Music Of The Spheres

Remixing the Music of the Spheres: Listening to the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrine for the Sociology of Music Author(s): Lee Blackstone Source: International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, Vol. 42, No. 1 (JUNE 2011), pp. 3-31 Published by: Croatian Musicological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41228640 . Accessed: 02/10/2014 17:37 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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IRASM 42 (2011) 1:3-31

Lee Blackstone

Remixing the Music of the Spheres: Listening to the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrine for the Sociology of Music

...no law can obligethesubjectto takehispleasurewhere I he doesnotwanttogo | no law (whateverthereasonsmightbeforhis resistance), is in a positiontoconstrain ourlistening: freedom oflisteningis as necessaryas freedom ofspeech.

RolandBarthes(1976)

»I heardYourvoicein thegarden,«replied[theman], »and I was afraidbecause I was naked,so I hid.«- Genesis 3:10 Cum On Feel TheNoize.

Slade (1973)

The GermandirectorWim Wenderscaptures momentsoflistening in his 1987film extraordinary WingsofDesire (Der HimmelüberBerlin).The angels

Damiel (playedby BrunoGanz) and Cassiel (Otto Sander)wanderthewall-dividedcityofBerlin, privy to ordinarymortals'cascadingthoughtsthatpermeatethecitymuchlikethefrequencies ofa shortwave radio. The angel Damiel has a longingto becomecorporeal, and he fallsinlovewitha trapeze

Departmentof Sociology SUNY College at Old Westbury P.O. Box 210 OLD WESTBURY, NY 11568-0210, U.S.A. E-mail: [email protected] UDC: 78.01:78.067 OriginalScientificPaper Izvorniznanstvenirad Received: May 2, 2010 Primljeno:5. svibnja 2010. Accepted: November 1, 2010 Prihvačeno: 1. studenog 2010.

Abstract - Résumé

Pythagoras'ancient principleof the 'music ofthe spheres' established linkages between people, nature,and the heavens. The idea of a musical universeoperatingaccordingto principlesof beauty and truth became foundationalto the developmentofWesterncivilization. I argue thatthisdoctrine has also exerted influenceon sociological theoriesconcerning listeningto music. I assert that as the modernworldwas transformedby the divisionof labor and scientificrationality, people's relationshipwithmusic was likewisealtered. New sounds destabilized the older Listehierarchyof unification. ningto music emerges inthis as a social construction, study subject to power and control, whichdelineates social boundaries. However,I argue thatthe conceptionof music as a vehicle oftranscendence persists in musical theorizing fromPythagoras'timeto the contemporaryage.

Keywords: listening• Pythagoras • modernity • noise • utopía

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L- B'ackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

In a cardealership, unseenin a display Marion(SolveigDommartin). artist, sitting of modelon theshowroomfloor,Damieland Cassielcomparetheirobservations thehumanworld;afterwhich,Damielopinesthat totestify Iťsgreattolivebythespirit, daybyday...foreternity, onlywhat's I'mfedup withmyspiritual inpeople'sminds. Butsometimes, spiritual Instead offorever above...I'dliketofeela weight existence. hovering growin andtotiemetoearth. me...toendtheinfinity 13.36) (13.16 Filmedin black and white,the angels of WingsofDesireare doomed to of human observe;they are separatedfromthe densityand imperfection in »in human Damiel's of life, words, pretense.« vicariously partaking experience, and ideasneed ofoverheard is thateventhecataloguing Theimplication thoughts ofthehumanconditobe trulyfelt.Momentsofcomprehension thetugofgravity theblack tioncomecrashingintoWenders'filmin burstsofcolor,transgressing and whitebarrierofangelicperception. One of WingsofDesire'smostmemorablescenesoccursin Berlin'spublic Hereone findsnotonlyDamieland Cassielmeandering slowlyamongst library. ofthetransthepatrons;black-coated silentlypartaking angelsare everywhere, oftheold and theyoung.Theycranetheireyesovershouldersto mittedthoughts peep at the books being read and notesbeing written.Sound and sightare intowhatis a sensual totheangels.On thelibrary floor,Cassieldrifts voyeuristic actoflistening to thehumofhumanactivity: slowly,he closeshis eyes,cocking hishead to one side; and then,his head and neckarchslowlybackwards.(17.22 - 17.37)In thatbriefmoment, an immaterial angelicbodyapes thelongingofthe physicalbody.Does Cassiel yearn?CertainlyDamiel does, and when Damiel becomeshumanin his questto be withMarion,he experiencesat a concertthe musicofNickCave and theBad Seeds in all ofitsraging,weightyhumancolor. meandersthestageamongsttheband,locked Cassiel,on theotherhand,listlessly intoblack and white,eventuallyturninghis disconsolateface away fromthe musicand intothestagewall. tomusic I haveextrapolated on thisculturalexampletoask:whatis listening themselves and how have socialtheorists for?How is our listeningconstituted, natureof The abstract, ethereal,and fleeting analyzedand critiquedlistening? musichas oftenbeenconstruedas a bridge,a mediatorbetweentheearthlyand to our I wishto arguethatthereareundercurrents theheavenward.In thisspirit, I am of that have made our ears contested battlegrounds. talking histolistenings riesofsound thatcomedown to us as whispersofwhichwe are dimlyaware: traditions fromancient, whether (Duffin2007;Godwin1995;James1993; mystical Levenson1995); or, fromanalysesthatposit the act of listeningas socially constructed (Adorno1938;Blackstone2009;Douglas 1999;Johnson1995;Martin as 1995;Szendy2008);or,fromtheturninculturalstudiesthatredefined listening 4

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music of the Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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■ irasM 42 (2011) I / 1a• 3-31

an activeact,ratherthana passiveone (Acordand DeNora 2008;Becker1974; DeNora 2000;Frith1996;Martin1995;Small 1998);or,fromwritingthattreats as an actthattakesus beyondtheinteriority ofselfand intothecreative listening the social. Attali Barthes1991;Nancy2007; of 2002; 1985; (Adorno, composition Storr1992) and theequipment Modesoflistening becomeembeddedinourtechnologies thatwe utilizeto hearsoundseveryday (Sterne2003;Szendy2008).An explorationoflistening musthearkentoC. Wright Mills'wordsfromhis 1959essay»The CulturalApparatus«: thehumancondition is thatmenliveinsecondThefirst ruleforunderstanding handworlds. Theyareawareofmuchmorethantheyhavepersonally experienced; andtheir is alwaysindirect. Thequality oftheir livesis determined ownexperience from others... lifetheydo not [I]ntheir everyday bymeanings theyhavereceived a solid their itself is selected world of fact; experience experience bystereotyped andshapedbyready-made (Mills1963:405) meanings interpretations. Sociologistsmay seek to uncoverhidden realitiesveiled behind social of phenomena,the »stereotyped meanings«and »ready-madeinterpretations« Mills'socialactors;butI wouldalso arguethatsocialtheoriesthemselves areoften builton frameworks thatare likewiseheirsto past construction. Understanding a the'meanings'ofmusic,and ofourlistenings^ us to subjects sociologyofknowabout that and reified as music is concealed the aestheticbeauty. by ledge past we Whenwe tuneintothesociologyofmusic,as withanysociologicaldiscipline, mustcontendwithechoes. The musicologistNicholas Cook has argued a numberof suppositions undergirdhow we thinkaboutmusic;forexample,thenotionsthatcomposers are moreimportant thanmusicians,and thatlistenersare passiveconsumersof musicalproducts.Cook proposesthatideas suchas thesewieldhegemonicforce, and are acceptedas routinetruths. Yet»...none ofthesethingsare natural;they areall humanconstructions, and accordingly productsofculture, theyvaryfrom timetotimeand fromplacetoplace.«(1998:17)Cook'scontention is akintoanalyticalpositionstakenbysymbolicinteractionists and socialconstructionists within To that a of music or sociology. accept particular way performing hearingmusfëis 'natural'meansthatthatculturalformation musthavebeenestablishedby social actorsin a processof social interaction All meaningsin the and collaboration. socialworldaresubjecttothisongoing,creativeprocess,as humanagentsrespond and readjustthemselvesto one another'sactions,words,and expectations. For human intercourse occurs withinthebounds interactionists, symbolic meaningful ofa definition Shouldthesocialsituation be vagueandunstructured, ofa situation. individualswillmovetowardsestablishing a foundational definition foraction; of the situationmay be but, where a situationis lucid to all, the definition 5

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^. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

