Phle Reviewer Module 1 Pharmaceutical Chemistry

MODULE 1

 INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY  ORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

GENERAL CHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Chemistry  the study of matter Matter  anything that occupies space & has mass (1) composition (2) structure (3) changes that matter undergoes (4) energy involved in such changes  composed predominantly of atoms, molecules, ions  interconvertible w/ energy ▪ Mass  refers to the amount of matter present in the material ▪ Weight  Mass x pull of gravity Units of Measurement Fundamental Quantity SI Unit - Length - Meter (m) - Mass - Kilogram (kg) - Time - Seconds (sec) - Temperature - Kelvin (K) Properties of Matter (1) Intensive/ Intrinsic  mass independent  are characteristics of any sample of the substance regardless of the shape or size of the sample Examples: *Density *Melting point *pH *Freezing point *Color *Sublimation temperature *Concentration *Optical activity *Boiling point (2) Extensive/ Extrinsic  mass dependent Examples: *Volume *Weight *Pressure *Heat content *Temperature Changes that Matter undergoes: (1)Physical Change  change in phase (2)Chemical Change  in both intrinsic & extrinsic properties Evidences of Chemical Change: *Evolution of Gas *Formation of a precipitate *Emission of light *Generation of Electricity *Production of Mechanical Energy *Absorption/liberation of Heat Physical State/ Phase a. solid  (lowest) b. liquid c. gas  (highest) d. Plasma  aka “Mesophase”, “Liquid Crystals”  has solid like properties  resemble those of a crystal in the formation of loosely ordered molecular arrays similar to a regular crystalline lattice & anisotropic refraction of light -Crystal lattice  ordered arrangement of atoms -flow properties -LCD  liquid crystal display Two main types of Liquid Crystals: -Smectic (soap- or grease-like) -Nematic (thread-like) Six Distict Crystal System: 1. Cubic (sodium chloride) 2. Tetragonal (urea) 3. Hexagonal (iodofrom) 4. Rhombic (iodine) 5. Monoclinic (sucrose) 6. Triclinic (boric Acid)

Composition/Constituents: Matter Pure Elements

Impure/ Mixture Compounds

Law of Definite Proportion

Homogenous

Heterogenous

Solution Suspension Colloids

Law of Multiple Proportion Classification of Matter: ▪ Element simplest form of matter 1 kind of material or atom  has definite chemical composition  cannot be decomposed by simple physical/ chemical means into two or more different substances ▪ Compound  substance composed of two or more elements unites chemically in definite proportion cannot be changed into sipler substance under normal laboratory conditions Law of Definite  Elements combined in fixed ratios of whole numbers to form compounds Proportions  states that the elemental composition of a pure compound is always the same regardless  same w/ Law Constant Composition Law of Multiple Elements combined in different ratios of whole numbers to form different Proportions compounds ▪ Mixture  composed of two or more elements/ substances which are not chemically combined Classification of Mixture ▪ Heterogenous  two or more distinct phases ▪ Homogenous only one phase or single phase -Solution uniform mixture composed of solute & solvent wherein atoms, molecules or ions of the substance become dispersed -Suspension  homogenous dispersion insoluble in a liquid aka Coarse Mixture  finely divided solid materials distributed in a liquid -Colloids contain particles bigger than those in solutions but smaller that those in suspension particle of solute are not broken down to the size of the molecules but are small dispersed throughout the medium.  exhibit the light scattering effect Properties of Colloids 1. Tyndall Effect  light scattering effect 2. Brownian Movement  zigzag movement of colloidal particles 3. Electrically charge Electrophoresis  Gel-electrophoresis SDS-PAGE (used to separate protein & nucleic acids) -Cathode () reduction takes place -Anode (+) oxidation takes place 4. Adsorption

Other Laws of Chemical Changes:  In a chemical reaction, the total mass of Law of reactant is equal to the total mass of Conservation of products or mass is neither created nor Mass destroyed in any transformation of matter.  by Antoine Van Lavoisier Physical Changes/ Phase Transformation

Changes of State: 1. Melting  from solid to liquid, usually caused by heating. 2. Solidification  from liquid to solid of a substance which is a solid at room temperature & atmospheric pressure. 3. Freezing  from liquid to solid, caused by cooling a liquid. 4. Boiling  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) at a temperature called boiling point. 5. Evaporation  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) due to the escape of molecule from the surface. Vapor  refers to the gaseous phase of a substance, which is normally liquid or solid at room temperature. 6. Liquefaction  from gas to liquid at a substance which is gas at room temperature & pressure. It is caused by cooling & increasing pressure. 7. Condensation  from gaseous to liquid, of a substance which is a liquid at room temperature & pressure. It is naturally caused by cooling. 8. Sublimation from solid to gaseous on heating, & from gaseous directly to solid on cooling. 9. Deposition  direct transition from vapor state to the solid state Process of Separating Components of Mixture: 1. Decantation  Difference in Specific Gravity 2. Distillation  Evaporation & then condensation 3. Magnetic separation  for metals 4. Sorting  mechanical separation; darbling 5. Filtration  solid to liquid 6. Centrifugation  speeding up of settling process of a precipitate 7. Functional Crystallization  lowering of temperature so that the more insoluble component crystallizes out first. 9. Chromatography  difference in solvent affinity  Process involved in Chemical Change: 1. Combustion  chemical union of oxygen w/ another substance 2. Reduction  oxygen is removed from compound or H is added 3. Neutralization  acid reacts with a base to form salt & water 4. Hydrolysis  reaction of water on a salt forming an acid and base Rate of Hydrolysis depends on: pH of the solution Temperature

5. Saponification  a reaction between an alkali & fats/ oils forming soap & glycerol 6. Fermentation  action of bacterial/ microorganism on organic substances resulting to the production of alcohol. Nuclear Change  chance in the structure of properties, composition of the nucleus of an atom resulting I \n the transmutation of the element into another element Nuclear Fission  splitting of a heavy atom Nuclear Fusion  union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger molecule. Types of Chemical Reactions: (a) Direct Union/ Synthesis/ Composition  involves the formation of elements Combustion  chemical combination with oxygen Metal oxides = basic Nonmetal oxides = acidic (b) Decomposition/ Analysis  breakdown of complex substances into simpler substance. Electrolysis  causing chemical change by passing electricity through conducting solution Ex: H2O electrolysis H2 + O2 (c) Single Replacement: A + BC  B + AC Na + HCl  H2  + NaCl Li  most reactive metal Li + NaCl  Na + LiCl Na + LiCl   Au  least reactive metal (d) Double displacement/ Metathesis: AB + CD  AD + CB Ex: NaCL + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3 Neutralization  the reaction between acid & a base to form salt & water a. Acid + Base  Salt + Water b. Metal Oxide + Acid  Salt + Water c. Nonmetal Oxide + Base  Salt + Water d. Metal Oxide + Nonmetal Oxide  Salt e. Ammonia + Acid  Ammonium salt (e) Redox Oxidation Reduction “VI LEORA” “VD LEORA”  Half reactive which  Gain of Electrons involve loss of electrons   oxidation state/ valence valence  Removal of  Removal of Oxygen; hydrogen; Addition Addition of Oxygen of Oxygen  Reducing Agent  Oxidizing Agent Ex: Na  Na + e Ex: Cl2 + 2e  2Cl MnO4 (violet/ pink) acidic Mn2+ (colorless/discoloration) basic/ neutral MnO2  (brown ppt) 

oxidation state/

Structure of Atoms:  Democritus  “Matter composed of tiny particles called Atomos” Atomos  Greek word , meaning-(not to be cut or to be divided)  John Dalton  “atoms”  Theory: The Billiard Ball Model  Atom is a hard indestructible sphere.  was disproved when Subatomoc Particles discovered. -Electron () Thompson -Proton (+) Goldstein -Neutron (neutral)  Chadwick & Urey  Thompson  Model: The Raisin-bread Model The Plum-pudding Model  “An atom is a sphere of positive particles” Rutherford  disproved the Thompson’s Theory (after 5 years)  Experiment: The Gold Foil/ Film Experiment 99% passed <1% deflected According to him: (Proposal) ▪ Atom is mostly an empty space (99& passed) ▪ Most of its Mass & (+) particles are concentrated in the nucleus (<1% deflected) ▪ Contains very small nucleus & in the nucleus there is protons & neutrons. ▪ Electrons are scattered around the nucleus.  Model: Nuclear Model Niel Bohr  Model: Planetary Model “Electrons move around in the circular paths called orbitals, wherein the energy of orbitals is quantized.” Erwin Schrodinger  Model: The Quatum-Mechanical Model “Electron moves in a 3D space/structure, which is called electron cloud (e cloud).” Ion  charged Atom ▪ Atomic Number  always equal to the number of protons  always equal to the number of electrons (if neutral) ▪ Mass Number (Atomic Mass)  sum of Protons + Neutrons  Electrons + neutrons (if neutral)  Atomic number + neutrons Neutral = #protons = #electrons (+) = #protons > #electrons () = #protons < #electrons Charged = #protons + #electrons (+) () Example: - Electron number (z) - Electrons mass (A) A - Z Symbol # Protons # Electrons # Neutrons 23 11 11 12 11 Na 24 2+ 12 10 12 Mg 12 32 2 16 18 16 S 16 Isotopes  same elements, same 3 of protons, different # of neutrons  same atomic #; different mass number  Classes: (1) Stable (2) Unstable or Radioactive Isotopes Isobars  different elements, same mass # Isotones  different elements, same # of neutrons Negatron  neutron converts to proton Positron  protron changes to neutron ▪ Allotropism Allotrope  atoms of different elements can link together in different ways to form substances with different properties.

Electrons:  Electrons  are located in electron clouds or energy level. 1. Orbitals  region in space where the probability of finding an electron is greatest Hybridization of Orbitals: -1s  spherical - Sp3  hybrid orbital -3p  principal - Sp2  double bond -5d  dumbed - Sp  triple bond -Quantum numbers 2. Electron Shell  one or more orbitals of varying shapes 3. Electron Configuration  groups of numbers which shows the arrangement of the electrons in an atom. 4. Valence Electrons  electrons occupying the outermost shell 2 2 6 2 6 2 10 Ex: 30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d (Ve is from 2nd to the last) ▪ Paramagnetic  unpaired electrons ▪ Diamagnetic  all the electrons are paired 5. Electron Energy level  are composed of sublevels, which in turn consist of orbitals Quantum Numbers: Symbol Values 1. Principal n 1, 2, 3, 4 n=1 K shell n=2 L shell n=3 M shell n=4 N shell 2. Angular Momentum/ Azithmutal

3. Magnetic

Ɩ

0 n=1

# of Total # of orbitals electrons possible Ɩ=0 -s subshell 1 2 Ɩ=1 -p subshell 3 6 Ɩ=2 -d subshell 5 10 Ɩ=3 -f subshell 7 14

n=1; Ɩ=0 n=2; Ɩ=0,1 n=3; Ɩ=0,1,2

m/mƖ 1, 0, +1 n=1; Ɩ=0; n=2; Ɩ=0,1;

4. Spin

m=0 m=0 m= 1, 0, +1 n=3; Ɩ=0,1,2; m=0 m= 1, 0, +1 m= 2, 1, 0, +1, +2 s/mS ½ or + ½ 2

2

6

2

6

2

10

Ex: 30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d n = 3; Ɩ=2; m= 2, 1, 0, +1, +2; s = = + ½  main energy level/ shell  sublevel/subshell  orbitals Functions  Total energy of electron (n  energy) 1. Principal

 Size of electron cloud (  size)  Main energy level or shell  Describes the relative position of an energy level w/ respect to the other nergy level present 2. Angular Momentum/  Shape of electron cloud  Subshell/sublevel Azithmutal

3. Magnetic 4. Spin

 Orientation of the space of electron cloud  Orbitals  Direction of the spin or rotation

Principles: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle  No two electrons can have the same set of quantum number 2  Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (Ex: 1s ) Aufbau/ Building Up Principle  energy: Lower  Higher (lower energy levels are filled up first)  the higher the n value, the higher the energy level  4s: (n+Ɩ) = 4+0 = 4 (energy level) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity  orbital are filled up singly before pairing up. Heisenberg Uncertainty It is impossible to determine simultaneously the momentum & position of an electron.

Periodic Table: Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier  Father of Modern Chemistry  first true periodic table Base on classes: Gases Metals Minerals Oxygen Fe Chalk Nitrogen Co Silica Chlorine Cu Dobereiner (Johann Dobereiner)  proposed the Law of ”TRIADS” based on physical & chemical properties of elements. Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba, Sr, S, Sc, Tc Newlands (John Newlands)  “octaves” (set of eight) Meyer & Mendeleev (Lothar Meyer & Dmitri Mendeleev) First Periodic Law “The Physical & Chemical Properties are periodic functions of their atomic weight” Moseley (Henry Moseley)  elements are arranged based on atomic numbers  increasing atomic number

(4f) 1st 14 elements = Lanthanoids/ Lanthanide series/ Rare Earth Metals th = 57-70 element nd (5f) 2 14 elements = Actinoids/ Actinide Series/ Heavy Rare Earth Metals th = 89-102 element Group/ Family: Column; Top to Bottom (18 groups/families) Period: Row; Left to Right (7 periods) Family A Family B Representative Elements Transition Elements s & p blocks d & f blocks Group IA  VIIIA Group IB  VIIIB Diagonal/Bridge Element  closely resembles the second member of an adjacent group to the right

Example: 15P

2

2

6

2

3

= 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p = period number (highest n value): 3 = p block = Family A = Group number (# of valence electrons): 5

 Summary: Periodic Properties TB LR   1. Atomic Size/ Atomic Radius   2. Ionization Energy Potential   3. Electron Affinity   4. Electronegativity   5. Metallic Property   Non-metallic Property  TB   Metallic Property & Atomic size  LR   Metallic Property & Atomic size Periodic Properties: 1. Atomic Size: w/ in Group (TB) = atomic size/ atomic radius w/ in the Period (LR) =  atomic size/ atomic radius 2. Ionization Energy Potential  is amount of energy required to remove en electron from a neutral atom to convert it to positively charge ion. TB =  IP LR =  IP Noble Gases  very high IP 3. Electron affinity  is the amount of energy release when a neutral atom accepts an electron in its outermost shell to convert it to negatively charge ion.  is the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom because it measures the attraction of the atom for the added atom TB =  EA LR =  EA 4. Electronegativity  the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when its chemically combined w/ another atom. TB =  EN LR =  EN Halogens  very high EN (F> O> N ≉Cl) 5. Metallic Property: TB =  metallic property LR =  metallic property Nonmetallic Property: TB =  nonmetallic property LR =  nonmetallic property Metalloids  directly below the ladder are elment possessing both metallic & nonmetallic in character -Boron -Silicon -Germanium -Arsenic -Antimony -Tellurium -Polonium

Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonds= stability= e configuration as noble gas

Example:

2

2He = 1s = noble gas: valence shell configuration 2 6 of ns np stable octet, 7 valence electrons  completely filled atomic orbitals 1. Electron Transfer  usually occur between a metal/ metalloid & a nonmetallic  metal/ metalloid + nonmetal Cation(+) + anion() = Ionic Bonding 2 2 6 1 Example: 11Na : 1s 2s 2p 3s + 2 2 6 Na : 1s 2s 2p = Ne 2 2 5  9F : 1s 2s 2p + e 2 2 6  F : 1s 2s 2p = Ne 2. Electron Sharing  nonmetal molecules  Covalent Bonding Example: H2 = 1H + 1H 1s1 1s1 Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals  Molecular Orbitals 1. head-on  sigma () m.o./ bond lies along the line 2. lateral sideways  pi() m.o./ bond formed from overlap of p orbital -anode  a region in space where there is a zero probability of finding an electron   bond  single bonds  bond multiple bonds

Sigma bonds ()  molecular orbitals are symmetrical about the bond axes. Pi bonds ()  subject to addition reaction (ex: 1-pentene) subject to addition nucleophilic (ex: Ethanal)

 similar atoms Non –polar  except for CH (still belongs) 

Covalent Bond

 equal sharing of e  dissimilar atoms Polar



 unequal sharing or e  dipole

CCl4  molecule: non polar  bond: polar H2O: Polar molecule Polar Bond

CHCl3  more polar than CCl4

 Forces of Attraction: INTRAmolecular  forces within a molecule a. Covalent Bond  made by sharing electrons -Nonpolar [Cl2, CO2, CCl2] –no significant diff. of EN -Polar [HCl, HCHO] –has significant dif. of EN b. Ionic bond  affinity between oppositely charged particles  present in salts/ ionic compounds  forces that hold ions together in the crystal lattice of a salt INTERmolecular forces hold molecules together 1. VAN DER WAALS 1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)  aka Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole  bond between nonpolar molecules (no charges)  weakest bond 2. Dipole-dipole or Permanent Dipole  aka Keesom Orientation FOrce  operate on polar or dipole molecules  stronger than LDF 3. Dipole- Induced Dipole  aka Debye Induction Force  bond between a charged (dipole) and an uncharged particles (induced dipole) 2. Hydrogen Bonding  bond of Hydrogen with a highly electronegative atom of another molecules  special type of dipole-dipole interaction. H  attached to highly electronegative atoms (N, O, F) H-bond  D-D  LDF   relative strength 3. Ion-ion, Ion-dipole, & ion induced dipole  (+) & () interaction in the solid sate  strongest bond Solid Liquid Gas Volume Definite Definite Indefinite Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite Strength of IFA Strongest Strong Weakest (Intermolecular Ideal Gas: forced of Attraction) No IFA Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Constant random

Kinematic Molecular Theory  explains the phases of matter based on the movement (including direction) of molecules, ions, or atoms.

Solutions  homogenous mixture of single phase system of two or more substances -Solute  lesser amounts  solid, liquid, gas -Solvent  greater amounts  liquid, solid, gas Alloys  an example of solid homogenous mixture

Factors affecting Solubility: 1. Nature of Solute & Solvent (Polarity): Like dissolve like Solubility  maximum amount of solute expressed in grams that can be dissolved in 100g of water Miscibility  ability of one substance to mix with another substance (ex: liquid-liquid; liquid-gas) 2. Temperature temp: sobility of solid in liquid temp:  solubility of a gas in liquid Exothermic  solubility: temperature Endothermic  solubility: temperature Standard Temp: 0C (273K) 3. Pressure (affects Gases only) Henry’s Law of Gas solubility  solubility of gas: pressure 2 SI unit for pressure: Pascal (N/m ) 4. Particle Size/ Surface Area particle size: surface area: solubility 5. Presence of Salts Salting-out  presence of salt decreases solubility  precipitation of an organic substance from a saturated solution when highly soluble salts. Salting in  presence of salt increases solubility *Basic or Sub salt  is prepared by: Partial hydrolysis of a normal salt Partial Neutalization of a hydroxide Types of Solution According to the Solubility of the Solute:  Saturated Solution  solution achieved the maximum solubility  Unsaturated Solution  less solvent that solute  Supersaturated Solution  more solvent that solute

Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions: 1. %𝑤/𝑤 = 2. %𝑣/𝑣 = 3. %𝑤/𝑣 = 4. 𝑚𝑔 % =

𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 100𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

5. Molarity (M)

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀= 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝐿 6. Molality (m)  more accurate 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚= 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊 = 𝐿 7. Normality (N) 𝑀𝑊 𝑤𝑡/ 𝐹 𝑁 =𝑀 ×𝐹 = 𝐿 𝑀𝑊 𝑤𝑡/ 𝑀𝑒𝑞 𝐹 = 𝐿 𝐿 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑁= 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁=

HCl : f=1 H2SO4: f=2 H2PO4: f=3 CH3COOH: f=1 NaOH: f=1 Mg (OH)2: f=2 AL(OH)3: f=3 NH3: f=1 F=total positive/ total negative charges NaCl: f=1 MgO: f=2 Ca3(PO4)2: f=6 K3C6H5O7: f=3 Oxid-agent: f=3 of e gained MnO4 H Mn F=5 +

2+

OHMn2

F=3 Redu-agent: f=# of e lost 2+ 3+ Fe  Fe

Colligative Properties 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering  the addition of a non-volatile solute lowers the VP of the liquid  A liquid in a closed container will established an equilibrium with its vapor.  When equilibrium is reached, the vapor exerts a pressure (vapor pressure)  Volatile  exhibits vapor pressure  most use Lower Temperature Zone  Nonvolatile  no measurable vapor pressure Raoult’s Law  is applied in the determination of vapor pressure P= (1x Xsolute) P  lowering of a vapor pressure of a solvent is equal to the product of the mole fraction of the solute & vapor pressure of the solvent.  follow ideal solution  ?P=P of pure solvent x mole fraction of the solute 2. Boiling Point Elevation Boiling Point  equilibrium between the liquid & the gas, point at which the VP equals atmospheric P. 3. Freezing Point Depression Presence of salt/ solute will cause lowering of freezing point Ice cream making ?FP = kfm Freezing point of water is 0C Kf= 1.86C/m 4. Osmotic Pressure Pressure needed to prevent osmosis Osmosis  net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution  lower to higher concentration of solute Reverse Osmosis  move under high pressure from more concentrated to less concentrated  process of water purification

Gas Laws (PV=nRT) 1. Boyle’s Law

 Volume is inversely proportional to pressure  nonlinear relation for volume & pressure

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

2. Charle’s Law

Constant: n, R, T Variable: P, V Relationship: Inverse  Volume is directly proportional to temperature (Kelvin), 273Kstandard

𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑇1 𝑇2

3. Avogadro’s Law

Constant: P, n, R Variable: V, T Relationship: Direct  Volume is directly proportional to moles

𝑉1 𝑉2 = 𝑛1 𝑛2

4. Combined/ Ideal Gas Law

5. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

Constant: P, R, T Variable: V, n Relationship: Direct 23 Avogadro’s Number: 6.02 x 10  combination of Boyle’s, Charle’s, Avogadro’s

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑛1 𝑇1 𝑛2 𝑇2

Ideal Gas  exist at STP T= OC / 273 K P= 1 atm = 760 mmHg N= 1 mol V= 22.4 L Ideal Gas Constant: R R= 0.08205 Latm/ mol k R= 8.314 J/mol k R= 1.987 cal/mol/k  State that the Pressure exerted by a mixture of gasses (non-reacting gases) is the sum of the partial pressures that each gas in the mixture exert individually  gaseous mixtures

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 … 𝑃𝑥

6. Gay-Lussac’s law or Amonton’s Law 7. Clausius-Clapeyron

8. Grahams Law

 Pressure is directly proportional to temperature, if V is constant

𝑙𝑜𝑔

𝑃2 ∆𝐻𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑃1 2.303 𝑅𝑇2 𝑇1

Where: P= Pressure T= Temperature Hv = heat of vaporization R= gas constant + 8.314 J/molK  Latent heat  heat required for phase transition to happen. -Hf  heat of fusion (S⇌L) -Hv  heat of vaporization (L⇌G) -Hs  heat of sublimation (S⇌G)  The rate of the effusion of two gases (& diffusion) are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities providing the temperature & pressure are the same for two gases.

