it in half, flat sides inward, so that one arm equals the length of the hinge and the other is a little shorter. Solder a cap or bezel onto the longer end. . Saw off the top section of one of the outer tubes so that all that remains is a small tab. . After all finishing is complete, insert the hinge pin and fold the tab over at a right angle. This will prevent the pin from coming out

Applied Tab Follow the steps above, but in this case, use a round wire that fits neatly into the hinge. File away about a third for a portion equal to two of the knuckles. Cut a notch in the top section of hinge to position a small length of square wire. As a final step, insert the pin and solder the cross-brace in place. This will make it impossible for the pin to come out.

Friction with Pin . Make a three-part hinge, using tubes that are at least . mm inside diameter. . Select a small gauge round wire that will fit into the tube when doubled over. Fold a section in half and snip to a length just a bit shorter than the hinge. Solder a cap or bezel onto the two ends. . Drill a small hole through the top knuckle, and prepare a bit of wire that makes a snug fit. . Insert the pin through the hinge, then slide the short wire into place so it rests between the legs of the hinge pin. Solder it in place. . Adjust the bowing shape of the pin so that it makes a friction fit inside the tube.

Catches & Clasps > Hinge-Based Catches

Chapter 

Findings & Mechanisms

Pendant Bails Design Considerations The bail is the point of connection between a pendant and the cord or chain on which it hangs. Besides being critical to the proper function of the pendant, bails are an opportunity to enhance the design. Consider the location, shape and scale of the bail from the very beginning. Ideally, the point of contact for a bail is directly above the center of gravity of a pendant. While this is rarely possible, try to be as close to this as possible. To remember this, just visualize what happens when a pendant hangs from the center of the back.

Bail Bail, from Old Norse beygla, meaning “hook” or “ring”. A semicircular handle of a pail, kettle, or cannon.

Fold-Down Bail . Draw a bead on both ends of a length of wire; hammer them flat and drill a hole in each end. . Saw out a piece of sheet with a tongue extending on one side. File this shaft to a round cross section. . Form the wire into a loop and rivet it onto the prepared sheet. Bend the loop to one side to do this. . Make a U-shaped joint and solder it to the piece. . Drill a hole through the joint and sheet and secure them with a pin.

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Findings > Pendant Bails

Earring Findings General Information • Some people can wear only gold or stainless wires, but most people can wear sterling. •  gauge wire is usually a comfortable thickness. • Work harden wires by twisting them. • Standard length of posts is  mm (3⁄8").

Making Friction Backs . Cut a strip of  gauge sterling ( gauge gold) about  mm long. . Strike a sharp punch in the center to form a funnellike depression. Drill a hole in the center, equal to the diameter of the ear post. . Make a grip by filing notches. Polish. . Bend the wings up with round nose pliers, making sure they curl at least three-quarters of a circle. Adjust the gap between the wings to create tension on the post. . Make a groove about – millimeters from the end of the post by pinching with round-nose pliers. This groove will stop the nut from sliding off the end of the post.

Omega Clips

French Loop

These elegant earring findings have become the standard for upscale earrings. They replace a friction nut with a spring-tension loop that folds down against the back of the lobe to hold the earring in place. Omega clips can be bought ready to attach or made from scratch. Do not snap the loop into place until all soldering is complete so the wire remains springy.

The hook in a gravity-held earring should be about  mm (") long. Small lengths of rubber tubing are sold as guards to be worn with this kind of earring.

And what would we call this letter of the Greek alphabet?

Clips for Non-Pierced Ears Like Omega clips, these can be purchased or made in the studio. In this design the center finger presses down on the vertical wall to create the tension that snaps the flap down. Adjust by bending the parts to create a comfortable fit.

Findings > Earring Findings

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Pin Findings Pin Findings Locate pin mechanisms above the central axis to prevent brooches from tipping forward.

The end of the pin should not extend beyond the catch. Position the catch with the opening downward.

If a pin is too sharp, it will pierce threads and damage fabric. A smooth, bullet-shaped point will find its way between threads. File the proper rounded shape, burnish it to toughen, then polish the pin with rouge.

At rest, the pinstem should be slightly above the catch. This will create a tension that will help keep the pin closed. A similar tension is created by including a stop that holds the stem off the brooch at a slight angle. tension

 

There’s process and there’s product. If you’re too concerned about product, it can get in the way of process.

Mike Myers

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Findings > Pin Findings

Pinstems

Pin Catches

Pinstems should be made of a tough metal like low karat gold, nickel silver or stainless steel. Many designs are possible, and each will include a stop that keeps the pin in tension as it fits into the catch. Harden after soldering by twisting the wire.

Pin catches also come in hundreds of styles, and like pinstems, they can be bought or made. Use a tough metal and engineer a catch that is easy to open on purpose but that will avoid coming open by accident.

Pin Holders

A Simple Pin

Bend the pinholder over a piece of sheet to get the correct fit. After soldering, saw off the curve, and drill holes for the hinge pin.

Solder a loop of wire onto the back of a piece, attached at both ends. Snip the wire so one part is larger than the other. Twist the wire to harden it. Curl a spring with round-nose pliers, then file, sand, and burnish the point. Planish the tip of the short piece and curl it into a shepherd’s crook. Adjust the gap so the pin stem clicks into place.

Pin Findings Telescoping Pin Catch This catch is held closed by the friction of a small pin against the end of the larger tube. To open, rotate the small tube until the pin engages the slot. A short peg keeps the smaller tube from coming all the way out. . Make telescoping tubing. The pinstem must fit inside the smaller tube. . Solder a strip of sheet onto the larger tube to lift it off the piece. Cut a slot in the larger tube with a saw. The pinstem must fit here. . Solder a thin wire at a right angle to the end of the smaller tube. It is easiest to start with at least an inch of wire, then cut off the excess after soldering. . Slide the tubes together and, with the small pin tight against the end, saw the other end off flush. Slide the tubes open and file about 1⁄2 mm more off the end of the smaller diameter tube.

file flush

. With the tubes in the open position, solder a knob on the end of the smaller tube. The knob can be made from sheet, bead, or bezel. . File a sloping edge to allow the inner tube to rotate. The friction of the small pin against this edge file the shaded will keep the catch closed. areas

Hinge-Style Pin Joint

. Bend a strip of sheet to make a short length of angle. . Solder two small pieces of tube into this, allowing gravity to insure their alignment. . Solder a length of wire onto another small piece of the same tube. File a groove to locate the wire, and allow – mm to extend past the end. This handle makes it easy to twist the wire without damaging it. Snip when the pinstem is hardened. . After all soldering and finishing, assemble the finding with a temporary hinge pin. Snip the pinstem to length, remove to shape the tip, then set with a permanent hinge pin. Note that the vertical wall of the angle piece provides the stop that creates tension.

This provides tension on the pinstem.

Findings > Pin Findings

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Fibula Fibula The fibula is the outer, smaller bone in your lower leg. The term also refers to an ancient form of pin clasp, a granddaddy of the modern saftey pin. These toga accessories were commonplace in ancient Greece and Rome, and took a characteristic shape that, some say, resembles the leg bone. In contemporary usage, a fibula is a pin in which the pin mechanism is not only apparent, but generally an imporant part of the design. In most cases, the tension of the spring is integral to the structure, for instance, through a forged stem.

Classic Celtic Fibula Variations are limitless, but here’s a shape that has been found in many excavations in northern Europe.

Looped Hook An alternative to Step # is to bend the wire up, then back down again to make a finger of metal that can then be bent over to make the hook. This allows the wire to continue on to make a decoration.

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Mechanisms > Fibula

. Cut a hatchet shape from heavy stock, e.g.,  or  gauge.

. Forge the blade to a broad, sloping and elegant shape. Forge the stem into a long taper, first working in square cross-section, then planishing to make it round.

. Ornament the blade area, if desired, with chasing, engraving, etching, keum-boo, etc.

. With round-nose pliers, bend the edge of the blade over to become the catch. Wrap the stem once around the pliers to make a springy loop. Adjust the length and polish the tip. At rest the pinstem should be - mm away from the catch.

Long Spring Fibula (with thanks to Philip Fike) . Start with a round wire—a foot at least. Wrap the wire around a metal rod at least three times, keeping the loops symmetrical and neat.

. Bend the wire along the axis of the mandrel about a half inch, and wrap again, this time going around the rod in the reverse direction from the first set. Make the same number of wraps.

. Swing the second coil to the opposite side of the first set, rotating it in the process so it is flipped °. Slide the mandrel through the whole structure and reshape as needed.

. In a traditional fibula the end of the wire is bent up °, planished to flatten and bent over to make a crook. The pinstem is bent slightly to allow room for fabric.

Buckles & Links Cuff Links Cuff links are worn on French cuffs, which double over to have a button hole on each flap. The link is forced through the holes, usually by making it narrow, then expanded to lock it in place. Commercial links often contain a small spring hidden inside the rotating bar—do not expose this piece to heat or pickle or the springiness will be lost. Round ends to allow for full articulation.

This rigid style lends itself to casting.

The length of the chain should be about  mm (1⁄2").

This cuff link can be double-ended.

Belt Buckles Ladies belts are often worn for appearance, but mens’ belts generally have a job to do, so choose a metal and thickness that is up to the task. Most buckles are slightly wider than the leather or webbing of the belt. To avoid a frustrating hunt later, get the belt first and design around it.

Tongue Style

Prong Style

Military Style

The tongue is centered on a bar that is typically at the end of the buckle. The area beside the free end of the tongue can be used for pattern. In this style the belt has a slot that wraps around the bar.

This style provides the largest surface for embellishment and is probably the one most commonly used for handmade buckles. > Keep the prong and belt bracket as far apart as possible. > The pin should be short and only slightly angled. > The space between the bracket and the buckle needs to admit two thicknesses of the belt. > A bar that is free to pivot will make the buckle more comfortable.

This style, usually seen on webbed belts, cinches the belt by friction between a textured rod and the back of the frame. Because there are no holes, the size is fully adjustable.

Bar pinches belt here.

Bar recedes into trench to release the belt.

The belt is fixed to this side of the buckle.

This tube assembly permits flexibility. Mechanisms > Buckles & Links

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Hinges Hingemaking Tips > If the material is too thin to take the stress of a hinge, solder bearers either inside or out. This is especially important for round or oval containers.

> Prepare a seat (trough) in which the knuckles, or hinge sections, will lie. Care in this step is important. A straight round file is better than a tapered one. A joint file is made for this. Make a scraper from a groundoff drill bit and slide it to scrape away tiny shavings for a perfect fit.

> Measure and cut the knuckles, keeping the ends square. If only three knuckles are used, the single piece goes on the lid and may be slightly longer than the other two.

> Flux the groove and lay the knuckles into Cutting Broach Even in well-made hinges the knuckles can be slightly out of alignment. This will result in a small amount of play or sloppiness in the hinge. Correct this with a gradually tapered, five-sided steel rod called a broach. These are sold in sets of a dozen in a progression of sizes. With the hinge together, insert the broach, and gently roll it in your fingers to scrape away bits of metal inside the hinge. Pull it out and wipe it off often as work progresses. When contact is made with each knuckle, the lid will hold itself open. File a wire to a similar taper and tap it lightly into place.

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Mechanisms > Hinges

position. Some jewelers slide the knuckles onto a snug-fitting oiled steel pin (nail, binding wire, etc.) to guarantee that they stay in a straight line. Tie with binding wire if necessary. Place small pieces of solder so they touch both the knuckles and the box.

> Heat only until the solder flows, then quickly remove the torch. Quench in water. Remove the binding wire and steel pin, then pickle. After polishing and washing, slide a tightfitting pin into place to test the fit. When everything works, polish the parts and slide a new hinge pin into place, riveting the ends slightly to prevent it from coming out.

> It is frustrating to make a hinge and then discover the knuckles are weak because the tube seams were not soldered before starting. Be certain the tube is properly closed. Either use a commercial extruded tubing or double-check that the seam is well soldered before you cut the knuckles.

Basic Hinge . Prepare the object (in this example a rectangular box) by completing all soldering. Sand to a fine grit and pickle the work. Make sure the parts fit together well—it will be more difficult to adjust this after the hinge is in place. Some people find it helpful to glue the parts together for sanding.

. Separate the parts and file an angle along the two edges that will take the hinge. Each of these is a ° angle, which creates a ° angle when the top is set onto the box.

