Real Colors Of Wwii

This is a limited and highly accurately printed edition dedicated to the original colours of the WWII era. The chips that appear in the book, even though they are not painted with real paint, are highly controlled, checked and calibrated in the most precise way under the current and most modern parameters of printing and technology, to match the original colours.

LIMITED EDITION

Original idea and concept: Fernando Vallejo Francisco Vives AK Interactive Executive editor: Maciej Góralczyk Art direction: Tomek Wajnkaim Cover idea: Maciej Góralczyk Color profiles: Janusz Światłoń Proofreading: James Hatch Translation from Russian: Maciej Góralczyk Michael Neradkov of ScaleModels.ru

The symbols of the Third Reich including the swastika were part of the markings of German aircraft during World War II and are shown in this book for the sake of historically correct representations. The authors are firm supporters of an open and democratic society and do not to sympathise in any way with radical movements whatsoever.

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index 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 8 8 11 16 24 28 46 46 52 60 65 68 90 92 112

1. GERMAN AIRCRAFT COLOURS IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR - 1.1 THE PRE-WAR AND EARLY WAR PERIOD - 1.1.1 SINGLE COLOUR FINISHES - 1.1.2 THE FIRST CAMOUFLAGE SYSTEM - 1.1.3 GREEN CAMOUFLAGE SCHEMES - 1.1.4 LEGION CONDOR CURIOUSITIES - 1.1.5 EVOLUTION OF THE FIGHTER CAMOUFLAGE - 1.2 NEW NEEDS, NEW COLOURS - 1.2.1 NEW FIGHTER COLOURS - 1.2.2 NIGHT FIGHTERS AND BOMBERS - 1.2.3 TROPICAL COLOURS - 1.2.4 WINTER CAMOUFLAGE - 1.3 THE LATE WAR COLOURS - 1.4 INTERIOR COLOURS - 1.5 OFFICIAL COLOURING SPECIFICATIONS AND CAMOUFLAGE PATTERNS - 1.6 SCALE COLOUR EFFECT

114 116 117 119 128 134 135 141 144 147 148 158 178 183

2. U.S. AIRCRAFT COLOURS IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR - 2.1 INTRODUCTION - 2.2 USAAC/USAAF CAMOUFLAGE COLOURS - 2.2.1 OLIVE DRAB 41 AND ANA 613 - 2.2.2 MEDIUM GREEN 42 - 2.2.3 NEUTRAL GRAY 43 - 2.2.4 SAND 49 - 2.2.5 HQ NW AFRICAN AIR FORCES - 2.2.6 HAZE CAMOUFLAGE - 2.2.7 JET BLACK ANA 622 - 2.2.8 NON-STANDARD FINISHES GALLERY - 2.3 UNITED STATES NAVY CAMOUFLAGE COLOURS - 2.4 USAAF/USN INSIGNIA COLOURS - 2.5 US AIRCRAFT INTERIOR COLOURS

186 188 189 189 191 197 202 203 211 213 215 215 217 217 218 218 220 221 221 222 222 223 224 227

3. BRITISH AIRCRAFT COLOURS IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR - 3.1 INTRODUCTION - 3.2 CAMOUFLAGE COLOURS - 3.3 TEMPERATE LAND SCHEME - 3.3.1 NIGHT - 3.3.2 SKY - 3.3.3 SKY BLUE - 3.4 TEMPERATE SEA SCHEME - 3.4.1 SKY GREY - 3.5 DAY FIGHTER SCHEME - 3.6 DESERT COLOURS - 3.6.1 MIDDLE STONE (SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS MIDSTONE) - 3.6.2 AZURE BLUE - 3.6.3 DEEP SKY - 3.6.4 MEDITERRANEAN BLUES - 3.7 PHOTO-RECONNAISSANCE (PR) COLOURS - 3.7.1 PHOTO-RECONNAISSANCE UNIT BLUE - 3.7.2 PRU SPECIAL PINK - 3.7.3 EXTRA DARK SEA GREEN AND PRU MAUVE - 3.8 AIR SEA RESCUE AIRCRAFT - 3.9 TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT - 3.10 GREY GREEN - 3.11 IDENTIFICATION COLOURS - 3.12 CODE LETTERS