𝑅1 𝑀𝑊1 𝑅2 𝑀𝑊2 Diffusion  gradual mixing of molecules of one gas w/ the molecules of another gas by virtue of their kinetic properties Effusion  passage of a gas under pressure through a small opening

Acids & Bases Electrolytes  Allow conductase of electricity  WEAK electrolytes: Incomplete/PartiaI dissolution Poor electric conductor  STRONG electrolytes: Strong acids & bases Complete dissolution Best electric conductor Non-Electrolytes  will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity  do not ionized in water Acid-Base Theory Arrhenius Bronsted-Lowry Lewis

ACID yield H+ proton donor e- acceptor

BASE yield OH proton acceptor e- donor

Arrhenius Theory  water ion theory of Acidity + Bronsted-Lowry  H (hydronium ion)  conjugate acid-base pairs  protonic concept + elaborated as HA <-> H + A  natural direction of a bronsted-lowry acid-base reaction: SA+SB WA+WB +  H30  strongest acid in aqueous solution Lewis Theory  coordinate covalent bond Heavy metals + chelating agents (2or more donor atoms) EDTA -^ donor atoms Chelates (cage-like structures) Coordinate Covalent Bond  interaction wherein both lectrons in the bond arise from a single orbital on one of the atoms forming the bond. 1. SA + SB  neutral salt HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O 2. SA + WB  acidic salt HCl + NH4OH  NH4Cl + H2O 3. WA + SB basic salt CH3COOH + NaOH  NaCH3COO + H2O 4. WA+WB  neutral, acidic, basic salt CH3COOH + NH4OH  NH4CH4COO + H20 kA = kB  neutal kA>kB  acidic salt kA
General Properties: ACIDS  sour taste  Litmus: Blue to Red  aqueous solutions conduct electricity  reacts with metal to produce Hydrogen gas reacts with carbonate & bicarbonate to produce Carbon dioxide gas  turns colorless w/ Phenolphthalein  turns pink w/ methyl orange indicator Most common acids: Strong Acids Weak Acids HCl HF Binary HBr Acids HI HNO3 H2SO4 Oxyacids HClO4 H2PO3 HOXO –halous acid BASES  bitter taste  Litmus: Red to blue  aqueous solutions conduct electricity  feel slippery  Pink to Violet color w/ Phenolphthalein  Yellow w/ Methyl orange Most common bases: Strong Bases NaOH Alkali Metal KOH (hydroxides) LiOH Alkaline Earth Be(OH2) (metal hydroxides)  Weak Base  conjugate base of a strong acid

Neutralization aka “acid-base reaction” involve in determination of acidity or alkalinity of solutions. Acid + base = salt & water  point when equal amounts of acid & base reacted; non-observable *Titration  process of progressive addition of a solution of known concentration to a substance of unknown concentration *Indicator  substance that changes color at the end point *Equivalent Pointis the point in a titration where stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of analyte & titrant. *Stoichiometric point *End point  is the point in a titration where we stop adding titrant(VS).  experimental approximate of neutralization point; Observable

Basic Principles of Analysis A. pH  number of grams equivalent of H per liter of soln  pH = -log [H] or pH = log 1/[H] pOH= -log[OH] pH + pOH =14 acidic = pH < 7.0, pOH >7.0 basic= pH >7.0, pOH <7.0 neutral= pH=pOH=7.0  () value of pH is possible  > 14 value is possible as well.  Protolysis  a process whereby a proton is transferred from one molecule to another.  Autoprotolysis  a process whereby there is a transfer of a proton from one molecule to another identical molecule.  Amphoteric  properly where a substance can act either as acid or base. Henderson- Hasselbalch equation pH = pka h log [salt]/[acid] or pH = pka=log [conjugate base]/[base] Isohydric  a solution having the same pH as the standard solution. B. Buffer Capacity  ability/ degree (magnitude) of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH upon addition of acid/alkali depends on the amount of the acid & the base from which the buffer can neutralize before pH begins to change to an appreciable degree Van slyke  was responsible for a quantitative expression  amount in g/l of strong acid or a strong base required to be added to a solution to change its pH by 1 unit.  higher buffer capacity, lower change in pH.

Pearson’s HSAB principle: “Hard acids are electron acceptor w/ high positive charges & relatively small sizes while soft acids have low positive charges & relatively large sizes. “

Thermodynamics  deals w/ energy transformation System  any part of the universe which is isolated from the rest by a boundary on a wall Surrounding  everything outside the system Three Types of Thermodynamic System 1. Open  allow exchange of both matter & energy -you can add/withdraw 2. Closed  allows exchange of energy but not of matter 3. Isolated  does not allow the exchange of both matter & energy. Adiabatic  doest not allow energy or heat flow Diathermal  allows energy & heat flow

Thermodynamic Functions: 1. Internal Energy (U or E)  total energy content of a system, composed of thermal energy & chemical energy  is the heat content of a system evaluated at contant volume Heat content = constant volume (isochoric)  refers to the heat required to increase the internal energy & to perform work of expansion

2. Enthalpy (H)  Energy of a reaction  heat content evaluated at constant pressure Heat content = constant pressure ( Isobaric) 3. Entropy (S)  measure of degree of randomness or disorderliness of a system. If the Entropy is Zero, the reaction is Spontaneous & Irreversible. 4. Gibb’s Free Energy (G)  expendable amount of energy  combines enthalpy & entropy  determines spontaneity of a reaction  when a reaction is at equilibrium = Gibbs Free Energy is Zero G=HTS (G=HTS) 5. Heat (q)  an energy transfer due to temperature difference q = (+)  endothermic q = ()  exothermic 6. Heat Capacity (c)  the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object or substance by one degree. 6. Work (w)  a form of energy transfer between a system & its surroundings in the form of compression or expansion of the gas.  movement of an object against some force w = work w= P2xtY V = 0 w= 0 work done BY the system  occurs during the process of expansion (expansion) V = Vf  Vi  sign is () work done ON the system  occurs during compression (compression)  sign is (+) A. State Function  path independent; not concern w/ the process only in the initial & final state. Ex: H, V, G, S H = Hf  Hi B. Non-state Function  path-dependent

First Law of Thermodynamics “Law of Conservation of Energy” Energy is not created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed. The Energy of the universe is constant.  V = 9xw Second Law of Thermodynamics “Spontaneous Law” A process that occurs by itself must be increased in the entropy in order to be SPONTANEOUS! accompanied by an increase of entropy G = () spontaneous G = (+) non-spontaneous G = (0)  equilibrium G = H TS () (+) ()  spontaneous (+) () (+)  non-spontaneous (+) (+)   spontaneous X X   non-spontaneous Above 0 degree  melt spontaneously Below 0 degree  not melt spontaneously Exacly 0  equilibrium  solid & liquid –Physical State @ Freezing point Triple Point  the condition of temperature & pressure where a substance can exist solid, liquid & gas @ the same time Freezing Point  0C  matter @ solid Boiling Point  matter @ liquid Third Law of Thermodynamics “The entropy of a pure crystalline solid at a zero Kelvin is zero.“  SOK = O

CHEMICAL REACTIONS: 1. Endothermic Process  reaction wherein heat is absorbed by the system, indicated by (+) change in enthalpy. 2. Exothermic Process  a reaction wherein heat is released by the system, indicated by a () change in enthalpy.  tend to be spontaneous reaction

Chemical Kinetics (reaction rates): 1. Collision Theory  result of molecular collision  rate & frequency of effective collisions  is effective if: Requirements: a. Reactants must posses energy equal to or higher than minimum energy requirement (energy barrier, activation of energy [Ea]) b. Proper orientation  reaction profile A=B  P Ea =  rate Ea =  rate #peaks = equal to the number of steps of reaction Converted Reaction/ Single Phase Reaction  single step reaction  determining Endo or Exo  from graph H = H prod  H reactants = () = Endothermic 2. Transition State Theory  reactant (first form) to transition state & dissociation to products reactants  transition state  products Rate  dependents on energy required for the formation of transition state (TS) energy TS =slow rate energy TS = fast rate Intermediate  space occupied between two transition state (TS)

Factors Affecting Reaction rate: 1. Nature of Reactants  reactivity, physical state 2. Temperature   temperature  Eave  mobility   frequency collision   rate 3. Surface Area  SA  particle size   rate 4. Concentration   conc.   rate Except for zero order reaction Laws of Mass Action   reactant =  collision A B # collision O O 1 O O 2 O O O 3 O O Rate Law Expression = A=B  P X Y  rate = K [A] [B] Where: K = specific rate constant = temp-dependent [A][B] = molar concentration X & Y = order of reaction

magnitude of the effects of the changing concentration of reaction rate x=1 y=2  3 5. Catalyst  a substance that speed up the rate of reaction by providing a new reaction pathway for molecules  influences the speed of a reaction without itself being altered chemically. Effects: a. Directly lower EA b. Can make reaction proceed in a multistep process wherein each step has lower Ea compared to the usual reaction

Chemical Equilibrium Kinetics  rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward reaction Homogenous Equilibrium  reactants & product are present in same phase. Heterogenous Equilibrium  the reactants & products are in different phase Ionic Equilibria  involves Ionia 1. Weak Acid & Weak Base  will be equal if they are have 1 aqueous solution -weak acid: Ka =acid ionization constant -weak base: Ka = base ionization constant 2. Insoluble Salts  happened if there saturated solution Ksp = solubility product constant 3. Complexes: Kf = formation constant

Le Chatelier’s Principles when a stress is applied to an equilibrium  stress factors: s in concentration: P, V, temp will not cause any shift addition of catalysy Ex: (g) = 2B9g) ⇌ P(a) P (V)  shift to directions lesser # of gaseous molecules  temp = favors an endothermic reaction  temp = facvors an exothermic reaction temp =  temp = 

Common-ion Effects  suppresses the ionization of weak electrolytes +

Add of HCl  H + Cl =  Add of NaOH  Na = OH =  H3O Add of NaCl  Na+Cl = No shift

(the dissociation of a weak electrolytes is decreasing by adding to the solution a strong electrolytes that in common w/ the weak electrolyte)

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic Chemistry  branched of chemistry that deals with carbon – containing compounds with: C, H, O, P, S, X (halides – F, Cl, B, I) Hydrocarbon  contain (C,H) 1. Aliphatic  single chain, no ring/s involve a. Saturated  single bonds only, Alkane (parafins)  CnH2n+2 b. Unsaturated  has multiple bonds, Alkenes (double bond)  CnH2n Alkynes (triple bonds)  CnH2n-2

2. Aromatic Compounds  presence of ring/s, specifically Benzene Ring & its derivatives Examples: Benzene (1 ring) Naphthalene (2 rings) -polycyclic benzenoids -obtained from coal tar -position (, )

3. Alicyclic or Carbocyclic  they are chains that form a ring & behave like aliphatics (single bond) Examples: -cyclopropane -cyclopropene -cyclobutane

-cyclobutene

 Cycloalkanes: CnH2n

Anthracene (3 rings) -polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) -for dyes Phenanthrene -isomer of anthracene

Hydrocarbon Derivatives  are hydrocarbons that bear other carbon & hydrogen atoms & other elements such as Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, or Halogen, Phosphorus, etc Oxygen-containing 1. Aldehydes (RCHO) Ketones (RCOR) 2. Ethers (ROR) -formed during dehydration of alcohol -CnH2n+20 3. Alcohols (Phenol)

4. Carboxylic Acid (Carboxyl, -COOH)

Organic acid (RCOOH) 5. Carboxylic Acid derivatives -acid acyl -anhydrides -ester (RCOOR) -amides

Nitrogen-containing 1. Amines (amino group, -NH) Primay Amines: RNH2 Secondary Amines: R2NH Tertiary Amines: R3N 2. Heterocyclic 3. Nitrogen-compounds

Halogencontaining 1. Alkyl Halides 2. Aryl Halides

Phosphorus-containing 1. Phosphate groups 2. Organophosphate

Sulfur-containing 1. Thiols (-SH) -sulfur analogue of alacohols -aka “Sulfhydryls” 2. Thioethers (R-S-R)

Isomerism  refers to the existence of two or more compounds having the same molecular formula, but different structure Isomer  compounds having the same Molecular formula, but different structure. Stereochemistry  the branch of organic chemistry that is solely dedicated to the study of isomers Reasons: 1. Order of Bonding  “Structurally Isomer” a. Chain – branching  exhibited by alkanes  differ in the arrangement of C atoms Ex: C4H10  (butane) CH3CH2CH2CH3  (isobutane) CH3CHCH3  CH3 C5H12  (pentane) CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3  (isopentane) CH3CHCH2CH3  CH3 (neopentane) CH3  CH3CCH3  CH3 b. position  position of multiple bond or differ in the position of substituent or functional group.  differ in position of the substituent or unsaturated bonds (C=C, CC) Ex: C4H8 –alkene w/ 1 double bond  (1-butene) H2CCHCH2CH3  (2-butene) H2CCHCH2CH3 C3H7Br  (1-bromopropane) CH3 CH2CH2Br  (2-bromopropane) CH3 CHCH3  Br Prefixes that designate positions in the benzene: (a) Ortho  indicate substances on the benzene ring in positions next to each other Ortho-bromochlorobenzene

2. Spatial Orientation  arrangement of atom in space  “Stereoisomer” a. Geometric Isomers  double bond (alken3), cyclic Cis-Trans -Cis (means on the same side) Ex: Cis 2butene

-Trans (means across or on opposite sides) Ex: Trans2butene

b. Conformational Isomers (a) open chain/ acyclic  can be obtain in rotation along a single bond (b) cyclic-ring flipping Ex:  Ethane  Saw horse Projection:

 Perspective Formula: -dash (back) -wedge (front)  Newman Projection: -eclipse conformation

-staggered conformation: -more stable Dihedral angle  Cyclobutane -planar  not a stable conformation  are all eclipsing

(b) Meta  substituents on the benzene ring separated by one carbon atom. Meta-bromochlorobenzene (c) Para  subtituents separated by two carbon atoms Para-bromochlorobenzene c. Functional Isomer  Functional Group  differ in their functional groups Ex: CH2CH2OH  ethanol (alcohol) CH3OCH3  methyl ether (ether)

-butterfly conformation  more stable

 Cyclopentane -planar  not stable -envelope conformation  more stable

 Cyclohexane -Chair  most stable -planar  not stable -boat conformation  more stable  flagpole positions steric effect

Optical Activity ability of a compound to rotate a polarized light either to right or to the left  can only be determined by POLARIMETER  Dextrorotatory =d/ (+)  Levorotatory= l/() 1. Chiral Center/ Chiral carbon/ Asymmetric chiral carbon  aka Stereocenter  is acarbon to which four different atoms or group of atoms are attached 2. No symmetry element  Enantiomers  mirror images but not superimposable  also called as Optical Isomer since they rotate light in the opposite direction  Diastereomers  non-mirror images, not superimposable  Mesocompounds  mirror images, superimposable same compounds  Epimer  special type of diastereomers  identical in all except in one chiral center  differ only in configuration at one asymmetry carbon atom ▪ D-glucose/ D-mannose Epimers at 2 ▪ D-glucose/ D-galactose Epimers at 4  Anomer  differ only in configuration at Carbon #1 (carbonyl C or anomeric C)

-anomer

-anomer

Ex: Tartaric Acid HOOCCHCHCOOH   OH OH n = # stereoisomers =2 (n=chiral center) 2 =2 =4 Fischer Projection Formula

I

II

III

IV

I-II  mirror images Superimposable meso compounds ( compounds w/ stereocenters but are chiral)  optically inactive II-III  non mirror images Non superimposable  diastereomers III-IV  mirror images Non superimposable  enatiomers Meso Compounds  compounds w/ sterocenters but are chiral  are characterized by the presence of a plane of symmetry & are superimposable Racemic-mixtures (racemates)  produced w/ mixtures of equimolar concentrations of dextro & levo isomers  contain equal amounts of D & L isomers R & S isomers  determine by Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Example: Thalidomide  exist 2 chiral center r-thalidomide  sedative/ hypnotic s-thalidomide  teratogenic Thalidomide syndrome  because of the presence of s-thalidomide phocolmelia (short limb) amelia (no limb)

Haworth Projection  presents a cyclic sugar structure Biosostere  substituents or groups w/ similar physical or chemical properties that in impart similar biological properties to a chemical compounds Purpose: -Enhance the desired biological or physical properties of a compound without making significant changes in chemical structure -Increase Potency -Decrease Side effects -Increase duration of action by altering metabolism -Isosteric analogs may act antagnonistically w/ the parent molecule Example of Biososteric replacements: -Fluorine vs Hydrogen -Hydroxyl vs Amino Acids -Hydroxyl vs Thiol Groups -Methyl, Methoxyl, Hydroxyl, Amino groups vs Hydrogen -Fluoro, Chloro, & Bromo, thiol, vs Methyl & other small alkyl groups Types of Organic Reactions: 1. Addition: CH2 = CH2 + HBr  CH3CH2Br 2. Substitution: CH3CH2OH+Cl  CH3CH2Cl 3. Elimination: CH3CH2OH  CH2  CH2 +H2O 4. Re-arrangement: CH3CH2CH2Br  CH3CHCH3  Br + 5. Propagation, Inititation, Termination: CH4 + Br  CH3* + Br O  6. Oxidation: CH3CH2OH + H2CrO4  CH3C-OH + Cr +3 7. Reduction: Nitrobenzene + Fe  Aniline + Ferric Hydroxide Systems of Nomenclature: 1. Common  uses the name given when it was discovered  example: Formic Acid (Latin, formica=ants) Uses prefixes: -n, -iso, -neo 2. Derived Names  derived from a parent compound 3. IUPAC (international Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry)  most systemic  example: 2-methylhexane  based on: A. longest continuous C chain or parent chain B. use of numbers C. use of C # prefixes  QSAR (Quantitative Structure & Activity Relationship) IUPAC Rules: 1. Name by considering the longest carbon chain 2. Number C atoms consecutively from one end so that the branches or substituents are given the lowest position numbers 3. Modify the Suffix based on the type of formula or the functional group ROH (-ol) RCHO (-al) RCOR (-one) RCOOH (-oic acid) 4. Identify the substituents & indicate the positions by using numbers CH3 (methyl) R (alkyl) OCH3 (methoxy) OR (Alkoxy) Cl (Chloro) Br (Bromo) NH2 (Amino) 5. If there is more than one of the same substituent/ alkyl group on the chain, indicate the number of groups by using prefixes; ditwo; tri-three; tetra-four; & so on.