Underthe lattercondition,the culturalpatternsof response commonsensical. buttheymayalso be conditioned as hegemoto mayappear emergeorganically, Hewitt 1984;Martin nicallyappropriate. (Bergerand Luckmann1966;Berger1969; 1995;Mead 1964) As socialacts,themakingof,and listening to,musicis subjectto continuing and reconstructions. Everycultureproducesmusic,or soundsthat agreements peoplein otherculturesmayacknowledgeas music,evenifsuchsoundsappear tothemusicalconventions odd and do notconform bywhichone'sown musicis Listeners music musical conventions, meaningmusical recognize through judged. that been socialized into and have norms, they perceivingas 'natural' practices withintheirsociety.In thissense,unwanted,unnaturalsoundsmaymarktheir maybe perceivedas 'noise'or producersas deviant,whilethesoundsthemselves auraldeviance.(Attali1985;Becker1974;Blackstone 2009;Erlmann2005;Hegarty 2007;Martin1995;Meyer1961) itselfin a heard The musicthatwe hear,then,has thepotentialto manifest to that sharethesame aesthetic. attach themselves Peoplemay groups political oflisteners. thesamewaysofhearing, communities musicalconventions, creating I am a in Antoine reminded music interviewed of (Martin,1995) producer ofSuccess,«who statedthat»Theinnerear has been Hennion's»TheProduction The ear conditionedby the musicpeople have been hearingforgenerations... an entire reflects an entiresocialgroup, (Hennion[1983]1990:193)The country.« orwhatGrossberg(1997)has musiconehearsand enjoyscanbecomea resource, and potential termedan »affective alliance,«a basisforinteraction empowerment. and NormanDenzinwrotethatculturalobjectsproducea varietyofexperiences, to itis through culturalartifacts thatpeopleprojecttheirowndesiresand attempt findmeaningin theirlives.Further: whentheactions andemotions connect tothe Theseexperiences become political they express and in economies which class, race, stereotypes. gender political life ways reinforce ofeveryday In theaestheticexperienceturnedpolitical,theindividualexperiencesheightened in-group,out-group feelingsof moralworth,oftencoded in masculine-feminine, and out-group terms.Suchmoments ofin-group hostility. producefeelings solidarity and an exaggeoftheculture, Conductis directedto thesalientpoliticalstereotypes is experienced. ratedsenseofself-worth (Denzin1992:135;emphasisin original)

alliances arguethataffective BearingDenzin in mind,one could therefore in thatis result a formofempowerment producedvia musicmaynotnecessarily in fact,thesocialactionmanifested froma listeningcommunity beneficial; may in thewriting conform to hegemonicpurposes- a themethatwe willencounter Thenicetiesofmusic- Shakespeare's»Ifmusic ofTheodorAdorno([1938]:2002). idea thatmusicis a formof be the foodof love,play on,« or the oft-asserted 6

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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irasm 42 (2011) 1a 3-31

'universallanguage'- are nothingless than social constructions. Music is as or as provocative, or as inclusiveorexclusive,as we grantitduringthe innocent, processofsocialinteraction. Muchas ifwe wereto heara recurring themein a symphony, or a powerful hookin a pop tune,theact oflisteningas depictedin thesocialsciencescannot seemtoescapenotionsofharmonious and eventhehopefor transcendence, unity, It is if there a that as is sense the act of we mayachieve utopia. through listening, orregainsomething lost,and thatthismaybe a desirableobjective; but,itis also thebirthand shockof new musicunderconditionsof modernity thatinvests with to music a tension that attracts and listening simultaneously repelsus. The auralsurroundings ofmodernlifeitselfhave upendedideas ofwhatconstitutes 'music';dissonancesand noise threatentheunityand harmonyon whichprevailingideas ofaesthetic beautyhavebeenestablished. It is my assertionthatlisteningto musiccan construct or demolishsocial whether such boundaries are real or This articleexplores boundaries, imagined. thesubtlenarrative thatrunsbeneaththetheoryon listening tomusic,and which has servedas listening's mirror: thatlisteningto musicis, or can be, enriching, attendstothe'proper'music.Suchlistening, providingthatthelistener according tothepremiseofunityand harmony, a heavenlycircuit: Rabbi mayeventraverse Eleazar,in theKabalisticZohar,indicatedthatevenangelslistentohumanmusic and »...thenthosesupernalbeingsgainan accessionofknowledge,wisdomand so thattheyareabletoperceivematters whicheventheyhad never understanding, beforecomprehended.« (in Godwin1995:64) We shallexplorehow listeningto music adds weightand color to the human conditionthroughsocial theory, thatitsworthis sociallyconstructed mindful andthatsuchsoundingsmaybecome either of heaven or of hell. utopias Hammerand Anvil:The Pythagorean Tradition Takemeup to thetopofthecity And put meup on theangel'sshoulders.

KateBush(1993)

We areall Pythagoreans.

IannisXenakis (1971)

Themiddleearcontainssomeofthetiniest bonesinthebody,amongstwhich arethe'hammer'and 'anvil/whichenableus tohearsounds.Whiletheearbones werelikelynamedaftertheirdistinctive thatthesemishapes,I finditcharming nal storyrelating tothediscovery ofmusicalacousticsincorporates a muchlarger hammerandanvil.Thelegendis associatedwithPythagoras, a Greekphilosopher, 7

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

mathematician, religiousteacher,and by some accountsscientistand magician, ВСЕ. BecausePythagoras who livedin thelatterpartofthesixthcentury appears downanything his own work,thereal,historitoneverhave written concerning was eclipsedby theone celebratedin thetalescirculatedby the cal Pythagoras tradition. Yetwhetheras factor myth,thefigureof followers ofthePythagorean as both the serves startingpointforwesternscienceand forthe Pythagoras whichour ears are attuned.(Hamilton2007; Western musical scale to modern, Levenson1994)Whatemergesfromthe commentaries on Pythagoras'diverse his concern to stress »...the interrelatedness ofall human interests is overarching knowledge.«(James1993:23) walkedby a blacksmith's One day,thelegendstates,Pythagoras shop,from whichhe heardemanatingthesoundsofdifferently weightedhammersbeating was amazed,as thesoundswereringing ironouton thesmith'sanvil.Pythagoras inharmonious combinations. thensoughttoreproducethe Intrigued, Pythagoras of consonantsound.An experimental methodemployedby miraculouseffects A monochord an instrument the is an involved known as monochord. Pythagoras two with one stretched across its the is divided into board; string string apparatus sectionsby a movablebridge.Bymovingthebridgeand also dividingthestring discoveredthatthemusicalpitchesobtained lengths, Pythagoras up intodifferent to mathematical ratios; they 'sounded' together,in concord. corresponded had notjustuncovereda ruleofmusic:hehad also madean enormous Pythagoras as he could demonstrate thatharmonywas relatedto scientific breakthrough, relationscould now confirmthe numericprinciples.Objectivemathematical workwithharmonious sensuousexperience ofsound;and itis fromPythagoras' musicalintervalsthatsounds could be organizedinto and describedwithin thegenesisofWestern musicalscales.(Duffin2007; octaves,thereby establishing Levenson 1993; James 1994) But Pythagoras' insightwas not just bound to humanlyproducedmusic. toJames(1993:31), »[t]helawsofmusicwereofparamount importance, According and eventheimperceptible fortheygovernedthewholescopeoftheperceptible thatancientphilosophycontains»...theidea universe.«Cook likewiseconfirms thatthepluckingofa stringorthesoundingofa chimecan giveaccessto another ofsound,affirmed (1998:32)The perfect by planeofexistence.« correspondences a but mustreflect could not have been sheer coincidence, mathematics, simply and his formulated muchgranderordertothecosmos.WhatPythagoras followers was a pictureofa musicaluniverse:a vibratory schemewherebytheheavens,and wereconnectedto humanexistenceon earthvia even theconceptof divinities, bothmusicand soul sharea basis in number.« sound.»ForthePythagoreans... (Godwin1995:21)The doctrineofthe'musicofthespheres'equatedtheregular withsound;as theplanetsrevolved, movements oftheplanetsin theirintervals too must musical related tones to theirmathematical orbits. they produce 8

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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iras M 42 (2011) 1a 3-31

