Fermented.pdf

Fermented

a four-season approach to Paleo probiotic foods

Jill Ciciarelli

VICTORY BELT PUBLISHING INC. Las Vegas

To my family, my guys, and my BTBuddies

First Published in 2013 by Victory Belt Publishing Inc. Copyright © 2013 Jill Ciciarelli All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher. ISBN 13: 978-1-628600-02-5 This book is for entertainment purposes. The publisher and author of this cookbook are not responsible in any manner whatsoever for any adverse effects arising directly or indirectly as a result of the information provided in this book. RRD 01-13

Foreword I first met Jill at a book-release party for our mutual friends Hayley Mason and Bill Staley, better known to many as the Food Lovers. Their book Make It Paleo had just hit bookstores, and we were there to celebrate with the couple. Jill and I quickly bonded. We talked about our mutual desire to help people connect their current state of health with what goes into their bodies every day. Not long after that, Jill became a casual recipe-tester for my book, Practical Paleo, and any time I made a big enough batch of something to share with a small group, I invited Jill over to chow down. Jill is a Certified Holistic Health Coach, and as we continued to talk about our approaches to working with clients and our foundational beliefs about food and fitness, I quickly realized that Jill had an intense passion for … all things fermented! And I discovered that not only was Jill passionate about the subject, but she was a tenacious experimenter and researcher and was rapidly becoming quite the expert on fermentation. Jill became my go-to for anyone asking about the details of making kombucha, sauerkraut, or anything related that crossed the inquiring minds of my readers. What I love about Jill is that she continually builds upon her solid view of what it takes to be healthy—eating real, whole foods—by delving deeper and deeper into traditional methods of ensuring optimal health. In Fermented, she takes what some may consider to be a small element of their diet and helps us understand why it should be a bigger part. In the visually stunning pages of Fermented you will not only learn about ingredients and the theories behind different ferments, but you will also be walked through the basics for each type of fermentation presented. Jill brilliantly marries the importance of the health benefits of fermented foods with fun and delicious recipes that are simple enough to create right in your own home. Today.

It has become increasingly clear that the bacterial environment of the gut is at the root of our health. With roughly 60 percent to 80 percent of our entire immune system residing in the digestive tract, maintaining the ideal bacterial balance is critical. Eating fermented foods improves the health of the gut by achieving that delicate balance, which in turn improves our overall immunity in a big way. The often forgotten art and science of home fermentation is the easiest and most economical way for us to set ourselves up for better health. Because Jill makes the learning—and the fermenting—effortless and enjoyable, I know you won’t be able to help embracing it and making it part of your everyday life. While I have a passion for eating and recommending fermented foods, I absolutely do not have the gift for dissecting and explaining the nitty-gritty of it that Jill has. I’m thrilled that she wrote this book, and even more thrilled to now have a single guidebook that I can suggest to anyone who asks me nearly anything about fermentation. Jill brings the fun and practicality of fermentation to you with this fantastic resource you hold in your hands. Happy fermenting!

Diane Sanfilippo, BS, NC Certified Nutrition Consultant New York Times bestselling author, Practical Paleo

Table of Contents

Introduction About Jill How to Use This Book Health Stewardship What are Paleo, Primal, and Weston A. Price Ways of Eating? History of Fermentation Why Ferment Today? Chemistry

Part I: Fermentation Basics, How-to, & Mother Recipes How to Begin Fermenting at Home The Basics Selecting Food for Fermentation Water Salt Sugar Dairy Sanitation Storage Starters Fermenting Vegetables and Fruit Basic Sauerkraut Recipe Basic Fermented Pickles Dairy- and Coconut-Based Ferments Basic Yogurt Recipe

Basic Coconut Milk Yogurt Greek-style Yogurt Different Kinds of Yogurt Mesophilic Yogurt Kefir Vinegar Basic Red or White Wine Vinegar Apple Cider Vinegar Shrubs Fermented Beverages Kombucha Water Kefir Kvass Hard Apple Cider Meat Fermentation Corned Beef Salumi

Part II: Four Seasons of Fermentation Availability and Seasonality of Ingredients Spring Summer Autumn Winter What's next? Glossary Resources

Suggested Reading and Works Cited Helpful Websites Equipment First Comes Health Downloadables Acknowledgments

Beverages

Apple Pie Kombucha Basic Kombucha Basic Kvass (with beets) Blood Orange-Ginger Spritzer Blueberry-Basil Fizz Cranberry Shrub Grapefruit-Ginger Kombucha or Water Kefir Hard Apple Cider (controlled fermentation) Hard Apple Cider (wild fermentation) Kefir (dairy or coconut based) Kiwi-Mint Kicker Kombucha Sangria Lemon and Honeydew Mint Punch Lemon-Lime Kombucha or Water Kefir Plum Shrub

Pomegranate-Clove Kombucha or Water Kefir Pumpkin Pie Kombucha Raspberry-Mint Shrub Spicy Carrot Kvass Strawberry-Tarragon Shrub Water Kefir

Condiments

Apple Cider Vinegar

Basic Red or White Wine Vinegar Blanched Asparagus with Fermented Grainy Mustard Chipotle Bison Burgers with Fermented Sweet Pickle Relish Fermented Apple Chutney with Pork Chops Fermented Cranberry-Orange Relish Fermented Curry Ketchup with Sweet Potato Fries Fermented Hot Sauce Fermented Salsa Fermented Tzatziki Sauce with Salmon Packets Macadamia-Cashew-Crusted Barbecue Sauce

Chicken

Nuggets

Scallop BLT with Fermented Wasabi Mayonnaise Seared Tuna Steaks with Fermented Lemon Salsa Tuna Salad with Fermented Horseradish Sauce

Dressings and Dips

Infused Vinegars

with

Fermented

Kombucha Vinegar Salad Dressing Yogurt Cheese Ranch Dip Yogurt Herb Dressing with Cucumber Salad

Meat

Basic Salumi Corned Beef (natural version) Corned Beef (using sodium nitrate) Corned Pork

Sides

Basic Fermented Pickles

Basic Sauerkraut Basic Simple Kimchi Bluebird Carrot Salad with Fermented Lemons Fermented Carrots Fermented Citrus Fruit Fermented Garlic Fermented Jalapeño Peppers Fermented Radish Slices Radicchio Spring Kraut Red Cabbage and Apple Kraut Sauerruben

Treats and Sweets Basic Coconut Milk Yogurt Basic Yogurt (dairy)

Frozen Yogurt Greek-style Yogurt Mesophilic Yogurt

Introduction

About Jill Hi! I’m Jill Ciciarelli. Welcome to Fermented: A Four-Season Approach to Paleo Probiotic Foods. I thought it might be a good idea to introduce myself at the beginning of the book so you know who will be talking to you throughout, what my background is, my approach to Paleo eating, and more. I started off my little traditional life in a small town about an hour northwest of Pittsburgh. I am a very proud Italian-American, and being raised in a typical Italian-American household meant that there were a lot of people around—grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins of the first, second, third, and even fourth variety. Heck, there were even people around who were not related that we called aunt and uncle. Because both of my parents are of Italian descent, the family onslaught came from both sides! In my family, there is no such thing as a little get-together. Thanksgiving was routinely a

gathering of about forty people, Christmas meant even more, and then there was the requisite tour around the area to visit more relatives and friends. (Read: More food!) We did not just get together on major holidays, either. With so many relatives you can well imagine that someone was always having a baby, getting married, graduating from somewhere, celebrating a first Holy Communion, or passing away. We turned every event into a party. It’s a stereotype, but in my family’s case, it’s true: Italians and food go together. We love to eat. Meals are an event even if we are not celebrating anything. And although I was born into the generation in which girls were told that they could do anything or be anything, learning to cook was encouraged. I can remember sitting on the kitchen counter while my mom cooked and asking her to let me season her giant pot of tomato sauce. Just putting the herbs and seasonings in the pot was a big thrill for me—especially the bay leaves for some reason! Both of my Italian grandmothers were masterful in the kitchen. I still don’t know how they managed to produce enough food for so many people in their modest kitchens without using all the fancy appliances I have in my kitchen today. They were cooking geniuses, and I can only hope to one day have the sharp instincts about food that they had. This is all to say that food and food preparation has always been part of my identity. It was something that was cultivated and fostered. I am eternally very grateful to my mom and grandmothers for this. I cannot imagine not cooking or not enjoying cooking. It is part of who I am. When I was thirteen, my dad got a Fulbright Award to teach at the University of the West Indies in Barbados. Our little nuclear family was uprooted from western Pennsylvania and planted in the tropics of the Caribbean for a year. It was a life-changing time for me. I was at an impressionable and formative age, and to live abroad in a culture that was so different from my own truly put me on a life trajectory that I would not otherwise have traveled. It was in Barbados that I learned about cooking and eating only what was readily and seasonally available. Until then, what I knew about food availability came from my neighborhood supermarket, where the produce section was huge and offered up everything I could ever want every day of the year. In the late 1980s when we lived there, Barbados was far from primitive,

but it was not quite as sophisticated as the United States. We lived in a place called Holetown with a cute little yard where almonds, coconuts, hibiscus bushes, and a frangipani tree grew. Our house was quite modern, with two full bathrooms and a great little kitchen, but what we would find at the markets to cook in that kitchen was a bit of shock for us.

In the Caribbean, there are no trucks or trains to bring “fresh” fruit and vegetables from a thousand miles away. Barbados itself is somewhat isolated, being sixteen hundred miles from Miami and more than five hundred miles from the next largest city, Caracas, Venezuela. We had to work with what was readily available and reasonably priced, which meant we ate with the seasons and what was available to us on the 166-square-mile island. There were familiar packaged foods, but most of them had to be imported and were prohibitively expensive. A small bag of potato chips was nearly $9—a tragedy for a teenager who loved salty treats!

Meat was expensive because there wasn’t that much available—except for chicken, which was ubiquitous, and thus inexpensive, and was often found roaming around someone’s yard just hours before it was purchased in the market. Seafood, especially flying fish, was a staple. Many Barbadians, or Bajans, as they are really called, made their living as fishermen, and stands selling fish fresh from the Caribbean Sea were everywhere. It was not uncommon to see bulging fishing nets being pulled out of the ocean, the fish being gutted and cleaned while you waited. My parents shopped each day at a produce stand just down the street from our house. There were about six or eight women working there, and each was an independent contractor responsible for marketing her own goods and finding her own customers. All the fruit stand ladies would try to woo us as we walked by. “Hallo, darlin’! Come on over and look at what I have ferya today! Fresh bananas and some breadfruit. Come on over, sweetheart! How ‘bout some potatoes for ya? Come on over and have a look, darlin’!” Imagine them calling to you in peppy West Indian accents.

We always bought from Shirley. We had been advised to establish a rapport with just one of the women because once she got to know you, you could negotiate price and get the best produce. Shirley’s family grew much of the produce on their own land in the highlands, and what they did not grow themselves, she bought from farms in other parts of the island to bring to our coastal produce stand. Our time in Barbados was probably the healthiest year of my thirteenyear-old life. Although I swam everyday, and we walked much more than we did in suburban Pittsburgh, it was more so because of how we ate. Everything was fresh, fresh, fresh. It was a year of eating the freshest chicken and seafood, a little pork, and tons of locally grown fruits and vegetables. Fast-forward twenty-one years. It is 2009 and I just quit a toxic job. I had been working out regularly and trying to eat healthfully, but my job had done some damage to my health. I had gained some weight, and although I considered myself to be active, I really wasn’t. I was a really good cook, thanks to my family, and I had an appreciation for what it was like to eat fresh, in-season food, thanks to my time in Barbados, but I was regularly consuming giant portions of processed garbage and, because of my worklife, not caring. Yes, my miserable job situation was history, but now I was unemployed.

So what does an unemployed and depressed food lover do all day long? Surf the Internet, of course! I knew I had to turn myself around, but how? I started looking for answers and guidance. Everywhere I looked I seemed to find the name of a school that trains people to be health coaches. There were ads or mentions of the Institute for Integrative Nutrition (IIN) in New York and how I could learn how to help others change their eating habits and change their lives for the better. That sounded fantastic and all, but what about me? My own life was in need of positive change, and I needed some real education about food. So I signed up. I dove headfirst into my studies and learned about many ways of eating. I started experimenting with different foods, and with healthier choices. Things were starting to look up! I was feeling inspired, and there was a renewed pep in my step. The prospect of helping others regain their health and general wellness was right up my alley. I knew I had found the right career path, and I noticed a real change in how I felt both mentally and physically. Some of the modules in my schooling with IIN had aspects of diet that really resonated with me and some did not. And then as part of my certification, I was invited to listen to a lecture by Sally Fallon, the president of the Weston A. Price Foundation, and it all clicked. Nutrient-dense food? Yes. No refined or denatured foods? Yes. Eating as close to the natural source as possible? Yes. A way of eating that includes my favorite foods, like lamb, butter, and heaps of vegetables? Yes. A dietary approach that calls out our current sick-food system and offers a natural alternative that not only promotes health and respect for animals, but also promotes responsibility to the environment? Yes. I read every brochure available from the Weston A. Price Foundation website, and I became a regular reader of Weston A. Price–inspired blogs. It became obvious that these were my people! Around the same time, my husband and I started going to a local CrossFit box, and we were hearing a lot about the Paleo diet. It seems like Paleo and CrossFit go hand in hand, and there were many people at our box who were trying it out and feeling great. At first I was reluctant to try eating Paleo. It seemed like a trendy CrossFit thing, and I am not one to blindly follow fads. So I borrowed a Mark Sisson

book from my neighbor and did some reading. I also followed my friend Hayley’s recommendation to check out Sisson’s blog, Mark’s Daily Apple. I was so excited to realize that Paleo, Mark Sisson’s primal, and Weston A. Price are dietary cousins, all three being rooted in ancestral ways of eating. They are not identical, but there was enough overlap that I knew I had found the final piece to my food and nutrition puzzle. When I established my health-coaching practice, I named it First Comes Health. The name came to me in a dream. I had been trying to think of a snappy and meaningful name for my business, and when a giant lederhosenwearing man in my dream blurted out “First comes health” it just felt right. Besides, if a good idea comes to you in a dream, especially from a giant in ethnic attire, you can’t ignore it, can you? I like the name because it says that health must be your first priority: we must safeguard our health before we can truly enjoy the rest that life has to offer. My practice focuses on people who need or want to lose weight and improve their long-term health by following the principles of ancestral eating, and I am very happy to say that after just a few months of being open for business, I had a very robust clientele roster. I was thrilled to be sharing the benefits of the Paleo lifestyle. And in early 2012, I had the honor of becoming the Weston A. Price Foundation Pittsburgh-area-chapter co-leader. My interest in fermentation started long ago, but I didn’t actually start fermenting anything in my own home until my friend Liz offered me a kombucha SCOBY and told me how easy it was to brew my own ‘buch. Initially I was hesitant to ferment my own foods out of fear of accidentally making myself sick. Culturing bacteria for consumption sounded dangerous! I had also wrongly assumed that I needed to buy a truckload of specialized equipment. After learning about the health benefits of fermentation, educating myself about healthy bacteria, finding out how simple home fermentation is, and seeing how it perfectly compliments my ancestral way of eating, starting to home ferment was a no-brainer! All in all, I feel so very fortunate to have had the experiences that led to this point in my life and in my career. Without the foundation that my family and ethnic culture laid for me, I probably wouldn’t have the food instincts I have today. I would not be half the cook I am, nor would I have the kind of respect for food that a thoughtful cook needs. Living in Barbados made my life richer in so many ways, but the lessons I learned about food, resources, and freshness have proved to be some of the

most invaluable and well-used of my career. Now when I return to what I like to call my other home country, it is more than just a tropical beach vacation. It is a return to my roots, both historically and culinarily speaking. My cooking skills and respect for ingredients would not be worth as much as they are if they didn’t have a purpose behind them. The ancestral-eating community of researchers, authors, bloggers, cooks, health coaches, and motivational speakers has helped give my coaching practice and my writing real meaning, direction, and focus. Lastly, without a bit of education about how wonderful home fermentation can be, and without the gift of a healthy SCOBY from a friend, I probably would be sitting on the figurative fermentation sidelines wondering what all the hoopla was about. Fermentation was new to me, and I gave it a try out of curiosity and the desire to do right by my gut. I’m so glad I did! I hope you enjoy this book! Fermentation is just one piece of the ancestral eating pie (if you will forgive the expression). It can be a unique way to personalize your diet, all the while providing your body with the bacteria, enzymes, and nutritional punch it needs regardless of which nutritional paradigm you choose to follow.

Go forth and ferment!

How to Use This Book This book is not structured like a normal cookbook, nor is it structured like a typical how-to book. Fermentation, while a very traditional craft, does not lend itself to traditional structure. It is true that fermentation is a craft passed down through the ages from nearly every culture on the planet, but it is also an art that allows for all kinds of flairs, flourishes, and improvisations. And not to overstate the obvious, but flairs, flourishes, and improvisations are not easily categorized into chapters, sections, and outlines. The first part of this book explains the who, what, where, when, why, and how of fermentation. It also contains what I like to call “fermentation’s mother recipes”—walkthroughs of five fundamental types of ferments and a recipe from each of those categories. They will instruct you on how to make the simplest ferments, while the recipes in the second section of this book are based on these mother recipes and give you a point from which you can launch experiments in your own kitchen. The recipes in the second section are not categorized by food type, but instead they are categorized by season. Eating seasonally and taking advantage of food harvested at peak freshness is certainly not a new concept, but one that is seeing a resurgence in popularity. For those interested in ancestral eating, consuming seasonal foods ought not to be a fad, but a way of life. To make recipe searching a bit easier, consult the table of contents for a breakdown of recipes by category to find exactly what dishes will fit your menu. However, if you are a novice cook, new to fermentation, new to ancestral and traditional ways of cooking and eating, or all of the above, I encourage you to experiment with different recipes in tune with the current season. You will experience the true flavors of fresh, ripe, in-season food, which is second to none, plus you will be eating the way people did for the many centuries before our food system was industrialized.

Health Stewardship We are all in pursuit of happier, healthier, more fulfilled versions of ourselves. I would argue that the main reason we exercise regularly or are particular about what we eat and drink is that it is the easiest way we have to put ourselves on the path to happiness, health, and fulfillment. Workouts and food choices are mostly under our control. We get to decide how we are going to spend our time and what we will eat at each meal. It is all in our own hands, and we each make daily choices that either bring us closer to our goals or prevent us from attaining them. In my health-coaching practice, this is something that I try to impress upon my clients—the fact that each of us is in control of what we do with our bodies and how we choose to fuel ourselves. Along the same lines, each of us must decide what works well for our own body. There is not one ideal way of exercising or way of eating that is perfect for everyone. Personally speaking, I happen to love to run in addition to doing CrossFit and practicing yoga and Pilates. I find it relaxing and meditative to be out there with nothing but my own thoughts and the pavement under my feet to keep me company. I enjoy running an occasional race and measuring my progress as I get stronger and gain endurance. However, I know many people who see running as a punishment and not a leisure activity. A few of my friends would rather do anything else in the world than running even just around the block. What works for me does not work for them. There are no prescribed “rights” and “wrongs.” The same is true for diet. One person’s nourishment and fuel is another’s poison. And in more subtle ways, foods can produce different reactions depending on many variables. Broccoli can be a delicious vegetable full of wonderful nutrients that tastes fantastic prepared in many ways, or it can be a gastrointestinal nightmare that can turn someone who eats it regularly into a methane-filled hot air balloon. It all depends on who is eating it. Because of these individual differences, preferences, and proclivities it is up to us as individuals to decide which foods work for us and which ones simply cannot be a part of our diets. As ancestral eaters, we have already made the decision to include or eliminate certain foods, but even under the umbrella of “Paleo eating,” there are many individual choices that we all

have to tweak in order to create a diet that is perfect for each of us. When fine-tuning your diet/lifestyle, it is important to listen to your body. Pay attention to its cues and clues, as this is the language that the body speaks and the means of discovering a much clearer path to happier, healthier, and more fulfilled versions of ourselves. After eating a particular food, adding or discontinuing a supplement, or engaging in a new exercise regimen pay attention to: Aches, pains, or general discomfort. Changes in mood, whether positive or negative. Changes in skin: Are you breaking out? Is your skin clearer? Is your skin irritated, rosier, drier, dewy? Do you have dark circles under your eyes? Changes in hair: Do you have a thicker, fuller mane? Hair loss? Is your hair dull or shiny? Limp or lifeless? Dry and damaged? Changes in sleep: Are you sleeping through the night? Waking up frequently? Is it easier or harder to fall asleep or stay asleep? Do you feel rested upon waking? Energy levels: Do you feel energized throughout the day? Do you experience midafternoon lulls? Do you crave a nap during work hours? Elimination: How often do you use the bathroom? How healthy are your eliminations? Is your urine clear? Are your bowel movements solid, but not hard? Workout performance: Are you seeing overall improvements over time? Are you experiencing success in proportion to the effort you’re putting out?

Keep in mind that figuring out what works for you is not a one-time endeavor. Adjustments will need to be made over the course of your entire lifetime. Once you are on track with healthy habits and know the parameters of what works for you, it doesn’t mean you can sit back and enjoy the next eighty years without paying any attention to your body. As we age, the activities and foods that once agreed with us can start to disagree with us. Stay vigilant and keep listening to your body’s cues!

What Are Paleo, Primal, and Weston A. Price Ways of Eating? In the world of diet and nutrition, there are so many terms being thrown around, even being invented every day, that it can be difficult to figure out what they all mean, which ones are legitimate, and whom to trust. The meaning of the word “diet” has changed over time. The original definition of the word was the collection of food eaten by an individual. It made no allowances for the relative health factor of the foods and it implied nothing about its effect on the body. It was simply a noun. “Diet” the verb, however, has taken on many connotations that have altered the meaning of the word in all its grammatical permutations. “To diet” now means to restrict and/or change one’s food intake in order to achieve some unnamed health goal or change a physical condition. Sadly, it is also now a somewhat negative term that is often correlated with starving oneself, denying oneself the pleasures of eating well. It is for this reason that the word “diet”—even when connected with Paleo, primal, or Weston A. Price—does not often cross my lips. Eating is meant to be a pleasurable enterprise, and I steadfastly believe that no matter what food choices you make, if you are doing so with the best interests of your body, health, and longevity in mind, there is nothing negative about it. That said, we can all benefit from the same general eating guidelines, although we must still make the individual choices at each meal that are best for us. The foods that I love and that fuel my body, making me feel strong and capable, could be detrimental to my neighbor. Even within the parameters of the cleanest way of eating, we all have to make the choices that are right for us.

Paleo The Paleo diet is based on the idea that we should eat only the foods that our bodies were originally designed to consume. These are the foods that our Paleolithic forebears were eating two and a half million years ago, the foods that gave them the strength and fuel to survive harsh conditions and extreme environments to procreate and push our species forward. Paleolithic humans ate fruits, vegetables, animals, nuts, and seeds, so all other foods are considered harmful to some degree and should be excluded from our modern diet. Dr. Loren Cordain is the founder of the Paleo diet movement. In the resource section, you will find a list of books and websites dedicated to the nuances of this way of life.

Primal The terms “Paleo” and “primal” are often used interchangeably, but strictly speaking, primal generally refers to Mark Sisson’s Primal Blueprint and his blog, Mark’s Daily Apple (marksdailyapple.com). Sisson’s protocol is not only a way of eating but also a way of living, and includes guidelines for exercise and sleep, among other quality-of-life factors. Primal eating is closely aligned with Paleo traditions but includes dairy and more saturated fat. Dairy is the most significant departure from Paleo, and I do not use the terms interchangeably: if I am using “primal,” it signifies the inclusion of dairy; “Paleo” signifies the exclusion of dairy.

Weston A. Price Foundation

Dr. Weston A. Price was a dentist interested in the cause of the increased tooth decay he noticed in his practice during the early twentieth century. He traveled the world, taking note of the superior dental health of nonindustrialized and often isolated cultures and tribes. He compared the diets of these groups with one another and with the diets of the modern, industrial cultures of the same time period. He found that while the diets of nonindustrialized cultures differed according to region, their nutritional profiles were relatively the same. They were high in fat-soluble vitamins and included game and organ meats, fermented foods, and bone broth. Meanwhile, Western and industrialized peoples were eating fewer of these foods and consuming more processed products and sugar and less fat. The differences among the Paleo, primal, and Weston A. Price Foundation (WAPF) paradigms can be summed up in two words: “dairy” and “grains.” Both Paleo and primal exclude grains, but WAPF does not. WAPF calls for soaking, sprouting, and/or fermenting grains to eliminate or greatly minimize phytates and other antinutrients that can damage the gut and inhibit nutrient absorption. As far as dairy goes, as I mentioned, Paleo purists don’t consume dairy at all. Primal folks and WAPFers eat dairy, with primal devotees typically eating less dairy than WAPF followers. Keep in mind that these are generalizations. While it is easy to lay out the “rules” defining the philosophy behind each protocol, it is essential to know that the lines between these three ancestral-eating camps are quite blurry. There are as many iterations and interpretations of the rules as there are people who consider themselves ancestral eaters. Strict observance for the sake of rule following is not recommended. You are strongly encouraged to figure out which foods work best for you and your family and to adhere to that personalized eating plan. The definitions of the terms are meant to be a loose guideline so that you can explore what best fuels your body and makes you the healthiest you can be.

The History of Fermentation Who ferments food? The response of someone a hundred years ago would be very different from the response of someone today. Centuries ago fermenting food was quite common, but today not so much. Thankfully, however, there has been a resurgence in the popularity of traditional and ancestral eating, and fermentation is a part of this wave. Fermentation has been around for thousands of years and has served many purposes. The stories of how people have used fermentation can teach us about its value, its power, and the variety of ways it can be beneficial to us.

Yogurt Yogurt’s history begins thousands of years ago, probably by accidentally allowing milk to curdle. Food historians say that yogurt goes as far back as the Neolithic era, about 10,000 BCE, probably to Central Asia. Milk was often kept in bags made from the stomachs of milk-producing animals like cows and goats. The digestive juices and enzymes naturally present in these organs helped to create the bacteria-rich environment necessary for milk to coagulate and ferment into something tasty. In the years since, this soothing, refreshing product has been used as a beauty lotion, a cleaning agent, and also as a medicine to treat stomach ailments. One of the earliest written records of its use is associated with Pliny the Elder, who wrote that nomadic tribes produced yogurt “to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity.” Years later, in the second century CE, the Roman physician Galen of Pergamon wrote of using the Greek substance “pyriate,” possibly an early form of Greek yogurt, to aid with digestion and to improve the health of the small intestine. Nomadic Asian tribes brought yogurt with them as they settled in the Balkan region in the seventh century, and Genghis Khan carried yogurt to help preserve meat for his armies in the twelfth century. In the sixteenth century, King Francis I of France was prescribed yogurt as a treatment for diarrhea, and his delight at the cure led him to spread the word about yogurt’s goodness throughout Europe. In the nineteenth century a Russian biologist named Ilya Metchnikoff investigated the health benefits of yogurt, focusing on microorganisms, lactic acid, and what it takes to live a long life. Metchnikoff’s research examined the long life spans of Bulgarians, who consumed a lot of yogurt, but then proceeded into the workings of the bacteria that create it. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1908 for his research on bacteria. Yogurt’s prominence in grocery stores today is probably the result of the work of Isaac Carasso, who industrialized the yogurt-making process in Barcelona in 1919, forming a company he called Danone (after his son) to distribute the bacteria-laden milk product to sufferers of stomach problems in Spain. Later, when business took off, he expanded to France and then to the

United States under the name Dannon. At his yogurt factory in New York City in 1947, strawberry preserves were added, and since then yogurt has been immensely popular as both a treat and a health food.

Kvass, Kombucha, and Other Fermented Beverages One of the oldest known fermented foods is kvass, and its origins date from approximately 8000 BCE, around the time bread baking made an appearance. The ancient Sumerians, who lived in the region around what is now Iraq, referred to it as “emmer beer” and used the image of a beer keg to represent it in cuneiform. One of the first modern written records of kvass’s popularity in Russian is from 989 CE, when Prince Vladimir was baptized and the celebration included food, honey, and bread-kvass.

Kvass By the fifteenth century kvass was heavily consumed by all classes in Russia, although rival nations like Sweden thought little of the beverage and associated it with the lower classes of Russian society. It was at approximately the same time, however, that a monastery built in Zvenigorod, a town west of Moscow, became known for its technique in producing kvass. Its reputation for making an excellent fermented beverage has grown ever since, although it was not until 2001 that the monastery began selling to the public. The reason for its popularity is that the monks’ kvass is “alive,” or made without preservatives. Production in Slavic countries is now a multimillion-dollar industry, and kvass is sold on the streets from cart vendors and in stores next to health drinks. Unfortunately much of the kvass sold in stores today is made with preservatives and less-than-natural ingredients, so many people still make it at home in order to enjoy the traditional flavor and benefits.

Kombucha From China comes the story that kombucha, the fermented tea drink, which was served in the court of the Tsin dynasty and was known as “the tea of immortality.” Another tale boasts that in 415 CE a Korean doctor treated

Emperor Ingyo of Japan with kombucha. Despite these colorful anecdotes, written records do not reveal the use of kombucha until the nineteenth century, in the Ukraine and in Russia, when it became a popular home-brewed beverage and was often referred to as “tea kvass.” During World War I it was made popular throughout Europe by prisoners of war, who shared what they learned about kombucha’s health benefits from their captors after they returned home from war. It was a home remedy sometimes called the “miracle mushroom,” because of the shape the starter bacteria take. Unfortunately, a worldwide shortage of tea and sugar during World War II caused kombucha to fall by the wayside for several decades. Today, as with kvass, there is a revival in mass production. Kombucha is shelved with health drinks and has become a trendy drink among the health-conscious.

Other fermented beverages Less popular today, the milk-based fermented drink known as kefir originated around 100 BCE in the Caucasus Mountains between Europe and Asia, where shepherds found that when they transported milk in goatskin pouches it often fermented into a bubbly drink. Its name comes from the Turkish word “keif,” which can be used to describe a state of feeling great. A household tradition at the time was to leave these milk-filled goatskin pouches outside the door, and people entering would kick or shake the pouch, thus encouraging the fermentation process. The small chunks of cultured milk required to make kefir, the kefir grains, were considered to be a gift from Muhammad and were highly valued. Early in the twentieth century two Russian physicians, the Blandov brothers, traveled into the Caucasus Mountains to learn more about these kefir grains, but they knew that the people there would not be very forthcoming. So they brought along an attractive woman named Irina, in the hope that she would charm the local prince, Barchorov, into sharing some of his kefir grains. He refused but offered to marry Irina. When she refused, he held her captive, although the Blandov brothers eventually rescued her—without retrieving any kefir grains for her trouble! The prince was nonetheless accountable to the czar, and when Irina brought her case to him the prince was forced to relinquish a cup of kefir grains for examination by the physicians. The grains used by many kefir lovers today are descendants of the handful delivered in

Irina’s cup. Although it is not allowed in grain-free diets, beer is worth a mention in any recounting of fermentation history. Despite its grain-based pedigree, it is one of the most popular fermented beverages on the market today and has played a fascinating role throughout history, having brought the art and craft of fermentation to the masses from ancient times through our modern day. Historically it has been associated with Sumer as well, in the region between the ancient cities of Ur and Babylon. Hieroglyphic records from approximately 4000 BCE reveal a hymn to the Ninkasi, known as the goddess of brewing, that described the process of fermenting grains. The hieroglyphs accompanying this hymn showed bread being baked and then mixed with water, a process that would result in the mash that starts a beer ferment. More than twenty types of beer were brewed, and the residue-laden beverage was typically drunk through a straw to avoid the bitter bits of mash floating on the surface. Dates were often added to beer to cut the bitterness. The Babylonian king Hammurabi, in writing his famous code of laws, included a daily beer ration that was based on societal class to determine how much a person could drink per day. An average citizen might be permitted only two liters of beer per day, but a priest was allotted five. It is also interesting to note that beer was used for barter and for wages. Strange customs arose around beer as well. Egyptians had more than a hundred medicinal uses for beer, and for a man to offer a woman a drink of beer from his cup was a common marriage proposal. Some cultures saw beer’s intoxicating effects as supernatural, and therefore believed the drink to contain a ghost (because to drink too much of it caused many people to act as if possessed). The Norse were said to believe that wine was meant for the gods, but beer was intended for mortals. Throughout ancient times grain-producing cultures around the world developed their own unique versions of fermented alcohol based on what was available to them locally.

Some examples include: Russian kvass, made from rye Chinese samshu, made from wheat, and baijiu, made from sorghum South American and African corn beer

Brazilian sweet potato beer Japanese sake, made from rice Herbs and other ingredients were often added to enhance the flavors of beverages. These included dandelion, hay, persimmon, mint, wormwood, and oyster shells. The other most popular beverage throughout history, wine made from fermented grapes, has been found in ancient Georgia around 6000 BCE, Iran around 5400 BCE, and Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. It is most strongly associated with the area around Georgia and Armenia because of the presence of specific species of grapes in the region at that time. Wine’s history from then on is well known, as its popularity spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa wherever fruits were available.

Vinegar Made from many beverages, including wine, vinegar holds an important place in the history of fermentation and has been used for many purposes. Although alcoholic beverages like wine have been valued in their own rights, the benefits of letting wine ferment into vinegar far outweigh wine’s own. Some of the earliest records of vinegar’s use are found before 4000 BCE, when it was used by the Sumerians for preserving food, as a condiment, and also as a disinfectant. Around 2000 BCE vinegar was used for pickling cucumbers in parts of Mesopotamia, where traders were the happy recipients of cucumber seeds from India and their knowledge of vinegar’s preservative properties came in handy. The records of ancient Europe include several short tales involving vinegar and some famous names you may know from history class. Caesar used apple cider vinegar as a hearty beverage for his armies, counting on its medicinal benefits to ward off disease. This drink was a diluted mixture called posca. Cleopatra dissolved pearls in vinegar (which she knew to be a powerful acid) to win a bet over whether she could consume a fortune in a simple meal. Helen of Troy bathed in vinegar, or at least washed her face with it (depending on the source of the story) to preserve her skin and to help her relax. Another famous anecdote from that era comes from the Roman historian Livy: Hannibal, confronting a passage blocked with stone while crossing the Alps into Italy, directed his engineers to pour boiling vinegar, which is essentially acetic acid, into the rocks to break them into manageable pieces. This is not interesting simply because of the rock-breaking powers of fermented beverages, but because wine was such an important staple of Hannibal’s armies (as both a beverage and a medicine) that wine vinegar was easily prepared in large quantities. A crucial event in fermentation history took place in 1394, when wine makers in France discovered a means for continuously fermenting vinegar in barrels equipped with spigots. It had been known for thousands of years that placing wine or cider in containers like these and letting them sit at room temperature for a long period of time would result in vinegar. However, this

new method involved allowing approximately 15 to 20 percent of the vinegar to be left behind with each pour. This remainder was called the “mother of vinegar,” which contained the healthy bacteria necessary to ferment the wine or apple cider used to refill the barrel and start the process over again. This permitted a consistently high quality of vinegar to be produced, and the continuous process of doing this was known as the “Orleans Method.” The advent of the Orleans Method led to a vinegar-making guild, and this guild drove the commercialization of modern vinegar making. At the height of the bubonic plague in Europe, vinegar was used by thieves robbing the dead as what we might today call an antibacterial cleanser. One eighteenth-century legend, after the Black Death had already ravaged Europe for centuries, tells of the French releasing prisoners to help bury the overwhelming numbers of dead. Most of these prisoners succumbed to the disease, but four survived by drinking vinegar infused with garlic (a drink known today as Four Thieves Vinegar). In those times, vinegar was also used as a deodorizer, not just in the home but carried on one’s person. Open sewers in cities made the streets a smelly mode of travel, so people held sponges dipped in vinegar under their noses as they walked. They kept these sponges in small boxes called “vinaigrettes.” The British navy at this time even used vinegar to swab the decks of ships, in addition to preserving food in it for long voyages at sea. In 1861 another critical event in modern fermentation took place when Louis Pasteur turned his attention from the unique issues of producing wine to those associated with vinegar. He examined the mother of vinegar used by vinegar makers, and discovered that it contained a fungus called mycodermaaceti, which reacted with the air and with alcohol to change the chemical nature of the liquid. He studied both the Orleans Method and the Beechwood Shavings Method (used by Germans) for producing vinegar. His examination of the Orleans Method along with his understanding of microorganisms led him to teach vinegar makers how heating their liquids before fermentation could eliminate unwanted bacteria and eelworms, reducing spoilage and improving the quality of their product. Even in the twentieth century vinegar’s medicinal benefits were respected. During World War I vinegar was used to disinfect wounds in the battlefield, and to this day it is still used for treating rashes and other skin ailments. Most commonly, however, vinegar is used as a condiment or as an ingredient in other foods.