Saturated Hydrocarbons Alkanes: CnH2n+2 (-ane) # of C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rootword Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec

4. Hydration (addition of water/ H20) Oxidation of Alkene: 1. Hydroxylation/ Glycol Formation + -ane Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane Nonane Decane

Molecular formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 C8H18 C9H20 C10H22

Substituents: R-alkyl = alkanes1H atom yl = methyl: CH3 Ethyl: CH2CH3 Propyl: CH2CH2CH3 Isopropyl: CH3CHCH3

 Tertairy Butyl:

CH3

 CH3CCH3 x (halo): F: Fluoro Cl: Chloro Br: Bromo I: Iodo NO2: Nitro CN: Cyano



Alkyl groups  Can participate in Van der Waals Interaction & Hydrophobic Bonding.  Metabolism: Oxidation  Aryl Groups (Ar)  an aromatic (benzene ring) with a hydrogen atom removed Reactions to Consider:  Combustion  a chemical reaction in which HC burns (rapid oxidation) & produces CO2 & H20 Cycloalkanes: (alkanes that exist in the shape of a ring)  Cycopropane / Trimethylene  Cyclobutane  Cyclopentane Unsaturated Hydrocarbons  have multiple bonds in their molecules Alkenes: CnH2n (-ene) ethane/ ethylene: propene: CH3CHCH2 Reactive site occur in  CC double bond (e rich) – has 1, 1 react to something positive 

Electrophile (E )  e- poor / e- lovinf reagents (+) 

NUcleophile (N )  e- rich reagent () Electrophilic Addition  alkene react w/ electrophiles 1. Catalytic hydrogenation (addition of H) – alkenealkane  used in production in Margarine Fixed oils (Unsaturated Fatty Acids)  saturated F.A Liquids  solid 2. Halogenation (addition of Halogen) Alkene CHCl2/CCl4 Alkyldihalide H2O halohydrin 3. Hydrohalogenation  (addition of HX, -hydrogen halide) Alkene + HX  alkylhalide  Markonicov’s Rules H adds to C w/ the greater # of H substituents X adds to C w/ the lesser # of H substituents  Electrophilic Groups will most likely attach to 1-pentene

Basis for: Baeyer’s Test (for unsaturated) Glycol (ex: 1,2-diols)  is the genral term tha is used to refer to compounds having two hydroxyl groups attached to adjacent carbons

2. Oxidative cleavage Metabolism: More reactive than alkyl group Hydration Epoxidation Peroxidation Reduction Alkadienes  contain 2 CC  name: Indicate the position of double bond + prefix+ diene; CH2CHCHCH2 Alkynes: CnH2n2 (-yne) Triple bond (one or more) HCCH: Ethyne/ Acetylene (simplest alkyne) Reactive site occur in  CC triple bond (e rich) Aromatics  contain Benzene Ring that have multiple double bonds Benzene: C6H6 (subject to Substitution Electrophilic) Toluene  methyl derivative of benzene Xylene  dimethyl benzene Aromaticity: (Criteria) 1. Cyclic 2. Flat/ Planar (sp2 C = double bond) 3. Conjugated double bonds  having alternating double bonds 4. Huckel’s Rule : 4n+2 rule

6e10e6=4n+2 10=4n+2 4=4n n=2 n=1 cyclobutadiene: antiaromatic compound 4=4n+2 n= ½ (therefore, it’s not aromatic) furan: 6e- (n=1) not benzene ring, But Aromatic Pyrole: 6e- (n=1) not benzene ring, But Aromatic Eletrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) Reactions: 1. Nitration 2. Halogenation 3. Friedel-Craft’s Alkylation 4. Friedel-Craft’s Acylation 5. Sulfonation  only reversible EAS Other Functional Groups: Halides: Halogenation Formation of an alkyl or aryl halide Examples of Organic halides: -F, -Cl, -Br, -I Functional Froup: R-X

Alkyl & aromatic halides electron-withdrawing functional groups  used to “lock” a drug molecule in a desired conformation  decrease aromatic oxidation of the drug only F can bind  Ex: Diclofenac, Chloramphenicol  Electron-withdrawing Groups  impart acid stability

Alcohols  OH groups can form ion-dipole & H-bonds  OH groups enhance water solubility  esterified to form prodrugs  metabolism: Oxidation, Glucuronidation or sulfate conjufation Functional group: R-OH Classification: 1. Based on the # of R bonded to the Carbon bearing the –OH group (C-OH, carbinol group) a. Primary alcohol  has only one R-group (1 alcohol) Examples: Methyl alcohol: CH3OH Ethyl Alcohol: CH3CH2OH Propyl Alcohol: CH3CH2CH2OH b. Secondary Alcohol two R-groups (2 alcohol) Example Isopropyl: CH3CHCH3

 OH c. Tertiary Alcohol has three R-groups Example: Tertairy Butyl: CH3



CH3CCH3

 OH 2. Based on the # of hydroxyl groups a. Monohydric  1 OH b. Dihydric  2 OH (ethylene glycol) c. Trihydric  3 OH (glycerol) d. Polyhydric (carbohydrates) Nomenclature of Alcohols: A. Common names are often used  name of alkyl group + alcohol  CH3OH (methyl alcohol) B. Derived names from Carbinol (an old name of metyhanol) Eg. CH3CH2OH Methyl carbinol C. IUPAC Rules: similar to alkanes 1. Parent chain has the –OH 2. –OH is given the lower number 3. Name ending in –ol Qualitative Test for Alcohols: 1. Lucas Test -Reagent: Zinc Chloride (catalyst) in concentrated HCl (reactant) -involves in double displacement -differentiate alcohols by forming an insoluble layer -Tertiary alcohols are the most reactive towards this test Reactivity: 3>2>1>CH3OH -Primary alcohols do not undergo the reaction easily & needs heat -Visible result: Two immiscible layers 2. Dehydration –usually undergone by Methanol & Ethanol removal of H2O 3. Oxidation – reagent: K2Cr2O7  depend on type of alcohol 1  aldehyde (oxidized to Carboxylic acid) 2  Ketone 3  no reaction 4. With Active Metal (ex: Na) williamsons reagent  for synthesis of ethers Reactivity: CH3OH > 1> 2> 3 Methanol  formaldehyde  formic acid  metabolic acidosis (blindness) Antidote: ethanol/ ethyl alcohol Ethanol  acetaldehyde  acetic acid  liver damage Ethylene Glycol  oxalate + CA2+  hypocalcemia  CaC2O4 (kidney stones)

Phenols -aka Phenolics -class of chemical compounds, consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. -they have relatively higher acidities compared to alcohols -examples of phenols: Ortho (catechol) Meta (resorcinol) Para (hydroquinone) 1-naphthol (alpha-naphthol) 2-naphthol (beta-naphthol) -form ion-dipole & hydrogen bonds -enhance water solubility -esterified to form prodrugs -susceptible to oxidation Air Ferric ions -Metabolism: Sulfation Glucuronidation Aromatic Hydroxylation O-methylation Important Alcohols & Phenols: 1. Methanol  aka “Wood Alcohol” (because it was formerly obtained from destructive distillation)  used to produce formaldehyde, a starting material for many plastics  a good denaturant for ethyl alcohol (makes ethyl alcohol unfit for drinking) because of its taste & poisonous properties. 2. Ethanol  aka “Grain Alcohol”, “wine Sprit”, ”Spiritus vini rectificatus”  alcohol present in alcoholic beverages  obtained from fermentation of sugars & starch  used as antiseptic (70% solution of ethanol)  used as solvent in medicinal preparations (tinctures)  unfit for use in intoxicating beverages by addition of Denatured alcohol (contains Methanol & Benzene) 3. Isopropyl Alcohol  component of rubbing alcohol  solvent  intermediate in the production of acetone 4. Cholesterol  a complex alcohol that occurs in nature, a sterol found in a cell membrane of animal cells; used as precursor for the synthesis of sex hormones & bile acids 5. Glycerol  used in the manufacture of certain plastics  used as solvent in liquid medications being nontoxic  ingresient in cosmetics formulation due to its moisturizing property  main constituent of suppositories 6. Ethylene Glycol  antifreeze for automobiles  solvent  humectants aids in retaining moisture 7. Phenol  aka “Carbolic Acid”  used as disinfectant for surgical instruments & utensils ets.  starting material in the manufacture of aspirin, detergents, dyes, herbicides, explosives, etc. 8. Cresol  saponated cresol (aka “Lysol”) – used as disinfectant which is better & less toxic than phenol 9. Resorcinol  also used as antiseptic but not as good as phenol 10. Hexyl Resorcinol  a much better antiseptic & germicide, commonly used in mouthwash 11. Menthol  from oil of Peppermint 12. Geraniol  from Rose Oil 13. Glucose  a carbohydrate basic unit Ideal Antiseptic  has a low surface tension  should also be non-irritating to tissue & non-allergenic  retain activity in the presence of body fluids  rapid & sustained lethal action against microorganisms

Ethers -aka Organic Oxides ROR ArOAr ArOR -glycosidic bond formed in glycoside Nomenclature fro Ethers 1. IUPAC Rules -use alkoxy as a prefix -position is indicated by number -“OXY” -CH3OCH3 2. Derived Name -alkyl groups + Ethers -CH3OCH3 Classification of Ethers: 1. Open-chain a. Symmetrical  contains similar R groups Ex: Methyl ether (Methoxy methane): CH2OCH3 Ethyl Ether (Ethoxy ethane): CH3CH2OCH2CH3 b. Mixed  contains different R groups Ex:Ethymethyl ether (Methoxy ethane): CH3CH2OCH3 2. Cyclic Ethers a. Epoxides/ Oxiranes/ Oxacyclopropane  cyclic ethers in which the ether oxygen is a part of a 3-membered ring system Ex: Ethylene Oxide  gas sterilant  alkylation of essential metabolism of bacteria b. More than 3 members included in the ring system furanose ring:

pyranose ring: Important Ethers: 1. Ethyl Ether  once widely used as general anesthetic because it is safe even in long surgical procedures  ADR: Irritation of mucous membranes, nausea & vomiting  dangerous because it is explosive  solvent for waxes & fats 2. Ethylene oxide  gas sterilant  used to fumigate textiles & grains  raw material in the synthesis of other organic compound 3. Monobenzone  depigmenting agent in cases of excessive melanin formation  reduce melanin formation  can be seen in whitening preparation 4. Eugenol  from Clove Oil  when mixed with ZNO forms a cement used by dentist as temporary fillings 5. Naproxen  NSAID 6. Gembrozil

 Amines  organic compounds that are derived from ammonia by replacing 1, 2, or 3 H’s w/ alkyl or aryl (Ar) Primary Amines: RNH2 Secondary Amines: R2NH Tertiary Amines: R3N Quaternary Amines  not basic, no lone pair of electrons amino group: NH R-group: e- donor causes: sterric effect (“crowding”) basicity: 2>3>1> NH3 (more groups, more basic) Heterocyclic Amines  cyclic compounds that contain N atom as part of the ring  occur widely in biological systems Classification based on the Group attached to N: Aliphatic Amine Aromatic Amine CH3NH2 -aniline Basicity: Aliphatic Amine > Aromatic Amine Classification based on the number of group attached to N (1, 2, 3 & Quaternary Ammonium Compounds) Important Amines: 1. Aniline  used to commercially in the preparation of many dyes & drugs 2. Choline  found in egg yolks, meats,& fish, essential for growth 3. Adrenaline/ Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine  a neurotransmitter Causes low 4. Amphetamine  a psychomimetic drugs pH urine or 5. Methamphetamine alkaline 6. Pseudoephedrine 7. Phenylpropanolamine urine 8. Barbituric Acid  parent compound of barbiturates (sedatives)  an addictive drug  has both an amino & an acid group 9. Saccharin  artificial sweetener, (disadvantage: bitter after taste) 10. Other amino-containing compounds: -blockers -agonists

 NH2  recentl discovered compound w/ a composition of 87.5%N & 12.5% H

Aldehydes (RCHO)  undergone w/ Cannizaro Reaction  are oxidized to carboxylic acids, & reduced to primary alcohols IUPAC: Parent chain contains the –CHO, same pattern as alkane, change –e to –al terminal functional group Example: Methanal (formaldehyde)

Ketones (RCOR) IUPAC: Parent chain has the –C=O group, Its is given the lower number Change –e to –one  product of oxidation of Secondary alcohol  non terminal functional group  Example: Propanone (acetone)  a substrate can be used to synthesize tertiary alcohol  simplest Ketone

Ethanal (acetaldehyde) Butanone Reactions of Aldehyde: 1. Reaction w/ 2,4-DNPH forms highly colored 2,4 –DNP Hydrazones which range from yellow to deep red 2. Oxidation: (a) Benedicts Test traditional test forn glucose in the urine *Basis: reduction of cupric ions to cuprous oxide  brick red ppt (for Aliphatic only; also for ketones) 2+ RCHO + Cu  R-COOH + Cu2O (b)Tollen’s Test rgnt: Ammoniacal AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate)  form Silver mirror w/ Aliphatic & Aromatic Aldehyde 2+ RCHO + Ag  R-COOH + Ag (c)Iodofrom Test  reaction w/ I2 – K2 (test for methylketones) yellow; fowl smell 3. Reduction to Alcohols 4. Addition of Alcohols/ Acetals Formation 5. Addition of Grgnard Reagents (a)Formaldehyde will give primary alcohols (b)Higher Aldehydes will give secondary alcohols (c)Ketones will give tertiary alcohols (d)Esters will give tertiary alcohols Important Aldehydes: 1. Formaldehyde  preservative for anatomical specimens because it causes skin hardening  effective disinfectant used in hospital  embalming fluid –(FORMALIN)  creates a “silver mirror” on the walls of a test tube w/ Silve Nitrate 2. Acetaldehyde  intermediate in the manufacture or acetic, ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate which in turn are used on the production of synthetic rubber & water-based paints. 3. Chloral  starting material for the manufacture of insectides -DDT Chloral Hydrate  “knockout drops”  dissolves Starch, Resins, Proteins  metabolite: Trichloroacetic Acid 4. Butanal  a constitutent of the aroma of fresh bread 5. Benzaldehyde  once called “Oil of Bitter Almond” because of its presence in almond seed  used as Flavoring Agent  intermediate in the manufacture of drugs, dyes, & other organic products 6. Cinnamaldehyde  chief constituent of the oil of cinnamon bark 7.Vanillin  fragrant component of vanilla beans  flavoring agent 8. Citral  major component of lemon grass oil

-Other example: Acetone  used as a solvent & nail polisher remover Testosterone  a male sex hormone, steroidal ketone Muscone  odorous principle of musk (sex attractants) Pheromones  produce by musk to attracts sex ; (Scents) Muscaline  pheromone produce by house flies Chloracetophenone  lacrimator (tear gas) Pipper spray  contain capsaicin (sili) Metabolism of Ketones: Ketones are very stable Primary route of metabolism: reduction to alcohol Important Ketones: 1. Acetone  used as a solvent for such products as paints, lacquers, & cellulose acetate because of its miscibility with both water & non polar nail polisher remover 2. Testosterone  makor constituent of the male sex hormone  responsible for the development of the secondary sex characteristics  steroidal ketone 3. Muscone  odorous principle component of musk (sex attractants)  valued for its ability to enhance fragrances even when present in minute amounts  present in many of the expensive perfumes as fixative Musk  natural substance w/ a strong sweet smell 4. Pheromones  produce by musk to attracts sex ; (Scents) 5. Muscaline  pheromone produce by house flies 6. Chloracetophenone  lacrimator (irritates eye) is used as a Tear Gas (produce stinging pain in the eyes & streaming from the eyes & nose) 7. Pipper spray  contain capsaicin (sili) 8. Acetophenone  has been used as a hypnotic but newer & safer drugs are now available 9. Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)  solvent for lacquers, paints, plastics

Hydrocarbons with Carbonyl Functional Group -Carbonyl Group  is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom. Carboxylic Acids  R-COOH/ Ar-COOH  terminal functional group product of hydrolysis of anhydrides  product of further oxidation of Primary Alcohol Nomenclature of Acids 1. Common name  Uses Greek letters to indicate the positions of substituents C-C-C-C-C-COOH Alpha=next to COOH Beta Gamma Sigma Epsilon  Often derived from Latin Greek name indicating the original source of the acid 2. IUPAC  Parent chain contains the –COOH, carboxy C is #1  Change –e to –oic  Ex: methane? –methanoic acid Reactions: 1. Acid/ Salt Formation 2. Conversion into functional derivatives (a) conversion into acid chlorides (b) conversion into an ester (b) conversion into amides 3. Reduction Kinds of Acids: (based on the number of carboxyl group –COOH) 1. Monocarboxylic acids  saturated fatty acids, one carboxylic acid group #C Formula Common Name Systematic Name CnH2n+1COOH Formic Acid 1 Methanoic Acid HCOOH Acetic Acid 2 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH Propionic Acid 3 Propanoic Acid CH3CH2COOH Butyric Acid 4 Butanoic Acid CH3(CH2)2COOH Valeric Acid 5 Pentanoic CH3(CH2)3COOH Caproic Acid 6 Hexanoic Acid CH3(CH2)4COOH Caprylic Acid 8 Octanoic Acid CH3(CH2)6COOH Capric Acid 10 Decanoic Acid CH3(CH2)8COOH Lauric Acid 12 Dodecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)10COOH Myristic Acid 14 Tetradecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)12COOH Palmitic Acid 16 Hexadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)14COOH Stearic Acid 18 Octadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)16COOH Arachidic Acid 20 Eicosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)18COOH Behemic Acid 22 Docosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)20COOH Lignoceric Acid 24 Tetracosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)22COOH 2. Dicarboxylic Acids  saturated acids with two –COOH group #C Name 2 Oxalic Acid oh 3 Malonic Acid my 4 Succinic Acid such 5 Glutaric Acid good 6 Adipic Acid apple 7 Pimetic Acid pie 8 Suberic Acid sweet 9 Azelaic Acid as 10 Sebacic Acid sugar Azelaic acid  anti-pimple Oxalic Acid  product of the oxidation of Ethylene Glycol

3. Others Monobasic/ Monoenoic Acid/ Monocarboxylic acid unsaturated fatty acids, with one double bond 9 ▪ Palmitoleic Acid (16:1 )  contains 16C w/ 1 double bond (cis-9-hexadecanoic acid) 9 ▪ Oleic Acid (18:1 )  at position between 9&10 (cis-9-octadecanoic acid) 9 ▪ Elaidic Acid (18:1 )  (trans-9-octadecanoic Acid) 15 ▪ Nervonic Acid (20:1 )  (cis-15-tetracosanoic Acid) Polyunsaturated (Polyethanoid; Polyenoic Acid)  Dienoic Acids (2 double bonds) 9,12 ▪ Linoleic Acid (18:2 )  (9,12-octadecanoic Acid)  Trienoic Acid (3 double bonds) 9,12,15 ▪ Linolenic (18:3 )  (9,12,15-ocatadecatrienoic Acid)  Tetraenoic Acid (4 double bonds) 5,8,11,14 ▪ Arachidonic Acid(20:4 ) (5,8,11,14-Eicosatetranoic Acid) can be synthesized through the bne Palmitoleic, Oleic, Linolenic,Linoleic & Linolenic are the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids in animal lipids Linoleic, Linolenic, Arachidonic  are the three essential fatty acids Omega  refers to VH3 Methyl group Fatty Acids are aliphatic carboxylic acids  occur mainly as esters in natural fats & oils but do not occur in the unsterified from as free fatty acids, a transport form found in the plasma.  are usually straight-chain derivatives containing an even number of carbon atoms.  the chain may be saturated or unsaturated Important Acids: 1. Salicylic Acid  Monoprotic Acid  used for treatment of fungal infection & removal of warts & corns  used as a keratolytic agent (for the removal of dead skin cell)  Whitfield’s Ointment ® (antifungal) = Benzoic Acid + Salicylic Acid 2. Acetylsalicylic Acid  (ASPIRIN)  analgesic, antipyretic, treatment of colds, headache, minor aches & pains 3. Acetaminophen USP(Paracetamol BP) substitute for aspirin 4. Citric Acid  found in citrus fruits  Triprotic Acid 5. Lactic Acid  foud in sour milk  formed during fermentation of milk sugar, lactose, & responsible for souring of spoiled milk  product of fermentation milk sugar 6. Tartaric Acid  found on several fruits particularly grapes  salt of tartaric acid  Diprotic Acid *Potassium Hydrogen Tartarate (Cream of Tartar) used in making baking powder Potassium Sodium Tartrate used as a mild cathartic 7. Benzoic Acid  Monoprotic Acid  used as Antifungal Agent  its sodium salt, sodium benzoate, is used as a food preservative 8. Para-aminobenzoic Acid  used in suntan lotions to prevent the dangerous UV rays from reaching the skin 9. Acetic Acids  vinegar, spermatocidal  considered as a universal precursor for fatty acids, lipids, & other organic plant products Glacial Acetic Acid  Ethanolic Acid

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 1. Acid/ Acyl chloride Oic  oyl chloride

Ex: Ethanoyl chloride (acetyl chloride) 2. Esters product of the reaction between a Carboxylic Acid & Alcohol  Formula: RCOOR  ends in –oate  most ester have fragrant odors & contribute to the flavors of fruits  Common characteristics: pleasant odor Ex: Isoamyl ethanoate Methyl salicylate  R – CO – OR + H2O  R – COOH + R – OH Reactions: Hdrolysis  acidic, unpleasant odor  Lipids  esters of glycerol & high molecular weight of fatty acids  Saponification  reaction of lipids w/ a strong inorganic base  alkali hydrolysis of an ester (RCOOR)  products: Glycerol + Soap 3. Anhydrides  composed of two molecules of carboxylic acids  hydrolysis yield two molecules of carboxylic acid

 -oic acid  -oic anhydrides Example: ethanoic acid H2O acetic anhydrides 4. Amide  formed by the condensation of a carboxylic acid & an amine Reactions: Hydrolysis (requires an acid catalyst & heat products are Carboxylic Avid & Ammonia Gas)  -oic acid  amide

Example: -Ethanamide:

-N-methylethanolamide:

Reactivity: most  least acid/acyl chloride  anhydrides  esters  amide

Important Amides: 1. Acetanilide  has been used as an Antipyretic & as an analgesic 2. Niacinamide  amide of niacin, a form of Vitamin B3 3. Nicotinamide (nicotinic acid)  only form can treat pellagra or classical deficiency 4. Sulfanilamide  sulfur analogue of an amide  parent compound of sulfonamides discovered in 1936 to have a definite therapeutic effect against such diseases as pneumoria, diarrhea, & streptococcal infections  ADR: Nausea, Dizziness, Anemia

ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY Organic Medicinal Chemistry  Physicochemical properties of a drug that affect its biological action.  the practice of medicinal chemistry is devoted to the discovery & development of new drugs Drug  an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment, cure, or prevention of disease in humans or another animals Receptor  a substance to which a drug needs to interact with to elicit a pharcological response Affinity  ability of a drug to bind to the receptor Intrinsic  ability of a drug to exert a pharmacologic action Four Fundamental Pathways: 1. Absorption 2. Distribution 3. Metabolism 4. Excretion: Glomerular Filtration Active Tubular Secretion Passive tubular –reabsorption Enterohepatic Recirculation  drugs emptied via the bile duct into the small intestine can be reabsorbed in the intestinal lumen back to the systemic circulation (LIver intestines  Liver) Isosterism  describes the selection of structural components, the steric electronic & solubility characteristics of a drug which make it interchangeable with drugs of the same pharmacologic class Isosteres  compounds or groups of atoms having the same number & arrangement of electrons  group of atoms that impart similar physical & chemical properties to a molecule, because of similarities in the size, electronegativity, or stereochemistry  compounds may be altered by isosteric replacements of atoms or groups, to develop analogues with select biologic example: replacement of the hydroxyl group of folic acid by an amino group.