. Clean the tube with Scotch-Brite to . Secure the parts with glue or tape and remove any finger oils and tarnish. convert the angled opening to a rounded Measure the length of the hinge and one (e.g., change a “V” into a “U”). A divide this into three or five parts. Set tapered needle file can do the job, but a tube cutting jig to this dimension a parallel round file is much better. An and saw off the knuckles with a small alternative is to find a steel rod (nail) with sawblade. Inspect for burs, and remove the same diameter as the hinge tube. Cut them with careful filing. the end off square, mount this in a pin vise, and use it to scrape the groove.

Yes

Clamp a block of wood against the pin and drill at the point where they touch.

No

A. If you don’t have a jig, drill a hole in your benchpin that is precisely at a right angle. Mark the length on tape with a pen, and use this to both cut and file the ends square.

. Burn off any residual glue from Step # and tie the box and lid together with binding wire. Prop it so the hinge groove is conveniently angled, apply a small amount of flux, and set the knuckles in place. Lay a tiny bit of hard or medium solder against each knuckle and allow the flux to dry.

. Gently heat the unit until the flux becomes crusty, then concentrate heat on one side. Bring this up to temperature, easing off as the solder starts to soften. Pull the heat away the instant the solder flows. Repeat on the other side. If you are not certain that the solder has flowed, resist the temptation to give it just another second. Resist!

. Quench in water, remove the binding wire, and separate the parts. If they stick, gently wiggle them—sometimes there is a phantom join that easily comes apart. Clean up in pickle, and if part of the design, solder on a closure. Repickle, then finish the box with sanding, brassbrushing, patinas, etc. Insert a tight-fitting hinge pin and secure it as shown elsewhere. Mechanisms > Hinges > Basic Hinge

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Cradle Hinge Cradle Hinge This style is especially good for round or oval boxes because the cradle provides increased contact between the parts. In addition, this hinge automatically creates a stop to prevent the lid from flopping too far open. . Prepare a trough by filing and scraping.

. Buy or make two tubes that telescope together. Remember that soldered tubing can be drawn like wire, so it’s pretty easy to get a good fit by drawing the tube through a drawplate.

. Cut a piece of the outer tube a bit longer than you think the hinge will be. Cut a slot along the axis of this tube.

. Set this tube in position with the sawn slot located as shown, where the box and lid come together. Solder both sides.

. Cut the entire length on a line that is one-third away from the first slot. The lid will come away from the base.

. Make another cut, this time removing one-third of the tube. The result is a pair of cradles that are parallel, wellattached to both parts, and that fit the knuckles perfectly.

. Measure and cut hinge knuckles using a jig if available. This example shows three knuckles but any number may be used. An odd number is customary.

. Set a knuckle into the cradle and solder it into place. Visually line this up with the center of the box.

. Set the box and lid together and mark the location of the first knuckle with file notches on the opposite cradle.

. Using the notches as guides, solder the other knuckles into their cradles. Check the placement. If it is incorrect, reheat and slide the knuckles as needed. Don’t try to correct by grinding … it never works. Pickle, polish, and set the hinge.

small notches

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Mechanisms > Hinges > Cradle Hinge

Silversmith’s Hinge Silversmith’s Hinge with Tubing . Lay out and cut tabs. To be effective, the fit must be exact.

. With the pieces held together, mark, and file a groove in both sections.

. With the two pieces separated, solder a length of tubing into each groove. After soldering, cut away the extra bits of tube with a saw.

. File a bevel on the underside of each cove in both pieces. Be careful not to file away the top edge, which would ruin the accuracy achieved in Step .

. Solder square wire along one side in front of the tubing to make a stop for the lid. Higher and/or closer will limit the swing.

. Solder the section with the stop to the piece. Drill a hole in the side of the object to allow the pin to enter.

Silversmith’s Hinge with Sheet . Make knuckle units from heavy sheet (– gauge). Cut a strip and bend it around another piece of the same gauge. Squeeze with parallel-jaw pliers or bend it in a vise.

. To make the third knuckle of this unit, temporarily solder a piece of strip in place and squeeze it in the same way.

. Use a similar trick to make the other half of the hinge, this one having four knuckles. Solder two units temporarily to a brace to hold them the correct distance apart (i.e., one thickness again).

. Solder this unit onto the top of the container as shown. When soldering is complete, cut away the sheet between the knuckles.

. The first unit must overhang its edge to reach into the four-knuckle unit. To keep the top of the finished hinge flush, file a notch equal to the thickness of the sheet. Solder this unit to the lid. After trimming away excess, it will look like this.

. Put the two units together and drill a hole through the whole assembly. Solder the top to the container, setting the pin either before or after soldering, depending on accessibility. In this example, the lid is attached (box is upside down) before the bottom is soldered into place.

Mechanisms > Hinges > Silversmith’s Hinge

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Stand-Off Hinge Stand-Off Hinge It’s not that these hinges are especially rude that gives them their name, but rather that they lift up and away as they open. In the small scale of a jeweler, standoff hinges bring unexpected drama and novelty. This example is conservative, but the concept lends itself to unusual proportions and embellishments.

We can’t all and some of us don’t. That’s all there is to it.

Eeyore (A. A. Milne)

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. Make a box just like any other. Attach two arms to the base, projecting outward from the box.

. Solder a length of tubing across the two arms.

. Saw out a section of tubing from the center, generally dividing the tube into thirds.

. Solder a wire onto the lid, eyeballing its relationship to the other arms. In most designs, you’ll be able to adjust this later. Solder a piece of the same tubing (larger than the gap) onto the end of this wire.

. After pickling and rinsing, position the tubes of both parts in alignment and slide a rod through the hinge. You might need to trim one or several of the knuckles to make things fit together.

. Bend the arms with pliers to make the parts work together. When the fit is right, some designs will benefit from the addition of strengthening supports.

Mechanisms > Hinges > Stand-Off Hinge

Interior Hinges Interior, or Hidden Hinges These hinges are related to the stand-off hinges described on the preceding page, but in this case the mechanism is behind the door or inside the box. You’ve seen them before—they’re common on auto hoods, gas cap doors, and kitchen cabinets. This description uses a box as an example, but the hinge can be used in jewelry, hollowware, and other applications. . Make a box using any technique. Sketch a side view of the box to visualize how the hinge will work. Draw on tracing paper and pivot the lid open to see how it works. . Drill a hole through the sides of the box and slide a length of tubing all the way through. File as needed to provide a snug fit. . Cut two pieces of the tube, each a little longer than a third of the total hinge. Slide them onto a wire for alignment, and solder them into place. If the box walls are thin, provide additional bracing for these knuckles. . Cut a piece of the same tubing larger than the gap between the two parts inside the box and solder it to a piece of sheet. Your sketch will provide some guidance, but this can be a guess at this point. . Temporarily assemble the parts and move the hinge to test its operation. Carefully observe how the swing works and bend the arm as needed to create clearance. Use epoxy or super glue to temporarily attach the lid onto the arm. . Mark the location of the arm on the inside of the lid, and cut a template of metal or stiff cardboard to capture the angle of the arm. Separate the parts and clean off all traces of glue. . Flow a little solder onto the end of the arm, then prop it in position, using the template to check the angle. When it is accurate, solder the arm in place, again adding a brace if needed. Pickle, rinse and dry. . Test the action and make whatever adjustments are required to have the lid fall neatly into position. When all the parts work, permanently set the hinge with a tight-fitting pin. File, sand and burnish it flush on the outside of the box. Mechanisms > Hinges > Interior Hinges

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Spring Hinges Coil Spring The spring is provided by a coil of harddrawn wire. Depending on the weight of the lid and the fineness of the piece, this can be gold, sterling, brass, nickel silver, or steel. The steel may be salvaged from a pen spring. Make the hinge in the usual way but leave a space that will be occupied by the spring. This can be accomplished by cutting away one of the knuckles but it will be neater if you plan ahead and leave a space when measuring the knuckles. To assemble the hinge, load the spring into position before inserting the hinge pin. This can be a tricky operation and is easier with two people. The tails of the coil must protrude to make this spring work. Depending on where you put these you can make the lid spring open or snap closed. To camouflage the spring, make the knuckles from coiled wire.

Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it.

Confucius

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Tube handle to grip the spring during loading.

spring position at rest.

The lid will snap closed.

The lid will snap open.

spring position at rest

A Compression Spring

Leaf Springs

This is best used where only a small push is needed. It is common on the covers of pocket watches, for instance. This spring is not in the hinge at all. Somewhere near the hinge is a piece of metal that is pushed down when the lid is closed. When the clasp is released the little tab pushes upward.

A leaf spring is nothing more than a flat bar of springy material—think of a diving board. These can be used in multiples (look under a truck), but for jewelers they are usually nothing more than a toughened piece of metal bent so that it presses against a moving part.

Mechanisms > Hinges > Spring Hinges

Hinge Pin Spring Spring Pin This mechanism is as clever as it is rewarding to make. The idea is that a normal hinge pin is replaced by a spring, which is loaded so that it is always under tension, either keeping a box closed or allowing it to spring open when a catch is released. The mechanism is virtually invisible, which adds to the appeal. The mechanism does not lend itself to short or slender hinges. . Make a hinge that is conventional in every way except that it has an even number of knuckles. This means that one end knuckle will be on the base and the other on the lid.

. After polishing, slide a tightfitting tube through the hinge to serve as the hinge pin, leaving it short by at least  mm on each end. This will provide strength and smooth operation. Skip this step if the hinge is small.

. You will need several strips of flat springy metal. Watch mainsprings are best, but in a pinch, harddrawn brass, or nickel silver can be flattened out and used. Cut two or three pieces about an inch longer than the hinge. Slide these through and lock them with a pair of wedges, tapped into place.

. With pliers, grip the extending spring pieces and give them a twist. Lock in place with similar wedges and check the action. If slack, give another twist. Depending on the direction of the twist, the spring will pull the lid open or closed. When correct, tap another wedge firmly into place, and trim off the excess.

File wedges from wire.

Mechanisms > Closures > Hinge Pin Spring

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Friction Catches Friction Catches These are far and away the most common type of clasp, and technically the term covers everything from a cork in a bottle to Tupperware. Friction catches use the natural elasticity of a material to allow parts to rub against each other without breaking. In metals, it is important to remember to keep the parts thin enough to move, rather than wear away under pressure.

Interior Bezels A bezel is a thin vertical wall, familiar to jewelers from its use in stonesetting. In the case of a box, it can be full or partial and can be attached to either the base or the lid. To tighten a loose bezel, pull it out by rubbing with a burnisher.

Purse Snap

Partial Bezels

This versatile and ingenious clasp starts with two spheres, each attached to a stem. Bend the wires so the two balls rub against each other as the container closes. This is relatively easy to make because you can solder the stems into place casually and bend the arms later to create tension.

Round the top edge of the bezel so it doesn’t snag as the box is closed. Bezels can be soldered just inside the edge or they can lie against the entire height of the wall. In the latter case it is possible to pre-polish the bezel and force it into place with a tight-fitting bottom piece.

Post We can think of these as really small partial bezels. On lids that lift off, there will need to be at least three posts (the more, the better). In a hinged box, it is typical to have a single thin post directly opposite the hinge. Because of the angle of opening this will need to be kept short.

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Mechanisms > Closures > Friction Catches

Pre-polish this piece.

This variation uses three posts and has the benefit of aligning the lid as it closes. Friction is provided mostly by the edges of the posts rubbing together.

Spring Catches Spring Catches These catches get high marks for security, elegance, and function. There are as many variations as there are objects to open and close—the goal of these examples is to describe the concept and typical assembly process.

Integrated Spring Catches in this family have a springy bit of metal that snags onto a lid. . Make a crisp right angle bend in the end of a wire. File to shape, and be certain the internal angle is crisp.

. Attach a trigger. Pressing this will release the catch.

. Solder or bend a lip on the inside of the lid.

. Bend the spring so it snaps into the box under tension. This might take a few minutes of careful measurement and adjusting.

Lip

An Important Detail In all spring catches, file the leading edge of the hook to a smooth, curving slope. This will allow the hook to retract as the box is closed, just like a doorlatch slides out of the way when you close a door.

Separate Spring These catches use steel or work-hardened nickel silver to make the spring. They typically have better tension and a more fluid movement. . Devise a system that will allow the spring mechanism to be attached without the use of heat. Solder a tube or bracket into the box, or locate holes for rivets. Drill a hole or slot for the trigger. . Create a lip and a hook-and-trigger piece, as above. These are typically made of the same metal as the box.

. Slide the latching mechanism into place. Test the action and make adjustments as needed. YES Spring moves out of the way.

