Learnfast Nmat Review 2020 Notes

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NATIONAL MEDICAL ADMISSION TEST REVIEWER (October 2020 Edition)

113 Biology Notes I. General Biology A. Scientific Method 1. Observation - the action or process of examining something ex. phenomena/problem 2. Hypothesis - a possible explanation of a specific phenomenon; scientific guess. • Prediction – a claim about what you can expect to see in nature if a theory or hypothesis is correct. • Theory – a testable explanation of a broad range of phenomena 3. Experiment/Data Gathering - an attempt to produce actual observations that match predicted or expected observations. 4. Conclusion - a statement about whether a theory or hypothesis should be accepted, rejected, or modified based on tests of the prediction derived from it. 5. Publication B. Properties of Life 1. All organisms share the ff. common characteristics: • made up of the basic unit of life-cell, which come from pre-existing cells via cell division (Cell Theory) • acquires energy from the environment and uses energy to survive by relying on metabolic and homeostatic processes • have the ability to respond to environmental changes and have the capacity for growth, development and reproduction based on instruction contained in their DNA Characteristics of life Consist of cell Metabolize Respond to stimuli

Viruses

Organism

No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes (always Yes (usually Multiply inside a cell) independently) Evolve Yes Yes 2. All living organisms can be viewed at different levels of organization: • Biosphere - includes the whole Earth and all its living organisms • Ecosystem - a community and its physical environment • Community - the population of all species occupying the same area • Population - a group of individuals belonging to the same species occupying a given area at the same time • Multicellular Organism - an individual composed of specialized, interdependent cells arrayed in tissues, organs and often organ systems • Organ System - two or more organs interacting chemically, physically, or both • Organ – a structural unit in which tissues are combined in specific amounts and patterns that allow them to perform a common task • Tissues - a group of cells with the same specialized function • Cell -smallest living unit, may be unicellular/multicellular • Organelle - sacs or other compartments that separates activities inside the cell • Biomolecule - three or more chains of the same molecules(proteins, carbohydrates, fats & nucleic acids) • Molecule - two or more atoms of the same or different elements bonded together • Atom - the smallest non-living unit

3. All living organisms are classified into a scheme: Kingdom Subkingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Subclass Order Family Genus Species

An Overview of the Six Kingdom Classification Kingdom Archaeabacteria

Eubacteria

Fungi

Protista

Plantae Animalia

Characteristics prokaryotic unicellular microorganisms that are commonly viewed as extremophiles (true bacteria) Prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms typically having rigid cell walls and flagella for movement Eukaryotic, spore-bearing organisms with absorptive nutrition (saprophytic) that reproduce sexually and asexually Eukaryotic unicellular or unicellular-colonial organisms which form no tissues Eukaryotic, autotrophic, photosynthetic multicellular organisms Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, multicellular organisms

Examples halophiles, thermophiles and methanogens

Streptococcus sp. Lactobacilli sp. Escherichia coli molds mushrooms

Aspergillus sp. Rhizophus sp. Saccharomyces sp. Trypanosoma sp. Plasmodium sp. Dinoflagellates

Moss ferns gymnosperms Insects, jellyfish sponges, humans

C. Cellular Basis of Life 1. Major Compounds in Living Things Categories Carbohydrates

Lipids

Subcategories Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides Glycerides Phospholipids Waxes Steroids

Functions Energy Source Sugar Transport Structural role Energy storage Cell membrane component Water retention by plants Component of animal cell membrane

Proteins

Fibrous proteins Globular proteins

Structural role Increase in rate of reaction, oxygen transport, control of glucose metabolism and tissue defense

Nucleic Acid

Adenosine triphosphate(ATP) Nucleotide coenzyme (NAD+ & NADP+) DNA, RNA

Energy carrier Proton (H+) and electron transport storage Transmission, translation of genetic information

2. Cell Structure and Function Cell Component Cell Wall Plasma

Nucleus

Function -Protection -Structural support, control of substances in & out of the cell -controls activities of the cell

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Organism Present in all organisms. Nucleus is generally present in eukaryotes

114 Nucleolus DNA Ribosome

-assembly of ribosomes -encoding of hereditary info -protein synthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum

-CHO, lipids, protein synthesis

Golgi bodies

-final modification of proteins, sorting, synthesis & transport & packaging -intracellular digestion -ATP formation light energy conversion

Lysosomes Mitochondrion Photosynthetic pigment Chloroplast

Photosynthesis starch storage

Central Vacuole

increase cell surface area, storage

Cytoskeleton Complex flagellum, cilium

-cell shape, cell motion, internal organization -movement

but absent in prokaryotes. DNA is found in all living organisms. Varies in the subunits for prokarya and eukarya Present only in eukarya

These organelles are present in all eukarya and absent in prokarya.

Pigments are present in some groups of prokarya and eukarya e.g. plants, cyanobacteria

• cofactors - substances that help catalyze reaction, carry electrons, hydrogen or functional groups stripped from substrates • energy carries - mainly ATP which donate energy to other molecules • end products - substances produced at the end of metabolic pathway 4. Metabolic Pathways a. Energy Acquiring Pathways Photosynthesis is the main biosynthetic pathway by which carbon and energy enter the web of life. It consists of 2 sets of reactions: • Light – dependent reactions = take place at the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts; the reactions produce ATP and NDPH • Light – independent reactions = take place in the stroma around the membrane system, producing sugar phosphates that are used in building sucrose, starch and other end products of photosynthesis

Chloroplast and Central Vacuole mostly present in plants -present in most eukaryotic cells and absent in prokarya -found in groups of eukarya and prokarya

D. Cellular and Molecular Transport 1. Passive Transport Diffusion • net movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration • has two types: Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion (with the use of protein channels) Osmosis • net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable, membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration 2. Active Transport • net movement of ions/molecules from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration • requires the use of ATP (energy) • example: Sodium-Potassium Pump E. Concepts on Metabolism 1. Cells acquire energy to build, store, break down and rid themselves of substances. These activities are collectively called metabolism. 2. A metabolic pathway is a stepwise sequence of actions in cells. a. biosynthetic pathway - large molecules are assembled and energy is stored b. degradative pathway = large molecules are broken down into simple ones and energy is released 3. The following substances take part in metabolic pathways: • substrates/ reactants - substances that enter a specific reaction • enzymes - proteins that serve as catalyst (speed up the rate of reaction)

b. Energy Releasing Pathways Nearly all metabolic reactions run on energy delivered by ATP which can be produced by aerobic respiration, fermentation and other pathways that release chemical energy from glucose and other organic compounds. All 3 kinds of pathways begin with the same reaction, called glycolysis which occurs only in the cytoplasm. 1. During glycolysis, a glucose molecule is partially broken down and 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH and 4 ATP are produced but the net energy yield is only 2 ATP molecules because the other 2 ATP was used at the beginning of the process. 2. The second stage takes place in the mitochondria; pyruvate is converted into a molecule that can enter the Kreb’s cycle; by the time the cyclic reactions are over, glucose has been broken down completely to CO2 and H2O, this second stage produces 10 coenzyme molecules (8 NADH and 2 FADH2) and 2 ATP.

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115 3. The third stage (Electron Transport Chain) also takes place in the mitochondria; coenzymes deliver electron to a transport system; operation of the system sets up H+ concentration and electric gradients, across the membrane; H+ flows down the gradients, through channel proteins, energy associate with the flow drives the formation of ATP from ADP and unbound phosphate; oxygen withdraws electrons and combines with H+ to form water.

2. Summary of Events in Mitosis Stage Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

II.CELL BIOLOGY A. Types of Cell Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cells

Lack nuclear membrane Usually circular, ringshaped chromosome consists only of DNA, without associated proteins, and lacks centromere Membrane-bounded organelles (e.g. mitochondria) absent Lack capacity to differentiate into specialized tissues in multicellular organisms Occur only as bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

Nuclear membrane present Multiple, not ring-shaped chromosomes consist of DNA with associated proteins and have centromeres

Prophase I

Great capacity to differentiate in structure and function with multicellular bodies

Metaphase I

Make up bodies of protists, fungi, plants, and animals

Chromosomes # Synapsis Crossing-over

MITOSIS 2n ✖ ✖

Metaphase

Chromosomes align

one

Number of division

one

Number of daughter cells and composition

Importance to the animal body Cell type

3. Summary of Events in Meiosis Stage Interphase

Membrane-bounded organelles present

B. Cell Division 1. Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis

DNA replication

Telophase

Two, each diploid (2n) and genetically identical to the mother cell Development of multicellular adult from zygote; production of cells for growth and tissue repair Somatic cells

MEIOSIS n ✓ ✓ Tetrads align (metaphase I); Sister chromatids, now considered chromosomes, align (metaphase II) occurs during interphase I only two (reductional and equational) Four, each haploid (n); genetically non-identical to the mother cell and to each other Production of gametes; reduces chromosome number by half; introduces genetic variability Gametes

Main Event(s) G1: growth, metabolic activity, organelles begin to double S: replication of DNA; duplication of chromosomes G2: growth (Certain mature cells do not proceed to the next step but are arrested in Go) Chromosomes coil and condense. Centrioles divide and spindle apparatus appears. Chromosomes have no apparent orientation in the cell. Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope fragments. Spindle fibers from centriole attach to the centromere. Chromosomes gradually migrate to the midline of the cell oriented between the two centrioles. Begins with the separation of the centromere. Spindle fibers will pull centromeres toward centrioles. Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles. Poles of the cells also move apart. The two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles where they begin to uncoil. Telophase ends with cytokinesis (cellular division) and the formation of two daughter cells. Nucleolus appears in each daughter cells. Nucleus will contain diploid number of cells.

Anaphase I

Telophase I and Cytokinesis Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis

Main Event(s) The same as in mitosis. Synapsis: homologous chromosomes come side by side to form a tetrad. Crossing-over: homologous chromosomes exchange segments at intersections called chiasmata. Chromosomes are now arranged in metaphase plate, still in homologous pairs. Homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite poles. Sister chromatids still intact. The spindle apparatus continues to separate the homologous chromosomes until they reach the poles. Each pole now has a haploid chromosome set. Spindle apparatus forms and the chromosomes progress toward the metaphase II plate. Chromosomes align at the center The centromeres of sister chromatids separate. Each sister chromatid now becomes individual chromosomes. Nuclei begin to form at opposite poles. There are now four daughter cells. Each with a haploid number of chromosomes.

III. GENETICS A. Terms Used in Genetics • Gene = functional unit chemically composed of DNA. • Genosome = sum total of all the genes present in an individual. • Allele = any member of a given pair of genes; if the alleles are identical then the condition is said to be homozygous and the individual is a homozygote; if the alleles are non-identical, then the condition is said to be heterozygous and the individual is a heterozygote.

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116 • Genotype = genetic composition of an individual • Phenotype = external appearance of an individual • Monohybrid Cross = involves a single pair of contrasting genes • Dihybrid Cross = involves 2 pairs of contrasting genes • Polyhybrid Cross = involves three or more pairs of contrasting genes. • Parental Generation (P) = parents of a cross • Filial Generation (F) = offsprings of a cross; F1 = first filial generation (children); F2 = second filial generation (grandchildren) B. Mendelian Laws/ Principles: 1. Law of Segregation •factors for a trait segregate during gametic formation •during gamete formation, members of any given pair of genes separate so that any sex cell transmits only one member of the pair, this parallels separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. 2. Law of Independent Assortment = during formation of gametes members of any given pair of genes are distributed independently of one another. C. Common Patterns of Inheritance • Codominance - the effects of contrasting genes are both expressed; ex. Blood type “AB” • Incomplete dominance - the offspring is a blending between the 2 parents as when a red bull is mated to a white cow so that the offsprings are roan (mixture of red and white hairs) • Epistasis - a phenomenon in which one gene alters the expression of another gene. • Polygenic inheritance - an additive effect of two or more gene loci on a single phenotypic character as in skin color. D. Human Genetics 1. Sex-Linked Recessive Disorders/X-linked Traits: • traits or disorders associated with the sex chromosomes e.g. red-green color blindness; hemophilia • for females, sex-linked recessive disorders are expressed phenotypically only in the homozygous condition; in the heterozygous condition, the female merely becomes a carrier and does not phenotypically express the traits. • in males, the trait is expressed even in the hemizygous condition since there is only one locus (one X chromosomes) • Patterns for Transmission of Sex-Linked Recessive Traits/Disorders: A father with the trait will transmit the mutant allele to all daughters but to no sons. If the mother has the trait, she will transmit the mutant allele to both sons and daughters. 2. Autosomal Disorders • Aneuploidy - failure of members of homologous pairs of chromosomes to separate during meiosis II. • Polyploidy - presence of an entire extra set of chromosomes; triploidy = 3n; tetraploidy = 4n

3. Sex Chromosomal Disorders GENOTYPE SYNDROME PHENOTYPE XO Turner female Metafemale/ XXX female Superfemale XXY Klinefelter male XYY “Criminal” normal male YYY not viable Deviations from Mendelian Ratios: - Incomplete dominance - Co-dominance - Lethal - Multiple Alleles IV. BIOCHEMISTRY BIOCHEMICAL BASES OF LIFE A. CARBOHYDRATE • Most abundant organic molecule in nature • Monomer is monosaccharide, polymer is polysaccharide • Common ratio is Cn(H2O)n “hydrate of carbon” • Functions include energy sources and structural elements • Macromolecules are linked together by a process called dehydration synthesis/ condensation (removal of water) and are broken down to their component monosaccharides through hydrolysis. • They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides according to the number of simple sugars they contain. - monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose) - disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose) - oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide units, found in ER, GB) - polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, pectin, gum, peptidoglycan) B. PROTEINS • Monomer is amino acid, polymer is polypeptide • Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds • There are four levels of protein structure: Primary Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary) • Proteins have the following functions: Function 1. Catalysis

2. Structure

3. Movement

4. Defense

5. Regulation

6. Transport 7. Storage

,

Examples Enzymes (amylase, cellulose, papase/

papain) Collagen (connective tissue matrix) Fibroin (silk), spider web Keratin (hair, horns, feathers,

hooves) Actin and tubulin (involved in cell movements in Amoeba and sperm cells; found in flagella and cilia) Skin keratin (first line of protection) Fibrinogen and thrombin (blood clot) Antibodies (secreted by lymphocytes in response to infection) Spines of sea urchin Hormones (insulin & glucagon,

growth hormone) Hemoglobin (oxygen and waste

material transport) Myoglobin (transport of oxygen to muscles) Zein (corn), gliadin (wheat), plastids, ovalbumin (egg white), casein (milk)

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117 C. LIPIDS • Unlike other biological polymers, lipids are not defined by specific, repeating monomeric units. Rather, they are defined by their water-repelling property. • They contain 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. • They also contain non-polar hydrocarbon groups (-CH3, -CH2) • Functions include transport, storage, and insulation. • 3 types: oils (saturated and unsaturated), waxes, phospholipids • Oil is liquid at room temperature, while wax is solid. • Phospholipids usually assume two forms in an aqueous environment: micelle and phospholipids bilayer. • Oil is usually plant-derived, while fat is animalderived. D. NUCLEIC ACIDS • Watson- Crick Model: o Nucleotides (monomer) are connected to each other by phosphodiester bonds. o Nucleotide is made up of three components: nitrogenous base, sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) and phosphate group. o The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil. o Base Pairs are connected by Hydrogen Bonds o # Adenine (A) = # thymine (T) o # Guanine (G) = # cytosine (C) • It is involved in heredity, protein synthesis, and as energy carriers. • There are two types: DNA and RNA. Sugar Bases Strand Helix

DNA Deoxyribose A, G, C, T Double-stranded Helical

RNA Ribose A, G, C, U Single-stranded Non-helical

V. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY • Feedback mechanism = biological response of a system to changes in predetermined set points of the body – functions in maintaining homeostasis o Negative feedback = the output reduces the effect of the original stimulus; i.e. thermoregulation o Positive feedback = the output enhances the effect of the original stimulus; i.e. oxytocin production during labour Overview of Hormones • Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland Hypotha Pituitary Effects lamus Gland TRH TSH Thyroxine ↑Thyroxine = (Thyroid Hyperthyroidism = Gland) ↑ metabolism

CRH

ACTH

Cortisol (Adrenal Gland)

• GH, LH, FSH/ISH, Prolactin = secreted by anterior pituitary gland. • ADH & Oxytocin = secreted by posterior pituitary gland. GH ↑=gigantism, acromegaly; ↓ = dwarfism, cretinism LH Ovulation and development of corpeus luteum FSH/ISH development of gametes Prolactin Milk production ADH Increase reabsorption of water from urine Oxytocin Causes myometrium contraction • Antagonistic hormones GLUCAGON INSULIN Alpha cells of pancreas Beta cells of pancreas Increase break down of Increase storage of glucose in liver glucose in liver Increase blood glucose Decrease blood glucose PTH Increase Ca2+ conc. in blood Decrease PO43- conc. in blood Increase Ca2+ release from bones • Sex hormones Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone

CALCITONIN Decrease Ca2+ conc. in blood Increase PO43- conc. in blood Increase reabsorption of Ca2+ to bones Development of female reproductive system Thickening of uterine wall Development of male reproductive system

VI. ECOLOGY A. Ecological Relationships An organism is usually associated with another organism. Rarely do we find organisms not interacting with another one. Biotic ecological relationships shape the community to which they belong and promote energy flow through the food chain/web. Relationship

Organism 1

Organism 2

Mutualism (Symbiosis)

+

+

Parasitism

+

-

Predation

+

-

Commensalism

+

0

Competition

+/ -

+/ -

↓ Thyroxine = Hypothyroidism = ↓ metabolism Released in response to stress

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Example Mycchorizae, termite and cellulosedegrading microorganism Endoparasitism (intestinal worms), ectoparasitism (lice, ticks) Eagles and rats Epiphytes and trees Plants in a pot; fish in the aquarium

118 B. Distribution Patterns Individuals occupying a particular area often compete for resources. As such they exhibit unique distribution patterns to maximize available resources. Type Random

Regular

Clumped

Pattern An individual has an equal probability of occurring anywhere in the area Individuals are uniformly spaced throughout the environment Individuals live in areas of high local abundance, which are separated by areas of low abundance

Processes Neutral interactions between individuals and local environment Antagonistic interactions between individuals or local depletion of resources Attraction between individuals or attraction of individuals to a common resource

C. Biomes Ecological relationships are best understood in the context of Biomes. Biomes are large-scale ecosystem primarily distinguished by their dominant vegetation and are usually associated with a particular climate. Terrestrial Biomes Name

Location

Climate

Soil

Biodiversity

Tropical rainforests

100 North and South of the Equator

Fair amounts of rain throughout the year

Low in organic matter content

Most diverse ecosystem

Tropical Savanna aka Safari

Africa

Seasonal drought, intense lightning

Rocky soil

Deserts

300 N and S latitudes

Hot

Lithosol

Evergreen forest

Mediterranean, California

Cool

Thin in nutrients

North America

Wetter than deserts but with occasional droughts

Thin in nutrients

Prairies

Red-wood forests

Japan, China, Siberia

Receive winter precipitation

Usually fertile

Taiga

Alaska, Canada

Winter longer than 6 months

Fertile

Cold and dry

Soil covered by permafr ost

Tundra

North Pole

Animals often associated with plant cover Plant cover the absent in many places; animals in association with rocks and boulders Dominated by evergreen trees A lot of grasses and herbaceous plants; animals are droughttolerant Deciduous trees dominate’ coniferous trees are common; faunal diversity is low Dominated by timber trees; animals are usually large