The implications ofPythagoras' ideologicalinnovationshouldbe apparent. We are surroundedby a constant, musicthatis generatedby the imperceptible itsurrounded thelistener universe;as Levensonstates,». ..continuous, unbroken, frombirthtodeath,withnevera momentoftruesilencetoactas itsfoil.«(1994:24) Each personalso createdtheirown musicvia the interplaybetweensoul and body,butevenhereindividualsweredeafto theirown soundings.Peoplewere flawedbeings.Pythagoras' followers believedthatonlythemasterhimselfcould heartheactualmusicofthespheres;therestofhumanity had growninsensitive tosuchcosmicsounds,butcouldgainaccesstothisdivinepattern innature- and of theirown bodies - via themusicalscale. Earthlymusiccould neverhope to imitatethepuremusicofthedivineheavens;butit could approximate perfectly and muchfurther it, anynotestruckon Earthwould have a correspondence up theheavenlyscale. The idea thatmusicmightrepresent a universe'connected'throughsound was Christianized theworkofStAugustine(354-430A.D.). TheChristian through conceptofbeautyespousedbyStAugustinewas based in theultimateperfection oftheDeity.As God was thezenithofbeauty,order,and goodness,any of the humanartsmightserveGod by providingmeansforthespiritto ascendto such heights.St Augustinebelievedthatmusic- withits existencein immaterial, sucha journeyofthesoul.(Richter ephemeralsound- was bestsuitedtofacilitate the connection between God,music,and manas indicativeofa 1967)Articulating cosmic order thus became an harmonious, interpretive projectin the Westfor centuries. Forexample,theElizabethan Robert physicianand esotericphilosopher Fludd would famouslydepictthePythagorean modelin a seventeenth century theuniverseas tunedto a cosmicmonochord. God'shand illustration, conceiving to a high'G' in the graspsthetuningpeg ofthemonochord(also corresponding heavenlysphere),as thestringdescendsthroughtheplanetaryuniverseto the 'G' soundedby Terra Firma.(Levenson1994) weightier Hence,theindividualsoul,nature,theheavenlyspheres,and thedivinewere linkedthroughmusic.Whatpassed forscientific also explanationforPythagoras entaileda cosmic,magicalsystemthatwould come to wield greatexplanatory powerin theRenaissance.Forifmusicaltonesvibratedbetweenbodyand soul, natureand the universe,mightnot music correspondwithhuman emotion? could cause corresponding Perhapsmusic,producedon earthlyinstruments, inpeople.Musicalsounds,perceivedinthismanner, vibrations mightthenarouse, or lull, people; perhapsmusic could even be utilizedto heal individualsby realigning bodyand soul notonlywitheach other,butalso withnature.Music, turnedtotheseendsand concerns, couldthereby orderand controlpeople.(Blackstone2009;Godwin1995;James1993;Tomlinson1993) WhileI am discussinga deeplyrootedidea about Westernmusic,debate existsas to whetherotherancientsocietiesin theEastheld similarbeliefsabout 9

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: t0 the Relevance of an Ancient |_isten¡ng Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

music'sconnection tonatureand itsuse as an ordering system.TheChineseBook ofRites,theLi Chi,was initially begunbyConfucius(551-478ВСЕ),and itcontains on theceremonial meditations use ofmusicinordertoenablea societytobecome moreharmonious. MuchlikePythagoras' theLi ChipositsthatEarthly teaching, ceremonieshad a harmonious, spiritualcorollaryin Heaven: »Hence thesages made musicin responseto Heaven,and framedceremoniesin correspondence withEarth.«Musiccouldunifysociallife,whichwouldthenreflect theharmony oftheheavensand serveto keep Naturein balance;moreover, ceremoniesalso servean ordering roledetermined purpose,witheachpersonhavinga distinct by (Godwin1995:32) hierarchy. and However,theWestinheritsthe conceptionof musicas an influential organizational aspectoftheStatethroughtheGreekphilosopherPlato'srecord(c.380-340 ВСЕ). Platowouldhaveagreed ingofSocraticdialoguesinhisRepublic withConfucius,in thathe supportedthe notionthatmusic createdon Earth In theRepublic, shouldbe tightly controlled. III,399,Socratesspeaksofbanishing theIonianand Lydianmelodiesand harmonieson thegroundsthattheyaretoo I knownothing,« statesSocrates,»butI wanttohave 'relaxed';»Oftheharmonies one warlike,to soundthenoteor accentwhicha bravemanuttersin thehourof in BookIII,410,Socrates'discussionpits dangerand sternresolve...«Elsewhere, thestudyof gymnastics againstmusic,withtheformerresultingin 'hardness' A harmonious whilstmusicresultsin'effeminacy/ balancemustbe struck between thesequalities,ifa citizenis tobe educatedproperly inordertocontribute to,and is uphold,theState.In BookIII,401-402,Socratesarguesthat»...musicaltraining a morepotentinstrument thananyother, becauserhythm and harmony findtheir to wayintotheinwardplacesofthesoul...« Music,then,has ethicalimportance theidealizedrepublic;problematic formsofmusicshouldbe banished,and the Statemustbe on itsguardagainstanyalteration to musicalform.Socratesstates BookIV,424». ..thatmusicand gymnastic be preservedin plainlyintheRepublic's theiroriginalform, and no innovation made.« Andwhenanyone saysthatmankindmostregard 'Thenewestsongwhichthesingershave/ notnewsongs,buta newkind theywillbe afraidthathe maybe praising, ofsong;and thisoughtnottobe praised,orconceivedtobe themeaning of the poet;foranymusicalinnovation isfullofdangerto thewhole State,and oughttoheprohibited. (VintageEdition 1991:135;emphasis added)

theStatethatSocratesandPlatoglorified is onethatseekscontrol over, Clearly, and censorship Musicmightbe beautiful, in butindulgence of,musicalexpression. thesensuousshouldbe limited. InPlato'sRepublic andLaws,he arguedthatcomplex and melodycouldlead tosocialdisorderand personaldepression, as well rhythm as sexualabandon;but,ifcitizensweretrainedproperly, then»thewholecommuin song,storyand nitymaycometo voice alwaysone and thesame sentiment 10

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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in its societythatnonetheless, speech.«Again,theconceptis one ofa harmonious the a between music as an aid to construct moral utilizes boundary conception, (Hamilton2007) sociallydesiredand thesociallythreatening. foundation forWesternmusicalmeaning,laid down The initial,influential reasonand thetheoryis also relatedto is based on mathematical by Pythagoras, esoterictraditionsthatstressedthe unityand harmonyof the universe.The ofthisideologicalviewpointhas oftenbeentoextolmusicas a means significance ofaccessinga glimpseofthedivine.However,the'musicofthespheres'exertsits to theancient own conservative control;dissonanceand changeare threatening must be limited or excluded. Forsocioloand therefore hierarchical system, they »...social with the of conditions change is so modernity, gists contending to areregularly createdoutofnecessity thatideologiesofcontinuity fundamental in of the of destructiveness favor the evidence of myth purecreativity.« suppress on musichas beenbuiltupon the (Lemert2004:73)I arguethatsocialtheorizing Adherencetothis ofsoundas a supremeunifier. idea,traceablebackto antiquity, the over has a force, rougheredgesofmodernity smoothing leveling perspective thatdefinethemodernexperience. and themomentsofdisruption tradition as Themusicand sciencewriter JamieJamestreatsthePythagorean ». . theme that he calls .the in Western civilization of an extant tradition great part a harmonious thebeliefthatthecosmosis a sublimely systemguidedby Supreme and thatmanhas a place preordainedand eternalin thatsystem...« Intelligence, musicalgenres,whichdeveloptogether (1993:19)Weliveinan age ofproliferating withtheirlisteningaudiences,outsidethe scope of containment providedby referred to musiccompanies.(Martin1995)Whether traditional institutionalized as the'musicof thespheres/or 'the greattheme/modernmusic'sinclusionof of musiccreatedby dissonantsounds,and thepostmodernacknowledgement ofsounds,has led theglobalizedjuxtapositions marginalized groupsand through Thatwhichunifiesalso ofsucha grandnarrative. oftheviability toa questioning ofPythagoras' setsboundariesofexclusion.Still,theinfluence grandidea stalks aboutsocietyand music,muchliketheringingin ourearsthatwe ourtheorizing no longerhear. ModernElegies Turningand turningin thewideninggyre Thefalconcannothearthefalconer; Thingsfallapart;thecentrecannothold.. .