Local Anti- Infectives or Germicides Antiseptic  compounds that kill (cidal) or prevent the growth of (–static) microorganisms when applied to living tissue Disinfectant  agents that prevent infection by the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms when applied to inanimate objects I. Alcohol & Related Compounds  # of carbons,  antibacterial property (but up to carbon 8 only) branching tend to  Antibacterial property (except to isopropyl) (a) Alcohol USP (Spiritus vini recticatus) ”Grain Alcohol”; “wine spirit”  the most widely abused of all recreational drugs.  undergo a series of Oxidation reaction in vivo manufacture from: Fermentation of grain Hydration of Ethyl  Denatured Alcohol  ethanol that has been rendered unfit for use in intoxicating beverages by the addition of other substances  completely denatured alcohol contains added methanol (wood alcohol) & benzene & is unsuitable for either internal or external use Diluted Alcohol  49/50 % Rubbing Alcohol  70% Absolute Alcohol  95% Dehydrated Algohol  99% Isopropy alcohol  primarily used to disinfect the skin & surgical instruments rapidly bactericidal in the concentration range of 50% to 95%  a 40% concentration is considered to be equal in antiseptic power to a 60% ethanol concentration Formic Acid  blindness Ethanol  act competitive inhibition (b) Ethylene Oxide  gas sterilant  used to sterilized temperature-sensitive medical equipment & certain pharmaceuticals that cannot be autoclaved  MOA: alkylation of functional groups in nucleic acids & proteins  carcinogenic

(c) Thermodent®  Formaldehyde USP (formalin)  disinfectant; embalming fluid  contains not less than 37% of formaldehyde w/ methanol added to retard polymerization  MOA: Direct & nonpecific alkylation of nucleophilic functional groups of proteins (d) Cidex®  Glutaraldehyde/ Glutarol  sterilizing solution for equipment & instruments that cannot be autoclaved

II. Phenols (Carbolic Acid) standard to compare germicide  was introduced as a surgical antiseptic by Sir Joseph Lister  antiseptic; disinfectant Liquefied Phenol, USP (phenol containing 10% water) Phenol Coefficient  ration of the dilution of a disinfectant to the dilution of phenol required to kill S. typhi. the greater the Phenol Coefficient, the greater the Antibacterial property. SAR  substitution of alkyl, aryl, halogen at p position increase antibacterial property. Straight chain alkyl group are  than branches Phenol  for Protein precipitation Cresol  a mixture of three isomeric cresols Eugenol  clove oil  toothache drop  anesthetic; antiseptic Thymol  metacresol (m-cresol)  antifungal; used for the treatment of tinea inf. Resorcinol  CRH (Dihydroxy benzene)  antiseptic; keratolytic OH (Cathecol) / (o-hydroxyphenol) OH (Resorcinol) / (m-hydroxyphenol) OH (Hydroquinone) / (p-hydoxyphenol)

III. Oxidizing Agents Primary Mechanism of Action: 1. Liberation of nasent oxygen (nasent  alone) -Free radical 2. Denature of Proteins Panoxyl (Hydrous Benzoyl Peroxide) -2.5%, 5%, 10% Keratolytic & keratogenic agent MOA: Induces proliferation of epithelial cell Increases cell turnover

most effective topical OTC agent for the control of acne Carbamide Peroxide  a stable complex of urea & hydrogen peroxide releases hydrogen peroxide when mixed w/ water Hydrogen Peroxide  particularly active against anaerobic bacteria & find use in the cleansing of contaminated wounds.  effectiveness is somewhat limited by its poor tissue penetrability & transient action  the stability is increased in Acid Medium Hydrogen Peroxide (0.03%)  has Acetanilide to increase its stability by catalytically retarding its decomposition Vincent’s Stomatitis (Hairy Tongue)  result in continued use of Hydrogen Peroxide as mouthwash Volume Specifications: mL of Oxygen measured at standard temperature & pressure. Thus, a 20volume solution is 6% & has 20mL oxygen

IV. Halogen-containing Compounds a. Chlorine (Cl)  NaOCl  bleaching agent  Halazone  water disinfection M.O.A : chlorination of amide in CHON & oxidation of –SH group Halazone  chlorine-containing  used to disinfect drinking water Chlorides  may be precipitated from solution by the Silver Nitrate reagent b. Iodine (I)  one of the oldest known germicides in use today  produces blue color w/ Starch & Dextrin  Iodine preparations official in USP: - Iodine Tincture (2% solution of iodine in 50% alcohol w/ NaI) -Strong Base (Lugol’s Solution)- (5% I in water w/ KI) -Iodine Solution (2% iodine in water w/ NaI) *Sodium & Potassium  iodine Stabilizer Povidone Iodine (Betadine )  used as an antiseptic for skin application before surgery & injection  a complex w/ the nonionic surfactant polymer, Polyvinylpyrrolidone  has 10% Iodine (approximately)  a water-soluble complex that release Iodine Slowly  provides a nontoxic, non-irritating, nonvolatile & nonstaining form of Iodine Iodides  only ion that used for expectorant in cough syrup 2nd bet expectorant (next to Water vapor) Iodophor  complexes of iodine & nonionic surfactants  such complexes retain the germicidal properties of iodine & also reduce its volatility & essentially remove its irritant properties PVP : non-ionic Surfactant complexes of I2 Less irritating More washable Less volatile I2 M.O.A : Iodination of amide in CHON & oxidation of –SH group

V. Cationic Surfactant (cationicpositive charge)  Refers to quaternary ammonium component  Have surface active property Causes absorptioninto the cell wall Causes distortion of the cell (lysis) a. Benzalkonium Chloride  used as detergent, emulsifying, & wetting agent  used w/ parabens as a preservative  is germicidal surfactant which render inactive in the presence of Soaps Sodium Lauryl Sulfate  deactivate the cationic surfactant Span  w/o nonionic Tween  o/w b. Methyl benzythonium Chloride: Diaperene for Diaper rash Cause by Bacterium ammoniagenesis (causes liberation of ammonia in decomposed urine) liberates ammonia from decompose wine c. Cetyl Pyridinium Chloride  used as a general antiseptic  available form: Throat lozenges & mouthwashes  FDA approved for the treatment of Gingivitis d. Chlorhexidine (Bactidol®)  used as irrigation solution & as mouthwash  not absorbed through skin or mucus membrane & does not cause systemic toxicity e. Hexidine  mouthwah

VI. Dyes (cationic)  positively charge Effective against gram (+) & fungi a. Gentian Violet (Methyl Violet)/ (Crystal Violet) (p-rosanilline) Vaginal suppository (Anti-candida, yeast infection) Helminths (Strongyloides spp.) is also used a 1% to 3% solution for the treatment of tinea & yeast infections  also used orally as an antihelminthic for strongyloides & oxyuriasis b. Basic Fuchsin  ingredient of Carbol-fuchsin solution (Castellani’s paint), used topically in the treatment of fungal infections, such as ringworm & athlete’s foot c. Methylene Blue  antidote for Cyanide Poisoning  in high concentrations, it promotes the conversion of hemoglobin to Methemoglobin, which because of its high affinity for cyanide ion diverts it from inactivating hemoglobin  in low concentration, it is used to treat drug0induced methemoglobin

VII. Heavy metals w/ Oligodynamic Properties  has few concentration, they are able to inhibit microorganisms a. Ag  AgNO3 for ophthalmia neonatorum may cause conjunctivitis New alternative: Erythromycin Ointment  Ag Sulfadiazine (Flammazine)  burn ointment b. Hg  quicksilver  MOA: reacts with sulfhydryl (SH) groups in enzymes & other proteins  this is reversible by thiol-containing compounds such as Cysteine & DImercaprol Hg1Cl2  Calomel (Mercurous Chloride)  HgCl2  Corrosive sublimate (Mercuric Chloride)

Ammoniated mercury  White precipitate; used for skin infections Organic Mercurials: Merthiolate (Thimerosal)

preservative for vaccines MOA: reaction w/ -SH of CHON Chlormerodin Hg-197

 used for scintillation

scanning of brain for suspected tumors VIII. Preservatives  used to prevent microbial contamination  IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS: effective at low concentration against all possible microorganisms, notoxic, compatible w/ other constituents used in the preparation, stable for the shelf life of the preparation a. Paraben (esters of p-hydroxy benzoic acid) for liquid dosage form antifungals  preservative effect tends to increase w/ molecular weight Methylparaben  molds Propylparaben  yeasts  more oil-soluble so it is prepared for oils & fats Butylparaben  cause endocrinologic abnormalities b. Chlorobutanol  employed as a bacteriostatic agent in pharmaceuticals for injection, ophthalmic use & intranasal administration c. Benzyl alcohol  for dermal/ topical preparation  commonly used as a preservative in vials of injectable drugs in concentrations of 1% to 4% in water or saline d. Benzoic Acid  for topical preparation  Very effective in acidic pH/low pH e. Sorbic Acid  for sugar-containing preparation like elixir  an effective antifungal preservative Syrup, NF  self-preserving

Antifungal Agents: General MOA: inhibition of ergosterol; synthesis injury to cell membrane S.nodosus Amphotericin B (Fungitone) S.norsei by Hazen&Brown Nystatin (Mycostatin ) S. natalensis Natamycin (Natacin) Griseofulvin P. griseofulvin Fatty Acidsall fatty acids & their salts have fungicidal properties a. Propionic Acid  present in sweat in low concentrations (around 0.01%) b.Undecylenic Acid  obtained from the destructive distillation of Castor Beans (Ricinus communis) I. AGENTS FOR SUPERFACIAL MYCOSES a. Griseofulvin (P. griseofulvin) No established MOA: Inhibitor of microtubule assembly (antimitotic) accumulates in the stratum corneum of the skin, acts as a protective barrier  is recommended for the systemic treatment or refractory ringworm infections is supplied in “microsize’” & “ultramicrosize” forms  its bioavailability is notoriously poor  is used in the treatment of Tinea corpuris, tinea unguium, Tinea capitis, & tinea pedis, caused by various species of dermatophyte fungi, including Trichophyton, Microsporum, & Epidermophyton.  is very lipophilic compound w/ vey low water solubility higher BA w/ ingestion of fatty foods Uses: Ringworm Infections b. Nystatin (Mykinac®, Mucostatin®, Nilstat®) Polyene Antifungal: binds to ergosterol, resulting in holes/ pores in the fungal cell membrane the aglycon portion of nystatin consisting of 38-membered ketone ring w/ a single tetracene & diene chromophores isolated from each other by a methylene group, one carboxyl, one keto & eight hydroxyl groups Use: Candidiasis of Esophagus/GIT C. Topic Azoles MOA: Inhibition of c14 lanosterol demethylase Lanosterol  Ergosterol Inhibition of ergosterol synthesis Imidazole Clotrimazole Toconazole Miconazole : Triazole Fluconazole Itraconazole Ketoconazole d. Terbinafine allylamine, inhibition of squalene epoxidase e. Naftifine f. Whitfield’s Ointment  Benzoic + Salicylic g. Selenium Sulfide (Selsum Blue) antidandruff

II. AGENTS FOR LESS SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES a. Ketoconazole potent enzyme inhibitor Inhibits testosterone antiandrogenic effects gynecomastia low sperm count low libido b. Fluconazole preferred for resistant candidiasis  has excellent penetrability into the CSF C. Itraconazole 2nd best systemic antifungal next to Amphotericin B  lacks the endocrinologic effects of ketoconazole Uses: Blastomycosis Histoplasmosis Paracoccidioidomycosis Coccidiodomycosis III. AGENTS FOR SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES a. Amphotericin B Gold Standard, Best organ, DOC Polyene antifungal  creates pores in fungal cell membrane Side Effects: Revesible Azotemia (former name of uremia) Patient should be monitored (BUN, Creatinine Clearance) Febrile Reaction Anemia Thrombophlebitis b. Itraconazole C. Caspofungin inhibits 1-3 -glucan synthase  glucan (cell wall) d.Voriconazole e.Flucytosine  inhibits thymiditate synthase by replacing uracil in nucleic acid synthesis (DNA&RNA) always given w/ Amphotericin B for the treatment of systemic mycoses & meningitis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans & candida

Antitubercular Agents: 1. Isoniazid (Isonicotinic acid hydrazide) MOA: Inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acid, an important component of the cell walls of mycobacteria principal adverse effect: Peripheral neuropathy due to the competition of isoniazed w/ pyridoxal phosphate for the enzyme apotryptophanase coadminististration of Vit B6 (Pyridoxine) , prevents the symptoms of peripheral neuritis 2. Pyrazinamide (Pyrazinecarboxamide) used in combination w/ other agents because resistance develops rapidly first line drug for short term treatment  adverse effect: Hepatotoxicity  must be enzymatically hydrolyzed to pyrazinoic (active form) 3. Ethambutol (2,2’-Ethylenediiminno-di-1-butanol dihydrochloride)  is remarkably stereospecific  adverse effect: Optical neuritis  loss of ability to discriminate between red & green (color blindness) *Toxicities of its isomers are about equal but their activity vary considerably. The afctors that have pronounced effect on the activity are: -Length of the alkaline chain -Nature of the branching e/ the alkyl substituents in the nitrogens -Extent of N-alkylation 4. Ethionamide  has two substitution differs from IHN series  structural analogue ofIsoniazed  used in the treatment of Isoniazid-resistant tuberculosis  adverse effects: Gastric irritation, hepatotoxicity, peripheral neuropathies, optic neuritis 5.Para-amnio salicylic acid  acts as a competitive inhibitor for p-aminobenzoic acid in folate biosynthesis  adverse effect: Severe gastric irritation 6. Clofamine  basic red dye used in the treatment of leprosy, including dapsone-resistant forms

Antitubercular Antibiotics 1. Rifampin (Rifampicin; Rifamycin)  the most effective agent  obtained from S. mediterranae a class of antibiotics that contain a macrocyclic ring bridged across two non-adjacent positions of an aromatic nucleus & called Ansamycin high risk of military cramps  Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors  Adverse effect: Red orange of body secretions 2. Cycloserine  isolated from Streptomyces: S. orchidaceus, S. garyphalus, S. lavendulus 3. Capromycin  isolated form Streptomyces capreolus 4. Streptomycin  only aminoglycoside used for tuberculosis  the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis (1944 by Waksman) Leprosy: Dapsone, Rifampicin, Clofazimine

Antiscabies & Antipedicular Agents Scabicides  compounds used to control the mite, Sarcoptes scabei, an organsm that thrives under conditions of poor personal hygiene. 1. Benzyl Benzoate obtained from Peru balsam & other resins  immediate relief from itching is a clear colorless liquid ester w/ faint aromatic odor 2. Crotaminon Pediculocides  used to eliminate head, body & crab lice 1. Pyrethrin  derived from Chrysanthemum plants  MOA: nerve poisoning 2. Piperonyl Butoxide  enhances the pediculicide effects of pyrithrins 3. Permethrin  exerts a lethal action against lice, ticks, mites, & fleas  a pediculicide w/ a single application of a 1% solution is known to effect cures in more than 99% of the cases  *Pruritus  most frequent Side Effects 4. Lindane ( Kwell®, Scaben®, Kwildane®)  gamma-benzene hexachloride  ADR: Neurotoxiciity  threefold actions: -direct contact poison -a fumigant effect -stomach poison

Antimalarials  Antimalarials have one common structure – a quinolone ring , or a “quinolone w/ an additional benzene addede” (an acridine ring)  non except the cinchona alkaloids has a quinuclidine ring Cinchona Alkaloids Quinine  reserved for malarial strains resistant to other agents  major adverse effect: Cinchonism ( a sundrome causing nausea, vomiting, tinnitus & vertigo) 7-chloro-4-aminoquinolines Chloroquine  drug of choice in the treatment of erythrocytic falcifarum malaria anti-inflammatory action rxplains its occasional use in Rheumatoid Arthritis & discoid lupus erythematosus 8-aminoquinoline Primaquine  effective only against the exoerythrocytic stage of malaria  only agent that can lead to radical cures of Plasmodium Ovale, & Plasmodium vivax malarias.  gametocidal for all 4 plamodia species, transmission of the disease can be prevented 9-aminoacridine Quinacrine  primarily used in the treatment of giardiasis, but is also effective against tapeworm & malaria, & topically against leishmaniasis  should not be given w/ Primaquine because of increased toxicity Mefloquine  effective single agent for suppressing & curing multidrug-resistant forms of Plasmodium falciparum

Antibacterials A substance is classified as an Antibiotic if its is a product of Metabolism (although it may be duplicated or even have been anticipated by chemical synthesis)  its is synthetic product produced as a structural analogue of a naturally occurring antibiotic it antagonizes the growth or the survival of one or more species of microorganisms it is effective in low concentrations Bactericidal Aminoglycoside Cell wall synthesis inhibitors Cell membrane disrupting agents Nucleic Acid synthesis inhibitors Bacteriostatic Protein synthesis inhibitors except aminoglycosides Antimetabolites when given alone Kanamycin Clavulanate Erythromycin Griseofulvin Polymixin Bacitracin Nystatin Chloramphenicol Cephalosporins Aztreonam Chlortetracyclin Linezolid Ivermectin LIncomycin Carbapenems: Thienamycin Rifampicin Amphotericin B Daptomycin Cycloserin

Vancomycin Neomycin Steptomycin Muciprosin Gramicidin Natamycin D-cycloscrine Streptogrannins: Quinopristin & Dalfupristin

Streptomyces kanamyceticus S. clavuligerus S. erythreus P. griseofulvin B. polymixa Bacillus subtilis S. noursei by Hazen & Brown S. venezuelae Acremoium Chrusogenum Chromobacterium violaceum S. aureofaciens E. faecium S. avemitilis S. lincolnensis S. cattleya S. mediterranei S. nodosus S. roseosporus S. orchidaceus S. garyphalus S. lavendalus S. orientalis S. fradiae S. griseus by Walksman Pseudomonas fluorescens B. brevis S. natalensis S. garyphalus S. pristinaespirals

Antifungal Chemotherapy 1. For Superficial Mycoses  Griseofulvin  Nystatin  Clotimoxazole  Miconazole  Econazole  Oxiconazole  Sulconazole  Ketoconazole  Butenafine  Haloprogin  Terbinafine  Ciclopirox  Naftipine  Whitfield’s ointment  Salicylic acid  Tolnaftate  Selenium sulfide 2. For Less Serious Systemic Mycoses  Ketoconazole  Fluconazole  Itraconazole 3. For Serious Systemic Mycoses  Amphotericin B    

Itraconazole Caspofungin Vorconazole Flucytosine

Grisactin, Grifulvin,V, Fulvicin Mycostatatin, Nilstat Lotrimin Monistat, Micatin Spectazole Oxistat Exelderm Nizoralv Mentax Halotex Lamisil Penlac Naftin

Diflucan Sporanox

Fungizone, Ambisome, Abelcet, Amphotec Cabcidas Vfend Ancobon

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY Flame Test: Metals Non-Luminous Flame Sodium (Na) Persistent golden yellow Potassium (K) Violet Lithium (Li) Carmine Red Calcium (Ca) Brick Red Strontium (Sr) Crimson Barium (Ba) Yellowish Green 1 Borate (BO3 ) Copper (Cu) Green Thallium (Tl) Phosphorus (P) Bismuth (Bi) Lead (Pb) Arsenic (As) Blue Cobalt (Co) Antimony (Sb) 1 Colorless Ammonium (NH4 )

Under Cobalt Glass Nil Crimson Purple Light green Purple Bluish-green

Yellow

Groups of Cation: Group #

I

Pb +2 Hg

II

Hg +3 Bi +2 Cu +2 Cd +3 As +5 As

III

Fe +3 Fe +3 Al +3 Cr +6 Cr +3 Ni +2 Ba +2 Ca

IV Groups of Anion: Group #

Members Precipitated formed & Visual Result

I

Cl Br I

II

NO2 2 S C2H3O4 SO3 2 CO3 2 C2O4 3 PO3 3 AsO4 2 CrO4

III VI

V VI

NO3 ClO 2 SO4

w/ 1M AgNO3 + 6M HNO3 w/ 1M BaCl2 + HNO3 AgCl -(white) AgBr -(cream) No ppt. AgI -(yellow) insoluble in HNO3 AgS (black)soluble in HNO3 2 No ppt. NO & C2H3O2 -(no ppt)

+2

V

+

+2

Members

Characteristics

+2

Form precipitate w/ dilute HCl

Ag Insoluble chloride group +3 Sb +5 Sb +2 Sn +4 Sn acid insoluble sulfide +2

CO +2 Mn +7 Mn +2 Zn Base insoluble sulfides

Do not react w/ HCl, but form ppt. w/ H2S, dilute mineral acid medium. However, they form precipitates w/ (NH4)2S in neutral & ammoniacal solution. Do not react w/ either HCl nor H2S in dilute mineral acid medium, however, they form precipitates w/ (NH2)2S in neutral or ammoniacal solution

+2

Do not react w/ HCl, H2S & (NH4)2S. Form precipitate w/ NH4Cl in neutral or slightly acidic medium +2 + Do not react w/ any of the Mg K + reagents stated, Na NH4 Na- yellow ppt w/ cobalt Soluble group uranyl acetate K- white ppt w/ sodium bitartrate, NH4 alkalinized vapors turns red litmus paper to blue *Mg  only Group V cation that will yield a precipitate w/ sodium biphosphate Sr Sulfate insoluble groups

White ppt. soluble in HNO3 White ppt of BaSO4, CaSO4, BaC2O4 soluble in HNO3 Ag3PO4 -(yellow) Ag3AsO4 -(brown) Ag2CrO4 -(red) all ppt. soluble in HNO3 No ppt. No ppt.