D. POPULATION ECOLOGY - a branch that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how they interact with their environment. Central to this is how species maximize their reproductive strategies to survive their changing environments. • Biotic Potential: refers to the maximum rate of increase per individual under ideal conditions. • Carrying Capacity: refers to the maximum number of individuals in a population that can be sustained indefinitely by a given environment. • Biological Magnification: refers to the increasing concentration of a non-degradable or slowly degradable substance in body tissues as it is passed along the food chain. • Survivorship: survival of a given group of species from the time of the birth until the time the last one dies. • Population Density – no. of individuals in a given area. It is affected by Birth Rate and Death Rate that in turn are affected by two factors: -Density Dependent Factors – age, gender -Density Independent Factors – natural calamities The r/K Selection Theory An “r-selected species” predominates in fluctuating and unstable environments while a “K-selected species” predominate in stable ones r-selected K-selected Reproduce quickly Longer generation Traits with short times generation times Smaller organisms Longer organisms High level of parental Low level of investment → parents parental investment take care of their → offspring are young and tend to dispersed over a keep them close until wide area maturity High mortality Low mortality before Population before maturity maturity Tend to favour large Tend to favour fever number of offspring offspring who can to ensure survival compete successfully until the next for limited resources change in in a stable environment environment bacteria, weeds, humans, elephants, Examples insects, rodents whales E. Energy Flow Energy Flows in the Ecosystem: Application of the Laws of Thermodynamics - Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. - Energy transfer is 100% efficient

Lowest biotic diversity

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119 VII. Botany A. Plant Cells 1. Comparison between Plant Cell & Animal Cell

2. Plant Cell Structures - bound by a cell wall consist mainly of cellulose - a pectic middle lamella lies between the primary cell walls of adjacent plant cells - the outer boundary of the protoplasm (cytoplasm and nucleus) is a sandwich-like, flexible plasma membrane. - special organelles in plants: a. Chloroplasts o Specialized subunit that conduct photosynthesis where the chlorophyll is found o Inside a chloroplast is a matrix called the stroma. Enzymes are found in the stroma as well as grana—stacks of coin-shaped discs, called thylakoids. • where photosynthesis takes place. • contain their own DNA. • rely on proteins from the nucleus, and are considered semi-autonomous organelles. b. Vacuoles o 90% of the volume of the cell may be taken up by single large vacuole or several vacuoles. o Bound by a membrane, tonoplast o Contains cell sap – composed of dissolved substances and may include pigments. B. Plant Characteristics Mode of nourishment

Autotrophic

Extent of growth Cell wall Nervous system Mobility Primary food reserve Waste products

Indeterminate Cellulose; rigid; inert Absent Mostly immobile Starch; unsaturated oils Photosynthesis; CO2 from metabolism

C. Plant Basic Anatomy 1. Types of Plant Cells • Parenchyma- least specialized; serves for general metabolic synthetic and storage functions; retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under certain conditions. • Collenchyma- occur in strands or cylinders; pectin alternates with cellulose; for strength. • Sclerenchyma- which signifies secondary walls; unable to elongate at maturity; consist of fibers and sclereid types; for support and protection. 2. Plant Tissues Plant tissues are characterized and classified according to their structure and function. The organs that they form will be organized into patterns within a plant which will aid in further classifying the plant.

a. Meristematic Tissues - primarily concerned with protoplasmic synthesis and cell division. i. Apical Meristem o located at or near the tips of roots and shoots o responsible for vertical growth(primary growth) o produce three types of primary meristems: protoderm, ground meristems, and procambium which will produce the cells that will form the primary tissues. ii. Lateral Meristem o occupies a lateral position, parallel to roots and stems o account for secondary growth(horizontal growth), i.e. girth, diameter, width o vascular cambium (cambium) - Responsible for the production of cells and tissues that increase the thickness, girth, of the plant that runs the length of the roots and stems of most perennial plants and many herbaceous annuals. o cork cambium iii. Intercalary Meristem • Derived from apical meristem • May be intercalated between tissues that are more or less mature b. Permanent Tissue Systems: • Dermal Tissue System- an external layer of tightly packed cells for protection; includes the epidermis (formed during primary growth) and periderm (formed during secondary growth). • Epidermis - outermost layer of cells on all plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) • Periderm - made of semi-rectangular and boxlike cork cells; dead at maturity and secretes suberin, a fatty substance that make cork cells waterproof thus aid in protecting tissues beneath the bark. • Ground Tissue System- fundamental tissue that functions for organic synthesis, storage and support; includes parenchyma, collenchymas, sclerenchyma and endodermis. • Vascular Tissue System- conducting tissue of plants; includes xylem and phloem. • Xylem – carries water and dissolved substances • Phloem – carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. D. Plant Physiology 1. Plant Metabolism a. Photosynthesis - process by which light energy is captured, converted and stored in simple sugar molecule. Equation: 6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 - occurs in two successive processes: the light reactions and the carbon-fixing reactions. • The Light Reactions Involve light striking the chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoids of chloroplasts Results in conversion of light energy to chemical energy Water molecules split into H+ and e- and O2 is released and ATP are created

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120 •

The Carbon-Fixing Reactions (Dark Reactions) Light does not play a direct role Take place outside the grana in the stroma of the chloroplast Most common type in plants is the Calvin Cycle. The ATP and NADPH molecules from the light reactions provide the energy and resources for the reactions Mechanisms of Converting CO2 to Sugar a. The Calvin Cycle (3-Carbon Pathway) • With the assistance of the enzyme rubisco (RuBP carboxylase), • The sugars produced can either add to an increase in the sugar content (carbohydrate content) of the plant or they can be used in pathways that lead to the production of lipids and amino acids. b. 4-Carbon Pathway (C4 Plants) • This process is enzyme mediated and occurs in the mesophyll cells of the leaf • The C4 cycle furnishes carbon dioxide to the Calvin cycle in a more roundabout way than the C3 pathway • greatly reduces photorespiration in C4 plants c. CAM-Photosynthesis (Crassulecean Acid Metabolism) • accumulate malic acid in their chlorenchyma tissues at night, which is converted back to carbon dioxide during the day • generally close their stomata during the day in order to reduce water loss b. Respiration: Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 Photosynthesis Respiration 1. Takes in CO2 Release CO2 2. Releases O2 Binds O2 3. Synthesizes sugar & other Degrades sugar & other organic organic compounds compounds 4. Results in increase in dry weightResults in decrease in dry weight 5. Occurs only in the presence of Occurs in all living cells chlorophyll 7. Stores energy Releases energy 8. Occurs in the presence of light Occurs throughout life

c. Nitrogen Fixation • The roots of legumes have nodular swelling that house nitrogen fixing bacteria, which have co evolved with the plants in mutualistic symbiotic relationship. - Equation: N+8e +8H+ +16ATP nitrogenase 2NH +H +16ADP+16P Comparison of Photosynthesis and Respiration

2. Sexual Reproduction Overview

3. Plant Hormones Hormones

Where Produced or Found in Plant

Auxin (IAA)

embryo or seed, apical meristems, young leaves

Cytokinin (Zeatin)

Synthesized in roots & transported to other organs

Gibberellins

Apical bud meristem, young leaves, embryo

Abscissic acid

Leaves, stems & green fruit

Ethylene

Tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stem, senescent leaves and flowers

Functions Stimulate stem elongation, root growth, dev. Of fruit, apical dominance & differentiation Cell div. & growth root & diff. germination flowering Promote seed & bud germination, stem elongation, flowering fruit development Inhibits growth, closes stomata, counteracts breaking of dormancy Promotes fruit ripening, opposes some auxin effects

4. Tropism - plant movement that is determined by the direction of an environmental stimulus. Movement toward an environmental stimulus is called a positive tropism, and movement away from a stimulus is called a negative tropism. -e.g. Phototropism (light), Thigmotropism(touch), Gravitropism (gravity) & Chemotropism(chemicals).

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121 Physics Notes

Physics: Branch of science dealing with the interaction of matter and energy. It can be classified as classical (mechanics, thermodynamics, etc.) and modern (“quantum” and “relativity theory”) physics.

Projectile Motion > Motion of a body thrown horizontally and affected by Earth’s gravitational pull > Trajectory is the path taken by an object in projectile motion

Basic and Derived Quantities > Basic Quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, luminosity > Derived Quantities: Quantities defined in terms of two or more of the basic quantities. Examples of which are velocity, acceleration, force and work. Scalar and Vector Quantities > Scalar: Has magnitude and unit only (e.g., distance, speed, time, energy) > Vector: Has magnitude, unit, and direction (e.g., displacement, velocity, force and acceleration) Different Forms of Energy Energy: Ability to do work • Kinetic Energy: Possessed by a moving body • Potential Energy: Energy of a body due to its position or shape a. Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy of an object due to its vertical separation from the earth’s surface b. Elastic Potential Energy: Energy in a stretched or compressed spring c. Electric Potential Energy: Energy of electrons inside an atom • Internal Energy: a.) random kinetic energy of atoms and molecules; b.) chemical energy due to bonds and interactions between atoms and molecules. Kinematics Motion: Change in position of a body Distance: Length covered by a body due to its motion Displacement: Distance with direction Speed: Speed (s) is the distance travelled (d) over time 𝑚 (t). The unit used is . 𝑠 𝒅 𝒔= 𝒕 Velocity: Vector quantity which is the ratio of displacement (x) over time (t). 𝒙 𝒗= 𝒕 Average Velocity 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐 Acceleration: the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. ∆𝒗 𝒂= ∆𝒕 where: ∆𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

The key to analyzing Projectile Motion is to treat the xand y-coordinates separately. • The velocity in the x-coordinate is constant, thus zero acceleration in the x-axis • The acceleration in the y-coordinate is constant, 𝑚 acceleration due to gravity = 10 2 𝑠

1. Body Thrown Upward (Free-Fall) An object is given an initial upward velocity v1. While in flight, the ball is pulled downward by gravity. Therefore, there is deceleration until it reaches its maximum height. Upon reaching the maximum height, the object will momentarily stop, V = 0m, before it starts to accelerate down (free-fall). Force and velocity are opposite in directions, the speed of the object decreases up to the highest point of its flight. Then it falls downward with increasing velocity until it reaches the ground. 𝑚 The net force due to gravity is Fg = mag where ag =10 2. 𝑠

2. Body Thrown Horizontally As an object is thrown horizontally, an initial horizontal force, Fh is applied. Once the object is released no more horizontal force acts on it. But it maintains its horizontal velocity, vh. This object is being pulled downward by gravity so it moves vertically downward with acceleration 𝑚 due to gravity, ag =10 2. The vertical force is 𝑠 𝑭𝒗 = 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒂𝒈 Thus the object moves in two directions at the same time, both horizontally (y-axis) and vertically (x-axis). The resultant velocity is 𝒗𝑹 = 𝒗𝒚 + 𝒗𝒙 Uniform Circular Motion Consider an object of mass, m, while moving in a circular path at constant speed (Fc = mac). Relating the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration, ac, with the speed of the body and radius of the circular path R. ac =

𝒗𝟐 𝑹

Fc = mac = m

𝒗𝟐 𝑹

Forces and Interactions Force: push or pull. It is measured in unit of Newton. It is an interaction between two bodies or between a body and its environment.

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122 Major Types of Forces Contact Forces • Normal Force: It is a force exerted on an object by any surface with which it is in contact. This force is always perpendicular to the said surface.

• Law of Motion and Mass (or Law of Acceleration): “An unbalanced force acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate in the direction of the force”. Acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass. • Law of Interaction: “For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.” Stress and Strain

• Friction Force: A force exerted on an object parallel to the surface, in the direction that opposes sliding.

Elasticity: Property of matter that enables it to return to its original size and shape when the applied external force is removed Stress: A component of a force perpendicular to the area it acts on. It is mathematically written as: 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 Stress = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Strain: A measure of deformation, usually it is the object’s change in length, ∆l Hooke’s Law: Strain is directly proportional to the cause of deformation (stress). Hence,

Different Types of Friction Forces 𝑭𝑺 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝑺 Static Force Sliding/ Kinetic Force Rolling Force

Y =

𝑭𝒌 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝒌

𝑭𝒓 = 𝑭𝑵 𝝁 𝒓

• Tension: The pulling force exerted by a stretched rope or cord on an object to which it’s attached Long-range Forces • Electromagnetic Force: Attraction or repulsion between electric charges or magnetic poles. Coulomb’s Law of Magnetism 𝒒 𝒒 𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒓

where k (Coulomb's constant) = 8.99×109 N m2 C−2 q1 and q2 = magnitudes of the charges r = distance between the charges • Gravitational Force: Attracts bodies toward each other. Law of Universal Gravitation 𝒎 𝒎 𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒓

where G (gravitational constant) = 6.67 x 10-11 m1 and m2 = mass of bodies r = distance between the bodies

𝑁𝑚 2 𝑘𝑔 2

Weight: The gravitational force that the earth exerts on the body. W= Mass (G) Where G = acceleration due to gravity Newton’s Laws of Motion • Law of Inertia: “Bodies at rest will remain at rest and bodies in motion will continue moving at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a net force”. This law implies that objects will remain at rest or moving at a constant rate if the sum of all forces acting on them is zero.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

=

𝑭 𝑨 ∆𝒍 𝒍𝒐

where: Y = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity l0 = the original length of the material ∆l = the change in length Young’s Modulus is a measure of the stretchability or compressibility of a material within its elastic limit. The higher Y is, the more elastic the material. Pressure: Perpendicular force acting on a unit surface. 𝑭 P= 𝑨

The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) 1𝑁 1 Pa = 2 𝑚

Increase in height causes decrease in air density. Increase in molecular collisions causes increase in pressure. Pascal’s Principle An external pressure exerted on a static, enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the fluid. Archimedes’ Magnitude of buoyant force, FB, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object. 𝑭𝑩 = 𝑽𝒘 𝑫𝒘 𝒈 Vw= volume of displaced water V = volume of the object Dw= density of water D = density of the object A body will float in a fluid if it is less dense than the fluid. Impulse and Momentum Momentum: Tendency of a moving object to continue moving and the difficulty encountered in reducing that motion 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 𝑚 where m is mass and v is velocity. The unit is 𝑘𝑔 ∙ . Impulse of a force on an object for a time t is: 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕 The unit is N∙s

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𝑠

123 > The relationship between impulse of a force and the change in momentum is given by 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝒊 where 𝒗𝒇 is the final velocity and vi is the initial velocity. This states that the sum of the impulses of all forces acting on an object for a certain time is equal to the change in momentum of the object during that time. Conservation of Momentum If no external force (like friction) acts on a body, the momentum of the body will not change. Let p = mv1 + mv2 (the momentum of the system before collision) where: m1 = mass of object 1; v1 = velocity of object 1 m2 = mass of object 2; v2 = velocity of object 2 Let p’ = m1 v1’ + m2v2’ (the momentum of system after collision) The law of conservation of momentum states that: ∆𝒑 = 𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒑′ = 𝒑 Work, Power and Mechanical Energy Work: Done when a force causes displacement. The unit of work is joules. 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒙 Power: The rate at which work is done. ∆𝑾 𝑷= ∆𝒕 Kinetic Energy: 𝟏 𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗2 𝟐

where m = mass and v = velocity Gravitational Potential Energy 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 where m = mass of the object, g = 10 of the object

𝑚 , 𝑠2

and h = height

Elastic Potential Energy 𝟏 𝒌𝒙𝟐 𝟐 where k = elastic constant, x = displacement 𝑷𝑬 =

Conservation of Mechanical Energy 𝑲𝑬𝟏 + 𝑷𝑬𝟏 = 𝑲𝑬𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟏2 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟏 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐2 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟐 𝟐

𝟐

Magnetic Field Magnetic field is a region in space where the magnet affects another magnet. Magnetic fields can affect currentcarrying conductors and moving charges in vacuum. On Current- Carrying Conductors If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it moves to a direction at right angle to both the direction of I and B Magnetic Force: Magnetic force (F) is maximized when current I and magnetic field directions are perpendicular to each other. The magnitude of the force F depends on the following: a) Current (I); b) Strength of magnetic field (B);

c) Length of the conductor that lies in magnetic field (L). In equation, magnetic force is: 𝑭 = 𝑩 ∙ 𝑰 ∙ 𝑳 On moving Charges in Vacuum 𝑭 = 𝒒∙𝒗∙𝑩 where: q = no. of charges; v = velocity =

𝐿 𝑡

Electromagnetic Induction Current is induced when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or when a magnetic field moves with respect to a stationary conductor. Factors of Induced Current • Relative velocity of the conductor and magnetic fields • The strength of the magnetic field. • Length of the conductor in the field • Current is produced when a potential difference between two points in a circuit exist. • Can magnetism induce current? This is shown by the following equation. 𝑽=𝒗 ∙𝑩 ∙𝑳 Note that the current (l) is proportional to voltage (V). Thus as current increases, v, B, and L increases. ∆𝒑 𝑽= 𝒕 The induced voltage is numerically equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. As the flux changes, current is induced. Wave and Energy Energy Transfer • Waves are classified as mechanical and electromagnetic waves. They either move in circular or straight motion. • There are two types of waves: o Transverse - Movement of the particles of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion. o Longitudinal - Movement is parallel to the direction of the wave. • Waves have different characteristics o Wavelength: Distance between two corresponding points on a wave train. o Wave Frequency: Expressed in hertz which corresponds to the number of times the wave source completes a vibration in one second. o Period: Time it takes the wave source to make one complete vibration. It is the reciprocal of frequency. o Amplitude: Highest or lowest displacement from a wave’s equilibrium position. Increase in amplitude causes a transfer of more energy. o Speed: Directly proportional to frequency 𝑠 = 𝑓𝜆 Doppler Effect Occurs when the speed of the wave is greater than the speed of the source.

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124 Overview: Sound vs. Light Sound Waves Light Waves Longitudinal Transverse Mechanical Electromagnetic Propagated with medium: Can be propagated without a medium: can be propagated in vacuum Gas(slowest) Gas (fastest) Liquid Liquid Solid (fastest) Solid(slowest) Sound Characteristics of Sound Waves o Loudness or Intensity: Loud sounds have greater amplitude o Pitch: Highness or lowness of sound o Quality: Distinguishes sounds from one another Light Reflection in Plane Mirrors The image is reversed in a plane mirror. The virtual image is of the same size as the object in front of the mirror. Reflection in Curved Mirrors A curved mirror has a vertex V, a center of curvature c, and a principal focus F. The focal length, f, is the distance from V to F. Summary of Lens and Mirrors Type of Image Diverging Mirror Convex Mirror Virtual,Upright,Reduced Diverging Lens Concave Lens Converging Mirror Concave Virtual,Upright,Enlarged Mirror Real,Inverted,Enlarged Real,Inverted,Same size Converging Lens Convex Lens Real,Inverted,Reduced

Application of Convex Mirrors Convex Mirror Uses: Inside Buildings • Large hospitals, stores and office buildings often use convex mirrors to allow people to see what is around a corner to help keep people from running into one another. Convex Mirror Uses: Vehicles • Convex mirrors are often found on the passenger sides of motor vehicles. These mirrors make objects appear smaller than they really are. Due to this compression, these mirrors to reflect a wider image area, or field of vision. Convex Mirror Uses: Magnifying Glass • Two convex mirrors placed back to back are used to make a magnifying glass. Application of Concave Mirrors Concave Mirror Uses: Vehicle • Concave mirrors are used in vehicle headlights to focus the light from the headlight. The light is not as diffused and the driver can see better at night. Concave Mirror Uses: Light Concentration • Concave mirrors are used to focus light for heating purposes.(e.g. solar cooker) Application of Lens Convex Lens Uses: Eye defects • Convex lens is used in eyeglass prescribed for individuals with hyperopia (far-sightedness). Concave Lens Uses: Eye defects • Convex lens is used in eyeglass prescribed for individuals with myopia (near-sightedness). Refraction Bending of light at the boundary between different media. The index of refraction is: 𝒄 n= 𝒗

where n = index of refraction, c = speed of light 𝑚 (3 × 108 ), and v = speed of light in the medium 𝑠

Law of Reflection “It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.” In symbols, Ɵi = Ɵr where: Ɵi – angle of incidence Ɵr – angle of relection The normal line is always drawn perpendicular with the reflecting surface. Angle of incidence and reflection is measured from the normal line. Additional notes • When object is placed at an infinite distance, image is a point at F. • When object is placed at F, the image is at infinity, thus no image will be seen, just a point in space.