Like beer, vinegar is made throughout the world using those crops found close at hand. Vinegar can be made from: Beer Cider Coconuts Dates Honey Kombucha Palm raisins Rice Sorghum Sugar cane Wine

Fermented Cabbage One of the most important foods in fermentation history is cabbage because of its hardiness and value as a staple worldwide. It has been cultivated in both the East and the West for thousands of years and is considered to be one of the oldest vegetables still harvested. In China cabbage has been found in pots dating from 4000 BCE. The most common means of preserving cabbage at that time, however, was to dry it. In Korea the pickled cabbage dish kimchi (spelled several ways, including gimchi and kimchee), originally made with beef stock, has been a staple since about 2000 BCE. It is traditionally made with napa cabbage, which is a type of Chinese cabbage. Early in its history its preparation as a fermented food may have been an adaptation from the use of salt by the Chinese to preserve fish. Red chili was not added to kimchi until the sixteenth century, when it was brought to Korea from Japan. Around 300 BCE the Chinese and Mongolian laborers building the Great Wall of China preserved cabbage in rice vinegar. Because it took hundreds of thousands of men to build the Great Wall during the Qin dynasty, there were few left to maintain crops and produce food, so preserving an easy crop like cabbage became critical. Fermented cabbage prevented widespread starvation. In the West cabbage became an important food for the Greeks and Romans alike. The Roman soldier and statesman Cato, a former farmer, considered cabbage to surpass all other vegetables and suggested eating it both raw and cooked—but if eaten raw it should be preserved with salt and vinegar. He also recommended it for headaches, swollen spleens, insomnia, and melancholy. Cato wrote a book on farming called Di Agri Cultura, which included several recipes for cabbage as well as preserving olives in wine. Between 500 CE and 1100 the nomadic Huns migrated to the West, and brought pickled cabbage with them, ensuring that even more of Europe appreciated its value. The technique of preserving cabbage in brine that was implemented during the building of the Great Wall of China translated well into providing portable food for cavalries traveling long distances, and this is how pickled cabbage, which eventually evolved into sauerkraut, was

introduced to Eastern Europe. There cabbage proved its value as a hardy source of food, capable of delivering vitamin-packed meals despite cool temperatures. This hardiness and the ease with which a little salt and water could turn cabbage into a fermented, nutritious meal that didn’t spoil made sauerkraut an excellent antiscurvy food for Dutch and German explorers around the seventeenth century. The English soon got with the program, and during the eighteenth century, Captain James Cook became one of the first British explorers to stock his ships with sauerkraut. His crew didn’t like the idea at first (preferring the familiar hardtack, a kind of biscuit or cracker, over fermented cabbage), so Cook played a trick on them. He informed his crew that sauerkraut was reserved for officers only. Naturally envy got the better of the crew and they soon decided to try it. This addition to their diet kept Cook’s crews healthier at sea much longer than was the norm. Cook’s success led to many other captains of that era following his example. Eventually the British turned to limes to prevent scurvy, but the rest of Europe remained dedicated to sauerkraut for the purpose. Meanwhile, in the seventeenth century, when more than seventy thousand German-speaking immigrants followed William Penn to the New World, they brought sauerkraut with them. It became one of the many food traditions the Pennsylvania Dutch are famous for. In fact, when the Confederate Army captured the town of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania during the Civil War, General Ewell demanded twenty-five casks of sauerkraut from the locals. Other fermented foods associated with the Pennsylvania Dutch include pickled eggs, chow-chow, and Lebanon bologna. Hopefully the history of fermented foods will not gradually come to a halt. In a way, by buying this book and incorporating the recipes and techniques into your daily diet, you are doing your part to keep this ancient tradition alive.

Why Ferment Today? It is said that everything old is new again, and fermentation is no different. It is a very old craft that is experiencing a renaissance. Like other cooking or home economical traditions such as knitting, canning, curing our own meat, etc., fermentation is something our grandparents, great-grandparents, and even distant ancestors did that had been somewhat lost to a modern convenience-heavy food landscape and our fast-paced Internet world. However, attitudes are changing. More and more we are looking back to traditional ways of doing things and adopting these conventions once again. As a result, the art of fermentation has seen a resurgence in popularity in the past few years and has become a hot, hip, and trendy hobby. There are reasons beyond “hip and trendy” to start fermenting in your own kitchen. Chief among them is it is a way to be connected with the food that will eventually become YOU. Preparing your own food in any fashion is the best way to be in touch with what will become your very essence and existence. This is a strong enough reason to be more engaged in your own food preparation in general, and especially to start fermenting your own food. Bacteria greatly outnumber our own human cells by nearly 10 to 1, and to ferment food and eat it regularly is a great way to introduce beneficial bacteria into your body.

Health It is important to realize that science is constantly evolving. Emerging research is continuously revealing more and more about what is going on in our guts and why the bacteria from fermented foods play such a meaningful role. I’ve enumerated a few ways in which fermented foods contribute to general health and well-being, simplifying these incredibly complex systems and processes for the casual home fermenter. If you would like to delve more deeply into this fascinating subject, I invite you to explore the abundant research that is available both online and in medical publications.

Immunity Bacteria outnumber our own human cells by about 10 to 1. There are trillions upon trillions of bacteria living inside the digestive tract and without them we simply could not survive. These microscopic allies are an important component of our immune system. While our bodies come equipped with the mechanisms, enzymes, and cells to protect us from invading viruses and infections, our gut flora is like a private security detail to assist our body’s natural defenses. Naturally we want to do anything and everything we can to remain healthy. We make intelligent food decisions, exercise, get enough sleep, and reduce stress to keep our bodies functioning properly. However, no matter how vigilant we are about taking care of ourselves, we still need help from our private security team. We need our bacteria to be healthy, fresh, strong, and numerous, and they in turn need our bodies to run properly to ensure their own survival. Regularly consuming fermented foods keeps our digestive tracts constantly supplied with reinforcements, and creates the kind of environment in which they can work efficiently and thrive.

Preventing SIBO So our little bacterial friends are living inside us, working as a freelance security force, all the while getting free room and board. In an ideal world they would be reinforced regularly and their living environment would remain comfortable. When they are happy, we are happy. Sadly we do not live in an ideal world, and unfortunately this symbiotic relationship is quite delicate and can be easily damaged. Despite out best intentions, following an ideal diet, getting plenty of sleep, working out regularly, and having little to no stress doesn’t always happen. We are flawed! Even the most perfect among us are still far from perfect. And a lack of perfection means that the relationship between hosts (us) and guests (bacteria) can become unbalanced, resulting in damage to both parties. Without sufficient beneficial bacteria in the gut, harmful bacteria will bloom and start to wreak havoc on the digestive tract and immune system, cause inflammation, and eventually start to negatively affect other parts of the body. This bloom is called small intestine bacterial overgrowth (SIBO). It may seem counterintuitive, but SIBO can also be caused by overgrowth of the good guys! You might think that if a little is good, more would be better, right? Well, just as with, say, sweet treats, in the case of bacteria— even our friendly private security force!—more of a good thing is definitely not a good thing. This is why a proper balance of good bacteria must be maintained. And this is where fermented foods come in. Fermented foods

assist the body in maintaining the not-too-much-but-not-too-few good bacteria in the intestines. Think of fermented foods as an intestinal insurance policy—a prophylactic probiotic punch to give your gut every advantage. The symptoms of SIBO can include excessive gas, bloating, nausea, and even vomiting. Consult with your doctor or naturopath if you suspect you are suffering from SIBO.

Vitamin K2 Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that comes in two forms, conveniently enough K1 and K2. In the 1940s when Dr. Weston A. Price was doing his research, he identified an indefinable substance in butter, organ meats, and select fish eggs that aids the body in mineral absorption, reproduction, development, and brain function. He named it Activator X. Years of research later, it has been concluded that Activator X is vitamin K2. These days vitamin K2 is also thought to reduce the risk of heart disease, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and some cancers. Vitamin K2 and the topic of fermented foods often go hand in hand. The foods that have the highest levels of K2 per serving are indeed fermented! Natto, a fermented soybean dish that is very common in Japan, is perhaps the best source of K2. Animal sources include egg yolks, butter, salami, some fermented hard and soft cheeses, and other milk products. There is no doubt that vitamin K2 is important. Some fermented foods do contain a marked amount of K2 and are fine sources of small amounts of the vitamin; however, do not gorge yourself on fermented goodies thinking that you should do so to up your vitamin K2 intake. Keep eating judicious amounts of fermented foods and maintain a watchful eye on vitamin K2 research to learn more about the role it can play in long-term health and wellness.

Ease Although there are several kinds of processes and a seemingly infinite combination of ingredients you can use, fermentation is, at its core, quite simple. And while the chemical processes that take place in a successful fermentation are quite complicated, the average home cook doesn’t need to be concerned with what exactly is happening inside the crock or jar. If you have a vegetable, fresh water, salt, a wide-mouth jar, and access to a sharp knife, you can turn your kitchen, or a corner of it, into a fermentation lab. Which is to say that food fermentation is so simple that not to do it is a culinary crime. You do not want the Food Police coming after you!

Reconnect with Traditional Foodways How many times have you heard someone refer to “the good old days”? When I was growing up my grandparents were all tremendous influences on me, and I am the woman I am today because of what I learned at their dinner tables. I heard all kinds of tales about those good old days, but specifically I learned much about how food was prepared back in their day—how nothing was convenient, how to strangle a chicken, and how different and better everything tasted because it was fresh. It was from my family that I learned that high-quality fresh food and laboring over its preparation is always worth it. We each have a family food culture. Think of the foods you traditionally eat on holidays or during specific seasons. Think of how often the good times you share with your family revolve around eating. Think of how often the kitchen is the gathering place in many of our homes. This is no accident. Because food brings us together, it is critical to preserve its importance and to ensure that our cultural traditions continue to live long after we are gone and the next generation, and the generation after that, is running the world.

Introduce Natural, Healthy, Whole Foods into Your Diet If you are reading a book about food fermentation, you are probably engaged enough with what you eat to understand the value of real, whole foods. If not, welcome to a world of incredibly tasty, beautifully prepared, wholesome body fuel that will make you feel younger, give you more energy, and help stave off disease! The term “whole food” is thrown around a lot these days, but what exactly are whole foods? To me, they are foods that are consumed in a state as close as possible to that found in nature. That’s it. No additives, preservatives, coatings, waxes, or DNA manipulation; no machines, robots, or conveyor belts involved; no packaging or wrappers. Just food that is grown in its ideal environment, picked at the peak of ripeness, and eaten or simply prepared shortly after. If you’ve seen it “produced” on a television how-to or factory tour, it’s not a whole food. Unless of course you somehow have a station that shows live feed from a farm and can watch crops grow or animals roam. So ask yourself how much of your diet consists of foods that meet these criteria. If it is precious little, fermentation is a wonderful way to start making these foods a regular part of your life. Fermented food is meant to be eaten everyday, but in small quantities. Please don’t sit down to a mixing-bowl-size portion of homemade sauerkraut unless you love stomachaches. Instead, enjoy your ferments a little at a time each day. If your diet already consists of lots of whole foods every day, then congratulations! Keep up the good work! Adding fermented foods is a great way to experiment with some of your favorite foods, combine flavors and textures, and get all those fantastic vitamins and minerals in an even more bio-available way than ever

before. Your gut will thank you mightily.

A Word about Dairy If you are interested in experimenting with fermentation while simultaneously hoping to adhere as closely as possible to the Paleo diet, or if you are dairy-free for any other reason, you will still find many useful techniques, recipes, and guidelines that you can employ in your own kitchen. However, a book on fermentation that is dairy-free would be incomplete, as it would largely ignore a significant subset of possible ferments as well as a very common ingredient for starting ferments—whey. It is up to you to decide what works for you and your family. If being dairy-free is what works for you, then stay the course. If dairy products sit well with you, then I encourage you to experiment with fermenting dairy and using whey to ferment other products. Keep in mind that fermented dairy products often do find their way into the kitchens and diets of those with lactose intolerance. Through the fermentation process, bacteria will consume a good portion of the naturally occurring lactose (the sugar found in milk) in the chosen dairy product, thus creating a bacteria-rich, low-in-lactose, delicious treat that is easier to digest. For more information on dairy products, see “Selecting Food for Fermentation”see here).

Instinct and Experimentation Because fermentation is a very old craft that has hundreds, if not thousands, of iterations around the world, it is nearly impossible to ferment something incorrectly. There are as many styles and types of fermentations as there are people who ferment food. When our ancestors were fermenting foods they were probably not following recipes to the letter. They were using what was available and following a tradition that was passed down orally from fermenter to fermenter. They relied on instinct and experimentation. Throughout this book I strongly encourage you to explore your own palate through your ferments. What flavor combinations appeal to you the most? What do you find incredibly unappetizing? Do you prefer sweet and fizzy or pungent and tangy? This book is meant to be a first step for those newly wading into the briny waters of food fermentation. While the recipes are quite tasty as written, I hope you will use them as jumping-off points for your own culinary experimentations. Add or subtract ingredients to hone a recipe to your own unique palate. Shorten or extend the fermentation time and see what happens. If a flavor combination is calling your name, give it a go! If you end up with something that smells awful and rancid, don’t eat it. It’s as simple as that. Some endeavors will be stupendous successes, and others will send you back to the proverbial drawing board (after a visit to the garbage can!). This is good! Keeping a log will help you replicate your successes and remind you of pitfalls to avoid in the future. (In “Resources” there’s a link to a downloadable and printable fermentation log.) Although, notice that I said “help.” Taking notes is a great way for you to develop your skills, but trying to exactly replicate a ferment from one batch to the next is close to impossible. Ingredient quality, fermentation time, and ambient temperature are just a few of the uncontrollable variables that make each ferment unique—it’s all part of the craft and art of the process.

Like our ancestors, you will have to rely on your instincts to concoct a ferment that suits your palate and needs. You will have to be willing to experiment to discover what yields the tastiest results. These will be recurring themes throughout and will make your trip into the world of fermented foods a more interesting and flavorful one.

Chemistry I have already characterized fermentation as a simple way to make some healthy foods with minimal equipment and effort. This is not a mischaracterization, but certainly an incomplete one. There is so much going on inside a fermentation vessel. It would be a mistake to think that if all you need to do is just cut up some vegetables and let them sit in a jar for a few days, then this whole fermentation gig cannot be that complex, right? If it has been a practice that has survived hundreds or even thousands of years, then it cannot be an intricate enterprise, right? Wrong and wrong. While the process of fermenting food is relatively simple—cut up some veggies and let them sit in a jar for a few days—the chemistry behind what turns good, raw food into fermented healthy deliciousness is anything but. Don’t worry. This is not a chemistry book. You don’t need to know what Avogadro’s number is or have the periodic table of elements committed to memory to be a successful home fermenter. However, a passing understanding of some elementary scientific principles will serve you well when you step into your kitchen to make, say, a batch of sauerkraut. Knowing where your food comes from and what it can do for your body is only the beginning of your health edification. How it interacts with your complex biology can make you appreciate and value good, healthy food on a deeper level. Fermentation is the result of bacteria and/or yeast converting carbohydrates into alcohol, acids, and carbon dioxide. Sounds simple enough, right? But let’s break down each element of that sentence: What are bacteria? What are yeasts? What are carbohydrates?

Bacteria These microorganisms are what make fermented food beneficial, and they are the driving force behind fermented food itself. But how do these little dynamos do what they do, and how we can help them get the job done? Bacteria in the hundreds of trillions swarm around us constantly. Every surface we touch, every bite of food we eat, even our own bodies are rife with these little guys. There is no escaping them! While we have been conditioned to be repulsed or scared by the idea of bacteria, not all of them are diseasecausing, malevolent critters. Many types of bacteria are beneficial, salubrious, and actually wholesome. Good bacteria of all sorts are found throughout the human body, but are concentrated in mucous-lined areas, like the mouth, the intestines, and for women, the vagina. Their job is to keep the pH level (measurement of acidity or alkalinity) in these areas just right in order to inhibit the growth of the detrimental bad bacteria, which can disrupt your health in many ways, like causing illness. Keeping these environments properly balanced requires constant vigilance. These bacteria need encouragement, reinforcement, replenishment, and protection. Our job is to do all we can to take care of them so that they can do their best to take care of us. These soldiers of health have a twofold mission: protecting our bodies from intruders and keeping their barracks tidy. Each task on its own is difficult enough, but when both have to be performed at the same time, this private army of ours will require frequent backup. This is why we eat fermented foods: to provide our bodies with regular reinforcements of beneficial bacteria so that law and order can be maintained. Too often when we get sick because of some type of bacterial or viral invasion, we want to employ chemical weaponry, in the form of antibiotics, to wipe out the invading creatures. Antibiotics are harsh and ought to be used judiciously. Think of them as medicinal smart bombs that will indiscriminately annihilate all bacteria regardless of whether good or bad. Sadly, this means that our good bacteria are often collateral damage in the war against sickness and infection.

As you can imagine, when a big chunk of our beneficial bacteria population is wiped out, there are precious few soldiers left to hold the fort, thus leaving the body vulnerable to additional invaders. This is why it is common to get bouts of diarrhea or a nagging yeast infection while taking a course of antibiotics. See why it is important to care for your good bacteria? And it can take weeks or even months to repopulate your bacterial weak spots after a course of antibiotics, so if you absolutely must use antibiotics, follow up the treatment with extra portions of probiotic foods to replenish your bacteria army.

Types of Bacteria The prefix “lacto-” is often used when referring to fermentation. The terms “fermentation” and “lacto-fermentation” are often used synonymously, for better or worse. “Lacto-” does not refer to lactose, as you might think, but to lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This is a broad category of bacteria that produce lactic acid as plant material (vegetables and fruit!) decomposes and ferments and are the bacterial stars of plant-based fermentation. There are many subgroups of bacteria under the LAB umbrella, the most common of these being those of the genus Lactobacillus. Lactobacillus bacterium is also a broad category that can be defined even more specifically. Many bacteria fall into this group, and many of them are necessary to ferment our food with good results. That is to say that without specific strains of lactobacillus working on specific foods, we would not achieve the outcomes we desire. Here are some examples: Lactobacillus acidophilus: Among the bacteria present in dairy-based yogurt. Lactobacillus kimchii: The kind of bacteria found in kimchi. Lactobacillus plantarum: A common type of bacteria found in myriad fermented foods, including

sauerkraut, kimchi, some pickles and cheeses, and even in a few fermented meat products. Other bacteria common to fermentation that also fall under the LAB umbrella include leuconostocs, pediococci, streptococci. Some of these are commonly present in fermented foods such as lacto-fermented fruits and vegetables, and others are quite common in cheese-making and other forms of fermented dairy.

Yeast Yeasts are one-celled fungi used in some types of fermentation, such as turning tea into kombucha and milk into kefir. They often work in conjunction with bacteria to form a SCOBY (symbiotic colony of bacteria and yeast), or they can ferment foods on their own, as is the case with wine, mead, and beer. In these beverages, yeasts naturally found in the air consume the carbohydrates in grapes, honey, various fruits, barley, hops, or other grains to produce ethanol, more commonly known as drinking alcohol.

Carbohydrates Chemically speaking, a carbohydrate is a compound made of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, but for those of us who are not well versed in atomic ratios of these three elements or the shape and positioning of the chemical bonds between them, carbohydrates are any foods that come from the ground. The word “carbs” is often used as a synonym for sugar, bread, and other grain-based comestibles. While it is true that they contain carbohydrates, it is a misleading way to categorize food, as it leaves out a significant portion of the foods that fall under the carbohydrate heading—vegetables and fruits. Fermentation cannot take place without carbohydrates. It is the work of bacteria and/or yeast on carbohydrates that is the very essence of fermentation. If food contains some kind of carbohydrate, it is fermentable. Because any kind of carbohydrate can be fermented, and because many of the desired bacteria and yeasts that are equipped and willing to do the job are readily available, nearly any food can be fermented: the only limits on fermentation are those imposed by our grocery stores and our imaginations.

part I

Fermentation Basics, How-to, & Mother Recipes

How to Begin Fermenting at Home Fermentation can be a wonderfully creative hobby that allows you to spread your culinary wings and discover food and flavor combinations that will not only enhance any meal but also keep your body in fighting form. Because it is an old craft, fancy equipment and complicated contraptions are completely unnecessary. In fact, if anyone ever suggests that you have to buy expensive accessories to get the job done, he or she is probably trying come between you and your money. Caveat emptor. With that said, having some up-to-date kitchen gear can make your life easier whether you are fermenting or simply preparing a quick lunch. Just because our ancestors managed without food processors or electric mixers doesn’t mean we have to do without them. Modern conveniences make cooking even more enjoyable, but they are not essential. Especially for fermentation! This section will first cover the tools needed to successfully ferment at home, and then move on to selecting food products. For a list of websites and brickand-mortar stores that sell the supplies you’ll need, please see “Resources” on see here.

The Basics The most basic tools you will need to ferment vegetables and fruits are foodgrade vessels, a knife or other cutting implement, and a cutting board.

Food-Grade Vessels Many kinds of containers are suitable for fermentation, but there are also many that aren’t suitable. Wide-mouthed glass jars are the most common. They are easy to find, inexpensive, and come in a wide variety of sizes— from a few ounces up to several gallons. Mason jars, jelly jars, or even thoroughly washed pickle or mayonnaise jars make great fermentation containers—plus it’s always a good idea to recycle! If you want to ferment in large quantities, ceramic crocks are the way to go: you can buy them new, and they can often be found in resale or antique stores. Beware, however, as older crocks and those whose histories are unknown may be finished with lead-based or other toxic glazes. What may look like a suitable fermentation crock may actually be a decorative urn that is not made to store food. Be very cautious when purchasing from resale or antique shops: have a questionable crock analyzed for lead content or just leave it behind. With some ferments, especially lacto-fermented vegetables, food-grade plastic containers can also be used. There are some concerns about toxic compounds in plastic containers leaching into food. Bisphenol A (more commonly referred to as BPA) is the best-known suspect toxic compound in plastic. If you use plastic containers make sure they are BPA-free as well as food-grade.

Knives and Other Cutting Implements A good, sharp, solid kitchen knife is the best friend of any chef or home cook. If you are going to invest money in any type of kitchen equipment, knives should be at the top of your list. Realistically, any knife will eventually get the job done, but it is difficult to be efficient, safe, and respectful of your ingredients with a cheap or dull knife. Cutting a bunch of carrots into sticks could potentially turn into a trip to the emergency room if attempted with a knife that is not up to the task. Choosing the right knife for the job can be a bit overwhelming so let’s talk about knives in more detail.

BLADE MATERIAL Stainless steel When going knife shopping you will probably run across many stainless-steel knives. Stay away from them. The biggest reason for this is that they are extremely difficult if not impossible to sharpen, even by professionals. Because knives are a life investment rather than disposables destined for the garbage heap when they get dull, it is important to plan to have them professionally sharpened on a regular basis. It is difficult to find someone who can sharpen your stainless steel blades properly, and you will save money and time in the long-run if you just avoid these types of knives altogether. Ceramic Knives with ceramic blades are expensive and stay sharp for a very long time, but they can be a bit fragile and tend to chip easily. When they finally do need to be sharpened, they often must be sent back to the manufacturer, so despite their cool-looking white or black blades, they may not be worth the expense or hassle. Carbon Carbon steel or high-carbon stainless-steel knives are the way to go. You’ll find that the best, reasonably priced professional-grade knives are high-carbon stainless steel. They will have the durability of a carbon steel blade, but the anticorrosive properties of stainless steel—the best of both worlds. KNIFE STYLE There are so many styles of knives on the market these days that it can be overwhelming. There are many sources to consult if you are trying to outfit an entire kitchen, but for the purposes of safely and efficiently cutting fruits and vegetables, the three knives I recommend are an eight- or ten-inch chef’s knife, a five- or seven-inch Santoku, and a three- or four-inch paring knife. Having these three knives on hand will ensure that you will be armed and ready for any kind of produce preparation whether you are fermenting or not.

Chef’s knife This is the stereotypical kitchen knife. Picture the knife in Psycho. That’s a chef’s knife. It’s an all-purpose workhorse of a knife that will cut just about anything. I use a chef’s knife when I’m cutting a whole head of cabbage in half or opening up a butternut squash. A chef’s knife can certainly do more delicate work, but unless you are confident with it and have strong knife skills, use a smaller knife for smaller jobs. Santoku knife A five- or seven-inch Santoku knife allows you to perform more precise and delicate cuts while still having the power of a larger blade behind them. I use my Santoku knife for slicing a bell pepper into strips or reducing big carrots into sticks. It is easily controlled and just right for home cooks. Paring knife Like a chef’s knife, you’ll find yourself using a paring knife for all kinds

of tasks. Paring knives often have a spearlike point on the end that comes in handy for precision work, and they feel quite comfortable in your hand when you’re mincing or dicing. Paring knives are for those jobs when a chef’s knife or even a smaller Santoku would be overkill.

Food Processor A food processor can reduce chopping time down to a few seconds. It slices, dices, blends, grates, and chops with ease, but does have drawbacks: there are several parts to clean and put back together, and it’s easy to overblend food. There is a marked difference between food that has been hand-chopped or cut and food that has been put through a food processor. Neither technique is wrong or better; it just depends on the consistency you want your final product to have. Thicker, more substantial slices and shreds are often desired when fermenting, as the food’s texture will change during the fermentation process. Food that has been cut or shredded into very fine pieces will often yield a mealy, pasty final product, which may not be what you want. Please experiment with what your food processor can do.

Mandolin A mandolin is a rectangle-shaped platform with a blade mounted on it: you simply slide the food across the platform and let the blade do all the slicing work. They often come with interchangeable blades and can be adjusted for different thicknesses. Whether you are preparing a large or small amount of fruit or vegetables, this is a really handy device. Once you get the hang of it, your slicing will go quickly, and you’ll end up with pieces way more uniform than you’d probably get with a knife. But I must warn you: Mandolins are extremely sharp—make sure to use the hand guard that comes with it, and please use the utmost caution!

Cutting board You don’t have to fuss too much about buying cutting boards: it’s much more important and exciting to focus on the actual food preparation. That said, there are a million shapes and sizes, and come in a variety of materials, including plastic and wood. Both have their merits and drawbacks, so choose which fits your budget and which you feel most comfortable using. Wooden cutting boards can be pricey and demand a little more maintenance, but they can last a very long time if properly cared for. Plastic boards are dishwasher safe, don’t absorb moisture or food odors, rarely stain, crack, or warp. They can, however, get rather cut up from repeated use, which means that microscopic bits of plastic can, theoretically, make their way into your food. Whichever style you choose, always properly sanitize after use, and be sure to use separate cutting boards for nonmeat and meat or fish items.

Additional equipment If you have a cutting implement, cutting board, and a clean food-grade container, you are well on your way to successful home fermentation. There are, however, additional tools that can make your fermenting life a bit easier, and depending on what you ferment, you just might find these extras becoming essential. Your ferments will be successful without them, but nothing says you can’t make your life easier while preparing good eats!

Krauthobel or box slicer A krauthobel is essentially a cabbage-size mandolin that makes slicing large stuff easier than a standard-size mandolin. It is typically made of wood and features a box-shaped chute for the cabbage or other large vegetable to sit in, which slides back and forth over the very sharp, straight blade. The chute is a nice safety feature, keeping fingers out of the way of the blade, and it keeps an entire head of cabbage steady as it is sliced.

Specially designed glass jars with airlock valves These jars are like wire-bail latching bottles with one exception—their lids have a hole to fit a one-way airlock valve that lets carbon dioxide from lactofermented vegetables out of the jar, but does not permit oxygen from the outside air into the jar, thus keeping the contents fresher. (See the section on lacto-fermentation of fruits and vegetables on see here for more information on this chemical process.)

Wire-bail latching bottles You can store vinegars and fermented beverages like kombucha, water kefir, kvass, and even hard apple cider, beer, and wine in any container with a tightfitting lid. But to keep contents safely under pressure, wire-bail latching bottles are a better choice, as they can be slowly and safely opened to gradually release built-up pressure.

Canning funnel Packing food into jars with your hands or even tongs is going to be slightly messy no matter what precautions you take, but using a wide-mouthed canning funnel can help minimize the inevitable drips and drops when moving foods from a mixing bowl to jars. Funnels of other shapes and sizes can also be used for other types of ferments. For example, if I didn’t have a funnel on hand to help get my precious kombucha from a big jar to a waiting bottle, I’d find my kitchen flooded with ’buch. No thanks! I don’t want to waste one precious drop!

Muddler Most commonly found in a bartender’s tool kit, a muddler is a small baseball bat-like implement that can be used to bruise, mash, or crush produce. It is especially handy when you are tightly packing produce into a fermentation jar.

Racking cane Part of a brewer’s or vintner’s arsenal, a racking cane is a mini hand pump or siphon used to transfer liquid from one vessel to another. If you bottle a lot of kombucha, water kefir, or other beverages—especially in large quantities—it is great for preventing spillage and waste. The “cane” part is J-shaped like a walking cane. It can be made from stainless steel or plastic, with plastic being the recommended material for use with fermented goods. The remainder of the racking rig is typically made of flexible plastic hosing.

Yogurt maker Regardless of what type of milk you are working with, a yogurt maker can be extremely helpful. Yogurt-making is a somewhat delicate process requiring specific temperatures to be maintained over a considerable period of time—a yogurt maker will take care of all the worrying for you!

Food dehydrator

You can use a dehydrator to make yogurt and to transform fruits, vegetables, and meats into crunchy treats. It can save you money, plus flavoring ferments with fruit you’ve dried yourself definitely turns up the volume on DIY!

Selecting Food for Fermentation When it comes to selecting food for your ferments, let quality and nutrition be your guides. Any prepared food is only as good as the ingredients that went into making it. For fermentation, this is especially important as the quality of the initial ingredients (or lack thereof) and how much of a nutritional punch they pack pre-fermentation will become even more evident in the finished product. Quality yields quality. Follow these simple, commonsense guidelines when selecting food for fermentation or any other preparation.

Buy seasonally Whatever you are going to do with it—ferment, eat raw, cook into a stew— you want your food to be as full of flavor and nutrition as possible. What is the difference between a tomato grown in your backyard garden and harvested at peak ripeness and one that was picked long before it matured, shipped thousands of miles, gassed with ethylene to speed up the ripening process, and then piled into a grocer’s bin? One will be meaty, robust, and full of savory tomato-y goodness, while the other will probably be mealy, grainy, and taste like plastic. It is not natural for tomatoes to be available in the Northern Hemisphere in January—they are not in season. Likewise, it is not normal for ruby red strawberries to appear in markets in North America in November. Forcing food to ripen under artificial conditions affects flavor. Harvesting food before its time affects flavor. Shipping food from many degrees of latitude away affects flavor. Sadly, quality is also sacrificed when we start messing around with Mother Nature’s rhythms. If you have ever bitten into a mealy, grainy, out-of-season tomato, could you honestly say that you felt it was packed with essential vitamins and minerals? When we are eating nutrient-dense foods, they taste great, and their texture and aroma are pleasing to us. Through the process of fermentation, the nutrients in fresh foods are

amplified and enhanced. If you start with shoddy products that are short on nutrients, you are going to end with shoddy products that are short on nutrients. Obviously, this not the goal of the health-conscious home cook!

Buy organic Even if you buy only in season as much as you can, there are times when that may not be enough. For example, you might buy an in-season vine-ripened tomato that is the deepest red you’ve ever seen. It might look wonderful, smell wonderful, and even taste wonderful, but how was it grown? Did it get to be the prototype tomato naturally, or was it doused in chemical fertilizers and pesticides? Not only do artificial chemicals affect the flavor and quality of food, but many of them are known carcinogens or toxins that can affect long-term health. If you don’t want to eat toxic fertilizers, then be sure that your cooking ingredients don’t contain any. Certified organic food is best, as it is the closest that we consumers are going to get to a guarantee that our produce is as close to its natural state as possible without growing it ourselves. With this said, please note that all is not lost if your budget doesn’t allow for a shopping cart full of exclusively organic groceries! Some foods carry smaller amounts of pesticide residue than others. If you have to limit your organic purchases, the Environmental Working Group creates a list each year of the twelve produce items with the most pesticide residue that pose the greatest long-term risk to your health. The fruits and vegetables on this list—known as the Dirty Dozen—are the ones you should spend your organic allowance on.

The Environmental Working Group also maintain a list—known as the Clean Fifteen—of the “cleanest” fruits and vegetables, those that are compromised the least by chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides and contain the least amount of residue. If budget or availability prevents you from purchasing organic, it is safe to purchase conventional (i.e., not organic) varieties of these items. The full list of the Environmental Working Group’s most popular fruits and vegetables, ranked from most contaminated by pesticide residue to least contaminated, can be found at www.ewg.org/foodnews. Chances are that among these forty-five fruits and vegetables, you will find almost all of your favorites.

Buy local You have probably heard the term “farm-to-table,” but what exactly does it mean? You might think that if you aren’t eating processed food it’s technically farm-to-table, right? It must have started out at a farm somewhere. The spirit of farm-to-table is that the farm is not in a far-flung land that you need an atlas to find and also that it’s an actual farm, not a factory in disguise. Buying local is the best way to ensure that what you are going to put in your mouth is the freshest, best-quality food you can find. Get to know the farmers who grow your food. Talk to them at farmers’ markets. Email them and ask about their farming philosophies and practices. Connect with the people who provide you and your market with the stuff that will eventually become you—your food! But what exactly is “local”? Who decided how close or far away food has to be to be local? Let’s be honest. It’s a marketing term that started with very good intentions—to get people to eat the produce grown by farmers in their region, and to mitigate the environmental impact that transporting food from great distances has on the world. Many define local as a one-hundred-mile radius from one’s home. If it is grown, harvested, or produced within a hundred miles of your house, it’s local. Others define it much more loosely, saying that radius can mean a general region of the country. What it boils down to is this: Ideally, what you eat should be grown, harvested, transported to market, purchased, prepared, and consumed all within a short amount of time. Once you pick something off the tree or pluck it from the ground, the

freshness clock starts ticking! In order for this whole process to happen in the least amount of time, not only should you be a vigilant and frequent shopper, but the food should be grown and harvested relatively close to where you live. Packaging and shipping food takes precious time that robs it of freshness and nutrients. Not all of us, however, are fortunate enough to live close to our farmers. Not everyone lives in a lush, fertile, produce-producing paradise where eating local can mean walking out to the backyard and picking something off the vine. Not every town has a farmers’ market where we can get to know who grows our food and where we can purchase produce the same day it was taken from the field. If this is your situation, do the next best thing and get to know the produce manager at your market. He or she is the person closest to you along the supply line and can answer questions about your food’s pedigree. Ideally, that person will know the farmers and can answer questions about growing practices, farm conditions, distance from the market, transportation times, and more.

Water Water is a very important, if not essential, component in fermenting foods. Combining salt and vegetables creates a watery brine in which the vegetables will ferment. Some vegetables will not create their own brine and you will have to start your own. Sometimes you will combine water and whey to get a culture started. You’ll use water to brew tea for kombucha. Water is the backbone of fermentation. Because of that, make sure that the water you use is, at the very least, filtered, if not distilled. You do not want additives like fluoride or chlorine to negatively affect your results. Tap water, whether from a municipal source or a well, should be tested to ensure that it does not contain any contaminants before you can be comfortable using it for anything. If your regular source of water is found to be compromised, distilled water, which you can buy in gallon containers at your market, is your best bet. Some ferments, like water kefir, benefit from being made from mineralrich water. Spring water and drinkable well water are great sources of minerals. Just be certain that what you use is free of particulate contaminates as well as any chemicals that could be harmful to your starter culture and, more important, to you and your family.

Salt Using salt as a fermentation agent is quite common. It does a marvelous job of prohibiting the growth of bad bacteria and makes way for good bacteria to do their good work. Choosing salt can be quite confusing, though, as there are so many choices. Salt comes from several sources and can range from inexpensive, white table salt to pricey and rare varieties in all sizes and colors. The majority of salt we use, whether for food preparation and seasoning, industrial purposes, or animals, comes from salt mines. These mines, also called domes, are ancient evaporated sea beds where large chunks of salt are harvested like any mineral, brought to the surface, and processed. The quality and content of salt differs from mine to mine. Salt from a mine in Utah will be a different color and texture and contain different trace minerals than from a mine in Poland or from one in Italy. Each of these aspects will ultimately produce a different product. Salt is also harvested from the ocean by collecting seawater and slowly evaporating it in evaporation ponds and crystallizing beds until only the mineral-rich salt remains. Just like salt mines, ocean water varies depending on location. Certain areas of the world produce superior salts because of the mineral profile found in the seawater. Once salt is extracted from the ground or from the ocean, it is often refined to remove most minerals, save for sodium and chloride, treated to form uniform crystals, and often mixed with supplementary chemicals and elements to enhance it in some way. Iodine is a common additive in table salt meant to prevent goiter development. Anti-caking agents are also often added to keep salt pourable. However, some salt is harvested and not refined, does not contain additives, and is merely pulverized into small grains for easy use. These salts can be pink, gray, black, or even deep red and typically look like very tiny rocks or pebbles. The ideal salt is one that contains a natural balance of minerals beyond sodium chloride, one that has endured minimal or no processing, and one that

is available in decent quantity at an affordable price. Beware of artisanal finishing salts, though, as they are meant to be flourishes on a thoughtfully prepared dish. Fermentation requires a workhorse salt. Unrefined sea salt is your best bet for fermenting because it is relatively inexpensive, readily available, and minimally processed. Its mineral profile will be dictated by where it was harvested. Always read the package to ensure that what you are buying is as pure and wholesome as possible. Quality yields quality. Regular old table salt can be used, and will most likely produce the proper environment for fermentation, but it is not optimal because of the iodine and anti-caking agents. Think of standard table salt as an old jalopy—it will probably get you to your destination, but there are no guarantees, and the ride will be less than comfortable.

Sugar To most Paleo folks, the word “sugar” is a four-letter word (or five in this case). Sugar is eschewed in many forms because, for one thing, it is empty calories. It provides no nutritional advantage other than cheap, easily metabolized fuel that tastes good. No vitamins, no minerals, no protein, no fat. We humans are not single-celled organisms, and so we require much more from our food than simple go-juice. But the bacteria and yeasts that make delicious food even more delicious with fermentation are simple folk. Sugar is often all they need to do their work. In the world of fermentation, sugar is more often used as a tool than a flavoring agent. It might seem contradictory to a healthy Paleo way of eating to add cups and cups of sugar to something that will ultimately be put in your own body, but think of it as a means to an end. Added sugar—sometimes even the devil-like white sugar!—will feed the bacteria that will reproduce and populate our guts with good little critters to protect us and give us long, healthy lives. So, you see? Sugar does have a place in the world of Paleo eating after all! A measured, calculated, judicious place, but a place nonetheless. The trouble with using sugar for fermentation is that there are so many kinds from which to choose. Some are better than others and all have their advantages and disadvantages.