NO Spring bumps against lip.

Mechanisms > Closures > Spring Catches

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Threaded Catches Partial Thread This example uses a cylinder-shaped jar, but by observing the process you’ll see that it can be modified for hundreds of applications. In this case the thread is on the container but it could just as easily be on the lid. . This top view of the container shows . Scribe delicate guidelines around equal divisions. The two threads the container to locate the threads. must be carefully positioned directly opposite each other.



. Bend a piece of wire to match the curvature of the container. Square or half-round wire is preferred because its flat surface will make a solid contact for soldering.

. Locate these pieces along the guides and solder them into place. Steel or nickel clips might help in this process.

. Solder a pair of small projections on the inside of the lid, again making certain that they are directly opposite each other. The height should equate with the center of the thread.

. If the closure is stiff even after pickling, mix some abrasive grit with oil to make a paste, and coat the thread. Open and close the unit until any irregularities have been ground away. To make the grit, set a piece of sandpaper into a can and burn away the paper with a torch.

Mechanisms > Closures > Threaded Catches

Threaded Catches Full Thread This traditional thread can be use to make a barrel clasp, a stopper for a bottle, or a removable element. The materials and tolerance will depend on the object, but the process is the same. . Make a rod or tube that will become the shaft of the threaded unit.

. Wrap a wire around a rod that is slightly smaller than the shaft (to compensate for springback). The direction of the wrapping will determine the direction of the screwing/unscrewing motion.

space for thread

. Slide the coil off and pull it so the spaces are equal to the thickness of the wire.

. File the inside of this coil to make it flat and force it onto the neck tubing. When you are sure the spaces have remained even, solder it in place.

. With another piece of the same wire, wrap a second coil inside the threads. File this while in position to achieve a flat outer surface.

. Make a tube to fit snugly onto this coil, then unscrew it gently and slide the coil into the outer tube. Solder it into position. If the fit is too snug, use a slurry of abrasive powder and oil to refine the fit.

file here

Bayonet This catch takes its name from the mechanism that is also used to secure blades to rifle barrels. A variation for necklaces and bracelets is described on page . . Create a lip on the inside of a box, and a cylinder that fits smoothly into it.

. Cut a slot (or two, or three) symmetrically into the lip.

. Mark the locations of the slots on the internal sleeve and solder pins in place. For small scale, drill holes to locate the pins during soldering.

. The gap between the lid and the pin must equal the thickness of the lip to make a snug fit. equal to thickness of the rim

Mechanisms > Closures > Threaded Catches



Trick Catches Zippo Tension Hinge I don’t know if there is a proper name for this mechanism, but we’ll all recognize it as the devise that makes a cigarette lighter snap closed. The force of the snap is determined by the strength of the spring and the scale of the cam on the center hinge. . Make a durable three-knuckle hinge.

. Solder a bar of metal onto the center knuckle such that, with the lid closed, it falls at the eight position on a clock face.

. Solder a short length of tube directly below the center hinge.

. Cut a short piece of steel, stainless steel, or hardened nickel silver and file a point on one end. Force this into the tube so it locks in place.

Keylock Mechanism This archetypal devise contains the seeds of padlocks, deadbolts, and scores of similar mechanisms. This example uses a lever, but substitute a key and you see where you’re headed.



. Create a lip on the lid.

.Devise a spring and hook. In this case, a piece of steel is bent and drilled.

. Cut out a cam that will press the spring away from the lip. Drill, then saw to create a square hole.

. This box has a strip of ornamentation that will hide the trigger. Most of the strip is soldered to the box, but one piece is kept separate. Solder a piece of square wire onto the back.

. Rivet the cam onto the square pin so that when the ornament is horizontal, the spring reaches the lip.

. Pressing down on the ornament pushes the cam against the spring, moving it off the lip and releasing the lid.

Mechanisms > Closures > Trick Catches

Appendix

Health & Safety Common Sense

Resources

Common sense is your best protection. Even safe procedures can be dangerous if abused. Remember that accidents don’t happen only to the other guy. If you feel uncertain about a tool, get help. If you feel ill or dizzy, stop doing what you’re doing. If illness persists, contact your state hospital system, Department of Occupational Safety. While most of the information in this book can apply to metalsmithing on any scale, keep in mind that it is written primarily for work in jewelry studios. It is not intended as a resource for large commercial studios or industry, where other safety requirements may very well exist. For help in this area, contact your state’s Office for Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or the industrial safety division of your state labor department.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is a vast organization that offers a wide range of services and suggestions. From their website (www.cdc.gov/ niosh), you can download or order the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (NPG), a thorough reference for conscientious workers. Here’s a tip: You’ll be downloading dozens of small files—start with “pgdstart.htm” to find your way around. You’ll also find there a list of publications, safety alerts, and information on how you can query a specific problem. NIOSH can also be reached by phone at -- and by fax at --.

Firt-Aid Kit Ever notice how the importance of something changes according to need? At this moment a Band-Aid might be unnecessary and therefore far from your mind, but when you really need one, well, that’s not the time to go to the store. Here are some suggestions for supplies any jeweler will want someday. Take this list along to the drugstore or discount store the next time you go—it will feel good to have this taken care of. Besides, think how much it will shock your Mom. > > > > > > > > >



Appendix > Health & Safety

antiseptic spray or hydrogen peroxide (to prevent infection) asprin Band-Aids of various sizes, including fingertip shapes burn ointment earplugs eyewash liquid bandage styptic pencil tweezers (reserved for splinters and other medical chores)

Ventilation Ventilation As used in this book, ventilation refers to a powered movement of air. Opening a window is a pleasant thing to do on a sunny day, but it does not constitute ventilation. The size of your studio and the type and volume of fumes being produced will determine the scale of the blowers needed.

Push versus Pull It is helpful to understand that a pushing movement of air is about  times more powerful than a pulling motion. If a given volume of air can move a cotton ball from " away, that same volume of air as a vacuum will need to be only one inch from the ball to have the same effect. Whenever possible, push fumes away— sometimes a small fan is enough to clear the air.

Replacement Air

Respirators

It’s true: the universe abhors a vacuum. When you pull air out of your studio, the universe finds some new air to take its place. If you supply this, the task of pulling out the old air is much easier. In other words, before you try to draw fumes away, start by supplying fresh air from across the room.

Respirators filter air before it enters your system. They are generally considered less effective than active ventilation since they can be a little uncomfortable and are therefore too often set aside. A worthwhile respirator will have a canister or cartridge filter to chemically remove impurities. It will cost at least . • Look for the NIOSH seal of approval. • Choose a filter made for the danger to which you are exposed. • Your mask must make a tight and comfortable fit. • Change filters as needed. The filter is saturated when you notice odors entering the mask or have difficulty pulling in air. • If you have trouble breathing or have a history of respiratory illness, consult your doctor. Vent Hoods In a small shop, a vented stove hood may be adequate. You’ll find these at lumberyards or kitchen remodeling companies, where they might have used or scratched units at a reduced price.

Vent Tables A much better form of ventilation uses a vacuum system working at the level of the bench top. These pick up fumes before they have a chance to rise to the height of the operator’s face.

Appendix > Health & Safety > Ventilation



Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI) Repetitive Strain Injuries Repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) are a collection of problems centered in the arm, wrist, and fingers. As muscles tighten they can become starved for oxygen and overladen with acidic waste products that are normally carried away by the bloodstream. It appears that some people are more prone to RSIs than others. The impact of the activity does not appear to play a major role in the disease—typists and diamond setters are just as likely to suffer as bricklayers and blacksmiths.

Symptoms > tenderness and pain in your hands and arms. > tingling or numbness in your fingers. > loss of ability to grip objects securely. > sudden locking up of your fingers, hands, or arms.

Causes > repetitive actions, especially actions that are awkward and constricted. > tension and stress. > poor posture. Picture a bench jeweler in the weeks before Christmas and you have a snapshot of the problems—stress, fatigue, and repetition.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) This injury is named for a gap in the bones of the wrist that provides a passage for the median nerve, the central conduit for touch and muscle actions in the hand. Strain causes swelling of membranes and tendons in this region, which in turn, causes pain and numbness. Other specific forms of RSI are bursitis (shoulder), epicondylitis (tennis elbow), tendonitis, and tenosynovitis (trigger finger).

Carpal Tunnel Median Nerve



Appendix > Health & Safety > Repetitive Strain Injuries

RSI Exercises Prevention In many instances, small adjustments can have meaningful benefits. Here are a few examples of simple modifications you can make yourself. • wrap punches to make them fatter in the shank. • wear bicycle gloves when hammering. • use a padded bicycle handgrip on your sawframe and file handles. • place rubber pads in front of buffing machines and other places where you stand for extended times. Beyond a doubt, it is easier to prevent RSIs than to correct a problem once it appears. You don’t need expensive equipment or exotic drugs, but something a bit more challenging—the discipline to quit working periodically and relax. Think of your nerves like a garden hose. Hyperextending or hyperflexing your wrists puts a kink in the hose. Try to avoid these stressful postures. When you can’t avoid them, take frequent short breaks to restore blood flow.

> While sitting down, put your palm on your knee. Lift and hold each finger for a count of ; repeat for both hands.

> While sitting on the edge of a chair, straighten your spine, and hold your hands out to the side with your palms facing up. Imagine trying to grasp a ball between your shoulder blades.

> Hold your hands at your sides and shake them gently and repeatedly for  seconds. Time it—it’s longer than you might think.

> While standing, reach your hand over your head and down your back to touch your spine. Set your other hand on the elbow of the first (which will be above your head) and gently push it back and down. Repeat for the other arm.

> Put your hands on a table or desk and spread your fingers wide while you count to . Relax for a count of  and repeat.

Appendix > Health & Safety > RSI Exercises



Studio Chemicals Effect

Precaution

Headache, drowsiness, skin irritation. One of the least toxic solvents.

Adequate ventilation

Acetylene

Mild narcotic (intoxicant) in small doses. Large doses can cut off oxygen.

Use caution. Check equipment regularly for leaks. Have professionally repaired if found.

Ammonia

Irritant to eyes, caustic to lungs. Serious when in strong solution.

Use diluted with soap and water.

Most caustic of all acids

Mix carefully, with strong ventilation. Keep in glass, not tightly stoppered. Do not store in a small space. To dispose, return to distributor.

Asbestos

Made up of fibers the body cannot dissolve. A carcinogen whose effects take – years to develop.

Avoid it. Avoid it. Avoid it. Avoid it. Use substitutes.

Benzene

Intoxication, coma, respiratory failure.

Use alternative solvent. Avoid it!

Affects the brain, nervous system, lungs, kidneys.

Avoid if possible; use very good ventilation.

Dissolves fatty layer of skin. Causes liver and kidney damage.

Avoid if possible; ventilate, wear neoprene rubber gloves.

Oxides can irritate lungs, intestines, eyes and skin.

Ventilate when heating. Wear gloves when handling a lot, like when raising.

Mists inhaled or falling on skin are poisonous.

Ventilate well, wear protective clothing. No nude plating.

Fluorides

Can form hydrofluoric acid in the lungs.

Ventilate. Avoid breathing the fumes.

Lead

Damages brain, central nervous system, red blood cells, marrow, liver, kidneys. Fumes are especially dangerous.

Avoid if possible. Ventilate well. Minimize handling, wash hands after touching.

Ketones

Skin, eye and respiratory tract irritants. Can cause peripheral nerve damage.

Ventilate, wear appropriate respirator. Wear gloves.

Compound Acetone

Aqua Regia  part nitric acid  parts hydrochloric acid

Cadmium (solder ingredient)

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (epoxy solvent)

Copper Compounds Cyanides (used in plating)

Acetone, (lacquer thinner)



Appendix > Health & Safety > Studio Chemicals

Studio Chemicals Compound

Effect

Precaution

Liver of Sulfur

When heated to decomposition, it releases sulfur oxide fumes that react with moisture to form hydrogen sulfide. High concentrations of this can cause brain damage and suffocation.

Do not allow mixture to come to a boil. All coloring benefits can be obtained from a warm, not hot, solution.

Damages brain, nervous system and kidneys.

Avoid fumes and skin contact. Ventilate and wear gloves.

Skin irritant when hot.

Wear gloves, avoid heating to a boil.

Metal is safe but fumes (created when melting) can cause lung and skin irritation.

Ventilate.

Skin irritant. Some resins release toxic fumes when mixed with binders.

Wear gloves and ventilate. Store according to directions.