Multiple Reflection of Light When light hits reflecting surfaces several times, multiple images will be formed. If the angle between two reflecting surfaces such as mirror decreases, the number of images formed increases. To determine the number of images that can be formed between two mirrors hinged together at an angle is 360 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 = −1 𝜃 Where Ɵ = angle between two mirrors

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125 Refraction of Light Light bends when it travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another. Light is bent toward or away from the normal as it changes its speed when traveling through different optical media. A measure of how fast or slow light travels from one medium to another is called the index of refraction (optical density). 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑛) 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 Index of refraction is a dimensionless quantity and its value is always greater or equal to 1 since light travels fastest in a vacuum than any other media. When the first medium has greater index of refraction than the second medium, light bends away from the normal. If medium 2 is denser than medium 1, light bends towards the normal. Snell’s law is the basic law of refraction that shows the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction 𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 Where, n1 – index of refraction of the first medium n2 – index of refraction of the second medium Ɵ1 – angle of incidence Ɵ2 – angle of refraction Interference of Light Interference of wave is the meeting or superimposing of one wave on another wave. Types of interference: • Constructive Interference – At points where the waves arrive in phase. When a crest meets another crest or a trough meets another trough (waves are in phase), the resulting wave is being reinforced forming a supercrest or supertrough. • Destructive Interference – At points where the waves arrive in opposite phase. The meeting of waves with the same amplitude which are out of phase (crest meets trough) resulted to a cancellation of wave. Sign Conventions for Mirrors and Lenses Description of Image Virtual or Focal Erect or Real Same/Max/Dim Length Inverted Image Real (positive Inverted Same (M = 1) Converging di) (negative h’) Max (M > 1) (+) Virtual Erect Dim (M < 1) (negative (positive h) di) Virtual Diverging Erect (negative Dim (M < 1) (-) (positive h) di) Eye Defects Farsightedness (Hyperopia): is the inability to see nearby objects clearly. Since the images is formed behind the retina, a converging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the converging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the principal axis before entering the eye.

Nearsightedness (Myopia): is the inability to see far objects clearly. Since the image is formed in front of the retina, a diverging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the diverging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the principal axis before entering the eye. Light and Colors White light is not a color rather it is the presence of all frequencies of visible light while Black is the absence of the visible light spectrum. White is capable of reflecting all visible light spectrum white and black is capable of absorbing all visible light spectrum and converted it to heat energy. When the colors of light with varying degrees of intensity are mixed/added, another color will be produced. Primary Colors of Light 1. Red (R) 2. Blue (B) 3. Green (G)

Secondary Colors of Light 1. Yellow (Y) = R + G 2. Cyan (C) = B + G 3. Magenta (M) = B + R

White light can also be formed when the three primary colors with same intensity are added. W=R+B+G Complementary Colors of Light 1. Red + Cyan = White 2. Green + Magenta = White 3. Blue + Yellow = White The color of objects is not in the object but rather in the light which reflects off or transmits through the object. In color subtraction, the ultimate color appearance of an object is determined by beginning with a single color or mixture of colors and identifying which color or colors of light are subtracted from the original set. W – B = (R + G + B) – B = R+G=Y The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the White light. The object appears Yellow to the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy. R–B=R The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Red light. The object appears Red to the observer since blue light cannot be cancelled and transformed to heat energy from Red light. M – B = (R + B) – B = R The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the Magenta light. The object appears Red to the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy. Electromagnetic Wave Electromagnetic waves consist of a changing electric field and a changing magnetic field. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) theorized that electromagnetic induction happens in space even without the presence of a conductor.

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126 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ohm’s Law Current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 where V = voltage, I = current, and R = resistance Note: Ohm’s law applies only to metallic conductors and not to transistors or electrolytes.

Nature of Matter and Energy The photon’s having energy and momentum is expressed by 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 where h=Planck’s constant(6.63x10-34J-s) and f= frequency 𝒉𝒇 𝒑= =𝒉𝝀 where p = the momentum

𝒄

Radioactivity The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nuclei of atoms of certain substances termed as radioactive. Radiation is of three main types: alpha (fast-moving helium nuclei); beta (fast-moving electrons); gamma (high-energy, highly penetrating protons). Beta and gamma radiation are both damaging to body tissues, but are especially dangerous if a radioactive substance is ingested or inhaled. When radiation takes place, there is loss of energy. Electricity Electromagnetic Energy Circuit: Any arrangement of materials that permits electrons to flow. It is composed of a source of electrical energy, load, and connecting wires. Electric Current: The net flow changes along a material. The unit used is ampere. The electron charge’s unit is coulomb. In equation form, electric current is: 𝒒 I=

Factors of Wire Resistance o Length of Material: Longer path for electric current results to greater resistance o Wire Diameter: Greater cross-sectional area of conductor results to lesser resistance. o Kind of Material o Temperature: Higher temperature results to greater resistance. o Resistivity: Ability of the substance to conduct electric current. The resistance is equal to the product of resistivity and length of wire divided by its cross-sectional area. 𝝆𝑳 𝑹= 𝑨 where L = length of conductor and A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, and ρ (rho) = resistivity of the material. Electrical Power and Energy Power Input: Rate at which an appliance uses up electrical energy. It is measured in watts. 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 Circuits Series Circuits: Current passes to only one route from the source through the several loads and back to the source. The current is the same in every part of the circuit. Parallel Circuits: General loads are connected to the same voltage source and current is divided among these loads.

𝒕

where I = electric current, q = number of charges passing through a perpendicular cross section of a conductor, and t = time 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 1 ampere = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

6.3 x 1018 electrons pass a cross-section of a conductor in 1 second. Voltage: Potential difference between points when work 𝐽 is done to move charge between points. The unit is . 𝐶

In equation form,

Voltage (VT) Current (IT) Resistance (RT)

Series V1 + V2 + … + Vn

Parallel V1 = V2 = … = Vn

I1 = I2 = … =In

I1 + I2 + … +In

R1 + R2 +...+ Rn

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 + +⋯ 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

Diagram

𝑾 𝑽= 𝒒 Resistance: Tendency of the unit to resist the passage of electric current. The unit is ohm (Ω).

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127 Psychology Notes TOPIC OUTLINE I. Introduction to Psychology II. Human Development A. Growth and Development B. Theories of Development C. Parenting Styles III. Freudian Psychology A. Structure of the Mind B. Development of Personality C. Defense Mechanisms D. Psychoanalytic Techniques and Phenomena IV. Biological Psychology A. Brain B. Neurotransmitters V. Consciousness A. Processes B. Sleep C. Psychoactive Drugs VI. Sensation and Perception A. Sensation B. Perception VII. Personality A. Theories of Personality Development B. Personality Types (Myer-Briggs) C. Personality Disorders VIII. Affective and Cognitive Processes A. Emotions B. Memory C. Intelligence IX. Learning A. Classical Conditioning B. Operant Conditioning C. Observational Learning X. Motivation A. Drive Reduction Theories B. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation C. Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs D. Carl Rogers XI. Mental Disorders A. Psychotic Disorders B. Mood Disorders C. Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders D. Neurocognitive Disorders E. Neurodevelopmental Disorders F. Other Disorders XII. Research Methods Introduction This transcription / reviewer is intended for the exclusive use of Learning Unit II INTARMED students. Warning: This is pretty long as it’s supposed to give you a crash course on psychology to prepare you for the NMAT. However, this does not intend to be a comprehensive resource. Suggestion: Answer practice sets or reviewers to give you an idea of what questions will be asked. Go through this trans and pick out what you feel is important. Hopefully this will also get you interested in the neurosciences (neurology and psychiatry) which you’ll be encountering in med proper. :) Good luck!

I. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY • Psychology o Study of behavior and mental processes o Study of how people think act, react and interact o “Psyche” (mind / soul) + “logos” (study) • Psychiatry o Study of mental disorders and their diagnosis, management and prevention o Psychiatrist: an MD who has completed residency training in psychiatry THEORIES • Structuralism o Wilhelm Wundt (1879), the “Father of Psychology” o Study of mental processes by specifying the elements of consciousness through introspection • Functionalism o William James (1890) o Addresses the social structure as a whole and in terms of the necessary function of its constituent elements • Psychoanalysis o Sigmund Freud (1900) - “Life force” / libido / sex drive influences the unconscious mind of a child’s personality o Carl Jung - Libido: not only sex drive but the desire to excel • Gestalt Psychology o “Gestalt”: configuration, form, holistic, structure, pattern o We experience things as unified beings. o Max Wertheimer (1912) - “There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the partprocesses are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole.” o Wolfgang Köhler - “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” o Kurt Koffka • Behaviorism o All behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces o John Watson (1913) - “The Little Albert Experiment”: Baby Albert was conditioned with loud noise to cry upon seeing a white rat o B.F. Skinner - Operant conditioning: “Skinner box” o Ivan Pavlov - Classical conditioning: Pavlov’s dog

128 •

•

•

Cognitivism o Study of mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn o Jean Piaget - Stages of cognitive development o Alan David Baddeley o - Working memory Humanism o Abraham Maslow - Fundamental and uniquely human needs and issues o Carl Rogers - Unconditional positive regard Existentialism o Rollo May o Humanistic themes of death, free will and meaning o Meaning can be shaped by myths or narrative patterns and can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will

II. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT A. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT •

•

Growth o Increase in the size of the whole or any of its parts o Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells o Hypertrophy: Increase in the size of cells Development o Progressive increase in the individual’s capacities in terms of maturation and learning o Onset and progression of an individual’s capacity to functions

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT • Process o Conception to birth o Orderly, definite, predictable • Sequential o Cephalo-caudal: head-to-toe o Proximo-distal: From the center (heart) outwards o Gross to fine skill RATES AND STAGES • Optimum stage and initiation of skills and learnings o Must be timely and developmentally appropriate • Neonatal reflexes o Rooting, sucking, palmar grasp, Babinski • Practice: imprinting (in animals), the process by which an offspring follows and imitates as models his / her parents FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT • Nature: genetics • Nurture: environment, behavior, nutrition

B. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT A. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT (Sigmund Freud) • Sigmund Freud: founder of classical psychoanalysis 1. Oral Stage (0-1.5 years) o Exploration of the world through the mouth (sucking, biting) 2. Anal Stage (1.5-3 years) o Control of urination and defecation (expelling or retaining feces) 3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years) o Awareness of genital area (sexuality explored) 4. Latency (6-12 years) o Personality development prominent, expanding social contacts in school (sexuality refined) 5. Genital Stage (Puberty to adulthood) o Development of sexual maturity and establishing mature relationships B. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (Erik Erikson) • Erik Erikson: a neo-psychoanalytic theorist (note the corresponding stages with Freud’s theory) • Personality development is a lifelong process through eight stages. • The outcome of each stage is dependent on the outcome of the previous stage (resolving each stage's ego crisis). Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) o Virtue: Hope o Significant person: mother or primary caretaker o Needs should be met and care consistent Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months - 3 years) o Virtue: Will o Independence and negativism (learning to say “no” before “yes”) Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years) o Virtue: Purpose o Learning to plan and carry out actions and to get along with peers as an autonomous and independent person Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5-13 years) o Virtue: Competence o Learning new skills and takes pride in the things made o Pleasure and satisfaction from the completion of tasks Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-21 years) o Virtue: Fidelity o Integrating different images of the self into a whole o Identity crisis Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years) o Virtue: Love o “To love and to work” o Relating well with others Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60 years)

129 Virtue: Care Generativity: raising children, guiding the next generation, creativity, altruism o Stagnation: self-concern, isolation, absence of intimacy o Midlife crisis Stage 8. Integrity vs. Despair (60 years onwards) o Virtue: Wisdom o Ego integrity: wisdom from life experiences, looking back at life with meaning; pleasant reflections and present pursuits o Despair: loss of hope, i.e. "I haven't accomplished what I wanted to in life; it’s too late." o o

C. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (Jean Piaget) 1. Sensorimotor Period (0-2 years) o Stage 1: Neonatal Reflexes (sucking, grasping, looking) o Stage 2: Primary Circular Reactions - Behavior leads to an interesting result, repeated - e.g. thumb-sucking o Stage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions - Repetition of simple actions on external objects - e.g. banging a toy to make noise) - Intentionality: ability to act in a goaldirected manner (doing one thing to get something to happen) o Stage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions o Stage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions - New means are discovered; plays peak-aboo o Stage 6: Internalization of schemes - Shift from purely sensorimotor to symbolic mental functioning - Object permanence: objects continue to exist when no longer in view 2. Preoperational Thought (2-6 years) o Egocentrism: Inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s - Three mountains task: The egocentric child sitting at C thinks that the doll at A “sees” only two mountains even though the child was allowed to go around the model earlier.

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Animism: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action Concentration: focusing on one characteristic and excluding others

Lack of conservation: unable to keep in mind what stays the same and what changes in an object after it has changed aesthetically - Conservation of liquids task: A child is shown two identical beakers containing the same amount of colored (typically blue) liquid. The child was asked whether the two beakers had the same amount of liquid in both. Then liquid from one of the glasses was poured into a taller, thinner glass. A child who cannot conserve answers that there is more liquid in the tall thin glass. 3. Concrete Operational Thought (7-11 years) o Conservation o Classification o Seriation: ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension 4. Formal Operational Thought (11 years to end of adolescence) o Abstract thinking, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, generalspecific o Not all adults develop formal operational thinking (1 in 3 American adolecents) o

D. MORAL DEVELOPMENT (Lawrence Kohlberg) Level 1: Preconventional o Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - Obeying to avoid punishment; rules are fixed and absolute o Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange / Instrumental Purposive Orientation - Reward orientation; acting to serve individual needs Level 2: Conventional o Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation - “Good boy-good girl orientation”; emphasis on conformity, being “nice” o Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - Authority orientation Level 3: Postconventional Level o Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights - Individual rights and standards are critically examined and agreed upon by members of society. o Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - People follow internalized principles of justice even if they are conflict with laws and rules.

130 Manages the conflict between the id and the constraints of the real world; see defense mechanisms below o Reality principle: “You can only have it under certain conditions.” Superego o Conscience, sense of right/wrong o Operates on all levels of the mind, mostly subconscious o Forces the ego to conform not only to reality but also to its ideals of morality o

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C. PARENTING STYLES 1. Authoritarian o High demands, not responsive to children; obedience- and status oriented o Strict rules obeyed without explanation; failure to obey leads to punishment 2. Authoritative o Highly responsive to children, willing to listen to questions; assertive but not intrusive and restrictive 3. Permissive (indulgent) o Few demands, low expectations; more responsive than demanding 4. Uninvolved o Few demands, low responsiveness, little communication III. FREUDIAN PSYCHOLOGY • Determinism – behavior is determined by: o Irrational forces o Unconscious motivations o Biological and instinctual drives • Two basic drives o Sex (eros) o Aggression (thanatos) o Pleasure principle: The goal of life is to gain pleasure and to avoid pain. • Instincts o Something people inherently have under which they act with spontaneity and without effort or premeditation • Libido o Sexual energy o Oriented towards growth, development and creativity A. STRUCTURE OF THE MIND • Id o Unconscious or subconscious desires o Seeks expression without fear of consequences nor regard for control o Pleasure principle: “I want it now.” • Ego o Operates on all three levels of the mind

B. DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY • Psychosexual Stages of Development o Oral Stage - Mistrust and rejection issues o Anal Stage - Personal power issues - Anal-retentive personality: orderly - Anal-expulsive personality: messy o Phallic Stage - Oedipus complex: A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and hostility toward his father, whom he considers to be a rival for his mother’s love - Castration anxiety: Boy’s unconscious fear of losing his penis like a female; child fears that his own father will do the same to him for desiring his mother - Resolution of the Oedipus complex leads to the emergence of the superego - Elektra complex: A girl’s tender feelings towards his father and feelings of competition with her mother for the father’s attention

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- Penis envy: Girl’s sense of discontent and resentment resulting from their wish for a penis; feelings of inferiority and jealousy; although she can’t have a penis, she can have a baby o Latent Stage - Socialization o Genital Stage - Sexual energies are invested in life pursuits Fixation: inability to progress normally from one stage into another; shows up in adulthood as a tendency to focus on the needs that were overgratified or over-frustrated

C. DEFENSE MECHANISMS • Coping mechanism: dealing with the problem (battling it head on); good or bad coping mechanism • Defense mechanism: covering up 1. NARCISSISTIC • Most primitive; often used by children and psychotic individuals • Denial o Refusing to admit or face a threatening situation; avoiding awareness of anxiety-provoking stimulus to protect ego • Distortion o Grossly reshaping external reality to fit one’s needs and unrealistically exaggerating one’s sense of superiority and entitlement • Projection o Attributing to others one’s unacceptable thoughts, feelings, impulses *Illustrations by RD, iMed 2017. Previously published in an LU IV trans and UP Medics. Used with permission.