The SecondComing' William Butler from Yeats, (1921) Thesociologicaldisciplinehaswrestledwiththequestionof'thegreattheme/ and ofhow to theorizing responsestotheproblemsofmodernity, mostlythrough 11

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L- Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

addresstheinequitiesthathaveaccompaniedthemoderncondition. Attheheart ofsuchworklaycrucialquestionsposedtotheEuropeansocietiesoftheeighteenth centuryas theyexpandedrapidlyundercapitalism,brushingaside traditional valuesand waysoflifeat thedawnofindustrialization: whatwas theconception and howbesttobringittofruition? ofthe'good' society, Orpheus'LyreRestrung

Themythical character ofOrpheusbecamean important metaphorical figure in Enlightenment-era thought.Orpheus'storyis mostfamousin Greekmythologyforhis attemptsto rescuehis dead wife,Eurydice,fromtheunderworld. 1979)Butitis Orpheus'skillwithsongand lyrethatmarkedhimas a (Bulfinch ofmusic'sabilityto transgress and eradicate magicalmusician,and emblematic - wild animals,trees,rocks,and savagewomen boundaries.»Orpheus'slisteners - existoutsidetheboundsofsociety, and hisplayingrepresents an effort todraw theselistenersintotherealmof thesocial.«One of theways thatmusiccould servemodernsocietieswas as a meansby whichto negotiate»...sociopolitical inclusionand exclusion«:hence,theOrpheustale was illustrative of managing boundaries.(Agnew2008:9) VanessaAgnew,in her book Enlightenment Orpheus(2008),indicatesthat musicwas an important aspectforsome formsof travelnarrativesduringthe centuries.Understanding anotherculture'smusic, eighteenthand nineteenth whetheramongstdifferent countriesin Europeor abroad,meantthatanother musicwas brought withinthepurviewofWestern civilization. However, society's withsocietiesinnewworldssuchas PolynesiaorNew Zealanddestaencounters bilized the act of listening.WhereasEuropeanssoughtto impress'primitive/ 'native'cultureswith the grace and 'advanced' music of westernclassicism, foundthemselves vulnerable as listeners tothe'wild/'untamed'rhythms explorers of indigenouspeoples.Such 'primordial'rhythms affected EuropeanspassionThe were sounds from new worlds seductive, unconventional, ately. inexplicable, and deviantto Europeanears.Iflistening was a passportto civilizedsociety, as theOrpheusmythpromised,thenit was nota shieldagainstforeignmusicthat and logic.In fact,somenineteenth couldundermine Europeanrationality century between'sensuous' scholars,suchas EduardHanslick,appealedtothedifference musicand the'intellectual' Hanslick'sdiviaspectoftheEuropeanarttradition. sive standpoint the and that clearlyhighlights in-group out-groupantagonisms can arisefromaesthetic as alluded to Denzin (1992). experience, by I would add to Agnew'sresearchthatthe abilityto listento othersin an accommodating, by colonialismand the Orphicfashionwas further complicated drivefornew marketempiresin themodernera.A nation'seconomicoutwarddirectedness also createdconsequencesof innerturmoil, and London,England servesas anexample.The'good'society's orderappearednotonlytobe threatened 12

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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but also by disruption fromwithindue to the by primevalforcesfromwithout, masses of the 'unwashed' and 'uncivilized' burgeoning poor.Oftenlikenedto a or foreign had begunto swellurbanareas homegrown plague,theimpoverished and theirplightneededtobe listenedtowithsensitivity. (Lewis,1998)Economics appearedtohave disruptedan ancientunity. Shattered Chainsand New Shackles:TheDivisionofLabor In Л New Science:TheBreakdown and theBirthofSociology(1989), ofConnections

BruceMazlishdescribestheshattering ofthetraditional ofbeing'in the 'hierarchy The West,as thetiesbetweenGod,nature,and peoplewerebrokenbymodernity. newworldthatresulted, and thecrisistobe confronted was captured bysociology,

and Gesellschaft. by Ferdinand Tonnies' terminologyof Gemeinschaft Gemeinschaft

stoodforcommunity and blood ties;Gesellschaft, fora moreruthlessconditionof disconnected withothers.Whatwas thecause ofthisgreatdividein the relations humancondition? Forthewriters and theorists ofthenineteenth century watching take in root and economicmarkets, as capitalism rapidly factory systems expanding wellas in citiesexperiencing with a concomitant unparalleledpopulationgrowth risein disease and crime,the seeds of discordlay in the cash nexus.The new economicworldbredself-interest; and withself-interest, cashpayment, according to ThomasCarlyle,dominatedtherelationships betweenpeople.In themodern forwhatmaybe gained world,we treateach otherinstrumentally, impersonally, fromtheother:hardlytheinclusiveimpulseofOrphicmusic.Thechallengeraised tosociology was todetermine thetiesthatbindsocietytogether, ineffect connecting theactionsofindividualactorsbackto theirsociety:thesupposition, again,that hadbeenlost.Thisistheclassicquestionofhowcivilsociety isconstructed something tobe coterminous withthedual pursuitsofegoismand altruism. Anotheraspectofmodernity thatprecipitated a 'break'withthetraditional socialworldsofthepastwas theinfluence ofthedivisionoflaboron burgeoning industrialized societiesin Europeand NorthAmerica.The classicsociologistsof thenineteenth watchedas theworldaroundthemwas transformed, and century theorists suchas Marxand Engels,Weber(1905;1958ed.), and Durkheim(1893; 1933ed.) respondeddifferently to themomentouschanges. WhenKarlMarxand Friedrich Engelsdescribedthechangesthatthecapitalist societies, systemhad broughtto traditional theywerein awe,evenstatingin The Communist has playeda mostrevo(1848;1964ed.) that»Thebourgeoisie Manifesto role in with Those the and (5) lutionary history.« power capitalinmoderncapitalist had with this economic altered the order, society literally, physicallandscapeofthe Earthand producedmorematerial at than goods anypointinhumanhistory. YetforMarxand Engels,all oftherevolutionary energyand creativefervor thatwasunleashedbycapitalism undermined human actually byreducing agency, 13

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^- B'ackstone:Remixing theMusicoftheSpheres: totheRelevanceofan Ancient Listening Doctrine fortheSociologyofMusic

to one ofmakingmoney.In fact,thebourgeoisiearepoisedto everyopportunity be themostmodernofmoderns;theyunderstand thatthedynamism ofcrisesand chaoscanbe turnedintoeconomicprospects. There was nounifying (Berman1988) otherthana divisionoflaborthathad become»...an senseto societyanymore, our expectaobjectivepowerabove us, growingout of our control,thwarting tions...«(Marxand Engels1845-46;1988ed.:53)The divisionoflaborseparated thebourgeoiscapitalist fromtheirexploitedworkers; work,forthelaborerunder an inability was characterized to see oneselfin thefruit capitalism, by alienation, Marxand Engelsarguedthatitwas therefore ofone'sefforts. necessarytoabolish andbyextension thedivisionoflabor,exploitation, capitalism(1845-46;1988ed.); as such,theirtheorylamentsa lostworld. modernthemeemergesunderthe divisionof labor: Anotherproblematic thatofrationality. Successundermoderncapitalismcompelsthebourgeoisieto dominatenatureand to turnitintoa meansofachievingegoisticprofit. (Marx& Max 1964 Weber the 1958 saw creative ed.) (1905, ed.) Engels1848; potentialof into and an work voided of capitalismossify bureaucracy, meaning: 'ironcage' that to teetered into irrational subject rationality unhappiness.In Greekantiquity, and could subjugatenature:butsomething different Orpheus'musicaldexterity in modernindustrialized was occurring unsettling society.Whatchancehad the vision,of art and scienceenhancingthe human condition,of Enlightenment when even the promiseof creativehuman agencycould comingto fruition, undermine itsownpurpose? Music was certainly not immuneto the changeswroughtby the modern world,nora havenuntouchedby thedivisionoflabor.The veneratedPythagoreanmodelhad contributed to music'sbeingan eminently functional medium theages.In thetimeoftheGreeks,theideologyofthe'musicofthe downthrough musicwas buta shadowoftheperfection ofheavenly spheres'meantthatearthly the the universe: but music was of overall of music, humanlyproduced beauty part the cosmos took to the the unheard of harmony primacy essentially, Pythagoreans, to socialoccaoveractualmusiciansand theircraft.Whilemusicwas important sionsinGreeklife,a musician'sstatuswas modest.Platoand Socrateshad divided musicbetweenits feared,sensuousarousal and its unifying, educational,and in Music itself was of termsof'truth/ not civilizingpurpose. necessarily thought butas indicativeoftheuniversal,moralorderoftheuniverse,thestate,and the soul;sinceso muchwas at stake,toproducemusicwas neverjusta simplematter of pleasingoneself.Even in Europe,thousandsof yearslater,musicremained boundtoinstitutional roleswithinreligionandinthecourtsofthenobility, serving thehegemonyofdominantsocietalpowersand theirconnection to a to reinforce 2006; Hamilton2007; righteousorderbeyondtheirearthlythrones.(Griffiths, Mackerness1964) Ultimately, however,music would become commercially institutionalized overthelatterpartoftheeighteenth and acrossthenineteenth 14