BaCrO4 -(yellow) Ba3(PO3)2 -(white) Ba3(AsO4)2 -(white) all ppt. soluble in HNO3 No ppt. White ppt. soluble in HNO3

Radiopharmaceuticals & their uses: Radiopharmaceutical

Uses

Technetium 99mPhytate  Liver imaging & potency studies Technetium 99mHeptagluconate  Kidney imaging,  determining renal function Technetium 99mIDA  Hepatobiliary studies Techetium 99mElidronate  Bone imaging Technetium 99mInjection  Brain Scanning Tc 99m Albumin Aggregated  Lung Scanning Injection Tc 99m Pyrophosphate  Cardiac Infarct Imaging I-131-Human Serum Albumin  Blood plasma volume/  cardiac output determination Iodohippurate I 131 Injection  Cardiac infarct imaging NaI- 1125  Localization of ocular tumors Sodium Phosphate Serum Albumin  Thyroid Function Cyanocobalamin 57 Capsule  Pernicious Anemia Unit for Radioactivity: Becquerel  new unit (named after Henry Becquerel)  1Bq= 1dps 10 Curie  old unit (3.7 x 10 dps)

Color Reactions Unknown

Tests

Acetate

C2H3O2

Aluminum

Al

Ammonium NH4SCN Thiocyanide Arsenates AsO4 Arsenites

AsO3

Borates

BO3 

Bromine Carbonate Chloride Citrate

Br 2 CO3 Cl C6H5O2

Chromium Cobalt

Cr Co

Nickel

Ni

Copper

Cu

Iodide

I

Cyanate Phosphate

CNO 3 PO4

Potassium

K

3

1

Salicylate Silver Sodium

Ag Na

Tartrate

C4H4O6

Thiosulfate S2O3 Zinc Zn Saccharin

Sulfuric acid+ ethanol  fruity odor of ethyl acetate Ferric chloride TS  brownish red or reddish brown ppt of basic acetates Ammonium TS  gelatinous ppt. w/c dissolves in excess of ammonium TS Aluminon reagent  red lake Acidic cobalt solution  intense blue colored complex at interfeface Co(CNS)4 Ferric salts  blood red ferric thiocyanate Silver nitrates TS  chocolate brown soluble in nitric acid Ammonium molybdate yellow ppt Silver Nitrate test  yellow ppt soluble in nitric acid Magnesia Mixture  no reaction (differentiating test for arsenates & arsenite) Sulfuric Acid + methanol  green bordered flame Turmeric paper (curcumin)  orange + sodium hydroxide  olive green Turmeric paper when dipped into a solution of borate acidified w/ HCl  produce reddish brown/ orange-red Carbon tetrachloride  orange color In acidic aqueous solution  effervescence Silver nitrate test  white curdy precipitate ppt soluble in ammonia, insoluble in nitric acid Silver mirror test CaCl2 or Ca(OH)2 (in excess)  no ppt  white ppt w/c dissolve on cooling Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)/ Denige’s reagent (distinguishing test for citrate & tartrates)  Citrates produces Carmine Red  Tartrates produces Emerald Green Sodium hydroxide  grayish green slug dissolves in excess reagent (turn to yellow upon addition of Na Peroxide) Sodium hydroxide  blue ppt of CO(OH)2 (boiling)  olive green  rose red Potassium nitrite + acetic acid Fernando Gabriel Reyes yellow ppt -nitroso--naphthol brown ppt soluble in HCl Dimethylglyoxime  bright red crystalline ppt insoluble in ammonia -nitroso--naphthol reddish brown ppt soluble in HCl Fe+ HCl  deposit of red film on iron Potassium ferrocyanide  green ppt. forming a blue solution w/ ammonia Chlorine water or potassium permanganate solution violet color Sulfuric acid+sodium bisulfate (cold)  decolorized Sulfuric acid+oxali acid (hot)  decolorized Cobalt acetate +acetic acid  azure blue crystal Silver test  yellow ppt in nitric acid & ammonia Ammonium molybdate  yellow ppt. soluble in nitric acid & ammonia Flame test  violet or iliac color Tartaric acid  white ppt of potassium bitartrate (only insoluble compound of potassium) Ferric chloride  violet color Acid  white ppt of salicylic acid HCl  white curdy ppt. insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonia Flame test  intense golden yellow flame Cobalt uranyl acetate  golden yellow ppt Silver mirror test Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)  emerald green HCl  white ppt turning yellow; SO2 Hydrogen sulfide  white ppt (only white sulfide) (Fluorescein Test)- Resorcinol+ sulfuric acid + excess NaOH  Fluorescent green liquid

 Common Names of Inorganic Compounds Common Name Alcohol, grain Alcohol, wood Alum Ammonia water Agua Fortis Agua Regia Baking Soda Baryte Bauxite Bleaching Powder Blue Vitriol Borax Brine Calomel Carbona Carborundum Caustic Potash Chalk Limestone Chile Saltpeter Chloroform Cinnabar Corrosive Sublimate Cream of Tartar Cryolite Deuterium Oxide Dry Ice Epsom Salts Flourspar Galena Glauber’s Salt Gypsum Hematite Iodoform Laughing Gas Limewater Litharge Lunar Caustic Lye Milk of Magnesia Muriatic Acid Nitroglycerine Oil of Vitriol Phosgene Plaster of Paris Prussian Blue Prussic Acid Pyrite/ Fool’s Gold Quicklime Rochelle Salt Sal Ammoniac Salt (Table) Saltpeter Sand Slaked Lime Turnbull’s Blue Vinegar Washing Soda (Sal Soda) Water Glass Zinc Blende

Chemical Name Ethyl Alcohol / Ethanol Methyl Alcohol/ Methanol Potassium Aluminum Sulfate Ammonium Hydroxide Solution Conc. Nitric Acid Mixture of Conc. Nitric Acid & Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Bicarbonate Barium Hydroxide Impure Aluminum Oxide Calcium Oxychloride or Chloride of Lime Copper Sulfate Sodium Tetraborate Sodium Chloride Solution Mercurous Chloride Carbon Tetrachloride Silicon Carbide Potassium Hydroxide Calcium Carbonate Calcium Carbonate Sodium Nitrate Trocloromethane Impure Mercuric Sulfide Mercuric Chloride Potassium Bitartrate Sodium Aluminum Fluoride Heavy Water Solid Carbon Dioxide Magnesium Sulfate Calcium Fluoride Lead Sulfide Sodium Sulfate Decahydate Hydrated Calcium Sulfate Ferric Oxide Triiodomethane Nitrous Oxide Calcium Hydroxide Solution Lead Oxide Silver Nitrate Sodium Hydroxide Magnesium Hydroxide Hydrochloric Acid Glyceryl Nitrate/ Glyceryl Trinitrate Concentrated Sulfuric Acid Carbonyl Chloride Hydrated Calcium Sulfate Ferric Ferrocyanide Hydrocyanic Acid Iron Sulfide Calcium Oxide Sodium Potassium Tartrate Ammonium Chloride Sodium Chloride Potassium Nitrate Silicon Dioxide Calcium Hydroxide Ferrous Ferricyanide Diluted Acetic Acid Sodium Carbonate Sodium Silicate Impure Zinc Sulfide

Formula C2H5OH CH3OH K2SO4Al(SO4)224H2O NH4OH HNO3 HNO3/ 3HCl NaHCO3 Ba(OH)2 Al2O3 CaOCl2 CuSO45H20 Na2B4O710H2O NaCl Hg2Cl2 CCl4 SiC KOH CaCO3 CaCO3 NaNO3 CHCl3 HgS HgCl2 KHC4H4O6 Na3AlF6 D2O CO2 MgSO47H2O CaF2 PbS Na2SO410H2O CaSO42H2O Fe2O3 CHI3 N2O Ca(OH)2 PbO AgNO3 NaOH MG(OH)2 HCl C3H5(NO3)3 H2SO4 COCl2 (CaSO4)2 H2O Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 HCN FeS2 CaO NaKC4H4O6 NH4Cl NaCl KNO3 SiO2 Ca(OH)2 Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 C2H4O2 Na2CO3 Na2O3Si ZnS

Brimstone Quicksilver Benzol Carbolic Acid Cane Sugar Marsh Gas

Sulfur (S) Mercury (Hg) Benzene (C6H6) Phenol (C6H5OH) Sucrose (C12H22O11) Methane (CH4)

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS GROUP I-A (1): ALKALI METALS  react vigorously w/ water to form hydrogen gas & the metallic hydroxides  has the greates alkalinity in nature w/ alkalinity increasing as the ionic readily increase 1 has only 1 valence (ns ); has a single positive charge most reactive of all metallic elements hydroxides give alkaline solutions (increase w/ atomic number)  ALL Group IA have icreasing oxidation potentials w/ increasing ionization potentials except LITHIUM.  activity , alkalinity  w/ atomic #  degree of solution  w/  atomic #  Members: Hydrogen (H) Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Rubidium (Rb) Francium (Fr) –highest activity among Group IA Ammonium (NH4)

 Hydrogen (H)  “Inflammable Air”. “Flammable Air”  lightest element  has no therapeutic use  Uses: Inflating Balloons Isotopes: (a) Protium  most abundant (b) Deuterium  heavy hydrogen (c) Tritium  radioactive isotope Water Vapor  best expectorant Messerschmidt process  can obtain 99% purity gydrogen  Lithium (Li)  aka “Earth”  Lightest metal  lowest density  most reactive lement  the only alkali metal that melts above the boiling point of water  bridge elemnt (Li resembles Mg, to some extent Ca, more closely than Na)  Pharmacologic Action: Depressant  Diuretic Nonpharmacologic Action:  Heat exchanger in aircon Important Compounds of Lithium: 1. Lithium Bromide (LiBr)  Depressant 2. Litium Carbonate (LiCO3)  DOC for Mania  Sodium (Na)  aka “Natrium” (Latin word, from nature)  most abundant Extracellular Fluid Cation  cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of organic medicaments  used w/ caution in the treatment of cardiac & renal condition in w/c edema is a problem (Na-H20 reten.)  Triple Acetates w/ Sodium (forms insoluble salts) -Zinc Uranyl Acetate -Mg Uranyl Acetate -Cobalt Uanyl Acetate  most stable  Pharmacologic Action: Fluid Retention Benedict’ Reagent contains: -Na2CO3 -Na2C6H5O7 Feling’s Solution contains: -NaKC4H4O6 -NaOH

Important Compounds of Sodium: 1. Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NaH2PO4)  aka “Fleet Enema”  Cathartic, Urinary Acidifier 2. Sodium Bisulfite (NaHSO3)  water soluble Antioxidant

3. Sodium Acetate (NaCH3COO)  Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid,  Alkalinizing agent in Benedicts Solution (test for ketones, aldehydes & reducing sugars) Cations in Triple Acetates of Sodium are: -Co -Zn -Mg 4. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)  aka “Baking Soda”  Systemic Antacid  antidote for Zinc Poisoning  Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep. -liberating CO2, to enhance palatability  SE: Rebound Hyperacidity, Systemic Alkalosis, Edema 5. Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)  Antacid, Carbonating Agent  source of Carbonate Ion 6. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)  aka “Rock salt”, “Table Salt”, “Solar Salt” used for a more rapid elimination of iodine in cases of iodism  Electrolyte replenisher, Preservative, Condiment  Examples: NSS; Ringer Solution (Na, Ca, K) 7. Sodium Citrate (Na3C6H5O7) Anticoagulant (due to Citrate), Diuretic, Chronic Acidosis, Buffer, Alkalinizer, , expectorant  can cause bleeding 8. Sodium Fluoride (NaF)  Anticariogenic(prevent dental caries) 9. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)  aka“Caustic Soda”, “Lye”, “Sosa"  Saponifying agent *Saponification –rxn between inorganic & organic acid  NaOH TS, -reagent to differentiate mercurous salts from mercuric salts. 10. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO)  aka “Chlorox®”, “Bleaching Powder”  Oxizing Agent, Bleaching Agent  *Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite: Modified Dakins Solution: Antiseptic Dakins Solution: Disinfectant  0.025% Concentration for Sodium Hypochlorite Topical Solution 11. Sodium Iodide (NaI)  Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal 12. Sodium Lactate (NaC3H5O3)  Antiketogenic, Eletrolyte Replenisher, Antacid, Diuretic 13. Sodium Metaphosphate  Graham’s Salt 14. Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2)  Vasodilator , Antidote for Cyanide Poisoning 15, Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)  aka “Chile Salt Peter”  Meat Preservatives 16. Sodium Sulfate (NaSO3)  aka “Glauber’s Salt” ; Cathartic 17. Sodium Tartrate (Na2C4H4O6)  primary standard for Karl Fischer Reagent (Method I - Water Determination) 18. Sodium Thiocyanate (NaSCN)  Hypotensive agent 19. Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O4)  aka “Hypochlor”, Photographer’s Hypo”  Treatment of Cyanide Poisoning w/ Sodium Nitrate 20. Disodium Calcium EDTA  stabilizer used for silver protein compounds 21. Sodium Metabisulfite  used when Sodium bisulfate is specified.

 Potassium (K)  aka “Kalium” (latin word)  most abundant & predominant Intacellular cation  Deficiency: Hypokalemia (if severe, lead to Muscular Paralysis)  *Avocado Highest Potassium Level  Pharmacologic Action: Diuretic  Muscular Contraction Important Compounds of Potassium: 1. Potassium Acetate (KCH3COO)  Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid, 2. Potassium Arsenite  aka “Fowler’s Solution 3. Potassium Aluminum Sulfate (KAl(SO4)2) aka “Potassium Alum “, “Potash Alum”, “Tawas” 4. Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)  Systemic Antacid  Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep.  source of Bicarbonate ion 5. Potassium Bitartrate (KC4H5O6)  aka “Cream of Tartar”, “Creamor”  Laxative 6. Potassium Bromide (KBr) Depressant  used for IR Analysis 7. Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) aka “Potash, “Salt of Peter”, “Pearl ash”  Antacid, Carbonating Agent, Carbonate source 8. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3) Aka “Bertholate Salt”  oxidizing agent  Component in Toothpaste, Gargle, Mouthwash due to deodorant action 9. Potassium Chloride (KCl)  Electrolyte Replenisher note: SLOW PUSH  IV Push: Lethal Injection 10. Potassium Citrate (K3C6H5O7) Diuretic, Expectorant, DIaphoretic 11. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)  aka“Caustic Potash”, “Lye Potash”  Saponifying agent (produces liquid/soft soap) 12. Potassium Iodide (KI)  Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal 13, Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)  aka “Salt Peter”, “Salt Prunelle”, “Salitre”  Meat Preservatives 14. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)  aka “Mineral Chameleon”  Oxidizing Agent, Antidote for Strychnine Poisoning   Primary Standard for KMnO4 VS: Sodium Oxalate  Secondary Standard: Oxalic Acid 15. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4)  Cathartic 16. Potassium Sodium Tartrate (KNa2C4H4O6)  aka “Rocehlle Salt”, “Sal Signette”  Cathartic, Sequestering Agent 17. Potassium Thiocyanate (KSCN)  Hypotensive agent 18. Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2]  aka “Liver of Sulfur”  used in the treatment of Psoriasis 16. Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (K2HgI4)  aka “Nessler’s Reagent”  an alkaline solution used to detect Ammonia Reagents that will precipitate Poatssium: -Sodium Cobaltinitrite -Tetraphenylboron -Perchloric Acid

 Cesium (Cs)Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming material  first element discovered by means of Spectroscope Important Compound of Cesium: 1. Cesium Chloride (CsCl)  used in density gradient centrifugation

Ammonium (NH4)  Hypothetical Alkali Metal

 salts show a striking resemblance to K & Rb salts (Isomorphous)  Synthesis: Haber’s Process  Pharmacologic Action:  Diuretic  Buffer  Expectorant (like Iodide)  Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride) Important Compounds of Ammonium: 1. Ammonium Bromide (NH4Br) Depressant, Sedative 2. Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3] aka “Sal Volatile”, “Hart’s horn”, “Preston Salt”, “Ammonium Sesquicarbonate” used as “smelling salts” when combined w/ Strong ammonia solution Expectorant (am, Respiratory Stimulant, Antacid, Ingredient of Aromatic Ammonia Spirit 3. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)  aka “Muriate of Hartshorn”  Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary Acidifier  when reacted w/ Caustic Pencil, White Ppt will be the positive result. 4. Ammonium Iodide (NH4I)  Source of iodide, Expectorant, Antifungal 5. Ammonium Acetate (NH4CH3COO)  aka “Spiri of Minderesus”  Buffer component 6. Aromatic Ammonia Spirit  aka “Spirit of Sal Volatile”, “Spirit of Hart’s Horn”  Respiratory Stimulant 7. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl)  aka “White Precipitate”  Topical Anti-infective 8. Ammonium Hydroxide  used to separate Bismuth frome copper & cadmium  Ammonium Complexes: *Copper Blue *Cadmium  Colorless *Bismuth  white hydroxide

GROUP I-B (11): COINAGE ELEMENTS occur free in the metallic state  coinage metals  easy to recover from ores  very malleable  Complexes/ Chelates  Members: Copper (Cu) Silver (Ag) Gold (Au) Roentgenium (Rg)

Copper (Cu)  aka “Cuprium”  only reddish metal  3rd most malleable metal  3rd best conductor  component of hemocyanin (respiratory pigment) & cytochrome oxidase  essential trace element  each element of this group has a core w/ an outer shell of 18 electrons together w/ a single valence electron in the outermost shell  Copper (II)  is an example of acid insoluble sulfide 2+ Cu  blue in solution  Pharmacologic Action: Protein Precipitant Enhances physiological utilization of Iron (Fe) Toxicity: Wilson’s Disease Antidote: Penicillamine Two important Alloys: (a) Brass: Cu + Zn(Zinc)  aka “Metal of Magynoeci” (b) Bronze: Cu + Sn(Tin) (c) Devarda’s Alloy: contain Cu + Al + Zn Important Compounds of Copper: 1. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4)  aka “Blue Vitriol”, “Blue Stone”  used in preparation of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s & Fehling’s Solution  + Iron: Increase hematinic Activity  Antidote for Phosphorus Poisoning  Emetic  component of Bordeux Mixture  an algicide/ fungicide in swimming pools 2. Copper Acetoasenate [Cu2(AsO3)2Cu(C2H3O202]  aka “Paris Green”  Insecticide 3. (Cu)3(C6H5O7)3  Astringent in 8% concentration 4. Cupric Hydrogen Arsenite  Scheele’s Green 5. Blister Copper  obtained from furnace covered w/ black blisters 6. Cuprous Citrate  “Hatchett’s Brown”