2. IMMATURE • Deal with internal or external stressors through action, withdrawal or bodily means (symptoms) • Usually maladaptive; appear in adolescents and some nonpsychotic individuals • Acting out o Unconscious wish or impulse acted upon to avoid the unpleasant feeling accompanied by it • Introjection o Internalizing the qualities of an object or significant other • Passive-aggressive o Expressing aggression toward others through passivity, masochism, and turning against self o Manifestation include failure, procrastination, illnesses that affect others more than oneself • Regression o Resorting to earlier ways of acting or feeling, although it is no longer appropriate • Fantasy o Escaping from real worries by avoiding interactions with people and imagining that the conflict has been resolved o e.g. daydreaming o Schizoid fantasy: Indulging in autistic retreat in order to resolve conflict and to obtain gratification • Somatization o Converting anxiety to bodily symptoms and reacting with somatic manifestations rather than psychological ones o e.g. A student who is about to take an important examination suffers from diarrhea. • Blocking o Transiently inhibiting thinking • Hypochondriasis o Exaggerating or overemphasizing an illness for the purpose of evasion and regression (unconscious, will perceive that they are ill); can be related to fears and apprehensions o “Medical student’s syndrome”: Belief that one is developing signs and symptoms that he / she is studying

132 Denial or reversal of feelings: Love turns to hate, hate to love Repression o Shoving unacceptable and distressing memories, thoughts, emotions and urges to the unconscious (recalling it will be too painful) o e.g. dreams, Freudian slips (parapraxis): “slips of the tongue” Sexualization o Endowing an object or function with sexual significance o

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3. NEUROTIC • Keep potentially threatening ideas, feelings, memories or fears out of the awareness • In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), hysterical individuals and adults under stress • Controlling o Attempting to manage events or objects in the environment to minimize anxiety and to resolve inner conflicts • Displacement o Redirecting impulses (often anger) from the real target to a safer but innocent person • Inhibition o Consciously limiting or renouncing some ego functions to evade anxiety arising from conflict with instinctual impulses • Isolation of affect o Hiding one’s emotional response or problems under a façade of big words and pretending one has no problem (detachment from the emotion) • Intellectualization o Excessively using intellectual processes to avoid affective expression • Rationalization o Giving excuses for shortcomings therefore avoiding self-condemnation, disappointments or criticisms from others o e.g. “sour graping” • Dissociation o Temporarily but drastically modifying one’s character or identity to avoid emotional distress • Reaction Formation

4. MATURE • Promote optimum balance between conflicting motives; maximize gratification and allow awareness of feelings and ideas and their consequences • Adaptive process; operates in the conscious (anticipation) level already, but may also be unconscious (e.g. humor) • Altruism o Extending service to others to undergo a vicarious experience • Anticipation o Realistically planning for future inner discomfort • Asceticism o Eliminating the pleasurable effects of experiences • Humor o Using comedy to express feelings and thoughts without personal discomfort and without producing an unpleasant effect on others • Sublimation o Transforming unacceptable needs into acceptable ambitions and actions: allows

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instincts to be channeled, not blocked or diverted o e.g. Conversion of compelling desire to get parents’ attention into good academic performance in school Suppression o Consciously postponing attention to an impulse or conflict that are not usually utterly despicable o Repression (unconscious) vs. suppression (consciously postponing)

D. PSYCHOANALYTIC TECHNIQUES AND PHENOMENA • Free Association o Client reports immediately without censoring feelings or thoughts • Interpretation o Therapist points out, explains and teaches the meanings of whatever is revealed • Dream Analysis o Therapist uses the “royal road to the unconscious” to bring unconscious material to light • Transference o The client reacts to the therapist as he did to an earlier significant other allowing him to experience feelings that would otherwise be inaccessible • Counter-transference o Therapist’s reaction towards the client may interfere with objectivity • Resistance

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Works against the progress of therapy and prevents the production of unconscious material

IV. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY A. BRAIN • Neural plasticity: the ability of the brain to adapt to environmental input BRAIN STRUCTURES IMPORTANT IN PSYCHIATRY 1. Deep Limbic Center o Controls bonding and mood 2. Basal Ganglia o Integrates feelings and movement o Impairment in anxiety 3. Prefrontal Cortex o Executive function; planning, decisionmaking, impulse control 4. Cingulate o Allows shifting of attention from thought to thought and between behaviors 5. Temporal Lobes o Reading social cues (facial expression, voice intonation), understanding and processing language, memory, mood stability LIMBIC SYSTEM • Regulates emotions and memory • Thalamus o Relay center • Amygdala o Aggression center o Modulates emotion and associates memory with emotion • Hippocampus o Learning and memory • Hypothalamus o Emotion, basic drives (thirst and hunger) o Regulates endocrine activity, controls autonomic nervous system, organizes homeostatic and social behavioral patterns “A hippo lost on campus” The hippocampus is important in spatial memory. “I love you with all my hypothalamus.” The hypothalamus is responsible for autonomic, metabolic, mood and behavioral functions. B. NEUROTRANSMITTERS • Acetylcholine (Ach) o Muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, emotion o Alzheimer’s disease associated with deficiency • Dopamine o Voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion o Schizophrenia: increased dopamine o Parkinsonism: decreased dopamine • Serotonin o Sleep, wakefulness, appetite, mood, aggression, impulsivity, sensory

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perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression o Plays a central role in depression: decreased serotonin Endorphins o Pain relief, pleasure Norepinephrine / noradrenaline (NorE) o Learning, memory, dreaming, awakening, emotion, stress-related increase in heart rate and slowing of digestive processes o Depression: decreased NorE Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) o Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain Glutamate o Main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain o Multiple sclerosis: increased glutamate

V. CONSCIOUSNESS • Individual awareness of thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations and environment • Ranges from full attention to temporary (sleep) or permanent (comatose) loss of consciousness A BIT OF MED In neurology, consciousness is reported as: • Alert: awake, attentive • Lethargic: drowsy but awakens to stimulation • Obtunded: difficult to arouse, needs constant stimulation to follow commands • Stuporous: requires pain to arouse • Coma: unresponsive to external stimuli A. PROCESSES • Selective attention o Focusing on one stimulus and screening out others • Divided attention o Doing two things simultaneously without effort or awareness • Influence without awareness o Subliminal perception B. SLEEP • Zeitgebers o Factors supporting sleep, e.g. light, temperature, body posture STAGES OF SLEEP • Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) o Stage 1: between awakening and falling asleep o Stage 2 o Stages 3 (delta / deep / slow wave sleep) and 4: deepest and most restorative sleep • Rapid Eye Movement (REM) o Brain is active and dreams occur

B. HYPNOSIS • Therapeutic technique in which clinicians make suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure designed to relax them and focus their minds • Putting a person into a trance (sleep-like state) in which one acquires a heightened state of suggestibility induced by systematic attention focusing procedures C. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS • Drugs that cross the blood-brain barrier and affect brain functioning • Sedatives o Slow CNS activity o e.g. alcohol, barbiturate • Stimulants o Stimulate CNS activity, energize behavior o e.g. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, cocaine • Hallucinogens o Produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states o e.g. marijuana, LSD, nitrous oxide •

Opioids o Depress neural activity, relieve pain, produce euphoria; highly addictive o e.g. morphine, codeine, heroine

A BIT OF MED Pain management in cancer patients follows a stepladder approach. Non-opioid analgesics are preferred for mild pain. For mild to moderate pain, weak opioids like tramadol are recommended. Strong opioids like morphine are reserved for pain with moderate to severe intensity. VI. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION A. SENSATION

135 they can perform (i.e. hand and face have larger representations)

A BIT OF MED In neurology, localization of the lesion is important in evaluating patients with motor or sensory deficits. This is done by understanding how body parts are represented in the brain and in the spinal cord. Pain and temperature follow the same pathway for sensation. Signals from the peripheral receptors to the spinal cord then ascending the spinothalamic tract to the ventral posterior nucleus (VPL) of the thalamus. They are then relayed to the primary somatosensory complex in the postcentral gyrus. • •

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Psychophysics: study of how the physical properties of stimuli relate to people’s experience of stimuli. Absolute threshold o Minimum amount of stimulation required for a person to detect the stimulus 50 percent of the time Difference threshold (or JND: just-noticeable difference) o Smallest difference in two levels of stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time

SENSATION THEORIES • Gate-control theory of pain o The spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that either blocks pain signals or allows them to continue on to the brain, o e.g. When a child falls and gets hurt, the mom blows on the affected part (touch) to ease the pain. • Phantom limb o Sensation without receptors as in amputees feeling that the limb is still there o Can be frustrating because patients try to reach for the limb to scratch it or fall off the bed when they try to get up and walk A BIT OF MED Phantom limb is physiologic but phantom limb pain is pathologic. HOMUNCULUS • Artificially created human named after one of the seven deadly sins (just kidding, FMA fans :P) • Refers to how different body parts are represented in different regions of the brain and spinal cord (somatotopic distribution of neurons) o Follows a sequence that reflects their order of terminations in the brain stem and spinal cord • Areas assigned to various body parts on the cortex are proportional not to their size, but rather to the complexity of the movements that

B. PERCEPTION • Involves selecting, organizing and interpreting sensory perception • Phi phenomenon: Rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none, as in motion pictures SUBPROCESSES A. Gestalt Laws (Principles) of Perceptual Organization • Prägnanz o German for “good figure”, “concise and meaningful” o Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible • Similarity o Similar things appear to be grouped together • Good continuation o Points that, when connected, result in contours which follow the smoothest path. • Proximity o Things that are near to each other are grouped together • Figure and ground o Separating visual information as figure (stands out) and ground (background) • Proximity o Objects that lie close together are perceived as a group • • •

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Closure o Familiar, incomplete forms are interpreted as complete by filling in gaps Similarity o Similar objects are grouped together Continuity o Interrupted lines and patterns are perceived as being continuous by filling in gaps Simplicity o Forms are perceived as simple, symmetrical figures rather than irregular ones

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Jamais vu: the experience of being unfamiliar with a person or situation that is actually very familiar

ILLUSIONS • The human mind judges the object’s size based on its background. (Mario Ponzo) • Ponzo illusion: converging lines • Müller-Lyer illusion: stylized arrows • Moon illusion: moon appears bigger nearer the horizon vs. higher in the sky

COGNITIVE STYLES • Levelers: minimization of differences • Sharpeners: exaggeration of differences

B. Perceptual Constancies • An object’s size or shape is seen as constant despite changing sensory inputs C. Perceptual Set • Mindset; prior experiences and expectations create a perceptual set that leads one to see what he/she expects EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION • Telepathy: knowledge of someone else’s thoughts or feelings • Clairvoyance: awareness of an unknown object or event • Prerecognition: foreknowledge of future events • Telekinesis: ability to move objects with the power of the mind • Déjà vu: subjectively inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present experience with an undefined past

VII. PERSONALITY • Personality o Distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling and acting o Product of biology and environment • Temperament o Biologically based characteristic manner of reacting o Babies can be easy, difficult, slow-towarm up • Trait o Constant and specific way of behaving o “Big 5” personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism • Type o Type A: impatient, anger-prone; at greater risk for cardiovascular disease o Type B: easy-going, relaxed • Character o Judgment of the person’s personality • Mood o Extended emotional state that dominates one’s outlook, e.g. depressed, euphoric • Habit o Learned way of behaving • Attitude o Learned tendency to favor or not favor • Value o Something one learns to believe is important; something one holds dear or cherishes

137 o A. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 1. Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud 2. Neonalyst Theories • Erik Erikson • Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology o Social motives motivate people the most o Strivings for superiority drives people's behavior 3. Object Relations Theories • Margaret Mahler o Normal Autistic Phase (Birth to 4 weeks) o Normal Symbiotic Phase (4 weeks - 5 months) o Separation-Individuation Proper (5-36 months; 4 subphases) 4. Attachment Theories • John Bowlby o Attachments formed during childhood have an important impact o on adulthood o Separation anxiety and its three stages: i. Protest ii. Despair iii. Detachment 5. Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget 6. Sociocultural Cognitive Theory • Lev Vygotsky o Social constructivism o Language plays a powerful role in shaping thought o Education is central in helping children learn the tools of culture 7. Moral Development: Lawrence Kohlberg B. PERSONALITY TYPES (MYER-BRIGGS) • Based on Carl Jung's theory of psychological types and the personality research of Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs • Dichotomies: o Favorite world: Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I) o Information: Sensing (S) or Intuition (N) o Decisions: Thinking (T) or Feeling (F) o Structure: Judging (J) or Perceiving (P) • 16 personality types expressed as a combination of four letters, e.g. INFJ, ESTP C. PERSONALITY DISORDERS •

Maladaptive behavior patterns or traits that may impair functioning and relationships

CLUSTER I • Paranoid o Distrustful, jealous, projecting, suspicious, secretive • Schizoid o Engages in solitary activities, reclusive, withdrawn, unable to form social relationships, cold and aloof • Schizotypal

Peculiar language and thought patterns, isolated, limited peer relationship

CLUSTER II • Antisocial o Exploitative (takes advantage of others’ vulnerabilities), impulsive and risky behavior, lacks fidelity o Tendency to become a criminal • Borderline o Manipulative, fear of being left alone, mood swings, hypochondriac, neurotic, impulsive and self-damaging • Histrionic o Attractive, flirtatious, flamboyant, childish o Likes being the center of attention • Narcissistic o Self-centered, sense of grandiose, selfimportance, excessive self-admiration, has fantasies of unlimited power, beauty and brilliance CLUSTER III • Avoidant o Fears criticism and rejection, escapes intimate relationships, reluctant to engage in new activities • Dependent o Passively allows others to assume responsibility, lacks confidence • Obsessive-compulsive o Pervasive rigidity, exaggerated fear of losing control, perfectionists, preoccupation with control and power o Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) vs. obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD), an anxiety disorder CLASSIFICATION • Quality: pleasant or unpleasant • Intensity: mild or strong SIX BASIC EMOTIONS • Fear • Anger • Disgust • Joy • Surprise • Sadness STRESS AND STRESSORS • Stress: state of extreme difficulty, pressure, or strain with negative effects on physical, intellectual and emotional health and well-being • Stress response occurs when internal or external demands exceed ability to cope or adapt • Frustrations o Feelings produced when goals are met with interference which prevents or delays their completion • Conflicts

138 Individual experiences that create emotional tensions o Refers to the tension or excitement when one strives to reach a decision between equally attractive (or repelling) situations Pressure o e.g. time (deadlines), emotional pressure o

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ADJUSTMENT • Process where internal demands of motivation are brought into harmonious regulation with external demands of reality • Related to coping: the process of adjusting to stress • Resiliency: Resilient people are able to utilize their skills and strengths to cope and recover from problems and challenges. THE GRIEVING PROCESS (Kubler-Ross) 1. Denial – “This isn’t happening.” 2. Anger – “Why me?” 3. Bargaining – “If I get cured, then, I commit to this devotion.” 4. Depression 5. Acceptance “DABDA” Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance (Just like when cramming the night before an exam xD) B. MEMORY • Memory o The process of maintaining information over time (Matlin, 2005) STAGES OF MEMORY • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval TYPES OF MEMORY • Sensory memory o All stimuli that register through the senses o Storage lasts from a fraction of a second to 3 seconds • Short-term (working) memory o Stimuli in sensory memory that we take notice of o Lasts about 20 seconds o Chunking: combining bits of information into bigger, more familiar pieces • Long-term memory o Permanent storage; holds vast amount of information for many years A BIT OF MED In neurology and psychiatry, memory is assessed as part of the mental status examination. A patient is asked to repeat three words or phrases after the examiner gives them (immediate memory) and again after five minutes

(recent memory). Remote memory is assessed by asking for the patient’s birthday, grade school, etc. OTHER CONCEPTS • Forgetting o Lack of encoding o Physical decay o Interference o Repression • Autobiographical memory o Recollections about own experiences PHENOMENA OF MEMORY • Zeignarik Effect o More likely to remember incomplete tasks and those associated with difficulty o Results from tension when one needs to complete and action; depends on one’s attitude towards work • Serial reproduction o From reconstructive nature of memory o A story passed on from one person to another tends to be altered by each person unconsciously • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon • Flashbulb memories o Vividly remembering a certain event and even insignificant incidents surrounding it for a long time o Usually events of high emotional content • Slips of the tongue o Linguistic mistakes that are often embarrassing o Wrong term due to similarity of sound and meaning to the original word o Freud: manifestation of unconscious thoughts and feelings (“Freudian slips”) • Hypermnesia o Excessive memory situation in which a later attempt to remember yields information that could not be retrieved in an earlier attempt • Infantile / childhood amnesia o Most adults cannot remember events before age 3 or 4 o Memories before the age of 3 are usually imaginary, not real (psychiatry) • Subliminal perception o Very weak stimuli could be perceived and processed without conscious awareness of the stimulus o Not consciously aIQware of stimuli that are nevertheless being processed by some parts of the brain o Some messages may be subliminal to some but explicit to others C. INTELLIGENCE • Intelligence o Capacity to learn from experience, apply this to future endeavors and adapt successfully to one’s environment

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Intelligence quotient (IQ): performance relative to same-aged peers Emotional intelligence - Interpersonal intelligence: ability to understand other people - Intrapersonal intelligence: ability to understand one’s self, recognize and manage emotions

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (MI) THEORY • Logical-mathematical • Visual-spatial • Linguistic • Musical • Natural • Bodily kinesthetic • Interpersonal • Intrapersonal STERNBERG’S TRIACHIC THEORY • Information processing: traditional knowledge • Creativity: ability to create novel ideas and solutions • Practical intelligence: ability to size up new situations and adapt to real-life demands; “street smart” IX. LEARNING • Habituation o The simplest way of learning; becoming familiar with a subject as a result of repeated exposure A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov’s dog o Unconditioned stimulus (US): food o Unconditioned response (UR): salivation o Conditioned stimulus (CS): bell o Conditioned response (CR): salivation • Extinction o Gradual weakening and disappearance of CR due to repeated appearance of CS without US • Stimulus generalization o Tendency to respond to a new stimulus similar to the original CS • Higher-order conditioning o Neutral stimulus acts as a CS by being paired to another stimulus that already evokes a CR B. OPERANT CONDITIONING • B.F. Skinner: Skinner Box o Cage set up so that an animal can automatically get a food reward if it makes a particular kind of response • Reinforcement: increases the likelihood that a response will occur o Positive reinforcement: presentation of a (good) stimulus o Negative reinforcement: removal of a (bad) stimulus

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Punishment: decreases the likelihood that a response will occur o Positive punishment: giving something bad o Negative punishment: taking away something good Reinforcement schedules o Fixed-ratio, e.g. salesman gets a bonus for every three cars o Variable-ratio o Fixed-interval, e.g. employee gets a bonus once a year o Variable-interval

B. OPERANT CONDITIONING • Albert Bandura: Bobo Dolls o Kindergarteners imitate violent behavior after watching a film with an adult sitting, hitting and hammering an inflatable plastic toy, Bobo the Clown X. MOTIVATION • Motive: an impulse that causes a person to act. Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal • Motivation: an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal A. DRIVE REDUCTION THEORIES • Actions are done in order to reduce needs or drives and maintain a constant physiological state (homeostasis) • e.g. Eating reduces the need for food. B. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION • Intrinsic motivation: to act for the sake of the activity alone • Extrinsic motivation: to act for external rewards • Incentive: environmental stimulus that pulls people to act in a particular way. C. ABRAHAM MASLOW: HIERARCHY OF NEEDS • Physiological o Air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep • Safety o Protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear • Belongingness o Friendship, intimacy, affection and love from work group, family, friends and romantic relationships • Esteem o Achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, selfrespect, respect from others • Cognitive* o Knowledge and meaning • Aesthetics* o Appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. • Self-Actualization

140 Realizing personal potential, selffulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences Transcendence* o Helping others to achieve selfactualization o

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* These have been later added to the original five needs (1943) to form the Expanded Hierarchy of Needs (1970 Similar to the “PS BE CAST” Physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, transcendence D. CARL ROGERS • Rogers and Maslow were both humanist theorists. • Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, the tendency to self-actualize (to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can) SELF-CONCEPT • The organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself • Consists of: o Self-worth (self-esteem): what we think about ourselves. o Self-image: How we see ourselves, includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. o Ideal self: who we would like to be POSITIVE REGARD • Unconditional positive regard o Parents and significant others accept and love the person for what he or she is. • Conditional positive regard o Person is not loved for who he or she is but praise and approval depend on the condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parents or significant others. XI. MENTAL DISORDERS A BIT OF MED The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used in psychiatry for the diagnosis of mental disorders using defined criteria. Its most recent revision, DSM-5, was released in May 2013. A. PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS • Neurosis o Mental disorder involving distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations where behavior is not socially unacceptable; can aggravate to psychosis o N.B. The term has been eliminated by DSM editors favoring the favoring descriptions of behavior rather than hidden psychological mechanisms as diagnostic criteria.

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Psychosis o Impaired reality testing (loss of touch with reality) o Lack of ability to evaluate the external world objectively and to differentiate adequately between it and the internal world Folie à deux o The sharing of a fantasy by two closely associated friends

SCHIZOPHRENIA • A syndrome of psychotic features especially hallucinations and delusions that cause impairment of social and occupational functioning for more than 6 months • Related disorders: Schizophreniform Disorder (16 months), Brief Psychotic Disorder (<1 month) The Four A’s (Eugene Bleuler) • Primary (fundamental) symptoms: o Associations: looseness of associations – speech with lack of coherence and thought o Affect: flat affect – very limited range of reactions, i.e. same facial expression whether talking about something sad or funny o Autism: loss of contact with reality; “own world” o Ambivalence: strong feelings for two contradictory situations, e.g. “I want to make friends but they might reject so I don’t want to” • Secondary (accessory) symptoms: o Hallucinations o Delusions Perceptual Disturbances • Hallucination o Perceiving something that is not there (not perceived by others) o Usually auditory (hearing voices) or visual • Delusion o Fixed false belief o Persecutory, grandiose, nihilistic, erotomanic, somatic • Illusion o Wrongly perceived stimulus (perceived differently by others) Agoraphobia • Fear of being in places or situations in which escape might be difficult or embarrassing, or in which help may not be available should a panic attack occur B. MOOD DISORDERS DEPRESSION • Characterized by overwhelming feeling of sadness, guilt and suffering in an extended period of time • Most common cause of suicide among the elderly • Psychiatry (DSM-5): Required depressed mood and anhedonia (not finding pleasure in activities which were previously pleasurable)

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Unipolar: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Bipolar: Bipolar I and II Disorders

MANIA • Uncontrollable impulse • Elevated, expansive or irritable mood • Can be a disguise for overwhelming depression A BIT OF MED In DSM-5, Bipolar I Disoder involves at least one hypomanic episode (shorter duration) with or without a major depressive episode, while Bipolar II Disorder needs a major depressive episode and a manic episode (longer duration).