WHITE SUGAR Originally derived from sugar cane or sugar beets, plain old sugar is one of the most prevalent items in our food. It’s pure white, crystalline, cheap, and very sweet. Chemically known as disaccharide sucrose, it is made up of both glucose and fructose. When consumed on its own or as an ingredient in other foods, white sugar is broken down into those two constituents and then used for fuel or stored as fat. Its advantages for use in fermentation are that it is very easy to procure, it is very inexpensive, and it has a neutral flavor. Its disadvantage is that it is so processed and purified that it does not add any nutrients or minerals to the food being fermented. RAW SUGAR Although calling raw sugar “raw” is a bit misleading, it is not as processed and manipulated as its cousin, white sugar. When sugar cane or beets are processed into table sugar, they go through several steps of refinement. The original crop is chopped, crushed, and essentially juiced of all the liquid inside. That liquid is boiled to concentrate it, and the resulting product is molasses and molasses-rich raw sugar crystals. Further refinement of these crystals extracts more molasses, and turns the crystals white and into the common white table sugar. The reason raw sugar has a light brown color is that it is only partly processed and molasses has not been completely

removed. Raw sugar is quite good in some ferments and also quite popular because it has become increasingly available. It is closer to its roots than white sugar and as a result has a very mild molasses flavor. TURBINADO SUGAR The terms “raw sugar” and “turbinado” are interchangeable. They are the same product. The product brand Sugar in the Raw is turbinado sugar. So is demerara sugar. BARBADOS OR MUSCOVADO SUGAR This type of sugar is common in the United Kingdom and has a very high molasses content. Its crystals are a bit larger than those in standard white table sugar, and the texture is slightly sticky. Elsewhere in the world, Barbados or muscovado sugar is called panela sugar or rapadura. Because of the high molasses content in Barbados sugar, be aware that it will give your ferment a strong molasses flavor. BROWN SUGAR Unlike raw sugar or Barbados sugar, which are indeed brown, brown sugar, the kind commonly used in baking, is not actually partly processed sugar. Rather, it is processed white sugar to which molasses has been added back to give it a brown color, sticky texture, and the ability to be packed like wet sand. I don’t recommend using brown sugar for fermentation. If you desire a molasses flavor in your final product, there are other, less-processed ways to achieve it. In addition, there are no guarantees that the manufacturer of your brown sugar hasn’t added additional ingredients to the original brown sugar to achieve the final product. It is fine to use molasses in some ferments, and it is fine to use white sugar as well. But if you want the effects of both, it is better to mix them yourself to get a flavor combination you are satisfied with, and so you will know exactly what you are putting into your food. CANE JUICE Cane juice is another name for the liquid that is yielded in the preliminary steps of sugar processing when sugar cane is mulched into small pieces. The resulting liquid can be bottled and used directly as a sweetener and is sold as cane juice.

Like raw sugar with various molasses, cane juice is a candidate for certain ferments but will impart the telltale molasses flavor to your final product. EVAPORATED CANE JUICE It’s exactly what it sounds like. The cane juice, which is a product of grinding up sugar cane, is heated and the water content evaporated, leaving sugar crystals behind. Evaporated cane juice is often sold under the brand name Sucanat. Many people prefer cane juice, evaporated or liquid, because it is very minimally processed. None of the molasses is removed, and depending on the manufacturer, nothing is added to it. It is one of the closest approximations to eating sugar cane fresh from the field. HONEY Honey is a fantastic natural sweetener and can be a great addition to just about anything, but it is tricky to use in fermentation for the following reason: Honey contains sugar in a form that bacteria and yeast can ingest and also has antibacterial properties that can inhibit bacterial growth—the very phenomenon we are looking for in fermentation! While honey can be used successfully in fermentation, it is important to note that honey alone will not do the trick. You will most likely need to experiment with different types of honey, amounts, and combining it with other types of sugar or sugars. Honey can also be incorporated into products postfermentation for added sweetness.

STEVIA This little, green leaf is a good sweetener, but because it doesn’t have the proper chemical structure, it is not the ideal candidate for feeding the bacteria needed for fermentation. This doesn’t mean that stevia is entirely useless in the world of fermentation, however. While it may not facilitate the process of fermentation, it can certainly sweeten what has already been fermented. Adding a few drops of liquid stevia or a very small amount of ground stevia leaves to coconut milk yogurt, kombucha, or kefir can turn it into a tasty sweet treat. ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS Any and all artificial sweeteners should be avoided. Period. They don’t aid the fermentation process, nor do they provide any nutritional benefit. In fact, they are thought to be neurotoxins and can cause long-term harm to your body.

In other words: Banish artificial sweeteners from your kitchen!

Dairy Experimenting with dairy is a very easy way to introduce some very common fermented products into your weekly menus. Whether you and your family are able to tolerate dairy products, or you want to experiment with lowerlactose dairy products, it is quite important to get your ingredients from reputable sources. As with all other products, quality begets quality. It is important to know what goes into that container of milk you buy and where it comes from. There are several issues to consider before you head to your supermarket for a jug of milk with the thought of turning it into fermented goodness. Please note that the majority of this section is devoted to cow’s milk. Milk from other animals can be used in fermentation, but because of the ubiquity of cow’s milk, I am going to focus on what is readily available to most people.

Fat content Most markets carry milk ranging from skim to full-fat, or whole. So-called whole milk does not contain 100 percent fat, of course; it is approximately 4 to 5 percent butterfat. Milk labeled 2 percent is 2 percent butterfat, and skim milk is less than 1 percent. The percentage of butterfat in milk fresh from a cow’s udder varies from animal to animal and farm to farm. The butterfat content in a single cow’s milk will fluctuate depending on what she is fed, how healthy she is, how long she has been producing milk, and even the weather. Your final product will thus be affected by the fat content of the milk you started with. The higher the fat content, the richer, creamier, heartier, and more flavorful it will be. Fermenting milk with a low fat content can produce runny yogurt and watery kefir. The texture and flavor are matters of personal preference, but keep in mind that dietary fat is good for the endocrine system, brain function, skin, hair, and nails, just to name a few benefits.

Homogenization Typically at dairies, many cows are milked simultaneously, and the milk is stored in large collection tanks. That milk is then sold to a dairy factory, where milk from many farms is mixed together and homogenized. Milk is homogenized for three reasons. The first is to give milk coming from many farms and many animals a consistent fat content. Because individual cows yield milk with varying levels of fat, milk producers carefully control for the fat content in what they sell, removing fat and tweaking the product so that it is exactly whole, 2 percent, 1 percent, or skim as labeled. The second reason is that homogenization also provides a consistent flavor to milk. Most consumers do not want the flavor, or even texture, of their favorite products to change with the seasons, climate, weather, or even diet of the animals producing it. Homogenization ensures that from day to day, week to week, month to month, and year to year, the milk wearing a particular label will always taste the same regardless of other variables. The third reason to homogenize milk is to emulsify the fat in the milk in order to give it a consistent texture. Before milk is homogenized the liquid and fat will separate if it is left to sit for even a short period of time. If you buy non-homogenized, or cream-line milk you will notice that a layer of fat (cream) will float to the top of the liquid in the bottle or carton, thus making it necessary to thoroughly shake the milk before drinking it. However, the fat in homogenized milk has been broken apart into much smaller particles by forcing it at high pressure through very small holes in a homogenizer. These small particulates of fat are then emulsified into the milk so that they stay suspended rather than separating after. Homogenization has advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that you know what you will be getting when you open the carton. When fermenting dairy, it is a good idea to avoid surprises and to rely on consistency. Making yogurt from homogenized milk means that you can rely on the result. Homogenized milk will yield perfectly good yogurt or kefir. However, to homogenize is to overly process, and homogenized milk is just that—overly processed. By homogenizing anything, milk or any other product, the artisanal qualities are removed. The subtleties of the product are destroyed in the process, its uniqueness sacrificed for blandness. Compare, if you can, the taste of non-homogenized milk from a single cow or a single

farm to that from a carton of homogenized milk purchased at a convenience store. The non-homogenized milk will tend to have a richer, more full-bodied flavor and texture, while the milk from the convenience store will have a soulless quality to it—not necessarily bad, just empty.

Pasteurized versus raw milk Another process that most milk goes through is pasteurization. There are several types of pasteurization, but regardless of method, it is, in its simplest terms, the heating of milk to a high temperature and then quickly cooling it to reduce the number of possible pathogens and to slow spoilage. Obviously any kind of superheating and/or pressurizing (as in homogenization) of any product will change its flavor, color, texture, nutritive value, and composition of the final product. Pasteurization is controversial because it indiscriminately kills bacteria and enzymes, the bad as well as the good, causing some people to claim that pasteurized milk is a dead liquid, devoid of any of the benefits one would hope to get by drinking milk in the first place. Because of these claims, there are many who prefer the taste, texture, and bacteria and nutrient profile of raw (unpasteurized, unhomogenized) milk. However, the availability, sale, and consumption of raw milk, as well as its safety and effectiveness, is a hotly debated topic in much of the world. Many countries strictly outlaw the sale of unpasteurized milk. Many limit its sale for animal consumption only. Some permit cow shares, or ownership of a cow or herd by private citizens, to do with it what they will, including drink its milk raw. In countries or states that do permit its sale, it is often done so only in certain markets or venues with prominent governmental disclaimers and warnings on labels clearly outlining that it is not pasteurized and may contain harmful pathogens that could severely sicken or kill whoever consumes it. Some people who are lactose-intolerant find raw milk to be gentler on the digestive system than pasteurized dairy. Lactose intolerance is the body’s inability to digest lactose, the naturally occurring sugar in all dairy products, because of a lack of the enzyme lactase to properly break it down. Lactoseintolerant people produce very little or no lactase, so consuming dairy causes gastrointestinal pain, bloating, gas, and diarrhea. Both raw and pasteurized dairy products do contain lactose, but raw milk also contains lactase (which is

destroyed in the pasteurization process), which means that those of us who cannot abide the lower GI trauma inflicted by pasteurized dairy may find raw milk to be less traumatic. If you used to enjoy dairy products but have avoided them because of lactose intolerance, and if you can legally obtain raw milk, please do experiment with incorporating it into your diet.

Ultraviolet light A far less common method of preventing pathogens from growing in milk is to expose it to ultraviolet light. Sometimes this is erroneously referred to as “irradiating” it, but this process does not expose the milk to actual radioactive substances. Like pasteurization, exposing milk to ultraviolet light is a process that is meant to hold the proliferation of microorganisms at bay. But while pasteurization uses high temperatures and pressure to actually kill the organisms, ultraviolet light sterilizes them, ensuring that they are unable to reproduce. They then simply die off without creating a new generation that could be harmful to consumers. This is not a common practice. Only about two percent of all juice and milk sold in the United States is subject to ultraviolet light, with the rest being pasteurized. An obvious drawback to the process is that exposing milk to ultraviolet light does make it oxidize and therefore lose its flavor. It also degrades the milk, reducing its nutritional value. This is why milk is generally sold in opaque containers. While the light in market dairy cases does not give off the high level of UV light used in ultraviolet light processing, the small amount is still enough to have a negative impact. The process of exposing milk to ultraviolet light to inhibit pathogen growth is considered by some to be a compromise between pasteurization and raw milk because the beneficial bacteria found in raw milk are not killed along with the harmful bacteria as in pasteurization. However, the loss of flavor and nutritive value still makes it a less than ideal option.

The cows

Although they are last in this list of considerations when buying milk, the real quality of your milk begins with the cows themselves. Governments and farmers and consumers can debate the advantages, disadvantages, dangers, and safeties of homogenization, pasteurization, and UV light for the rest of time, but believe it or not, the real quality of milk begins with each individual cow, her diet, her environment, and her quality of life. Too many cows these days live out sad, machine-like lives in factory farms, where they are force-fed an unnatural diet, injected with antibiotics, and denied any sense of the natural life a cow is meant to enjoy. It is impossible to produce anything of quality when one’s diet and living conditions are less than ideal. Cows are grass-eating animals, and so their diet ought to be made up of just that—grass. Perverting the natural bovine diet will pervert the quality, flavor, texture, fat content, and nutritional value of the milk. As you can tell, going to the market to pick up a quart of milk is not as simple as you may have previously thought! There are many controversies and political debates wrapped up in every single carton on the shelf.

If you are interested in incorporating dairy ferments into your repertoire, here are some guidelines and recommendations to follow:

1 Know where your milk comes from. Not everyone can be friends with a dairy farmer and chums with the cows that produce the milk, but doing a little research about your milk isn’t difficult. If what you buy comes from a milk-production facility, inquire about the farms from which it purchases milk. Once you know which farms the milk comes from, you can contact the individual farms and ask questions about their practices.

2 Decide if raw or pasteurized works for you. If you are able to legally buy raw milk in your area, read more about its purported health benefits and advantages. Educate yourself on the issue and make an informed decision. Start with the Weston A. Price Foundation’s website (westonaprice.org) for the basics on raw milk.

3 Buy milk from grass-fed cows if you can. Buying milk from grass-fed cows can be more expensive than the milk from their grain-fed sisters. The flavor and nutritive value is better, however, and cows permitted to graze freely and eat their natural diet are living in more humane conditions.

4 Seek out a dairy farm and buy nonhomogenized milk. Some markets sell milk that comes from a single dairy. The flavor, texture, color, and fat content of milk from a single farm are often richer and more exciting than that from many farms combined and homogenized into a consistent product. Note that the same principles that apply to cow’s milk apply to the milk from other animals. Also note that, as previously mentioned, whey is a common fermentation starter and that the quality of the whey will determine the quality of the final product.

Whey derived from yogurt made from higher-caliber milk will yield healthier and tastier results in the final ferment.

Sanitation Fermentation, at its core, is the introduction of bacteria into foods to change their chemical composition, texture, and flavor, and enhance their nutritional content. Although I have mentioned how fantastic and delicious this whole process can be, I know that for many of you it will be hard to get past the word “bacteria.” It is associated with being unclean, unhealthy, and undesirable. Walk the soap and detergent aisle in any supermarket and you’ll see the word “antibacterial” splashed all over bottles and boxes of every kind of household cleaner, spray, wipe, tablet, and even tissues. Given this, you’d think that bacteria are something we want to avoid, kill, and rid ourselves of, right? Wrong. We are surrounded by both good and bad bacteria. Of course, there are some that can make you very ill, but the bacteria present in fermented food are the kind that actually keep you healthy, the kind you want more of in your body and on your table. Remember this when you are preparing your equipment and foods for fermentation. You want bacteria in your life. The whole purpose of fermenting our foods is to support the good bacteria in our guts. Annihilating bacteria with chemicals and sprays and soaks and bleach will not yield the desired final product—a bacteria-rich jar of fermented goodness. You want your equipment to be clean, but not sterilized like surgical instruments. Beware of very harsh cleaning agents that can leave residue on your equipment and thus have a negative effect on your ferments. It is best to clean your vessels, knives, and cutting boards with a mild detergent or even a diluted white vinegar wash and to always rinse thoroughly. Again, be sure that what you are using is clean but not chemically barren of any naturally occurring bacteria.

Storage Once you have successfully produced a ferment, it is important to know how to store it properly. Because fermented goods are alive—that is, they contain living bacteria—they must be cared for conscientiously. Fermentation is about cultivating beneficial bacteria. Each step of the process, whether you are making kvass or sauerreuben (similar to sauerkraut but made with root vegetables), is deliberate. Choice of ingredients, tools, vessel, storage and temperature while your ferments bubble away—all of these are important variables to consider in order to have a successful ferment. Once fermentation is completed and you are satisfied with the result and are ready to eat it, you must be just as deliberate about keeping it edible. The bacteria that are working away on the food are going to keep working even if your taste buds say that a ferment has reached its most desirable flavor. They don’t take breaks; they don’t take a long weekend off. They keep working, reproducing, and fermenting away until conditions are no longer optimal. Generally speaking, bacteria like warm, moist, dark environments with a lot of available food. Take away or mess with any one of these conditions, and the bacteria won’t completely stop working but they will stage a large-scale slowdown. What this means for you is that once you feel that your ferment is finished, you need to change its environment to slow the fermentation process down to a near standstill. The easiest way to do this is to put your ferments in the refrigerator or another very cool spot, like a fruit cellar or garage. Putting bacteria into a very chilly, but not frozen, environment will bring their little reproduction and eating festival to a near halt. But notice that I didn’t say “dead halt.” Fermentation will continue even under less than optimal conditions. It might be a very slow fermentation, but it will continue, and bacteria will continue to produce carbon dioxide. This is very important to note when considering how and where to store your ferments, and it is also important when considering the flavor and texture of your food. Because it will continue to ferment, your food will gradually change in flavor and texture. Think of this as a super-slow-motion version of what

happened in the few days or weeks it took to produce your ferment. How much did a crisp head of cabbage change in a few weeks with the introduction of a few simple ingredients, becoming snappy sauerkraut? This transformation of texture and flavor will continue to happen to any fermented food, even after it is stored in a cool place, although very, very slowly. This can be desirable or undesirable depending on your palate and sense of adventure. As mentioned above, because the bacteria keep working away, they also keep producing carbon dioxide. It is not uncommon to open a refrigerated ferment and have it let out a rush of gas as if you were opening a bottle of pop. The likelihood of a vegetable ferment fizzing over and exploding like a volcano is slim, but even vegetable ferments can be slightly effervescent. Storing in the refrigerator will keep this under control. So, when fermenting food, and then storing it, think of the process as if it were on a light switch. Fermenting in a relatively warm or roomtemperature environment means that the bacteria are hard at work, and the ferment is on. But when stored in a cool place, the switch has been turned to almost, but not quite, off.

“Packing down” As you will see in upcoming sections, packing food tightly into a fermentation vessel is very important. You will want to fill your jars and crocks as full as possible, leaving enough headspace to accommodate expansion, but not enough to allow copious amounts of air inside. Since fermentation takes place in an anaerobic environment, that is, without oxygen, you will need to pack as much material into your vessel, ensuring that an ample amount of brine covers it to keep the food submerged and not exposed to the air. If you are not fermenting in a vessel that has an airlock top that keeps air out but allows for gasses to escape, you will probably notice that the very top of your cultured brine is susceptible to mold growth. This is normal, not harmful, and should just be periodically wiped clean as your food ferments. However, when you reach the point when you are storing and eating your ferments, there won’t be food and brine packed to the near top of your vessel. As you eat your delicious fermented food, there will be more air in the jar,

more material and brine exposed to the air, and a greater chance for spoilage. To prevent this, it is important to transfer your ferments into increasingly smaller containers to keep them as fresh as possible and to minimize exposure to the air. Although keeping ferments in the refrigerator is enough to curb a lot of wayward bacteria and mold growth, “packing down” is an extra bit of insurance that will protect you and your family just a little bit more.

Starters Generally speaking, a starter provides your fermentation medium with the kinds of bacteria that you want to culture, make your food ferment properly, as well as taste delicious. For many types of ferments, it is extremely difficult if not impossible to get the beneficial bacteria growing and proliferating without a bit of a nudge from a starter. In the world of fermentation many different things are used as starters, and it is important to understand the basic varieties as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

SCOBY An acronym for symbiotic colony of bacteria and yeast, a SCOBY is typically a gelatinous blob or clusters of bacteria and yeast living together in symbiosis, and together they help to ferment tea, water, or milk into delicious beverages. SCOBYs can typically be used over and over again provided that they are kept alive and healthy by storing them in the proper environment. They must be kept moist, preferably in a sweet liquid that provides the bacteria and yeast with food to eat. They also must be kept in a cool to warm place. If stored in a cold environment such as a refrigerator or freezer, the SCOBY goes dormant or can even die. SCOBYs are typically used to make kombucha, as well as water-, milk-, or coconut-based kefir. It is important to note that SCOBYs of various pedigrees are not interchangeable. A kombucha SCOBY is different than the grain-like SCOBYs that are used to make kefir and water kefir.

Mothers A mother and a SCOBY are similar, and the terms are often used interchangeably. When talking about vinegar-making, “mother” is the term most commonly used. A mother used to make vinegar is similar to a SCOBY in principle but is quite different in composition, and they are not interchangeable. As the acronym suggests, a SCOBY contains both bacteria and yeast of varying forms, depending on what style it is. A vinegar mother is

composed of just acetic-acid bacteria. A mother’s care and upkeep is the same as that of a kombucha SCOBY or kefir grains. She likes temperatures that are not too hot or too cold and thrives when there is plenty of available food.

Whey Whey is a byproduct of making dairy goods and is most popularly procured from yogurt, whether homemade or store-bought. If the yogurt contains live and active cultures (bacteria) then when you strain the yogurt to separate the whey, the whey will also contain those same cultures. Whey has a mostly neutral flavor, and because of this, and because it is a bacteria-rich liquid, it is often used to start ferments, especially when you don’t want the starter to interfere with the flavor of your end product. Using whey as a starter is extremely popular with those who can tolerate dairy because it is very easy and inexpensive to come by and can be stored in the refrigerator for a long time. It is the most common starter recommended by Sally Fallon’s Weston A. Price food bible, Nourishing Traditions. While whey is popular, convenient, cost-effective and easy, it may not be ideal for those avoiding dairy or for particular ferments. Whey can be used to ferment anything from other dairy products to fruits and vegetables; however, it will introduce dairy-based bacteria such as lactobacillus acidophilus, lactobacillus casei, lactobacillus rhamnosus, lactobacillus bulgaricus, streptococcus thermophiles, and bifidobacteriumbifidum. These all have probiotic properties, but they are not the same bacteria found in most wild cultures or ferments of vegetables or fruit. Using whey to ferment fruits and vegetables will certainly work, and will give you a probiotic-rich final product, but the strains of bacteria cultured will not be the naturally occurring ones. This can affect the taste and texture of your final product, although not necessarily in a negative way. You may find that using whey is an easy, convenient, and inexpensive option that produces ferments that are quite appealing to your personal palate. Experiment, taste-test, and be creative to find out what works best for you.

Salt Salt is not technically a starter, as it does not introduce bacteria into a ferment, but it does inhibit the growth of nonbeneficial, or even harmful bacteria, while letting the good ones grow and thrive. It helps to create just the right environment for the right kinds of bacteria to live and grow while making sure the undesirable ones do not. See “Selecting Food for Fermentation” on see here for a guide to choosing the perfect salt for fermentation.

A drawback to using salt is that it is very strong and can interfere with the flavor of the final product. While some ferments lend themselves to a salty taste, fermented fruits and some beverages are not very appetizing with even the slightest salty taste.

Store-bought starter cultures If you are looking for a particular bacterial profile to introduce into your fermented goods, or if you are avoiding whey and salt, store-bought starter cultures are a really great option to consider. Several different styles and brands of starter cultures are available, including various yogurt starter cultures, dehydrated kefir grains (SCOBYs), and even sourdough or soy starters. It is important to choose the appropriate one for your project. There are also products known as “vegetable starter cultures.” As the name suggests, these are recommended for starting vegetable and even fruit ferments, plus they are often partly derived from a vegetable source. Using one of these starter cultures will ensure that specific desirable bacteria will be introduced into your ferment and will leave nothing to chance. Vegetable starter cultures can be used alone or in conjunction with salt and/or whey. The upside of using such starter cultures is that they are safe and easy, plus they offer a modicum of control. By introducing specific bacteria into a ferment and giving them the proper conditions to grow, you are nearly guaranteeing yourself a successful batch of fermented goodness. Although starter cultures are not 100 percent foolproof, they do offer a level of security and control that cannot be matched by other starters. Vegetable starter cultures are also virtually flavorless and so will not interfere with the taste of the final product. They often come in small premeasured packets that are suitable for small-batch ferments. With all of that said, there are drawbacks to purchased vegetable starter cultures. First and foremost, they can be expensive, especially when compared with other options such as whey and salt. Vegetable starter cultures are also not as easy to find. Every corner market has salt and yogurt for making whey, but vegetable starter cultures are not as easy to come by. You can order them online and or find them at some brick-and-mortar health food stores. See “Resources” for more information.

Please be aware that while many vegetable starter cultures do include bacteria that are naturally found in wild fruit or vegetable ferments, they also often contain trace amounts of dairy that are reduced to negligible amounts in the final product. (We’re talking a few parts per million.)

Previous ferments Once something is fermented, the brine it is fermented in, or the liquid itself (in the case of kombucha, kvass, or kefir), can be used as a starter. Along the same lines as whey, using the bacteria-laden liquid from any other ferment can get a new batch of something started down the fermentation road. Keep your raw fermented kraut juice, a bit of your lacto-fermented pickle brine, a cup of coconut yogurt, or several ounces of kombucha. They are all loaded with bacteria that you do not want to waste and that can be used to your culinary advantage. A great way to indulge your creativity is to mix brines and bacteria-rich liquids from one ferment to another. Flavor combinations are practically endless.

Wild fermentation Using a starter is sometimes necessary, as with kombucha or yogurt, but especially when fermenting vegetables or fruit, it is possible to “go wild” and let your unique environment take your ferments in an unpredictable direction. There are uncountable numbers of bacteria in every breath we take, in every object we can see. As human creatures we are surrounded by bacteria, covered with bacteria, and even made up of more bacteria than human cells. The principle of wild fermentation is about taking advantage of this cornucopia of omnipresent bacteria. Salt is used not as a starter but as a controlling substance to inhibit the growth of undesired bacteria and encourage a healthy environment for the kinds of bacteria you do want, namely Lactobacillus and its cousins. As far as fermenting wild goes, it can be as simple as preparing the food to be fermented, placing it in an anaerobic environment—that is, lacking oxygen—to keep harmful bacteria from growing, and letting the ambient

bacteria work their magic. No mixing in starters, no worrying about keeping SCOBYs happy and healthy. Just setting your food up to successfully ferment and let nature do what it does best. One of the advantages of wild fermentation is that it is free and easy! There is usually some cost associated with starters, whether store-bought or homemade. Because fermenting wild uses air and the bacteria naturally found on food, there is zero starter cost or effort. Wild fermentation does take a bit longer than fermenting with a starter. Setting up your ferments with everything they need bacteria-wise by using a starter allows the little guys to get to work right away. Wild ferments tend to be slower as the bacteria may or may not be naturally abundant and can take their good, sweet time getting to work on your food.

Fermenting Vegetables and Fruit The easiest and most elementary way to start fermenting is to use readily available vegetables and fruit. It is the classic fermentation preparation and one that is most well known when talking about fermentation with others who may not be as familiar with the topic. It seems that everyone knows what sauerkraut is and has probably tried it at some point. There are two basic categories of fermented vegetables and fruit. The first uses vegetables that will produce their own brine when cut or sliced. Again, think of classic sauerkraut. The watery brine that the kraut is stored in was made from the cabbage itself (more on this in the Basic Sauerkraut Recipe on see here). The second requires that brine is added to start fermentation because the vegetables don’t produce their own. Pickles are a perfect example. Whole cucumbers do not produce any brine at all so one has to be made to start the process. (For more on this, see the Basic Fermented Pickles recipe on see here.) The basic procedure for lacto-fermenting vegetables and fruit is very straightforward. Simply put your produce into a container, cover it with water, ensure that everything is beneath the water line, add time, and let it go until fermented to your liking. Of course this is an oversimplification, but not by much. You may have to add a starter, and you may have to give your ferment a little attention along the way, but as long as these basic elements are present, the end result will definitely be fermented food.

Basic Sauerkraut Recipe Once you master the simple art of making sauerkraut, you will soon be fermenting all kinds of goodies in quantities large and small! What follows is the procedure for lacto-fermenting any vegetable that produces a lot of liquid when cut, sliced, or shredded and massaged with salt. Examples include cabbage, turnips, carrots, and any type of leafy greens. Ingredients

1 head cabbage (green, red, napa, bok choy, etc., or a combination) 2 tablespoons salt Equipment

Large food-safe bowl Knife Food processor, mandolin, or box slicer (optional) Cutting board 1-quart wide-mouth glass jar or air-lock fermentation container Pinch bowl or shot glass to keep the kraut submerged (optional) 1. Wash the cabbage and remove the outermost leaves. 2. Cut the cabbage into ¼-inch-wide strips, place them in a bowl, and sprinkle with the salt. 3. Massage the salt into the cabbage using clean hands until the cabbage is limp but still crispy and there is a significant amount of watery brine in the bowl. This will take anywhere from several minutes to a half-hour depending on the cabbage. Reserve the brine that the cabbage yields.

4. Pack the cabbage into the jar, pressing it down very firmly with your hand or the blunt end of a kitchen tool. Be sure to add the brine as well, making sure that the brine covers the cabbage. It is only below the brine line where fermentation takes place! If the cabbage did not produce enough brine to cover it, add enough salted water so that there is enough to cover the cabbage. 5. To make sure that the cabbage stays below the brine line, weigh it down with a small pinch bowl, shot glass, or even the whole outer leaves of the cabbage. 6. Store the jar somewhere cool and dark. Check on it from time to time, starting after a day or two. If any cabbage has poked its way above the brine line, remove and discard it. Also, wipe away any mold that may appear. Taste-test the sauerkraut periodically, starting after a week of fermentation. The texture and flavor will change as the cabbage ferments; it can take up to three weeks or a month for the kraut to reach its optimal flavor. When it is fermented to your liking, cover the jar with a tight-fitting lid, store it in the refrigerator, and enjoy! Notes

Using a knife to cut the cabbage is preferable to a food processor because you have more control over the size of the cabbage strips. Hand-cutting tends to yield thicker pieces, while a food processor can shred the leaves into confetti-like pieces, which tend to disintegrate when massaging them with salt. If you are not using a vessel with an airlock top, you are not advised to close the jar with a lid while the cabbage ferments. If you want to cover the jar, do so with something that will let air flow in and out of the vessel like a coffee filter or several layers of cheesecloth secured with a rubber band.

More brine will be produced during the fermentation process, so it’s a good idea to place your jar or crock on top of something that can catch any possible overflow. If you start losing brine as the fermentation progresses, simply add some salted water until the cabbage is below the brine line. Fermentation time will vary depending on the ambient temperature where the kraut is stored. The cooler the location, the longer the ferment time. The warmer the location, the shorter the ferment time. Check the kraut a few times during the fermentation process for mold, evaporating brine, spills, or a wayward piece of cabbage that has made its way above the brine line.

Fermented Whole Vegetables Pickling and fermentation of whole vegetables are different but similar. Some pickles are fermented, but not all. What distinguishes the two techniques is that traditional pickling involves preserving the produce in an acid bath (most commonly vinegar) rather than brine. True pickling resembles canning in some ways, as the produce and acid bath are combined when hot. Making fermented whole, intact vegetables involves little to no heat, no acid bath, and more time. The following recipe is for the traditional cucumber pickle, but nearly anything can be fermented using this method. This technique is perfect for whole veggies or for veggies cut into large pieces. Think carrot sticks, hot peppers, radishes, scallions, red onions, and more. I use the ratio of two teaspoons of unrefined sea salt per cup of filtered water to make a brine.

Basic Fermented Pickles Ingredients

3 cloves garlic, peeled 1 large sprig fresh dill 1 fresh grape leaf (see Notes) 8 to 12 pickling cucumbers, or as many as it takes to tightly pack a quart-size jar 3 cups filtered water 2 tablespoons unrefined sea salt Equipment

1-quart glass jar Knife Cutting board Saucepan Pinch bowl or shot glass to keep the pickles submerged (optional) 1. Place the garlic, dill, and grape leaf in the bottom of the jar. 2. Cut the ends and stems off the cucumbers. Put the cucumbers in the jar vertically, packing them tightly. Wedge as many into the jar as you can without damaging them. 3. Place the water in the saucepan, heat slightly, and add the salt. 4. Remove from the heat, stir until the salt is dissolved, and allow the brine to come to room temperature. 5. Pour the brine into the jar with the cucumbers, leaving about an inch of headspace. Be sure that the cucumbers stay submerged below the brine line, using a pinch bowl or shot glass if necessary. 6. Loosely cover the jar and allow to ferment at room temperature for a week to 10 days. 7. When the pickles have finished fermenting, cover tightly and refrigerate. Notes

This is a very basic recipe for pickles and produces a garlicky-dill flavor. Feel free to experiment with other seasonings, like red pepper flakes, fresh herbs, mustard seeds, coriander seeds, or pickling-spice blends. The grape leaf keeps the cucumbers crispy and is not a necessary ingredient if fermenting other vegetables in this style. After a week or

more of fermentation, cucumbers can get a bit mushy. They are still perfectly fine to eat, but they may not have the characteristic snap of a pickle. Some home fermenters use a fresh oak leaf in lieu of a fresh grape leaf—just be sure it’s clean!

TROUBLESHOOTING FERMENTS

FOR

ALL

VEGETABLE

It is perfectly normal for mold to appear on the brine’s surface during fermentation. It doesn’t mean that you have to toss out a whole batch of pickles or kraut. Simply scrape the mold away with a clean spoon and replace any brine that you might have removed along with it. Brined pickles may become cloudy as they ferment—this is a sign of progress! Unless the pickles smell rancid or have a rotten, slimy texture, don’t worry. When vegetables and fruits ferment, they can expand and contract. Carbon dioxide is bubbling out of your jars and crocks because a complex chemical reaction is taking place inside your kitchen. As a result, there may be some brine overflow, so always put your jars in a shallow tray or on a baking sheet during fermentation.

Dairy- and Coconut-Based Ferments The technique for fermenting fruit and vegetables is a world apart from what it takes to ferment dairy or coconut products despite the fact that the chemical reaction may be similar and the basic theory behind the two methods may be similar. But fermenting dairy and coconut products is not complicated. It takes some attention to detail, but not much more than vegetable or fruit ferments.

Yogurt Most people are indeed familiar with yogurt and do recognize it as a fermented product. The fact that some yogurts tout their bacterial pedigree by proclaiming “live and active cultures” on labels helps to educate the public about the life-promoting qualities of bacteria. For this, I am heartily grateful to yogurt. Even more than sauerkraut, yogurt seems to be the most celebrated of fermented foods. Yogurt is one of the most ubiquitous foods in the market. More specifically, cow’s milk yogurt. Entire supermarket dairy cases are devoted to those colorful little cups, with seemingly hundreds of brands offering a myriad of flavor, fat, and sugar variations. Yogurt has somehow (wrongly, in my opinion) earned the distinction of being one of the healthiest foods available. If you talk to people who are trying to transition from the Standard American Diet to eating more healthfully, they will inevitably cite their yogurt-and-granola breakfast parfaits or their “just a cup of yogurt” lunches as the way to go. There are special “ladies’ yogurts” that promote digestion and regular elimination. And it seems that the superhero of all yogurt products is Greek yogurt. It is everywhere! Swap out sour cream for Greek yogurt in a recipe and it becomes “healthy”! Given this, you’d think that yogurt was some kind of miracle food, right? Not exactly, but it does have merit. Yogurt contains all the probiotic benefits that any fermented product has to offer. But there is no point in extolling yogurt’s virtues if you cannot or will not eat it. If you do eat dairy, even a limited amount, yogurt can be a beneficial part of your diet. Because it is fermented, it is lower in lactose than other dairy products, and therefore those who are lactose-intolerant are sometimes able to enjoy it without ill effects. If you are strictly dairy-free, yogurt can still be part of your diet! Coconut milk is a dairy-free person’s best friend. I’m not going to pretend that it has the same flavor or chemical composition as cow’s, goat’s, or sheep’s milk, but it is a delicious alternative and makes a really unique yogurt.

Basic Yogurt Recipe (pasteurized dairy version) Ingredients

1 quart milk ¼ cup plain store-bought yogurt (must say “live active cultures” on the label) or store-bought yogurt-starter culture packet Equipment

Saucepan Food thermometer 1-quart glass jar or several small jars Yogurt maker, food dehydrator, or slow cooker with temperature control 1. Pour the milk into the saucepan and heat it over medium heat, taking care not to scald the milk. Monitor the temperature of the milk and bring it to 180°F/82°C. Do not let the milk come to a boil, and do not microwave it! 2. Once the milk has reached 180°F/82°C, lower the heat and let cool to 110°F/43°C. 3. Slowly stir in the yogurt or starter culture, making sure to blend thoroughly, then transfer the mixture to the jar. 4. Keep the jar at 110°F/43°C for 8 to 12 hours. This can be achieved by following the instructions on a yogurt maker, putting the jar into a food dehydrator with the trays removed and the temperature set to 110°F/43°C, or by carefully putting the jar in a slow cooker set to warm.

5. Store the yogurt in the refrigerator. Notes

When fermenting, yogurt has to be kept around 110°F/43°C. A cooler environment will not facilitate fermentation, and higher temperatures will kill the bacteria needed for fermentation. If pasteurized dairy is not part of your diet, and you have a reputable source for raw milk, the yogurt-making process is only slightly different. Follow the above directions, but instead of initially heating the milk to 180°F/82°C, heat only to 110°F/43°C: higher temperatures will kill the enzymes and bacteria for which raw milk is so lauded. Once the raw milk has reached 110°F/43°C, add the starter, and proceed with the remaining instructions.

Basic Coconut Milk Yogurt Dairy-free yogurt is still quite simple to make, but requires additional ingredients and a little more care. Ingredients

1 quart full-fat canned or homemade coconut milk 2 teaspoons thickening agent (powdered agar or unflavored gelatin) 1/ cup boiling water 3 1 package store-bought nondairy starter culture 2 tablespoons sugar, honey, maple syrup, or coconut sugar Equipment

Saucepan Food thermometer 1-quart glass jar or several small jars Yogurt maker, food dehydrator, or slow cooker with temperature control 1. Pour the milk into the saucepan and heat it over medium heat, taking care not to scald the milk. Monitor the temperature of the milk and bring it to 180°F/82°C. Do not let the milk come to a boil, and do not microwave it! 2. Once milk has reached 180°F/82°C, lower the heat and let cool to 110°F/43°C. 3. While the milk is cooling, mix the thickening agent and boiling water in a small bowl. Slowly stir in the starter culture, the dissolved thickening agent, and your sweetener of choice. Be sure to blend thoroughly.

Transfer the mixture to the jar. 4. Keep the jar at 110°F/43°C for 8 to 12 hours. This can be achieved by following the instructions on a yogurt maker, putting the jar into a food dehydrator with the trays removed and the temperature set to 110°F/43°C, or by carefully putting the jar in a slow cooker set to warm. 5. After the yogurt has fermented for several hours, it will have thickened and taken on the characteristic sour yogurt smell. 6. Store the yogurt in the refrigerator, where it will thicken even more as it cools. Notes

Do not use coconut milk that comes in cartons. They often contain additives, sweeteners, and preservatives that will interfere with your final product and cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals, and are too thin to make a decent batch of thick-and-creamy yogurt. Without a thickening agent, coconut milk can’t achieve the consistency that you want from yogurt. You may find that after the required hours of fermentation, your coconut milk yogurt is not very thick, but rest assured that once it is chilled, it will turn into the thick, creamy delight you’ve been anticipating.