Silver (Ag)  aka “Argentum”, “Shining”, “Bright”  black ppt w/ Marsh’s Test  2nd most malleable metal  2nd best conductor of electricity  Pharmacologic Action: Oligodynamic Property (Germicidal Action) Bone replacement for temporary braces of long bones & to close opening of the skull Styptic (causes constriction of vessels) Toxicity: Argyria Antidote: NSS or can be removed by Sodium Thiosulfate Potassium Ferricyanide Important Compounds of Silver: Soluble Compounds 1. Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)  aka “Lapiz infernulariz”, “Lunar Caustic”, “Indellible Ink”, “Caustic Pencil” for removal of Warts  once used as eyewash for newly born babies of mothers w/ gonorrhea (gonococcal opthalmitis)  0.5% Concentration as wet dressing for prsons suffering from third degree burn 2. Ammoniated Silver Nitrate [Ag(NH3)2NO3]  aka “Howe’s Solution”  Dental Protective, Ingredient of Tollen’s Reagent, Desensitizing Agent 3. Silver Trinitophenolate  treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis & Monilia albicans  extended use, may result to Argyria & Nephritis Insoluble Compounds: 4. Silver Iodide (AgI)  Poisonous  germicide; disinfectant 5. Silver Proteinates/ Silver Proteins (a) Mild Silver Protein  aka “Argyrol”  Antiseptic for the eye  19-23/25% (b) Strong Silver Protein  aka “Protagrol”  stronger antiseptic/ germicide for ears, nose, & throat contains 7.5%-8.5% of Ag (c) Collodal Silver Protein  aka “Collargol”  general germicide  18-22% 6. Colloidal Silver Chloride  “Lunosol” (prototype)

Gold (Au)  aka “Aurum’, “Shining dawn”, “King of all Metal”  most malleable & ductile  best conductor of electricity  also for NONdisseminated Lupus Erythematosus  Dissolved by: a. Aqua Regia (3parts HCl+1part HNO3) b. Selenic Acid  only single acid that can dissolve gold  Antidote: BAL (Dimercaprol) Important Compounds of Gold: 1. Aurothioglucose (IM)  treatment of Gout & Rheumatoid Arthritis 2. Gold Sodium Thiomalate (IM)  treatment of Gout & Rheumatoid Arthritis 3. Auronofin (PO)  only Oral Gold Preparation  treatment of Gout & Rheumatoid Arthritis  also for Glossitis (inflammation of the tongue) 4. *Colloidal Gold  aka “Purple of Cassius”  stannous chloride w/ metallic gold slowly turns down precipitate in weakly acidc solution

GROUP II-A (2): ALKALINE EARTH METALS  All Alkaline Earth Metals reduce water w/ the liberation of hydrogen & the formation of an alkaline solution except Beryllium(Be) Members: Beryllium (Be) Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca) Strontium (Sr) Barium (Ba) Radium (Ra)

10. Magnesia Mixture (MgCl2 + NH4Cl + Ammonia)  is used to test Arsenic  Arsenate will form White Ppt w/ magnesium Mixture compared w/ arsenate, arsenite do not form white precipitate w/ Magnesia Mixture. Thus, this is used as a differentiating test between Arsenate & Arsenite 11. Flash Light Powders  mixtures of Potassium Chlorate or Barium Peroxide & Powdered Magnesium

Beryllium (Be)  Most toxic metal  can cause lung carcinoma, chronic granuloma.  Fluorescent Lamp

Magnesium (Mg) Lightest of all structurally important metal

 2nd most abundant Intracellular Cation  Chlorophyll component (Photosynthesis)  Compound of Grignard’s Reagent  cofactor of Phosphate transferring enzymes  also a constituent of bones & teeth  produces a Violet-red Color w/ Diphenycarbazide  give Yellow ppt w/Oxine (8-hydroxyquinoline)  creates Blue ppt (or Corn flower blue) w/ Quinalizarin Reagent  Pharmacologic Action: Laxative Depressant Natural Calcium-channel Blocker Other Use: Flares  Antidote for Mg Poisoning: Ca Gluconate  Natural Sources: As Silicates: (Talc, Asbestos) As CO3: (Magnesite, Dolomite  As So4: (Keiserite)  Magneson I (p-nitrobenzene resorsinol) dyestuff to detect magnesium ion forming a blue lake Important Compounds of Magnesium: 1. Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)  aka “Magnesia”  Antacid, Laxative 2. Magnesium Hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]  aka “Milk of Magnesia”, “Magnesia Magma” causes Diarrhea  Antacid, Laxative  packed w/ Blue Bottle (for aesthetic purposes) 3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO)  aka “Calcined Magnesia”  Antacid, Laxative  component of Universal Antidote 4. Magnesium Trisilicate [2MgO2SiO2nH2O]  Antacid (Advatage: has prolong effect due to gelatinous consistency of preparation) 5. Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)  aka “Epsom Salt”  Anticonvulsant (IM) Cathartic (PO) Antidote for Barium Toxicity 6. Hydrated Magnesium Silicate  aka “Talc”, “Soapstone”, French Chalk”  Softest mineral  Adsorbent, Filtering Aid, Clarifying Agent, Dusting powder 7. Magnesium Citrate [Mg3(C6H5O7)2]  aka “Lemoda Purganti”, “Purgative Lemon”  Cathartic 8. Magnesium Stearate  Lubricant 9. Magnesium Nitrate Reagent  solution containing Mg(NO3)2, NH4Cl, & a little ammonia

Calcium (Ca)  2nd most abundant Extracellular Cation  Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption  cause permanent hardness of water  an ion plays a significant role in neurotransmitter release  Pharmacologic Action: Blood Coagulation Important Muscle Contraction Important Release of Neurotransmitter Cation of Hydroxyapatite (Primary Element of bones & teeth  98-99%) Deficiency State: ☹ Osteoporosis (bone density) ☹ Osteomalacia(adults) ☹ Ricketts (Infants/ Children) ☹ Hypocalcemia (tetany -tonic spasm ofmuscles) Important Compounds of Calcium: 1. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2)  Sedative Depressant 2. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)  aka “Precipitated Chalk”, “Prepared Chalk”  made by the process called Elutriation  Antacid, Carbonating Agent, Ingredient of tootpaste, dentrifices  Primary standard for EDTA 3. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)  aka “Muriate of Lime”  Calcium replenisher (Electrolyte Replenisher) 4. Calcium Guconate  Calcium Supplement & Replenisher  Antidote for Magnesium Poisoning 5. Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]  aka “Slaked Lime”, “Milk of Lime”, “Calcium Hydrate”  Antacid; Saponifying Agent  used in infant’s milk formula to prevent the curlding of milk to improve the digestibility of it. 6. Calcium Lactate [Ca(C3H5O3)2]  Calcium Supplement 7. Calcium Phosphate monobasic (CaHPO42H2O)  source of Ca & PO4 8. Dibasic Calcium Phosphate (CaHPO4)  the recommended calcium salt as electrolyte replenisher because it provides an optimum ratio of 1:1 Calcium to Phosphorus. 9. Calcium Phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]  aka “Bone Ash”, “Phosphate Rock”  Antacid 10. Calcium Oxide (CaO)  aka “Lime”, “Quicklime”, “Calx”  Component of Bordeaux mixture  Insecticide 11. Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(ClO)2]  aka “Chlorinated Lime”, “Chloride of Lime”  Bleaching Agent, Disinfectant 12. Calcium Sulfate [CaSO4 ½ H2O or 2H2O)  aka “Plaster of Paris”, “Gypsum”, Terra Alba”  Rodenticide, Preparation of surgical casts & Dental Impression , Dentrifices

Strontium (Sr)  aka “Brass Yellow” metal  can replace Calcium in bone formation  radioactive used in diagnostic to scan &study bones  used to hasten bone (mineralization in diseases such as Osteoporosis)  salts are used in Red Pyrotechniques (Flares) Important Compound of Strontium: 1. Strontium Chloride (SrCl2)  temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®) 2. Strontium Lactate  used in treatment of osteoporosis Barium (Ba)  aka “Heavy”  salts are used in Green Pyrotechniques is an insoluble phosphates  Toxicity: Baritosis Antidote: Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salt) Important Compound od Barium: 1. Barium Sulfate (BaSO4)  radiopaque substances used for GIT imaging  causes Constipation 2. Barium Hydroxide [Ba(OH)2]  CO2 absorbent

Radium (Ra) most soluble hydroxide salt  first radionuclide 1901/ radioactive substance discovered by Marie Curie  used for: Cancer Radiotherapy Diagnostic Purpose

GROUP II-B (12): VOLATILE METALS  exhibit Autocomplexation Members: Zinc (Zn) Cadmium (Cd) Mercury (Hg) Copernicium (Cn)

Zinc (Zn)  metal present in Insulin  as container for batteries & dry cells  protective coating of galvanized iron  forms a White ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent  essential component of Carbonic Anhydrase & many other enzymes  w/ Dithizone Test: Red Color Extractable  Pharmacologic Actions: Astringent Antiseptic Antiperspirant Protectant Defficiency: Parakeratosis Antidote for Zinc Poisoning: NaHCO3 (Baking Soda) Important Compounds of Zinc: 1. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2)  aka “Burnette’s Disinfectant Fluid”  Antiseptic/ Disinfectant (found in mouthwashes), Topical Protectant, Dentin Desesitizer, Corrosive 2. Zinc Oxide (ZnO)  aka “Zinc White”, “Lassar’s Paste”, “Chinese White” Mild Antiseptic, Astringent, Topical Protectant Ladd’s paste  comprises Zinc Oxide, Liquid Petrolatum, & Aluminum Powder 1/3 by weight 3. Zinc Peroxide (ZnO2)  Antiseptic 4. Zinc Sulfate (ZnSO47H2O)  aka “White Vitriol”  Emetic, Astringent,  Ingredient of White Lotion, USP w/ Sulfurated potash 5. Zinc Sulfide (ZnS)  aka “White Lotion”, “White Sulfide”  active component of White Lotion  Parasiticide, Topical Protectant, Antiseptic 6. Hydrated Zinc Silicate  aka “Natural Calamine”  Topical Protectant, Anti-itch  makes Calamine pink 7. Zinc-eugenol Cement  Dental protective, Dentrifices

Cadmium (Cd)  Pharmacologic Actions/ Uses: Astringent Treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis Other Use: Manufacture of Stink Bomb Toxicity: “Itai-itai Disease” Antidote: BAL Important Compounds of Cadmium: 1. Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2)  Emetic, Treatment of Tinea Infection 2. Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)  aka “Yellow Sulfide”  Anti-Seborrheic Dermatitis/ Anti-dandruff 3. Cadmium Sulfate (CdSO4)  Ophthalmic Antiseptic

Mercury (Hg)  aka “ “Messenger of Gods”, Quicksilver”, “Liquid Silver” by Theophrastus  can be removed by Sulfur when it falls into Crack & difficult to clean places  Pharmacologic Actions: Diuretic Antiseptic Cathartic Treatment of Syphilis Parasiticidal/ Fungicidal Industrial Uses: ~Manufacture of Thermometers (have space containing Nitrogen) ~Formation of Amalgams (dental cement)  Toxicity:”Minimata Disease” Antidote: *EDTA *Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate NF (best Antidote –particulary the bichloride) *Egg Albumin (used in mergency) -1 egg white for each 250 Mercuric Chloride, to induce emesis, Important Compounds of Mercury: 1. Mercurous Chloride (Hg2Cl2)  aka “Calomel”  Cathartic, Local Antiseptic 2. Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2)  aka “Corrosive Sublimate”  also as Mercury Bichloride  Disinfectant 3. Mercurous Iodide (HgI)  Anti-syphilis 4. Mercury (II) Iodide (HgI2)  stimulant of Indolent Ulcers 5. Potassium Mercuric Iodide (K2HgI4)  Antiseptic  component of Mayer’s Reagent 6. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl)  aka “White Precipitate”  Topical Antiseptic/ Anti-infective 7. Mercuric Oxide (HgO)  aka “Yellow Precipitate”  Ophthalmic Antiseptic/ Anti-infective 8. Red Mercuric Iodide  w/ Potassium Iodide produces a solution known as Valser’s Reagent 9. Water-soluble Mercury  solid preparation containing Mercury (10-20%), Cetyl Alcohol (70%), Sodium Lauryl Sulfate, Dioctyl Sodium Sulfosccunate, Glycerin & Water. 2+

2+

Differentiation of Hg2 from Hg 2+ Reagent Hg2 NaOH Hg2O (Black ppt) KI Hg2I2 (Green ppt) Excess KI Hg (Black ppt) + K2HgI4 NH3 Hg(NH2)Cl + Hg (Black ppt) HCl HgCl2 (White ppt)

2+

Hg HgO (Yellow ppt) HgI2 (Scarlet ppt) K2HgI4 (Dissolution) Hg(NH2)Cl (White ppt) HgCl2 (Clear Solution)

GROUP III-A (13): BORON GROUP  +3 oxidation state  *Hydroxides of this group of elements – tend to show amphoteric properties except those at the top & bottom elements of this group  Alum = double salts  Members: Boron (B) Aluminum (Al) Gallium (Ga) Indium (In)  Thallium (Tl) 

Boron (B)  bridge element, resemble silicon  Used in Vulcanizing Rubber Important Compounds of Boron: 1. Boric Acid (H3BO4)  aka “Sal Sativum”, “Sal Sedativum”  burns with a Green bordered Flame when mixed with methanol & the mass ignited  Buffer component  Eyewash (2% Boric Acid)  Antiseptic  Toxicity: “Lobster Appearance” same w/ Sodium Borate 2. Boron Trioxide  produces by heating Boric Acid to temperature over 160C 3. Sodium Tetraborate (Na2B4O710H2O) aka “Borax”, “Dobell’s Solution”  Antiseptic, Eyewash, Wet Dressing for wounds

Aluminum (Al)  most abundant metal  3rd most abundant element  is a base-insoluble sulfide  Pharmacologic Actions: Constipation Astringent Antiperspirant Deodorant Thin Foil is used to treat burns  Toxicity: Shaver’s Disease Important Compounds of Aluminum: 1. Aluminum Chloride (AlCl36H2O)  Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiperspirant, Deodorant 2. Aluminum Hydroxide [Al(OH)3]  aka Amphogel®, Cremalin Gel®  Antacid, Protectant  can interfere w/ phosphate absorption  DIsadvatage: Constipation Phosphate Deficiency 3. Aluminum Phosphate (AlPO4)  aka Phosphagel®  Antacid, Astringent, Demulcent  Advantage: Do not interfere w/ PO4 absorption 4. Aluminum Carbonate [Al2(CO3)3] causes constipation treatment of Phosphatic Calculi  Phosphate Fecal Route 5. Alum [AlNH4(SO4)212H2O] – NH4 salt [AlK(SO4)212H2O] – K salt  aka “Tawas”  Astringent, Antiperspirant, Deodorant 6. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)  aka “Alumina”, “Bauxite”  Treatment of Silicosis  GEW: MW/6

7. Aluminum Magnesium Silicate (Hydrated Al Mg Si )  aka “Fuller’s Earth”, “Floretin”, “Floridin”  is a low of plasticity, clay-like material, which, when, heated, exhibits an increase in its adsorptive properties. 8. Aluminum Magnesium Hydroxide Sulfate  aka “Magaldrate” 9. Aluminum Acetate (AlCH3COO) 10. Aluminon Reagent  tri-ammonium aurine-tricarboxylate 11. Aluminum Silicate (a) Kaolin  aka “China Clay”, “Native Hydrated Aluminum Silicate” “White Bole”  Intestinal adsorbent in diarrhea, Demulcent, Clarifying agent, Excipient for inorganic salts, Dusting Powder (b) Bentonite  aka “Soap Clay”, “Mineral Soap”, “Swelling Clay” “Native Colloidal Hydrated Silicate” “Wilhinite”  Suspending agent  Bentonite Magma (5% Bentonite) (c) Pumice  porous rock of volcanic origin  complex of Al, Na, K  dental abrasive Fine Pumice  powder form of pumice (d) Clay  contain impurities of calcium, magnesium, iron oxides, fragment of quartz etc.

Gallium (Ga)aka “eka-aluminum”  substitute for mercury in the manufacture Arc Lamps  except for Mercury, has the lowest melting point of the metals (29.75C)  appears in transferring, an iron transport CHON, & appears to be useful in treating cancer related hypercalcemia 67  as Diagnostic Aid ( GA) Important Compound of Gallium: 1. Gallium Nitrate  for the treatment of cancer-related hypercalcemia 111

Indium (In)  as Diagnostic Aid (

In,

113

In)

Thallium(Tl) aka “Green Twig”  Defacqz Reaction (test)  most toxic, similar to Arsenic (Toxic Effects)  rodenticides  Poisoning causes Green Tongue & Alopecia 201  as Diagnostic Aid ( Tl)  Treatment of Poisoning w/ Thallium: -Trihexyphenidyl -Dimercaprol

GROUP III-B (3)  “Rare Earth Elements” are the first elements that are large enough to permit the addition of electrons to the d orbitals, beginning w/ the third principal quantum number  Members: Scandium (Sc)  “eka-boron” Yttrium (Y)

GROUP IV-A (14): CARBON FAMILY +4 oxidation state  predominantly exhibit covalent bonding, owing to the small size & high charge on the tetravalent ions.  Oxides of Carbon(C) & Silicon(Si) are acidic, those of other elements of the group are Amphoteric  Members: Carbon (C) Silicon (Si) Tin (Sn) Lead(Pb) Germanium (Ge)

Carbon (C)  non metal  can form multiple bonds w/ itself (Catenation)  Properties: Catenation –ability to bond w/ another carbon froming chains

Hybridization Isomerism Stability  produces in various forms, such as Coke, Lampblack, or Charcoal Coke  an impure form of carbon when coal is heated strongly in the absence of air  Manifestation: (a) Crystalline – graphite, diamond (b) Amorphous – coal, anthracite Soft Coal (Bituminous)  70% of carbon Hard Coal (Anthracite)  90% carbon & 6% volatile matter Important Compounds of Carbon: 1. Activated Charcoal Adsorbent, Component of universal antidote  are prepared from ligneous material by carbonization in the absence of air, followed by heat &/or chemical treatment to increase surface area & porosity  residue from a destructive distillation of various organic materials treated to increase it adsorptive power.  Two forms: Finely Powdered – use in liquid media  official use in USP is treatment of Diarrhea Coarse, Hard, Porous Particles  gas absorption 2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)  aka “Carbonic Acid, “Dry Ice”  most potent respiratory stimulant (Best Respiratory Stimulant)  treatment of persistent Hiccups  Dry Ice: Treatment of Acne, Corns, Calluses, Moles, Warts, Eczema  toxicity dur to suffocation  Absorbers: Soda Lime & Barium Hydroxides 3. Carbon Monoxide (CO) toxic Gas  210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to asphyxia/hypoxia then death  toxicity due to interaction w/ Hemoglobin (cherry red blood) systemic poison  Colorless, odorless, tasteless,painless  major source: Automotive exhaust(Car)  Treatment: (a) 100% O2 (b) Artificial Air (He 80%+O2 20%) (c) Hyperbaric O2

4. Carbonates/ Bicarbonates  Antacid, Carbonating agent (a) Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) aka “Baking Soda”  gastric antacid (b) Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)  source of K ion in electrolyte replenisher (c) Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]  effective reflex stimulant & expectorant (d) Sodium Carbonate Dehydrate  aka “Soda Crystals” (e) Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate  aka “Soda Ash”  Soluble Carbonate group: -K -Na + -NH4  Bicarbonate  cause temporary hardness of water

5. Diamond  purest native form of uncombined carbon

Silicon (Si)  2nd most abundant element Important Compounds of Silicon: 1. Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)  aka “Sand”, “Flint”, “Silica”  Adsorbent, Clarifying Agnet, Filtering Agent, Insulator Toxicity: Silicosis (along condition resembling chronic tuberculosis, develops after long exposure (7years or more) to respirable air) Antidote: Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) -forms coat on silica particles (a) Silica Fume  prepared by condensation of silica from its vapor phase  Colloidal Silicon Dioxide NF (b) Silica Gel  prepared by hydrolysis of inorganic or organic orthosilicates  Silicon Dioxide NF 2. Purified Siliceous Earth NF  aka “Diatomaceous Earth” “Fuller’s Earth”, “Kieselgurh”, “Celite”  act as excellent inert, non-adsorbent filter aids.  used as Mild Abrasive 3. Simethicone  aka “Polymeric Dimethyl Siloxane”, “Dimetylpolysiloxane”, ” Activated Dimethicaone”, “Dimethicone”  Antifoaming agent, Antiflatulent in gastric bloating & postoperative gaseous distention in Gastrointestinal tract. 4. Attapulgite [Mg5(Si8O20)(OH)28H2O]  aka Polymagma®, Diatabs®, Quintess®  adsorbent  for diarrhea 5. Talc [Mg3(OH)2Si4O10]  Hydrated Magnesium Silicate  softest mineral known  formerly used as dusting powders & lubricant fro surgical gloves  filtering aid Purified Talc  has been freed of iton & other impurities made by boiling very finely powdered talc w/ water containing 2% of Hydrochloric Acid Most Frequent Impurities of Talc: -Aluminum Oxide -Calcium Oxide -Ferric Oxide 6. Potassium Aluminum Silicate(KAlSi3O8) aka “Feldspar”  most common rock 7. Glass  generic term used to identify vitrous silicate material prepared by fusing a base, such as Na2CO3 &CaCO3, w/ pure silica appearance and characteristics of glasses can be modified by the addition of: (a) Manganese Dioxide (MnO2)  mask the blue green color of iron, usually present in silica (b) Boron (as Borate)  decrease the coefficient of expansion of the glass  to render Heat Resistant properties (c)Potassium  to render light resistance property & makes the glass amber (brown color). (d) Lead  to increase the refractive index of a glass 8. Silanes (SiH4)  covalent SI-Si bonds

Tin (Sn) aka “Stannum”  used in manufacture of tin cans, household utensils  Alloys: a. Solder Metal  50% Tin + 50% Lead b. Pewter Metal  80% Tin + 20% Lead c. Gun Metal  10% Tin + 90% Copper d. Rose Metal  25% Tin + 25% Lead + 50% Bismuth Important Compounds of Tin: 1, Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) Anticariogenic (8% solution) 2. Stannic Oxide (SnO2)  Germicide against Staphylococcal inf.