Nice-to-know: Phobias • Achluphobia or nyctophobia: fear of the dark • Acrophobia: fear of high places • Algophobia: fear of pain • Arachnophobia: fear of spiders • Astraphobia: fear of thunder, lightning or storms • Cheimophobia: fear of cold • Claustrophobia: fear of closed spaces • Dipsophobia: fear of drinking • Ecophobia or oikiphobia: fear of home • Electrophobia: fear of electricitiy • Gamaphobia: fear of marriage • Hydrophobia: fear of water • Monophobia: fear of being alone • Mysophobia: fear of germs • Ochlophobia: fear of crowds • Pathophobia: fear of disease • Pyrophobia: fear of fire • Ryophobia: fear of dirt • Sitophobia: fear of eating • Taphophobia: fear of being buried alive • Trypanophobia: fear of needles • Thermophobia: fear of heat • Xenophobia: fear of strangers • Zoophobia: fear of animals Manias • • • • •

o

o

- Causes: genetics, temperament, psychosocial, previous experience - Treatment by behavioral modification: systemic desensitization, or flooding and implosion Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) - Fear of being in social situations in which one might be humiliated Agoraphobia - Fear of being in a situation where escape may not be readily possible

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER • Characterized by preoccupation with ritualistic, repetitive actions without which the person thinks something bad will happen • e.g. Closes the door then goes back to check it three times • Body Dysmorphic Disorder: preoccupied with one or more perceived defects or flaws in their physical appearance D. NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS DEMENTIA • Acquired deterioration in cognitive abilities that impairs the successful performance of activities of daily living (e.g. feeding, grooming) • Memory (most commonly lost ability), language, visuospatial ability, calculation, judgment, problem solving • Alzheimer’s disease: most common cause of dementia o NOT part of normal aging o Starts with memory impairment, spreads to language and visuospatial deficits Other causes: stroke (vascular dementia), head injury ABC's of Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia: • Activities of daily living impaired • Behavioral and psychiatric symptoms • Cognitive impairment E. NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

Arithmomania: impulse to count everything Dipsomania: impulse to drink liquor Kleptomania: impulse to steal Megalomania: impulse for fame and power Pyromania: impulse to set things on fire

C. ANXIETY AND OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE • Eustress: “normal” amount of anxiety associated with optimal levels of functioning • Distress: anxiety that interferes with social or occupational functioning ANXIETY DISORDERS • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) • Panic Disorder: characterized by multiple panic attacks • Phobia: irrational fear of something o Specific Phobia

AUTISM • Commonly in children age 0-2 years • Unable to produced intelligible speech but able to produce sounds and obey simple commands ATTENTION-DEFICIT / HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER • Commonly in children 2-7 years (in school) • Impulsiveness, hyperactivity, inattention F. OTHER DISORDER EATING DISORDERS • Anorexia nervosa o “Anorexia”: loss of appetite o Syndrome characterized by: 1. self-induced starvation 2. morbid fear of fatness 3. medical signs and symptoms of starvation

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Bulimia nervosa o Classically characterized by binge-eating and purging (induced vomiting)

PARAPHILIAS • Disordered expression of sexual urges • e.g. pedophilia, zoophilia, fetishism, sadomasochism, exhibitionism, voyeurism DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER • “Split personality” • Characterized by amnesia and fugue (inability to recall events) XII. RESEARCH METHODS Descriptive or Correlational Research o Causation: Variable A directly causes variable B; must fulfill certain criteria, e.g. temporality, plausibility o Correlation: There is an association between A and B but causation cannot be established. Often, a third factor explains the relationship. - Positive correlation (+): As A increases, B also increases. - Negative correlation (-): As A increases, B decreases. - No correlation: no relation exists between the two variables • Survey o Questionnaires or interview o Self-report data may be misleading because respondents can lie, give answers based on wishful thinking, misunderstand the questions, forget • Naturalistic Observation o Information collected by observing subjects unobtrusively • Laboratory Observation o Offers researchers some degree of control over the environment; sophisticated equipment may be used to measure or record • Psychological tests o Used to collect information about personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, or behaviors o Standardized and compared to norms (established standards of performance)

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Sociology Notes INTRODUCTION ➢ defined as the systematic and objective study of human society and social interaction ➢ the basic assumption that is made by sociologists is that all human behaviors are shaped by the society and social circumstances (i.e. families, organizations, communities, ethnic groups, societies and historical eras). The focus of sociology is not on the individual act, but rather on the social environment or circumstance in which the act takes place. Elements of Sociological Analysis A. Culture – shared products of a human group or society. May either be nonmaterial culture (values, language, beliefs, traditions) material culture (physical objects, machines, books, clothing, artifacts, money) 1. Subculture and Counterculture – when a group of people within a society has a style of living that includes features of the main culture and also certain cultural elements not found in other groups, this is known as subculture. When that subculture challenges the values, beliefs, ideals and other elements of the dominant culture, it is known as counterculture. 2. Cultural Values and Norms – a value is an idea shared by the people in a society about what is good and bad, right and wrong, desirable and undesirable. Norms are expectations of how people are supposed to act, think or feel in specific situations. a. Folkways – norms that have little strength and may within limits, be easily broken b. Mores – strongly held norms that are considered essential and which are strictly enforced c. Laws – norms that have been enacted by the state to regulate human conduct 3. Cultural Diversity – contrary to cultural universals, though societies share commonality in some aspects in culture, each culture carries a distinct and different element. 4. Cultural Relativism – the principle holds that one cannot truly understand or evaluate cultural, social and psychological facts except in terms of the larger culture and society of which they are a part. a. Ethnocentrism – tendency to evaluate other cultures in terms of one’s own and to consider one’s own culture as superior. b. Xenocentrism – belief that the views, styles or products of other cultures are better than those of one’s own culture. 5. Cultural Changes – results when there is cultural integration. Sources of Cultural Changes: a. Innovation – production of a new culture trait (i.e. norm or value) b. Invention – creation of new cultural products c. Cultural Diffusion – process by which cultural traits are transmitted from one group or society to another

6. Cultural Integration – occurs when cultural traits are logically consistent with one another, but may be logically inconsistent or simply neutral in relation to one another. B. Society and Social Structure 1. Social Status – socially defined position in a group or society a. Master Status – status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general social position b. Achieved Status – status that can be gained by a person’s direct effort usually through competition c. Ascribed Status – a social position to which a person is assigned according to standards that are beyond his or her control 2. Social Roles – behavior expected of someone with a given status in a group or society a. Role Set – whole set of roles associated with a single status b. Role Expectation – society’s definition of the way a role ought to be played c. Role Performance – the way a person usually plays a role d. Role Conflict – situation whereby opposing demands are made on a person two or more roles e. Role Strain – personal stress caused by such opposing demands 3. Social Structure i. Gemeinschaft – individual relationships are based on common feelings, kinships or memberships in the community (communal) ii. Gesellschaft – rational order, neutral involvement, and obligations to institutions are dominant (associational) iii. Mechanical Solidarity – members are held together because they perform similar roles and share the same values iv. Organic Solidarity – member are held together because they perform very specialized roles and are therefore highly dependent on one another v. Communal Society – little division of labor; family most important unit; social relationships are personal and long lasting; behavior is governed mainly by custom and tradition vi. Associational Society – there is division of labor and roles are highly specialized; family loses influence and many of its activities are replaced by other institutions (i.e. economic, religious and political); many social relationships are impersonal and short lived; behavior is governed by law rather than by custom. Socialization – is the process through which people acquire personality and learn the ways of a society or group; socialization occurs through social interaction Social Interaction – is the process in which people act toward or respond to others in a mutual and reciprocal way

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144 4. Groups and Social Organization Social Group can be defined as two or more people who have a common identity and some feeling of unity and who share certain goals and expectations about each other’s behavior. 1. Primary and Secondary Groups a. Primary groups are small, personal and unspecialized. Although relating to one another in many different roles, their members communicate openly and intimately. b. Secondary groups by contrast are larger, more specialized groups in which members interact in a limited, impersonal way. 2. Ingroups and Outgroups a. Ingroups – the groups to which people belong and feel loyal b. Outgroups – the groups to which we do not belong and which are regarded with suspicion and as less worthy than their own 3. Group Processes 4. Basic Patterns of Social Organization a. Social bonds e. conformity b. Kinship f. rational coordination c. fealty d. status 5. Social Disorganization, Deviance and Social Control 1. Social Disorganization – refers to breakdown of social institutions. Results when deviance is practiced by large numbers of people over long periods of time; when it undermines belief in the value of basic social institutions or when it produces conflict that cannot be contained. 2. Deviance – behavior that violates the social norms of a group or society Four types of “deviant adaptations” a. Innovation – accepting goals but rejecting society’s means of achievement b. Ritualism – accepting the means but not the goals c. Retreatism – rejecting both the goals and the means d. Rebellion – rejecting the goals and the means and substituting new ones 3. Social Control – means or ways to condition or limit the actions of people in order to make them want to conform to social norms most of the time ➢ Internal Social Control – “internalization” is one’s acceptance of the norms of a group or society as part of one’s identity. It is the most effective means of socially controlling deviant behavior. ➢ External Social Control – involve the use of social sanctions which may be applied informally (thru actions of people we are with on a daily basis); others are applied formally (agents given that task by society, eg. Law enforcers, etc.) F. Social Inequalities Class Inequalities 1. Slavery – extreme system of stratified inequality in which freedom is denied to one group in a society.

2. Caste – system of stratified inequality in which status is largely determined at birth and people are locked into their parents’ social positions. 3. Estate – stratification associated with type of agrarian society similar to feudalism. Class Systems – most common type of stratification; a relatively open system based on economic position. 1. Bourgeoisie – upper classes; have access to the means of production; own and control production and exploit the labor of the lower classes. 2. Proletariat – lower classes; provide labor to production. Social Stratification – an enduring pattern based on the ranking of people in social positions according to their access to desirables. 1. Three dimensions as classified by Max Weber: a. Wealth b. Power c. Prestige 2. Theories a. Functionalist – inequality is not only required to the functioning of the society but is also inevitable. b. Conflict – social inequality is not a necessary part of the operation of societies rather, the desirables of the society are in limited supply and the powerful determine which groups of people will fill which jobs and who will get what rewards. c. Lenski’s theory – power, based on economics and political leadership and some inequality are important in the functioning of the society. Social Mobility – refers to the movement of a person from one status or social class to another. 1. Types a. Upward b. Downward c. Horizontal 2. Varieties a. Intergenerational mobility – change in social position between generations b. Intragenerational mobility – occurs in the same generation Ethnic and Racial Minorities 1. Minority group – any group in a society that consists of people whose particular biological or social traits cause them to become the object of prejudice or discrimination. 2. Ethnic group – a group that is socially distinguished from other groups, has developed its own subculture, and has a shared feeling of peoplehood. 3. Race – group of people who others believe share certain physical traits and are genetically distinct. 4. Prejudice – judgment of people, objects or situations in terms of stereotypes or generalizations. 5. Discrimination – unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups. 6. Patterns of acceptance: a. Assimilation – absorption of an incoming group into the dominant society. b. Amalgamation – biological merging of an ethnic or racial group with the native population. c. Cultural pluralism – pattern of partial assimilation by which the dominant society allows minorities to achieve full participation, yet at the same time lets them keep many of their cultural social differences.

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145 7. Patterns of rejection: a. Annihilation – process by which a dominant group causes the deaths of a large number of minority group members. b. Expulsion – forcing people out of an area of a society. c. Partitioning – political reorganization of a nation in order to make political boundaries correspond more closely to ethnic or racial ones. d. Segregation – involuntary separation of residential areas, services or facilities on the basis of the ethnic or racial characteristics of the people using them. Gender 1. Gender role – social role associated with being a male or female. 2. Gender identity – conception of ourselves as either male or female. Religion – system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people interprets and responds to what they feel is supernatural and sacred Types 1. Ecclesia – religious organization that claim as its membership the entire population of a society; country’s official religion 2. Church – stable, institutionalized organization of religious believers 3. Denomination – several religious organizations considered socially acceptable by a society 4. Sect – less formally organized than a church; usually composed of people occupying the lower occupational and educational status 5. Cults – reject some aspects of established religions; devise new symbols, rituals and teachings. Economic Systems 1. Capitalism – an economic system based on the private ownership of wealth. The elements of capitalism include:private property; profit; competition; laissez faire. 2. Socialism – means of production and distribution are owned collectively rather than privately. The state is usually the collective owner, but in some forms of socialism, the owner might be a small community or someone who works for a particular enterprise. 3. Market Socialism – represents an effort to join features of socialism, public ownership and a relatively equal distribution of income, with emphasis on market forces and decentralized decision-making characteristic of capitalist economies. Politics and Government Politics – process by which some people and groups acquire power and exercise it over others Power – capacity of people or groups to control or influence the actions of others, whether those others wish to cooperate or not 1. Legitimate – generally recognized and socially right and necessary 2. Illegitimate – without support of social approval

Authority – legitimate power that is institutional in nature 1. Traditional Authority – conferred by custom and accepted practice 2. Charismatic Authority – generated by the personality or exceptional personal appeal of an individual 3. Legal-rational Authority – rests on rationally established rules (i.e. rules that reflect a systematic attempt to adjust means to ends, to make institutions to what they are supposed to do) Forms of Government 1. Democracy – “rule of the people” 2. Totalitarianism – form of government run by a single party in which there is a governmental surveillance and control over all aspects of life 3. Authoritarianism – form of government in which the ultimate authority is vested in a single person; the ruler may be either a monarch, a hereditary ruler or a dictator SOCIAL CHANGE AND CURRENT TRENDS Population and Ecology – Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment Elements of Population Change 1. Fertility 2. Mortality

3. Migration

Forms of Collective Behavior: 1. Crowd – a temporary grouping of people, physically close together with a common focus or interest Types of Crowd a. Casual Crowd – passive crowd involving a minimum emotional engagement and action by the participants (eg: people looking into a department store window). b. Conventional Crowd – follows conventional norms, but interaction is minimal (eg: passengers on an airplane) c. Expressive Crowds – provide opportunities for emotional expression and release (eg: Times Square on New Year’s Eve) d. Solidaristic Crowds – contain many mutually supportive relationships and give a sense of social solidarity or unity (eg: charismatic and religious groups) e. Acting Crowds – group action that is focused on some goal or object. They are typically angry and hostile and their activities violate conventional norms. (eg: mobs, riots) f. Public – scattered grouping of people who have a common interest, concern or focus of opinion Theories on Crowding a. Contagion Theory – Gustave Le Bon suggested that the crowd was a single organism with one collective mind. He said that the crowd’s ability to “hypnotize” individuals was based on three factors: a feeling of invincibility, the great power that comes from sheer numbers; contagion, the rapid spread of new ways of thinking; and suggestibility, a state of fascination in which people are not conscious of their acts. b. Convergence Theory – emphasizes that people in a crowd tend to release their underlying personal tendencies, reveal their true selves in a crowd. c. Emergent Norm Theory – stresses the social aspects of a crowd. It emphasizes the function of social norms in

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146 shaping crowd behavior, and seeks to explain how new norms are established and maintained. 2. Mass Behavior – collective behavior in diffuse social groupings a. Panic – form of mass behavior in which people, faced with a threat, react in a seemingly irrational and fearful manner. b. Mass Hysteria – rare form of collective behavior that occurs when people find themselves in ambiguous, threatening situations c. Disaster Behavior – follows natural or other types of disasters that provoke a “crisis crowd” behavior characterized by a convergence of people on the disaster scene d. Fad – or craze is a temporary activity that large numbers of people enthusiastically pursue e. Fashion – currently acceptable style of dress or behavior 3. Social Movements – socialized effort to change society through collective action Types of Social Movements a. Reform Movement – seeks to improve society as a whole by changing certain aspects of the social structure b. Revolutionary Movements – seek more radical change in society. Their goal is to overthrow the existing social structure and replace it with new one c. Resistance Movements – aim to prevent change, or reverse a change that has already been achieved d. Expressive Movements – are attempts to provide their members with some type of personal transformation, which may include emotional satisfaction, a new identity or a different ideology. Stages Leading to Eventual Acceptance by Society a. Preliminary Stage – marked by restlessness in the society, conflict between various groups, and inefficient and insufficient efforts at dealing with social problems b. Popular Stage – the discontented become aware that others share their views and see that united action, through a social movement, is possible. c. Formal Organization Stage – excitement of the masses is formalized. Ideologies are developed that help to give the movement direction and unity. Values and goals become clear, and the movement develops an organizational structure with a hierarchy of leaders. d. Institutional Stage – movement becomes an accepted and institutionalized part of society. 4. Communication and Collective Behavior a. Gossip – idle talk about the personal or private affairs of others b. Rumor – an untrue or unverified report that is informally communicated from person to person and it is not as limited in its subject as is gossip c. Public Opinion – attitudes about an issue that are held by a public d. Propaganda – calculated manipulation of ideas in a way that appeals to people’s emotions and prejudice Cities Urbanization and Community Change

Urbanization – movement of people from rural to urban areas Over urbanization – a disparity between the number of people flooding into the cities and the actual opportunities and services available to them Urbanism – patterns of culture and social structure that are characteristic of cities and how they differ from the culture of rural communities Social Change and Future Trends Factors of Social Change 1. Physical environment and population 2. Technology 3. Nonmaterial culture 4. Cultural Diffusion – process by which culture traits spread from one group or society to another. 5. Modernization – refers to the major internal social changes that occur when a traditional preindustrial society develops economically and becomes industrialized and urbanized Theories of Social Change 1. Sociocultural Evolution Theory – the change and development of societies over time in either unilinear or multilinear fashion 2. Cyclical Theory – cultures and societies go through continual cycles of growth and decay, challenge and response 3. Functionalist Theory – analyzes function of change in preserving social order as a whole 4. Conflict Theory – real societies are not as stable as the functionalists imply and that the theory is unable to account for many kinds of changes. Important Figures in the Development of Sociology: • Auguste Comte – coined the term “sociology.” He was a French philosopher who believed that the social and natural worlds obeyed the same rules. • Karl Marx – saw in society continuous conflict and change. Marx believed that societies follow historical laws determined by economic forces. • Emile Durkheim – he argued that the main concern of sociology should be what he called “social facts” (e.g. laws, customs and institutions), which are external to people but which exert control over them. He developed an analysis of suicide based on group connections. He described four types of suicide: ➢ Egoistic Suicide – the individual does not feel connected to the larger society; the person is not affected by social constraints against suicide; ➢ Altruistic Suicide – the individual places the group’s welfare above his or her own life; ➢ Fatalistic Suicide – the individual commits suicide because of feelings of powerlessness to regulate his or her life; ➢ Anomic Suicide – the individual commits suicide when society lacks social order • Max Weber – best known for his studies of bureaucracy and capitalism. Much of Weber’s thought contrasts strongly with that of Marx. He believed that social scientists can find objective solutions to problems

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147 only if they suspend their own value judgments (value free sociology). • Charles Cooley – one of the earliest sociologists to develop a theory of the self. He coined the term “LOOKING GLASS SELF” – people’s sense of self reflects what they think others think of them SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS Theoretical Perspective - A theory is a statement that organizes a set of concepts in a meaningful way by explaining the relationship among men. Theory makes the facts of small lift comprehensible. It places seemingly meaningless events in a general framework that enables us to determine cause and effect, to explain, and to predict. Functionalist Perspective -The functionalist perspective draws its original inspiration from the work Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim. Spencer compared society sometimes to living organisms. Any organism has a structure – that is, it consists of a number of interrelated parts such as a head, limbs, a heart and so on, that play a function in the life of the total organism. In the same way, Spencer agreed that a society has a structure. Its interrelated parts are the family, religion, the military and so on. Conflict Perspective - The conflict perspective in modern sociology derives its inspiration from the work of Karl Marx, who saw the struggle between social classes as the “engine” of history and the main source of change. Conflict theories assume that sometimes are in the constant stable of change, in which conflict as a permanent feature. “Conflicts” does not necessarily mean outright violence; it includes tension, hostility, competition, and disagreement among our goals and values. Conflict theorists that do not see social conflict as a necessarily destructive force, although they admit that is may sometimes have that effect. They argue that conflict can often have positive results. It bonds groups together as they pursue their own interest, and the conflict among competing groups focuses attention on social problems and leads to beneficial changes that might otherwise have occurred. Interactionist Perspective - The interactionist perspective in sociology was strongly influenced by Max Welies, who emphasized the importance of understanding the social world from the individuals who acts within it. It is concerned primarily with the everyday social interaction that takes place as people go about their lives. Hunting and Gathering Societies - Hunting and gathering people live in small privacy groups that rarely exceed in members. The groups are based on kinship, with most members being related by ancestry or marriage. They are constantly on the move because they must leave an area as soon as they have exhausted its food resources. Warfare is extremely uncommon among hunting and gathering people, partly because they have so little in the way of material goods to. The social structure of these societies is necessarily very simple, and their culture cannot become elaborate and diversified. Pastoral Societies - Pastoralism is a much more reliable and productive strategy than hunting and gathering. Not only is a steady food supply assured, but the size of the herds can be increased over time through careful animal husbandry. An important result is that societies can grow much larger, perhaps to include hundreds or even thousands of people. Equally significant, the greater productivity of pastoralism permits the accumulation of a surplus of livestock and food. The substance strategy of pastoral societies thus provides distinctive social cultural opportunities and limitations. Population become larger, political economic institutions begin to develop and born social structure and culture become more complex.