Greek-style Yogurt Traditional Greek yogurt is made from sheep’s or goat’s milk, which taste different than cow’s milk, but the basic difference is that it is much thicker than conventional yogurt. If you have access to sheep’s or goat’s milk feel free to experiment! The results are bound to be delicious and unique. To turn your homemade cow’s milk or coconut milk yogurt into thicker Greek-style yogurt, follow this simple procedure. Ingredients

Any quantity of dairy or nondairy yogurt Equipment

Cheesecloth Bowl Fine-mesh or metal sieve Small saucer A canned good or other small weight 1. Line a sieve with several layers of cheesecloth and place over a bowl. 2. Pour the homemade yogurt into the sieve and cover with another piece of cheesecloth. 3. Put the saucer on top of the yogurt, then the can or weight on top of the saucer. 4. Put the entire rig in the refrigerator for 4 hours. 5. After several hours, some liquid will have been released, resulting in a thicker product.

6. Refrigerate and enjoy Notes

To make yogurt cheese, simply follow the above procedure, but leave the yogurt to strain for twelve hours or overnight. More liquid will have drained out, yielding a thick, spreadable cheese-like consistency. The liquid released from dairy yogurt is called whey and can be used as a starter for other fermentations. (See “Starters, see here, for more information.)

Different Kinds of Yogurt The previous yogurt recipes are the ones commonly found in most supermarkets. They require heating of milk, addition of a starter culture, and an incubation period for the culture to ferment the milk, and are referred to as thermophilic yogurts. As mentioned, the most famous of these is Greek yogurt, but the style that is widely available in the tiny cups or quart-size containers most closely resembles Bulgarian yogurt—thick, tangy, and somewhat sweet. However, there are several other kinds of dairy-based yogurt, all with varying thicknesses and their own unique characteristics, tanginess, and texture. Beyond the omnipresent Greek and Bulgarian thermophilic yogurts, there are mesophilic yogurts, which do not require milk to be heated or maintained at a certain temperature for an extended period of time. Mesophilic yogurt calls for an entirely different style of starter culture, which brings different bacteria to the ferment. Because the different strains of starter bacteria will react with the milk in a different way, they have their own survival requirements. High heat is not one of them, and in fact when culturing milk with a mesophilic culture, heating it above 80°F/27°C will destroy the culture and the possibility of making any yogurt at all. Mesophilic yogurts are native to Scandinavian countries and tend to be runny and loose. To make mesophilic yogurt, you must acquire a starter particular to it (see “Resources”). There are several types of mesophilic yogurts, each with its own flavor profile and texture. Here are some common varieties: Viili: Originating in Finland, viili yogurt is mild compared with other yogurts and does especially well when made with whole milk. Filmjölk: Similar to viili, filmjölk yogurt has Swedish roots. It is often sold as

“drinkable yogurt” as it is quite runny, with an almost liquid, drinkable, kefir-like consistency. Piimä: Also thin in consistency, piimä is tangier than viili and filmjölk and is almost cheese-like in flavor. It does very well with both sweet and savory applications. Matsoni: Matsoni yogurt has its roots in modern-day Armenia and Georgia. It is one of the thicker varieties of mesophilic yogurts.

Mesophilic Yogurt While each style of yogurt is slightly different, the basic method to make each is the same. Ingredients

1 quart milk 1 package mesophilic yogurt starter culture Equipment

1-quart glass jar 1 coffee filter, several layers of cheesecloth, or a handkerchief 1 rubber band or string 1. Mix the milk and starter culture in the jar. 2. Loosely cover the jar with the coffee filter and secure with the rubber band. 3. Let sit in a location where the temperature is at least 70°F/21°C but not more than 78°F/26°C for at least 12 hours and up to 48 hours. 4. During the fermentation period, check on the yogurt to ensure that it is in the proper temperature range. 5. The yogurt is finished when it has a tangy smell and has thickened to a consistency in keeping with the style of mesophilic yogurt you have fermented. 6. Refrigerate and enjoy.

Notes

Temperatures over 78°F/26°C will kill the culture and not produce yogurt, and temperatures below 70°F/21°C are too cool to allow the bacteria in the starter culture to ferment the milk. As with thermophilic yogurt, it is essential that the ferment be kept in the optimum temperature range. Follow the instructions that come with the starter culture. While the technique is basically the same for each type of mesophilic yogurt, each style requires the culture to be activated and fermented for a different amount of time. It is important to read the directions that come with the culture. All mesophilic yogurt does best with dairy, but can be made with nondairy alternatives. Please note that if you plan to use a nondairy milk like coconut milk to make mesophilic yogurt, and you plan to maintain a starter culture to inoculate each new batch (backslopping), it is wise to still culture a bit in regular dairy milk and reserve it to keep the culture alive and thriving for the long term. While the bacterial cultures will ferment coconut milk, their fermenting strength will diminish with each batch and will need to be revived with a culture that has been kept strong in regular dairy milk. The final product made with coconut milk will have a negligible amount of dairy proteins in it. TROUBLESHOOTING YOUR YOGURT

Yogurt-making, no matter what kind of milk is used, is a very easy procedure, but it can be frustrating to put the time and effort into making yogurt, only to produce a less-than-perfect batch. Often after a batch of yogurt is finished fermenting, it will seem as if it has separated and that your jar contains creamy yogurt and some mostly clear, watery liquid. The watery liquid is whey that has separated from

the yogurt during fermentation and can be removed and stored to use as a starter culture for future batches of yogurt or other types of ferments. The most common problem with yogurt-making is that after letting it ferment, it doesn’t thicken. The usual reason for this is extreme temperatures. Maintaining a constant 110°F/43°C temperature for thermophilic yogurt and between 70°F/21°C and 78°F/26°C for mesophilic yogurt is tricky without specialized equipment like a yogurt maker or a food dehydrator with a thermostat. High temperatures can kill a bacterial culture, and low temperatures can prevent the cultures from getting on with the work of fermentation. Either situation can cause a runny or liquefied final product. Making coconut milk yogurt is slightly trickier than its dairy counterpart because it will never get thick and creamy like store-bought yogurt without the help of a thickening agent. You may also find that the prescribed amount of thickening agent will slightly vary depending on the quality of the coconut milk you are using. Coconut milk with a higher fat content will thicken more easily than its lower-fat counterparts. Spending some quality time in your kitchen may be required to land on the recipe that produces your ideal coconut milk. But that doesn’t mean your experiments that lead you to the ideal combination will be inedible—enjoy the process, and the fruits it produces. If you find mold on your yogurt, discard the yogurt and start over.

Kefir Similar to yogurt, kefir is a fermented beverage that can be made with traditional dairy or with coconut milk. Both will add a tangy, drinkable, probiotic zip to your day and can be flavored many different ways to satisfy your palate. While it may seem as if kefir is simply “drinkable yogurt” because both products are fermented milk, have a similar tanginess, and are traditionally eaten plain or flavored with fruit, kefir is quite different. That difference is found on a microscopic level. As with all fermentations, bacteria are doing the work to turn any food into a probiotic superpower. The type of bacteria varies depending on several factors. The type of starter used determines which strains of bacteria will be introduced into a ferment. Using whey will introduce dairy-based bacteria even if you are not fermenting a dairy product. Adding a store-bought starter culture will bring its specific strains to the ferment, and a wild fermentation leaves it up to chance. Some ferments—such as kombucha, kefir, and water kefir—use a combination of bacteria and yeast in the form of a SCOBY to start a fermentation. So the difference between yogurt and kefir lies in what exactly is being used to ferment the milk in the first place. Yogurt ferments typically use two or three different strains of bacteria. The specifics of these strains vary according to yogurt type, but generally speaking, yogurt, while very rich in live bacterial cultures, does not contain a wide variety of strains. Kefir, on the other hand, does. There can be upward of fifteen to thirty strains of bacteria, plus yeast, introduced into the milk being turned into kefir. So you can see that yogurt and kefir are two different animals in terms of their probiotic qualities. Making kefir at home is quite simple once you have assembled the necessary ingredients. Like yogurt, it can be made with various types of milk (cow’s, goat’s, sheep’s) with various fat contents or with raw milk or with coconut milk.

Ingredients

1 quart milk (dairy or coconut) 1 tablespoon kefir grains (see Notes) Equipment

Glass jar or bottle with a lid that will hold a quart of liquid plus a few inches of headspace to accommodate expansion. Small strainer 1. Combine the milk and kefir grains in the jar. Cover tightly enough to prevent spillage when you gently shake it, but loose enough that the built-up carbon dioxide that is the result of the fermentation can escape. 2. Let sit at room temperature for 12 to 48 hours depending on how tangy you like your kefir: less time will result in a sweeter, milder kefir; more time will yield a more sour, tangier beverage. 3. Strain the kefir and reserve the grains for your next ferment. 4. Refrigerate the kefir and enjoy. Notes

You can buy kefir grains, which are usually in a dehydrated state, from a variety of sources (see “Resources,”see here). Before fermenting a batch of kefir, the dehydrated grains must be activated in milk. To rehydrate, mix the dehydrated grains with a cup or so of fresh milk. Cover loosely and let sit at room temperature for twenty-four hours. Strain the grains from the milk and repeat this process for five days, or until the milk has started to coagulate in one twenty-four-hour period and has a fresh but sour smell to it: this means the grains are active and ready for use.

If you are using coconut milk to make kefir, note that canned, full-fat coconut milk is best. The coconut milk in cartons often contains additives that inhibit thickening and can prevent fermentation. Optimal temperature for kefir fermentation is between 70°F/21°C and 78°F/26°C. Fermenting kefir outside of this safe temperature range is not conducive to a proper ferment. As with a kombucha SCOBY, kefir grains are sensitive to extreme temperatures and will hibernate in cold temperatures and die if they get too warm. If making dairy-based kefir, the grains can be immediately put into a new quart of milk upon being strained from a batch of fresh kefir. This is not only essential for their longevity, but it will keep you and your family indefinitely rich with kefir. While kefir grains will ferment coconut milk, their lifespan will be short. After each coconut milk fermentation, it is important to “recharge” the grains in regular dairy milk for a few hours or a day to bring them back to life. If this procedure is diligently followed, the kefir grains will last much longer than if they had been exposed to just coconut milk. Some kefir fans prefer a fizzy beverage. Sometimes called “the champagne of milk,” kefir is even more unique when it is effervescent. To add a bit of sparkle to your kefir, all you need to do is strain the grains out, then seal the kefir in a flip-top bottle or a jar with a tightfitting lid at room temperature for a few hours or a day. This will allow enough carbon dioxide to build up so that when it is time to be consumed, the kefir will be bubblicious. Use extreme caution when opening “champagne” kefir, though, as the contents will be under pressure and can erupt like a volcano!

Flavoring Just as with kombucha and water kefir, when the kefir is ready to drink that’s when it can be customized and flavored to your liking. The addition of fruit makes for a delicious sweet beverage: it can be added in pieces or as a purée; you can even stir in jam or jelly. It is as simple as that. Use your imagination and let your palate be your guide.

TROUBLESHOOTING KEFIR

Discard the kefir if there is any sign of mold. Strain the grains out of the kefir before discarding it and rinse them thoroughly. Put them in fresh milk. Do not drink moldy kefir. As with all styles of ferments, use your instincts. If it does not look or smell appetizing to you, do not consume. Milk kefir grains are very delicate “creatures,” which need to be handled with care. Remember, it is in the grains’ (and your) best interest to start another batch of kefir immediately after one is finished in order to keep them alive and growing. If this is not possible, your grains can be stored from a week to ten days in a cup of fresh milk in the refrigerator.

Vinegar Vinegar is a fermented food product that nearly everyone has had in some form or another, but probably did not give the fact that it is fermented a second thought. But it is, of course! It is indeed a probiotic food, using a bacteria-rich mother as a starter; if left unpasteurized it will contain live cultures after bottling. But unlike other fermented foods, it is not usually consumed all by itself. Instead it finds its way into sauces, dressings, drinks, and as a flavor enhancer in all kinds of dishes. Vinegar is made when ethyl alcohol is fermented by acetic acid bacteria (also called acetobacters), provided by a starter mother, which then yield acetic acid. Just like a kombucha SCOBY, a vinegar mother is a jellylike blob of bacteria. It is not vitally important to start a batch of vinegar with a mother, as there are enough acetobacters in the atmosphere itself to eventually start fermentation, but the use of one will definitely speed up the process and guarantee a reliable ferment. Different types of vinegar are made depending on the type of ethyl alcohol used, and it is no mystery how this works. Red wine vinegar is made from red wine, champagne vinegar is made from champagne, apple cider vinegar is made from apple cider, and so on. The very common distilled white vinegar with its many household uses is made from distilled grain alcohol. If you are absolutely avoiding grains as part of your ancestral diet, it is probably best to use it only as a household cleaner. Please note that mothers are vinegar specific. Red wine vinegar mothers are good for making red wine vinegar only. White wine vinegar mothers are good for making white wine vinegar only.

Equipment needed

Like most other ferments, the equipment list for vinegar-making is short. Alcohol, water, a mother, and a fermentation vessel pretty much rounds out the list of ingredients and equipment.

Basic Red or White Wine Vinegar Ingredients

10 cups wine, divided 1 cup water 1 vinegar mother (red wine vinegar mother if you are using red wine, white wine vinegar mother if you are using white) Equipment

1-gallon glass jar or ceramic crock Several pieces of cheesecloth or a coffee filter big enough to cover the mouth of the jar being used Rubber bands to secure the cheesecloth or filter 1. Pour 2 cups of the wine and the water into the jar, then add the vinegar mother and any liquid that came with it. 2. Secure the cheesecloth over the mouth of the jar with the rubber bands, and put the jar in a dark, warm (70°–80°F/21°–26°C) place for 7 to 10 days. 3. After 7 to 10 days, add 2 more cups of the wine and return the jar to its storage place. 4. After 3 more days, add 2 more cups of the wine and return the jar to its storage space. 5. After 3 more days, add the remaining 4 cups of the wine and return the jar to its storage space.

6. Keep the jar in its dark, warm spot for another 2 to 3 months. During that time, use a drinking straw to draw off an ounce or so for tastetesting. Test it every few days after the 2 to 3 month fermentation period to see when its flavor is to your liking. When it is vinegary enough for your palate, it is finished. 7. Pour the vinegar through cheesecloth or a coffee filter to strain out any particulates that may have accumulated in the vessel and into a flip-top bottle. 8. Reserve the mother in a bit of reserved vinegar for your next batch.

Notes

If you don’t have a dark place to store the wine while it ferments, you can use an opaque food-safe container for fermentation. If neither of those are options, you can keep your jar wrapped in a towel to obscure the light.

As you add additional wine over time, be sure not to disturb the new mother that is growing on the surface of the fermenting wine. With clean hands gently push her to one side as you slowly add the wine, taking extra care to put her back in place when finished. As with a kombucha SCOBY, a vinegar mother is a collection of living creatures that can be easily damaged or killed by harsh treatment or extreme temperatures. Be gentle with your mother! After a batch of vinegar is finished fermenting, you will now have two mothers—the original, and the “baby” that was born during your ferment. Store the extra mother in a small amount of reserved vinegar and give it to a friend. When you have decided that your vinegar is finished fermenting, you can bottle it and store it as you would any vinegar you bought at the supermarket. However, homemade vinegar is not pasteurized and will continue to slowly ferment, as it still contains trace amounts of the acetic acid bacteria. If you want to pasteurize it to stop any future fermentation, simply pour the vinegar into a pot and bring it to 150°F/65°C, cover, and maintain that temperature for 30 minutes. Do not let the vinegar get hotter than that. After 30 minutes, remove from the heat and let the vinegar cool, keeping it covered to avoid losing the precious ferment to evaporation. Pour into a sterilized bottle and store in the pantry.

Apple Cider Vinegar As with other types of vinegar, the making of apple cider vinegar follows the same procedure of turning ethyl alcohol into acetic acid by using acetic acid bacteria (acetobacters). However, the raw materials you start with will determine how complicated the process will become. Apple cider, apple juice, or even whole apples will need to be fermented into an alcoholic beverage before being turned into vinegar. (See “Hard Apple Cider,” see here, for instructions.) An alternative to fermenting apple cider or juice into hard cider is to buy hard cider. This is a popular beer alternative, is gluten-free, and is typically available wherever beer is sold. Note that using store-bought hard cider will affect the final taste of the vinegar. Fresh and in-season is always best and will yield the most robust results. Ingredients

10 cups hard apple cider (homemade or store-bought) 1 apple cider vinegar mother or 1 cup raw apple cider vinegar (like Bragg’s) Equipment

1-gallon glass jar or ceramic crock Several pieces of cheesecloth or a coffee filter big enough to cover the mouth of the jar being used Rubber bands to secure the cheesecloth or filter 1. Place the hard cider and mother in the jar. Cover with cheesecloth and secure with rubber bands.

2. Keep the jar in a dark place for 6 to 8 weeks at a temperature between 70°F/21°C and 80°F/27°C. 3. After about 2 weeks you should start to see another vinegar mother form on the surface of the liquid. 4. The vinegar is finished fermenting when it tastes amply “vinegary” to you. There should be no taste or scent of alcohol left. 5. Pour the vinegar into a storage bottle filtered through several layers of cheesecloth or a coffee filter to remove any sediment and store at room temperature. 6. Reserve the mother in a bit of reserved vinegar for your next batch. Notes

You can bottle and store your homemade vinegar as you would any vinegar bought at the supermarket, but because homemade vinegar is not pasteurized it will continue to slowly ferment. If you want to pasteurize it to halt any future fermentation, simply pour the vinegar into a pot and bring it to 150°F/65°C, cover, and maintain that temperature for 30 minutes. Do not let the vinegar get hotter than 150°F/65°C. Remove the vinegar from the heat and let it cool, keeping it covered to avoid losing the precious ferment to evaporation. Pour into a sterilized bottle and store in the pantry. As with red-, white-, or champagne vinegars, after making a batch of apple cider vinegar, you will now have two mothers—the original, and the “baby” that was born during your ferment. Store the extra mother in a small amount of reserved vinegar and give it to a friend.

Shrubs Don’t call it a comeback—they’ve been here for years. These vinegar-based beverages date to American Colonial times but fell out of vogue until recently. There has been a resurgence in old-timey cocktail-making and gratefully that includes the fabulous shrub. Traditionally, shrubs are concoctions of fruit, sugar, and vinegar mixed together to make a sweet but tart syrup, which is then used as a concentrate for drinks both alcoholic and not. Most basic shrub recipes call for fruit to be macerated with sugar, or lightly cooked down in a saucepan with sugar and water. The fruit is then strained, and the syrup is combined with vinegar and refrigerated. There is another method, however, that involves muddling the fruit with sugar and allowing it to sit for several hours or even a day or two before straining and adding vinegar. Both methods call for a large amount of sugar, sometimes even a 1 to 1 ratio of fruit to sugar—that is a lot of sugar! However, when you look at the chemistry behind shrubs, you will realize that some of that sugar is turned into alcohol as the shrub syrup ages. Remember how yeast turns sugar into alcohol and bacteria turns alcohol into vinegar? That is what happens during the brief aging period of a shrub, although if left long enough a shrub will not turn to only vinegar. The small amount of yeast present on the fruit will eventually be exhausted, thus halting alcohol production, which will then halt vinegar production. Flavor wise, the syrup will mellow in flavor the longer it ages, but still maintain its sweet and tart profile. Shrubs can be made using nearly any fruit, any vinegar, and any sugar; however, as with nearly everything else in this book, keeping it as close to homemade is best, so do try your hand at fermenting your own vinegars to use in shrub-making. There is just something inexplicably rewarding about seeing the process through from its absolute inception to the finished product. In my own kitchen, I go easy on the sugar when I make shrubs. As with many ancestral eaters, I choose to keep refined carbohydrates to a minimum, and as a result I enjoy my shrubs on the tart side. Although in the end each serving does contain just a small amount of sugar, I still choose to use a light

hand with the sweetener. Feel free to experiment in your own kitchen with different amounts of sugar to see what suits you best. There are several alcoholic and nonalcoholic recipes for shrubs in the Summer section, starting on see here.

Fermented Beverages I guess I ought to be a warm, caring, and even-handed fermentation mom and say that I love all my probiotic foods equally, but I cannot be that diplomatic. I admit now in print that my very favorite aspect of food fermentation is the fermentation of beverages. They are so easy to make, flavoring possibilities are practically endless, and they are a great first foray into the whole world of fermentation. If you are a fermentation rookie, I highly recommend that you start by making beverages—especially kombucha and water kefir. They are the simplest ferments and can yield a very tasty final product that most closely resembles other more unhealthy beverages that you might be trying to remove from your diet. This section will walk you through the basics of making four different types of fermented beverages—kombucha, water kefir, kvass, and hard cider. As with other types of ferments, beverages need only a few ingredients, a little tender loving care in the form of good environmental conditions, and, of course, time. Please note that fermented beverages can contain a modicum of alcohol. Because most fermented beverages start out as sweet liquids, the glucose, sucrose, and fructose contained in the original products will ferment and produce ethanol, which is what makes alcoholic beverages just that— alcoholic. Most hobbyist home fermenters do not have the equipment or the chemistry know-how to accurately measure the exact level of alcohol produced by fermentation, so you are advised to drink with caution. The basic ferments outlined in this section, with the exception of hard cider, are not intended to be alcoholic beverages and typically their alcoholic content will be .5 percent to 1.5 percent ABV (alcohol by volume) as opposed to beer or wine which can range from 2 percent to 19 percent ABV depending on the label. You can see that, generally speaking, kombucha or kvass probably will not be on tap at the next wild party you attend, but there is enough alcohol present in these beverages to affect the body, especially if you are sensitive to it. If you avoid alcohol in your diet for any reason, you also might want to avoid making fermented beverages.

Kombucha Simply put, kombucha is fermented tea. It is so much more, but if you’re looking for a quick-and-dirty definition, that’s it. Really, kombucha is fermented tea with infinite possibilities, flavor profiles and combinations, plus it has ostensible health benefits that make it a nutritional superhero. Kombucha is a great gateway fermentation because it is so simple to make, and the result is a delicious, healthy pop. Who could ask for more? The foundation of kombucha-making is the SCOBY.

SCOBY 101 Without a SCOBY, there is no kombucha. A SCOBY is often called a mother or mushroom. It is the white or off-white globular disk that contains all the bacteria and yeast needed to turn everyday sweetened tea into fermented heaven. This jellylike blob is usually pretty sturdy, but the bacteria and yeast that form it are living in a delicate little culture that can be easily disturbed, and thus wreak havoc on your final product. Think of your SCOBY—actually billions and billions of organisms that need specific conditions to thrive—as a little, slimy pet that you must keep healthy and well fed. If you do so, it will provide you with years of loyal service and tasty kombucha. Each time you ferment a batch of tea, you have to add a SCOBY to it along with some starter tea. A SCOBY and starter tea always go together. To remain healthy and viable, a SCOBY must be kept moist with bacteria and yeast-rich tea. It is best to use a cup or two of previously brewed kombucha. The starter tea combined with the SCOBY will brew up a new batch of tea in no time. The SCOBY from each new batch of kombucha will produce another SCOBY, or baby, which is why the original is often referred to as a “mother.” Then you will have two SCOBYs. The second SCOBY can be used with its

mother for your next tea fermentation, it can be separated and used with some starter tea in another vessel to expand your kombucha-making operation, you can eat it, dehydrate it and give it to your dog, compost it, or give it to a friend who wants to start his or her own kombucha empire. Procuring a SCOBY can be as easy as asking a kombucha-making friend for one or ordering one from one of the many reputable online sources. Your friend or online purveyor will send you a live SCOBY with starter tea to get you well on your way. An alternative to buying a SCOBY or knowing someone who can give you one is to grow your own using store-bought kombucha as a starter. Simply buy a bottle of raw plain kombucha, pour it into a very clean glass jar, cover with a piece of cloth or a coffee filter, and let sit for two weeks in a warm, well-lit area. You can encourage SCOBY growth even more by mixing the store-bought raw kombucha with some room-temperature tea that has a few tablespoons of sugar dissolved in it. It is a good idea to keep at least one spare SCOBY on hand in case disaster descends on your batch of fermenting tea. If your kombucha becomes contaminated, moldy, or insect-infested, the SCOBY is no longer viable and must be discarded. Keeping a spare alive and well in a glass jar with some starter tea is a nice backup plan.

Equipment needed To wade into kombucha brewing you need only a few, easy-to-procure items. However, if you are planning to experiment with making multiple batches, bottling, and flavoring, the list gets just slightly longer. Of course, as with any hobby, you can go overboard with equipment and fancy things. Since kombucha is a very old and primitive product, know that nothing complicated or expensive is really required to make a good batch.

Basic Must-Haves

SCOBY

See “SCOBY 101,” on see here, for where to get one or how to make your own, etc. STARTER TEA

You’ll need a small amount of kombucha to brew a new batch. This is called starter tea and along with the SCOBY, contains the bacteria and yeast needed to get your ferment going properly. GLASS VESSEL FOR FERMENTATION

Any size, from a quart jar to a samovar that holds many gallons, as long as it’s glass—plastic and metal will interfere with fermentation and possibly damage your SCOBY. Ceramic crocks or jars are also not recommended unless they are food-grade because ceramic glazes may contain lead.

TEA

There are just a few rules or outright no-nos when it comes to tea selection for kombucha. Almost any tea can make wonderful kombucha, but for the health of your SCOBY, try using organic whenever possible. Pesticides and other chemicals used in conventional growing, harvesting, and preparation of tea can interfere with the taste of your final product, as well as the delicate balance of yeast and bacteria in your SCOBY. Using conventional tea bags will not ruin your kombucha or produce a bad final product, but the higher the quality of the tea used, the better your final product will be. It is highly recommended that you find a top-quality tea purveyor online or in your area who sells very good organic tea. Check the resources section for suggestions.

SUGAR

Believe it or not, plain, old white sugar that comes in a five-pound sack at the grocery store works perfectly well, and is perfectly fine, for kombuchamaking. If going all-organic is important to you, you can definitely use organic raw cane sugar or Sucanat, and using organic ingredients will ensure the health and longevity of your SCOBY. Honey is not recommended for kombucha brewing because of its antibacterial properties, but it is a

wonderful sweetener to use in the second fermentation. A JAR COVERING

Coffee filters, flour-sack dish towels, handkerchiefs, muslin, or any other light material with a tight weave are suitable. Cheesecloth is not because the holes in it are large enough to let pests in. Secure the covering with rubber bands or butcher’s twine. FLIP-TOP BOTTLES

If you plan to bottle your kombucha, you’ll need air-tight bottles. Many people like sixteen-ounce flip-top bottles because they are reusable, and sixteen ounces is a nice serving size for two. MORTAR AND PESTLE

This is a handy tool if you want to flavor your kombucha with fruit and herbs. Muddling and mashing your flavorings into a pulp before adding them to your brew will better bring out their essence, make bottling easier, and keep large chunks of fruit material from floating in your tea. FUNNELS

While not completely necessary, a funnel makes it much easier, and neater, to pour fermented tea from the brewing vessel into bottles. STRAWS

To taste-test a small amount of kombucha, simply put a straw into your brew, put a finger over the other end, pull out a straw full of kombucha, and taste it to see if it’s ready.

If you have gone kombucha crazy, here are a few additional items to make production and bottling even easier, especially if your goal is to have your refrigerator perpetually stocked with ’buch! RACKING CANE

If your production involves a large amount of kombucha and large fermenting vessels that are hard to lift and pour from when full, a racking cane siphon system is an inexpensive way to get your fermented tea more efficiently into bottles. WHITE HOLIDAY TWINKLE LIGHTS

It sounds like a strange addition to a list of kombucha-making equipment, but if your home is typically on the cool side or if you don’t have a place to store your kombucha where it will get at least a little bit of light, it can be helpful to wrap your brew in white holiday lights. They provide enough heat and light to keep the yeast and bacteria happy, but they won’t ever get hot enough to kill them. MASKING TAPE AND MARKER

If you are making multiple batches at once or bottling several flavors of kombucha from one batch, it is helpful to label your bottles to keep them organized. pH-TESTING STRIPS

If using the straw method of taste-testing isn’t scientific enough for you, or if you want your brew to have a homogenous flavor and dryness, pH-testing strips will give you the most accurate feedback you can get. FOOD PROCESSOR

If you want to get super-creative with flavorings and use many types of fruits and combinations of flavorings, mashing up fruits and herbs by hand can get tedious. A food processor can make this job a snap by blending, mixing, and chopping flavoring ingredients better and quicker than a mortar and pestle or a kitchen knife. Tea as we commonly know it comes from the leaves and buds of Camellia sinensis. The types of tea that are most commonly found in markets and tea specialty stores are from this plant and depending on when the leaves are harvested and how they are treated post-harvest determines what kind of tea is produced. Black tea

Black tea, the leaves of which are harvested, dried, and oxidized, is the most common type of tea in the world. It is strong and sometimes bitter, often with notes of fruit and wood. It is historically the most common tea used for kombucha, and there are myriad varieties for you to experiment with. Among those that make terrific kombucha are Assam and Darjeeling. Lapsang Souchong and Yin Jun Mei, which have been smoked over pine and have an almost campfire-like woodiness, produce truly unique kombuchas. The final brew of any black tea will be a very dark brown or amber color. Green tea

Green teas are made from the same leaves and buds as black teas, but have not been oxidized to the same extent. Generally speaking they are lighter, grassier, and fresher tasting than black teas, although there is much variation in flavor among the many, many kinds of green tea. The final brew will be a light yellow or light brown in color. Oolong tea

Oolongs, which are semi-oxidized, are a compromise between black and

green teas. They offer the nutrient profile of black teas with the lighter, grassier flavor profile of green teas.

White and herbal tea

These lighter kinds of tea are not as highly recommended for kombucha as their black, green, and oolong siblings. They are produced from immature leaves and buds and are not oxidized and therefore do not have the nutrient profile to produce and cultivate a SCOBY. Some herbal teas contain no Camellia sinensis at all but are blends of dried herbs and spices. While they make a fine cup of tea, they do not have what it takes to ferment and produce kombucha. Blending white or herbal teas with black, green, or oolong teas is an option, and can produce unique kombuchas, but they will not produce strong results all by themselves.

Rooibos tea

Rooibos is technically a type of herbal tea. It is not made from the very common Camellia sinensis, but rather from Aspalathus linearis, which is native to South Africa. Rooibos teas are generally sweet and grassy or sometimes smoky and are caffeine free. Also commonly known as red tea, rooibos makes really good kombucha, especially for those wanting to avoid caffeine. Flavored tea

This type of tea is not recommended. While black, green, oolong, or rooibos teas are typically the varieties that come flavored, the artificial agents used to give the tea a fruity or herby note can interfere with SCOBY growth. Kombucha-friendly teas that contain dried fruit and herbal extracts instead of artificial or chemical flavorings are commercially available, and they can make wonderful ferments, but if a tea is merely coated in artificial flavorings, steer clear.

Basic Kombucha Once you have assembled your equipment and chosen a good tea for your brew, it’s time to put it all together and make some kombucha! This recipe will make one gallon and can easily be scaled up or down to suit your needs. Ingredients 1 gallon water 1/ cup loose-leaf tea or 6 to 8 tea bags 3 1 scant cup sugar 1 SCOBY ½ to 1 cup starter tea Equipment Large pot Wooden spoon 1-gallon glass vessel Large coffee filters or a cloth Rubber bands or butcher’s twine Small glass jars or bottles 1. Pour the water into the pot and bring to just shy of a boil (about 200°F/93°C). 2. If you are using loose-leaf tea, you can sprinkle it directly into the water, but it will need to be strained later, so it’s a good idea to use a tea ball or a coffee filter made into a sachet. If you are using tea bags, just toss them into the near-boiling water. 3. Brew the tea for the recommended amount of time (usually 3 to 5 minutes, but brewing time depends on the type of tea and your desired tea strength). Remove from the heat. Remove the tea bags or sachet,

squeezing out the excess water. 4. Add the sugar while the tea is still very hot, stirring with a wooden spoon until completely dissolved. 5. Allow the tea to cool to room temperature. 6. Pour the tea into the glass vessel. It is important that your tea is room temperature because hot tea can kill a SCOBY! Add the SCOBY and the starter tea. 7. Cover the vessel with coffee filters and secure them with rubber bands. 8. Place the vessel in a well-ventilated, warm, dry place that is not dark. Light and warmth are what will encourage your bacteria and yeast to eat the sugar, ferment the tea, and produce a new SCOBY baby. 9. Wait. This is the most difficult part of kombucha-making! Depending on the ambient temperature of your storage area, kombucha can take anywhere from a few days to a few weeks to ferment. Check its progress after a week. 10. To judge doneness of your kombucha you can go with either taste or science. Tasting the kombucha is a very easy way to decide whether it has fermented to the point of your liking, because if you taste it and like it, it is done! The scientific way is to use pH strips. If you use pH strips, you should test the pH of your tea before the ferment starts to get a baseline pH. As the tea starts to ferment, it will become more acidic. This is the tart, snappy flavor that is a hallmark of good kombucha. If the pH has dropped to between 4.0 and 5.0, then it is finished. 11. When your kombucha is fermented to your satisfaction, it is time to transfer it to serving-size containers. Small glass jars or bottles that have been recycled work well. Airtight bottles with rubber flip-top caps are ideal if you are putting your kombucha through a second ferment with flavorings. 12. Make sure to reserve a few cups of the starter tea for storing the SCOBY

to keep it healthy. This will also be your starter tea for another batch of kombucha.

Bottling and Second Fermentation Once your tea has fermented to your liking, you can stop there. You have successfully made kombucha. Congratulations! Get out your fancy glasses and toast your success! However, the fun and creativity doesn’t have to end. Putting your tea through a second ferment will enhance its flavor, plus possibly give it some fizz. When putting your kombucha into bottles once the fermentation process is finished, add a small amount of sugar to your bottles. Start with a halfteaspoon for every sixteen ounces. Seal the bottles tightly and let them sit, unrefrigerated, for another three to five days, or up to a week. After that period of time, allow the bottles to chill completely in the refrigerator before you attempt to open the bottles. Adding the additional sugar during for the second ferment will turn the kombucha into a fizzy carbonated beverage. Be careful! The contents will be under pressure, and opening the bottle can

result in a volcanic eruption of kombucha and/or breakage of your bottle. This can be very, very dangerous—not to mention disappointing! I highly recommended that you cover your bottle with a dishtowel and exercise extreme caution when opening a bottle. If a bottle foams up and erupts on you, reduce the amount of sugar you add the next time you put bottles through a second ferment, experimenting with each batch to find the right balance of sugar and fizz. This is part of the process, so don’t get frustrated. Experiment, experiment, experiment. Note also that during this time a miniature SCOBY might grow on the surface of your bottled kombucha. This is perfectly natural; feel free to remove it or strain it out before drinking if you desire, but ingesting a mini SCOBY is not at all harmful.

Flavoring

Before sealing your bottles for the optional second ferment, you might want to add fruit and/or herbs to customize the flavor. If you are a fan of storebought kombucha you are undoubtedly familiar with the seemingly endless flavor selection available. But why let your creativity be limited by what you

see on store shelves? Put on your culinary thinking caps and let your imagination run wild. Start simply by dropping a few pieces of fruit into the bottles before sealing them up. Additional sugar isn’t usually necessary because fruit already contains enough sugar to provide some fizz, but with fruit that is tart and/or lower in sugar, a light sprinkling (perhaps a quarter-teaspoon) can assist in making your ‘buch effervescent. Using fruit juice or a combination of your favorite juices is another way to flavor kombucha. If you are using freshly squeezed citrus fruit, especially lemons, it’s a good idea to add a very small amount of sugar (a quarter to half teaspoon) to encourage carbonation. Most store-bought fruit juices contain enough added sugar to make the final product fizzy. Fruit purée is another very effective way to get a fruity essence and yummy goodness into your fermented tea. It is a great way to use in-season fruit, and you only need an ounce or two per 16-ounce bottle to give your kombucha a nice flavor. During the winter, when your fresh-fruit choices are limited, consider using frozen fruit, which has usually been harvested at peak ripeness and flash-frozen to preserve flavor. If you are puréeing strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, and blueberries yourself, it may be helpful to strain the purée through a sieve to prevent seeds from ending up in your kombucha. Using any kind of artificial flavoring agent is not recommended at all.

Care and Storage There are two distinct stages in the life of your kombucha: fermenting and not fermenting. While it is fermenting, it is important that your vessels are kept in a warm (room temperature), dry place that is not dark for optimal SCOBY growth. Light doesn’t have to shine on your jars all the time, but don’t keep them in a dark closet, covered, or otherwise obscured from light. This applies for kombucha going through a second ferment as well. When the day finally comes to start drinking your kombucha and you don’t want it to ferment any longer, it must be refrigerated. Even though the SCOBY has been removed, there are still active, live bacteria and yeast in your concoction. If it’s kept at room temperature, the tea will continue to

ferment. Keep it in the fridge until you’re ready to drink it. TROUBLESHOOTING

So how can you tell if something undesirable has happened to your kombucha? Use your best judgment and err on the side of caution. If you notice anything on the “do not want” list below, discard your entire brew, including the SCOBY, clean everything thoroughly with soap and water followed by a white vinegar wash and water rinse, and start over from scratch. It can be a big disappointment to go all the way back to the beginning of the process, but you’ve got to do it—do not cut corners here. What you do want when brewing kombucha: Cloudy tea: There is a lot of bacteria and yeast activity in your fermentation vessel, and cloudiness is just a byproduct of this. Brown stringy bits in the tea or on the SCOBY: These are young bacteria and yeasts growing in your tea. They are signs of a healthy SCOBY and bacteria-rich kombucha. It is even common to see them floating around in your bottled kombucha. Fizziness: Even before your kombucha is bottled or put through a second ferment, it is natural to see bubbles in it. This is another sign of a healthy ferment and an active SCOBY. What you do not want when brewing kombucha: Mold: Anything green, white, black, and/or furry is cause for immediate disposal. There is no place for mold in kombucha.