Absorbed into skin as vapor or dust, these can cause a disease called argyria. Silver dust in eyes can cause blindness.

Wear goggles, gloves, and a respirator.

Irritates skin and respiratory tract. Damages clothing.

Ventilate. Keep container covered. Do not mix stronger concentration than necessary. Neutralize with baking soda and water mixture.

Tellurium

Fumes generated in refining gold, silver, copper, and in welding. Irritates skin and gastrointestinal system.

Ventilate. Early symptom is “garlic breath” and a metallic taste in the mouth.

Toluene a.k.a. Toluol

Causes hallucination, intoxication, lung, brain, and red blood cell damage.

Avoid if possible. Ventilate well.

Skin irritant. Brain and lung damage possible.

Ventilate. Wear gloves.

Dust and fumes attack the central nervous system, skin, and lungs.

Ventilate and wear respirator.

(potassium sulfide)

Mercury Pitch Platinum Polyester Resins Silver Compounds Silver Chloride Silver Nitrate

Sulfuric Acid & Sparex (sodium bisulphate)

(substitute for benzene)

Turpentine Zinc Compounds

Appendix > Health & Safety > Studio Chemicals



Temperature Conversions

Who were those guys? Daniel Fahrenheit (–) was an instrument maker who worked in Amsterdam. In  he advanced the work of others to create an improved thermometer in which mercury was enclosed in a sealed glass tube. He developed a numeric scale based on body temperature and ice and salt mixture. Anders Celsius (-) was a Swedish scientist who made important contributions in astronomy, cartography, and geology. He devised a numerically symmetrical scale that assigned zero degrees to the boiling point of water, and  degrees to the temperature at which water freezes. After his death the scale was inverted. The same scale is also called centigrade.

Celsius to Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit to Celsius

> Multiply the degrees C times 9. > Divide this number by 5. > Add 32.

> Subtract 32 from the degrees F. > Multiply this number by 5. > Diivide by 9.

°C

°F

°C

°F

0

32

650

1202

50

122

675

75

167

100

°F

°C

°F

°C

32

0

1300

704

1247

100

38

1350

732

700

1382

150

66

1400

760

212

725

1337

200

93

1450

788

125

257

750

1382

250

121

1500

816

150

302

775

1427

300

149

1550

843

175

347

800

1470

350

177

1600

871

200

392

825

1517

400

204

1650

871

225

437

850

1562

450

232

1700

927

250

482

875

1607

500

260

1750

954

275

527

900

1652

550

288

1800

982

300

572

925

1697

600

316

1850

1010

325

617

950

1742

650

343

1900

1038

350

662

975

1787

700

371

1950

1066

375

707

1000

1832

750

399

2000

1093

400

752

1025

1877

800

427

2050

1121

425

797

1050

1922

850

454

2100

1149

450

842

1075

1967

900

482

2150

1177

475

887

1100

2012

950

510

2200

1204

500

932

1125

2057

1000

538

2250

1232

525

977

1150

2102

1050

566

2300

1260

550

932

1175

2147

1100

593

2350

1288

575

1067

1200

2192

1150

621

2400

1316

600

1112

1225

2237

1200

649

2450

1343

625

1157

1250

2282

1250

677

2500

1371

Software to automate these functions is available on CD in the Pro Plus Edition.



Appendix > Reference > Temperature Conversions

Melting Points Melting Points

1030

1945

1060

Copper

1981

1083

Nickel silver

2030

1110

Steel

2750

1511

Titanium

3272

1800

14K yellow gold

1476

802

18K yellow gold

1620

882

Sterling silver

1640

920

Fine silver

1762

961

Fine gold

1945

1063

Platinum

3225

1774

1000

1886

Bronze

1830

NuGold

900

954

1650

660

1749

800

1220

Yellow Brass

1470

Aluminum

700

327

1290

232

621

600

450

Lead

1110

Tin

500

260

932

250

500

400

480

Polymer clay burns

752

Wood burns

300

232

572

451

200

Paper burns

392

100

100

212

°C

212

Water boils

°F

Epoxy breaks down

Italics = alloys

0

 

 



0

Even if you don’t commit to memory all these numbers, it is helpful to have a general understanding of the relative melting points of various materials. Elements have fixed numbers (determined at sea level), but alloys and the miscellaneous materials below show approximations.

Appendix > Reference > Melting Points



Conversion Factors Converting one measurement to another We all know that  foot equals  inches—that’s the kind of conversion you can do with the numbers shown here. To convert the unit in bold to an alternate measurement, multiply by the number shown.

Software to automate these functions is available on CD in the Pro Plus Edition.



Carats (ct) to grains x 3.0865 to grams x 0.2 to milligrams x 200 Grains (gr) to carats x 0.324 to grams x 0.0648 to milligrams x 64.8 to ounce avoir. x 0.00228 to ounce troy x 0.00208 to pennywght x 0.04167 Grams (g) to carat x 5 to grains x 15.4324 to ounce avoir x 0.03527 to ounce troy x 0.03215 to pennywght x 0.64301 Kilograms (kg) to ounce avoir x 35.274 to ounce troy x 32.1507 to pennywght x 643.015 to lb. avoir x 2.2046 to lb. troy x 2.6792 Avoirdupois ounce (oz, avoir) to grains x 437.5 to grams x 28.3495 to ounce troy x 0.91146 to pennywght x 18.291 to lb, troy x 0.07595 Troy ounce (oz, troy) to grains x 480 to grams x 31.1035 to ounce avoir x 1.0971 to pennywght x 20 to pound avoir x 0.06857 US fluid ounces (US fl oz) to cu cm x 29.5737 to cu inches x 1.80469 to liters x 0.02957

Appendix > Reference > Conversion Factors

Pennyweights (dwt) to grains x 24 to grams x 1.5551 to ounce avoir x 0.05486 Pound avoirdupois (lb. avoir.) to grains x 7000 to grams x 453.59 to kilograms x 0.4536 to ounce troy x 14.5833 Pound troy (lb. troy) to gram x 373.242 to kilogram x 0.3732 to ounce avoir x 13.165 to ounce troy x 14.5833 to pound avoir x 0.82286 Feet (') to centimeters x 30.48 to meters x 0.3048 Meters (m) to feet x 3.2808 to inches x 0.03937 Inches (") to centimeters x 2.54 to meters x 0.0254 to millimeters x 25.4 Cubic centimeters (cu cm) to cubic inches x 0.061 to US fl oz x 0.0338 Cubic inches (cu in) to cu cm x 16.387 to liters x 0.01639 to US fl oz x 0.554 US gallons to liters x 3.785 to cubic inches x 231 to cubic feet x 0.1337 Liters (l) to US gallons x 0.2642 to US quarts x 1.0567

Relative Weights & Sizes Equivalent Numbers

Metal Conversions These factors allow you to calculate the weight of a known object in an alternate metal, as in “How much would this sterling ring weigh in 18K gold?” To change this: Sterling

Brass

18KY Gold

14KY Gold

Platinum

to this:

multiply by this:

B&S mm

inches

drill size

0

8.5

.325 ⁄

1

7.34

.289

⁄

2

6.52

.257

1⁄4

3

5.81

.229

⁄

1

4

5.18

.204 ⁄

6

5

4.62

.182

⁄

15

6

4.11

.162

⁄

20

7

3.66

.144

⁄

27

8

3.25

.128

1⁄8

30

9

2.90

.114

10

2.59

.102

11

2.31

.091

⁄

43

12

2.06

.081

⁄

46

18K gold 14K gold 10K gold platinum fine silver

1.48 1.248 1.104 2.046 1.015

18K gold 14K gold 10K gold fine silver sterling

1.885 1.589 1.406 1.273 1.21

13

1.83

.072

18KW gold 14K gold 10K gold platinum sterling

1.064 0.842 0.745 2.046 0.675

14

1.63

.064

15

1.45

.057

52

16

1.30

.051

54

17

1.14

.045

18K gold 14KW gold 10K gold fine silver sterling

1.157 1.035 0.884 0.791 0.801

18

1.02

.040

19

0.914

.036

20

0.812

.032

21

0.711

.028

67

18K gold 14K gold 10K gold fine silver sterling

0.722 0.625 0.528 0.494 0.483

22

0.635

.025

70

23

0.558

.022

71

24

0.508

.020

74

25

0.457

.018

75

26

0.406

.016

27

0.355

.014

78

28

0.304

.012

79

29

0.279

.011

80

30

0.254

.010

38

50 ⁄

⁄

51

55 56 60

1⁄3

⁄

Software to automate these functions is available on CD in the Pro Plus Edition.

Appendix > Reference > Relative Weights & Sizes

65

77



Elements & Alloys Metal or alloy Al Sb Bi 260 226 220 511 Cd Cr Cu Au 920 900 750 750 750 750 750 580 580 580 580 420 420 420 420 420 Fe Pd Mg Ni 752 Pd Pt Ag 925 800

Software to automate these functions is available on CD in the Pro Plus Edition.



Sn Ti Zn

Aluminum Antimony Bismuth Cartridge brass Jewelers brass Red brass Bronze Cadmium Chromium Copper Gold (fine) 22K yellow 22K coinage 18K yellow 18K yellow 18K green 18K rose 18K white 14K yellow 14K green 14K rose 14K white 10K yellow 10K yellow 10K green 10K rose 10K white Iron Lead Magnesium Monel Metal Nickel Nickel silver Palladium Old pewter Platinum Silver (fine) Sterling Coin silver Mild steel Stainless steel Tin Titanium Zinc

Appendix > Reference > Elements & Alloys

Au

Ag

Cu

Zn

Other 100 Al 100 Sb 100 Bi

70 88 90 96

30 12 10 4 Sn 100 Cd 100 Cr

100 100 92 90 75 75 75 75 75 58 58 58 58 42 42 42 42 42

4 4 10 15 10 121⁄2 121⁄2 25 5 20 25 Pd 25 35 10

17 7 32

12 7 58 10

41 48

42 Pd 5 3

48

33 65

100 921⁄2 80

17

58 Pd 100 Fe 100 Pb 100 Mg 60 Ni, 7 Fe 100 Ni 18 Ni 100 Pd 80 Pb,20 Sn 100 Pt

71⁄2 20 99 Fe, 1 C 91 Fe, 9 Cr 100 Sn 100 Ti 100

Melting Point

Sp.Grav.

660°C 1220°F 631 1168 271 520 954 1749 1030 1886 1044 1910 1060 1945 321 610 1890 3434 1083 1981 1063 1945 977 1790 940 1724 882 1620 904 1660 966 1770 932 1710 904 1660 802 1476 835 1535 827 1520 927 1700 786 1447 876 1609 804 1480 810 1490 927 1760 1535 2793 327 621 651 1204 1360 2480 1455 2651 1110 2030 1549 2820 304 580 1774 3225 961 1762 920 1640 890 1634 1511 2750 1371 2500 323 450 1800 3272 419 786

2.7 6.6 9.8 8.5 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.7 6.9 8.9 19.3 17.3 17.2 15.5 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.7 13.4 13.6 13.4 13.7 11.6 11.6 11.7 11.6 11.8 7.9 11.3 1.7 8.9 8.8 8.8 12.2 9.5 21.4 10.6 10.4 10.3 7.9 7.8 7.3 4.5 7.1

Weight-to-Size Chart Sheet Metal – Weight per square inch in ounces or pennyweights mm 6.54 5.19 4.11 3.26 2.59 2.05 1.63 1.29 1.02 0.813 0.645 0.511 0.404 0.330 0.254

inch .2576 .2043 .1620 .1285 .1019 .0808 0.0641 0.0508 0.0403 0.0320 0.253 0.0201 0.0154 0.0126 0.100

B&S

fine silver

sterling silver (oz)

(dwts)

(dwts)

(dwts)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

1.42 1.12 0.894 0.709 0.562 0.446 0.354 0.281 0.223 0.176 0.140 0.111 0.088 0.070 0.055

1.41 1.12 0.884 0.701 0.556 0.441 0.350 0.277 0.220 0.174 0.138 0.110 0.087 0.069 0.055

52.5 41.6 33.0 26.2 20.8 16.5 13.1 10.4 8.20 6.51 5.16 4.09 3.24 2.58 2.04

31.4 24.9 19.8 15.7 12.4 9.85 7.81 6.21 4.91 3.90 3.09 2.45 1.94 1.54 1.22

35.5 28.1 22.3 17.7 14.0 11.1 8.82 7.00 5.55 4.40 3.49 2.77 2.19 1.74 1.38

42.3 33.6 26.6 21.1 16.7 13.3 10.5 8.35 6.62 5.25 4.216 3.30 2.62 2.08 1.65

14K gold

18K gold

(oz)

fine gold

10K gold

14K gold

18K gold

(dwts)

fine platinum (oz)