Horticultural Societies - Horticulturalists are essentially gardeners, cultivating demonstrated plants by hand or with hoes or digging sticks, although must periodically move their gardens or villages in short distances. Because they live in relatively permanent settlements, horticulturalists can create more elaborate cultural artifacts than can hunters and gatherers or pastoralists. The settled way of life and relative large populations of those societies thus permit more complex social structures and cultures. Agricultural Societies - About 6,000 years ago, the plow was invented and the agricultural revolution was underway. The use of the plow greatly improves the productivity of the land; it brings to the surface nutrients that have sunk out of reach of the roots of plants, and it returns weeks to the soil to act as fertilizers. As a result, food output is greatly increased and a substantial supply can be produced. Agricultural societies tend to be almost constantly at war, sometimes engaged in systematic empire-building. These conditions demand an effective military organization, and permanent armies appear for the first time. The need for efficient transport and communications in these large societies leads to the development of roads and novices, and previously isolated communities are brought into contact with one another. A society relying on agriculture as a subsistence strategy thus has a far more complex social structure and culture than any of the less involved types of societies. The number of statuses and roles multiplies, population size increases, cities appear, new institutions emerges, social classes arise, political and economic inequality becomes built into the social structure, and culture becomes much more diversified. Industrial Societies - Industrialism is based on the application of scientific knowledge to the technology of production, enabling new energy sources to be harnessed and permitting machines to do the work that was previously done by people or animals. It is a highly efficient subsistence strategy, for it allow relatively small portion of the population to feed the majority. Family and kinship becomes progressively less important in the social culture. The family losses many of its earlier functions. It is no longer a unit of economic production, nor thus it has the main responsibility for the education of the young. Kinship ties are weakened, and people live with their immediate family but apart from more distant kin. People no longer share similar life experiences and consequently hold many different and competing values and beliefs. Science, however, emerges as a new and important social institution, for technological innovation depends on growth and refinement of scientific and for the first time, formal education becomes compulsory for the many rather than a luxury for the few. Group - A group is a collection of people interacting together in an orderly way on the basis of shared expectation about each other’s behaviour. As a result of this interaction, members feel a common sense of “belonging”. Primary Group - A primary group consists of a small member of people who interact in direct, intimate and personal ways. His relationship among the members is emotionally depth, and the group tends to endure over time. Typical primary groups include the family, gang or a college per group. Secondary Group - Consists a number of people who have few, if any emotional ties with one another. The members come together for some specific, practical purpose, such as making committee decision or attending a convention. Small Group - A small group is one that contains sufficiently few members for the participants to relate to one another as individuals. Whether the small group is a primary or secondary depends on the nature of their relationships among its members.

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148 Leadership - A leader is someone who by virtue of certain personality, the characteristics is consistently able to influence the behavior of others. Groups always have leaders even if the leader do not hold formal positions of authority.

Xenocentrism - The tendency of each group to take for granted the superiority of its own culture. Exogamy - A requirement that one mates on selected people outside some specified groups

Accommodation - Peaceful adjustment between hostile or competing groups; ”antagonistic cooperation”.

Cultural Relativism - The concept that the function, meaning and desirability of a trait depend upon its cultural setting.

Acculturation - Acquisition by a group or individual of the traits of another culture Achieved Status - Status reached by individual effort.

Cultural Pluralism - The toleration of cultural differences within a common society; allowing different groups to retain their distinctive cultures

Aggregate - Gathering of people without conscious interaction

Cultural Trait - The smallest unit of culture as perceive by a given observer

Amalgamation - Biological inter-breeding of two or more peoples of distinct physical appearance until they become one stock.

Culture - The total heritage which the individual receives from the group; a system of behaviour by the members of society.

Anomie - A situation in which a large number of person lack interaction with stable institutions, leaving them rootless and normless.

Culture Complex - A cluster of related traits organized around a particular activity. Embodies certain common values and procedures and meet certain basic needs of society.

Community Organization - A term used to describe both the institution structure of communities and also the process by which the functions of various aspects of community living are continuously brought into close integration with each other.

Interaction - A process in which the responses of each partly successively become stimuli for the responses of the other

Concept - A term that expresses generalized or common element found in a number of specific cases. Conflict - Seeking to monopolize rewards by eliminating or weakening the competition.

Matrilocal Residence - The condition in which a married couple live in the family home or locality of the wife. Norm - Standard behaviour. Statistical norm is a measure of actual conduct; cultural norm states the expected behaviour of the culture

Conjugal Family - A married couple and their dependent children.

Extended Family - The nuclear family plus other kin with whom important relation are maintained. The other kin may or may not live in the same house

Consanguine Family - Extended clan of blood relatives with their mates and children.

Folkways - Customary, normal, habitual behaviour characteristic of the members of the group

Ascribed Role - Heredity status without regard to individual ability or performance.

Gesellschaft - A type of community life in which impersonal, superficial, and business like relationship prevail, secondary group contacts of a transitory sort predominate. The large urban centers are the prime example of a gesellschaft community.

Assimilation - Mutual cultural diffusion through which persons or groups come to share a common culture. Attitude - A tendency to feel and act in a certain way.

Ideology - A system of ideas which sanctions a set of norms

Bureaucracy - Administration characterized by rules, hierarchy of office and centralized authority.

Inductive Method - The method of arriving at general principles from actual observation of behaviour of what is being studied.

Caste System - A stratified society in which social position is entirely determined by parentage, with no provision for achieved status.

Polygamy - A plurality of mates Polygymy - A form of polygamy in which a husband has several wives

Clique - A small group of intimates with intense in-group feeling based on common sentiments and interest.

Nuclear Family - The same as conjugal Family

Community - A group of people who have a certain sense of belonging together and who reside in a given geographical area.

Particularistic - The tendency to govern actions by special relations to an individual or group rather than by criteria equally applicable to all men. Nepotism is an example.

Deviation - Failure to conform to the customary norms of society.

Patriarchal Residence - A consanguine family, usually patilineal and patrilocal, in which an elderly man is functional head

Discrimination - A practice that trails equal people as nonequals; limiting opportunity or reward according to race, religion or ethnic group.

Patrilocal Residence - The condition in which a married couple live in the family home – or locality – of husband

Ethnic Group - A number of people with a common cultural heritage which sets them apart from others in variety of social relationships.

Polyandry - A form of polygamy in which plural husband share a wife Reference Groups - Groups whose norms we respect and generally adapt

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149 Role - The behavior of one who holds a certain status Sect - A religious group including only a small proportion of the population. There is frequently a marked contrast between the ethical ideals dominant in the total culture Secular Society - A society with a diversity of folkway and mores. The term is also used as an adjective describing any group in which religious influence is minimized Secularization - Movement from a sacred to a rationalistic, utilitarian and experimental viewpoint Social Control - Means and processes by which society secures its members conformity to its norms and values. Social Distance - Degree of closeness to or acceptance of members of other groups Social Mobility - Movement from one class level to another. Social Processes - Respective forms of behaviour commonly found in social life. Socialization - The process by which one internalizes the patters of the groups so that distinct self-unique to the individual emerges Society - A group of people who share a common culture Stereotype - A false ideas or belief which regards all members of a group as having identical traits. Status - The position of individual in a group Subculture - A cluster of behaviour patter=n related to the general culture of a society yet distinguishable from it. The behaviour patterns of the distinct group within the general society. Values - Measures of goodness or desirability Competition - The struggle of possession or rewards which are in limited supply – money, good, status, power, love - anything. It may be formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain a reward by surpassing all rivals Assimilation - This process of mutual cultural diffusion through which person and groups come to share the common culture Formal Organization - Large social groups that are deliberately rationally designed to achieve specific objectives. They have a carefully designed structure that coordinates the activities of the member of the interest of the organization’s goals Social Inequality - Social inequality exists when people’s access to social rewards (such as money, influence, or respect) is determined by their personal or group characteristics Social Stratification - The structured inequality of entire categories of people, who have different access to social rewards as a result of their status in the social hierarchy Expressive Leadership - The kind to leadership necessary to create harmony and solidarity among members

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150

Chemistry Notes

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Dalton’s Atomic Theory Main postulates of Dalton atomic theory are as follows: Matter is composed of very tiny or microscopic particles called "atom". 1. Atom is an indivisible particle. 2. Atom can neither be created nor destroyed. 3. Atoms of an element are identical in size, shape, mass, and in other properties. 4. Atoms of different elements are different in their properties. 5. Atoms combine with each other in small whole numbers. 6. All chemical reactions are due to the combination or separation of atoms. Defects in Dalton’s Theory Postulates 2, 3, 4 and 6 are incorrect as described below: > Atom can be divided into a number of sub-atomic particles: electron, proton, and neutron. > Atoms of an element may be different in their masses. (1H1, 1H2, 1H3) > Not all compounds have small number of atoms. (Decane C10H22, Sugar C10H22O11) > Atoms can be destroyed by fission process (atom bomb, nuclear reactor) On the basis of above defects, Dalton's atomic theory has failed now.

Law of Conservation of Mass: The total mass of the products of a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass of the reactants (mass remains constant during chemical reaction) Law of Definite Composition (Law of Definite Proportions): The elemental composition of a pure compound is always the same, regardless of its source Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element in these compounds for a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers Atomic Number: number of protons in the nucleus Mass Number: number of protons + number of neutrons Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (carbon-12 and carbon-13) Atomic Mass Unit (amu): exactly one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom Atomic Mass (weight): average mass of the atoms of an element in amu: mass in g of one mol of the element

Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space

Mole (mol): quantity of a given substance that contains as many molecules or formula units as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12; consists of 6.02 x 1023 particles

Mixtures: combinations of two or more substances in which each substance retains its own chemical identity and hence its own properties

Molar Mass: mass of one mol of substance; in g it is numerically equal to the formula mass (weight) in atomic mass units

Physical Change: change of state or phase

Mass % of A = (

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 ) × 100% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

Chemical Change: transformation in which substances are converted into other substances Compound: substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions Element: substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler substances. Matter Heterogeneous Matter (variable composition)

by physical means into

Homogeneous Matter (variable composition)

by physical means into

Compounds

by chemical means into

Homogeneous Matter

Pure Substances (fixed composition)

Elements

Molecule: definite group of atoms that are chemically bonded together Ion: electrically-charged particle obtained from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms by adding or removing electrons Chemical Formula: notation that uses atomic symbols with numerical subscripts to convey the relative proportions of atoms of the different elements in the substance Empirical Formula (Simplest Formula): formula with the smallest integer subscripts Molecular Formula: chemical formula that gives the exact number of different atoms of an element in a molecule Molecular Empirical Substance Formula Formula water H2O H2O hydrogen H2O2 HO peroxide ethane C2H6 CH3

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151 Molecular Mass / Weight (MW): the sum of the atomic masses/weights of all the atoms in a molecule Formula Mass / Weight (FW): the sum of the atomic masses/weights of all atoms in a formula unit of the compound, whether molecular or not Empirical Formula Mass or Empirical Formula Weight (EFW): the sum of the atomic masses divided by the weights of all the atoms in an empirical formula Molecular Formula = 𝑛 × 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

where: 𝑛 =

Stoichiometry: Calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction: N2(g) 1 molecule N2 1 mole N2 28.0g N2

+ + + +

3H2(g) 3 molecules H2 3 moles H2 3 X 2.02g H2

→ → → →

2NH3(g) 2 molecules NH3 2 moles NH3 2 X 17.0g NH3

chemical reaction

Atomic Size: within a period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom Size of Cation: within a period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom

molar interpretation mass interpretation

Ionization Energy (energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in the ground state): within a period, increases from left to right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom

Actual Yield: Amount of product actually obtained in a reaction 𝑥 100%

Atomic Structure and Periodic Table The Nuclear Atomic Model: Protons and neutrons in the nucleus; electrons outside the nucleus The Quantum Mechanical Model Quantum numbers: n, l, ml, ms > Principal Quantum Number: n = 1(K), 2(L), 3(M)…; identifies the shell or level to which the electron belongs > Azimuthal Quantum Number: l = 0(s), 1(p), 2(d), 3(f)…; n-1 identifies the subshell > Magnetic Quantum Number: ml = +1…0…-1 gives the shape of the subshell: orientation of atomic orbital spin quantum number 1 1 > Spin Quantum Number: ms =+ , − 2

Periodic Properties of the Elements

Size of Anion: within a period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom

Theoretical Yield: Quantity of product that is calculated to form when all of the LR reacts

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

Aufbau Principle (Building-up Principle): A scheme used to reproduce the electronic configurations of atoms by successively filling subshells with electrons in a specific order (orbitals with lower energy first).

molecular interpretation

Limiting Reactant or Limiting Reagent (LR): reactant that is entirely consumed when a reaction completes

Percentage Yield =

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in the same atom may have the same set of all four quantum numbers. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity: In the ground state of an atom, electrons are distributed among the orbitals of a subshell in a way that gives the maximum number of unpaired electrons with parallel spins.

2

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and the exact momentum of a fast moving body like an electron.

Electron Affinity (energy change when an electron is added to a gaseous atom in the ground state): within a period, increases negative value from left to right; within a group, no clear trend Basicity of Metal Oxides: within a period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom Acidity of Non-metal Oxides: within a period, increases from left to right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom Metallic Property (reducing property): within a period, decreases from left to right; within a group, increases from top to bottom Non-metallic Property (oxidizing property): within a period, increases from left to right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom Electronegativity (measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to draw bonding electrons to itself): within a period, increases from left to right; within a group, decreases from top to bottom Chemical Bond Electrovalent Bond (ionic bond): formed by transfer of electrons to form ions Covalent Bond: formed by sharing of electrons between atoms > Lewis or electron-dot formulas

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152 > Normal and coordinate covalent bonds > Formal charge and oxidation number > Formal Charge (FC) = Group No. minus No. of unshared e’s minus No. of covalent bonds > The higher the bond order, the shorter the bond length and the greater the bond strength Increasing bond length: triple bond < double bond < single bond Decreasing bond length: triple bond > double bond > single bond Metallic Bond: a crystal of the metal consists of a regular arrangement of the positive ions, and the valence electrons move throughout the crystal attracted to the positive cores of all the positive ions. Polar and Non-Polar Bonds Non-Polar Covalent Bond: equal sharing of a pair of e’s in diatomic molecules consisting of identical atoms in identical atoms with identical neighbors Polar Covalent Bond: unequal sharing of a pair of e’s in identical atoms with different neighbors when two bonded atoms are dissimilar Polar and Non-Polar Molecules: consider polarity of bonds, then geometry of molecule > Non-polar bonds → non-polar molecules > Polar bonds but symmetrical → non-polar molecules > Polar bonds and not symmetrical → polar molecules Bonding e-pairs 6 5 4 3 2

Non-bonding e-pairs 0 1 2 3 4

Shape of molecule octahedral square pyramidal square planar T-shaped linear

Hybrid Orbitals: mixing of atomic orbitals to form a hybrid (e.g., sp, sp2, sp3). The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of pure atomic orbitals that mixed. Phases of Matter: consider intermolecular forces of attraction 1. Ion-dipole 2. Dipole-dipole 3. London forces / Van der Waals forces 4. H-bonding

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Gases Kinetic Molecular Theory 1. tiny molecules, far apart 2. constant, random, straight line motion: elastic collisions 3. average KE increases with increase in T 4. attractive forces are negligible Ideal Gas Law PV=nRT

“Carefree Boys & Girls Play Tennis & Volleyball” Law Charle’s Law Boyle’s Law Gay-Lussac’s Law

Constant Pressure Temperature Volume

Relationship ↑ V= ↑T ↑P=↓V ↑ P= ↑T

Liquids Vapor Pressure: pressure of vapor in equilibrium with a liquid at a given temperature Boiling Point: temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure Viscosity: resistance of fluid to flow Surface Tension: measure of the inward force on the surface of the liquid caused by intermolecular forces of attraction Solids Molecular Solids: atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular forces Metallic Solids: positive cores of atoms held together by a “sea” of electrons (metallic bonding) Ionic Solids: cations and anions held together by the electrical attraction of opposite charges (ionic bonds) Covalent Network Solids: atoms held together in large networks or chains by covalent bonds Thermodynamics > Tells whether the reaction is spontaneous or not First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be converted from one form into another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed. Second Law of Thermodynamics: Every spontaneous change is accompanied by an increase in entropy. Gibb’s Free Energy: Reactions tend to seek a minimum in energy and a maximum in randomness. Third Law of Thermodynamics: At absolute zero the entropy of a perfect crystalline substance may be taken as zero.