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music of the Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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and transforming the centuries, gainingautonomyfrompriorsocial functions manufacture and consumption ofmusicto thisday. Musicbecamea commodity, a productofthemarketplace. Theworkofcapitalismalso led,forsome,toleisure:and themarketcouldappealtodifferent tastes formusic.Durkheim(1893;1933ed.) believedthatsocieties,overtime,became moreheterogeneous; one could arguethatdiversemusicalpreferences are a byof theVictorian Era and the product suchsocialcomplexity. Increasingly through musicalinstruments and the demandforsheetmusic age of industrialization, becameall therage.Peoplecouldproducemusicintheirownhomesforpleasure; by 1910,in Englandalone, CyrilEhrlichestimatedthattherewas one piano available»...foreveryten to twentypeople,« or »...some two to fourmillion pianosin Britain.«(1976:91)The consumerdemandforpianos and sheetmusic meantthata wholemusicindustry was spawned,requiring musicteachers, piano and and music tuners, repairers printers, shops.(Martin1995)FromDurkheim's the divisionof labor did not necessarilylead individualsto feel perspective, but thefledgling alienated, insteadto relyon one another.One could interpret musicindustry as providing social roles that could interdependent possiblyheighten socialsolidarity inthemidstofthesocialexpansionand upheavalsoftheera. itselfis notenoughto counteract all Possibly.I believethata musicindustry theforcesofatomizationand alienationthataccompaniedthemodernage; it is butonepieceofWestern, societies.Confuciusand Platoboth highlydifferentiated in a unifiedsociallifein thoughtthatmusiccouldreadypeopleforparticipation with but Durkheim makes no call for musicto producesuch nature, harmony the of music does trace the ofthecomposer, the Still, solidarity. history emergence musician,and thelistenerintoclearlydefinedroles.The composerwas theone forproducinga pieceofart,enshrinedas the'work/ responsible overcomethe Music,subjectto a divisionof laboritself,could notentirely of the division of labor. within an autonomous However,working problems thosewho producedmusic could constructsitesfor sphereof entertainment, socialactivity formusicalevents. organizedaroundgathering together Smallstatesthat»[t]helargepurpose-built concerthallis essenChristopher invention.« tiallya nineteenth-century (1998:21)Theriseofempiricalscienceand thereignofrationality had usheredinan age inwhichorganizedreligionwas met withincreasingskepticism; but,listeningto musicin concerthalls was akinto being in a new cathedral.Nicholas Cook affirmsthat »[n]ineteenth-century commentators... suggest[ed]: that,as conventionalreligionsuccumbedto the of musicprovidedan alternative routeto spiritualconsolascience, onslaught tion.«(1998:36)Of course,one needed a ticketto gain access to thespecialized structure ofthemusichall;theritualizednatureoftheperformances was thereby into the new forms of integrated capitalistsystem.Despite capitalistorganization and incorporation, peoplestillrelieduponmusictoconnectthemwithsomething 15

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'other/Concerthalls - and theyearningfora religiouscommunionwith,and transcendence art- arebothindicativeofenormouschangesin themuthrough, sicworldunderthemoderncapitalistsystem. ModernListening Constructing Ifyoustartto takeVienna- takeVienna.

Napoleon Bonaparte

to musicthantheyhad in thepast: Peoplewereactuallylistening differently buthow,and why,had thisoccurred? As JamesJohnson in Listening illustrates in Paris(1995),audiencesinmusichallsand operahouseshad tolearnhow tolisten. Shiftsin aestheticappreciation resultedin new ways of listeningto music,and one ofthemostimportant changesin concertbehaviorsin Francefrom1750to 1850was thebirthof thesilentaudience.In themid-1700s, concerthalls were filledwithnoiseand disruption; were a of withthe they primarilyplace privilege, for illicit and the of the attention, affections, aristocracy vying approval royalty. and gas-lithaze,fewpeopleprobably Johnson arguesthatamidstthecommotion to the performed or the expressionof paid attention operas.As forlistening, took their cues from members of the approval,patrons royalfamilyor highand to music was thus a highlyimitative -ranking nobility. Listening responding the social behavior,reaffirming hierarchy. in 1789alteredthissocialdynamic.Efforts theFrenchRevolution Naturally, weremadeto maketheoperahousesin Parismorereflective ofthenation,rather thanthedomainofprivileged weredisrupted or aristocracy. Seatingarrangements abolishedinordertoletcitizensexperience themusic.CometheReignofTerror in themeswereworkedintomusicals,and plotlines weresubject 1793,Revolutionary toallusionsofpatriotic endeavors.Musichad toexalttherevolution; as ifdirected communalsingingwas instituted withthe by a visionfromPlato'sRepublic, intention thatall whoparticipated wouldfeeltheexactsameemotionandpatriotic duty.Buttherewas no guaranteethatthismightbe thecase;mightnotsomecitizens be sweptawayon theirown privatereverie:isolatedin theirprivateworld, socialbodythattheyweresupposedtoserve? apartfromtherevolutionary Europeanaudienceshad long been suspiciousof 'pure' music,definedas musicwithoutwords.Prevailingsentiment insistedthatwordswerethekeyby whichtounderstand themeaningofthemusic;hence,musicwithoutwordswas tobe meaningless. (Cook1998)Frenchaudiencesneededand appreciated thought wordsin theirmusic;theylookedforexpressedemotionsin operasto stirthe inthemselves; sameemotions naturalistic works- musicalcreations and,imitative, thatused stockmusicaleffects to createtheimpressionof storms,earthquakes, and thelike- wereverypopular.No notionexistedthata listenercouldenjoyan 16

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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'abstract'workofpuremusicalsound;therewas no senseto harmoniclanguage nortolerance forcomplicated musical'statements/ Composers,whentheyaltered musicalconventions, ran the riskof losing theiraudience'sexpectationsand patience.Butcometheriseofthesuccessful bourgeoisieaftertheturnofthecenbehavior once was constructed anew.How one listenedtury,listening again and without reference to one's silently subjectively, peers- becamea badge of (Johnson 1995) bourgeoispropriety. oflistening was evidentinmusicvenues. Bythe1830s,thealteration practices Cook describesthe change as the dawn of »bourgeoissubjectivity«: »...they exploredand celebratedtheinnerworldoffeelingand emotion;music,in particular,turnedawayfromtheworldandbecamededicatedtopersonalexpression.« thenew privileging oftheinterior worldto a (1998:19)Johnson (1995)attributes could createindividualsas policingof one's socialbehaviors.The marketplace wealthyas manya noble;however,a newbourgeoiscouldbe undonebythesame economicforcesthathad bestowedwealth.The new capitalistclass had to assureitselfofitsprecariousposition,and thistranslated intobeing continually and politeinsidethe concerthall. Etiquetteproscribedsome silent,respectful, others.»In labelinga rangeofbehaviorsunacceptbehaviors,whilepermitting able, and definingwhen the acceptableones could be expressed,politeness directedmusicalresponsesinward,carvingoutforsocialreasonsa privatesphere offeelingthatin earliergenerations had beenpublic.«(1995:235-236) The GermanwriterE.T.A.Hoffman(1776-1822)situatedthenew aesthetic withinthe Romanticmovement.'Pure' instrumental musichad its value: the of individual to exploration feeling. According Hoffman, discloses tomananunknown a worldthathasnothing incommon with realm, [M]usic theexternal sensual worldthatsurrounds him heleavesbehind him,a worldinwhich alldefinite tosurrender himself toaninexpressible (inGriffiths feelings longing, 2006:160) The'longing'alludedtobyHoffman couldhavebeenthereclamation offeelthat had been denied due to older social and musical conventions. ings expression connections tonatureand Perhapsevena bourgeoismightpineforthetraditional God thathad been rentasunderby modernization and thedivisionoflabor.Of themoderncomposerswhowouldrevolutionize notonlymusiccomposition but theact oflisteningitself,forging a linkbetweenindividualemotionand divine it was Ludwig van Beethoven(1770-1827)who came to epitomize inspiration, Romanticism. Beethovenis regardedas thefirsttrulymoderncomposerformanyreasons thatare sociologically Unlikethelegionsofcomposerswho had gone important. beforehim,Beethovendid not settleintoa salariedposition.He did have his mainpursuitwas to writemusicin his way,according patrons;but,Beethoven's 17