Lead (Pb)  aka “Plumbum” (latin word)  most metallic alement of Group IVA  is added to Phosphorus to render it black  forms a Black ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent 2+  Pb (Plumbous) 4+ Pb (Plumbic)  Pharmacologic Action: Astringent Protein Precipitant  Cumulative Poisoning: Plumbism *Effect: Lead Encephalopathy -Irritability -Memory Loss -Projectile Vomiting Lead Palsy -degenerative changes in motor neurons -Wrist drop/ foot drop Antidote: EDTA; Ca Versenate Sources of Poisoning: Lead Pipes Paints Crayons Batteries Automobile exhausts (Car) Important Compounds of Lead: 1. Lead Acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2]  aka “Sugar Lead”, “Burrow’s Solution”  Astringent, Antiseptic 2. Basic Lead Acetate  aka “White Lead” 3. Lead Subacetate [Pb(CH3COO)  aka “Goulard’s Extract  Astringent, Antiseptic Goulard’s Cerate  Lead Subacetate + Ointment base 4. Lead Oxide (PbO)  Letharge® (Lead monoxide)  used in cementing pipes & ingredient in Lead Subacetate Solutions 5. Plumber’s Solders  67% Pb, 33% Sn  low melting point & used in soldering joints

Germanium (Ge)  aka “eka-silicon” by Mendeleev  is purported to have immune system-enhancing & antitumor effects  found in bis--carboxyethyl germanium sesquioxide Germanium Dioxide  has been used to increase the formation of RBC & for treatment of anemia

Group IV-B (4) All members of the group possess amphoteric properties, & their cations readily form complexes. Members: Titanium (Ti) Zirconium (Zr) Hafnium (Hf) Rutherfordium (Rf)

Titanium (Ti)  aka “Titans” (Sons of the Earth)  powerful reducing agent Important Compound of Titanium: 1. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)  solar ray protectant (sun block preparation) *TiO2: reflect UV rays *PABA: absorbs UV rays  Opacifying agent  has high refracrtive index that contributes to its opacity

Zirconium (Zr)  same with Aluminum but banned due to Granuloma formation (skin cancer)  Former Official Compounds: *Oxide *CO3 -both are used as Antiperspirant & for Athlete’s Foot

Hafnium (Hf)  occurs in small quantities in Zirconium ores

GROUP V-A (15): NITROGEN FAMILY  Members: Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb) Bismuth (Bi) *Oxides of Nitrogen(N) & Phosphorus(P): Acidic Arsenic(As) & Antimony(Sb): Amphoteric Bismuth(Bi): Basic

Nitrogen (N) aka “Mephitic Air”, “Azote”, “Without Life”  occurs free in atmosphere  Most Abundant gas in Air (71% N2; 29% O2)  prepared primarily by the fractional distillation of liquid air  cause fatal bend in deep sea divers due to accumulation in the blood  provide an atmosphere to retard oxidation of cod liver oil, olive oil & multiple vitamin preparation.  most stable diatomic molecule Important Compounds of Nitrogen: 1, N2  very stable because of 3 covalent bonds Since Stable –used as Inert Atmosphere for readily oxidizable substance Liquid N2 –used as Refrigerant Container: Black 2. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)  aka “Laughing Gas”  inhalational anesthetic  SE: Diffusion Hypoxia  Container: Blue 3. Nitric Oxide (NO)  causes Vasodilation  an important neurotransmitter produced by neurons & other cells,  associated w/ the Mechanism of Action of Drugs like Sildenafil & Nitroglycerin 4. Nitrite (NO2)  Vasodilator; For Cyanide Poisoning  *all nitrite are soluble in water, except for Silver Nitrite (sparing soluble)  forms red color w/ Giess-Ilosvay Test (sulpahnilic acid- 1 naphthylamine reagent) 5. Nitrate (NO3)  preservative  ion when warmed with concentrated sulfuric acid & metallic Cu, evolved brown gas; (=) result w/ Brown ring test; & no visible reaction w/ diluted sulfuric acid. gives white crystalline precipitate w/ the presence of Nitron Reagent ( diphenyl-endoanilo-dihydrotriazole)  Lunge test – most sensitive test for nitrate Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate  longest acting nitrate 6. Nitric Acid, NF 30  is an aqueous solution containing not less than 69% & not more than 71% by weight of HNO3

Phosphorus (P)  aka “Light Carrier”, “St. elmo’s Fire”  Two Forms: (a) Red Phosphorus  non-poisonous & nonflammable in air, except at high temperature. (b) Yellow Phosphorys (White Phosphorus)  has a distinctive, disagreeable, ozone-like odor.  ignites spontaneously when expose to air or when heated at about 50C.  insoluble in water, soluble in chloroform, benzene, or carbon disulfide  Allotropic Modifications: (a) Scarlet P (PbBr w/ Hg @240C) (b) Violet P (white w/ Na @ 200C) (c) Black/Metallic (P w/ Pb @ 530C) Important Compound of Phosphorus: 1. Phosphate (PO4)  Antacids; Cathartics  Insoluble Phosphates: -Mg -Sr -Ba -Ca 2. Phosphoric Acid NF  used to form soluble salts of insoluble medicinal base.  GEW: MW/3 3. Hypophosphorous Acid  used as an antioxidant in Hydriodic Acid Syrup & Ferrous Iodide Syrup  powerful reducing agent 4. Diphosphate Trisulfate (P2S3)

Arsenic (As)  aka “Lewisite Metal”  component of Salvarsan (Antisyphilis)/ Asphenamine  binds to –SH (Keratin nails& hair)  Identification Test: Gutzeit’s Test is the modified version of Marsh Test  Poisoning: Arsenic Poisoning (Mee’s Lines)  Antidote: BAL  elements that resembled arsenic in action: -Selenium -Tellurium Important Compounds of Arsenic: 1. Arsenic Trioxide  Insecticide; Antileukemic  Pimary standard for I & Ce(SO4)2 2. Potassium Arsenita Solution  aka “Fowler’s Solution”  antileukemic 3. CopperAceto Arsenate  aka “Paris Green”  insecticide 4. AsI2  aka “Donovan’s Solution”  red solution  primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate

Antimony (Sb)  aka “Stybium”  in the presence of Rhodamine B w/ HCl forms Violet Precipitate  Principal Source: Antimony Glance (Stibnite)  Pharmacologic Action: Expectorant Emetic Anti-helminthic  *Amorphous form of Antimony – explosive form antimony Important Compund of Antimony: 1. Antimony Potassium Tartrate (SbKOC4H4O6)  aka “Tartar Emetic”, “Brown Mixture” Emetic, Expectorant, Treatment of Schistosomiasis (Liver Fluke)  no longer use as emetic because it is Toxic 2. Antimony Black  a black metallic antimony, obtained by the action of zinc upon solutions of antimony trichloride 3. Alloys: a. Babbit Metal  is 80% tin & 20% antimony b. Antifriction Metal  is 75% tin, 12.5% antimony, 12.5% copper

Bismuth (Bi)  aka “Beautiful Meadow”  will not react with acids to produce Hydrogen  Pharmacologic Actions: Astringent Antiseptic Internal Protective for Ulcer Insoluble Bismuth  30% concentration as Ointment  Causes: Dark Stool Blue-black gums  Antidote: BAL/ DImercaprol Important Compounds of Bismuth: 1. Bismuth Subcarbonate  Antacid, Astringent, Antiseptic 2. Bismuth Subgallate  same 3, Bismuth Subnitrate  same 4. Milk of Bismuth  aka “Bismuth Cream”  component: Bi Subnitrate + Bi Hydroxide  Primary Use: Antacid, Internal protective especially for gastric patient, Inhibit growth for H. pylori 5. Colloidal Bismuth Subcitrate  Tx of Peptic Ulcer

GROUP V-B (5)  Tantalum (Ta)  for implants  used in recent years in the surgical repair of large abdominal hernias  unaffected by body fluids, used in sheet form for surgical repair of bones, nerves, & tissues.

GROUP VI-A (16): CHALCOGENS (OXYGEN FAMILY)  lower oxi state –basic  higher oxi state –acidic  *The relationship between the oxidation number & acidity of the oxyacids of a given element in the case of the elements in Group VI is Directly Proportional Members: Oxygen (O) Sulfur (S) Selenium (Se) Polonium (Po)

Oxygen (O)  aka “Acid Former”, “Yne” , “Empyreal Air” by Priestly, “Dphlogisticated Air” by Schelle,  most abundant element (then Si & Al)  > 1/5 of Air  Treatment of Hypoxia / Asphyxia  Container: Green The Three Allotropes: (a) Nascent Oxygen (b) Atmosphere/ Molecular Oxygen (c) Ozone  allotropic form of oxygen/ poisonous gas *Ozonides  is formed when ozone dissolves & unites w/ the double bonds of substances such as oil of turpentine, oil of cinnamon & olive oil. *Ozonized Gas  result when oxygen covert to ozone  used in various disinfecting & bleaching operations Conditions based on Oxygen Requirement: (a) Anoxic – inadequate oxygen (b) Anemic – red blood/ hemoglobin shortage (c) Stagnant (d) Histotoxic – poisonous to tissue Important Compound/s of Oxygen: 1. Hydrogen Peroxide (Thenard’s “Oxygenated Acid”) stability increase in Acid Medium  3% H2O2  10 volumes (powerful oxidant)  6% H2O2  20 volumes (common bleach for air)- USP

Sulfur (S)  aka “Brimstone”, “Shulbari”, “Enemy of Copper”  * -silfur  most stable allotropic form of sulfur  obtained by Frasch Process (Sulfur Mining) Pharmacologic Use/s: In preparation of Scabicidal & Keratolyic ointment Stimulant Cathartic Depilatory Agent Fumigant Anti-dandruff Forms of Sulfur: (1) Precipitated Sulfur Lac  Sulfur; Milk Sulfur  Scabicide fine particles (2) Sublimed Sulfur  Cathartic  coarse particles  used in the preparation of Vleminckz’s Solution w/ Calcium Oxide (Lime) by boiling (3) Elemental Sulfur  Fungicide (4) Plastic Sulfur  resembles rubber & is insoluble in Carbon Disulfide (5) Liquid Sulfur  is obtained by heating sulfur at a temperature of 160C until about 180C, then the product become dark brown & has reach the maximum viscosity Calcarone  a crude furnace where Sulfur can be obtained/ recovered in Sicily Sulfides: -Black Sulfide: CuS HgS FeS -Pink Sulfide: MnS -Orange Sulfide: Antimony Sulfide (Sb2S3) -Yellow Sulfide: Cadmium Sulfide -White Sulfide: Zinc Sulfide Important Compounds of Sulfur: 1. Vlemickx’s Solution  is a mixture prepared by boiling lime & sublimed sulfur. 2. Norhausen Acid  Fuming Sulfuric Acid 3. Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2]  aka “Liver of Sulfur”  used in treatment of Psoriasis 4. Lithopone  70% Zinc Sulfie & 30% Barium Sulfide 5. Thiosulfates  decolorizes potassium permanganate &iodine solutions 6. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) has a suffocating odor  antioxidant turns filter paper moistened w/ acidified Potassium Dichromate gree. 7. Sulfur Ointment  has 10% Sulfur 8. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) most common dehydrating agent used in chemical reactions

Selenium (Se)  aka “Selena”, “Moon”  essential trace element  promotes absorption of Vitamin E (Synergistic of Vit E) used in making “red glass” & in rubber industry  Pharmacologic Use: Antioxidant Important Compound of Selenium: 1. Selenium Sulfide (SeS2)  aka “Selsun Blue”  2.5 % suspension in topical treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis  Antidandruff/ Antiseborrheic Agent 2. Selenic Acid  only single acid to dissolve Gold Polnium (Po)  first radioactive element dixcovered by Curie

GROUP VI-B (6)  Members: Chromium (Cr) Molybdenum (Mo) Uranium (U) Tungsten (W) Chromiun (Cr) Essental trace element Glucose tolerance factor  Deficiency: Hyperglycemic Important Compound of Chromium: 1. Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)  powerful oxidizing agent 2. Chromate  yellow in solution Chromate ion yellow Dichromate ion orange Molybdenum (Mo)  essential trace element  cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes  important constituent of xanthine oxidase & aldehyde oxydase  involved in bacterial fixing of atmospheric nitrogen Important Compound of Molybdenum: 1. Molybdenum Oxide  + FeSO4 (use: Hematinic Brand name: Mol-Iron® Uranium (U)  discovered by Becquerel  radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic bombs  No pharmaceutical use Tungsten(W)  aka “Wolfram” because it is found in nature as Wolframite or as Wolfram Ocher  is most desirable in making filaments in lectric bulbs  imparts great hardness to steel

GROUP VII-A (17): HALOGENS  Salt-forming elements  Electronegativity: F > O> N  Cl  Decreasing Acidity: HI > HBr> HCl >HF Members: Fluorine (F) Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I) Astatine (At)

Fluorine (F)  aka “Superhalogen”  strongest oxidizing agent  most electronegative element  except Glod(Au) & Platinum(Pt), it attack all metals at ordinary temp.  Poisoning: Fluorosis Principal Manifestation: Mottled Enamel Abnormal Bone Growth  * Fluoride  anticariogenic Agent  is one of the metabolites of Methoxy flurane responsible for the Nephrotoxicity associated w/ thic inhaltional anethetic Important Compounds of Fluorine: 1. Sodium Fluoride (NaF)  Anticariogenic(prevent dental caries) at 2% solution. 2. Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) Anticariogenic (8% solution) 3. Sodium Fluoride Phosphate (Na2FPO3) also cariogenic 4. Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)  aka “Freon”  Refrigerant; Aerosol Propellant

Chlorine (Cl)  aka “Dephlogisticated Muriatic Acid” by Scheele  most abundant Extracellular Anion  used as Water Disifectant  is added into a solution of an Iodine which liberates color Brown  “Greenish Yellow” Halogen (Chloros) Important Compound of Chlorine: 1. Hypochlorite (Na, K)  Bleaching Agent 2. Chloride (Na, K, Ca)  electrolyte replenisher  cause perment hardness of water 3. Potassium Chlorate  antiseptic  present in mouthwashes, vaginal douche, & othe local cleansing prep. 4. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)  will form an acid when reacted w/ water 5. Hydrochloric Acid toilet bowl cleaner. neutalizing, stabilizing, / solubilizing agent * Diluted HCl – treatment of Achlordria  expressed in %w/v * Concentrated HCl  expressed in %w/w  is used to differentiate Group I cations 6. Hypochlorous Acid (HClO) 7. Chlorous Acid (HClO2) 8. Chloric Acid (HClO3) 9. Perchloric Acid (HClO4)

Bromine (Br)  Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating odor  powerful caustic & germicide  if in contact w/ skin wash immediately w/ a solution of NaHCO3 & treated w/ glycerin or Ammonia Water  Three Bromide Elixirs: Na, K, & Ammonium  added to Quinalizarin Reagent to differentiate magnesium & berylium  Pharmacologic Action: Sedative Depressant  Poisoning: Bromism (Antidote: NaCl & NH4Cl) Principal Manifestation: Skin Eruption Psychosis Weajness Headache Important Compound of Bromine: 1. Kopperchaar’s Solution  Bromine, Tenth Normal Solution  solution of K Bromate & K Bromide  0.10N Bromine Solution  Used in the assay of Phenol

Iodine (I)  most metallic of all halogen (except Astatine)  present in thyroid gland a radioactive isotopes which ha a wide use in diagnosis & therapy. 1:5000 (0.02%) –iodine concentration effective to combat many common bacteria in distilled water  its Oxosalts (are very stable)  Antidote for Iodine Poisoning: Cornstarch & Sodium Thiosulfate Important Preparations of Elemental Iodine: 1. Stong Iodine Solution  aka “Lugol’s Solution” 2. Iodine Tincture  Disinfectant 3. Povidone-Iodine  Betadine® (10% Iodine) 4. Iodophor  complex of Iodine 5. Boulton’s Solution  Phenolated Iodine Solution 6. HI  most acidic among the acid of halogen

Astatine (At) synthetic radioactive element(only synthetic halogen)  resembles Iodine, but more metallic  has no pharmaceutical applications Pseudohalogen (Halogenoids resemble halide anions) -CN -CNS

GROUP VIIB (7)

GROUP VIIIA / O (18): NOBLE GASES/ INERT GASES

are colored are metallic in character Members: Manganese (Mn) Technetium (Tc) Rhenium (Re)

Manganese (Mn)  essential trace element  necessary for activation of a variety of enzymes such as Pyruvate Carboxylase  forms a Pink ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent  Cofactor involved in: -Protein Synthesis -Phosphorylation -Fatty Acid & Cholestrerol Synthesis Poisoning: Parkinson-like Important Compound of Manganese: 1. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)  aka “Mineral Chameleon”  Oxidizing Agent, Antiseptic  0.02% Strength as Antimicrobial

Technetium (Tc)  aka “Technetos”, “eka-Manganese”  first element produced artificially  used in Preparation of Radiopharmaceuticals 99 ( Tc)

Rhenium (Re)  very rare element  catalyst for dehydrogenation

All Group 0 elements except radon occur in the atmosphere  are all monatomic & unreactive Members: Helium (He) Neon (Ne) Argon (Ar) Krypton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Radon (Rn) Helium (He)  2nd lightest gas/ air  Container: Brown Inhalation of pure Helium produces a “Donald Duck-like Sound” or “Chipmunk-like Sound” Pharmacologic Uses:  Used to prepare synthetic airs (20% O2 + 80% He) Carrier/ Diluent of Medically important gases Neon (Ne)  for advertising purposes Argon (Ar)  most abundant noble gas  substitute to nitrogen as an inert atmosphere for pharmaceutics by-product of the fractionalization for possible use as anesthetics Krypton (Kr)  least abundant noble gas anesthetic(investigated for possible use as anesthetic)  Ramsay & Travers (isolated Krypton from Argon) Xenon (Xe)  is a virtually ideal anesthetic inert gas sufficiently potent to provide rapid induction of & emergence from surgical anesthesia Radon (Rn)  aka “Niton” by Ramsay  synthetic & radioactive noble gas  treatment of cancer (Cervical Cancer)  Recognize by Dorn  Rutherford & Soddy (succeeded in liquefying the emanation of Radon) Ramsay & Collie (demonstrated the characteristic spectrum of Radon)

GROUP VIIIB consists of e elements (TRIADS) First Triad: Second Triad: Iron (Fe) Ruthenium (Ru) Cobalt (Co) Rhodium (Rh) Nickel (Ni) Palladium (Pd)

Third Triad: Osmium (Os) Iridium (Ir) Platinum (Pt)

Iron (Fe) essential trace element  present in Tyrosine Hydroxylase which catalyzes the ratelimiting step in catecholamines  Present in: Hemoglobin Transferrin Ferritin Cytochrome Oxidase Enzyme  Enhance Absorption of: Vitamin C Copper most important element in engineering  Alloy: Steel (Iron + 35 Carbon)  Mucosal Block postulation by Hahn  best known of the three hypotheses on iron absorption suggests that dieatary or administered iron is reduced to the ferrous form which diffuses into the mucosal cell where it is reoxidized & combined w/ apoferritin to form stable ferritin  Misch Metal  is 70% Cerium & 30% Iron  pyrophoric alloys  alloy of copper-nickel resulted from removing sulfur from malte 2+ Fe  green in solution  Use: Hematinic  Toxicity: GIT Distress Cardiac Collapse Antidote: Deferoxamine Important Compounds of Iron: 1. Ferrous Sulfate (FeSO4)  aka “Green Vitriol”  Hematinic Agent  most economical & most satisfactory form of iron preparation in the market  SE: Constipation 2. Ferrous Subsulfate Solution  aka “Monsel’s Solution” 3. Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate  aka “Mohr’s Salt”  most important double salt of ferrous sulfate w/ alkali sulfate 4. Ferric Ammonium Sulfate [FeNH4(SO4)2]  aka “Ferric Alum”  indicator used in precipitation method of analysis 5. Ferrous Gluconate  FERGON® (Hematinic Agent) less gastric irritating 6. Ferrous Fumarate  TOLERON® (hematinic agent)-1957  more stable than ferrous sulfate  most tolerable form of iron  less irritating to the GI tract than any other iron preparations 7. Ferrous Carbonate (FeCO3)  aka “Chalybeate Pills”, “Ferrunginous Pills”, “Blaud’s Pills”  Hematinic Agent 8. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)  astringent, styptic, detection(test) of tannins & phenols  will react with: -Morphine (blue) -Benzoic Acid (flesh) -Resorcinol (violet) 9. Iron + Ammonium Acetate  aka “Basham’s Mixture”  Astringent, Styptic 10. Iron Dextran Injection  IM only 11. Iron Oxide  use as pigment