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153 EXERGONIC ENDERGONIC Spontaneous Non-spontaneous ΔS=+ (positive) ΔS =- (negative) ↑ entropy (disorderliness) ↓ entropy (disorderliness) ΔG = - (negative) ΔG = + (positive) Gibb’s Free energy Gibb’s Free energy ΔH = - (negative) ΔH = + (positive) exothermic endothermic Ea = Activation Energy Ea exergonic < Ea endergonic Solutions Molarity, M: Number of moles of the solute per liter of the solution Molality, m: Number of moles of the solute per kilogram of the solvent Mole Fraction, X 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ∆ 𝑋∆ = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Equivalent Point: point in a titration when an equivalent amount of titrant has been added to the analyte solution Colligative Properties: depend on the number of particles and not on the kind of particle Raoult’s Law: Pertains to ideal solutions in which the intermolecular forces between molecules are all essentially the same. 1. Boiling Point Elevation, Tb = Kb m where: Kb for water is 0.520C per molal solution 2. Freezing Point Depression,Tf = Kf m where: Kf for water is 1.860C per molal solution Buffers: solutions capable of maintaining their pH at some fairly constant value even when small amounts of acid or base are added; could be a mixture of a weak acid and the salt of its conjugate base (e.g. HOAc-OAc-) or a mixture of a weak base and the salt of its conjugate acid (e.g. NH3-NH4-) Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation: [𝐴− ] 𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log [𝐻𝐴] where pH = -log [H+] and pKa = - log Ka [A-] = molar concentration of a conjugate base [HA] = molar concentration of weak acid The equation can be rewritten to solve for pOH: [𝐻𝐵 + ] 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑏 + log [𝐵] [HB+] = molar concentration of the conjugate acid [B] = molar concentration of a weak base

pH = 7 pH > 7 pH < 7

SALT STRUCTURE +(BASE) (ACID ) Strong Base Strong Acid Strong Base Weak Acid Weak Base Strong Acid

HCl HBr HI

Strong Acid HClO4 HClO3 HBrO4 HBrO3 HIO4 HIO3

H2SO4 HNO3

Weak HClO2 HBrO2 HIO2 H2SO3 HNO2

Acid HClO HBrO HIO HNO

CH3COOH Acetic Acid (HAc) Strong Base

Weak Base

Amphoteric Base

IA

IIA

Heavy Metal

Li

Ca

NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide)

Pb

As

Na

Mg

R- NH2 (amines)

Al

Au

K

Sr

Hg

Ag

Ba Nuclear Chemistry Balancing Nuclear Reactions - Types of Nuclear Reactions: 1. Radioactive Decay: process in which an unstable nucleus is changed by the emission of radiation a. alpha decay

238 234 4 𝑈 → 𝑇ℎ + 𝐻𝑒 92 90 2

125 125 b. gamma radiation [ 𝑇𝑒] ∗ → 𝑇𝑒 + 𝛾 52 52 excited state → ground state c. -decay

131 131 0 𝐼 → 𝑋𝑒 + 𝑒 53 54 −1

d. positron decay

11 11 0 𝐶 → 𝐵+ 𝑒 6 5 1

e. electron capture 81 0 81 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑒(𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) → 𝐾𝑟 37 −1 36 2. Transmutation: process in which one nucleus is transformed into another through bombardmen by various subatomic particles or ions 14 4 17 4 𝑁 + 𝐻𝑒 → 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒 7 2 8 2 3. Nuclear Fission: process in which a heavy nucleus is split into lighter ones 1 235 142 91 1 𝑛+ 𝑈 → 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 3 𝑛 0 92 56 36 0 4. Nuclear Fusion: process in which light nuclei are fused into heavier one 1 1 2 0 𝐻+ 𝐻 → 𝐻+ 𝑒 1 1 1 1

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154 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon, their structure, chemical and physical properties, as well as their preparation and source. Despite the limited number of atoms that consist organic compounds (C, H, O, N, S, P, and the halogens), their number is much greater than the inorganic ones. This is due to the unique versatility of carbon. Organic chemistry developed from one of the most fundamental theories, the structural theory which proposes that carbon has a valence of four and thus tetravalent, and that carbon can use one or more of its valences to form bonds with other atoms including carbon itself. The nature of chemical bonds in organic compounds is covalent (resulting from the sharing of electrons). Covalent bonds are formed by overlapping orbitals of two atoms in different ways: 1. Head-to-head overlap – leading to sigma (σ) bond formation. - by atomic orbitals (s, p, d) and/or hybrid orbitals (sp, sp2, sp3 and sp3d) 2. Side-to-side overlap – leading to pi (π) bond formation - by p and d orbitals only

Knowledge of the orbitals used in bond formation is needed to identify the types of bonds formed and the location of lone pairs of electrons (if any). Characteristics of Covalent Bonds 1. Polarity – results when two atoms of different electronegatives (EN) form a covalent bond such that the electrons are not equally shared between them e.g. H - Cl or H – Cl δ+ δI - a dipole moment results from the partial positivity and partial negativity of a polar covalent bond - a molecule with no net dipole moment is a nonpolar molecule; a molecule with a net dipole moment is a polar molecule e.g. C - F > C - Cl > C - Br > C - I - there is also such thing as bond polarity (even if the two atoms held by the bond are the same) due to the difference in hybridization between the two atoms such as in the sp-sp3 and sp2-sp3 hybrid orbitals resulting to electron-withdrawing property due to the greater scharacter of one of the atoms. e.g. H–CC–CH3 > CH2  CH – CH3 >CH3 – CH2 – CH3 2. Bond Length – the average distance separating the nuclei of bonded atoms - bond length decreases with decreasing atomic radius/size: C–I > C–C > C–H - bond length decreases with increasing polarities: C–C > C–N > C–O > C–F - bond length decreases with increasing s character of the hybrid orbitals: H–CH2–CH2–CH3 > H–CHCH–CH3 > H–CC–CH3 - bond length decreases with increasing π bond electron density: H3C – CH3 > H2C = CH2 > HC  CH 3. Bond Energy/Strength – the energy needed to disrupt a covalent bond (in kJ/ mol)

- bond strength increases with increasing polarity: C–F > C – Cl > C – Br > C–I - bond strength increases with increasing s character of the hybrid orbitals: sp–sp > sp2 – sp > sp2 – sp2 > sp3 – sp2 > sp3 – sp3 - bond strength increases with increasing π bond electron density: C  C > C=C > C–C 198 kcal 163 kcal 88 kcal Structural Effects – show how electrons are distributed in organic molecules and how they affect the physical and chemical properties of the molecule 1. π -Electron Delocalization or Resonance - this concept generally applies to conjugated systems and is used to explain strengthening and shortening of bonds, nucleophilicity/electrophilicity of sites, and thermodynamic stability 2. Inductive Effects - results in the distortion of electron distribution due to the effect through sigma bond/s by strong electrondonating (EDG) or electron-withdrawing (EWG) atoms/ group of atoms - strong EDG which release electrons by resonance effect include: - NH2, -NHR and –NR2 - moderate EDG whose nonbonding electron pairs are less free include: -NH(C=O)R, -NR(C=O)R,-OH and -OR other EDG which release electrons by hyperconjugative effect include: -CH3, -CH2R, -CHR2, -CR3 and –C6H5 (the phenyl ring) - in organic compounds, EDG makes the electron pair more available, leading to ENHANCED BASICITY - strong EWG are due to electronegative atoms/ group of atoms: -NO2, -CX3 (where X = F, Cl, Br, I) - moderate EWG include: -CN, -(C=O)OH, -(C=O)OR, -(C=O)H, -(C=O)R, -SO3H - weak EWG include the halides: -F, -Cl, -Br, -I - in organic compounds, EWG enhance both the positivity of H and the dispersal of the negative charge (upon removal of the protonic H atom) stabilizing the conjugate base thus leading to ENHANCED ACIDITY 3. Steric effects - the presence of bulky substituents may result in the crowding of other substituents or atoms that may lead to weakening of bonds leading to acceleration of bond cleavage - steric effect near an acidic group favors the removal of protons regardless of whether the groups present are EDG or EWG (i.e. ENHANCED ACIDITY) - steric effect near the lone pair of electrons makes them less accessible or available for donation, thus DECREASING BASICITY 4. Intra- and Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMF) - boiling and melting substances involve disrupting IMFs existing between its particles - on the other hand, dissolution involves breaking of IMFs between similar molecules AND forming of IMFs between dissimilar molecules (solute and solvent) - the boiling point (Tb) of an organic compound is affected by several factors:

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155 a. Tb increases with increasing molecular size (due to larger surface area) b. Tb increases with decreased branching (branching decreases molecular surface area) c. Tb increases with increasing polarity of the molecule (strong dipole-dipole IMFs) d. Tb increases with decreasing molecular symmetry e. Tb increases with less intramolecular H-bonding (this minimizes IMF with the solvent) - the solubility of an organic compound in water is affected by several factors: a. it increases with decreasing carbon chain length b. it increases with branching c. it increases with increasing capacity to form intermolecular H-bonding Functional Groups Organic compounds are characterized by the presence of a certain arrangement of atoms called a functional group. This is the site in a molecule where a chemical reaction is most likely to occur and where physical properties are also determined. Organic compounds may be classified into aliphatic and aromatic compounds. I. ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS A. ALKANES and CYCLOALKANES- contains only C–C single bonds besides the C-H bonds IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + root + -ane Linear: also represented as CH4 methane CH3CH3 ethane CH3CH2CH3 propane CH3CH2CH2CH3 butane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 pentane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 hexane Physical Properties Alkanes are nonpolar molecules. The C-H bond can be considered a nonpolar bond due to the almost equal EN of H and C (2.1 and 2.5 respectively). Alkanes are in the liquid state due to van der Waal’s attractive forces. Branching decreases the surface area of alkanes and results to lesser van der Waal’s interaction and thus lowers the leading to lower boiling point. Alkanes because of their weak intermolecular forces (IMF) can only be dissolved by similar nonpolar solvents with weak IMF of attraction. They are thus insoluble in water which possess strong IMF of attraction between them molecules. Chemical Properties Alkanes do not react with bases nor with acids because it has no H atom attached to an EN atom like oxygen and does not have an electron pair for donation. But it can easily catch fire, by the combustion reaction process: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

This involves the rupture of C-H bonds by homolysis to form free radicals. Halogenation is another similar process to give monohalogenated products: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl The order of reactivities is: tertiary (3O) > secondary (2O) > primary (1O) > methane CH3 H H H l l l l H3C−C–H H3C−C–H H3C−C–H H3C−C–H l l l l CH3 CH3 H H B. ALKENES – contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + root + -ene Physical Properties Alkenes are relatively nonpolar molecules. However, in the presence of alkyl substituents like the methyl group which is an electron-donating group, the π-bond electrons are slightly pushed creating a slight polarization. Electronegative atoms like the halogens also affect the dipole moment, this time by withdrawing electrons from the π-bond. Alkenes possessing larger dipole moments have relatively higher boiling point than the lower on zero dipole moment isomer. This is due to larger dipole-dipole IMF that holds the molecules together. On the contrary, alkenes with lower or zero dipole moments have higher melting point than isomers with higher dipole moment. A structure with zero dipole moment reflects its higher symmetry and therefore better and tighter packing in the solid crystal lattice together with more efficient IMF. Alkenes are relatively soluble in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in polar solvents. Chemical Properties The reactions of alkenes are mainly centered on the π bond which is a site of high electron density. They can therefore be considered as nucleophiles (seeking a positively-charged center, symbolized as Nu-) and the attacking reagents as electrophiles (seeking a negativelycharged center, symbolized as E+). One of the most common reactions of alkenes is catalytic hydrogenation Ni/Pd/Pt CH2 = CH2 + H2 → CH3CH3 Electrophilic addition on alkenes is governed by Markovnikov’s rule, which says that the hydrogen of an attacking E+ will add to the alkene carbon containing the greater number of H substituents. C. ALKYNES – contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + root + -yne Linear: also represented as HCCH ethyne = HCC-CH3 propyne HCC-CH2CH3 1-butyne H3C-CC-CH3 2-butyne

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156 Physical Properties Alkynes have similar boiling and melting points to those of corresponding alkenes. They are soluble in nonpolar solvents but more soluble in water than alkenes or alkanes. Chemical Properties Alkynes are reduced (i.e. lower bond order) via the following reactions. Terminal alkynes are also characterized by acidity of the H atom. II. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic conjugated hydrocarbons which are specially stabilized and react by substitution instead of addition. According to Hückel’s Rule, a compound is aromatic if it satisfies all of the following: (1) it is planar, (2) fully conjugated, (3) monocyclic and (4) has (4n+2) electrons where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. Application of this rule to reveals that the following are examples of aromatic compounds: H + l :+

benzene

cyclopropenyl cyclopentadienyl tropylium cation cation cation IUPAC Nomenclature Common names of frequently occurring parent compounds such as benzene are also considered IUPAC names. For monosubstituted benzene derivatives: substituent + benzene. For disubstituted benzene derivatives: positions of substituents relative to parent functional group are indicated by numbers. When the benzene ring is a substituent instead, the prefix phenyl- is used to indicate its presence. For common names, the positions of substituents relative to the parent functional group are indicated by the prefixes ortho- (o-) for groups on adjacent C atoms on the ring, meta- (m-) for groups separated by one C atom and para- (p-) for groups on C atoms directly opposite each other. Physical Properties Benzene is not as polar as the alkenes, and is soluble in relatively nonpolar to moderately polar solvents like hexane, ether, chloroform and ethyl acetate. Chemical Properties Benzene reacts by electrophilic aromatic substitution to maintain the highly stabilized phenyl ring in the following general manner H E H+

+ E+

+

The orientation of further substitution reactions of substituted benzene derivatives are also affected by the groups already attached to the phenyl ring. All EDG from weak to strong are ortho- and para- directors while all

EWG except for the weakly deactivating halides are metadirectors. The halides though they withdraw by inductive effect can also denote electrons by resonance effect and are thus ortho- and para- directors. III. ALKYL HALIDES – halogenated derivatives of alkanes with the general formula CnH2n+1X. Alkyl halides are usually prepared by halogenations of alkanes, alkenes or alkynes. Physical Properties Alkyl halides are slightly more polar than alkanes due to the C – X bond. Alkyl halides have higher boiling point than corresponding alkanes due to larger molecular weight and stronger dipole-dipole interactions. In terms of density, the order is R – I > R – Br > H2O > R – Cl > R – F Alkyl halides like alkanes are insoluble in water, although some alkyl fluorides exhibit slight solubility due to the occurrence of H-bonding: R – F...... H – OH δ+ δδ+ δChemical Properties Alkyl halides can either undergo nucleophilic substitution or elimination reactions, Nu:- +R – X → R – Nu + X – H X l l –C–C– + :B>C=C< + HB: + X– l l H H IV. ALCOHOLS and PHENOLS – hydrocarbon compounds with at least one of its hydrogens replaced by a hydroxyl group, and phenyl rings with a hydroxyl substituent IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents)+parent chain+ -ol The common way to name alcohols consist of identifying the parent chain: alkyl + alcohol Primary (1o): CH3CH2CH2CH2OH Secondary (2o):

OH l

1-butanol (n-butyl alcohol) 2-butanol (2-butyl alcohol)

OH l Tertiary (3o):

3-methyl-1,4-pentadiol OH

OH l 3,4-dimethyl-3-hexanol OH l

2-ethyl-3-methyl-1-penten-3-ol

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157 Physical Properties Alcohols have relatively higher boiling points than corresponding hydrocarbons because they are involved in intermolecular H-bonding. Since H-bonding is also possible with water, low-molecular weight alcohols (i.e. with C: OH ratio below 5) are soluble in water. Alcohols with more than one hydroxyl group may be involved in intra- and intermolecular H-bonding. Chemical Properties Generally, alcohols are more acidic than terminal alkynes but less acidic than water, with the decreasing acidity going from 1o to 3o alcohols. Phenols are much more acidic than alcohols, and even more acidic than water because of the large stabilization of the phenolate anion. EWG on the ortho- and para- positions especially enhance its acidity. Most of the reactions of alcohols consist of their conversions into aldehydes (with a special reagent called pyridinium chlorochromate, PCC) or carboxylic acids (from 1o alcohols), or ketones (from 2o alcohols) with oxidizing agents such as chromic acid (H2CrO4), KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 in acid. O ll RCH2OH RCH aldehydes

RCH2OH

R2CHOH

O ll RC – OH O ll RCR

carboxylic acids

ketones

V. ETHERS – contain two hydrocarbon groups attached to a central oxygen atom, R – O – R’ IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents)+ -oxy- + parent chain Ethers may be named as alkyl group1+alkyl group2+ ether. Physical Properties Ethers contain polar C – O bonds are therefore more polar than alkanes. Ethers have higher boiling points than corresponding alkanes and alkenes, but much lower than alcohols due to absence of H-bonding. They are, however, as soluble in water as alcohols of the same molecular weight. As the alkyl groups of the ether increase in size, the ether becomes relatively more nonpolar. Chemical Properties The oxygen of ethers has free electron pairs available for proton donors or Lewis acids. Protonation of this oxygen will weaken the C – O bond and result in the partial positivity of the  - C which will be a good site for nucleophilic attack. The -H atoms are also readily abstracted by free radicals. H l H+ l –C– O – C– l l Nu:-

VI. AMINES – nitrogen-containing organic compounds that can be considered as alkyl or aryl (aliphatic or aromatic) derivatives of ammonia, NH3. Since ammonia contains three hydrogen atoms, there are three classes of amines. RNH2: 1o amines, characterized by an –NH2 group attached to one alkyl/ aryl group R2NH: 2o amines, characterized by an –NH group attached to two alkyl/ aryl groups R3N: 3o amines, characterized by full substitution of all H atoms by alkyl/ aryl groups IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + root + suffix –amine Amines can also be commonly named by placing the prefix amino- before the name of the parent chain. Physical Properties Amines are moderately polar compounds due to their C – N bond. In addition to this, the possibility of H-bonding (for 1o and 2o amines only) causes amines to have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular weight. They have, however, lower boiling points than corresponding alcohols (stronger H-bonds due to more EN O atoms). All classes of amines can form H-bonds with water such that all low-molecular weight amines are very soluble in water. Chemical Properties Amines can act as Lewis bases due to the lone pair on N. However, the trend in basicity depends on the medium. In the aqueous phase, 3o < 2o < 1o < NH3 because the bulky and nonpolar alkyl/aryl groups on substituted amines hinder access to the lone pair, besides decreasing solvation of the amine. However in the gas phase, the trend is reversed because the alkyl groups can now enhance the amine’s basicity by inductive effect (EDG). The three classes of amines can form salts with mineral acids: CH3CH2NH2 + HCl CH3CH2NH3Cl VII. CARBONYL COMPOUNDS – a family of compounds whose chemical properties are predominated by the reactivity of the carbonyl moiety, a C atom doubly bonded to an O atom. Carbonyl compounds are also characterized by the acidity of the -H (even though bonded to C) A. ALDEHYDES and KETONES -aldehydes are organic compounds that are characterized by the formula O ll R–C–H - ketones have the remaining hydrogen substituted with the general formula O ll R–C–R Physical Properties Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than corresponding alcohols, since they do not participate in Hbonding with similar molecules. However, they have higher boiling points that corresponding ethers and alkanes because of the more polar carbonyl group.