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to his individualistic style.Beethovendid notpanderto audienceexpectations, whichis whatled manyaudiencesofhis timeto declarehimas a madman.He withhisdemonsand appearedas a composeruntoand truetohimself, grappling the outsideworldthroughhim.Beethoven's hard-wonautonomy interpolating markedhimas an individualinan erathatalsonowallowedmembers ofa listening audienceto discovertheirinnermostfeelingsthroughmusic.Beethovenalso to hima freedomthat struggledwithhis deafness,and his devoteesattributed itwas thought, was tobe pursuedthrough isolatedBeethoven music;hisdisability, world.Hoffman was complicit inheralding fromtoomuchofthesensuous,external Beethoven's musicas specialwas genius,declaringthatwhatmarkedBeethoven's thathe was »...addressingnot the multitudebut the individuallistener,led forward intothespiritworldoftheInfinite.'« (Griffiths 2006:161) 'imperiously Ifmusichad becomean alternative thenpartofBeethoven's religion, legacy was to establishtheauthoritative voiceofthecomposer.Concertaudiencesnow musicas a vehicleto eternaltruthand personalrevelation. utilizedinstrumental The resultofthisnew aesthetic, practicedin new,specializedlisteninghalls,in serviceto a new musicthatdemandedindividualistic was to further attention, solidifythedivisionofmusicallaborbetweenthecomposer,themusicians,and the audience.As people listenedto a musicalcomposition, audiencesfeltthat with were a a soul. Furthermore, communing composer's they composersuchas Beethovenmusthave been divinelyinspired:to listento Beethoven,then,was withthe akinto tuningintoa reaffirmation of thevibrating, cosmicharmony, Creatorworkingthroughan earthlyagent.(Cook 1998) Max Weberwroteof charismathat'natural'leadershave »...gifts... believedto be supernatural, not accessibleto everybody.« (Weber,ed. Gerthand Mills1948:245)Beethovenhad a but to attribute thisbrillianceto himwas a 'giftofgrace'that specialbrilliance, the ofhistime. cultural work emergedthrough Tia DeNora wroteof thesocial conditionsduringthetimethatBeethoven spent,beginningin 1791,in Vienna.DeNora foundthatan ideologicaland economicbattlewas wagedbetweenaristocrats and theuppermiddleclassesto and musicalvenues.Supporting music offer orchestras, patronageto composers, new was an indicatorofsocial status,and in thepursuitof social advancement wealththreatened thehegemony ofaristocratic favor.In thislight,Beethovenalso became an important, charismaticfigureas he was recognizedas a 'great' composer.To confer'greatness'on Beethovenwas also partof the aristocratic todefine'serious'music,a markerofgood tasteand gentility, versusless attempt and folkmusic.(DeNora 1991) challenging compositions Wearefacedwithparadoxesconcerning thebourgeoislistening audiencesof thenineteenth century. Capitalism,Marxand Engels(1848,1964ed.) espoused, and quickactionon thepartofthebourgeoisie.Suchcreative, requiredinventive economicactivityreinforced behavior.(Berman1988)However, individualistic over the courseof the nineteenth the century audiencesin the concerthalls 18

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music of the Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance ofan Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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conformed totheconvention ofsilentlistening. (Johnson 1995)A person'sinterior to music be different from one's response might neighbor;each listenerwas on theirown thoughtful Emotional reflection came withits own costs.A journey. bourgeoismightenjoyhis profitfromthelaborofothers,but once in themusic venue,themusicconsumerwas thrownto thebottomofthemusicalhierarchy. Silence and compliancewere decreedby decorum,with boisterousnessand inattention sacrificedon the altarsof the composer'sego and the demandsof socialstatus.Seatedin concerthalls,audiencesdid notgivetheappearancethat theirreceptionof musicwas itselflaborious.Listenerswere constructed to be passive,and yetsimultaneously theyweredescribedas searchingforan experience throughthemusic.Sometimes, listenerswereinvolvedin establishing the serious music that defined the classical canon. 'legitimate/ And sometimes, listeners heardsoundsthattheydid notlikeat all. UnleashingThe Sounds Of Modernity therearosefromwithina tickinglikethelove-making Presently Themachinehad begun.. . ofthegrasshopper. Thomas Hardy,Tessofthed'Urbervilles (1891) As itgrowsevermorecomplicated today,musicalartseeksout combinations moredissonant,stranger, and harsher fortheear. Luigi Russolo, TheArtofNoises(1913) New music:newlistening.Not an attempttounderstand thatis beingsaid,for,ifsomething werebeing something said,thesoundswouldbegiventheshapeofwords. to theactivityofsounds. Justan attention

Music«(1955) JohnCage,»Experimental

Silenceis sexy So sexy As sexyas death

Einstürzende »Silence is sexy«(2000) Neubauten, A modernworld thatis organizedaround a divisionof labor produces noise. In thenineteenth individualsand familiesuprootedthemselves from century theirtownsand establishedlivelihoods,and theymovedto thecitiesin searchof work.Marx and Engelswroteof the proletarian's conditionthat»[h]e factory becomesan appendage of the machine,and it is only the most simple,most and mosteasilyacquiredknackthatis requiredofhim.«(1848,1964 monotonous, 19

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

mindlessdrudgery ed.:14)Not onlydid Marxand Engelsdepicttheimpersonal, thatas a consequenceofmandominatofalienatedlabor,buttheyalso portrayed hell lay ing nature,people also dominatedeach other.But behindthe factory ofindustrial noise.Thisclangorofmetal new,whichwas a soundtrack something onmetalwasnotheardas akintothevibrations ofPythagoras' harmonicosmically butas a sonicirruption thatwoundedthenaturallandscape. ous universe, Mel Gordonwrotethat»[t]heconceptofnoisewas a by-product oftheIndustrialRevolution,«as sounds of manufacturing, building,and transportation crowdedoutthe»normalsoundsofrurallife«: ...thecacophony ofsoundsinthenineteenth-century street, factory shop, - couldnotbeeasily andmine- seemingly random andmeaningless oridentified. isolated Theybecamenovelandpotentially dangerous humanmind.(Gordon intrusions ontheoverworked 1992:197-198) In the 1960s,R. MurraySchäfer(1994)conceivedtheterm'soundscape'to describethesurroundings ofour sonicenvironments. BothSchäferand Gordon would agreethattheIndustrialRevolutionresultedin competingsoundscapes and thenaturalworld.Schäferdescribedthe betweenman-madetechnologies era as a »Io-fi post-Industrial soundscape«;a conditionoftoo manysoundsthat, he believed,persistsin our contemporary world as noise pollution.Schafer's leads to the of acoustic study project design,throughwhichhe soughtto answer we want in orderto rid sounds do to »[w]hich preserve, encourage,multiply?,« theenvironment of unhealthysounds.As opposed to themechanicalworld,a »positivesilence«mustbe recovered;once more,thisdichotomysuggeststhat something(sacred) has been broken.In essence,Schäferseeks to 'tune' our to alignment withtheuniverseas a »macrocosmic musicalcomposurroundings a Pythagorean sition«(1994:4-5): solutiontomodernmalaise. the mechanizedsounds of industryare oftencategorizedas Ironically, but no onebuthumanity has createdsuchsounds.Peopleare,ofcourse, inhuman, of the 'natural world' (»The rightto make noise was a naturalright,an part affirmation ofeachindividual'sautonomy.« and yetthesound[Attali1985:123]), was of mechanization not as an extension of organic scape generally perceived existence.Nineteenth-century writerssuch as Thomas Hardy highlighted the in between the and the people Englishcountryside cacophonous antagonism muchlike the presenceof machines.Noise was thoughtto be dehumanizing, divisionoflaborreducedpeopleto theworthoftheirlaboralone.Yet,giventhe undercapitalism, noisewas also a signof potentialtomakeoneselfindependent productivity. JacquesAttalidescribestheparadoxthusly: Massproduction isprogramming, themonotonous andrepeated noiseof machines silence ontheworkers... Anextraordinary the imposing spectacle: 20

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music of the Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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iras M 42 (2011) 1: 3-31

inthefactory. Anintense ofmenandcommodities doublesilence spectacle, will the commodities the becauseafter speakmuchmorethanthe leaving factory ..is...making ..[T]hetriumph ofcapitalism. them. people peoplewhomanufactured and from as a collective inmassproduction refuge powerlessness acceptidentity isolation. (1985:121) Amazingly,althoughsuch industrialconditionsworked to obscure the possibilityof freedomthroughworkby sellingalienationback to people,the becameliberated:as sound. soundsthemselves of as As farback 1627,FrancisBaconwroteinhisUtopiannovelNewAtlantis where built which a futurescientific »...sound-houses, societycalled Bensalem all sounds, and theirgeneration.«The idea of we practiceand demonstrate harmonioussound,butevendesignedas creating anysound,notjustconsonant, devotion randomdissonance,was well ahead oftheWesternclassicaltradition's to symphonicdevelopment. (Young2002:53)In his TheArtofNoises(1913),the was no orchestra Italianfuturist LuigiRussolomade his case thatthetraditional music is that »This evolution with modern able to life; compaof keep pace longer take its . that music should and machines. rabletothemultiplication .«, inspiration of theage. fromthejarringnoisesthatcharacterized Russolobuiltinstruments, In fact,to pursuehisvisionofthe»noise-sound,« theaudience.»No more!« that noises assaulted to make theintonarumori, designed was shoutedduringone ofhis concertsat theLondonColiseum,as thesoundof theintonarumori clearlydid notmeet gratedon people'snerves.Theperformance ofthe thesoundsviolatedthemusicalconventions withaudienceexpectations; that the audience in sense and this oeuvre, theywere perceived compositional Blackstone deviance. musical to 2009) Russolo's (Becker1982,1974; subjected ofmodernwarhim to the sounds led machine also of the praise age glorification Warner 2004 in and Cox fareas a sourceofbeauty.(Russolo, :11;Toop 1995) ofsoundwould continueto makeofnoisea compositional Othertreatments wereoftenmisundercolor,ifnot thebasis of a work'stechnique.Such efforts stood by listeningaudiences,who were not used to the boundary-smashing noise withina 'work/'Noise' is something conventionof re-contextualized unwanted;itis soundout oforder.But,peoplemustactivelyjudge thattheydo in theirears.Up tothispoint,we haveseenthatPythagoras' notwanttheringing timeintomusicthatconnoted 'musicofthespheres'had beenchanneledthrough unityand harmony;and yet,the'naturalworld'is also fullofnoise,eruptions, We privilegethenotionof'birdsong'as ifit weremusical,but and destruction. muchas theroaringofan earthquakeis takenas even'birdsong'is a construction, Where chaos. John famouslydescribedmusicas ». ..a productof Blacking gaping thebehaviorofhumangroups...:itis humanlyorganizedsound« (1976,in Scott Theemphasison unityand wholenessas 2002:97),noisebetraysourexpectations. throwsintobold reliefitsevil doppelganger, cosmicdesignnecessarily tmorga21