2.91 2.31 1.83 1.45 1.15 0.913 0.724 0.574 0.455 0.361 0.286 0.227 0.180 0.143 0.113

Round Wire – Weight per foot in ounces or pennyweights mm 6.54 5.19 4.11 3.26 2.59 2.05 1.63 1.29 1.02 0.813 0.643 0.511 0.404 0.330 0.254

inch 0.2576 0.2043 0.1620 0.1285 0.1019 0.0808 0.0641 0.0508 0.0403 0.0320 0.025 0.0201 0.0154 0.0126 0.0100

B&S

fine silver

sterling silver (oz)

(dwts)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

3.45 2.17 1.36 0.856 0.541 0.339 0.214 0.135 0.085 0.053 0.034 0.021 0.013 0.008 0.005

3.41 2.14 1.35 0.848 0.534 0.335 0.211 0.132 0.084 0.053 0.033 0.021 0.013 0.008 0.005

128 80.1 50.4 31.6 20.0 12.6 7.78 4.96 3.11 1.96 1.23 0.775 0.488 0.306 0.193

(oz)

fine gold

10K gold

(dwts)

(dwts)

(dwts)

76.3 48.0 30.2 19.0 11.9 7.50 4.72 2.97 1.87 1.17 0.738 0.464 0.292 0.184 0.115

86.1 104 54.2 64.6 34.1 40.6 21.4 25.6 13.5 16.1 8.47 10.1 5.33 6.36 3.35 4.00 2.11 2.51 1.33 1.58 0.833 0.994 0.524 0.625 0.330 0.393 0.287 0.247 0.130 0.155

fine platinum (oz)

7.07 4.45 2.80 1.76 1.11 0.695 0.437 0.275 0.173 0.109 0.068 0.043 0.027 0.017 0.010

Appendix > Reference > Weight-to-Size Chart



Hardening Steel What Happens Steel that contains small amounts of carbon has the ability to transform into several states or crystal configurations that have different degrees of hardness, toughness, and springiness. Control over the formation of these states depends on the alloy used, the temperatures reached, and the rate of cooling. After working the steel into the desired shape, heat it to change its crystals into hard martensite. A second heat treatment is then needed to transform the steel into tough particles of cementite bonded in a matrix of relatively flexible ferrite.

Spark Test

Process

Before spending time on a tool, be sure you’re working with a hardenable material. Mild steel (also called low carbon steel) contains .–. carbon, an amount that is insufficient to cause hardening. To test an unknown piece of material, hold it against a grinding wheel. Mild steel gives dull, round, orange sparks, while tool steel throws bright, star-like sparks that split into multi-pointed bursts at the tip.

. Tool steel is sold in its annealed state, but if you are recycling a worn tool, the first step is to anneal it. Heat the steel to bright red and cool it as slowly as possible. Bury the hot steel in sand or ashes to achieve a slow cooling. A second-best alternative is to set a firebrick onto the hot steel to hold in the heat.

low carbon

medium carbon

high carbon tool steel

. Shape the tool by forging, sawing, grinding, and filing. Forging must be done while the steel is red hot. Do not strike after the color has gone or the steel may crack. When making a patterned tool such as a stamp, check the image by pressing it into clay. . Harden the tool by heating it to glowing red and quenching it immediately in oil or brine. Hold small tools in tweezers and set large pieces on a brick. Punches are usually hardened only an inch or two up from the stamping end. The goal here is to convert the pearlite stage into martensite. Because this phase is nonmagnetic, at proper temperature, a magnet will not stick. . Check for hardness by stroking a file across the tool. If the hardening was successful, the file will slide across the steel and make a glassy sound. . Remove the gray oxide scale with fine sandpaper so you will be able to see the colors of the next step.

Access Video Library on CD



. Reduce brittleness by heating in a step called drawing the temper (a.k.a. drawing or tempering). This can be done with a torch or, for small pieces, on a hot plate. Go slowly, letting heat travel from a thick section to a thinner one. The higher the temperature the more flexible the steel will become. This flexibility comes at the cost of hardness, however. The straw colored area at the tip has maximum hardness but it is also brittle. The blue area further down is less brittle, but not as hard.

Appendix > Summary > Hardening Steel

Photographing Jewelry Tips Photographing small reflective objects presents two problems. Because the camera is close to the work, depth of field becomes critical. To keep both the foreground and background in focus, it is necessary to keep the lens opening (f-stop) small, like f-. To allow enough light to reach the film through such a small opening, a long exposure time is needed. To keep the camera steady for the length of time required, use a tripod. To further reduce the risk of jiggling the camera, add a cable release. Most digital cameras include a setting for close-up work. Experiment to figure out which settings work for you. If all else fails, read the manual. It’s possible to shoot jewelry in daylight with the appropriate film, but greater consistency is possible when using lights. Flood lights are usually mounted in aluminum reflectors and should be covered with a diffusing material to spread the light outward. Tissue paper will work, but there is a fire hazard because the bulbs get hot. Frosted acrylic, cotton fabric, or sailcloth are better alternatives. To properly illuminate the work and avoid shadows, light should come from both sides and sometimes from above. Use pieces of white foam core to shield, shade, and bounce light. Very reflective objects are difficult to photograph because they mirror the objects around them. To avoid the reflection of the camera and photographer, shoot through a piece of white cardboard with a hole cut out for the lens.

Checklist

Scale

Background Material

. Set the object in place and arrange for the best angle and proper framing. . Add close-up rings or lenses to allow focusing. . Turn on the lights; correct shadows and hot spots. . Look for reflections. Figure out what they are and how to get rid of them. . Set a gray card (available from a photo dealer) into the field and take a reading on a light meter, either as a separate tool or the one built into the camera. Set the aperture at the highest number on your camera and adjust the shutter speed as required. . Double check the image. If it’s good, make the exposure.

Scale is important in translating an object into a photograph. In rare cases, a common object like a coin can be set beside the piece, but this usually creates a distraction. Instead, the relationship between the object and the picture area is used to provide a sense of scale.

It’s easy to forget that a close-up photo is like a magnifying glass. Materials that look good to the naked eye become a jungle of lint, lines, and flaws when viewed close up. Medium values of colored paper make good background surfaces. Color-Aid paper (available at an art supply store) is especially rich looking.

Photo Booth Stretch fabric or translucent paper over a frame; don’t let either get hot enough to ignite. Use a long piece of paper or fabric as backdrop, gently curved to avoid a line between the table and the wall. Adjust the height and angle of the lights for each object, tilting to show highlights and shadows.

Appendix > Summary > Photographing Jewelry



Copyright Basics Intellectual Property Laws Category Copyright

Description Protects writings, designs, expression, and images. This is a federal protection.

Example Mickey Mouse

More info Lib. of Congress, Copyright Office www.loc.gov/copyright

Trademark

A graphic image and/or words associated with a specific product.

Nike athletic equipment

US Patent and Trademark Office www.uspto.gov

Patent

Registered ownership of a device or process that is proven to be not obvious to others in the field.

When you invent a better mousetrap, you may patent it.

US Patent and Trademark Office www.uspto.gov

Trade Secrets

Similar to patent but easier to acquire. Often used while a patent is pending.

Can’t tell you. It’s a secret.

US Patent and Trademark Office www.uspto.gov

Copyright

Patents

Data

Copyright is the most familiar and inclusive of the forms of protection. Copyright is automatic as soon as a work is in a “fixed form”—typed, drawn, printed, etc. The © notation is not necessary but it is required before you file an infringement suit. In simple terms, a copyright says, “I made this up. It belongs to me and I have control over how it is used.” Unless you are specifically and clearly given permission or know that a work is in the public domain, it is always best to seek permission before you use something that you did not create.

Patents fall into two categories: utility (the way a widget works) and design (the way the widget looks). Patents are given only to twodimensional materials; not a clasp but a drawing of a clasp. Securing a patent is often a long and costly procedure because it is necessary to prove that no one has had the idea before. US Patents are in effect for either  years (design) or  years (utility) and are good only in the United States. To protect your ideas in other countries, you’ll need to acquire additional patents.

Facts and ideas cannot be protected, but the presentation of information can. Water boils at º F at sea level; this is a fact, and no one owns the information. If you create a unique chart to show this fact, you are entitled to protect the chart. In most cases, common sense is a good guide. If someone came up with something—a poem or a pendant —they probably don’t want you to take it. Would you, if you were the creator? At the very least, it is courtesy to ask permission.

Common Assumptions

> It doesn’t have a © mark so it’s okay to use it.

Wrong.

> I’m not making money on this, so it’s okay to use it.

Wrong.

> I got it off the Internet so all rights are waived.

Wrong.

> I’m using only a small portion for review or parody and I’ll make it clear I’m not the author/designer.

> Copyright is lost if you don’t defend it.

Okay. Wrong.

(This applies to trademarks.)

> If a work is reproduced for education, the usual copyright rules do not apply. (Many copyright holders, however, allow limited use in legitimate academic situations.)



Appendix > Summary > Copyright Basics

Wrong.

Rendering Templates How to use this page These templates will speed up the early stages of rendering a ring or bracelet in three-quarter view. Set a blank piece of paper on these outlines and draw over them.

Geometric Templates Circles are handy for drawing stones and ring interiors. Ovals are a common shape for gems, and are used when drawing round items in perspective. Regular forms like triangles, pentagons, and hexagons lend stability and precision to designs.

Perspective

Projection

This view, also known as “threequarter,” mimics the way we usually perceive objects. It does not convey data like measurements, but gives a good sense of a piece, especially to an untrained eye.

This view shows all angles in a headon view.

3

4

8 mm 9 mm

14 x 8 mm 20 mm

5 6

7

18 x 10 mm

28 x 7 mm

30 x 9 mm

10 mm

12 mm

15 mm

22 x 14 mm 25 x 18 mm 22 x 10 mm

The book Practical Jewelry Rendering is available on CD in the Pro Plus Edition.

Appendix > Summary > Rendering Templates



Circle Divider Use this tool to divide a circle into uniform parts. Center the work on the target below and make marks at the selected intervals. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

8 6

8 7

7

6 5

5

4, 8

4, 8 7

7

3, 6

3, 6 8

7

5

7

8

5

4, 6, 8 To Divide a Circle into Equal Parts 1. Draw diameter AB. 2. With A as center, and AB as A radius, scribe an arc. Repeat, with B as center. 3. With a ruler, divide AB into the desired number of parts. This example shows five. 4. Draw a line from C through the second division. 5. Step AD around the circle. Presto!



Making a Cone Pattern

D

Appendix > Reference > Circle Divider

B

C

C

. Draw an accurate side view of the cone. . Extend the sides to meet (D). . Set a compass with radius BD and scribe an arc. . Multiply AB times pi (.) and mark this distance along the arc BC. . Connect DC. The shaded portion is the pattern.

D

A

B

Studio Layout Templates This looks like fun Draw a floorplan (including doors, windows, and vents) of your studio space at a scale of 1⁄2"= 1 foot. Cut out this page (or a photocopy of it) and arrange the relevant pieces to create a layout that is efficient.

Kiln 18 x 18

Bench 18 x 36

Soldering Table 12 x 30

Rolling Mill 12 x 12

Hydraulic Press 12 x 12

Sink 20 x 14

Drawing/Design Table

12 x 30

Studio Layout Templates 1⁄2"= 1 foot

Sinks 30 x 14

Buffing Machine 12 x 30

Sanding Machine 12 x 24

Bookshelf 30 x 12

Flexshaft Lapidary Wheels 12 x 24

Bench Grinder 15 x 20

Sandblaster 20 x 20

Anvil

Bookshelf 30 x 10

Wax Pot

Vulcanizer

Bookshelf 30 x 8

Stump

Centrifugal Casting Machine

Stump

Vise

Appendix > Reference > Studio Layout Templates



Phase Diagrams Silver/Copper Phase Diagram A phase diagram is a graphic representation of the effects of heat on alloys of various proportions. The diagram shown here is for all possible mixtures of silver and copper. Phase diagrams for just about any alloy you can imagine are available in reference books at the library. 1100° C

1000

2012° F

B 1830

A

900

1650

800

1470

C 700

129 0

 

600

1110

500

930

400

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

750

Diagram by Joanne L. Murray; Used with permission.