12. Iron Pyrite  aka “Fool’s Gold” 13. Ferri Ferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]2  aka “Prussian Blue”  blue print dye 14. Ferro Ferricyanide, Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2  aka “Turnbull’s Blue”  blue print dye 15. Cast Iron/ Pig Iron  is the crude metal obtained from blast furnace contains 92 to 94% iron 16. White Cast Iron (Cementine)  is a solid solution of hard brittle iron carbide formed when molten iron ir rapidly cooled. 17. Gray Cast Iron (Graphite Scales)  are formed when liquid iron is run into sand molds & allowed to cool 18. Wrought Iron  is obtained from removing most of the impurities from cast iron.  contains from 99.8% to 99.9% of pure iron.  very malleable & ductile, very tough & possesses a high tensile strength 19. Reduced Iron  is made from ferric oxide w/ the addition of Hydrogen

Cobalt (Co)  essential in development of erythrocyte & hemoglobin  used in manufacture of beer  pink in appearance  Component of Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)  * Vogel’s Reaction(test for Cobaltous ions w/ ammonium thiocyanate produce Beautiful blue)  Deficiency: Megaloblastic Anemia Important Compounds of Cobalt: 1. Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2)  “Cobaltous Chloride”  aka “Lover’s Ink”, “Sympathetic Ink”  indicator in silica gel beads (dessicator) 2. Cobalt Zincate  aka “Rinmann’s Green” 3. Cobalt meta-aluminate  aka “Thenard Blue” 4. Cobaltous  used as indicator in silica gel beads & other dehydrating agents Nickel (Ni)  aka “Old Nick’s Copper”  found in fossil fuel combustion  metal in Fancy Jewelries  specified by Dimethylglyoxime Reagent, form Red ppt. 2+ Ni  green in solution Nickel Pectinate  Tomectin  is utilized for the treatment of diarrhea Raney Nickel  alloy of nickel & aluminum Nickel Hydroxide  Green German Silver  Nickel + Zinc + Copper Constantan  alloy of Copper & Nickel  Dimethylglyoxime Reagent  precipitating agent of Nickel

Osmium (Os)  heaviest & densest metal Important Compounds of Osmium: 1. Osmic Acid 2. Osmium Tetroxide *Both used in staining microorganism for microscopic study especially electron microscopy Palladium (Pd)  catalyst in finely divided steel Platinum (Pt)  catalyst in finely divided steel  called as “Noble Metals” because it shows low oxidation potential & low reactivity Cisplatin  treatment of Prostate Cancer  aka Platinol  a platinum complex  antineoplastic agent prepared by treating potassium chloroplatinate w/ ammonia

Artificial Atmosphere: -Five Gases are Official: Nitrogen Oxygen Helium Carbon Dioxide Nitrous Oxide Barium, Strontium, Nickel placed higher than hydrogen in the electromotive series

Activity Series  list od metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of oxidation Active Sites  are places in the reacting molecules where they can be absorb Reaction Mechanism  information on how reaction occurs in step by step process. Coordination Number of the Metal Ion  is the number of donor atoms to which is boded.  Metal-ion Indicators: - Murexide - Calmagite - Pyrocathecol Violet Nuclide  is the nucleus of a specific isotope of an element Nucleon  particle found im the nucleus of an atom Node  a locus of points in an atom in which the electron density is zero. Limiting Reactant  reagent that leads to the smallest amount of product Ewens-Bassett system  is an element nomenclature that gives/sites the charge of the complex ion rather than the oxidation state of the central unit Monel Metal  used for wire, screen, sheet metal Thorium Oxide  obtained from Monazite contains Cerium Metals are: - ductile - lustrous - malleable - some are liquid (Gallium & Mercury) Radiactive Substances: Unstable Nucleus Emits Radiation Low proton-neutron ration Softening  is the method used to render hard water into a more purified form by removal of dissolved salts by precipitation as either carbonates or hydroxides Geiger Counter  used to detect & measure radioactivity Rem  unit of radiation damage used in medicine Rad & Gray  commonly used to measure the amount of exposure to radiation Radiation: 1. Alpha  least penetrating  weighs almost the same as a helium atom 2. Beta 3. Gamma  have been speed of light Particle Accelerators  “Atom Smashers”, “Cyclotron”, “Synchroton”  are used to accelerate charge particles using strong magnetic & electrostatic fields Ionic Hydrides  are formed by alkali metals & by the heavier alkaline earths Molecular Hydrides  are formed by nonmetals & semi-metals Metallic Hydrides  are formed when hydrogen reacts w/ transition metals Universal Antidote (Component): -Magnesium Oxide (Calcined Magnesia) -Activated Charcoal -Tannic Acid

Hydroxyurea  is antineoplastic drug active against rapidly proliferating cells in the synthesis phase. Pipobroman  used primarily for treating Polycethemia vera  antineoplastic agent prepared from Piperazine & 3-Bromopropioniyl bromide Polycythemia Vera  aka Erythremia  is a bone marrow disease that leads to an abonormal increase in the number of blood cells Testolactone, USP  D-homo-17-oxaandrosta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione  prepared by microbial transformation of progesterone Interferons  are secreted by cells in response to viral infections or other chemical or biologic inducers  Major Classes: Alpha -  Beta -  Lambda -  Interferon alfa-2a  othernames: RIFN, IFLrA, Roferon-A  a highly protein containing 165 amino acid amufactured from a strain of E.coli bearing a genetically engineered plasmid containing an interferon alfa-2a gene from human leukocytes Tertiary Amino Alkyl Ether  Drowsiness (most common) Viomycin  causes toxic effect that are primarily associated w/ damage to the eight cranial nerve & to the kidney  exerts bacteriostatic action against the tubercle bacillus by a mechanism that has not been determined  is less potent than streptomycin, & its toxicity is greater Emetine (antiprotozoan)  Indications: -Balantadial Dysentery -Fascioliasis -Paragonimiasis Pentamidine  principal indication: Pneumocystis carinii (Pneumonia) Suramin  high molecular weight bisurea derivatives containing six sulfonic acid groups as their sodium salt Glycobiarsol  available in the form of vaginal suppositories for the treatment of trichomonal & monilial vaginitis  also been used orally for the treatment of intestinal amebiasis Stibogluconate  pentavalent antimonial drugs intended primarily for the treatment of various froms of leishmaniasis  has low therapeutic index  px should be monitored for sighs of heavy metal poisoning Diethylcarbamazepine  a higly water-soluble compound that is effective against various forms of filariasis, including Bancroft’s onchocerciasis & laviasis Iopanoic Acid, USP  designed for the visualization of gallbladder Monmorillonite  Smectite Selenomethionine Se 75 Injection, USP  used in the diagnosis of Pancreatic tumors & growths White Lotion, USP  Sulfurated Potash + Zinc Sulfate Alkaline Water  usually contain appreciably quantities of sodium & Magnesium Sulfates together w/ some Sodium bicarbonates Glycerin  sequestering agent of Haine’s Reagent for Copper salts Citrate  sequestering agent for Benedicts Solution  acts as a blood coagulant in vivo & an anticoagulant in vitro Polydentate Ligands  used for improving solubility &/or to stabilize a metal ion by chelation sequestering agent Catecholamines  are phenylethylamine w/ orthodihydroxy substitutions in the phenyl ring. Two Carbons  can separate the amino from the phenyl ring that will produce maximal sympathomimetic activity Beta-1 receptor agonist selectivity  is conferred in beta phenylethylamine structure. Metthylphenidate  useful for ADHD commercially available as the threo-racemate from, which is about 400 times

more potent than its erythro-racemate form

PABA (Para-aminobenzoic Acid)  used as Ultraviolet sunscreen  enhancer of Serum Salicylate  should not be taken concurrently w/ sulfonamides because it interferes w/ the Antimicrobial Activity of the latter Sulfonamides  are assayed by using NaNO2 & KI Vitamin B17 (Amygadalin)  convert to Cyanide w/ Enzyme Emulsin Bordeaux Mixture  CuSO4 + CaO  algicide in swimming pools White Lotion  ZnSO4 + Sulfurated Potash  active ing: ZnS

Barbiturates (Intravenous Anesthetics) Phenobarbital  most water soluble among Barbiturates

3-ethyl-4-hydrocypentanal Functional Group: Carbon 2

Penicillin

Phenothiazine  for seizure disorder C2 position  is the position in the structure when substituted, will bring about the greatest effect on Antipsychotic Activity Thioridazine  has an alkyl piperidyl side chain at the N-10 position of the phenotiazine structure. Thioxanthene  resemble the ring structure (ring analogues) of the Phenothizines only that the N-10 position of the Phenothiazine is replaced by a carbon.

Amphetamine Methamphetamine  differs in the presence of N-methyl substituent  (+)-N, alpha-dimethyl phenthylamine

Phenytoin anticonvulsant  contains the structure -NH in the R’’ position of the structure

Amiodarone

Aspirin

Atomic number

Atomic Mass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 52 54 55 56 57 58

1.0079 4.0026 6.941 9.0122 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 20.1797 22.9897 24.305 26.9815 28.0855 30.9738 32.065 35.453 39.0983 39.948 40.078 44.9559 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938 55.845 58.6934 58.9332 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.64 74.9216 78.96 79.904 83.8 85.4678 87.62 88.9059 91.224 92.9064 95.94 98 101.07 102.9055 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.71 121.76 126.9045 127.6 131.293 132.9055 137.327 138.9055 140.116

Name chemical element Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Potassium Argon Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Nickel Cobalt Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Iodine Tellurium Xenon Cesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium

Symbol

H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ar Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Co Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb I Te Xe Cs Ba La Ce

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 91 90 93 92 95 94 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 104 103 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

140.9077 144.24 145 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.9253 162.5 164.9303 167.259 168.9342 173.04 174.967 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.9665 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.9804 209 210 222 223 226 227 231.0359 232.0381 237 238.0289 243 244 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 261 262 262 266 264 277 268 272

Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Protactinium Thorium Neptunium Uranium Americium Plutonium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Rutherfordium Lawrencium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium

Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Pa Th Np U Am Pu Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Rf Lr Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Name Aluminum Aluminum bromide Aluminum chloride anhydrous Aluminum oxide Aluminum powder Ammonum aluminum sulfate Ammonium bromide Ammonium chloride Ammonium ferric sulfate Ammonium ferric sulfate Ammonium ferrous sulfate Ammonium fluoride Ammonium iodide Ammonium nitrate tri-Ammonium orthophosphate Ammonium perchlorate Ammonium phosphate dibasic Ammonium phosphate monobasic Ammonium sodium hydrogen orthophosphate Ammonium sulfate Ammonium thiocyanate Antimony oxide Antimony pentoxide Antimony tribromide Antimony(lumps) Arsenic Barium nitrate Barium carbonate Barium chlorate monohydrate Barium chloride Barium fluoride Barium hydroxide Barium oxide Barium perchlorate Barium permanganate Barium peroxide Barium sulfate Bismuth metal Bismuth nitrate Bismuth subnitrate Bismuth trioxide Borax crystals Boric acid Cadmium carbonate Cadmium chloride Cadmium fluoride Cadmium granule. Cadmium metal, mossy Cadmium nitrate Cadmium selenide Cadmium sulfate Calcium Calcium fluoride Calcium hypochlorite(~35%Cl) Calcium orthophosphate Calcium oxide Calcium pentahydroxide triphosphate Calcium peroxide Calcium phosphate dibasic Calcium phosphate Calcium phosphate monobasic Cerium sulfate anhydrous Cesium chloride

Molecular formula Al AlBr3 AlCl3 Al2O3 Al NH4Al(SO4)2 NH4Br NH4Cl NH4Fe(SO4)2 NH4Fe(SO4)2 FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 NH4F NH4I NH4NO3 (NH4)3PO4 NH4ClO4 (NH4)2HPO4 NH4H2PO4 NaNH4HPO4 (NH4)2SO4 NH4SCN Sb2O3 Sb2O5 SbBr3 Sb As Ba(NO3)2 BaCO3 Ba(ClO3)2.H2O BaCl2 BaF2 Ba(OH)2 BaO Ba(ClO4)2 Ba(MnO4)2 BaO2 BaSO4 Bi Bi(NO3)3 BiNO3 Bi2O3 Na2B4O7 H3BO3 CdCO3 CdCl2 CdF2 Cd Cd CdNO3.4H2O CdSe CdSO4 Ca CaF2 CaCl2O2 Ca3(PO4)2 CaO Ca5(PO4)3OH CaO2 CaHPO4 Ca3(PO4)2 Ca(H2PO4)2 Ce2(SO4)3 CsCl

Chromium(III)chloride Chromium potassium sulfate Chromium trioxide Chromium(III)nitrate Cobalt carbonate Cobalt metall powder Cobalt sulfate Cobalt(II)sulfate Cobaltic oxide Cobaltous Cobaltous bromide Cobaltous chloride Cobaltous chloride Copper metal Copper oxide Copper(I)iodide Copper(I)bromide Copper(I)chloride Copper(II)chloride Copper(II)hydroxide carbonate Copper(II)sulfate anhydrous Cupric bromide Cupric dichromate Cupric oxide Cuprous cyanide Ferric oxide red powder Ferric sulfate Ferrous bromide Ferrous chloride Ferrous orthophosphate Ferrous sulfate Ferrous sulfide Fluoboric acid (50% in water) Germanium(IV)chloride Iodic acid Iodine Iodine pentoxide Iron Lanthanium oxide Lead bromide Lead carbonate Lead chloride Lead chromate Lead dioxide Lead fluoride Lead iodide Lead metal Lead oxide yellow Lead sulfide Lithium carbonate Lithium chloride Lithium fluoride Lithium hydroxide Lithium iodide Lithium nitrate Magnesium bromide Magnesium carbonate Magnesium chloride Magnesium chloride anhydrous Magnesium ferrocyanide Magnesium fluoride Magnesium oxide Magnesium perchlorate Magnesium silicate Magnesium sulfate Manganese dioxide Manganese hydroxide

CrCl3 CrK(SO4)2 Cr2O3 Cr(NO3)3 CoCO3 Co CoSO4 CoSO4.7H2O Co2O3 Co CoBr2 CoCl2 CoCl2 Cu CuO CuI CuBr CuCl CuCl2.2H2O CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 CuSO4 CuBr2 CuCr2O4.4H2O CuO CuCN Fe2O3 Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O FeBr2 FeCl2 Fe3(PO4)2 FeSO4 FeS HF GeCl4 HIO3 I2 I2O5 Fe La2O3 PbBr2 PbCO3 PbCl2 PbCrO4 PbO2 PbF2 PbI2 Pb PbO PbS Li2CO3 LiCl LiF LiOH LiI LiNO3 MgBr2 MgCO3 MgCl2 MgCl2 Mg2Fe(CN)6 MgF2 MgO Mg(ClO4)2 MgO,SiO2,Na2SiO4 MgSO4.H2O MnO2 Mn(OH)2

Manganese metal Manganous chloride Mecurous chloride Mercuric iodide Mercuric nitrate Mercuric thiocyanate Mercurous fluorude Mercurous iodide Mercurous nitrate Mercury(II)chloride Mercury(II)iodide Mercury(II)nitrate Molybdenium trioxide Nickel carbonate Nickel chloride Nickel fluoride Nickel oxide green Nickel sulfamate Nickel sulfate Perchloric acid Phosphormolybdic acid Phosphorus in water Phosphorus pentasulfide Phosphorus wite Potassium antimonate(pyro) Potassium biiodate Potassium bisulfate Potassium bisulfite Potassium bromate Potassium bromide Potassium chlorate Potassium cyanate Potassium dihydrogen phosphate Potassium disulfate(pyrosulfate) Potassium ferro(III)cyanide Potassium metabisulfite Potassium nitrate Potassium nitrite Potassium perchlorate Potassium persulfate Potassium phosphate monobasic Potassium pyrophosphate Potassium selenocyanate Potassium thiocyanate Selenium metall Silicic acid Silver nitrate Silver sulfate Silver sulfate Sodium bismuthate Sodium bromide Sodium chlorate Sodium cobaltinitrile Sodium dithionite

Mn MnCl2 HgCl2 HgI2 HgNO3 Hg(CSN)2 Hg2F2 Hg2I2 HgNO3.H2O HgCl2 HgI2 Hg(NO3)2 MoO3 NiCO3 NiCl2.6H2O NiF2 NiO Ni(SO3NH2)2.4H2O NiSO4.6H2O HClO4 H3[P(MoO3O10)4]aq P P2S5 P KSb(OH)6 KH(IO3)2 KHSO4 KHSO3 KBrO3 KBr KClO3 KCN KH2PO4 K2S2O7 K4Fe(CN)6 K2S2O5 KNO3 KNO2 KClO4 K2S2O8 KH2PO4 K4P2O7 KSeCN KSCN Se SiO2.aq AgNO3 Ag2SO4 Ag2SO4 NaBiO3 NaBr NaClO3 CoN6Na3O12 Na2O4S2

Sodium fluoride Sodium hydrogen phosphate Sodium hydrogen sulfate Sodium hydrogen sulfite di-Sodium hydrogenphosphate Sodium iodate Sodium iodide Sodium meta-periodate Sodium methaborate Sodium perchlorate Sodium peroxide Sodium persulfate Sodium polyphosphate Sodium pyrophosphate Sodium silicate Sodium sulfate Sodium sulfite di-Sodium tetraborate Sodium tungstate Stannic chloride Stannous chloride Stannous chloride Stannous fluoride Stannous oxide Strontium carbonate Thallium wire Thallous nitrate Tin Tin gran. Titanium carbide Titanium hydride Vanadium boride Vanadium carbide Vanadium oxide Yttrium nitrate Yttrium oxide Zinc Zinc carbonate Zinc chloride Zinc nitrate Zinc selenide Zinc sulfate Zirconium boride Zirconium hydride Zirconium(IV)oxide

NaF Na2HPO4 NaHSO4 NaHSO3 Na2HPO4.2H2O NaIO3 NaI NaIO4 NaBO2.2H2O NaCl3O4 Na2O2 Na2S2O8 (NaPO3)12-13.Na2O Na4P2O7 Na2Si3O7 Na2SO4.10H2O Na2SO3 Na2B4O7 Na2WO4.2H20 SnCl4 SnCl2 SnCl2.2H2O SnF2 SnO SrCO3 Tl TlNO3 Sn Sn TiC TiH2 VB2 VC V2O4 Y(NO3)3 Y2O3 Zn ZnCO3 ZnCl2 Zn(NO3)2 ZnSe ZnSO4.7H2O ZrBo ZrH2 ZrO2

VALENCES OF COMMON ELEMENTS & RADICALS

I.Elements of Fixed Positive Valence +1 H Li K Na Ag Cu

+2 Ba Ca Bd Mg Ra Sr Zn Cu Fe Pb Hg Ni Co Cd Mn Sn

+3 Al B Fe Cr Ni Co Bi As Sb

+4 C Si

III.Elements of Variable Valence ANTIMONY ARSENIC BISMUTH CHROMIUM COBALT COPPER GOLD IRON LEAD MANGANESE MERCURY NICKEL NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS PLATINUM TIN

ous +3 +3 +3 +2 +2 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2 +3 +3 +2 +2

Sb As Bi Cr Co Cu Au Fe Pb Mn Hg Ni N P Pt Sn

II.Elements of Fixed Negative Valence -1 Br Cl F H

-2 O S

-3 As N P

-4 C Si

I IV.Common Radicals -1 ACETATE ALUMINATE BICARBONATE BROMATE BROMIDE CHLORATE CHLORIDE CYANATE FLOURIDE HYDROXIDE HYPOCHLORITE IODATE IODIDE METABORATE MEATAPHOSPHATE NITRATE NITRITE PERCHLORATE PERMANGANATE THIOCYANATE

C2H3O2 Al(OH)4 HCO3 BrO3 Br ClO3 Cl CNO F OH ClO IO3 I BO2 PO3 NO3 NO2 ClO4 MnO4 SCN

-2 CARBONATE CHROMATE DICHROMATE MANGANATE MOLYBDATE OXALATE OXIDE PEROXIDE HYDROPHOSPHATE SILICATE SULFATE SULFIDE SULFITE STANATE TARTRATE TETABORATE THIOSULFATE ZINCATE

-3 CO3 CrO4 Cr2O7 MnO4 MoO4 C2O4 O O2 HPO3 SiO3 SO4 S SO2 SnO3 C4H4O6 Br4O7 S2O3 ZnO7

ARSENATE ARSENITE BORATE CITRATE FERICYANIDE PHOSPHATE PHOSPHITE

AsO4 AsO3 BO3 C6H5O2 Fe(Cn)6 PO4 PO3

-4 PYROARSENATE PYROPHOSPHATE ORTHOSILICATE

As2O7 P2O7 SiO4

+1 AMMONIUM COPPER (I) MERCURY (I)

NH4 Cu Hg2

ic +5 +5 +5 +3 +3 +2 +3 +3 +4 +4 +2 +3 +5 + 5 + 4 + 4