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L. Blackstone: theMusicoftheSpheres: Remixing totheRelevanceofan Ancient Listening Doctrine fortheSociologyofMusic

to be controlled nizedsound.Noisebecomessomething by society;itbecomesa of politicalproject greatmagnitude.(Attali1985)Bergerand Luckmann(1966) wrote: orderis also facedwiththeongoingnecessity Thelegitimation oftheinstitutional All societiesare ofkeepingchaosatbay.All socialrealityis precarious. in thefaceofchaos.Theconstant constructions ofanomicterror possibility are is actualizedwheneverthelegitimations thatobscuretheprecariousness orcollapse.(103) threatened

in a new context To utilizethesoundofindustrial technologies intentionally, withgreatrisk.»Anomicterror«: confronts thelistener thegroundhas therefore, are unrecognizable. However,giventime,even noise shifted;the conventions be its own aesthetic. Blackstone 1985; 2009;Hegarty2008) (Attali may granted Várese wanted more hiscomposedmusic from (1883-1965) Edgard something thanRussolo'sgrowling,howlingintonarumori. Váresesoughtto capture»...a mood in musicand nota soundpicture«(in Toop 1995:83).Varèse'sinclusionof thesoundofsirensin a piecesuchas Ionisation forthirteen (1930/31), percussionists,made theirwhinesa partof theextensive, percussivepolyphony:another shadeofsound,anothertimbre: as Váresesaid himself, thiswas organizedsound. (Hamilton2007;Várese,conductedby Boulez:SonyClassicalSMK 45 844:1990) theworkof Pierre Or,to takeanotherexampleof nontraditional composition, and reSchaeffer involvedtheuse ofsoundthroughtheconstruction (1910-1995) construction ofrecordednoiseson tape.Schaeffer's projectwas knownas musique weremeantto dissociatewhatthelistenerheard and his manipulations concrète, sourceofsound.Sound-art suchas thiswas depenfromanyoriginalidentifiable dentupon moderntechnology to gathertheresidueof sounds,any sounds,to Schaeffer enable a listenerto appreciatesolelythe 'sonorousobject/Tellingly, as 'acousmatic.'Inhis1966writing, Schaeffer describedthisexperience quotesthe the: Larousse on this 'acousmatic' as term, dictionary defining »Namegivento thedisciplesofPythagoras who,forfiveyears,listenedtohis while he hidden behind a was curtain,withoutseeinghim,while teachings

Hiddenfromtheireyes,onlythevoiceoftheir a strict silence.« observing masterreachedthedisciples,(inCox and Warner2004:76-77; emphasisin original)

»His Master'sVoice,«then,on theold Gramophone label,theloyaldog hearing thedisembodiedvoice ofhis humanowner,is thesignof our havingconqueredand entrappedsound.

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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ListeningAs A Trap;ListeningAs Freedom Peoplewhatyoudoing? Standingon thevergeofgettingiton...

OnTheVergeOfGetting ItOn«(1974) Funkadelic, »Standing Withscientific seemedtowaneinthe ascendant, rationality religious mysteries modernworld.TheaimoftheEnlightenment that art andsciencemightbe project - likewiseappearedtroubled. used tobetterthehumancondition In theirUtopian visionof a communist Marx and society, Engelshad imaginedthefreereignof humancreative couldbe engaged,»justas I have potential (any»sphereofactivity« a mind«),unfettered world bythedivisionoflabor.However,themoderncapitalist had becomea dystopia,and knowledgehad comeunderthepurviewof special of (Berman1988;Marxand Engels1845-46;1988ed.:53)The domination 'experts/ thathadextendeditsreachovertheEarth's nature, too,wastheresultofa rationality resourcesand man-madefactories alike.The accumulationof consumergoods concealedtheprocessesoftheproducts'production, promising happinessthrough themarketplace insteadofthrough thepeoplewhoenlivenedthem. Thetwentieth-century was takingpreconceived notionsofmusic avant-garde to task.Soundswerebeingliberatedby adventurousmusicmakers,and Arnold deviseda new methodofcomposingthatwas notreliant (1874-1951) Schoenberg the older or consonance.Suchinventiveness, ofcourse, upon systemsoftonality confoundedlisteningaudiences.However,forthe sociologist/philosopher and CriticalTheoristTheodorW. Adorno,the 'new music' of composerssuch as was a waytocutthrough theglossysheenofa modernexistencethat, Schoenberg Adornobelieved,enforced and passivity whichutilizedcultureas an indoctrinationtoboredomand dead dreams. Accordingto Adorno,themedia,and especiallytheentertainment industry withinwhichmusichad been corporatized, offeredlistenersan unchallenging musicwhichmerelyreiterated theirownpositionwithinthedivisionoflabor.The musicoftheentertainment and in particular industry, 'popular'music,followed standardizedconventions toenhanceitsacceptability and reception amongstthe masses.The musicappeared'predigested/ alreadyawareofitselfas a diversion. Determined forthelistenerby the»CultureIndustry,« itmimickedthelistener's of musicalroles,whichparalleledthe assigned,lowlypositionin thehierarchy worker'spositionin thedivisionoflabor. In his 1938essay »On theFetish-Character in Music and theRegressionof Adornonoteshow theexposureoflisteners to mass-marketed music Listening,« has leftthemseemingly helpless: Theconsciousness ofthemassoflisteners is adequatetofetishized music.It listens to and indeed debasement itself would not bepossible formula, according 23

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L- Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

ifresistance ifthelisteners tomakedemands stillhadthecapacity ensued, beyond thelimits ofwhatwassupplied, 2002:302) (inAdorno Consciousnesshas been corroded;themusicthatentertains also enslaves. an music to offer abundance of free Predictable, ubiquitouspopular appears choicein a marketplace ofsong,butitsstandardizednatureconditions peopleto theroutinized circumstances oftheirownlabor.Listening has »regressed« so that are and listeners for »the new radical music« of contemporary unprepared and such as whose music »terror.« Webern, composers Schoenberg spreads (Adorno1938,in 2002:315) Butwhy»terror«? Adornosaysthatthisfearcomesnotfromthenewmusic's but understood.« »incomprehensibilityfromthefactthattheyareall toocorrectly in that Richard has Adorno's are (Adorno1938, 2002:315) Leppert argued writings in as unrepentantly when fact oftenmisinterpreted Adorno is pessimistic, »...at the of his and bitter heart sustained often very critique frequently hopeful: ofmodernity therelies fundamental conceivedwithinthecontext hopefulness... ofart'srole- musicespecially- in providingthewherewithal to imaginesocial utopia.« (Leppert2005:93)In his »Music,Language,and Composition«essay, tomusicas ». ..demythologized Adornorefers prayer«(Adorno1956,in2002:114), or as Leppertwrites,»...a yearningforhappiness,whichcannototherwisebe letalonerealized.«(Leppert,inAdorno2002:86)Music,for annunciated, directly ofa betterworld,beyondcurrent Adorno,alwayspointedtowardsthepossibility Even backgroundmusic»...illuminates, however conditionsand expectations. The what have been.« is to overthrow 2005:95) regresdimly, might (Leppert key sive listening; to challengepeople,usingmusic,intobecomingcriticalthinkers. Hence, the »terror«thatSchoenbergcreatedhighlightsthe gap betweenthe musicofthecultureindustry, and thebravenewworldsofsoundthat repetitious be. couldotherwise Fromanotherperspective, ErnstBloch(1885-1977) discussedinhisworkthat in as to strive for the meansthatitsproducfuture, utopia, something necessarily the search tionis containedin everydaymoments.Present-time is unfinished; the futureis on towards the absence of the future itself. Hence, goes dynamically in its continuan 'immanent and a music, too, 'not-yeť, utopia'; presents 'not-yeť ous unfolding beforeone's ears.In thisway,people are listeningto experience whichcan be something as ordinaryas listeningto a tunein better, something theflow ordertoescapetheweightofseculartime.Suchmomentsareimportant; wash overus againonce themusicceases. oftimeand ordinaryresponsibilities in an attentive, Whether concentrated fashion,or listening distractedly, listening thoseglimpsesofhopecansootheand inspirethenextpotentialmoment.(Anderson2002;Leppert2005)