% silver (balance copper)

The left edge represents  silver. The point marked A indicates its melting point as being ° F (.° C). The right edge represents  copper, whose melting point is shown at B. Reading across the graph, the percentage of copper is increased as the silver is decreased. Halfway across is an alloy of equal parts of the two metals. The bottom edge of the graph is the lowest temperature shown, in this case ° C. Each phase diagram will use different temperature ranges, choosing the range that is pertinent to the alloy being displayed. To fill in the graph, laboratory tests are made for many alloys, first a mixture of  parts silver to  part copper, then :, :, and so forth. These tests determine the temperature at which the alloy is no longer solid (the solidus) and the temperature at which it is total liquid (the liquidus). These are plotted on the graph and yield the freezing curve, shown here as the boundary between red and blue regions, dipping down to the left of center. This tells us that of all possible mixtures of these two metals, a combination of . silver and . copper has the lowest freezing point (° F, ° C). Sterling, an alloy of . copper and . silver, is indicated on the diagram by the vertical red line near the left edge: the graph shows that its melting point is ° F (° C). Alloys in the red zone at the top of the diagram are totally liquid, in the blue areas above the red line they are in a semi-solid or slushy state, and in the rest of the diagram they are completely solid. That most alloys can be slushy over a wide range of temperatures is important in their behavior during casting. Notice that in one area the metal passes directly from solid to liquid, at the point marked B. This is called the eutectic point. The presence of eutectic in the metal gives the Japanese alloy shibuichi its distinctive characteristics. The yellow portions on either end represent the solid solutions of silver in copper and copper in silver—these are true homogeneous alloys. In the wide range of alloys between the two solid solutions, alloys are inhomogeneous mixtures of the two kinds of particles.



Appendix > Silver-Copper Phase Diagram

Geometry Formulas Triangles

Sphere

Circle

Area of a surface = πr

A = π(r) or A = d (.) C = πd

πr V=

r



d

A = bh  h

d

b

Pyramid

Spherical Segment

Circular Section

A = sum of triangular sides V = Nsrh 

Area of a surface =  π r h

rl A= 2 πrø l= 180

l

r

h V = π h (r – 3 )

ø

h

h l

Circular Segment

Trapezoid

Cone

A = .[r l - c(r-h)]

Area of a surface = π r r + h

where l = . r ø

π r h V= 3

h c

h (a+b) 

a

h

h

r

r

A=

b

ø

Cylinder

Trapezium

Frustrum of a Cone

Area of surface =  π r l

Area of surface = π s (R+r)

V = π r l

V = π h (R + Rr + r)

A=

3

l

(H+h) a + bh + cH  a

s r

h

h

R

H b

Ellipse

Parallelogram

Parabola A=lr

A = π Dd

A = hb



r

d D

h

l b

Appendix > Reference > Geometry Formulas



Suggested Reading Amulets and Superstitions E. A. Wallis Budge Dover, New York,  (originally )

The Jewelry Engraver’s Manual Hardy & Allen Van Nostrand, New York, , 

Artists Anodizing Aluminum David LaPlantz Press de LaPlantz Bayside, CA, 

Jewelrymaking for Schools Tradesmen and Craftsmen, Murray Bovin Bovin, Forest Hills, New York, , 

Centrifugal or Lost Wax Jewelry Casting for Schools, Tradesmen and Craftsmen Murray Bovin Bovin, Forest Hills, New York, , rev.  Creative Casting Sharr Choate Crown, New York,  Creative Metal Clay Jewelry CeCe Wire Lark Books, Ashville, NC,  The Curious Lore of Precious Stones George Kunz Dover, New York,  (orig. ) Design and Creation of Jewelry Robert vonNeuman Chilton, Radnor, PA, , revised  Rings for the Finger George Kunz Dover, New York,  (orig. ) Foldforming Charles Lewton-Brain Brain Press Ltd. Alberta, Canada,  Form Emphasis For Metalsmiths Heikki Sëppa Kent State Univ. Press, Kent, Ohio,  The Jeweler’s Bench Reference Harold O’Connor Dunconor, Taos, NM, 



Appendix > Reference > Suggested Reading

Jewelry Manufacture and Repair Charles Jarvis Bonanza, New York,  Jewelry Workshop Safety Report Charles Lewton-Brain Brain Press Ltd. Alberta, Canada,  Ring Repair Alan Revere RAJA Press, San Francisco, CA,  Metalwork and Enameling Herbert Maryon Dover, New York,  (orig. ) Metal Techniques for Craftsmen Oppi Untracht Doubleday, Garden City, New York,  Jewelry, Concepts and Design Oppi Untracht, Doubleday, Garden City, New York,  Practical Goldsmithing Alan Revere Revere Academy Books, San Francisco,  Theory and Practice of Goldsmithing Erhard Brepohl, trans. Charles Lewton-Brain Brynmorgen Press, Maine,  The History of Beads Lois Sherr Dubin Harry N. Abrams, New York, 

On-Line Resources Resources on the Web It goes without saying that even as I write it, this page is going out of date. The Web offers an incredible wealth of information and inspiration for artists. Here are some sites that have been helpful for metalsmiths. Organizations

Magazines

Suppliers (also see the next two pages)

snagmetalsmith.org

Society of North American Goldsmiths

craftcouncil.org

American Craft Council

silversmiths.com

Society of American Silversmiths

PMCguild.com

Precious Metal Clay Guild

isgb.org

Int’l Society of Glass Beadmakers

abana,org

Artist/Blacksmith Association

copper.org

Copper Development Association

cdc.gov/niosh

Nat’l Institue for Occupational Safety

lapidaryjournal.com

Lapidary Journal

ajm-magazine.com

American Jewelry Manufacture

beadandbutton.com

Bead & Button

craftsreport.com

Crafts Report

bonnydoonengineering.com

Hydraulic presses and accessories

castaldo.com

Rubber mold materials

omega.com

Electronic devices, pyrometers, etc.

electricanvil.net

Miscellaneous metals information

parawire.com

Assortment of metal wires

AdvantageLumber.com

Wood

bereahardwoods.com

Wood and woodworking equipment

woodworkerssource.net

Wood and woodworking equipment

hearnehardwoods.com

Wood and woodworking equipment

shop.woodcraft.com

Wood and woodworking supplies

unitedpmr.com

United Precious Metal Refining Co.

tapplastics.com

Supplier of plastics and related supplies

orascoptic.com

Wearable microscopes (dentistry)

chainmailconnection.com

Chain mail information

artessentialsofnewyork.com

Gold leaf materials and instruction

goldleafcompany.com

Gold leaf

tsijeweltools.com

Handtools, beads, books, findings

Appendix > Reference > On-Line Resources



Suppliers Precious Metals

Jewelry Supplies



Allcraft Jewelry Supply 135 W 29th St. Room 402 New York, NY 10001

800-645-7124 212-279-7077 212-279-6886 fax

Contenti 123 Stewart St. Providence, RI 02903 contenti.com

800-343-3364 800-651-1887 fax 401-421-4040

Gesswein 255 Hancock Ave. PO Box 3998 Bridgeport, CT 06605 gesswein.com

800-243-4466 888-454-4377 fax 203-366-5400 203-366-3953 fax

Frei & Borel PO Box 796 126 Second St. Oakland, CA 94607 ofrei.com

800-772-3456 800-900-3734 fax 510-832-0355 510-834-6217 fax

Indian Jewelers Supply Co. 601 East Coal Ave. Gallup, NM 87302 ijsinc.com

David H. Fell & Co Inc 800-822-1996 6009 Bandini Blvd. 323-722-6567 City of Commerce, CA 90040 323-722-9992 fax dhfco.com Hauser & Miller Co Box 500700 St Louis, MO 63150 hauserandmiller.com

800-462-7447 800-535-3829 fax 314-487-1311

Hoover & Strong phone & fax 10700 Trade Road Richmond, VA 23236 hooverandstrong.com

800-759-9997

Myron Toback 25 West 47th St. New York, NY 10036 myrontoback.com

800-223-7550 212 398 8300 212-869-0808 fax

800-545-6540 888-722-4172 fax 505-722-4451 505-722-4172 fax

United Precious Metal 2781 Townline Road Alden, NY 14004 unitedpmr.com

800-999-3463 800-533-6657 fax

Metalliferous 34 West 46th St. New York, NY 10036 metalliferous.com

888-944-0909 212-944-0909 212-944-0644 fax

Non-Precious Metals

Rio Grande 7500 Bluewater Road NW Albuquerque, NM 87121 riogrande.com

800-545-6566 800-965-2329 fax 505-839-3300 505-839-3310 fax

William Dixon 750 Washington Ave. Carlstadt, NJ 07072 grobetusa.com

800-847-4188 800-243-2432 fax 201-935-0100

Appendix > Reference > Suppliers

804 794-3700 804-794-5687 fax

Admiral Steel L.P. 4152 W. 123rd St. Alsip, IL 60658-1869 admiralsteel.com

800-323-7055 708-388-9600 708-388-9317 fax

Bayshore Metals Inc. 244 Napoleon Street San Francisco, CA 94124 bayshoremetals.com

800-533-2493 415-647-7981 415-285-5759 fax

Reactive Metals Studio Box 890 Clarkdale, AZ 86324 reactivemetals.com

800-876-3434 928-634-3434 928-634-6734 fax

Suppliers Miscellaneous Specialties

Enamels

Arrow Springs 4301A Product Drive Shingle Springs, CA 95682 arrowsprings.com

800-899-0689 530-677-1400 530-677-1600 fax

Thompson Enamel 650 Colfax Avenue Bellevue, KY 41073 thompsonenamel.com

800-545-2776 859-291-3800 859-291-1849 fax

Centaur Forge 117 N. Spring Street Burlington, WI 53105 centaurforge.com

800-666-9175 262-763-9175 262-763-8350 fax

Bovano of Cheshire 830 S. Main Cheshire, CT 06410-3410

800-847-3192 203-272-3208 203-250-7527 fax

Harbor Freight Tools 3491 Mission Oaks Blvd. Camarillo, CA 93011 harborfreight.com

800-423-2567 800-905-5220 fax 805-388-3000

Enamel Emporium 1221 Campbell Road Houston, TX 77055

713-984-0552 713-984-1586 fax

Enamelwork Supply Co. 1022 NE 68th Seattle, WA 98115

800-596-3257 206-525-9271 206-526-5795 fax

Frantz Art Glass & Supply E. 1222 Sunset Hill Rd. Shelton, WA 98584 frantzartglass.com

360-426-2643 360-427-5866 fax

J. I. Morris Company 508-764-4394 394 Elm Street 508-764-7350 fax Southbridge, MA 01550 jimorris.thomasregister.com Northwest Pitchworks 360-715-1772 1317 Roland Street Bellingham, WA 98226 northwestpitchworks.com Small Parts 13980 NW 58th Court PO Box 4650 Miami Lakes, FL 33014 smallparts.com

800-220-4242 800-423-9009 fax 305-557-7955 305-558-0509 fax

Gun Bluing source:

Birchwood Laboratories, Inc. 800-328-6156 7900 Fuller Road 952-937-7931 Eden Prairie, MN 55344 952-937-7979 fax birchwoodcasey.com

Appendix > Reference > Suppliers



Index

abrasives, – acids,  adhesives,  air compressors,  alginate,  alloy(s),  amount of gold in,  common, ,  components of aluminum,  easily fusible,  and elements, melting points and specific gravities of,  eutectic,  Japanese,  metals used for steel,  popular,  soldering,  suitable for depletion gilding,  aluminum,  anodizing, – annealing defined,  glass,  wire,  anodizing,  aluminum, – reactive metals, – anticlastic raising, – control of,  antler,  anvils,  argyria,  bails,  basket settings,  basse-taille,  beads attaching,  stringing,  belt buckles,  belt sanders,  bench



Index

       ,       .       ,              .

accessories,  building advanced jeweler’s, – building basic jeweler’s, – grinder,  knife,  pin, ,  vise,  bezels,  basic,  fancy, – interior and partial,  problem solving,  thick,  birthstones,  bits, drill,  blades, spiral,  bone,  bossing. See shallow forming brass,  brazing,  Britannia silver,  bronze,  buffing, – burins. See gravers burnishers, ,  burnishing a groove,  hand,  machine, – burnout,  cabochons easy setting for,  raised bezels for round or oval,  carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS),  casting centrifugal,  double metal,  glass,  lost wax process, – molds and hollow, 

problem solving,  sand, – sling,  steam,  stones in place,  thermosetting plastics,  using molds, – vacuum,  water,  catches. See also clasps basic box,  friction,  hinge-based,  for pins,  spring,  telescoping pin,  threaded, – trick,  variations of box,  Celsius, Anders,  centrifugal casting,  chains, – basic loop-in-loop, – basics of making,  cable,  chain mail, – curb,  double loop-in-loop, – foldover,  idiot’s delight,  loop-in-loop mesh,  mesh from coils,  Pantera,  sailor’s,  terminals for,  unsoldered, – woven,  champlevé,  channel setting,  chasing,  hammers,  chemicals, studio, – chisels,  chuck keys, 