228 4. SOVIET AIRCRAFT COLOURS, 1940-1945 230 - 4.1 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 231 - 4.2 UNTIL 1940 235 - 4.3 1940 243 - 4.4 1941-1942 255 - 4.5 WINTERS OF 1941-42 AND 1942-43 258 - 4.6 1943 271 - 4.7 WINTER OF 1943-1944 272 - 4.8 1944-1945 280 - 4.9 FRONTLINE EXPERIENCE 284 - 4.10 A VIEW FROM THE INSIDE 288 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Acknowledgements Maciej Góralczyk would like to thank the co-authors: Gerald T. Högl, Jürgen Kiroff, Nicholas Millman and Mikhail V. Orlov, whose unparalleled research work allowed us to jointly create this resource. The participation of Mikhail V. Orlov would not have been possible without the help of Michael Neradkov of ScaleModels.ru, and Massimo Tessitori. The archive photo material included in this book could only be collated with the help of fellow researchers and collectors: Dénes Bérnad, Craig Busby, Dino Cerutti, Boris Ciglić, Alex Crawford, James V. Crow, Dani Egger, Søren Flensted, Chris Goss, Brett Green, Robert Gretzyngier, Thomas Hesse, Bjarne V. Jansen, Adam Jarski, Phil Listemann, Dan Manthos, Mikael Olrog, Robert Pęczkowski, Harald Rabeder, Sergio Luis dos Santos, Brian Spurr, Paul Stipdonk, Akira Takiguchi, Chris Thomas, John Vasco, David Weiss, and particularly my great friend Erik Mombeeck. Valuable information was collected during some very entertaining online discussions with Marc-André Haldimann, Tomas Prusa, Sinisa Sestanovic, David Weiss and most of all, Franck Benoiton and Georg Morrison, whose knowledge and passion of Luftwaffe research must be emphasized. Janusz Światłoń must be congratulated for both the creation of quality colour profiles and patient approval of numerous editor comments and corrections. The involvement of James Hatch was indispensable for ensuring correct grammar and wording. Tomek Wajnkaim’s talent and experience led to the design of a clear yet modern-looking layout, of which I’m very proud. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their continuous support, and Fernando Vallejo for his faith in this project. Since the death of Ken Merrick, considerable progress was made in the research of Luftwaffe colours. While this work was created in the spirit of ‘the master’ himself, it was only possible with the invaluable help of a high number of people and due to space limitations not everybody can be mentioned here. Of special significance for Jürgen Kiroff and Gerald T. Högl are our fellow researchers, Jens Mühlig and György Punka. Both gentlemen are not only the most important contributors of new evidence and they are also a pleasure to work with. The recreation of Luftwaffe colours and their documentation would not have been possible without the dedication of Peter Kiroff and Günter Blickle of Farben - Kiroff - Technik. Jürgen Kiroff has been in charge of the RAL archive for years, and it is a matter close to his heart to express his gratitude to the RAL gemeinnützige GmbH, and especially to Ms. Meißenburg, who is always there to help. A special thank you goes to professor Dr. ing. habil Klára Wenzel, and her colleagues Dr. Krisztián Samu PhD and Ágnes Urbin of the Department of Mechatronics, Optics & Mechanical Engineering Informatics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Their essential help in the field research and the documentation of historic colour samples is very much appreciated. Mikhail V. Orlov wants to express his gratitude to everyone who helped him in collecting material and information about the painting of Soviet aircraft, and particularly M. Maslov, N. Yakubovich, and employees of the information department of the Yakovlev Design Bureau: Y. V. Zasypkin and S. D. Kuznetsov. Illustrating the chapter with numerous rare photographs wouldn’t be possible without the help of the late V. Vakhlamov.