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158 Aldehydes and ketones are as soluble as their alcohol counterparts since they can form H-bonds with water. The same solubility restriction (i.e. C:O ratio should be less than 5) holds. Chemical Properties Most of these compounds’ reactions involve simple nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl bond wherein the C – O bond is reduced to a single bond: Aldehydes and ketones also undergo oxidation with KMnO4, H2CrO4 and K2Cr2O7 into carboxylic acids: O O ll ll RCH RC – OH O ll C – OH

=O

C – OH ll O B. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS and DERIVATIVES – organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group attached to a carbonyl O ll R – C – OH IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + root + suffix –oic + word “acid” The carbonyl C is assigned as C1 of the parent chain. They may also be identified with common names such as formic acid, butyric acid and caproic acid (found in ants, butter and goats, respectively). Carboxylic acids can also be named as derived from acetic acid. Examples are phenyl acetic acid and trimethyl acetic acid: O O ll ll CH2C – OH C – OH Illustrations: CH3CH2COOH O ll C – OH

propanoic acid (also methyl acetic acid)

O ll CH2C – OH

2,2-dimethylpropanoic acid phenylethanoic acid

Long-chain carboxylic acids are called fatty acids. They usually contain an even number of C atoms along the parent chain which may or may not contain a double bond. Saturated: CH3(CH2)4COOH caproic acid CH3(CH2)6COOH caprylic acid CH3(CH2)8COOH capric acid CH3(CH2)10COOH lauric acid CH3(CH2)12COOH myristic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH palmitic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH stearic acid

Unsaturated: palmitoleic acid CH3(CH2)5CH = CH(CH2)7COOH oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)7COOH linoleic acid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH linolenicacid CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH Physical Properties Only carboxylic acids with five or fewer carbons are soluble in water. They are soluble because they can form H-bonds with water. As the alkyl portion of the acid increases, the nonpolar property and hydrophobicity of the compound predominate. Due to intermolecular H-bonding, carboxylic acids such as acetic acid are found as dimmers in the gas state and in nonpolar solvents. Chemical Properties Carboxylic acids react with bases to form the carboxylate salts, RCOOH+ NaOH →RCOO-Na+ + H2O The presence of EWG on the R substituent enhances the acidity of carboxylic acids because of dispersion of electron density and consequent stabilization of the –COOgroup. On the other hand, substituents on the -C (branched acids) are usually less acidic than the unbranched acids since their – COO- groups are shielded from solvent molecules and cannot be stabilized by solvation as effectively. Carboxylic acids can be readily derivatized to give other functional groups: 1. Formation of ESTERS (esterification) - reaction with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst lower rates are O ll RC – OH +

R’ – OH

O ll RC – OR’

+

OH2

IUPAC Nomenclature (substituents) + parent chain + suffix –oate The chain to which the carbonyl group belongs is considered as the parent chain, with the carbonyl C as C1. The other group R’ attached to O is considered as the substituent, with the O- linked C as C1. O ethyl ethanoate (also called ethyl acetate) OCH2CH3 O methyl benzoate OMe Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Esters, anhydrides and acyl chlorides do not form Hbonds with themselves unlike carboxylic acids and alcohols. They, therefore, have lower boiling points than carboxylic acids and alcohols for comparable molecular weight. Their boiling points are similar to those of aldehydes and ketones of corresponding molecular weight.

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159 They are soluble in water as long as they have 5 C or less because of H-bonding for the esters; and because of reaction with water (hydrolysis) leading to the formation of carboxylic acids for the acyl chlorides and anhydrides. Amides can form H-bonds with themselves and thus have high boiling points as well as melting points. The N,N-disubstituted amides, however, do not form H-bonds with themselves and therefore have lower boiling and melting points. Amides with 5 C or less are soluble in water due to formation of H-bonds between solute and solvent.

c. cellulose: insoluble CHO abundant in the tough outer wall of plant cells. In humans, cellulose does not serve as f 6. Carbohydrates are formed from CO2, H2O and chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight, by the process of photosynthesis. chlorophyll : sunlight 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 7. Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide monosaccharides that is made up of.

yields

the

Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives The reactions undergone by these families of compounds are predominantly centered on the partially positive carbonyl carbon being attacked by nucleophiles. The relative reactivities of the carbonyl compounds is in the order O O O O O ll ll ll ll ll RC – Cl > RC – O – CR’ > RC – OR’ > RC – NH2

8. Carbohydrates undergo fermentation to produce alcohols. Sucrose and maltose will ferment with yeast but not lactose.

most reactive

10. Proteins are the main constituents of living cells. They are made up of amino acids (acids that contain the amine group as well as the carboxyl group) linked through the nitrogen atom to form very large molecules with molecular weights as high as 50 million.

least reactive

The relative reactivity depends on (1) relative electron density or withdrawing effect of a group –X towards the carbonyl C, (2) the relative ability of –X as a leaving group, and (3) both the electronic and steric effect of the R-group. Nucleophilic substitution takes place readily if the incoming group (Nu:-) is a stronger base than the leaving group (-X) or if the final product is resonance-stabilized BIOCHEMISTRY 1. Carbohydrates are polydroxy aldehydes and ketones (called aldose and ketose) or, compounds yielding these substances upon hydrolysis; they include sugars, starches and cellulose. 2. Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides, (containing one sugar unit) or polysaccharides (containing two or more units); those containing two units are often called disaccharides. M.S. + M.S. + energy D.S. (dehydration synthesis involving removal of water) hydrolysis D.S. M.S. + M.S. + energy Lactose glucose + galactose Maltose 2 glucose sucrose glucose (C6H12O6) + fructose (C6H12O6) 3. Glucose is one of the most common monosaccharides; it is the sugar found in the blood and hence is often referred to as blood sugar. (also known as dextrose or grape sugar) 4. Sucrose: (table sugar) most common disaccharides; it consists of a glucose unit and a fructose unit. 5. Starch (an important nutrient for man) is a polysaccharide made up of many glucose units. a. starch: storage carbohydrate found in plants b. glycogen: storage carbohydrate of animals

9. Reducing sugars are identified by becoming oxidized by Cu2+ (which is reduced and hence blue color disappears) in the FEHLING’S and Benedict’s tests. Maltose and lactose show reducing properties except sucrose. Polysaccharides: (-) tests for reducing sugars.

11. All the amino acids that have been isolated from proteins are alpha amino acids and hence have the general formula however, they can also have another NH2 O R – CH – C – OH; -NH2 or –COOH as part of the R group. Also, the R group can contain an –OH group S atoms, and it can be aliphatic or aromatic. 12. The essential amino acids are those required by man but cannot be synthesized by the body. 13. The amino acids in a protein are joined together through the nitrogen atom on one amino acid and the carboxyl group on another, to form a peptide linkage. Hence proteins are sometimes called polypeptides. 14. The kind and order of amino acids in a protein determine the primary structure, and the type of chain and hydrogen bonding within the molecule determines the secondary structure. The tertiary structure has to do with the overall shape of the molecule, and the quaternary structure refers to interaction between protein molecules. 15. Since proteins contain both an amine group (-NH2, which is basic) and the acid or carboxyl (-COOH) also form a type of double ion, called a Zwitterion. The pH value where it is neutral is called the isoelectric point. 16. Proteins undergo hydrolysis to yield the amino acids that the protein is composed of; they can be denatured by heat, acid, base, or alcohol. This breaks the hydrogen bonds and thus changes the structure and reactivity of the protein.

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160 17. Proteins can be simple (only contain amino acids) or conjugated protein (contain phosphoric acid, carbohydrates, or nucleic acids). They can be classified according to their function as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, structural (in skin, hair and so on), contractile (in skeletal muscles), or blood proteins. 18. Lipids are fatlike substances that are esters, acids or alcohols. Fats, oils and waxes are examples of lipids. 19. Fatty acids are long chain monocarboxylic acids that can be saturated or unsaturated. 20. Fats and oils are esters of glycerol and fatty acids; all R groups (from the acids) are the same in a simple glyceride, and they are different in a mixed glyceride. Fats have saturated R group and oils the R groups contain multiple bonds; an oil can be converted to a fat by hydrogenating it to form saturated R groups. 21. The number of double bonds in a fat or oil can be determined by the iodine number, which tells how many grams of iodine will react with 100 grams of fat or oil. The saponification number is used to determine the molecular weight of a fat; by measuring the number of milligrams of KOH that will react with one gram of fat, to form a soap (an alkali metal salt of a fatty acid). 22. Waxes are esters of high molecular weight monohydroxy alcohols. 23. Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids; compound lipids contain other groups (such as phosphoric acid, carbohydrates, and nitrogen compounds) along with the acid and alcohol; derived lipids are obtained by the hydrolysis of simple or compound lipids – for example, fatty acids and sterols (high molecular weight cyclic alcohols – such as cholesterol) are derived lipids. 24. Most enzymes are proteins and will undergo all the reactions of proteins. The enzymes in the body function best about 400C. Temperatures above or below body temperature will decrease the activity of enzymes. Each enzymes has a certain pH at which it can function best. An increase in the amount of enzyme will

increase the rate of reaction. An increase in the amount of substrate will increase the rate of reactions.

Compounds that increase the activity of an enzyme are called activators. Compounds that interfere with the activity of an enzyme are called inhibitors. Enzymes contain an “active site” that binds to the substrate to form an enzyme substrate complex. This complex yields the products and regenerates the enzyme. Many enzymes contain two parts – a protein and a nonprotein part. The protein part of an enzyme is called the

apoenzyme.

Some enzymes require the presence of a substance called a coenzyme before they can act effectively. Coenzymes frequently contain the B vitamins or compounds derived from the B vitamins. Under the older system of naming enzymes the substrate was not mentioned, the newer system indicates the substrate being acted on. The names of enzymes

under this system end in-ase. Enzymes can be classified as oxidoreductases (enzymes that catalyze oxidation – reduction reactions between two substrates), transferases (which catalyze the transfer of a functional group between substrates), hydrolases (which catalyze hydrolysis reactions), lyases (which catalyze the removal of groups from substrates by means other than hydrolysis), isomerases (which catalyze the interconversion of cis-trans isomers), and ligases (which catalyze the coupling of two compounds with the braking of pyrophosphate bonds). Some hydrolytic enzymes are found in the lysosomes of the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm also contains mitochondria. These structural and functional units contain most of the oxidative enzymes and are deeply involved in the electron transport system of oxidation reaction. The mitochondria also produce ATP, the cells’ chief source of energy. Abnormal plasma enzyme concentrations are of clinical significance in the diagnosis of certain diseases. Isozymes are enzymes with the same function but slightly different structural features. Allosteric enzymes are key metabolic enzymes whose activity can be changed by molecules other than the substrate. Zymogens are the precursors of enzymes. 25. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for the biochemical reactions take place in the body. There is a specific one for each reaction. Without these, the biochemical reaction will not take place fast enough to sustain life. 26. The main constituent of genes and viruses in the body are nucleo-proteins, which consist of proteins and nucleic acids. These are two classes of nucleic acids – ribonucleic acids, RNA and deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA. These are responsible for the genetic code; transfer RNA’s (tRNA) select specific amino acids from a cell and transfer them to messenger RNA’s (mRNA), which transmit the genetic code from the DNA in protein synthesis. 27. Food taken into the body first undergoes digestion. which breaks up the complex molecules into simple ones, and then metabolism, in which the digested food undergoes chemical changes in the tissues. There are two types of metabolism – catabolism produces energy from the nutrients and anabolism either stores the nutrients or produces proteins and other substances from them. 28. Carbohydrates, which usually consumed as starches, are one of the main sources of energy in the body. By a series of processes they are converted to glucose and either used to produce energy (by forming carbon dioxide and water, plus energy, in the Krebs or citric acid cycle) or stored for later use. 29. In the metabolism of proteins, they are hydrolyzed to amino acids, which are then either used for tissue building or broken down to ammonia, carbon dioxide and water with the production of energy. The ammonia, which is toxic, is removed by converting it to urea in the liver. In adults there is a nitrogen balance between the amount

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161 taken in and amount excreted; however in children this is not the case since some is used in tissue building. 30. Fats and oils are oxidized to produce energy in the body, being an even richer source than carbohydrates. Fats can also be stored in the body; these not only serve as a source of reserve food but also cushion the body organs. 31. The food we eat consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, water, and vitamins (compounds that are essential to an organism but cannot be synthesized by the organism) 32. Nutrients can be classified as according to the following functions; ➢ provision from energy ➢ body-building materials ➢ regulation of the body processes. The three main food types ➢ carbohydrates, proteins and fats ➢ proteins, calcium, and phosphorus are used ➢ elements such as sodium, potassium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur and iron are necessary, along with traces of copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc, molybdenum, and fluorine. 33. Drugs fall into two categories: pharmacodynamic agents, which alter body functions by acting on the nervous system and chemotherapeutic agents, which destroy organisms that are harmful to the body. Additional Notes in Proteins Colloidal Nature: Proteins form colloidal dispersions with water. Being colloidal, protein will pass thru filter paper but not membrane. Proteins present in the bloodstream cannot pass through the capillaries and should remain in the blood. Since proteins cannot pass through membranes, there should be no protein material present in the urine. The presence of protein in the urine indicates damage to the membranes in the kidneys-possibly nephritis. Denaturation of a protein refers to the unfolding and rearrangement of the secondary and tertiary structures of a protein without breaking the peptide bonds. A protein that is denatured loses it biological activity. Reversible denaturation occurs when the conditions for denaturation are mild, the protein can be restored to the original conformation by carefully reversing the conditions that caused their denaturation. Reagents that cause denaturation 1. Alcohol coagulates (precipitates) all types of proteins except prolamines. 70% alcohol is used as disinfectant because its ability to coagulate the protein present in bacteria. Alcohol denatures proteins by forming H-bonds that complete with the naturally occurring H-bonds in the protein. 2. Salts of heavy metals such as mercuric chloride or silver nitrate, precipitate proteins. The antidote for mercuric

chloride when these poisons are taken internally is egg white. The heavy metal will react with the egg white and precipitate out. (The egg white colloid has a charge opposite to that of the heavy metal ion and so attracts it). The precipitate thus formed must be removed from the stomach by an emetic or the stomach will digest the egg white and return the poisonous material to the system. 3. Heat. Gentle heating causes reversible denaturation of protein, whereas vigorous heating causes irreversible denaturation by disrupting several types of bonds. 4. Alkaloidal Reagents such as picric acid or tannic acid denature protein by disrupting the salt bridges and hydrogen bonds. Tannic acid has been used extensively in the treatment of burns. When the substance is applied to the burned area, it causes the protein to precipitate as a tough covering, thus reducing the amount of water loss from the area. 5. Radiation. Proteins in cancer cells (rapidly dividing cells) are more susceptible to radiation than those present in normal cells so x irradiation is used to destroy cancerous tissues. 6. pH. Changes in pH can disrupt H-bonds and salt bridges, causing irreversible denaturation. Proteins are coagulated by such strong acids as concentrated HCl, sulfuric acids and nitric acids. Casein is precipitated from milk as a curd when it comes in contact with the HCl of the stomach. Heller’s ring test is used to detect the presence of albumin in the urine. A layer of conc. nitric acid is carefully placed in a sample of urine in a test tube. If albumin is present, it will precipitate out as a white ring at the interface of the two liquids. If acid or base remains in contact with protein for long period of time, the peptide bonds will break. 7. Oxidizing and reducing agents. Oxidizing agents such as bleach and nitric acid and reducing agents such as sulfites and oxalates denature protein irreversibly to disrupting disulfide bonds. 8. Salting out. Most proteins are insoluble in saturated salt solutions and precipitate out unchanged. To separate a protein from a mixture of other substances, the mixture is placed in a saturated salt solution (such as NaCl, or Na2SO4. The protein precipitates out and is removed by filtration. The protein can then be purified from the remaining salt by the process of dialysis. Biomolecules A. Carbohydrates (L. “carbos” charcoal, “hydros” water) • Most abundant organic molecule in nature • Monomer is monosaccharide, polymer is polysaccharide • Majority of these compounds contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with a common ration of Cn(H2O)n “hydrate of carbon” • Functions include energy sources and structural elements • They are classified as monosaccharides,

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162

• • • • • •

disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides according to the number of simple sugars they contain. monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose) disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose) oligosaccharides (3-10 monosaccharide units, found in ER, GB) polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, pectin, gum, peptidoglycan) Monosaccharides are linked together by a process called dehydration synthesis/ condensation (removal of water). Polysaccharides are broken down to their component monosaccharides through hydrolysis.

B. Proteins • Monomer is amino acid, polymer is polypeptide • There are currently 20 naturally-occurring amino acids • Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds • Protein Denaturation=disruption of 3° structure • Of all the molecules encountered in living systems, proteins have the most diverse functions. Function 1. catalysis

Examples Enzymes (amylase,

cellulose, papase/ papain) Collagen (connective tissue matrix)

2. structure

Fibroin (silk), spider web Keratin (hair, horns, feathers, hooves)

Actin and tubulin (involved 3. movement

4. defense

5. regulation

6. transport

7. storage

in cell movements in

Amoeba and sperm cells; found in flagella and cilia) Skin keratin (first line of protection) Fibrinogen and thrombin (blood clot) Antibodies (secreted by lymphocytes in response to infection) Spines of sea urchin Hormones (insulin &

glucagon, growth hormone) Hemoglobin (oxygen and waste material transport) Myoglobin (transport of oxygen to muscles) Glucose transporters Zein (corn), gliadin (wheat), plastids, ovalbumin (egg white), casein (milk)

There are four levels of protein structure: • Primary (1°) • Secondary (2°) • Tertiary (3°) • Quaternary (4°) C. Lipids (L. “lipos” fat) • Unlike other biological polymers, lipids are not defined by specific, repeating monomeric units. Rather, they are defined by their water-repelling property. • They contain 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol. • They also contain non-polar hydrocarbon groups (-CH3CH2) • Functions include transport, storage, and insulation. • 3 types: oils (saturated and unsaturated), waxes, phospholipids • Oil is liquid at room temperature, while wax is solid. • Phospholipids usually assume two forms in an aqueous environment: micelle and phospholipids bilayer. • Oil is usually plant-derived, while fat (wax) is animalderived. • Lipids have the most amount of energy content: Lipids>Carbohydrates> Proteins D. Nucleic Acids • There are two types: DNA and RNA. • Monomer is nucleotide • The sugar component is a pentose (Nucleotide is made up of three components: nitrogenous base, sugar (ribose, deoxyribose) and phosphate group. • The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil. • Types of bond found in Nucleic Acids: H-bonds (between complementary nitrogenous bases); Phosphodiester bond (connects nucleotides); and N-glycosidic bond (connects bases and sugars). • Main function is involved in heredity, protein synthesis, and as energy carriers.

Sugar Bases Strand Helix

DNA Deoxyribose A, G, C, T Double-stranded Helical

RNA Ribose A, G, C, U Single-stranded Non-helical

Examples

B-DNA, A-DNA, Z-DNA

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, hnRNA, snRNA

* words in italics are specific names of proteins

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163 PRIORITY TABLE OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Function

Suffix (main function)

Prefix (secondary function)

Example

Acid

-oic acid

carboxyl-

CH3-COOH Ethanoic acid

Ester

-yl, -oate

Amide

-amide

carboxamido-

CH3-CH2-CONH2 Propanamide

Nitrile

-nitrile (cyanide)

cyano-

CH3-CN Ethanenitrile Methyl cyanide

Aldehyde

-al

oxo-

CH3-CH2-CHO Propanal

Ketone

-one

oxo-

CH3-CO-CH3 Propanone

R-OH

Alcohol

-ol

hydroxi-

R-NH2

Amine

-amine

amino-

R-O-R’

Ether

-y … yl ether

oxa-

C=C

Alkene

-ene

-CC-

Alkyne

-yne

R-NO2

Nitro

nitro-

R-X

Halide

fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-

-R

Radical

yl-

Formula O II R-C-OH O II R-C-O-R’ O II R-C-NH2 R-CN O II R-C-H O II R-C-R’

CH3-COO-CH3 Methyl ethanoate

CH3-CH2OH Ethanol CH3-CH2-NH2 Ethylamine CH3-O-CH2-CH3 Ethylmethyl ether CH3-CH=CH2 Propene CH3-CHCH Propyne CH3-CH2-NO2 Nitroethane CH3-CH2Br Bromoethane CH3 I CH3-CH-CH3 Methylpropane

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