Anything that smells rancid, rotten, or sour: Kombucha does have a scent that might remind you of a fragrant cheese. Kombucha may not smell like flowers, but it tastes incredible. A healthy batch will have a distinct “fermented” aroma, but it shouldn’t smell as if it has gone bad. If you allow your kombucha to ferment past its prime it will turn to vinegar. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as kombucha vinegar can be used just like any other vinegar. Just be aware that a vinegar smell is different from a rancid or rotten smell. Let your nose and common sense tell you what is good and what is not. If it smells bad, and your instincts tell you not to drink it, get rid of it. Insects or insect eggs: If one tiny, little fruit fly makes her way into your kombucha, the whole batch will be ruined. If there is one insect, there are bound to be more on the way, and where there is a crowd, there are usually eggs. Insects have no place in fermentation. Keep your kombucha tightly covered with something that will allow air in but is thick and sturdy enough to keep the insects out. No exceptions.

Water Kefir Water kefir is another fermented beverage that is easy to make and is delicious. It is a great fermented-beverage alternative for those who do not like the taste of tea or want to avoid it because of its caffeine content. Like kombucha, water kefir is made with a SCOBY and sweetened liquid. It can also be flavored and bottled and will also produce its own carbonation for a fizzy drink.

Water Kefir Grains Water kefir grains are only grains in the sense that they are roughly the same size and shape as the grains you might think of upon hearing the word. They

don’t, however, come from a plant, but are fragile, gelatinous miniature SCOBYs that look like slightly translucent cauliflower florets. Similar to a kombucha SCOBY, water kefir grains can be used over and over to produce many batches of fermented drinks. But unlike with a kombucha SCOBY, it is difficult to make water kefir grains: the best way to procure some of your very own is to inherit them from a friend or buy them. Kefir grains are typically packaged in a dehydrated state in a small envelope, about a teaspoon’s worth. They will require rehydration before they are ready for beverage-making, and may even take a few rounds of fermentation until they’re fully awake and producing water kefir at full potential. Patience is required. To rehydrate, simply follow the package directions or put the dehydrated grains in a quart of room-temperature water that has a scant cup of sugar dissolved in it. Cover loosely and leave to sit on the countertop for three or four days: the grains will expand from being a teaspoon of sandlike grains to approximately a quarter-cup of fully hydrated grains. Because water kefir grains are tiny clusters of living bacteria and yeast, it is important to treat them with care. Do not subject them to extreme temperatures; keep them healthy, happy, and well fed at all times, and they’ll work hard to keep you rich in fermented water kefir for a long time. Think of your kefir grains as loyal little pets. Like a kombucha SCOBY, water kefir grains “eat” sugar and produce carbon dioxide, which is what makes your final product fizzy. In addition to sugar, the grains need a mineral-rich environment to thrive and reproduce.

Sugar and Minerals

The kind of water and sugar used to cultivate water kefir grains will greatly affect the final product. Choosing mineral-rich water and sugar will help the grains to thrive and produce a top-quality ferment that is sure to nourish. Unrefined cane sugar (often sold under the brand name Sucanat), pure sugar cane juice, and molasses are all good mineral-rich sugar choices.

Beware, however, that because these are unrefined, their flavor may affect the flavor of your final product. You can use standard white table sugar, but it doesn’t have the beneficial mineral content, so if you use it, you should add a mineral supplement to the water to compensate. Honey should not be used as a sweetener in water kefir because of its antibacterial compounds, which can interfere with the proliferation of the kefir grains and inhibit fermentation. As with sugar, it is important to use water that contains minerals. Mineral water, well water, and water from a spring are all good options. Tap water that has been filtered in any way is not ideal because the minerals you want are removed along with the impurities you don’t want. Please avoid chlorinated water! It will damage your grains and stop fermentation in its tracks. If you do not have access to water that is free of chlorine even in a highly diluted proportion, it is easy to remove the chlorine. Simply draw off the amount of water you will need to make water kefir into a glass container and allow it to sit for six to twenty-four hours. The chlorine will evaporate, leaving the water suitable for fermentation.

Water Kefir Water kefir is even simpler to make than kombucha. Once you have healthy water kefir grains, it takes virtually no time to make this wonderful beverage. Ingredients 1 gallon mineral-rich, nonchlorinated water 1 scant cup unrefined sugar ½ lemon (optional) ¼ cup dried fruit, preservative and sulfur-free (optional) Sugar, fresh fruit purée, or fresh fruit juice (optional) Equipment Large pot Wooden spoon 1-gallon glass vessel Large coffee filter or piece of light cloth Rubber band Flip-top, airtight glass bottles 1. Pour the water into the pot and heat to near boiling (about 200°F/93°C). 2. Add the sugar, stirring it with the wooden spoon until it is dissolved. Remove from heat and allow to cool to room temperature. 3. Pour the sweetened water into the glass vessel and add the lemon and dried fruit. 4. Cover with a coffee filter or a piece of light cloth and secure with a rubber band. 5. Let ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours, or until the flavor is

to your liking. (The ambient temperature in your home will determine the length of fermentation time.) 6. To bottle, simply strain the liquid, reserving all the kefir grains for future use. If used, the lemon or dried fruit can be discarded. 7. Pour the water kefir into the bottles. Add a half-teaspoon of sugar, an ounce of fresh fruit purée, or fresh fruit juice to each bottle if you want a carbonated beverage. 8. Chill in the refrigerator. At this point the water kefir is ready for drinking. As with kombucha, use caution when opening! Notes Instead of plain water, use coconut water. Simply follow the instructions for water kefir but do not add the sugar. Commercially available coconut water that has no additives or additional sugars makes an awesome probiotic-enriched sports drink. If you want to go even more natural and if you can find them in your market, use the water from several young coconuts. Just make sure the juice is fresh and not slimy or pink. Because water kefir is so easy and quick to make, you may just want to keep refreshing a batch as you drink it. That is, once you bottle some, reward the reusable grains with another dose of sweetened water and start a new round. If you need to store the grains, do so in a clean, loose muslin or linen pouch submerged in sweetened mineral-rich water. Refresh the sweetened water every day or two to keep the grains well fed. Do not put them in the refrigerator! Water kefir grains love to multiply, so give them room to grow, and when you have more than you can use, share them with a friend!

Kvass If you have been experimenting with kombucha and kefir, the next logical step to take is to try your hand at kvass Kvass is a traditional East European and Russian fermented beverage that is most often made with bread, specifically rye bread, and is used mostly as a healing tonic rather than a refreshing drink, but it can be so much more. Kvass can be made with fruits or vegetables or both, and it certainly does not taste “medicinal” in any way. Like other fermented beverages, it offers itself up as a blank canvas upon which you can express your culinary creativity. Note:

The more traditional kvass preparation (with bread) is obviously not Paleo and will thus not be included here.

Basic Kvass - with beets

The procedure for making kvass with beets is simple, and since beets are packed with nutrients as well as being delicious, beet kvass is a great first choice for experimentation with this style of preparation. Ingredients 1 very large or 2 to 3 medium beets, peeled and coarsely chopped 1 quart filtered water ½ teaspoon unrefined sea salt Optional: Starter of your choice (¼ cup fresh whey from an organic, grass-fed source or a purchased vegetable starter culture prepared according to package directions) Equipment Large glass jar Wooden spoon Cheesecloth or large coffee filter Rubber bands 1-quart flip-top bottle 1. Place all the ingredients in the jar and stir well to dissolve the salt. 2. Cover the jar with several layers of cheesecloth and secure with rubber bands. 3. Let the kvass sit at room temperature for 2 or 3 days. 4. Strain the mixture, pour the liquid into the flip-top bottle, and enjoy.

Notes Feel free to add a drop of two of stevia for additional sweetness if desired—stevia will not encourage further fermentation. The beets can be reused for one more round of fermentation. After they have been used for two batches of kvass, discard them and start with fresh beets for the next ferment. Making kvass does not require whey or a purchased starter culture— salted water is a sufficient medium in which to ferment. Salt and the starter of your choice can, however, be used in tandem. If you want to make dairy-free kvass, increase the amount of unrefined sea salt from a half- to one teaspoon. Remember that whatever you use—salt, whey, a purchased starter culture, or a combination of these—will affect the final flavor of your kvass.

Care and Storage Because kvass does not require a SCOBY or a starter that must be kept continually happy, it is more “low maintenance” than kefir, water kefir, and kombucha. Once it is made, your commitment to it is finished. Store bottled kvass in the refrigerator.

Hard Apple Cider If you are interested in fermenting a tasty, gluten-free, but alcoholic beverage then hard apple cider is for you! Because it can have a similar taste and mouthfeel to beer, it is a wonderful alternative. The whole process does involve some time and attention to detail, but it is well worth the effort. If you don’t drink alcohol or you think making hard apple cider will be too much trouble, there may be a benefit to the process that you may not have considered—apple cider vinegar. Turning apples fresh from the orchard into a wonderfully tangy condiment that can be used in so many dishes and beverages is a really terrific way to take a product from the orchard to the table by overseeing its transformation in several ways. There are two methods for making hard apple cider, and the difference between the two is yeast. As with other ferments, cider can be made using controlled fermentation or wild fermentation. As mentioned earlier, wild fermentation relies on the yeasts or bacteria in the air around us and on the produce being fermented and can therefore be unpredictable. There are no guarantees that there is an ample amount of yeast or bacteria in the air or on the fruit or vegetables to quickly and efficiently start a ferment. And the flavor of the final product is dependent on which strains of bacteria or variety of yeasts act as fermenting agents, so there are no guarantees that it will taste exactly as anticipated. If unpredictability is exciting to you, then please follow these instructions for wild-fermented cider. If you prefer a little more control in your life, read on to learn about a controlled cider ferment. Using store-bought yeasts for cider or starters for other kinds of fermentations will yield more predictable results because you know exactly which fermentation agents you are introducing. The flavors and textures are more likely to be consistent from batch to batch, and the fermentation time is typically shorter.

Hard Apple Cider: Wild-Fermentation Method

Makes 8 16-ounce bottles of hard apple cider. Ingredients 4 quarts freshly pressed, unpasteurized apple cider (Not apple juice which is filtered, pasteurized and often contains sugar or other additives or preservatives.) Equipment 1-gallon nonreactive container, like a carboy Funnel Fermentation lock Lipped tray or pan large enough to hold the carboy Racking cane (optional) 16-ounce flip-top bottles 1. Pour the cider into the carboy using the funnel to avoid spillage. 2. Cap the carboy with the fermentation lock and put a little water in it, up to the fill line indicated on the outside of the lock. 3. Place the carboy inside a shallow, lipped tray or pan to catch any potential overflow, and let the cider sit at room temperature (ideally between 70°F/21°C and 80°F/27°C) in a dark place, undisturbed, for 4 to 6 weeks. 4. Taste-test your cider. If it is too sweet, let it ferment longer. If it is dry and to your liking, it is finished.

5. Using a funnel or racking cane, transfer the hard cider into 16-ounce bottles, being sure not to include the apple sediment that has collected at the bottom of the carboy. 6. Refrigerate and enjoy! Notes Getting freshly pressed apple cider straight from an orchard is best, although unpasteurized cider from any source will do nicely. If you are going wild in terms of fermentation, it is important for the cider to be unpasteurized because it will naturally contain acetobacters, which will facilitate fermentation. If you have access to a cider press and wish to make hard cider from freshly picked apples, you will need approximately twenty pounds of apples to render about a gallon of freshly squeezed apple cider. It will be light in color and almost clear upon first press, but because of oxidation will turn the familiar brown cider color in just a few hours of being exposed to the air. The variety of apple will affect the final taste of the cider. Very tart apples like Granny Smith will yield a more sour and dry cider, while sweeter varieties such as Red Delicious, Honeycrisp, or Gala will make a sweeter cider. Try mixing varieties to find the right balance of sweet, sour, dry, and luscious that suits your palate.

Hard Apple Cider: Controlled Fermentation

Makes 8 16-ounce bottles of hard apple cider. Ingredients 4 quarts freshly pressed, unpasteurized apple cider (Not apple juice which is filtered, pasteurized and often contains sugar or other additives or preservatives.) ¼ cup white sugar (optional) Champagne yeast ½ cup warm water Equipment Large pot Food thermometer Wooden spoon 1-gallon nonreactive container, like a carboy Funnel Fermentation lock Lipped pan or tray large enough to hold the carboy 16-ounce flip-top bottles 1. Pour the cider into the pot and heat until it reaches 150°F/65°C. Maintain the cider at this temperature for 30 minutes. Do not let the cider come to a boil! If it boils, the cider will become cloudy and that cannot be reversed. 2. Add sugar if desired and stir thoroughly until dissolved. Adding sugar

will ensure that the yeast will have sufficient fuel during the fermentation process, and will render the final product a bit sweeter than it would normally be had it not been used. 3. Remove the pot from the heat and let the now-pasteurized cider cool to room temperature. 4. Meanwhile, dissolve the yeast in ½ cup of warm water, or follow the package directions. 5. Pour the cooled cider into the carboy using the funnel to prevent spillage, leaving a few inches of headspace. 6. Pour the yeast mixture into the carboy and gently swirl the contents around to thoroughly incorporate. 7. Top the carboy with the fermentation lock, adding water up to the fill line indicated on the outside of the lock. 8. Place the carboy inside a shallow, lipped tray or pan to catch any potential overflow, and let the cider sit in a dark spot at room temperature (between 70°F/21°C and 80°F/27°C), undisturbed, for 2 weeks. 9. Taste-test your cider. If it is too sweet, let it ferment longer. If it is dry and to your liking, it is ready for bottling. 10. Using a funnel or racking cane, transfer the hard cider into 16-ounce flip-top bottles. Be sure not to include the apple sediment that has collected at the bottom of the carboy. 11. Refrigerate and enjoy! Notes If your only option is to use commercially available pasteurized cider, it is still possible to turn it into hard cider. The problem is that processed cider often contains potassium sorbate to inhibit yeast growth after

pasteurization. To circumvent this, you will need to make a cider yeast starter. Juice three to five whole, cored apples or blend them in a food processor or blender until smooth, strain the pulp, reserving the juice. Place the juice in a saucepan and heat to 150°F/65°C and maintain that temperature for ten minutes. Remove from the heat and let cool to room temperature. Pour the juice into a glass jar and mix in the contents of a champagne yeast packet. Combine thoroughly. Allow the mixture to sit overnight. If covering, be sure to do so loosely or use a fermentation lock so the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast does not make the jar explode! Be extremely cautious! By morning you will have a starter to use to ferment commercial cider into hard cider. The potassium sorbate in the commercial cider will now be outnumbered by the huge quantities of yeast in the starter and its ability to inhibit fermentation will be quashed. More on All Methods No matter which mode of fermentation you employ it is important to use a fermentation lock for all cider making: it allows carbon dioxide to escape from the carboy, but keeps oxygen out. If you are concerned about alcohol level, brewers’ supply stores carry hydrometers, which will measure pre- and post-ferment sugar content in liquids. Knowing this will help you determine just how much alcohol is in the cider or in any other alcoholic ferment by measuring the specific gravity of the liquid. The higher the specific gravity in the liquid, the higher the alcohol content. A hydrometer will also give you more precise data to determine when a ferment is finished than taste-testing. Making a yeast starter is not required for a wild-fermentation-style cider, nor for a controlled ferment with unpasteurized cider. But it can be a useful addition to a controlled ferment whether your instincts say you need it or not. As with starters in other ferments, it ensures that the yeast needed for fermentation are awake and able-bodied enough to do their

job. Regardless of method, after a few weeks of fermentation you might want to siphon off the clear, hard cider into another clean container in order to dispose of the sediment that has collected at the bottom of the carboy. This will ensure that once you bottle the cider it will be clear and silt-free. While hard cider is more like beer than any other alcoholic beverage, it is similar to wine in that it benefits from aging. Once the cider is bottled, the flavors can still evolve in the refrigerator. Holding on to your homemade hard cider instead of immediately drinking it and sharing it with friends can give you an even more mature tasting beverage. Largescale hard cider purveyors often age cider in oak barrels to give it a dry, woody flavor.

Meat Fermentation So far you have learned the ins and outs of the basic fermentation and beverage-making techniques for fruits, vegetables, dairy, and coconut products. These methods will serve you well just as they are, but they are also meant to be launching pads for your imagination. A basic recipe for sauerkraut, for example, produces delicious sauerkraut, but is also a blank canvas upon which you can create all kinds of scrumptious ferments just by using the same technique employed in kraut making. You have learned that fermentation is as much an art as a science and that while there are some complex chemical reactions bubbling away in your jars, there is also an intuitive and creative aspect to the process that must be honed over time. You have learned that fermentation produces probiotic-rich treats that make not only your taste buds happy, but also make your gut happy, which in turn makes your entire body happy. You have also learned that fermentation doesn’t require much in terms of labor or equipment. Have a few jars, a good knife, some salt, and some water on hand? You are ready to start experimenting with all kinds of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices. With meat fermentation, all of those lessons must be set aside. The fermentation of meat is a fussier process and requires more attention to detail. While it is similar to other fermentation procedures in that it entails both culinary artistry and food science, the science is much more demanding. Fermented meat is not a fantastic source of probiotics as other ferments are. While the fermentation of meat still relies on our bacterial friends to make the magic happen, some final fermented meat products are then cooked, thus destroying any probiotic boost they may have offered when raw. Fermentation not only imbues food with helpful bacteria, but also changes its flavor and texture.

When fermenting meat, focus on the flavor transformations that result from the process rather than on the gut-friendly critters it produces. Fermenting meat may also require more specialty equipment than previous processes. I feel honor-bound to warn you that because some meat ferments require precise temperatures, conditions, and preparations, they are more advanced projects. But there is nothing like homemade corned beef and salumi, so, with that little warning, I want to encourage you to wade into these exciting waters! Your taste buds will be rewarded!

Equipment Needed

Because meat fermentation can range from basic to complex, the equipment list will vary from recipe to recipe.

Sodium Nitrate, Sodium Nitrite, and Curing Salts In the world of Paleo and other ancestral diets, we are taught to eschew certain foods and ingredients. After my initial foray into Paleo eating several years ago, I was warned to avoid the “known carcinogens” nitrate and nitrites, which are commonly used to cure meats. “But what about bacon!” I thought. We Paleo eaters cannot seem to forgo our much-lauded meat candy! Nitrate- and nitrite-free bacon is readily available, and I used to buy it. But upon further research, I realized that avoiding the threat of cancer was not simply an issue of avoiding these chemicals. Alas, science is rarely that neat and tidy. Nitrates and nitrites are becoming recognized as naturally occurring compounds that our bodies need and produce on their own. Research has emerged demonstrating that claims that these substances cause cancer are not as cut and dried as once thought, especially because nitrates and nitrites are found in our own bodies and in substantial amounts in some common vegetables, like celery. Sodium nitrate and/or sodium nitrite gives fermented and cured meat its characteristic pink color and its “cured” flavor. It also facilitates the fermentation and cure processes by creating a hostile environment for pathogens and harmful bacteria, specifically clostridium botulinum, the bacterium responsible for botulism. The bacteria that cause botulism thrive in warm (temperatures ranging from 40°F/4°C to 150°F/67°C), moist, acidic, anaerobic environments. Note that in other ferments, the good types of bacteria whose growth we want to encourage also thrive in warm, moist, anaerobic environments. This is why fermenting meat is a slightly different endeavor than fermenting produce. We are sometimes going to want to expose a meat ferment to air to prevent the growth of undesirable pathogens. Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are not interchangeable. Putting it most simply, nitrate is turned into nitrite by bacteria, and nitrite is responsible for the pink color, cured flavor, and protection from harmful bacteria. Even more simply, sodium nitrite is the chemical workhorse, and sodium nitrate is one of the raw materials needed to build that workhorse.

Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite as stand-alone compounds are toxic, and the ingestion of even a small amount can be fatal. It is quite difficult for a fermentation enthusiast or a home charcuterie hobbyist to acquire the pure form of either of these substances. Preblended curing salts that contain carefully measured amounts of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are more commonly available to the general public. There are two types of these salt blends. CURING SALT NO. 1

Often labeled Prague Powder No. 1, it is a blend of table salt (NaCl) and sodium nitrite and is most commonly used to cure meat that will eventually be smoked and/or cooked. CURING SALT NO. 2

Often labeled Prague Powder No. 2, it is a blend of table salt (NaCl) as well as sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate. This blend is recommended for ferments and cures of meat that are meant to be consumed raw. The sodium nitrate will keep the meat free from harmful bacteria for a longer period of time. Since sodium nitrate is converted into sodium nitrite by beneficial bacteria, including it in a blend that is meant for longer cures and ferments makes sense. Its presence ensures that there will be enough nitrite produced throughout the longer ferment or cure to keep Clostridium botulinum at bay. Both forms of curing salt are typically dyed pink to make them easily identifiable and to guard against accidental ingestion. Although the percentages of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite in these blends are quite small, it is wise to take every precaution to keep children and pets from getting their hands or paws on them. A drawback to using packaged curing salt blends is that the sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite in them are often concocted in a lab rather than naturally derived. This does not necessarily make them evil or unfit for consumption, but it is something to be aware of as you start to delve into meat fermentation and curing. Beware also that sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite have been reported to

be migraine headache triggers. Since migraine triggers are highly individualized, it is difficult to say whether chemically derived or naturally occurring nitrates or nitrites are the culprits. Be a good steward of your body, and if you notice any physiological response after eating cured or fermented meat, stop eating it and consult your doctor or naturopath.

Natural Sources of Sodium Nitrate In products labeled “nitrate free,” “no nitrites added,” or with a similar message, celery powder, celery salt, or celery juice is often in the ingredients list. Because celery is a source of naturally occurring sodium nitrate, it is often considered a more “healthy” source of nitrate. Obviously, using a celery-based product to add nitrates to your meat ferments is closer to the traditional way of doing things than adding a lab-born product. But make no mistake: there are indeed nitrates and nitrites in these products. And there are hazards associated with using celery products in lieu of salt blends. Chief among them is that there is no way to quantify just how much sodium nitrate is in the celery juice or powder, and it is not consistent from product to product and batch to batch. Not having enough nitrate/nitrite insurance for your meat ferment

means that you are taking a chance of letting Clostridium botulinum grow on your food and having too much nitrate/nitrite can make you sick.

To use sodium nitrates/nitrites or not to use?

Technically speaking, sodium nitrate or nitrite is not essential for a successful ferment or cure. However, botulism should not be taken lightly. It is, after all, very deadly. If using an additive will protect you and yours from this poison, you should take whatever precaution you deem necessary. As an added bonus, your meat will stay a healthy pink color and have that telltale cured flavor only sodium nitrite can give it. If you choose to forgo using sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite, know that your final product may be dark brown or gray and have a different flavor than you might anticipate.

Nitrosamines

When researching the effects of sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite on the body a term that seems to be unavoidable is that of nitrosamines. After a fermented or cured meat product that used sodium nitrate and/or sodium nitrite in its production is consumed, these compounds are broken down and can combine with “amines” which are the product of protein degradation in the body. This forms compounds called nitrosamines and they are known carcinogens. Nitrosamines can also be formed when products containing sodium nitrate and/or sodium nitrite are overcooked or cooked for a long period of time.

Saltpeter

Saltpeter is the colloquial name for potassium nitrate and it often called for in

older recipes for fermented meats. If you do additional reading on meat fermentation, curing and charcuterie making, this term may pop up. It does not give the consistent results that sodium nitrate does, which is why it has been widely replaced by it for meat preservation today. It is found in gunpowder and is also used in fireworks, tree stump removal, and fertilizers.

Corned Beef I love corned beef for many reasons. First and foremost is that it is quite tasty! But as a home fermenter, it is also my go-to example when people ask me about fermenting anything and everything. It is familiar to anyone who has ever gone to a deli or been to an Irish-style restaurant, but very few people realize that it is fermented meat! Making corned beef is the perfect first foray into meat fermentation, as it does not require any special equipment or hard-to-find ingredients. The biggest challenge of making corned beef is devoting enough refrigerator space to a vessel large enough to hold a brisket. The term “corned” does not refer to the grain that grows on a cob. In days past, anything kernel-like was often referred to as “corn,” including the large salt grains used for preservation. If you are a strict Paleo devotee and have eliminated all grains from your diet, rest assured that you can enjoy corned beef to your heart’s content.

Corned Beef (using sodium nitrate)

Ingredients 1 gallon water 5 tablespoons pickling spice (see Notes) 1 cup unrefined sea salt or kosher salt 2/ cup sugar (see notes) 3 4 teaspoons Prague Powder No. 1 1 grass-fed beef brisket, approximately 5 pounds 1 onion 1 large carrot, chopped 2 celery stalks, diced Equipment Large stockpot Food-grade vessel large enough to hold a gallon of brine plus a 5-pound brisket Plate, weight, or gallon zip-top bag filled with water 1. Pour the water into the stockpot. Add the pickling spice, sea salt, sugar, and Prague Powder and heat over high heat until the salt and sugar have dissolved. 2. Remove the brine from the heat and allow it to cool to room temperature. Place it in the refrigerator to chill for 2 hours or overnight. 3. Rinse the brisket, pat dry, and trim it of any excess fat. 4. Pour the brine into the food-grade vessel and add the brisket. Use the plate to keep the meat submerged in the brine. 5. Place the vessel in the refrigerator and allow the meat to ferment for 10 days, checking on it daily to make sure it is submerged in the brine at all

times. 6. Remove the meat from the brine and rinse thoroughly. Discard the brine. 7. To cook the corned beef, put the meat in a large pot along with a chopped onion, carrot, and a few diced celery stalks with an inch or two of fresh water. Bring to a boil, cover, reduce heat to low, and let simmer for two hours, or until the meat is fork tender. Thinly slice and serve. Notes The choice of sugar is up to you. Raw cane sugar, Sucanat, refined white sugar, or even brown sugar are all excellent, each yielding a slightly different nuance. Experiment and decide which you and your family like best. Pickling spice can be purchased, or you can make your own using the following recipe: 1 tablespoon mustard seeds 1 tablespoon black peppercorns 1 tablespoon coriander seeds 20 juniper berries 3 bay leaves, crumbled 3 cardamom pods 5 whole cloves 5 whole allspice berries 1 large cinnamon stick, broken into pieces Place all the ingredients in a small skillet and heat over medium heat, shaking the skillet gently to keep the spices from burning. When the spices become fragrant, remove from the heat and let cool. Once cool, use a mortar and pestle to crush and blend the spices. Store in a small jar with a tight fitting lid in your spice cabinet.

Corned Beef (natural version)

To make a corned beef that relies on naturally derived sources of sodium nitrite, follow the instructions for Basic Corned Beef Recipe 1, omitting the Prague Powder. When you add the brisket to the brine, also add two cups of celery juice (obtained by juicing or blending fresh celery) along with one cup of whey. Allow the brisket to ferment in the refrigerator as per the instructions and cook as usual. The final result will still meet your expectations for a nice, pink slab of corned beef. If you are dairy-free, using a cup of juice from another ferment in place of the whey is a unique substitute—try a cup of sauerkraut juice or a cup of brine from lacto-fermented pickles instead. Both are bacteria-rich mediums that can also bring a bit of tang and flavor to the ferment. Also note that celery juice (source of sodium nitrite) is optional because of the short fermentation time. If you truly want a nitrite-free creation, increase

the amount of whey or other bacterial starter. The final product will probably not be pink and may taste slightly different than the corned beef you may be used to from the deli, but it will be nicely fermented nonetheless.

Salumi Take a deep breath, because if you are ready to make salumi (Italian-style cured meats) at home, you have graduated from casual home fermenter to serious hobbyist. Making salumi is like working on your fermentation PhD! If you are serious, careful, and willing to put the time into doing it correctly, you will be handsomely rewarded. Like other ferments previously discussed, making salumi was a means of preserving food that was not always available throughout the year. It was also a good way to preserve meat without having to refrigerate it. Also like other kinds of ferments, salumi has a very rich history of location specificity. That is, different types of salumi are associated with different areas of the world because of the variety of natural bacteria found there. A salumi made in your home is most likely going to have a specific strain of bacteria introduced into it (bacterial starter) to produce the desired type of ferment. Historically, this was not the case. Salumi makers relied on wild fermentation to start the process, and naturally occurring bacteria differed from place to place. This is why northern Italian salumi are different from southern Italian salumi, which are different from Spanish salumi, which differ from Hungarian salumi, and so on. The differences among salumi from various regions are a result of more than bacteria. Types of meat, seasonings, and length of ferment and cure times offer up hundreds, if not thousands, of varieties, from commercially produced versions to one-of-a-kind artisanal treats that can be found only in obscure villages in far-away lands.

Equipment Needed: Hardware

Your primary mission when making salumi is to control for bacterial growth. You want specific bacteria to grow at a controlled rate, and you want to make sure that any harmful strains don’t have a fighting chance. Each piece of

equipment listed here can be swapped out for something less complicated and less expensive, but note that less-efficient equipment may create a less-thanideal environment for bacterial control. Time is of the essence when doing salumi prep work, and temperature matters too. Bacteria grows in warm environments, and you therefore want to make sure that it is allowed to grow at the right time and under the proper conditions, not before. Cold meat and cold equipment during the prep process help to mitigate any unwanted proliferation. MEAT GRINDER

There are many varieties available, varying in capacity from those that can grind a few pounds at a time to those used to process entire cows, deer, or other game. One that attaches to a stand mixer is perfect for small-batch home use because it can grind a few pounds of meat in a short amount of time. Adding it to your kitchen toolbox will not break the bank. And if you have a stand mixer, you can buy a meat-grinding attachment for it, which will consolidate your kitchen arsenal. Chopping meat by hand is certainly an option, but it does take time to do properly. This can work against you, especially if your knife skills are lacking or your tools aren’t sharp. During that time meat can warm up to an undesirable temperature, creating an opportunity for bacterial growth to get out of control. Not good. STAND MIXER

A stand mixer can be an expensive addition to your kitchen toolbox, but it can also be an invaluable one. When making salumi at home, it is important to thoroughly blend the ingredients. This can, of course, be done by hand, but as with the meat grinder, having an appliance that can get the job done in short order is more ideal. The components of the mixer can also be chilled in the refrigerator or freezer before hand to keep the salumi ingredients cold while mixing. SAUSAGE STUFFER

If you opted for a modest meat grinder, chances are you can also purchase a sausage attachment for it. Filling casings is a messy job and you will be thankful for any tool that will make it go more smoothly. If you have a meat-grinding attachment for your stand mixer, you can add the sausage-stuffing kit to it for less than $20. CLIMATE-CONTROLLED CURING CHAMBER

It sounds space age and high-tech, but without it you would be taking chances with the fermentation and curing of your salumi. To properly ferment and cure salumi, it must be kept in a temperature- and humidity-controlled environment for a prescribed amount of time. Remember our old enemy Clostridium botulinum—that bacterial bully that causes botulism? To keep it and other nasty entities at bay, it is imperative for environmental conditions to be perfectly balanced, and a climate-controlled curing chamber is your guarantee of just that. There are three things that your chamber must do. First, keep your salumi at a constant temperature. Small fluctuations by a degree or two are not a big deal, but wild swings from warm to cold are. Second, it must provide optimal moisture. If the environment isn’t humid enough, the outer part of your salumi will dry out too quickly and not cure properly, leaving the inside moist and prone to spoilage. If the environment is too humid, bacteria can grow uncontrolled, turning the meat rancid, thus ruining all of your hard work. Lastly, it must control for air exposure. Having the meat hanging in a stuffy, stagnant, moist place would definitely encourage the growth of the wrong kinds of bacteria as well as harmful molds and yeasts. Salumi needs fresh air to dry properly, but that air also needs to be the right temperature and have the right humidity level. As you might suspect, this kind of chamber is not something that is widely available at any corner supermarket. Short of having a professional-grade climate-controlled curing chamber at one’s disposal, most home meat fermenters and charcuterie fans make their own. You can find how-to guides for customizing a refrigerator to make a home

curing chamber online. These tutorials recommend outfitting a spare refrigerator with a temperature-control device and a hygrometer (which measures humidity), adding a pan of salty water, and hanging the meat inside. Depending on your budget, how much meat you intend to process, and how much spare space you have, these jury-rigged setups can get quite elaborate. Fashioning your own meat curing chamber is a great DIY project for those wanting to truly delve in to this hobby.

Incidentals

These items require little to no explanation, but do come in handy when making salumi at home. pH strips for testing the meat’s acidity. Butcher’s twine, for tying up the salumi to prepare it for hanging and dry cure. Food-grade gloves, which aren’t necessary but do save you from having to wash your hands repeatedly. Kitchen scale, for more accurate measurements, using weight rather than volume: one ounce of salt by weight is a different amount than two tablespoons.

Equipment Needed: Software

Salumi requires several ingredients that are not likely to find their way onto your weekly shopping list. BACTERIA

Every ferment requires bacteria, and salumi is no different. Whether you use a starter culture or rely on wild fermentation, bacteria are essential to any ferment. In centuries past, salumi makers did not have packaged starter cultures at their disposal but instead relied on the wild bacteria in the atmosphere and on their hands and tools to get their ferments started. They also used a technique called “backslopping,” which entails incorporating previously cultured meat into the new batch to inoculate it with the appropriate bacterial culture. This technique is used in yogurt-making, kombucha-brewing, and more. Today, we can buy packaged bacterial strains that are meant for meat ferments like salumi. As with other ferments, whether you use starter cultures or go for wild fermentation is up to you. However, wild fermentation is safer for fruits and vegetables than for meat because there is little that can go wrong. I strongly recommend that you use a packaged bacterial starter culture to ensure the cultivation of the right kinds of bacteria in your salumi— because if something goes wrong it can be fatal, it is best not to take a chance. Different cultures are meant for different types of ferments. Bactoferm TSPX is a great culture for making a basic salumi, as is Bactoferm F-RM-52. See “Resources” for where to purchase these and other bacterial starters for meat ferments. DEXTROSE

Another term for glucose, this sugar is the food for the bacteria that will be introduced into the meat ferment. CURING SALT NO. 2/PRAGUE POWDER NO. 2

A blend of common table salt (NaCl) and sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite. CASINGS

Sausage casings are made from the intestinal linings of animals, and the

type of casing you choose will be dictated by the desired diameter of your final product. Sheep casings are typically used to make small-diameter sausages, which require a shorter drying time, whereas beef casings and beef middles, hog casings and hog middles are for larger sausages and longer drying times. Salumi-making typically calls for beef middles, but can be made with any type of casing you choose.

Salumi (adapted from “Charcuterie: The Craft of Salting, Smoking, and Curing” by Michael Ruhlman and Brian Polcyn)

Once you have assembled all the hardware and software needed to make your very own salumi, and you are feeling confident that you are ready to start, it is time to take the Salumi Oath. Put your left hand on the meat you intend to ferment, raise your right hand, and repeat this out loud: I do solemnly swear that if, at any time during the fermentation and cure of this meat, I do not feel confident that it is bad-bacteria free, I will not eat it nor will I have another human or animal consume it. I will dispose of it immediately and start anew. Ingredients 5 feet hog casings or 10 feet sheep casings ½ pound pork back fat, partly thawed 2 pounds boneless pork shoulder (butt), partly thawed ½ teaspoon Prague Powder No. 2 2 tablespoons Bactoferm F-RM-52 starter culture 2 tablespoons distilled water 1 ounce kosher salt by weight 2 teaspoons ground black pepper ½ teaspoon minced garlic 1½ tablespoons dextrose ¼ cup milk powder 1. Soak the casings in lukewarm water for 30 minutes while you prepare the rest of the ingredients.