       ,       .       ,              .

circle divider,  clamps,  clasps. See also catches assorted, – barrel,  hinges as,  lentil,  specialty,  cloisonné,  coefficient of expansion (COE),  cold connections rivets, – tabs,  threaded,  wire wrapping,  collars, ,  collar settings,  collets,  compounds,  ill effects and precautions for using, – contamination niello,  of platinum,  by white metals,  conversions metal, calculating weight in alternate metal,  of one measurement to another,  relative weights and sizes,  temperature,  copper,  plating, simple,  role of, in reticulation,  /silver phase diagram,  copyrights,  basics pertaining to,  crimping,  crown settings,  crystals, ,  cuff links,  cutting dies, . See also dies cuttlefish, –

dapping,  deformation,  degree gauge,  depletion gilding, ,  depth of field,  dichroic glass,  die forming, – hydraulic,  dies brittleness of,  cutting,  defining,  forming, – press, ,  steel silhouette,  using threading,  wooden,  diffusion,  in mokumé,  dividers, ,  double metal casting,  drawbench,  drawplates,  homemade,  draw tongs,  drilling,  pearls,  drills,  dust,  earrings findings for,  tension spring clasp for,  elastic deformation,  electroforming,  electrolyte cleaning,  electroplating,  history of,  nickel used in,  electrostripping,  electrum,  Elkington, G.R.,  embedding

Index

materials into metal clay,  objects in plastic,  enameling champlevé,  cloisonné and basse-taille,  equipment,  full coat,  materials,  plique-á-jour,  process, – sgraffito and full coat,  engraving, – types of,  etching, – low-tech photo-,  eutectic bonding,  exhaust tables,  Fahrenheit, Daniel,  fibulas,  files,  scoring with,  tips for using,  filing,  findings bead tips,  earring,  pin, – firescale,  around overlay,  protecting against,  first-aid kit, . See also safety flange, around die-formed shape,  flexible shaft machines, , ,  fluxes, ,  metal-laden,  foil,  foldforming, – folds, types of, – forging,  forms, hollow. See shell structures French loops,  fumes, dangerous Index



Index

flux,  from niello,  produced by white metals,  released by heat created by machining,  from thermosetting plastics,  wax,  from working with gold ingots,  fusion,  glass,  metal clay,  gas bubbles, during etching,  gauge plate,  gems. See also stones general information, – laboratory-grown,  list (in alphabetical order), – stress reduction for corners of rectangular,  summary chart,  geometry formulas,  gilding depletion,  with gold and silver leaf,  glass, . See also enameling gold, – in keum-boo,  solders,  using pickle to clean karat,  gold-filled,  gold leaf, ,  granulation, – gravers,  handles for,  sharpening,  styles of,  grinders,  grip, importance of proper,  for investment,  on mountings,  when holding gravers, 



Index

       ,       .       ,              .

gypsy settings,  hammering table, design for building,  hammers,  chasing,  for planishing,  handles,  file,  graver,  hardening steel, ,  sterling,  hard wax, – hinges, , – basic,  cradle,  interior, or hidden,  pin spring,  silversmith’s,  spring,  standoff,  tension,  three-part,  tips for making,  use of leather for,  holding strap,  hones,  hydraulic press,  implants,  inlay, – intellectual property laws,  investing, – investment, – soldering,  using cores,  for working with platinum,  investment soldering,  iron, 

jaw protectors,  jeweler’s bench. See bench jewelry photographing,  suppliers, – use of paper as material for,  jigs angle cutting,  bending,  forging,  miter cutting,  pearl holding,  tube-cutting,  joining aluminum,  thermoplastics,  jump rings, making,  karat determining,  purity of,  keum-boo,  kilns, ,  for metal clay,  Kunz, George Frederick,  lacquer,  lapidary,  lashing,  layout,  careful, for engraving,  templates for studio,  tools,  lead, ,  leather,  lenses,  Lewton-Brain, Charles,  lost wax process, – burnout,  calculating the charge,  equipment and supplies,  hard wax, –

Index

       ,       .       ,              .

investing, – models,  soft wax, – sprues and spruing,  loupe,  lubrication for drawplates, ,  to speed sawing,  machines buffing, – finishing, – improved milling,  sandblasting,  sanding, ,  ultrasonic, ,  magnets,  magnification,  malleability factors determining,  of gold,  vacancies, contributing to,  mallets, ,  raising with,  mandrels, ,  masking,  media, tumbling,  melting points,  of elements and alloys,  metal clay, – firing equipment,  laboratory-grown gems used with,  slip,  using torch with,  metallurgy, – micrometer,  microscopes,  models arranging sprues for,  for lost wax process,  Mohs scale of hardness,  mokumé, 

molds cured,  cutting,  cuttlefish, – and hollow castings,  ingot and charcoal,  plaster,  release and holding of,  reusable,  vulcanized,  mordants. See acids National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), ,  nickel,  nickel silver,  niello, – applying,  making,  niobium,  Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),  omega clips,  on-line resources,  organic materials,  overlay, – setting,  oxidation,  in patinas,  protecting against,  resistance of platinum to,  paint, for metals,  paper,  patents,  patinas methods for applying, – preparation and preservation, –

recipes for, – patterned rollers,  pavé,  pearls, attaching,  pedestal-prong settings,  pendant bails,  pen plating,  pewter,  phase diagrams,  photoetching, low-tech,  pickles, ,  in depletion gilding,  piercing,  Pinchbeck, Christopher,  pins catches for,  findings for, – tension spring clasp for,  planishing,  plastic deformation,  plastics, – rivets made from,  specific gravity,  plating, simple copper,  platinum,  pliers,  rack,  setting prongs with,  plique-á-jour,  polishing cloths,  precious metal clay (PMC). See metal clay prongs,  of different sizes,  pearls and soft stones in,  punches, ,  dapping,  putty,  raising, – anticlastic, – reactive metals,  anodizing, – Index



Index

reading, suggested,  recrystallization,  repetitive stress injuries (RSIs),  exercises,  simple modifications for prevention of,  symptoms and causes,  replacement air, ,  repoussé, – resins,  resists,  respirators, , ,  reticulation,  rhodium,  rhombus,  rifflers,  rings carving,  establishing size for,  pliers for forming,  rivets, – basic,  special, – roll printing,  room temperature vulcanizing (RTV),  rouge,  rubber,  rulers,  rust prevention,  safety. See also fumes, dangerous; toxicity anodizing,  buffing,  drilling,  etching,  eye care,  health, and common sense,  magnets and,  marking food containers used for chemicals,  when mixing investment, 



Index

       ,       .       ,              .

niello contamination,  precautions for compounds, – and thermosetting plastics,  torch,  using pickles,  with wax,  sandblasters,  sandblasting, ,  sanders,  sanding machines, ,  sticks and boards, ,  saw blades, ,  holders for,  sawframes, ,  sawing, ,  scientific notation,  scoring,  tools,  scrapers,  hollow,  scraping,  scratchbrushes, ,  seaming,  settings. See also bezels; stonesetting from behind,  channel,  collar,  collet and crown,  gypsy,  pavé,  pedestal-prong,  rectangular,  specialty,  square or rectangular frames for,  tube,  turtle and basket,  sgraffito,  shaku-do,  shallow forming,  shears, , 

shell structures,  shibu-ichi,  silver, –. See also tarnish /copper phase diagram,  silver leaf, ,  sinking,  sliding calipers,  sling casting,  snips,  soft wax, – solder,  inlay,  preparation,  seams, in raising,  stops,  soldering,  alloys,  hard. See brazing investment,  methods,  and mokumé,  rules for,  surfaces,  specific gravities,  of elements and alloys,  spiculum bending,  curved double,  making,  spring pins,  springs, ,  sprues, ,  spruing, ,  stakes,  sinusoidal,  stamping,  staples, tabs and,  Stark, Jean, , ,  steam casting,  steel, . See also welding hardening,  step bit,  sterling,  using pickle to clean, 

       ,       .       ,              .

stones. See also gems casting,  channel setting,  rectangular, ,  round,  setting heat sensitive,  soft, in prongs,  stonesetting. See also settings tips,  tools,  stretching,  stringing,  stropping,  sweeps,  drawer,  tabs, ,  in seaming,  in turtle settings,  tapered spindles,  taps,  tarnish caused by rubber,  prevention,  removal, ,  resistance, use of rhodium for,  temperature conversions,  indicators,  tempering, glass,  templates rendering,  studio layout,  terminals, for chains and cords,  textures in reticulation,  using metal clays to capture,  thermoplastics,  thermosetting plastics,  coloring,  as holding materials for engraving,  threaded connections, 

thrumming,  titanium,  tools, – bench accessories,  bending,  chasing,  cutting, – dapping,  hand,  holding,  layout,  making carving, for hard wax casting,  planishing,  pushing, , . See also gravers raising,  for repoussé,  rust prevention,  sinking,  stonesetting,  tube cutting and scoring,  wire drawing,  torches, , ,  torque,  toxicity of ammonia and bleach,  of solvent and glue vapors,  tube(s) bending,  cutting,  making,  setting,  tubemaking,  tumbling, – media,  solutions,  with steel shot, for hardening,  turtle settings,  tusk,  ultrasonics, ,  urethanes, 

Index

vacancies, ,  vacuum casting,  method of investing,  vaporization,  vent hoods,  ventilation, , , ,  push vs. pull, ,  when using fluxes,  for wax fumes,  vent tables, ,  verdigris,  vernier,  vises,  pin, ,  Voluntary Product Standard,  vulcanizer,  wax,  hard, – injecting,  soft, – wax injecting,  weight(s) relative, and sizes,  -to size chart,  welding,  white metals,  contamination of,  whittling,  wire French,  gallery,  prepared, for cable chains,  tips when using,  wrapping,  wire drawing,  tools,  wood,  work-hardening,  copper,  defined, 

Index



Complete Metalsmith Student Edition Compact, efficient, and durable. This condensed version is designed for entry level metalsmiths with limited resources. Like the other editions, this book uses the one-topic-to-a-page format that puts information at your fingertips. >  pages > plastic cover > full color > spiral bound to lay flat

Professional Edition Almost three times larger than the original  edition of The Complete Metalsmith, this book has everything of the earlier version, plus more. New materials include a chapter on color, new techniques, additional resources, more chains, and color illustrations of gems. >  pages > full color > fabric hardcover > flap and elastic band to hold notes

Pro Plus Edition This edition moves this popular book into the st century with an electronic version that takes advantage of the latest technology. This bundle includes the printed Professional Edition, plus a CD that contains: > the full text of Complete Metalsmith as a searchable and printable PDF. > video clips merged into the text. > computational software for handheld PDAs and desktop computers. > the full text of Practical Jewelry Rendering. > a specially created electronic edition of the popular book, Design Language. > all the software needed to use this CD on both PC and Macintosh computers.

Also by Tim McCreight Metalworking for Jewelry Practical Casting Custom Knifemaking Metals Technic (editor) Practical Jewelry Rendering Design Language Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing Metalsmith’s Book of Boxes Color on Metal Working with Precious Metal Clay Theory & Practice of Goldsmithing (editor)

This book was composed in InDesign . on a Macintosh G computer. Brynmorgen Press is proud to premier this font, Expo Sans, designed by Mark Jamra. Printed in Hong Kong by Elegance Printing.