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music of the Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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All Tomorrow's Parties:A Conclusion Thetransporting intheexistingliterature, has powerofmusic,as manifested oftenbeen idealized as a worlduntoitselflyingin sonorousoppositionto the modernworld'sinsistenceon work. We have seen thatPythagoras'ancient doctrine betweenhumans,music,and thefabpositedvibratory correspondences ricofnature.Theentirecosmos,Pythagoras believed,had tobe bathedin sound; butpeople werefashionedtoo imperfectly to actuallyhearthecelestialringing. Cometheriseofrational, scientific and thought duringtheAge ofEnlightenment, thesupremacy ofcapitalism as world-economic order,thesoundscapeoftheworld had considerably holistictiesthathad beeninstrumental to changed.The ancient, thedevelopment ofwestern and experience thought begantofrayundertheconditions of modernity. Listeningto music acquired different qualities:listening withpowerand control; itamplified resonated thedifferences betweenmusicand ofsociallife. noise;and,listening possiblypointedtowardsa different variety oflistening inconstructing JoshKundescribestheimportance »audiotopias,« an embodied,activelisteningthatserves»...as a space thatwe can enterinto, movearoundin,inhabit,be safein,learnfrom...«MuchlikeAdorno encounter, or Blochargued,Kun also arguesthatmusicpresentsa betterworld,but »[w]e alwaysslidebackintothisworld,but,eachtime,we slidebackinforever changed.« servesan essentialfunctionin (Kun 2005:2-3)Music in Kun's book Audiotopia modernAmericanidentity whatsounds, politics:givenAmerica'sheterogeneity, whatcultures, and whatexperiences are legitimated social by powerstructures? An audiotopiais notjust an idealized sonicenvironment in one's mind;when actedupon,audiotopiascan have overtpoliticalconsequences.Musiccan aid in as an expressivetool,musicprovidesthemarginalizedin celebrating diversity; Americansocietywitha subversiveway to confirmtheirpresence.Forginga harmoniousnationmightmeanthatin theprocess,some people'sidentities are elided.TheNazis,too,had theirownaudiotopicvisionofsociety, and theybanned and renderedsilentthemusicofthosedeemedunfitforthenation. Ifitwerepossible,youcouldloseyourself inhearingthecelestialgraceofthe 'musicofthespheres.'Similarly, one coulddrowninnoise:»Thepleasureofnoise liesin thefactthattheobliteration ofmeaningand identity is ecstasy.«(Reynolds theboundaries 1990,in Cox and Warner2004:56)At bothends ofthespectrum, betweenhumanexperienceand thecosmosdissolve. Have we arrivedat a betterplace?Therearealwaysrisks.As musicbecomes moreglobalized,different soundsfromaroundtheworldare sampled,remixed, noises are mashed-up: juxtaposedin moderndance musicin a visionofperfect such transcendence However, harmony. momentary may not reflectexisting or racial nor solve them. realities, 2009; (Blackstone 2000) political Hesmondhalgh Partof utopia is preciselyits non-existence. The searchfora faultlessStateis, RichardTaruskin, accordingto musicologist »...dangerous,becauseifperfection 25

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listenjngto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

-a is theaim,and compromise to correct taboo,therewill alwaysbe a shortfall humanshortfall.« 2009:xii)Whatamazesaboutmusicis notwhetherit (Taruskin soundsout a goldenage, or existsas a commodity; theworthofeitheris in the conditioned earsofthelistener. thepersistence ofus - imperfect Rather, peopleto makeand understandmusictogether at all is whatultimately matbothering ters.Buteventually we arebroughtdownto Earthto embraceit,trailing offinto thesilencethatlevelsand includesall. The soundscanbe,whiletheyarewithus and us withthem,a platform ofagencytobothconnectand dividetheworld. REFERENCES ACORD,SophiaKrzysandTia DeNORA.2008.»Cultureand theArts:FromArtWorldsto Arts-inAction.«AnnalsoftheAmerican andSocialScience (619)SepAcademy ofPolitical tember: 223-37. ADORNO,TheodorW.2002.EssaysonMusic.EditedbyRichardLeppert.New translations ofCalifornia Press. bySusanH. Gillespie.Berkeley: University - . 1956.[2002]»Music,Language,and Composition.« 113-126. - . 1938.[2002]»On theFetish-Character in Musicand theRegression ofListening.« 288317. New York:OxfordUniversity Press. AGNEW,Vanessa.2008.Enlightenment Orpheus. ANDERSON,Ben.2002.»A Principleof Hope: RecordedMusic,ListeningPracticesand theImmanence ofUtopia.«Geografiska Annaler. SeriesB,HumanGeography 21184:3/4, 227. ofMinnesotaPress. ATTALI,Jacques.1985.Noise.Minneapolis: University TheResponsibility translated BARTHES,Roland.1985/1991. ofForms, by RichardHoward. ofCalifornia Press.- . 1976.»Listening.« 245-260. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press. BECKER,Howard.1982.ArtWorlds. Berkeley: University - . 1974.»Artas Collective Action.«American Review. 39 (December):767-76. Sociological BERGER,Peter.[1969]1970.A Rumor ofAngels.New York:AnchorBooks. BERGER,Peterand ThomasLUCKMANN.[1966]1967.TheSocialConstruction ofReality. New York:AnchorBooks. 26

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L. Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Listeningto the Relevance of an Ancient Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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L Blackstone: Remixingthe Music ofthe Spheres: Ustenjng{q ^ Re|eva*œ of an Andent Doctrineforthe Sociology of Music

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Sažetak Novo preslagivanje glazbe sfera: osluškivanje doktríně za sociologiju glazbe

vážnosti stare

Od staroga svijeta do suvremenoga doba teorijeo glazbi cesto su sadržavale postojanu ideju о tome da je glazba snaga koja povezuje Ijudsko i zemaljsko iskustvos nebeskom transcendentnošču.Korijeniove ideje nalaze se u starimPitagorinimdoktrinama. strojza proizvodnjuzvukovljasto kulPitagoraje smatrao da je svemirogromnivibrirajuči minira'glazbom sfera' za koju su Ijudiisuviše nesavršeni da bi je culi. Stoljeca razradbe pitagorejskeideologije povezala su božansko, prirodnoi Ijudskos pomocu hijerarhijezvuková. Ljudska je glazba pokušaj da se dosegne uzvišeno i veličanstvenopodručje savršene glazbe nebesa; ona je transcendirajučesredstvo.Stoga glazba ima duboko značenje za slušatelja. Platonje smatrao da je glazba bitnaza održavanje društvenogporetka.Nadalje, slušanje 'pravih'formaglazbe postalo je dodatna statusna oznaka i sredstvo za stvaranje društvenihveza na náčin kako je to razvilazapadna klasična tradicijau Europl. Meďutim,kako je kapitalizamnapredovao i kako je podjela rada prevladavala u društvu,tako su se destabiliziraledo tada poštovane veze izmedu Ijudii svemira. Uspon Prosvjetiteljskogracionalizmanije se uvijekrabio za opravdanje napretkanego je demistificirao religiju:glazba je postala područje u kojem su duhovnosti istraživanječovjekove subjektivnostimogli procvjetatii u svjetovnimsferama. Modernostje ugrozila tradicionalne erom došli su novizvukovišto ihje proizveo čovjek i koje náčine življenja i s industrijskom se shvačalo suprotnimaorganičkomzvukovljuneokaljane prirode.Kriza koja je zahvatila Ijudskeodnose buknulaje i u zvukovnompodručjus 'moderním'zvukovimastrojnogadoba ¡ i disonancama sto su uključene u skladateljskiVokabular.Slično su tome transformirani odnosi čovjeka s glazbom, a posljedičnoje glazba postala područje u kojemsu se konstruzvuková i büke. irale i nametale granice izmedu društvenoprihvatljivih U článku autortvrdida se glazba kao društvenikonstrukt nastavlja tumačitikao sredstvo transcendiranjaIjudskoga iskustva.Društveniteoretičarikao što su Theodor W. Adorno (1938., 1956.), ErnstBloch i Josh Kun (2005.) tvrdéda glazba pruža přistuputopijskim iskustvima.Nadalje, sama spoznaja da glazba usmjerujeslušatelje prema boljem društvenomživotumoraobrazložitimogučnostda su utopijevizije i uključivanjai isključivanja.Ova i valja je shvatitiu svjetlupovijesno dobivenog tumaje tvrdnjai sama društvenikonstrukt oblikovalo diskurso glazbi i našim slušateljskimpraksama. čenja glazbe koje je suptilno

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