2. If using a meat grinder, grind the back fat using the largest die, or thoroughly chop into a large dice with a sharp knife. Set aside in a bowl that is sitting in ice. This will keep the fat safely chilled, plus fat at room temperature is liquid, and you want solid pieces of fat in your salumi. 3. If using a meat grinder, grind the pork shoulder with the Prague Powder using the smaller die, or thoroughly chop into a small dice with a sharp knife. 4. Add the meat to the fat which is already in a chilled bowl. 5. Dissolve the Bactoferm in the distilled water in a small bowl, then add it to the meat mixture along with the salt, black pepper, garlic, dextrose, and milk powder. Mix thoroughly with cold hands or using the paddle attachment on a stand mixer. 6. Rinse the casings. 7. Using a sausage stuffer, fill the casings, tying off each salumi every 8 or 10 inches. Weigh the salumi and make note of its weight. Cover the salumi with a clean towel and leave on the countertop on a clean tray or baking sheet for 12 hours. This is prime fermentation time! 8. Tie the salumi with butcher’s twine and hang in the climate-controlled chamber. The temperature should be about 60°F/15°C with 60 to 70% humidity. 9. The salumi should stay there until it has lost 30 percent of its original weight—approximately a week if you used sheep casings, 2 weeks if you used hog casings, and a month if you used hog or beef middles. 10. Store salumi in the refrigerator. Notes Choose the finest pork and fat back you can buy. Source it from a farmer whose practices put the welfare of the pig first. You want your pork to have been loved at one point. High-quality ingredients yield high-quality

final products. Pre-freeze pork before fermenting it into salumi as it could contain the worm that causes trichinosis. Trichinosis is very rare, but the method to safeguard yourself and your family against it is so easy, why not do it? Especially because salumi is not cooked once it fermented and cured, it is important to take every precaution. Simply freeze the meat for three weeks before making your salumi. It seems like a long time to wait, but this extended freeze period is required to ensure that any Trichinella larva will not survive, as recommended by the Centers for Disease Control. Defrost for a few hours in the refrigerator when you are ready to get to work. After stuffing the meat into the casings, sterilize a pin or needle by holding it in a flame until red-hot. Puncture the casings with the pin, especially where you see any air pockets. This helps the fermentation and drying. TROUBLESHOOTING

Making salumi is a tricky and delicate process. You need to be in a Goldilocks state of mind when you make salumi—not too much, not too little, but just right. Salumi is high maintenance and discriminating! A common problem is that your salumi dries out too quickly. If the casing dries and hardens, it will prevent the moisture within from escaping and cause uneven drying, which can lead to rancidity. Check on your salumi everyday. Feel the casing and make sure it is still somewhat moist. If it feels too dry, mist it with water. Hanging meat in an enclosed, humid, cool place can encourage mold growth. If you notice anything green and fuzzy growing on the outside of your salami, wipe it off with a cloth that has been dipped in a brine of two tablespoons of salt dissolved in two cups of water. Proper pH is required for a good cure, and that is achieved by a good,

healthy ferment. Recall that a very small amount of powdered milk and dextrose were added to the meat and bacteria starter before it was put into the casing. This is “food” for the bacteria to use as fuel: fermentation requires carbohydrates and there are precious few carbohydrates in meat. Once the bacteria start to “eat” the milk and dextrose, the result is an acid byproduct. Before fermentation takes place, the meat and whatever else you have added to it have an approximate pH somewhere between 6.9 and 5.1. Once the bacteria get to work fermenting the meat, it will become more acidic and the pH will drop below 5.0. This is good! An acidic ferment is one that will cure nicely in the long run. You can measure pH with a pH test kit. It is also recommended that you reserve a half-cup of your salumi meat in a small glass bowl and let it ferment at room temperature as you do with your cased salumi. After a day it will be very easy to test the pH of the reserved meat rather than guessing what it is in the cased meat. Once the reserved meat’s pH is below 5.0, it can be discarded, and the salumi can go into the curing chamber for the prescribed amount of time. Remember to use common sense and your best instincts. If something does not seem right to you, if the meat has a bad odor or color, if you feel that any part of this process has gone awry, discard the salumi and start over. You took an oath, after all. Before diving head-first into salumi making, please consult additional sources for procedural and culinary tips. There are books listed in the Resources section on see here that are devoted just to the topic of meat fermentation. Read them and study them before trying your hand at salumi making. If you are fortunate enough to have a salumeria in your town, talk to the experts there. Ask about their experiences and get helpful tips from them. Do not take salumi making lightly!

part II

Four Seasons of Fermentation

Availability and Seasonality of Ingredients Songs are sung about food, poetry is written about it, thousands of cookbooks, television shows, and magazines are devoted to it. It seems as if every family in the world has its own food favorites, traditions, and specialties. Food is connected to holidays, celebrations, religious observances, and even mourning. There are times when we feast, and times when we fast. There are foods we eat everyday, and those made only for special occasions. Regardless of our countries of allegiance, the climates in which we live, our political leanings, ethnicity, or neighborhood, food is something we all have in common. Everybody eats. Yes, we all eat, but how we view, cook, and value food is as individual as our genes. What I eat for breakfast is probably different from what my neighbors eat, which is different from what, say, someone in Sydney or Bridgetown or Paris eats. Even if we identify ourselves as Paleo people, primal folk, or ancestral eaters, what those labels mean to each of us and our taste buds invites as many iterations of these protocols as there are people following them. We all eat differently. Take a close look at why people eat the way they do, and you are likely to find thousands of different motivations. Food is really just a means of fueling our bodies, but because emotions, traditions, and culture are all wrapped up in it, food is about much more than just nutrition. Why have so many of us chosen to go Paleo? Why do so many of us identify as primal eaters? Why is ancestral eating surging in popularity? The answers to these questions are too individualized to answer accurately, but I believe there are a few reasons that most of us would cite as our motivation for eating this way.

1 We just feel better No matter why you started dabbling in the world of ancestral eating, I am willing to bet that once you did, you felt better. Eliminating processed food, grains, and sugar from your diet is bound to have a positive effect on everyday well-being. Once you started to feel better, it was easier and easier to keep eating this way. It just felt good!

2 Better performance Regardless of whether you are super active, workout everyday, are training for the CrossFit Games, are a marathon runner, or just like to play in the backyard with your kids and dog, a better diet offers better performance results. Faster times, stronger lifts, and the ability to do more without gasping for air.

3 Health This is my favorite reason for eating well—being particular about what you eat and understanding the effects various foods have on your physiology so that you can create the most positive outcome. Hopefully we are all shooting for long, vibrant, fruitful lives devoid of disease and hardship. It is not hyperbole or exaggeration to say that every morsel of food we put into our bodies somehow affects our long-term health. Where this food comes from, how it is raised, treated, harvested, slaughtered, and prepared matters. Being a good steward of our own health and longevity means that we cannot afford to be lazy or careless about our food. Every bite matters. There are so many ways to be a responsible self-health administrator, and many of them lie outside the scope of this book. Exercise, stress reduction, good sleep habits, having joy in your life, sunshine, love, challenges, significance, and laughter are all vitally important. But perhaps the number one way to treat yourself well is to eat well. Eating well and making good food choices is a complex enterprise. We are flooded with information about how to be healthy for a lifetime, but much of this information is questionable at best. The popular media, so-called health gurus, the government, food manufacturers, special interest groups and the scientists funded by them, and even our churches are in on it. It is difficult to know whom to believe and whom to trust.

It is time to start thinking for yourself, do your own research, and get back to basics. This section will focus on one way to get back to basics—eating seasonally. Buying fresh foods at peak ripeness ensures that we are getting the biggest nutritional bang for our bucks. Not only does in-season food have more nutritive power, it tastes better and is less expensive than out-of-season food. Just because we live in a world where nearly any type of food is available to us at any time of year does not mean that we should take advantage of this. There is nothing basic about produce that has been picked before it is ripe, showered with chemicals to look “perfect,” and shipped halfway around the world. It is time for us to get closer to our food sources and take advantage of the flavors, textures, and colors that each season has to offer. It is critical to our long-term health and is an exceptional—and easy—way for us to be better stewards of our own well-being.

What is in season and when? In my dreams this book will be scattered around the world, and there will be seven continents of readers (Hi, Antarctica!) who want to ferment food that is in season. Hopefully you are reading this in a land far away from my home in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. It would make me so happy to help spread the fermentation word to all corners of the globe. My challenge, however, is that what is in season in my hometown at various times of the year is not what is in season in yours. Climates vary, and growing regions are not constant throughout an entire state, province, or country. I live in a very large country with no fewer than eleven major and twenty-seven minor unique growing regions where different crops thrive at different times. What is available to me in the northeast part of the country at any given time is different from what is available to my friends in the southwest. And this is not to say anything about what might be available in different countries on different continents with different indigenous plants and produce.

While I am definitely an advocate for getting back to basics, and I strongly advise you to get to know your local farmers, pick your own fruits and veggies whenever possible, and buy meat and produce from purveyors who live within a relatively short distance from your front door, I do realize that this is not always possible. In an ideal world all of our food would be sourced from our farmer-neighbors within one hundred or two hundred miles of our homes. We obviously do not live in an ideal world. My advice? Do your best at every meal. Make every effort to buy what is in season and grown near you. You are probably not going to achieve 100 percent perfection on this, but giving it your best shot will bring you delicious rewards. The following chart shows foods that are in season around the world throughout the four seasons. It is not a complete list, by any means, but is a general guide that you can use whether you are heading to the farmers’ market or the supermarket. Note that growing and harvesting seasons do not strictly follow our seasonal calendar. Tomatoes do not automatically become ripe and juicy red on the first day of summer and wither on the vine on the first day of autumn. Talk to your store’s produce manager and the farmers at your farmers’ market for precise information about peak seasons where you live.

Vegetables and Fruits by Season (USA, Canada, and UK)

SPRING Apricots Asparagus Beets Cherries Broccoli Cabbage Carrots Collard greens Fennel Green beans Herbs (various) Honeydew

Kiwi fruit Limes Mango Mustard greens Napa cabbage Oranges Pineapple Radicchio Radishes Ramps Sorrel Spinach Spring baby lettuces Swiss chard Vidalia onions SUMMER Beets Bell peppers Blackberries Blueberries Broccoli Butter lettuce Cantaloupes Carrots Cherries Chili peppers Cucumbers Figs Garlic Grapefruit Grapes Green beans Green onions

Herbs (various) Honeydew melons Jalapeño peppers Key limes Napa cabbage Onions Peaches Plums Radishes Raspberries Shallots Strawberries Summer squashes Tomatillos Tomatoes Watermelon Zucchini AUTUMN Acorn squash Apples Arugula Beets Bell peppers Broccoli Brussels sprouts Butternut squash Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Celery Crab apples Cranberries Daikon radish

Garlic Ginger Grapes Herbs (various) Jalapeño peppers Kale Key limes Kumquats Spinach Parsnips Pears Persimmons Pineapple Pomegranate Pumpkin Quince Radishes Swiss chard Turnips WINTER Beets Brussels sprouts Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Celery Clementines Collard greens Fennel Grapefruit Horseradish Kale Kiwi fruit

Kumquats Leeks Lemons Mandarin oranges Meyer lemons Oranges Parsnips Pears Persimmons Pommeloes Tangerines Turnips

Spring Whether you grow some of your own food or buy it all, spring is undeniably an exciting time for those of us who love to cook and eat. It is the palate cleanser and sorbet of seasons! After several months of heavy, soul-warming, hearty comfort foods, spring wakes up our taste buds to the possibility of light, crisp flavors and bright colors. Although fermentation’s roots are in preserving fresh foods for the months when they were not available, this doesn’t mean that ferments don’t have a place on the springtime table. Quite the contrary! Fermenting is also about changing and enhancing texture and flavor. While fresh-from-the-farmers’market produce is wonderful as is, it never hurts to shake up your kitchen with some probiotic oomph. This is the season for trying short ferments on delicate ingredients. Adding fresh spring herbs and greens to autumn and winter standby ferments is also a great way to transition from rich and heavy to light and delightful. Farmers’ markets will become more commonplace, and you might find yourself buying into a community-supported agriculture (CSA) or farm share. Ingredients that are local to you will become more available at your market and will inevitably be less expensive. Snap yourself out of the winter doldrums and get enthusiastic about all the wonderful food possibilities that lie ahead. Buy some foods you would not otherwise consider and get experimental.

Corned Pork While some cultures corn pork in winter, I always associate pork with spring and Easter traditions. Try corning a pork butt instead of buying ham this year. Ingredients 1 gallon water 1 cup pickling salt 2 tablespoons sugar (see notes) 2 tablespoons pickling spice blend (store-bought, or see Notes on see here for recipe) 1 tablespoon Prague Powder No. 1 5-pound pork butt 1 large onion, diced 1. Place the water in a large stockpot and bring to a near boil. Add the pickling salt, sugar, spice blend, and Prague Powder and stir until dissolved. 2. Remove the pot from the heat and allow the brine to cool to room temperature. 3. Pour the cooled brine into a vessel large enough to hold it and the pork butt. Add the pork to the brine, ensuring that it stays submerged by using a plate or other weight. 4. Refrigerate for 10 days, checking on the meat each day to make sure it is submerged in the brine. 5. Remove the pork and discard the brine. 6. Thoroughly rinse the corned pork and put it in large stockpot. Cover with cold water and add the onion.

7. Bring to a boil, cover, and let simmer for 2 hours. 8. Remove the corned pork from the water and drain well. 9. Slice and serve. Notes The choice of sugar used in this recipe is up to you. Raw cane sugar, Sucanat, refined white sugar, or even brown sugar are excellent choices, each yielding a slightly different nuance. Experiment and decide which you and your family likes best.

Kombucha Vinegar Salad Dressing Although kombucha is my favorite thing to ferment, sometimes I get too busy to bottle a new batch every few weeks and I end up with a gallon of sour kombucha vinegar. As the saying goes, when life gives you lemons, make lemonade. I think it ought to be changed to when life gives you sour kombucha, call it vinegar and make salad dressing out of it! At any rate, vinegary kombucha with some springtime herbs makes a fresh dressing that is perfect over delicate greens—a little goes a long way. Ingredients 1/ 3

cup sour kombucha vinegar 1 teaspoon Dijon mustard 2/ cup extra-virgin olive oil 3 1 tablespoon fresh herbs, very finely minced (tarragon, chives, oregano, chervil, parsley, or mint) 1 teaspoon very finely minced garlic Salt and pepper to taste 1. Whisk the vinegar and mustard together in a small bowl. 2. Continuing to whisk, slowly add the oil until emulsified. 3. Add the herbs and minced garlic and mix thoroughly to evenly distribute. 4. Add salt and pepper to taste.

Blanched Mustard

Asparagus

with

Fermented

Grainy

Alongside a tin of sardines packed in oil, this is one of my go-to weekday lunches. Once you have this homemade fermented mustard in your refrigerator, this dish will come together in just a few minutes. Ingredients ¼ cup yellow mustard seeds ¼ cup brown mustard seeds 1 tablespoon apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) 2 tablespoons fresh whey, purchased vegetable starter, or brine from a previous ferment 1 teaspoon salt, plus more for the asparagus (optional) 1 bunch fresh asparagus, cleaned, woody ends discarded 1. To make the mustard, combine all the ingredients except the asparagus in the bowl of a food processor. Process thoroughly, adding water a little at a time (up to ½ cup) until a loose, mustard-like consistency is achieved. 2. Pour the mustard into a jar, cover, and let sit at room temperature for 3 days. 3. After it has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and refrigerate. 4. To blanch the asparagus, bring 2 quarts of water to a boil in a large pot. Add salt if desired. Put the asparagus into the boiling water for 2 minutes, or until it has turned a bright green color and is crisp-tender. 5. Remove the asparagus with tongs and quickly submerge in an ice bath to stop the cooking process and preserve the bright green color. Drain thoroughly.

6. Drizzle fermented grainy mustard over the asparagus to serve. Notes To personalize the mustard, add a bit of honey, a clove of garlic, some fresh dill, or red pepper flakes.

Scallop BLT with Fermented Wasabi Mayonnaise If you happen to be a regular reader of my website, then you know that my dear friend Diane Dennis has had a big culinary influence on me. Diane is the owner of LadyFingers Private Chef and Catering Service, and she is a food genius. I do not throw the word “genius” around casually. She and I run a contest each month, and the winner gets a Paleo meal cooked by the two of us. We post the recipes the day after the winning dinner, and of all the recipes she has come up with over the years, this Scallop BLT has gotten the most attention. It makes a positively gorgeous appetizer! And who can resist a bit of bacon? Ingredients WASABI MAYONNAISE

1 farm-fresh egg, at room temperature ½ teaspoon mustard powder 1 teaspoon lemon juice or white wine vinegar (homemade is best!) 1 teaspoon salt 2 cups extra-virgin olive oil or avocado oil 1 tablespoon whey, vegetable starter culture, sauerkraut juice, kombucha, or kefir from a previous ferment Wasabi powder to taste SCALLOP BLTS

6 slices bacon 6 dry or diver scallops, firm and unbroken 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil 1 or 2 tomatoes, the approximate diameter of the scallops (Roma or patio

tomatoes work well) 12 baby spinach leaves, stems removed

Wasabi Mayonnaise

1. Place the egg in a blender or food processor and blend thoroughly, about 20 seconds. 2. Add the mustard powder, lemon juice, and salt and blend for another 20 seconds. 3. With the motor still running, add the oil in a very slow, steady stream until all the oil is used. 4. Using a spoon, gently stir in the starter of your choice. 5. Stir in the wasabi powder ½ teaspoon at a time until the spiciness is to your taste. 6. Put the wasabi mayonnaise into a jar, cover tightly with a lid, and let sit at room temperature for 8 hours. 7. Refrigerate until ready to use.

Scallop BLT

1. Cut each slice of bacon into thirds, place them in a large skillet, and gently fry over medium heat, keeping the bacon pieces flat and intact. 2. When nicely crisp, remove the bacon and drain on paper towels, being careful not to break them.

3. Rinse and thoroughly pat dry the scallops. Brush them lightly with the oil. 4. Heat a pan over medium-high heat. When it is hot, add the scallops and sear them until the first side is browned and crisp. Gently turn them over and sear the second side. If the scallops are thick, place a lid on the pan so that they cook through. 5. Meanwhile, cut the tomato into 6 ¼-inch-thick slices 6. Remove the scallops from the pan and place them on a cutting board to cool slightly. 7. Slice each scallop in half horizontally. Spread a teaspoon of Fermented Wasabi Mayonnaise onto the cut side of each scallop bottom. Place 2 spinach leaves on top of the mayo, then a tomato slice on top of the spinach. Pick through the bacon and place 2 of the best pieces on top of the tomato. Spread another ½ teaspoon of mayo onto the cut side of each scallop top and place on top of the bacon. 8. Serve each BLT as is or spear with a decorative pick.

Infused vinegars Now that you know how simple making homemade vinegar can be, spring is a great time to infuse your bottled goods with the fresh flavors of the season’s herbs. As with vinegar-making, all infusions take is time. And you end up with condiments that can turn an ordinary dish into something truly unique. Plus, they make terrific and thoughtful gifts. Ingredients 4 cups homemade vinegar (red wine, white wine, or apple cider) 1 cup fresh herbs of your choice (chives, chervil, tarragon, and parsley are all available in spring) 1 clove garlic (optional) Zest of 1 lemon in large strips, not grated (optional) 1. Place the vinegar in a saucepan and heat until it is warmed but not boiling. Remove from the heat and allow it to cool slightly. 2. Put the herbs, garlic, and lemon zest in a very clean glass bottle or jar. Using a funnel, carefully pour in the vinegar. Let the vinegar cool to room temperature. 3. Cover tightly and let sit at room temperature for a minimum of 2 weeks and up to 2 months, gently shaking the bottle each day. The longer the vinegar infuses, the stronger the herb flavoring will be. 4. Strain the vinegar into another clean bottle, discarding the herbs. 5. Cap tightly and use in dressings, sauces, and dips. Notes

This is merely a basic infused vinegar recipe using springtime herbs. Use your imagination and what is in season throughout the year to create your own signature products—berries and basil in summer, try rosemary and sage in autumn and winter. Experiment with dried herbs and spices.

Radicchio Spring Kraut Who says sauerkraut can only be made from cabbage? Not me! Radicchio thrives in the spring and autumn and makes a very original kraut. Ingredients 3 small or 2 large heads radicchio 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt 1. Cut the radicchio in half and remove the tough core. Then cut the radicchio leaves into fine slices, about ¼-inch-thick. 2. Put the slices in a bowl and sprinkle with the salt. Use your hands to massage the salt into the radicchio for several minutes. The leaves will start to wilt, but still remain crunchy. They will also give off water, creating the brine. 3. Place the radicchio and its brine in a 1-quart glass jar, packing the radicchio down very tightly, pressing more brine out of the leaves as you go. 4. If there is not enough brine to cover the radicchio, simply make a brine using fresh water and some unrefined sea salt. 5. Loosely cover the jar with a lid or a coffee filter secured with a rubber band and let ferment at room temperature for 7 days. Start taste-testing the kraut after a week. 6. When the radicchio kraut is fermented to your liking, cover and store in the refrigerator. Notes

If extra brine is needed, use the ratio of two teaspoons of unrefined sea salt per cup of filtered water.

Fermented Radish Slices I love the peppery snap of radishes! They look so beautiful, almost like candy, and their bite is so bold. Fermenting makes their flavors only that much more exciting. Their season starts in the spring and goes throughout summer and into autumn. Ingredients 3 bunches red radishes, greens and roots removed 1 quart water 3 tablespoons unrefined sea salt 1. Thoroughly wash the radishes and cut them into thin slices with a paring knife or mandoline. 2. Pack the radishes into a quart-size jar, being careful not to damage or break the slices. 3. Bring the water to a near boil in a saucepan and add the salt, stirring until dissolved. 4. Remove the brine from the heat and let cool to room temperature. 5. Pour the brine into the jar with the radishes. Use a shot glass or pinch bowl to weigh the radishes down so that they are submerged in the brine. 6. Cover loosely and let ferment at room temperature for 3 days. 7. When the radishes have fermented to your liking, cover the jar tightly and store in the refrigerator. Notes

Try adding hot pepper flakes, fennel seeds, fresh herbs, or garlic to the jar before fermenting for some more pizzazz.

Springtime Beverage The fruits that come into season starting in spring are perfect flavorings for kombucha or water kefir. Simply add them to a fresh batch of kombucha or water kefir for a second ferment for a beverage with a distinctive fermented fizz.

Kiwi-Mint Kicker

Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients 4 kiwis, peeled 2 tablespoons fresh mint leaves 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Put the kiwi and mint into the bowl of a food processor and blend until smooth. They can also be muddled by hand with a mortar and pestle. 2. Push the mixture through a fine sieve. 3. Pour ½ of the juice into each of 2 flip-top bottles and add the kombucha or water kefir. 4. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days or up to a week. Refrigerate. 5. Use caution when opening the bottles. Enjoy!

Summer As we ease into the summer months, take a moment to look around your local market and take it all in—the colors, the variety, the volume of beautiful produce. There is nothing else like it! For those of us who are ancestral eaters, the summer season can make us feel as if we have hit the food lottery. There are so many good things from which to choose, and because it is all in season we are on overload! The flavors are unmatched, and so are the prices. To me, the only thing that can make a cup of freshly picked berries taste any better is the fact that I only paid a dollar for them. When the weather is hot, it is natural to look for ways to cool off. Now is the time of year to enjoy more sparkling fermented beverages! If you have not yet incorporated kombucha, kefir, kvass, or water kefir into your daily menus, summer is the perfect season to do so. Or try beating the heat with a tart shrub made with a cool combination of in-season fruit and homefermented vinegar. Flavoring possibilities are practically endless when you have a cornucopia of fresh fruit and herbs at your disposal. Summer is also the season for cookouts and backyard gatherings. Firing up the grill usually means steaks, chops, chicken, and burgers all in need of condiments and dressing up. Fermented relishes, sauces, and chutneys are the perfect accompaniment to whatever you plan to serve. Because of its abundance, summer is also the time to think about preservation. It is the perfect time of year to explore the world of canning, dehydrating, pickling, freeze-drying, and of course, fermentation so that you can enjoy the treats of this season at other times of the year when they might be prohibitively expensive or even downright impossible to find fresh. During summer, canning and fermentation supplies are easily found in supermarkets, hardware stores, and even big-box stores.

Fermented Jalapeño Peppers I love spicy! These fermented jalapeños satisfy my spicy jones, plus they add a really cool flavor to lettuce-wrap tacos. You could even chop them up and add them to homemade salsa. Ingredients 15 to 20 jalapeño peppers, stems removed 1 quart water 4 tablespoons unrefined sea salt 1. Slice the jalapeños into rings. 2. Tightly pack the peppers into a quart-size jar. 3. Bring the water to a near boil in a saucepan and add the salt. 4. Remove from the heat, stir until the salt dissolves, and allow water to cool. 5. Pour the brine into the jar, ensuring that the jalapeños are submerged. Use a shot glass or pinch bowl to weigh them down if necessary. 6. Loosely cover and let ferment at room temperature for 7 days, or until the peppers have fermented to your liking. 7. Cover tightly and store in the refrigerator. Notes To tone down the spiciness, remove the seeds from the peppers before fermenting—the seeds and the ribs are what turn up the heat. Try adding a few garlic cloves or some chopped onion to the ferment for

an even more interesting flavor.

Fermented Hot Sauce There are two schools of thought when it comes to making fermented hot sauce. The first involves pulverizing the peppers in a blender or food processor before fermentation, and the other advocates doing so after fermentation. I prefer pre-fermentation pulverization for a few reasons; doing so saves me time when the ferment is finished, and the fermentation time is quicker. When I am in the mood for hot sauce I’d rather have it sooner than later. Feel free to experiment! Ingredients 2 to 3 pounds hot peppers (habanero, Scotch bonnet, ghost pepper, jalapeño), stems removed 5 cloves garlic ¼ cup roughly chopped onion 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt ½ cup water ¼ cup whey, vegetable starter culture, sauerkraut juice, kombucha, or other brine from a previous ferment 1. Put the peppers, garlic, and onion in a blender or the bowl of a food processor and blend thoroughly until you have a peppery pulp. 2. Add the salt, water, and preferred starter and blend again for a few seconds. 3. Pour into a jar and cover loosely. Allow to ferment at room temperature for a week to 10 days, or until the mixture is bubbly. 4. When the peppers have fermented to your liking, put them through a fine sieve, reserving the liquid: this is your hot pepper sauce. 5. Pour into a small bowl or bottle and store in the refrigerator. Place the

pulp in another container and store in the refrigerator for another use. Notes Use extra caution when handling hot peppers! Wear food-grade gloves and be extra careful not to touch any sensitive areas on your body after handling them. They will burn. Also be sure that you are working in a well-ventilated area when you blend the peppers. They can give off plenty of fumes that can irritate your eyes as well as the sensitive eyes of children and pets. Do not throw the leftover pepper pulp away after straining it! Use it very judiciously as a relish on hamburgers, mix it into a meatloaf, or try tossing it in a pan to season coconut oil or ghee when you are sautéing greens. Experiment with different combinations of peppers that have different heat levels to yield a hotter or milder sauce.

Fermented Garlic Call me a cliché, but this Italian-American lady loves garlic. Several years ago my husband, Dude, and I found ourselves driving through Gilroy, California, better known as the Garlic Capital of the World. Sadly it was the wrong time of year to experience the world-famous Gilroy Garlic Festival, but I was very excited to be there nonetheless. The place smelled like heaven. I’m sure there is someone in Gilroy fermenting garlic and doing wonderful things with it! Ingredients 2 whole garlic heads separated into individual cloves, papery skins removed 1 cup water 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt or 1 tablespoon whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment 1. Place all the ingredients in a small jar and cover loosely. Let the garlic ferment at room temperature. Fermentation time will vary. If using a starter, it should take a week to 10 days. If you prefer wild fermentation (using just salt), the process can take up to a month. 2. When fermentation is finished to your liking, cover the jar tightly and store in the refrigerator. 3. Add fermented garlic to salads, dressings, or to a charcuterie platter with olives and cured meats.

Fermented Salsa A few years ago I read that salsa had surpassed ketchup as America’s favorite condiment. That made me so happy because I think salsa is pretty sassy! There are a million ways to personalize it, and it’s way more versatile than ketchup. Not to mention that making salsa is a great way to take advantage of all the tomatoes and onions piled high at the farmers’ market this time of year! Ingredients 5 large tomatoes, seeds removed and diced 1 medium onion, diced ½ cup chopped fresh cilantro 3 cloves garlic, chopped 3 jalapeño peppers (more or less depending on your preference for heat), stems removed and chopped 2 teaspoons unrefined sea salt 2 tablespoons whey, vegetable starter culture that’s been dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment Pinch of dried oregano Pinch of black pepper 1. Place all the ingredients in a bowl and mix well. 2. Pour into a jar and cover loosely. Let ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. 3. Cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Fermented Curry Ketchup with Sweet Potato Fries Pittsburgh is known for being the home of Heinz. That’s right, I live in ketchup’s hometown. Heinz Ketchup is a matter of civic pride. But if you’re trying to avoid high-fructose corn syrup and food additives, there are other better ketchup choices out there. Chief among them is making it yourself. I am especially partial to my fermented curry ketchup, which is always a hit at picnics. Ingredients CURRY KETCHUP

2 6-ounce cans tomato paste 1 tablespoon raw cane sugar, molasses, or maple syrup 4 teaspoons apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) 1 teaspoon unrefined sea salt 1 teaspoon minced garlic 2 teaspoons curry powder Dash garam masala Dash cayenne pepper (optional) 6 tablespoons whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment, divided FRIES

2 large sweet potatoes 2 teaspoons coconut oil, melted Salt to taste

Curry Ketchup

1. Place the tomato paste, sugar, vinegar, salt, garlic, curry, garam masala, cayenne, and 4 tablespoons of your chosen starter culture in a bowl and mix, making sure to blend well. 2. Pour the mixture into a jar and top with the remaining 2 tablespoons of your chosen starter culture. Cover loosely and let ferment at room temperature for 5 to 7 days. 3. When the ketchup has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in refrigerator.

Sweet Potato Fries

1. Preheat the oven to 450°F/230°C. 2. Cut the sweet potatoes into ¼-inch-thick fries. Toss with the oil and season with salt. 3. Spread the fries out evenly in a single layer on a baking sheet, place in the oven, and bake until golden brown, about 20 minutes, turning fries halfway through to ensure even baking. 4. Serve with Fermented Curry Ketchup. Notes If curry is not your thing, or if you want to make a more traditional ketchup, simply omit the curry and garam masala and replace with a dash of dried thyme.

Fermented Tzatziki Sauce with Salmon Packets I am a big fan of en papillote cooking. It is fast and easy, makes cleanup a snap, and you don’t have to be a gourmet chef to have great success with this technique. And who wants to stand over a hot stove on a hot summer day? Ingredients TZATZIKI SAUCE

1 cup Greek-style yogurt (cow’s or coconut milk, but homemade, of course!) ½ cup English cucumber, finely diced 1 clove garlic, finely minced 2 teaspoons extra-virgin olive oil 1 teaspoon red wine vinegar (homemade is best!) 2 teaspoons finely chopped fresh dill Salt to taste SALMON

2 salmon fillets, approximately 4 ounces each 1 lemon cut into ¼-inch-thick rounds 8 Kalamata olives, pitted

Tzatziki Sauce

1. Place the yogurt, cucumber, garlic, oil, vinegar, and dill in a medium bowl and mix to combine. Season with salt to taste.

2. Place in the refrigerator and allow flavors to meld for 1 day before serving.

Salmon Packets

1. Preheat the oven to 400°F/200°C. 2. Place each piece of salmon on a piece of parchment paper that measures approximately 10 inches square. Place a few lemon rounds on top of each piece of salmon, and place 4 olives next to each fillet. 3. Wrap up each fillet, folding and tucking in the ends of the paper to ensure that the steam created during cooking remains inside the packet. 4. Place the packets on a baking sheet, place in the oven, and bake for 20 minutes. 5. Remove the salmon from the oven and be extremely careful when opening the packets as steam has built up inside and can burn you. 6. Serve the salmon dolloped with Fermented Tzatziki Sauce.

Yogurt Herb Dressing with Cucumber Salad A few years ago I received a recipe for salad dressing with my weekly CSA delivery. My farmer friends were kind enough to include it with a bunch of fresh summer herbs that made this dressing so tasty! It can be modified to be dairy-free, and it goes with anything, especially slices of English cucumbers. Ingredients 1 cup plain yogurt (cow’s or coconut milk, but homemade, of course!) 2/ cup extra-virgin olive oil 3 2 teaspoons Dijon mustard 1 tablespoon raw honey ¼ cup vinegar of your choice (homemade is best!) 2 green onions 10 to 15 fresh chives 5 to 7 fresh basil leaves 1 tablespoon fresh thyme leaves, stems removed 2 English cucumbers, diced into ½-inch pieces 1. Put all the ingredients except the cucumber into a blender or the bowl of a food processor and blend until smooth. 2. Toss the slices with a portion of the dressing. Put the remaining dressing in a bottle and store in the refrigerator.

Macadamia-Cashew-Crusted Chicken Nuggets with Fermented Barbecue Sauce Whether you think barbecue is a noun or a verb, this barbecue sauce should be your go-to. It is perfect to slather on any kind of meat you’re grilling, but to keep the bacterial cultures alive, serve it raw as a dipping sauce with these nut-crusted chicken nuggets. The barbecue sauce recipe was inspired by Nourished Kitchen (nourishedkitchen.com), and the nuggets were the genius creation of my friend Diane Dennis of LadyFingers Private Chef and Catering Service in Pittsburgh. Ingredients BARBECUE SAUCE

3 tablespoons coconut oil 2 cloves garlic, minced ¼ cup tomato paste ½ cup molasses ¾ cup honey 2 tablespoons fish sauce ½ teaspoon unrefined sea salt 1 small onion, minced 2 tablespoons onion powder 2 tablespoons garlic powder Dash cinnamon Dash cayenne pepper ¼ cup whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment ½ cup apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!), to taste CHICKEN NUGGETS

2 plump, boneless chicken breasts, about 6 to 8 ounces each ½ cup macadamia nuts ½ cup cashews 1 cup almond flour, divided 1 egg ¼ cup water

Barbecue Sauce

1. Place the coconut oil in a saucepan and melt over medium heat. Add the garlic and cook for 30 seconds, or until fragrant. 2. Reduce the heat to low and add the tomato paste, molasses, honey, and fish sauce. Mix well with a spoon or whisk. 3. Stir in the salt, minced onion, onion powder, garlic powder, cinnamon, and cayenne until fully incorporated and allow the sauce to simmer for 15 minutes. 4. Remove from the heat and let the sauce cool to room temperature. 5. Stir in the starter of choice, and transfer the sauce to a jar, covering loosely. Allow to ferment at room temperature for 4 or 5 days. 6. When the sauce has fermented to your liking, add a bit of apple cider vinegar until it suits your taste. 7. Store in a jar with a tight lid in the refrigerator.

Chicken Nuggets

1. Preheat the oven to 400°F/200°C.

2. Cover a medium baking sheet with foil. 3. Cut the chicken breasts into generous cubes (1½-inch bites). 4. Place the macadamia nuts, cashews, and ¼ cup of the almond flour in the bowl of a food processor and pulse until the nuts are coarsely ground. 5. Place the remaining ¾ cup almond flour in a shallow bowl. 6. Place the egg and water in another shallow bowl and beat well. 7. Place the nut mixture in a third shallow bowl. 8. Dredge the chicken cubes in the almond flour to thoroughly coat, then dip them in the egg wash, and finish by coating with the nut mixture, pressing the nuts onto the cubes with your fingers as necessary. 9. Place the chicken cubes on the prepared baking sheet. 10. Bake for 10 minutes. Gently turn the cubes, taking care not to disturb the coating, and bake for 5 more minutes, or until the cubes are hot and the coating is nicely browned. 11. Remove from the oven and serve with Fermented Barbecue Sauce for dipping.

Chipotle Bison Burgers with Fermented Sweet Pickle Relish I love combining powerful savory flavors with sweet. I have been making these burgers for a while now, and each time I serve them, I end up garnishing them with something sweet to balance out the spice. It’s time to throw a bit of bison on the grill! Ingredients SWEET PICKLE RELISH

1 cup English cucumber, peeled and finely chopped 3 tablespoons finely minced yellow bell pepper 1 tablespoon raw cane sugar, maple syrup, or evaporated cane juice ½ teaspoon mustard seeds ½ teaspoon turmeric ½ teaspoon celery seeds ½ teaspoon unrefined sea salt 2½ tablespoons whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment, divided BISON BURGERS

1 pound ground bison 2 tablespoons finely minced chipotle peppers in adobo sauce ¼ cup minced green onion Salt and pepper to taste Coconut flour (optional) Butter lettuce leaves

Sweet Pickle Relish

1. Place the cucumber, bell pepper, sugar, mustard seeds, turmeric, celery seeds, sea salt, and 1½ tablespoons of your starter of choice in a bowl and mix until well blended. 2. Pour the mixture into a jar, leaving about an inch of headspace, and top with the remaining tablespoon of starter. 3. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for 3 days. 4. Once the relish is fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Bison Burgers

1. Place the bison, chipotle peppers, and green onion in a bowl and combine. Season with salt and pepper. 2. If the mixture is too loose or wet, mix in coconut flour, 1 teaspoon at a time, until the mixture is still moist but will hold a burger shape. 3. Divide the meat into 4 or 6 equal portions and shape into patties. 4. Cook over medium-high heat on the stovetop in a grill pan or on a grill, 5 minutes on the first side. 5. Flip the burgers and cook an additional 3 minutes on the second side, or until they have reached desired doneness. 6. Serve on butter lettuce leaves with Fermented Sweet Pickle Relish. Try adding a fresh tomato slice and avocado too! Notes

A food processor or box grater can be used to cut the cucumbers, but avoid pulverizing them to a watery pulp. You want the pieces of cucumber to be somewhat intact.

Frozen Yogurt Regardless of what kind of milk you use to make yogurt, tossing a batch of it in an ice cream maker with some flavorings is a terrific way to simultaneously beat the summer heat and indulge in a fermented treat. I have found much success with frozen yogurt by draining some of the whey from a batch of homemade yogurt. The final result is thicker and creamier. And of course you can save that whey to use as a starter culture for other ferments! Use the flavor mixtures below as a starting point for coming up with your own. The basic instructions couldn’t be simpler: Add desired flavorings, mix as necessary, and then follow the manufacturer’s instructions on your ice cream maker. Allow frozen yogurt to sit at room temperature for a few minutes to soften before serving.

Hopped-Up Vanilla

Ingredients 1 pure vanilla bean 1 teaspoon vanilla extract 3 tablespoons honey or maple syrup or 3 drops liquid stevia 6 cups of yogurt (homemade is best!) 1. To extract all the flavorful seeds from a vanilla bean, cut it in half lengthwise and use the back of a paring knife to scrape it clean of all the goodness inside. Discard the bean or save it for kombucha or water kefir flavoring. 2. Add the vanilla seeds, extract, and sweetener to a bowl with 6 cups of

yogurt and mix. 3. Pour into an ice cream maker and process according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 4. Transfer to a container and store in the freezer.

Berry Mix-In

Ingredients 1 cup blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, or a combination 2 tablespoons honey or maple syrup, or 3 drops liquid stevia 6 cups of yogurt (homemade is best!) 1. Place the berries in a medium bowl and mash lightly with a fork. 2. Mix in 6 cups of homemade yogurt plus the sweetener of your choice. 3. Pour into an ice cream maker and process according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

4. Transfer to a container and store in the freezer.

Ginger-Vanilla Swirl

Ingredients 1 vanilla bean ½ cup crystallized ginger pieces, chopped 1 tablespoon honey or maple syrup or 3 drops liquid stevia 6 cups of yogurt (homemade is best!) 1. To extract the seeds from the vanilla bean, cut it in half lengthwise and use the back of a paring knife to scrape them out. 2. Add the vanilla seeds to a medium bowl with 6 cups of yogurt along with the ginger and sweetener of your choice. 3. Pour into an ice cream maker and process according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 4. Transfer to a container and store in the freezer. Notes Pour prepared frozen yogurt into ice-pop molds to make frozen yogurt pops!