Quotations used in Complete Metalsmith and Design Language collected by Tim McCreight

from The smith also sitteth by the anvil, and fighteth Complete Metalsmith with the heat of the furnace, and noise of the hammer and the anvil is ever in his ears, and his eyes look still upon the pattern of the thing that he maketh. He setteth his mind to finish his work, and waiteth to polish it perfectly. — Ecclesiasticus Overhand the hammers swing, overhand slow, overhand so sure, They do not hasten each man hits in his place. — Walt Whitman What we see depends mainly on what we look for. — John Lubbock Ugly things are ugly in much the same way the world over. — Bruno Munari Truth is something you stumble into when you think you’re going some place else. — Jerry Garcia Look for points in common which are not points of similarity, it is thus that the poet can say, “A swallow stabs the sky,” and turns the sparrow into a dagger. — George Braque Creativeness often consists of merely turning up what is already there. Did you know that the right and left shoes were thought up only a little more than a century ago? — Bernice Fitz-Gibbon Mastery doesn’t interest me—there is a world full of virtuosos. I like to work as if I’m at the beginning. — Betty Oliver The more I design, the more certain I am that elimination is the secret of beauty. — Gustav Stickley Criticism comes easier than craftmanship. — Zeuxius Do what you can, with what you have, where you are. — Theodore Roosevelt

I am not yet so lost in lexicography as to forget that words are daughters of earth, and that things are the sons of heaven. — Samuel Johnson My play was a complete success. The audience was a failure. — Ashleigh Brilliant This is how I try to define design, as having to do with how things fit — how things fit the hand, how furniture fits the body, how people fit in buildings, and how buildings fit the landscape. Design, most of the time, is about finding this sense of fit between people, places and things. — Akiko Busch When we live in awareness, we can see miracles everywhere. — Thich Nhat Hann There ain’t any answer. There ain’t going to be any answer. There never has been an answer. That is the answer. — Gertrude Stein There’s process and there’s product. If you’re too concerned about product, it can get in the way of process. — Mike Meyers All the really good ideas I ever had came to me while I was milking a cow. — Grant Wood We can’t all and some of us don’t. That’s all there is to it. — A.A. Milne Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it. — Confucius Without any doubt good and accurate use of files comes from practice and more practice. — Charles Jarvis Blunder ahead with your own personal view. — Robert Henri Less is only more where more is no good. — Frank Lloyd Wright

2

All things change according to the state we are in. Nothing is fixed. — Robert Henri This old anvil laughs at many a broken hammer. — Carl Sandburg By the hammer and hand, all the arts do stand. — traditional What looks good can change, but what works, works. — Ray Eames I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. — Chinese proverb When you get a thing the way you want it, leave it alone. — Winston Churchill The inner life of a human being is a vast and varied realm and does not concern itself alone with stimulating arrangements of color, form, and design. — Edward Hopper The afternoon knows what the morning never suspected. — Swedish Proverb Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it kills all its pupils. — Hector Berlioz

from Design Language The universe is full of magical things patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper. — Eden Philpots The pursuit of truth and beauty is a sphere of activity in which we are permitted to remain children all our lives. — Albert Einstein I exist as I am, that is enough. — Walt Whitman

In iron we possess a substance from which can be made the thick, heavy ribs of the vessel of war, the slender blade of the surgeon’s knife, or the exquisitely artistic leaf work of the chancel screen. — Paul Hasluck Learning stamps you with its moments. It isn’t steady. It’s a pulse. — Eudora Welty It ain’t what you do, it’s the way that you do it. — Sy Oliver & James Young It takes a long time to become young. — Pablo Picasso Gaiety in objects, enjoyment in their construction, in making them work—this to me seems very important. — Olivier Mourgue The one serious conviction that a man should have is that nothing is to be taken too seriously. — Samuel Butler It is often said, “The public does not appreciate art!” Perhaps the public is dull, but there is just a possibility that we are also dull, and that if there were more motive, wit, human philosophy, or other evidences of interesting personality in our work the call might be stronger. — Robert Henri

Be yourself, because somebody has to, and you’re the closest. — Jack Kent Speak to the earth and let it teach you. — Job 12: 8 You must have the Devil in you to succeed in any of the Arts. — Voltaire

3

There is no abstract art. You must always start with something. — Pablo Picasso Written truth is four-dimensional. If we consult it at the wrong time, or read it at the wrong pace, it is as empty and shapeless as a dress on a hook. — Robert Grudin The worlds about us would be desolate except for the worlds within us. — Wallace Stevens The traveler sees what he sees, the tourist sees what he has come to see. — Gilbert K. Chesterton What I dream of is an art of balance, of purity and serenity… something like a good armchair. — Walt Kelly A thing is not beautiful because it is beautiful, as the he-frog said to the she-frog, it is beautiful because one likes it. — Bruno Munari To avoid criticism, do nothing, say nothing, be nothing. — Elbert Hubbard Perplexity is the beginning of knowledge. — Kahlil Gibran

They are able because they think they are able. — Vergil The truth is more important than the facts. — Frank Lloyd Wright There’s no where you can be that isn’t where you were meant to be. — Lennon and McCartney As knowledge increases, wonder deepens. — Charles Morgan Never lose a holy curiosity. — Albert Einstein I am trying to check my habits of seeing, to counter them for the sake of greater freshness. I am trying to be unfamiliar with what I’m doing. — John Cage If you want someone to listen to what you’re saying, whisper it. — Cynthia Copeland Lewis The work of craft is a fine example of the work of life, our universal obligation. — Carla Needleman ‘Tis with our judgments as our watches, none Go just alike, yet each believes his own. — Alexander Pope God lives in the details.

Silence can be an answer. — Cynthia Copeland Lewis Chance favors the prepared mind. — Louis Pasteur The heart has eyes which the brain knows nothing of. — Charles H. Perkhurst The arrangements we make are either pleasing or not pleasing. An explanation is not necessary. — Kenneth Bates Living is an everyday business. Coming to life is strange and beautiful. — Sister Judith Savard There is no wisdom like frankness. — Benjamin Disraeli

— Mies van der Rohe When you cannot make up your mind which of two evenly balanced courses of action you should take—choose the bolder. — W. J. Slim Design is the conscious and intuitive effort to impose meaningful order. —Victor Papanek He who does not understand your silence will probably not understand your words. — Elbert Hubbard We design, and we have designs on. Maybe the difference is between discovering order and imposing order. I think the former is a good thing, and the latter isn’t, necessarily. — Robley Wilson, Jr.

4

There is no such thing as empty space; there’s always something to see. — John Cage My imagination takes its strength and guides its direction from what I see and hear and learn and feel and remember of my living world. — Eudora Welty Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. — Albert Einstein Design can be on turbid days what sonar is to bats at night. It is a way to transmit signs, to ricochet symbols outside ourselves, and by that to locate the edges of things. — Roy Behrens Don’t look for meaning in the words. Listen to the silences. — Samuel Beckett Whatever feeling, whatever state you have at the time of making the line will register in the stroke. — Robert Henri Even a brick wants to be something. — Louis Kahn Originality is nothing but judicious imitation. — Voltaire We think by ignoring — or by attending to one term of a relationship (the figure) and neglecting the other (the ground). — Alan Watts The principal mark of genius is not perfection but originality. — Arthur Koestler Discontinuity and fragmentation are part of the deep structure of modern culture. — O.B. Hardison, Jr. Nothing is beautiful that is not useful; nothing is useful that is not beautiful. — Japanese saying

Perhaps the most radical change that has occurred in the history of theoretical thinking is the switch from the atomistic conception of the world as an assembly of circumscribed things to that of a world of forces acting in the dimension of time. These forces are bound to organize themselves in fields, interacting, grouping, connecting, fusing, and separating. — Rudolf Arnheim Gesture is expressive of the artist’s relationship to both subject and medium. Spontaneous gestures convey an immediate and intuitive manner of working, while a more contained gesture suggests a staid, methodical approach. — Jonathan Block It is respectable to have no illusions, and safe, and profitable and dull. — Joseph Conrad Like takes to like.

— Homer

I want to start living my life in grace and harmony. — Kurt Vonnegut We think in generalities, but we live in detail. — Alfred North Whitehead Computers are useless. They only give answers. — Pablo Picasso Good design is whatever addresses the need a society has for an image of itself. — Ettore Sottsass, Jr. Design is not invention. It is sensitivity. — Carla Needleman Sight is a promiscuous sense. The avid gaze always wants more. — Susan Sontag Every artist knows that he is engaged in an encounter with infinity, and that work done with heart and hand is ultimately worship of Life itself. — Sôetsu Yanagi

5

To be a master of the metaphor is a sign of genius, because a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity between dissimilar things. — Aristotle I’m getting better at playing the silences. — Glenn Gould If I have ever made any valuable discoveries, it has been owing more to patient attention, than to any other talent. — Isaac Newton There is nothing new in art except talent. — Anton Chekov God made everything out of nothing. But the nothingness shows through. — Paul Valéry No one looks at the thing itself anymore. We look at what the thing does, at the traces it leaves behind. — Nick Samios Everything on earth is somehow related but rarely do we see it that way. We see and study it in bits and pieces; our world seems fleeting and fragmentary, and often, so do we. — Philip Carlo Paratore What happens to the hole when the cheese is gone? — Bertolt Brecht Standing in the middle of a quiet room in a quiet house while, like a curtain, the silent snow fell at every window. I heard all that quiet. It made noise. — Doris Grumbach Every movement is both action and reaction as, in the human body, each movement involves a set of muscles, adductor and extensor. Without movement and return, action is frantic and misguided, tense and unrhythmical. — Carla Needleman Confusion is a word we have invented for an order that is not yet understood. — Henry Miller

Art need not be intended. It comes inevitably as the tree from the root, the branch from the trunk, the blossom from the twig. None of these forget the present in looking backward or forward. They are occupied fully with the fulfillment of their own existence. — Robert Henri Don’t worry about your originality. You could not get rid of it even if you wanted to. It will stick to you and show you up for better or worse in spite of all you or anyone else can do. — Robert Henri The purpose of good design is to ornament existence, not to substitute for it. — George Nelson The happiest people are not the people without problems. They are the people who know how to solve their problems. — Robert Schuller To divine the significance of pattern is the same as to understand beauty itself. — Sôetsu Yanagi Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results. I know several thousand things that don’t work. — Thomas Edison Quality is not an act. It is a habit. — Aristotle We shape clay into a pot, But it is the emptiness inside That holds whatever we want. — Lao-tzu (Tao Te Ching) The only road to authenticity lies through what has already been done. There is no deep art without deep historical awareness. — Robert Hughes Creativity requires the willingness and ability to declassify and restructure information and experience. — Philip Carlo Paratore Without roots, they ain’t no fruits. — Willy Dixon

6

Every act of creation is first an act of destruction. — Pablo Picasso The mysterious law of rhythm seems to be a universal law, since rhythm is coordinated movement, and movement is life, and life fills the universe. — Henri Herz The artist recognizes existing relationships and arrests them. — Louise Nevelson Things good and generous take form in me, and the air is clear. — Jelaluddin Rumi Good poems are not made of strong emotions, they are made of words. — W. H. Auden Who can say what is a good shape or an ugly shape? It comes back to function. It is a good shape for that purpose, or it is ugly in that relationship. The contours of a good shape will have meaning, emphasis, balance ,and rhythm. — Kenneth Bates Beauty is not caused. It is. — Emily Dickinson To travel hopefully is better than to arrive. — Sir James Jeans I’m not trying to imitate nature, I’m trying to find the principles she’s using. — Buckminster Fuller Emotion is not something shameful, subordinate, second-rate; it is a supremely valid phase of humanity at its noblest and most mature — Joshua Loth Liebman The role of art is not to give us pleasure, but rather to present us with something that we did not know before. — Otto Baensch Beautiful things are valuable and useful precisely because they are beautiful. — John Ruskin

In kindergarten we drew three daffodils that had just been picked out of the yard; and while I was drawing, my sharpened yellow pencil and the cup of the yellow daffodils gave off whiffs just alike. That the pencil doing the drawing should give off the same smell as the flower it drew seemed part of the art lesson. Children, like animals, use all their senses to discover the world. Then artists come along and discover it the same way, all over again. — Eudora Welty One repays a teacher badly if one always remains a pupil. — Friedrich Nietzche One never uses the rules, one only feels them. — John Ruskin A man learns to skate by staggering about making a fool of himself; indeed, he progresses in all things by making a fool of himself. — George Bernard Shaw His writing had the texture of whipped cream. And unfortunately, about as much meaning. — Bill Smith How sour sweet music is When time is broke, and no proportion kept! So is it in the music of men’s lives. — William Shakespeare The only thing constant is change. —traditional Life is essentially playful. Of course, it plays a bit rough at times. —Tom Robbins The task of artists… is to organize elements into a comprehensible whole…by simplifying, organizing and unifying. — Kenneth Bates The pattern satisfies me, and what more do I want? — Louise Nevelson My advice, in the midst of the seriousness, is to keep an eye out for the tinker shuffle, the flying of kites, and kindred sources of amusement. — Jerome Bruner