Summertime beverages Summer is high season for fruit! It is almost impossible to indulge in all the fresh offerings of this time of year. When the heat is on, it is only natural to be attracted to cool, refreshing fruit and sparkling drinks. As a result, summer is when I turn the volume up on my kombucha and water kefir production. I love seeing what is fresh at the market and then transforming it into a cooling, effervescent treat. Simply make the flavorings as directed and add to newly bottled kombucha or water kefir. Note that fermentation times will be shorter in warmer weather!

Lemon and Honeydew Mint Punch

Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients 1 honeydew melon, seeded, peeled, and cut into large chunks 1 tablespoon freshly squeezed lemon juice 10 fresh mint leaves 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Put the honeydew, lemon juice, and mint leaves in a blender or the bowl of a food processor and blend until liquefied. 2. Put through a fine sieve and reserve the liquid. 3. Divide the infusion between 2 flip-top bottles and add the kombucha or water kefir. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 1 to 3 days or up to 5 days.

4. Refrigerate and use caution when opening bottles.

Blueberry-Basil Fizz

Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients 1 pint blueberries

10 fresh basil leaves 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Put the blueberries and basil leaves in a blender or the bowl of a food processor and blend until liquefied. 2. Put through a fine sieve and reserve the liquid. 3. Divide the infusion between 2 flip-top bottles and add the kombucha or water kefir. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 1 to 3 days or up to 5 days. 4. Refrigerate and use caution when opening the bottles.

Kombucha Sangria

If I’m going to drink an alcoholic beverage in the summer, my first choice is always sangria. It’s fruity, fizzy, and has wine in it but is still light. Fruit plus wine plus bubbly kombucha makes this alcoholic treat almost healthy. Ingredients 1 bottle red wine (Rioja and Cabernet Sauvignon are my faves) 1 lemon sliced into rounds

1 lime sliced into rounds 1 orange sliced into rounds 1 medium apple, cored and diced 1 cup brandy ½ cup white sugar, evaporated cane juice, raw cane sugar, or 7 drops liquid stevia 3 whole cloves 2 16-ounce bottles unflavored kombucha Citrus wedges 1. Combine all the ingredients except the kombucha in a large pitcher or punchbowl. 2. Place in the refrigerator for 12 hours or overnight to let the flavors meld. 3. When ready to serve, add kombucha. 4. Pour into tall glasses and garnish with a citrus wedge.

Spicy Carrot Kvass

My grandparents used to drink coffee in the scorching heat of summer because they said that the hot beverage somehow cooled them off. I figured that it made them so warm while drinking it that when the cup was empty they felt cooler in comparison. That’s my logic behind this carrot kvass. Despite its heat, it really is cooling and refreshing. Ingredients 5 medium carrots, shredded 2 hot chili peppers, finely chopped (Thai and serrano peppers work well) 2 quarts water ½ cup whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment 1. Place all the ingredients in a large jar, stirring until well combined. 2. Cover loosely, and allow to ferment at room temperature for 2 or 3 days. 3. When the kvass has fermented to your liking, strain away the solids and bottle the liquid in a flip-top bottle. Close tightly and allow to sit at room temperature for another day. 4. Refrigerate until ready to serve. 5. Pour over ice and enjoy. Notes To decrease the spiciness of this kvass, remove the seeds from the peppers, or use a milder pepper like jalapeño.

Raspberry-Mint Shrub

In the dead of winter when I am daydreaming about warmer days, I think of two things: driving around in a convertible, and sitting outside with friends enjoying a tasty shrub. This raspberry-mint version is the stuff of my wildest wintertime daydreams—summertime in a glass! Ingredients 2 pints raspberries

½ cup white sugar 20 fresh mint leaves, minced 3 cups white wine vinegar (homemade is best!) Sparkling water Potato vodka (optional) 1. Put the raspberries in a wide-mouthed jar and lightly muddle them with a wooden spoon—you want to just bruise them a bit, not pulverize them. 2. Stir in the sugar and add the mint, mixing well to combine. 3. Cover and refrigerate for 8 to 12 hours, or even for a day or two, mixing every so often. 4. Remove the mint leaves by hand, push the fruit solids through a fine sieve, and reserve the syrup. Be sure to thoroughly press the fruit in order to extract all the syrup. If there is any undissolved sugar remaining in the jar, scrape it out and add it to the fruit syrup. 5. Pour the syrup into a bottle or jar with a tight-fitting lid and add the vinegar. Cover tightly and shake to mix. 6. Store the shrub syrup at room temperature, shaking periodically to mix any sugar or fruit solids that might have settled. The longer the shrub syrup ages, the mellower the flavors become. I allow my shrubs to sit for at least a week before serving. 7. When ready to serve, pour an ounce of shrub syrup into a glass with ice and top with sparkling water. For a hard shrub, add an ounce of potato vodka before adding the sparkling water.

Plum Shrub

I think plums are underrated, especially considering their drip-down-yourchin juiciness. I like to pair them with rum and even a little spice. Try this

shrub as summer turns to fall. Ingredients 12 ripe plums, peeled, pits removed, and roughly chopped (about 3 to 4 cups) ½ cup raw cane sugar, evaporated cane juice, or white sugar 2 thumb-size pieces fresh ginger, peeled and roughly chopped 3 cups red wine vinegar (homemade is best!) Sparkling water White rum (optional) 1. Put the plums in a wide-mouthed jar and muddle them with a wooden spoon—you want to just bruise them a bit, not pulverize them. 2. Stir in the sugar and add the ginger, mixing well to combine. 3. Cover and refrigerate for 8 to 12 hours, or even for a day or 2, mixing every so often. 4. Remove the ginger by hand, push the fruit solids through a fine sieve, and reserve the syrup. Be sure to thoroughly press the fruit in order to extract all the syrup. If there is any undissolved sugar remaining in the jar, scrape it out and add it to the fruit syrup. 5. Pour the syrup into a bottle or jar with a tight-fitting lid and add the vinegar. Cover tightly and shake to combine. 6. Store the shrub syrup at room temperature, shaking periodically to mix any sugar or fruit solids that might have settled. The longer the shrub syrup ages, the mellower the flavors become. I allow my shrubs to sit for at least a week before serving. 7. When ready to serve, pour an ounce of syrup into a glass with ice and top with sparkling water. For a hard shrub, add an ounce of white rum before adding the sparkling water. Notes

As far as rum goes, I’m partial to Mount Gay Eclipse Silver from Barbados.

Strawberry-Tarragon Shrub

Strawberries are one of the fruits that shine in savory preparations. I love adding them to a salad dressing or sprinkling a few on chicken salad. This shrub recipe is definitely a sweet preparation, but the tarragon reveals how versatile these berries can really be. Ingredients 4 cups fresh strawberries, hulled and cut into pieces ½ cup white sugar 3 tablespoons fresh tarragon leaves 3 cups apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) Sparkling water Potato vodka (optional)

1. Put the strawberries into a wide-mouthed jar and lightly muddle them with a wooden spoon—you want to just bruise them a bit, not pulverize them. 2. Stir in the sugar and add the tarragon leaves, mixing well to combine. 3. Cover and refrigerate for 8 to 12 hours, or even for a day or 2, mixing every so often. 4. Remove the tarragon leaves by hand, push the fruit solids through a fine sieve, and reserve the syrup. Be sure to thoroughly press the fruit in order to extract all syrup. If there is any undissolved sugar remaining in the jar, scrape it out and add it to the fruit syrup. 5. Pour the syrup into a bottle or jar with a tight-fitting lid and add the vinegar. Cover tightly and shake to combine. 6. Store the shrub syrup at room temperature, shaking periodically to mix any sugar or fruit solids that might have settled. The longer the shrub syrup ages, the mellower the flavors become. I allow my shrubs to sit for at least a week before serving. 7. When ready to serve, pour an ounce of shrub syrup into a glass with ice and top with sparkling water. For a hard shrub, add an ounce of potato vodka before adding the sparkling water.

Autumn “Autumn” and “harvest” are practically synonymous. This season is the food growers’ last big hurrah. As temperatures become cooler or even downright cold, and weather conditions go from glorious to dim and often harsh, farms and gardens are mostly wrapping up their year’s work. Available produce becomes heartier and heavier. Our thoughts go from zesty summer tomato salads to applesauce and squash. Autumn is the time to think about stocking our pantries with the preserved goodness of summer regardless of the weather. It is a season of transition and planning. The earthy tang of sauerkraut lends itself well to fall dishes, so make sure you have plenty on hand. And the only thing better than building up your own stores of kraut is helping a friend build up his by introducing him to the craft of kraut making, so why not invite a friend over for a cozy afternoon in the kitchen? Autumn is also a great time to host a food swap. Ask your friends to bring their fermented delights, canned goodies, other homemade treats, or even fresh produce and meats for sampling and trading. Swap a few jars of lactofermented pickles for a pound of fresh venison. Trade two bottles of beet kvass for two containers of elderberry jelly. There are food swap groups around the country. See the Resources section on see here to find one in your area or for tips on starting a group of your own. Food swaps are a great way to get fresh ideas as well as to taste the hard work and inspiration of others in your community.

Fermented Carrots Sauerkraut may be the number one project for first-time fermenters, but fermented carrots may be what hooks newbies on fermentation. While they are as easy to make as sauerkraut, they are much sweeter and not as pungent as other ferments, thus making them more palatable to those not used to eating fermented foods. This recipe is inspired by Sally Fallon’s famous book Nourishing Traditions, and is a good mix of sweet and savory. Ingredients

4 cups grated carrots 2 cloves garlic, smashed 1 bay leaf 1 teaspoon black peppercorns 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt ¼ cup whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment 1. Mix all the ingredients together in a large bowl with clean hands, massaging well. 2. Firmly pack the carrots into a quart-size jar, pushing the carrots down below the brine line and leaving an inch of headspace. If there is not enough brine to cover all the carrots, add additional salted water made from filtered water and unrefined sea salt. 3. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for 3 to 5 days. 4. When the carrots have fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator. Notes

These carrots make an excellent side for almost any dish, from a dramatic rack of lamb to a simple roasted chicken. If extra brine is needed, use the ratio of two teaspoons of unrefined sea salt per cup of filtered water.

Yogurt Cheese Ranch Dip When autumn comes around, my husband, Dude, and I love to hunker down on chilly weekend nights and watch movies. My former favorite movie snack was popcorn, but giving up grains means no more popcorn. Instead I make a batch of this dip, slice up some cucumbers, carrots, broccoli, and bell peppers, and we have ourselves a date on the couch with a good flick and some vegetables. Ingredients

3 to 4 cups plain homemade yogurt 2 tablespoons parsley 1 teaspoon dill 1 teaspoon garlic powder 1 teaspoon onion powder ½ teaspoon basil ¼ teaspoon freshly ground black pepper 1. The day before you want to serve the dip, place the yogurt in a cheesecloth-lined strainer sitting over a large bowl. Cover the yogurt with more cheesecloth and put a plate on top. Weigh the plate down with a small weight or can. Let the yogurt drain overnight in the refrigerator, which will separate the whey. 2. Meanwhile, mix the remainder of the ingredients together in a small resealable container. This is the ranch seasoning. 3. When the yogurt has drained, there should be approximately 2 cups of thickened yogurt resembling spreadable cheese. Add 1 tablespoon of the ranch seasoning to 2 cups of yogurt cheese. 4. Refrigerate the dip for at least an hour before serving.

5. Serve with grain-free crackers or crudité. Notes

If the yogurt cheese has gotten too thick for dipping and spreading, mix in a few teaspoons of reserved whey, milk, or coconut milk until it reaches the desired consistency.

Fermented Apple Chutney with Pork Chops Pork chops and applesauce have always gone together. Instead of pairing beautiful chops with sickly sweet applesauce, try this spicy chutney for an updated take on the classic duet. Recipe inspired by one from Leda Meredith. Ingredients

APPLE CHUTNEY ½ cup warm (not hot!) water 1 tablespoon raw honey 1 tablespoon apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) 2 tablespoons whey, vegetable starter culture dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment 1 teaspoon unrefined sea salt 3 cups apples, cored and finely diced (see Notes) 1/3 cup dried cherries 1 teaspoon cumin ½ teaspoon crushed red pepper flakes ½ teaspoon caraway seeds PORK CHOPS 4 bone-in pork chops, about 6 ounces each Salt and pepper to taste 1 tablespoon ghee

Apple Chutney

1. Combine the water, honey, vinegar, your starter of choice, and salt in a small bowl. Stir to dissolve the honey and salt.

2. Combine the apples, dried cherries, cumin, red pepper flakes, and caraway seeds in a larger bowl. Toss thoroughly. 3. Pack the apple mixture into a quart-size jar, leaving an inch of headspace. Add the honey-and-vinegar mixture to the jar, and make sure the apples stay below the brine line. Weigh them down with a shot glass or pinch bowl if necessary. If there isn’t enough brine to cover the apple mixture, add more warm water. 4. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for 2 to 3 days. 5. When the chutney is fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Pork Chops

1. Rinse the pork chops and pat dry with paper towels. Season thoroughly with salt and pepper. 2. Melt the ghee in a pan over medium-high heat. Add the chops and sear until golden brown, about 4 minutes. Flip the chops and cook on the second side for another 4 minutes, or until the internal temperature has reached 150°F/66°C on a meat thermometer. 3. Serve topped with a few tablespoons of Fermented Apple Chutney. Notes

Choose an apple that will maintain some firmness after fermentation, like Honeycrisp, Braeburn, Fuji, or Gala.

Fermented Cranberry-Orange Relish I grew up eating cranberry sauce from the can. In fact, my brothers and I used to fight over which one of us got the end slice with the can impression on it. Silly kids. Now we fight over who gets the last scoop of this delish relish! It’s perfect with turkey, but try it mixed into kefir or yogurt. Many thanks to Tamara Manelly of OhLardy.com for the inspiration! Ingredients

3 cups fresh cranberries ¼ cup honey ¼ cup raw cane sugar, evaporated cane juice, or white sugar ½ teaspoon unrefined sea salt ¼ cup apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) 1 teaspoon cinnamon ½ teaspoon cloves ¼ teaspoon powdered ginger Pinch of nutmeg Rind from 1 orange ¼ cup whey or vegetable starter culture dissolved in 2 tablespoons of water ½ cup dried cranberries 1. Place all the ingredients except the dried cranberries in a blender or the bowl of a food processor and pulse until blended but not pulverized into a paste. 2. Add the raisins and mix well with a spoon to incorporate. 3. Put the mixture into a jar, leaving an inch of headspace and making sure that the fruit stays below the brine line. Add additional filtered water if necessary.

4. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. 5. When the cranberry relish has fermented to you liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Red Cabbage and Apple Kraut Besides heartier foods, autumn brings on the combination of sweet and savory. Apples play with cabbage and onions. Delicate cinnamon, clove, and cardamom infuse substantial meats like pork and venison. This bright pink sauerkraut may look sweet but looks can be deceiving. Ingredients

1 head red cabbage, finely shredded 2 apples, cored and shredded (try a tart apple like Granny Smith) ¼ cup very thinly sliced red onion 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt 5 whole black peppercorns 3 whole cloves 1 cardamom pod ¼ teaspoon coriander seeds 1/ teaspoon cinnamon 8 1. Combine the cabbage, apple, and red onion in a large bowl and sprinkle with the salt. Using your hands, massage the salt into the cabbage mixture until the cabbage is limp but still crispy. 2. Combine the remaining ingredients in a small bowl. Roughly bruise and crush the spices with the back of a small spoon or a mortar and pestle. 3. Add the spice mixture to the cabbage and toss to combine. 4. Fill 2 quart-size jars with the cabbage mixture and brine, packing it all down tightly, making sure that it stays below the brine line and leaving an inch of headspace. If there isn’t enough brine to cover the cabbage, add a bit of filtered water. If necessary, use a shot glass or pinch bowl to keep the cabbage submerged.

5. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for at least a week and possibly up to a month, depending on your taste preference. 6. When the kraut has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Sauerruben I think turnips get a bad rap. They have a reputation for being dull and lowly, but I think that’s hogwash. Fermenting turnips à la sauerkraut will definitely change opinions too. Serve this alongside a variety of sausages with some grainy mustard. Ingredients

1 to 2 pounds turnips, shredded with a box grater or food processor 1 tablespoon unrefined sea salt 2 teaspoons freshly ground black pepper 1 large carrot, shredded (optional) 1. Combine all the ingredients in a large bowl. Thoroughly massage the salt into the turnip shreds, creating a brine. 2. Tightly pack into a jar, pressing the turnips below the brine line. Add filtered water if there isn’t enough brine to cover them, and use a shot glass or a pinch bowl to ensure that they stay submerged. 3. Cover loosely and ferment at room temperature for at least a week, but up to a month. 4. When the sauerruben has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator. Notes

Adding shredded carrot to the turnips provides color and a touch of sweetness to the final product.

Tuna Salad with Fermented Horseradish Sauce There are a few foods I refer to as “blank-canvas foods.” They are fine just as they are but do really well with a little flair added to them. Canned tuna definitely fits into this category. By accident a few years back I added horseradish to tuna salad, and I have never looked back. Nourished Kitchen (nourishedkitchen.com) inspired the recipe for this kicky sauce, and a kitchen mishap gave rise to the tuna salad. Ingredients

HORSERADISH SAUCE 1 cup freshly grated horseradish root 1 teaspoon unrefined sea salt 2 tablespoons whey, vegetable starter culture that has been dissolved in water, or brine from a previous ferment TUNA SALAD 2 5-ounce cans tuna, packed in olive oil, drained 2 tablespoons mayonnaise (recipe on see here, but hold the wasabi!) or to taste 1 celery stalk, finely diced 5 green olives, pitted and chopped (Cerignola are a good choice) ½ teaspoon chopped chives Salt and pepper to taste

Horseradish Sauce

1. Place the horseradish, salt, and starter of choice in the small bowl of a food processor and process until well combined, adding filtered water a

teaspoon at a time until the mixture is a slurry (but not too runny). 2. Pour the sauce into a jar, topping it with additional filtered water so that none of the sauce is exposed to air. Cover loosely and let ferment at room temperature for 3 to 5 days. 3. When the sauce has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Tuna Salad

1. Combine the tuna, mayonnaise, celery, olives, and chives in a bowl, mixing well. Season with salt and pepper to taste. 2. Add Fermented Horseradish Sauce 1 teaspoon at a time to taste. Notes

Take caution when making the horseradish sauce. The horseradish will give off fumes that will make your nose and eyes burn, and those of sensitive members of your household, like children and pets. Make sure your kitchen is properly ventilated. The classic way to use horseradish sauce is alongside beef, so please do not limit it to this tuna salad recipe: put a few dabs on a grass-fed steak! White potatoes and cauliflower are two more blank-canvas foods. Try adding a few spoonfuls of Fermented Horseradish Sauce to mashed potatoes or mashed cauliflower to give them an unexpected zip.

Autumn Beverages Some classic fall flavors translate incredibly well into delightful beverages.

Apple Pie Kombucha

Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha. Ingredients

2 apples, peeled, cored, and roughly chopped (try Red Delicious for a classic flavor) 1/ teaspoon cinnamon 8 2 whole cloves 32 ounces kombucha 1. Put the apples and cinnamon in a blender or the bowl of a food processor and process until puréed. 2. Push the purée through a fine sieve to extract all the juice. 3. Divide the juice between 2 flip-top bottles and add a whole clove to each bottle. 4. Divide the kombucha between the 2 bottles, seal, and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days. 5. Refrigerate until ready to drink, and use caution when opening the bottles. Notes

I prefer to use only kombucha for fall fermented beverages because it has a deeper flavor than water kefir. The richer flavor of the fermented tea gives this apple pie version more substance than something water based, but feel free to experiment.

Pumpkin Pie Kombucha

Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha. Ingredients

½ cup roasted-pumpkin purée or canned pumpkin ¼ teaspoon cinnamon Dash nutmeg Dash allspice Dash clove Dash powdered ginger ½ cup plus 28 ounces kombucha 1. Mix the first 6 ingredients and ½ cup of the kombucha together in a small bowl or measuring cup. 2. Divide the pumpkin slurry between 2 flip-top bottles and then divide the remaining 28 ounces of kombucha between them. 3. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days. 4. Refrigerate until ready to drink, and use caution when opening the bottles.

Cranberry Shrub

Ingredients

1 bag fresh cranberries Zest from 1 orange ½ cup raw cane sugar, evaporated cane juice, or white sugar 3 cups apple cider vinegar (homemade is best!) Sparkling water Gin (optional) 1. Put the cranberries, zest, and sugar into a wide-mouthed jar and smash with the handle of a wooden spoon, a muddler, or a large spoon. 2. Cover and refrigerate for 8 to 12 hours, or even for a day or 2, mixing every so often. 3. If the zest is in long strips, remove it by hand and push the cranberry solids through a fine sieve, reserving all the syrup. Be sure to thoroughly extract all the syrup. If there is any undissolved sugar remaining in the

jar, scrape it out and add it to the fruit syrup. 4. Pour the syrup into a bottle or jar with a tight-fitting lid and add the vinegar. Cover tightly and shake to combine. 5. Store the shrub syrup at room temperature, shaking periodically to mix any sugar or fruit solids that might have settled. The longer the shrub syrup ages, the mellower the flavors will become. I allow my shrubs to sit for at least a week before serving. 6. When ready to serve, pour an ounce of shrub syrup into a glass with ice and top with sparking water. For a hard shrub, add an ounce of gin before adding the sparkling water.

Winter If you are one of those skilled gardeners who can keep your plot sprouting fresh vegetables throughout the entire year, you have my admiration and envy! It takes careful planning, honed adroitness, and lots of hard work to accomplish this, and it is to these savvy farmers that I tip my hat. Winter is an exciting time for you! For the rest of us, winter can seem like a dead zone. Harsh weather in much of the world seems to bring the fresh food brigade to a standstill. By this time of year, most farmers’ markets have ended, winter shares for CSAs are at a premium, and the produce sections in grocery stores are either not looking too robust or are replete with fruits and vegetables picked long before peak ripeness in far-flung lands. If we have planned, canned, and preserved, many of us are still enjoying summer’s bounty. This is great, of course, but there are a few quintessential winter vegetables and fruits that make terrific ferments for keeping and giving. Because winter is also the season of giving, look for special ways to package your homemade treats to share with loved ones. A few jars of your homemade sauerkraut, a decorative bottle or two of a wintertime shrub, even a SCOBY with some starter tea: these all make unique gifts that are not only delicious but healthy too.

Basic Simple Kimchi

Kimchi is the national dish of Korea and is very hard to define. It is a mixture of fermented vegetables, with one vegetable being most prominent. That vegetable could be napa cabbage, daikon radish, or another sturdy choice that is in season. It is typically, although not always, spiced with peppers, garlic, and ginger. There are as many varieties of kimchi as there are people making it. As with tomato sauce in Italian-American families, each person and each family has its own take on kimchi. In Korea, different kimchi varieties are made at different times of the year, and winter is when its production goes into overdrive. This is my take on a basic recipe that most closely resembles gimjang, a variety that is most common in winter. It features cabbage, daikon radish, onions, garlic, ginger, red peppers, and spices. As with other recipes for fermented goodies, use it as a starting point for your own culinary creativity. I hope this is only your first endeavor into kimchi making! Ingredients

2/ 3

cup unrefined sea salt 1 napa cabbage, cored and cut into 1- to 2-inch pieces 2 carrots, cut into matchstick-size pieces 1 daikon radish, cut into matchstick-size pieces 6 scallions, divided 5 cloves garlic, peeled 1 fist-size piece fresh ginger, peeled 2 tablespoons dried Korean red pepper powder (or cayenne pepper) 2 tablespoons paprika 1 tablespoon fish sauce 1 tablespoon coconut aminos 1 teaspoon white sugar

1. Put approximately 2 quarts of warm water into a large bowl or stockpot. Add the sea salt and stir well to dissolve. 2. Add the cabbage, carrots, radish, and 2 of the scallions to the brine. Cover and let sit for 4 to 6 hours, or until the cabbage has wilted and is limp. Stir occasionally and flip the cabbage leaves over so they are evenly exposed to the brine. You can even weigh the contents down with a plate to submerge the vegetables. 3. Drain the vegetables well, reserving a few cups of the brine. Rinse the vegetables several times to avoid making the final product too salty. 4. Combine the remaining 4 scallions and the garlic, ginger, red pepper powder, paprika, fish sauce, coconut aminos, and sugar in the bowl of a food processor and process to blend thoroughly. 5. Place the vegetables in a large bowl, add the peppery mixture, and massage the spices into the vegetables. 6. Tightly pack the vegetables into a large jar, leaving an inch of headspace. Add some reserved brine if necessary to keep the vegetables submerged. You may need to weigh the kimchi down with a shot glass or a pinch bowl. Loosely cover and allow to ferment at room temperature for a week, tasting periodically. 7. When the kimchi has fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator. Notes

When massaging the pepper paste into the vegetables, wear food-grade gloves to protect your hands—the peppery paste can irritate your skin. If you enjoy very spicy foods, eliminate the paprika and double the amount of Korean red pepper powder to 4 tablespoons. It will make your

kimchi extremely hot, so beware! Many types of kimchi include seafood of some kind, either fresh (squid, anchovies, oysters) or dried. Try boiling some leftover shrimp shells in a small amount of water and adding the water to the kimchi before fermentation to give it a fishy accent. Talk to other kimchi makers or experts at your local Korean market, if you’re lucky enough to have one nearby, for ideas.

Fermented Citrus Fruit Fermenting citrus fruit requires a very easy technique that lies somewhere between shredded kraut-style and whole-vegetable style. Do yourself a favor and take advantage of winter citrus ferments. You can even just snack on them straight from the jar. Because they are the most commonly fermented citrus fruit, this recipe is for lemons, but this technique is terrific for limes, grapefruits, oranges, and kumquats too. Ingredients

2 pounds fresh lemons, thoroughly washed Unrefined sea salt Filtered water 1. Cut off the stem ends of the lemons. Pierce each lemon about ½-inch deep in 3 or 4 places. The easiest way to do this is to cut them as though you want to quarter them, but do not cut all the way through. The fruit will still be intact, but have several deep cuts, thus maximizing the surface area for fermentation. 2. Sprinkle a few pinches of salt into the cuts and put the lemons in a quartsize jar. 3. With the handle of a wooden spoon, a muddler, or any other blunt object, pound the lemons tightly into the jar. Doing so will create a brine with the lemon juice and salt. All the lemons will fit into the jar—I promise!—so keep muddling until they do. The lemons and salt should have created enough brine to completely submerge the meat of the lemons, but if not, simply add enough filtered water to cover them. If necessary, weigh down the lemons with a shot glass or pinch bowl. 4. Cover loosely and allow to ferment at room temperature for a week to 10 days.

5. When the lemons are fermented to your liking, cover tightly and store in the refrigerator.

Notes

I always have fermented lemons in my refrigerator, typically Meyer lemons. They start to appear in my local market in early winter, and I take advantage of preserving this thin-rind lemon with this method. Traditionally they add brightness to savory Moroccan or other North African dishes, but I use them to bring some sunshine to rich and velvety winter soups, stews, and salads of all nationalities. Beware, however, as Meyer lemons have a lot of seeds. Traditional lemons produce a wonderful final product as well, but because their skins tend to be thicker, they take a little longer to ferment. If you are branching out by fermenting other citrus fruits, you may need to adjust the fermentation time depending on the size of the fruit. Kumquats will ferment more quickly than grapefruits, and limes tend to ferment faster than lemons. Taste-test after a week. Citrus should still be tangy, but not overpoweringly sour or even bitter as in its raw state.

The way the citrus is cut is not terribly important, especially if you plan to slice it postferment, but it is important to expose the inside of the fruit to the salt to create a brine. This is a very basic recipe for citrus fruit preservation. Try adding herbs and spices to the fruit while it ferments for even more exciting options. Peppercorns, juniper berries, cinnamon sticks, whole cloves, and allspice berries are all interesting possibilities.

Bluebird Carrot Salad with Fermented Lemons This is my take on one of my favorite lunch side dishes. Now and again I do treat myself to lunch out instead of brown-bagging it, and my go-to spot is a little place just a few blocks from my home called Bluebird Kitchen. I always get the same thing—chicken salad (made with chicken confit, Granny Smith apples, and cashews!) and carrot salad. Bluebird’s carrot salad doesn’t have fermented lemons in it, but mine does. They add a really nice acidic tang that complements rich foods. Ingredients

1 pound carrots, cleaned thoroughly and cut into bite-size rounds 4 fermented lemons, finely chopped (rind included), seeds discarded 1 handful flat leaf parsley, roughly chopped 3 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil Salt to taste 1. Insert a steamer basket into a large stockpot and fill pot with approximately 1 inch of water. The water level should not come above the bottom of the steamer basket. Bring the water to a boil and add the carrots. 2. Cover and let the carrots steam for 3 to 5 minutes, or until they are slightly softened but still moderately crisp. Test with a fork to make sure they don’t get mushy. 3. Remove the carrots from the steamer and put them in a large bowl filled with icy cold water to stop them from cooking. Remove the carrots from the ice bath and drain thoroughly. 4. Combine the carrots, lemons, parsley, and oil in a large bowl. Toss thoroughly, and add salt to taste.

Seared Tuna Steaks with Fermented Lemon Salsa Lemon and seafood are already a perfect match, but fermented lemon and seafood are an even more perfect match! Unlike other fermented salsas, this one includes a fermented ingredient and is not actually fermented itself. Ingredients

LEMON SALSA 5 fermented lemons, finely chopped (rind included), seeds discarded 2 Roma tomatoes, seeded and finely chopped 1 medium jalapeño pepper, finely chopped 2 tablespoon finely chopped shallot 2 teaspoons finely chopped fresh cilantro 1 tablespoon brine from the fermented lemons 1 tablespoon finely chopped orange bell pepper Juice of 1 lemon Salt and pepper to taste TUNA STEAKS 2 sushi-grade tuna steaks, 6 to 8 ounces each 1 tablespoon lemon-infused olive oil (plain olive oil is fine too)

Lemon Salsa

1. Combine the lemons, tomatoes, jalapeño pepper, shallot, cilantro, brine, orange bell pepper, and lemon juice in a small bowl. 2. Mix well and season with salt and pepper to taste.

3. Cover and refrigerate for several hours to allow the flavors to meld.

Tuna Steaks

1. Lightly coat the tuna steaks with the lemon-infused olive oil. The steaks should be shiny but not drenched in the oil. 2. Heat a nonstick or well-seasoned cast-iron pan over medium-high to high heat. When the pan is hot, add the tuna steaks and cook for about 1 minute to sear. Gently turn the steaks and cook 1 minute more to sear on the other side. 3. Remove the steaks from the pan to a cutting board. Slice the steaks immediately into ¼-inch-thick slices. The outside should be seared while the inside should be pink and rare. 4. Serve with Fermented Lemon Salsa. Notes

For milder salsa, remove the seeds and ribs from the jalapeño pepper. This salsa also makes a unique salad when mixed in with some cooked chopped shrimp. And my husband loves it on his eggs.

Grapefruit-Ginger Kombucha or Water Kefir I try not to play favorites with fruits and vegetables, but truth be told, grapefruits are my favorite fruit. Don’t tell the others! Sometimes I will make an entire six-pack of grapefruit-ginger kombucha and drink it all myself. I cannot seem to get enough of the stuff. This makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients

2 grapefruits (my favorites are Ruby Red) 1 cup plus 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1 thumb-size piece ginger, peeled and grated 1 teaspoon raw cane sugar, evaporated cane juice, or white sugar 1. Use a citrus reamer to juice the grapefruits. 2. Combine the cup of kombucha and the ginger and sugar in a small saucepan. Heat over low heat until the sugar is dissolved. 3. Remove from the heat and allow the mixture to cool to room temperature. Add it to the grapefruit juice. 4. Divide the mixture between 2 flip-top bottles and then divide the kombucha or water kefir between them. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days or up to a week. 5. Refrigerate until ready to drink and use caution when opening the bottles.

Lemon-Lime Kombucha or Water Kefir This is the most elementary recipe, but it yields very advanced results! This recipe makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients

2 large lemons 2 large limes 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Use a citrus reamer to juice the lemons and limes. 2. Mix the juices together and divide between 2 flip-top bottles. Divide the kombucha or water kefir between the 2 bottles. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days or up to a week. 3. Refrigerate until ready to drink, and use caution when opening the bottles.

Pomegranate-Clove Kombucha or Water Kefir To me, the combination of pomegranate and clove in kombucha or water kefir is heaven as is. But if you’re looking for a little something with a kick while you sit next to your dearest love by a fireplace, add a splash of red wine to your glass, turning it into a chilled, fermented version of mulled wine. This will make 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients

2 cups of fresh pomegranate arils (those are the juicy seeds) 4 whole cloves 1 teaspoon raw cane sugar, evaporated cane juice, or white sugar 1 cup plus 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Place the pomegranate seeds in a blender or the bowl of a small food processor and blend. 2. Strain the solids through a fine sieve and reserve the juice. 3. Combine the juice, cloves, sugar, and the cup of kombucha in a small saucepan. Heat over low heat until the sugar is dissolved and the cloves become fragrant. 4. Remove from the heat and allow the mixture to cool to room temperature. 5. Divide the pomegranate-clove infusion between 2 flip-top bottles and then divide the remaining 32-ounces of kombucha or water kefir between them. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days or up to a week. 6. Refrigerate until ready to drink, and use caution when opening the bottles.

Notes

Instead of juicing the pomegranate seeds, you can substitute one cup of bottled pure pomegranate juice.

Blood Orange-Ginger Spritzer Makes 2 16-ounce bottles of flavored kombucha or water kefir. Ingredients

4 blood oranges 1 teaspoon freshly grated ginger ¼ teaspoon sugar (optional) 32 ounces kombucha or water kefir 1. Juice the oranges and pour ½ the juice into each of 2 flip-top bottles. Add ½ of the freshly grated ginger and sugar to each bottle and fill with the kombucha or water kefir. 2. Seal the bottles and let sit at room temperature for 3 to 5 days or up to a week. Refrigerate. 3. Use caution when opening the bottles. Enjoy!

What’s Next? So you have read this entire book. You have a kitchen full of jars, bottles, and carboys. Opening up one of your kitchen cabinets releases the pungent aroma of homemade vinegar. Your refrigerator is bursting with fizzy coconut water kefir. You find yourself cruising the farmers’ markets for sexy-looking cabbage that will make a kickin’ kraut. You have fallen under the spell of kombucha and are on board with incorporating home ferments into your life. Now what do you do? Where do you go now that you have the basics down pat? This is when home fermentation gets even more exciting! You may have mastered everything in this book, but you still have a lifetime of experimentation to look forward to. Not only do you have an entire planet’s worth of abundance to prospect, but more mouth-watering fermentation ideas than I could possibly fit in this book. Here are some activities, projects, and recipe ideas to take fermentation to the next level:

1 Kombucha continuous brewing system Instead of making individual batches of kombucha, only to transfer your SCOBY from vessel to vessel with each bottling, setting up a continuous brewing system will guarantee an endless supply of kombucha and provide a stable life for your SCOBY.

2 Purchase a large fermentation crock or barrel If you have the space, and are ready to make an investment in your fermentation future, a large fermentation crock or barrel is what you’ll want so you can supersize your ferments. Then all you’ll need are massive quantities of produce to fill up the crock!

3 Branch out into cheese-making Obviously, this is a project only for those who tolerate dairy or have friends or loved ones who do. If that’s you, cheese-making can be a very rewarding and delicious hobby.

4 Make your own root beer, sarsaparilla, or ginger beer Step up your beverage-making and go beyond kombucha, water kefir, kvass, and shrubs. You can control the sugar content and tweak the flavorings to your liking when you make your own fermented soda pop.

5 Make perry right in your own kitchen Most of us who eat a gluten-free diet are not averse to imbibing a little alcohol now and again. While hard cider is really quite delicious and can be flavored in many different ways, fermenting pears instead of apples makes for a refreshing change of pace. The process for making perry is nearly identical to that for making hard cider, but it’s an unexpected seasonal treat.

6 Ferment freshly caught seafood Whether you pickle it, make it into fish sauce, or mix it in with vegetable ferments like kimchi, fermenting fish can create flavors that are not likely to be found on the average weekly dinner table.

7 Dehydrate extra SCOBYs If you are making kombucha, you might find yourself overrun with SCOBYs. What can you do with all those babies? There is at least one fashion designer out there growing large kombucha SCOBYs, dehydrating them, and turning them into wearable leatherlike pieces. Perhaps you can be the next father or mother of fashion-forward fermentables! Make probiotic treats for you or your pets by dehydrating a SCOBY until it is dry and brittle. Feed small bits to your pooch or eat them yourself for a bacteria-rich supplement.

8 Explore your roots Because the art and craft of fermentation is thousands of years old, and because it has been a prevalent practice in nearly every culture on the planet, why not become more knowledgeable about your own personal cultural heritage and what your ancestors fermented? If you are lucky enough to have your grandparents, great-grandparents, or other older relatives in your life, ask them if they used to ferment foods as a means of preservation. Do some research on the how, what, and why of different cultures’ ferments. What kind of fermented goods do you have in your blood and in your DNA?

9 Learn more about nonedible uses for fermentation It is natural to think of fermentation as a means of turning edibles into other edibles. But there are fascinating things being done with fermentation that have little to do with human consumption, at least directly anyway. Various natural products—such as compost, grains, insects, and even urine—can be fermented and used primarily for agricultural benefit, although some applications stretch beyond the farm and into our health and beauty supplies. It is a compelling topic that is often overlooked by the average fermentation geek.

10 Make a profit from your ferments Not everyone is as engrossed in the process of food fermentation as we may be, but there is no denying that fermented foods are good for the body and mind and ought to be a part of everyone’s diet. You can help to make delicious, probiotic-rich foods available to the nonfermenting masses by selling them at your local farmers’ market or grocery stores. Please note, however, that producing food to be sold to the public is subject to local, state, and federal regulations. Do your due diligence and find out what the laws in your area are when it comes to food production and sales.

11 Spread the knowledge Tell your friends and family about fermentation and help them get started with their own fermenting experiments. Offer to give a brief talk at your local food co-op, library, or community center and share your experiences. Teach a

fermentation class for your local Slow Food chapter. Join or start a fermentation club in your town to exchange ideas, recipes, equipment, and food. Do not keep the good word about fermentation under your hat!

Glossary If fermentation, healthy eating, or ancestral diets are brand-new endeavors, you may be overwhelmed with unfamiliar terms and concepts. Use this glossary as a helpful guide to the terms, phrases, and ideas introduced in this book. Acetobacter A genus of bacteria that convert ethyl alcohol into acetic acid. Also known as acetic acid bacteria, they are essential for the fermentation of wine or hard cider into vinegar. Anaerobic Literally, “living without air.” The beneficial bacteria needed to lacto-ferment vegetables and fruit will proliferate only in an environment devoid of oxygen. That is why it is very important to keep whatever you are fermenting completely submerged in water or brine. Ancestral eating A very general term used to describe an eating philosophy based on traditional foodways of the past. How far in the past depends greatly on the individual. Paleo and primal protocols reach back as far as two million years to the foods that would have been available then. The Weston A. Price Foundation guidelines for diet are not dictated by a specific time period, but by the foodways of the people in nonindustrialized cultures, whose health was much more robust than those living in the Western and industrialized societies of the early twentieth century. Adhering to any specific diet that falls under the umbrella of ancestral eating is a personal choice and must be made after experimentation and careful observation to see how or if different foods affect an individual. Backslopping The practice of using part of a previous successful ferment to inoculate a new batch with healthy bacteria. This is a common practice in fermentation as it can help to ensure that a new ferment will get started quickly and correctly.

An example of backslopping is reserving a few cups of kombucha from one batch (starter tea) to add to the subsequent batch along with the SCOBY. Bacteria The microscopic organisms that live in and around us. These little creatures are on every surface we touch, on everything we eat, and trillions of them live inside us to facilitate digestion and keep our immune system strong. Without bacteria there would be no fermentation, and no human race! There are thousands of types of bacteria, both beneficial and harmful. The foundation of fermentation is to provide an environment in which the bacteria that make us healthier can proliferate and thrive while at the same time providing an environment in which the growth and reproduction of harmful bacteria are quashed. Brine A solution of salt and water. In the fermentation world it typically refers to the liquid that is produced after salting and massaging, muddling, or pounding vegetables or fruit. A brine can also be made by just combining water and salt. Brines are the liquid in which produce is submerged for fermentation. This is an essential part of the process, as the anaerobic environment created by the brine allows the bacteria necessary for successful fermentation to thrive. Canning A food preservation method that is often confused with fermentation. Canning raw, partly cooked, or fully prepared foods involves thorough sterilization of all implements and heating of the food to ensure that harmful bacteria do not grow during long-term storage. In contrast, it is not necessary to sterilize all working implements for fermentation (although cleanliness is still a must!), and food is not heated, as this would kill the good bacteria along with the bad. Carbohydrates One of the three macronutrients, along with proteins and fats, that are the backbone of all the food we eat. Carbohydrates are made up of various types of saccharides, or sugars, and are found in every food source that comes from the ground. Without carbohydrates in some form, there would be nothing to ferment, which is why “carbs” are such an important component in the

fermentation world. Carbon dioxide Also known as CO2, carbon dioxide is a chemical compound found in nature that is made up of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. It is a byproduct of human respiration as well as the fermentation of carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide must be managed when fermenting. It can provide a pleasant effervescence in fermented food and beverages, but when kept under pressure can cause minor explosions if left to build up too much. If not using a device that naturally allows CO2 to escape, such as a fermentation lock, manually letting it periodically release from an airtight fermentation vessel can eliminate this risk, just as refrigerating a ferment to stop the additional creation and buildup of CO2 can as well. Carboy A narrow-necked vessel similar to a jug that is typically used for the fermentation of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, cider, or mead. Charcuterie The craft of curing and preserving meat products that was born out of the lack or scarcity of refrigeration. Examples of charcuterie products include, but are not limited to: bacon, salumi, sausage, ham, confit, and terrines. Fermentation The chemical reaction that takes place when a carbohydrate is converted to carbon dioxide and alcohol by the introduction of yeast, bacteria, or enzymes into an anaerobic environment. As a result, the texture, flavor, and nutritive value of the original food are altered. Fermentation lock An apparatus that fits on the narrow mouth of a fermentation vessel or carboy and allows for the escape of the carbon dioxide that is produced during fermentation but does not allow air to enter the vessel. Fermentation locks are most commonly used when fermenting alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, cider, or mead, but are also found on specialty vessels designed for fruit and vegetable ferments. Gut

A generic term for the lower portion of the human digestive system, including the duodenum, small intestine, large intestine, and colon. It is here where chyme, or the liquefied food from the stomach, stomach acid, and enzymes from the stomach, starts and finishes the process of being absorbed into the bloodstream, and waste material is sent down the line for excretion. Most important, however, is that this is where the heart of our immune system lives. Regular consumption of fermented food keeps this part of the body functioning properly, keeps the gut biota healthy and flourishing, and strengthens the immune system, which protects our well-being in the most fundamental way. Gut flora / Gut biota The living and working bacteria in the gut. Our gut flora is thought to comprise up to a thousand different varieties of bacteria that help to digest carbohydrates and police what gets absorbed into the bloodstream and what gets expelled from the body. The human body contains more bacteria than it does human cells. Gut biota can be negatively affected by antibiotic use, an imbalanced diet rich in processed foods, gluten, consumption of foods containing additives and preservatives, and even general sickness. Eating fermented foods keeps these hardworking bacteria healthy and robust so they can do their job. Headspace The amount of room in a jar or bottle between the top of the fermenting material and the top of the vessel. Often fermentation recipes or instructions will advise a specific amount of room between the food and the top of the container to account for any bubbling or expansion in order to avoid messy overflow or spillage. Kefir A fermented milk product that originated in Eastern Europe or Russia and uses “grains” to digest the lactose in milk to produce a beverage that is rich in beneficial bacteria and low in lactose. Kefir can also be made with coconut milk. Kvass A fermented beverage native to Central and Eastern Europe as well as Russia

that is traditionally made from rye, wheat, or barley bread, but can also be made from any vegetable or vegetable juice. It is made with a bacterial starter, salt, or both. Kombucha Fermented tea that originated in China and spread north and east through Russia. It is made with a disk-shaped, jellylike SCOBY and starter tea. Lactase An enzyme in unpasteurized (raw) milk that is necessary to metabolize lactose, the sugar in milk. Deficiency of lactase in the human body leads to lactose intolerance. Lactobacillaceae A family of bacteria that produce lactic acid. Falling under the umbrella of the Lactobacillaceae family are all lactobacilli bacteria, which are the most common forms of bacteria involved in food fermentation. They are also commonly found in the mouth, vagina, and the digestive system (gut). Lactose The type of sugar found in dairy products. It is a disaccharide (made of two sugars) composed of glucose and galactose. The proper digestion of lactose requires the enzyme lactase, which is found in raw (unpasteurized) milk and is also produced in the body. Those who cannot produce lactase, or cannot produce enough to effectively metabolize lactose, are considered lactoseintolerant. Muddling Crushing, mixing, or bruising ingredients, like pieces of fruit, by working a spoon or similar utensil against them on the bottom of a bowl, jar, or similar container. A muddler is a common bartender’s tool that looks similar to a miniature baseball bat and is used to muddle fruits, herbs, and other ingredients. Nitrosamines Chemical compounds that are the product of nitrates and/or nitrites combining with proteins in the body. Nitrosamines are known carcinogens. Overconsumption of fermented and pickled meat products that contain

nitrates and nitrites can lead to nitrosamine production. Nitrosamines can also form by consuming overcooked fermented or preserved meats that contain nitrates and/or nitrites. Paleo Typically refers to the Paleolithic era. The Paleo diet is marked by eating only what was ostensibly available to the men and women of that era, the logic being that those whole, natural foods were what our bodies were genetically engineered to make the best use of. Specifically, devotees of the Paleo diet eat meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and seeds, eschewing all dairy products, legumes, processed food, and grains. Pasteurization Developed and named after the French scientist Louis Pasteur, the process of heating a liquid to a prescribed temperature and maintaining it for a short amount of time before cooling in order to reduce the number of microbes in the liquid to the extent that they are unlikely to cause disease. It is a controversial procedure, as it is commonly thought that pasteurization can indiscriminately destroy beneficial microbes along with the harmful ones. Some consumers also find that pasteurized goods have a different or lessdesirable flavor than raw or unpasteurized products. pH A measure of acidity or alkalinity. When fermenting beverages or meats, it is often helpful to test the liquid with pH strips to gauge its acidity or alkalinity. The longer something ferments, the more acidic it becomes. When fermenting a large batch of beverages or meats or when fermenting many batches, pH testing is a more reliable way of achieving uniformity of flavor and acidity than taste-testing. Pickling A preservation method that uses an acid (most often vinegar) to create an anaerobic environment in which good bacteria can grow. Pickling is somewhat similar to canning in that it requires sterilized equipment, but pickling can also be accomplished using fermentation techniques. Not all pickling methods are true ferments, and not all ferments are pickles, but there is quite a bit of overlap between the two methods, with the major difference being that pickling uses an acid bath to create an anaerobic environment and

fermentation uses a salty brine. Preservation A general term to describe the various methods by which foods are prepared to be stored for extended periods of time without spoilage. Common preservation methods include canning, pickling, dehydration, freeze-drying, smoking, and fermentation. Primal Generally associated with The Primal Blueprint, by Mark Sisson. The primal diet is nearly identical to the Paleo diet, but with marked differences in recommended fat intake and the inclusion of dairy if tolerated. Probiotic A general term that implies a procedure or substance that promotes biological growth and proliferation. The term “probiotic” is often used as a descriptor for any food or supplement containing beneficial gut bacteria. Saltpeter The more common term for potassium nitrate, an out-of-vogue meatpreservation salt that has been widely replaced by the more reliable sodium nitrate. Saltpeter (or saltpetre) is still used in the production of other products such as gunpowder and fireworks. SCOBY An acronym for symbiotic colony of bacteria and yeast. A SCOBY is a collection of microorganisms that work together to produce a certain style of ferment. Kombucha is the type of fermentation most commonly associated with SCOBYs, although kefir and water kefir use them as well. The SCOBYs for kefir and water kefir are often called grains because of their grainlike appearance, although they are not grains at all but grainlike globs of bacteria and yeast. Shrub A vinegar-based fermented drink typically made with fruit or fruit juice and often sugar. It is consumed straight or combined with sparkling water and/or alcohol.

Sodium nitrate A chemical compound commonly used as a meat preservative. Sodium nitrate is typically found in salt blends used by home and commercial meat fermenters and charcuterie aficionados in products that are not meant to be smoked or cooked. It is partly responsible for preserving the pink color of meat after it has been fermented or cured. Sodium nitrite A chemical compound that, along with sodium nitrate, is commonly used as a meat preservative. It can be used for meat products that are meant to be cooked or smoked, as well as those that are meant to be fermented or cured and eaten uncooked. Sodium nitrate that has been exposed to beneficial bacteria will produce sodium nitrite, and thus both are typically included in preservation salt blends meant for longer ferments and cures. Starter A bacteria- and/or yeast-rich medium that helps a new batch of fermented goods get going. Often a starter is a bit of brine, yogurt, kefir, or kombucha from a previous ferment. It can be whey extracted from some yogurt, or it can be a store-bought starter containing specific strains of desirable bacteria. A SCOBY is also a type of starter. Not all ferments require a starter. Some fermentable vegetables and fruits can start to ferment just fine on their own by using bacteria found naturally on their surfaces or in the air. This is called wild fermentation.

Vinegar A very acidic liquid made by overfermenting alcohol and adding water. For example, when fermenting grapes into wine it is important to halt the fermentation process when the wine has reached its desired flavor and alcohol content. If it is left to ferment too long, the alcohol in the wine will also begin to ferment, thus producing vinegar. Making vinegar requires a SCOBY, which is more often called a “mother.” Water kefir Similar to its dairy-based cousin, but made from sugar water. Sweetened coconut water can also be used. Weston A. Price Foundation A nutritional education foundation based on the findings of the twentiethcentury dentist Weston A. Price. Foundational beliefs promote the inclusion of nutrient-dense, high-fat, whole natural foods into the diet as well as a modicum of fermented foods, soaked grains, bone broth, and organ meat. Because of the differences from Paleo and primal protocols, it warrants its own category under the umbrella of ancestral eating. Whey The watery byproduct left over after milk has been curdled and strained. Most often for the home cook, however, bacteria-rich whey is collected by straining yogurt to produce a thicker, creamier consistency. Whey is often used as a fermentation starter because it contains live bacteria cultures from yogurt and is relatively tasteless, and therefore won’t interfere much with the flavor of the final product. Yeast Microscopic fungi that aid in the fermentation of cider, beer, and wine. While most vegetable and fruit ferments rely strictly on bacteria, some fermented beverages use a combination of bacteria and yeast (SCOBYs), most commonly kombucha, kefir, and water kefir. Zymology The science of fermentation.

Suggested Reading and Works Cited The following books will make most excellent additions to your food library, whether you want to delve further into fermentation or ancestral foodways. They have a place of honor on my own bookshelves, and were indispensable to me while I researched and wrote Fermented. Brooks Vinton, Sherri. Put ’Em Up! A Comprehensive Home Preserving Guide for the Creative Cook from Drying and Freezing to Canning and Pickling. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing, 2010. Brown, Alton. Alton Brown’s Gear for Your Kitchen. New York: Steward, Tabori & Chang, 2008. Fallon, Sally. Nourishing Traditions: The Cookbook That Challenges Politically Correct Nutrition and the Diet Dictocrats. Washington, DC: New Trends Publishing, 2001. Frank, Günther W. Kombucha: Healthy Beverage and Natural Remedy from the Far East, Its Correct Preparation and Use. Steyr, Austria: Wilhelm Ennstaler, 1994. Hartwig, Melissa, and Dallas Hartwig. It Starts with Food: Discover the Whole30 and Change Your Life in Unexpected Ways. Las Vegas, NV: Victory Belt Publishing, 2012. Kane, Sharon A. Lacto-Fermentation Through the Seasons: The Art of Old Fashioned Salt Brine Pickling. Self-published, 2012. Lewin, Alex. Real Food Fermentation: Preserving Whole Fresh Food with Live Cultures in Your Home Kitchen. Minneapolis, MN: Quarry Books, 2012. Katz, Sandor Ellix. Wild Fermentation: The Flavor, Nutrition, and Craft of Live-Culture Foods. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green

Publishing, 2003. Katz, Sandor Ellix. The Art of Fermentation: An In-Depth Exploration of Essential Concepts and Processes from Around the World. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2012. Marianski, Stanley, and Adam Marianski. The Art of Making Fermented Sausages. Seminole, FL: Bookmagic, 2009. Ruhlman, Michael, and Brian Polcyn. Charcuterie: The Craft of Salting, Smoking, and Curing. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005. Ruhlman, Michael, and Brian Polcyn. Salumi: The Craft of Italian Dry Curing. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2012. Sanfilippo, Diane. Practical Paleo: A Customized Approach to Health and a Whole-Foods Lifestyle. Las Vegas, NV: Victory Belt Publishing, 2012. Sisson, Mark. The Primal Blueprint: Reprogram Your Genes for Effortless Weight Loss, Vibrant Health, and Boundless Energy. Malibu, CA: Primal Nutrition, 2012. Staley, Bill, and Hayley Mason. Make It Paleo: Over 200 Grain-Free Recipes for Any Occasion. Las Vegas, NV: Victory Belt Publishing, 2011. Staley, Bill, and Hayley Mason. Gather: The Art of Paleo Entertaining. Las Vegas, NV: Victory Belt Publishing, 2013. Wolfe, Liz. Modern Cave Girl: Paleo Living in The Concrete Jungle. Las Vegas, NV: Victory Belt Publishing, 2013.

Helpful Websites

Books are awesome resources, but so are blogs and websites! The ones below provide up-to-the-minute accounts of fermentation experiments; facts about myriad types of food preservation; in-depth explanations of ancestral eating ways; recipes, recipes, recipes; and more. FIRST COMES HEALTH firstcomeshealth.com Call me biased, but I love my own website! Part ancestral health foodways education, part recipes, part personal blog, part motivation tools for my health coaching clients, and all honest reflections on living the healthiest life I can. BALANCED BITES balancedbites.com My friend Diane Sanfilippo’s website is one of my go-to sources for all things Paleo. Her site is chock-full of great information, printable Paleo guides, the lowdown on her 21-Day Sugar Detox, recipes, her weekly podcasts with Liz Wolfe of Cave Girl Eats, and more. CAVE GIRL EATS cavegirleats.com The cave girl in question is Liz Wolfe, and she is so much more than a cave girl! Nutritional-therapy practitioner, ambassador for Steve’s Club National Program (an organization that provides athletic training and mentoring to atrisk youth), a military wife, a host of the weekly Balanced Bites podcast, author of Modern Cave Girl, Paleo personal-care expert, Weston A. Price Foundation devotee—and hilarious to boot. Liz will entertain and educate you at the same time. CHRIS KRESSER chriskresser.com I love Chris! He practices integrative medicine and acupuncture in the San Francisco Bay Area, and through his website and podcast he shares the vast

knowledge he has gleaned from his work with patients. CIVILIZED CAVEMAN COOKING CREATIONS civilizedcavemancooking.com George Bryant delivers fantastic Paleo recipes and gorgeous photos on his blog. He is very candid about his struggles with food, weight, and living a healthier lifestyle. He is quite relatable and a terrific writer. Read a few posts and you will feel as if you personally know George and will want to invite him over for dinner. CULTURES FOR HEALTH culturesforhealth.com The ultimate source for anything fermented. There is a very robust resources section with articles and testimonials about food fermentation, and more important, you can buy any kind of fermentation starter or kit you would ever want from the online store. This site is my go-to for buying items like kefir grains, water kefir grains, yogurt starters, and vegetable-based bacterial starters. DELICIOUS OBSESSIONS deliciousobsessions.com A really great blog written by Jessica Bennett Espinoza, who has been eating in the ancestral style for a number of years. She believes in real, whole, natural foods that are prepared thoughtfully to maximize health and is a big advocate of fermented foods. FARM CURIOUS farmcurious.com Farm Curious is geared toward those trying to live a natural, close-to-theground life in the urban jungle. It is a thorough and thoughtful resource for all urban homesteaders. FERMENTERS CLUB fermentersclub.com A community of people gathered online to share the good news about fermentation. The site offers great information about fermentation, and is also a place where small groups of fermenters can find each other—virtually or in person—in order to swap goods.

FOOD IN JARS foodinjars.com A woman after my own heart! Marisa McClellan is a fellow urbanite (and Pennsylvanian!) who cans and preserves in-season delights so she can eat, serve, and gift them regardless of the season. Check out the site for great recipes, some fermentation talk, and all kinds of resources on fermentation’s food-preservation cousin, canning. Her book, Food in Jars: Preserving in Small Batches Year Round, is brilliant too! THE FOOD LOVERS’ KITCHEN primalpalate.com My dear friends, Hayley Mason and Bill Staley are food geniuses. Plain and simple. Their website is one of the most thorough and beautiful Paleo resources on the Internet. Whether you are looking for recipes, meal plans, menus, entertaining ideas, or other Paleo lovers to connect with, this is the place to be! Their books, Make It Paleo and Gather, are never on my bookshelf because they are always open on my kitchen counter. FOOD RENEGADE foodrenegade.com As the name of this site suggests, the focus is on challenging the current food system! Kristen Michaelis combines political activism, food-newsy posts, and recipes to inspire you to live a healthier lifestyle. Food Renegade will make you want to march down the aisles of your local supermarket holding up a placard in support of real food. FOOD ROUTES NETWORK foodroutes.org The FRN is a national group focused on helping organizations educate the public on where food comes from. Its website puts it best: FRN is “dedicated to reintroducing Americans to their food—the seeds it grows from, the farmers who produce it, and the routes that carry it from the fields to our tables.” You have probably seen FRN’s “Buy Fresh, Buy Local” campaign at your local farmers’ market. FOOD SWAP NETWORK foodswapnetwork.com This is a clearinghouse for groups around the world, although mostly in

North America, that meet to swap homemade food products. Fermented foods are, of course, included! Check out the site to see if there’s a food swap near you. Food swaps are great places to meet others who love food as much as you do, pick up new ideas, and trade your beautifully fermented goods. FREERANGE HUMAN freerange-human.com A terrific blog by Sean Coonce, FreeRange Human is not only an evergrowing collection of Paleo recipes but also a fascinating chronicle of Sean’s ability to control his epilepsy through a Paleo diet. HEALTH-BENT health-bent.com Paleo recipes galore! Health-Bent is written by two CrossFit coaches, Brandon and Megan Keatley, who love to eat. I love this site for how simple and easy the recipes are, but also because they are also delicious to the max. THE HEALTHY HOME ECONOMIST thehealthyhomeeconomist.com Sarah Pope is the Weston A. Price Foundation’s Tampa–St. Petersburg, Florida, chapter leader. Her site’s tagline is “A blog of refuge from the propaganda!” Sarah mixes recipes and cooking videos with thoughtprovoking information. Her site is a must-read if you want to eat and live more like our ancestors did and find out more about Weston A. Price values. HOW TO MAKE VINEGAR howtomakevinegar.com Can a website have a more self-explanatory title? I think not. This is a comprehensive source for all things vinegar-making: recipes, technique, infusions, and more. KOMBUCHA KAMP kombuchakamp.com This is a terrific source for anything and everything related to kombuchabrewing, whether you are a kombucha-making beginner or are a seasoned veteran. The downloads and ebooks are worth your clicks, and check out the kits, tips, online classes, and marketplace. This is an especially helpful site if you are considering graduating to a continuous kombucha-brewing system.

LOCAL HARVEST localharvest.org One of the finest resources on the Internet for information on sourcing local products. It is where small farms can promote themselves, and where consumers can find farmers’ markets, community-supported agriculture (CSA) programs, food cooperatives, and more. MARK’S DAILY APPLE marksdailyapple.com Mark Sisson is a wonderful writer, researcher, primal-eating advocate, and the author of many books, including The Primal Blueprint. His books, downloads, recipes, and inspiring stories—all available on his website—are full of helpful links, research, thoughtful analysis, and critical thinking. This is one of the finest places on the Internet to find information about ancestral foodways and the latest in nutritional research. NATIONAL CENTER FOR HOME FOOD PRESERVATION nchfp.uga.edu Run by the University of Georgia, this website is not only a great source for information on fermentation, but on all other types of preservation, from canning to freezing to dehydrating. NOM NOM PALEO nomnompaleo.com Beautifully written and photographed by Michelle Tam, Nom Nom Paleo is one of the best resources for Paleo eats on the entire Internet. Named the Best Special Diets Blog of 2012, and for terrific reason, it is a no-nonsense but delicious collection of everyday recipes that are time-crunched-mom approved and kid friendly. Check out the Nom Nom Paleo iPad app too! NOURISHED KITCHEN nourishedkitchen.com This is one of my very favorite websites of all time. Jenny McGruther, the author, is a mom, wife, and natural-foods advocate who has built an awesome site full of more than just recipes and the lowdown on traditional foods. Highlights include meal plans, ebooks, online classes, and many pages of resources to help you eat more healthfully. Her online class How to Ferment Anything is positively fantastic!

THE NOURISHING COOK thenourishingcook.com Remember that book and movie Julie and Julia, in which Julie Powell cooked her way through Julia Child’s book Mastering the Art of French Cooking? Well, this website is similar in that its author, Kim Knoch, is cooking her way through Sally Fallon’s cookbook, Nourishing Traditions. Read along as this home cook and mom tackles all 773 recipes! PUNK DOMESTICS punkdomestics.com This unique site was founded by one person, but written by many. An aggregation site for the real food DIY set, Punk Domestics is a site not to be missed. Categories on the site include anything from fermentation to cheese making to pickling to salumi making, canning and more, all contributed by readers and bloggers. A simple search for a single recipe idea will lead you down a wonderful rabbit hole of new websites, ideas, flavor combinations, and projects to try. And because it is reader created, you are always encouraged to submit a culinary success of your own. ROBB WOLF robbwolf.com Robb Wolf is arguably the king of the Paleo diet. While there were others before him, Robb wrote The Paleo Solution: The Original Human Diet, which catapulted Paleo eating into superstardom. His website has daily posts about all aspects of the Paleo lifestyle and the latest research about ancestral living. There are forums where you can ask questions and get to know other Paleo devotees, plus Robb hosts a weekly podcast where he takes reader questions. There is no better advocate for Paleo living than Robb and his team. Their enthusiasm and passion for the topic is contagious. SLOW FOOD INTERNATIONAL slowfood.com A grassroots organization started in Italy in 1986 to celebrate the opposite of fast, disposable food. Slow Food International celebrates quality over quantity and is committed to preserving the environment as well as farming communities around the globe. With more than 100,000 members in 150 countries, it is easy to find a convivium in your area no matter where you call

home. Slow Food convivia often have gatherings, tastings, contests, and classes focused on traditional-food preparations, local products, and seasonal goods. SUMMER TOMATO summertomato.com Written by Dr. Darya Pino Rose, Summer Tomato is not a blog about ancestral eating or fermentation, nor does it have many recipes or photos. But it is very much worth your time, because it is a very well informed, beautifully written guide on how to live the healthiest life possible. Rose is, in her own words, “a neuroscience PhDork, food and health writer,” and she deftly guides readers through the confusing waters of nutritional research by translating the science into common language. Which was why it was named one of Time magazine’s 50 Best Websites of 2011. WELL PRESERVED wellpreserved.ca A really cool Canadian site run by Joel MacCharles and Dana Harrison. The focus is on food preservation of all kinds, but there is a healthy amount of content devoted to fermentation. The photographs are beautiful too! WESTON A. PRICE FOUNDATION westonaprice.org If you are at all curious about the Weston A. Price Foundation, this should be your starting point. A mammoth site that features nutritional research, articles, brochures, buying guides, how-to videos, downloadable content, journals, information on conferences, and more. It is the premier spot to learn about the research of Dr. Weston Price and those who continue his work today. WHOLE 9 whole9life.com Dallas and Melissa Hartwig created this site and the accompanying Paleo lifestyle challenge, the Whole 30, to help others get on track with their eating and wellness. The Hartwigs are also the authors of It Starts with Food, which, if you ask me, should be required reading for everyone. The site includes a blog, a helpful guide, and a forum for anyone getting started with Paleo eating or anyone who needs a refresher on just how good the body can feel

when properly fueled. WILD FERMENTATION wildfermentation.com A site maintained by the king of all fermentation, Sandor Ellix Katz. Widely known as the ultimate authority on fermentation, Katz has written two books on the topic, both of which have defined modern-day fermentation. Wild Fermentation is meant to supplement both of his books, Wild Fermentation and The Art of Fermentation, by providing the latest news, recipes, and links, as well as his workshop schedule. There is even a fermentation art gallery with some beautiful photos of fermented foods from around the globe. If you are even mildly interested in fermentation, this site is a must.

Equipment Fermentation is like any other hobby: you can get as deeply involved in it as you want, and the deeper you go, the more equipment you seem to need or want. No matter if you are hoping to fill your house with bubbling jars and crocks or just want to make a quart or two of yogurt a month, you will still need equipment of some kind. AMAZON amazon.com The world’s largest online retailer has nearly any item you could ever want or need for any fermentation project, often at competitive prices. BALL JARS freshpreserving.com Available year-round at kitchen-supply stores, hardware stores, and specialtyfood retailers, Ball is one of the most well-known and well-respected names in canning jars. Find information on canning and fermenting as well as an online store at the company’s website. BUTCHER & PACKER butcher-packer.com Butcher & Packer is one of the finest sources for meat-fermentation products and tools in the world. Whether you are experimenting with small-batch salumi making or you have a whole animal to process, you can find the equipment and supplies you need here. CALDWELL BIO FERMENTATION caldwellbiofermentation.com A Canadian company that sells bacterial starter cultures as well as fermented vegetables and juices. CULTURES FOR HEALTH culturesforhealth.com Cultures for Health is a fantastic resource for anything you could possibly need or want when it comes to fermentation. I am especially fond of its

starters and SCOBYs as the company takes the utmost care when it comes to shipping speed and handling practices. A finer source of fermentation equipment you will not find. IKEA ikea.com The famous Swedish furniture and housewares purveyor is an excellent resource for sealable jars and flip-top bottles—and they’re inexpensive too. If you are planning to wade slowly into the craft of fermentation and aren’t ready to buy jars and bottles by the case, Ikea is perfect. KITCHENAID kitchenaid.com KitchenAid sells all kinds of kitchen appliances, but I love their venerable stand mixer. It is not a necessary kitchen appliance, nor is it required for successful fermentation projects, but it sure does make life in the kitchen sweeter and more efficient. A KitchenAid stand mixer is definitely an investment, but the many available attachments—from citrus juicer to sausage-stuffer to ice cream maker, and more—will make all your culinary projects more fun for your entire lifetime. KOMBUCHA BROOKLYN kombuchabrooklyn.com A community, a great resource, and an online store all devoted to the delicious art of kombucha-making. Order a SCOBY, an entire kombuchamaking kit, flavoring packets, tea, and equipment here. KOMBUCHA KAMP kombuchakamp.com A great place to browse if you are interested in kombucha-brewing. Buy SCOBYs, teas, kits, and 30-minute consultations if you have questions about your ’buch! PICKL-IT www.pickl-it.com To some, Pickl-It jars are essential for fermentation. They are latch-topped, airtight, and can be equipped with an airlock to allow gas to escape without letting air in. While not necessary for fermentation, an airtight container with

airlock can cut down on wayward mold growth and the proliferation of unwanted bacteria. After the fermentation period, the airlock can be removed and replaced with a rubber plug for easy storage in the refrigerator. Pickl-It jars are extremely nice and work very well for the casual home fermenter. The jars come in several sizes, and the website is full of tips, tricks, and recipes too. WECK JARS weckjars.com Weck jars are designed for canning, but I think they are so beautiful that they are perfect for giving fermented goods as gifts. Weck jars do not have an attached lid with a traditional latch, but feature a completely removable glass lid with rubber gasket that is secured with metal clips. When using them for fermentation, it is important not to secure the lids until it is time to store in the refrigerator. Pricing is by the case. Make sure to peruse the many unique table-ready jar shapes. WILLIAMS SONOMA www.williams-sonoma.com This upscale kitchen retailer not only sells cooking equipment, specialty-food items, books, and tableware but fermentation supplies and kombuchabrewing kits. Not to mention that the website features information on growing seasons, recipes, and cooking tips.

First Comes Health Downloadables Surf on over to my website, First Comes Health, for downloadable and printable goodies to help you with your ferments. firstcomeshealth.com/fermented-downloadables Fermentation log: Keeping track of your ferments is important, especially if you want to duplicate your efforts after a particularly tasty batch of probiotic goodies. Labels and gift tags: Don’t keep your ferments to yourself. Spread the wealth and share with family and friends! Print out labels and gift tags to attach to your jars and bottles to make your ferments special occasion ready.

Acknowledgments Mere words on a page cannot adequately express the heartfelt gratitude I feel toward the following people. It seems like such a shame that I cannot put on a fireworks display or hire an airplane to fly a banner of thanks across the sky to show them just how thankful I am to have their love and support. This and a lifetime of loves and hugs will have to do. Hayley Mason and Bill Staley: If it wasn’t for you two dear friends, there would be no Fermented. Period. You are the ones who introduced me to Erich Krauss and Michele Farrington of Victory Belt Publishing. You are the ones who took all the gorgeous photos for this book. You are also the ones who steadfastly supported my health-coaching business, acted as mentors to this first-time author, and got excited for me at every milestone. Every bit of success from this book is owed directly to you. I love you guys, and I wish there were a way I could adequately repay you! Diane Sanfilippo Diane, you probably don’t know this, but even before I met you, I looked up to you. You are a smart, savvy, wise businesswoman who built a successful business based on your beliefs about real food and desire to help others. What’s not to envy, right? And then I met you, and my admiration only grew. You are sassy and funny, and you always find time to answer my questions. You’ve helped me become a better health coach, and you’ve been a fantastic adviser to me as I’ve written this book. I was delighted and deeply honored that you agreed to write the foreword. Thank you, Diane! I know I’ll always continue to learn from you. La mia famiglia Ciciarelli There is a certain comfort in knowing that there are people who have your best interests at heart no matter what happens. There is also a certain comfort in knowing that even if you have to almost disappear and disengage for several months so you can hunker down and write a book, these people will still love you and offer their unwavering support with no questions asked. I

guess that’s what the best family in the world does. To my parents, Jack and Kathy I am forever in your debt for giving me the combination of pragmatism and sensitivity that has made me who I am. Thank you for letting me become who I was always meant to be and for accepting all of my quirks and eccentricities. You not only accepted them, but you encouraged them too. I know it isn’t often easy being my parents and have to claim me as your own! I love you both so very much, and I can never repay you for every advantage you have given me. My brothers, Greg and Matt; my sister-in-law, Julie; and my nephew and niece, Aaron and Faith: Thank you all so much for understanding why I was mostly out of touch for several months. Your jokes and levity have been indispensible. Your unfailing support has been invaluable. Your cute faces appearing via Face Time have been totally grin-worthy—that’s meant for my Bimbus and La Mia Stellina! I love you guys! Peggy Ross Peg, I love you so much. Your bravery and courage have taught me to take each day with optimism and hope. There were difficult days when the words wouldn’t come out and I’d get so mad at myself. But then I’d think of you and your beautiful way of approaching life, and things didn’t seem so bad. You have taught me so much throughout the years, and I continue to be inspired by you. Thanks for always being on my team. The rest of my family, both the one I was born into and the one I married into Thank you for always asking about Fermented and being so interested in what I was up to all those months. Your words of encouragement have kept me going. I love you all. Diane Dennis My dear friend and food collaborator, the famous LadyFingers! During the times when I was overwhelmed with self-doubt about my skills as a writer or as a cook, you were my biggest cheerleader. You would jump up and down and be so excited for me and this book that I couldn’t help but shake off the

angst and get excited too. Your pure excitement for food and the craft of cooking has been like culinary graduate school for me, and I feel very privileged that you allowed me to use some of your recipes in this book. You are truly one of the finest women I know, and I am fortunate to call you a friend. I am forever grateful, Diane! Liz McLaughlin One day out of the blue I got an email from my CrossFitting buddy Liz, asking me if I was interested in a SCOBY to make my own kombucha. I don’t have to say what happened next. Liz, you are a fab cook and a brilliant writer. Just being around you is inspiring. I love you because you don’t always agree with me, and you show me the world from a different point of view. I have become a more adventurous cook because of your ideas. I have become a more confident writer because of your encouragement. My life is much more abundant with you in it, my friend! Friends They may not even know it, but without my small collection of good friends this book would not have come to pass. On the days when I simply had enough of sitting in a chair with my laptop, their text messages, calls, and invitations to go running, go to yoga, or to do a punishing WOD at Jude Gym saved my sanity. Also, the restorative power of meeting a friend for lunch in the midst of a crazy week cannot be underestimated. I extend my most heartfelt gratitude to each and every one of you for distracting me when I needed to be distracted, listening to me when I needed to be heard, and laughing with and at me when I needed levity. I’m talking to you, Kelly, Rachel, and Matt! Simplynoise.com Sure, it may be strange to thank a website, but without it I am not sure how I would have written a single page with city noises, construction noises, and my neighbor’s crying child all swirling around in my head. There were nearly countless hours that I typed away with nothing but blissful pink noise to fill my ears. Highly recommended! INXS Michael, Jon, Kirk, Andrew, Garry, and Tim have been my steadfast “friends” for nearly 25 years, providing me with the soundtrack to every

accomplishment of my life. This book is no exception. Days upon days in the kitchen were transformed into one-woman good-time dance shows thanks to them. I am an INXSary until the end.

Quincy My dear, sweet kitty has an uncanny talent for knowing just when I need his cuddles and purrs. The majority of this book was created with laptop on lap and cat at my side. In the lonely hours, days, and weeks during the dead of winter when my head was swirling with deadlines and word counts, my loyal friend never left me, staying on my lap competing for lap space with my computer. He was a consistent meowing presence during the photo shoots, offering his kitty opinions on lighting and composition. The rest of the time he just napped, but having him with me everyday made each day a bit happier. I love you, Quincypuss! My Dude, Brian Richards: I think you know that without you there would be no flavor or color to my world. I know I would be a lifeless husk if I didn’t have my Dude. I will spend each remaining minute of my life showing you all the love and gratitude you deserve for all you have given me—the list of which is very lengthy, and includes: words of encouragement, words of difficult truth, project management, editing, laughter, patience with my panicked text messages, absorbent shirtsleeves, timely smiles, grammar knowledge, excitement for fermentation, willingness to taste-test anything, dish washing, tolerance for a condo full of jars, days of distraction, doing more than your fair share, readiness to postpone vacations, propping me up more times than I

can count, taking time off to be with me, unflagging support, and most of all love. You are positively everything to me. I love you and will for the rest of my days.

Jill Ciciarelli is a food lover, kitchen adventurer, board-certified holistichealth coach, and keeper of the blog First Comes Health (www.firstcomeshealth.com). With a bachelor’s degree in psychology from The Pennsylvania State University, a bachelor’s degree in Italian language and literature from the University of Pittsburgh, and certification from the Institute for Integrative Nutrition in holistic health, Jill has channeled her various passions into instilling a desire for long-term health in her clients. She has helped them reach their health and wellness goals by advocating an ancestral way of eating and serves her community as the Weston A. Price Foundation chapter co-leader. You can find her fermenting and experimenting in her urban high-rise kitchen and follow along with her on her website, First Comes Health ( www.firstcomeshealth.com). Jill lives in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with her husband, Brian (aka Dude), and Quincy, the sweetest kitty in the world.