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Maciej Góralczyk • Gerald T. Högl • Jürgen Kiroff

German Aircraft Colours In The Second World War

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1.1.1 Single colour finishes

1.1 The pre-war and early war period

The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) was officially founded on March 1, 1935, and became a subject of rapid growth from a total of 16 Staffeln (squadrons) at the time of its foundation to 48 Staffeln on August 1, 1935. During the same period, aviation materials, including paints, thinners and protective coatings, are known to have been integrated into the military procurement system and given four-digit codes. When necessary, these were supplemented by two-digit suffixes which meant that a specific colour must be used, in accordance with the colour coding system of the Reich Air Ministry [Reichsluftfahrtministerium – abbr. as ‘RLM’].

RLM 01 silber

RLM-grau (RLM 02)

RLM 63 hellgrau

The expanding German military aircraft fleet initially wore overall silver and grey finishes. Whilst the former can be attributed to the RLM 01 silber (silver) colour standard, the greys ranged from the colour standardised no later than 1935, as RLM-grau (RLM-grey) and, subsequently, RLM 02, to RLM 63 hellgrau (light grey), which had been introduced with the first known RLM colour card that was issued in early 1936. In terms of the visual comparison of colour standards, RLM 63 differed little from RLM 02, but the difference in pigmentation may have caused increasing difference in the visual appearance of the finishing paint layer, especially if it had been applied over an aluminium intermediate layer. Different formulation that allowed for saving raw materials, was the reason for using the 63 for external finishes.

A line-up of He 51 A-1s from 1./Kü.Jasta 136, photographed before take off from KielHoltenau airfield in early 1936. All aircraft were painted in RLM-grey overall (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Silver liveries were common for training aircraft as they provided better visibility in the air, which was an important factor considering their role and usage. Many silver trainers were still in use in early 1940s, being gradually replaced by more modern training aircraft types finished in grey overall, and from around 1943, in camouflage schemes, or obsolete combat aircraft relegated to flight schools and training units.

He 59 B, coded 60+E13 of 3./Kü.Fl.Gr. 106, Borkum, Germany, 1937. RLMgrey overall finish with silver floats

This picture was apparently taken during a presentation of various aircraft in the second half of 1935, or in 1936. Lined-up are (from the left): H.E. 9d, He 42, He 60 with rarely seen 01+Y50 or 01+X50 marking, which is believed to indicate direct attachment to the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (Luftwaffe High Command), W 34 (See), He 59 and Ju 52/3m. The first two aircraft were painted silver overall, with silver grey floats, whilst the remaining seaplanes carried grey overall finish with silver floats (Maciej Góralczyk coll.)

Pictured at Jüterbog-Damm, as indicated by the distinctive hangar visible in the background, these He 51s coded 21+_21 (where _ indicates position of the individual aircraft’s letter) belonged to 4./JG 132. As this unit’s red identification colour was only applied to the engine cowling and spinner, the photo must have been taken between August 1935, when five-character codes had been introduced, and July 1936, when application of unit colours was extended to the upper fuselage decking of the aircraft. The aircraft were finished in RLMgrey overall. Note the animal names painted in white on the engine cowlings (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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This Ar 68 F coded White 6, wore the circle markings of a 3. Staffel of a Jagdgeschwader (Fighter wing), which were used from July 1936 to December 1937. Judging by the appearance of the markings (especially the fairly round ‘6’ digit), this aircraft most likely belonged to 3./JG 232 (renamed 3.(l)/JG 137 on April, 20, 1937), which employed these fighters since January 1937. Furthermore, the place appears to be Bernburg airfield, which was the home of the unit from April 1935 until August 1939. The aircraft was finished in RLMgrey overall, with the engine cowling and upper fuselage decking painted in the unit’s identification colour of green (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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These Fw 44 and Bf 108 B-1 trainers were photographed at Kastrup airport and probably belonged to FFS A/B 10. Both aircraft wore their factory finish, which in the case of the Fw 44 was silver overall. Note the swastika fully positioned on the fin as introduced in 1940 (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

The reason for emergency landing of this Ar 96 B-3 WNr. 4358, DQ+YF, coded White 2, from 1./JFS 2, was not a mistake of a young pilot, but the broken piston rod. The accident happened on May 26, 1942, neat Reetz. Built in late 1941 at the Czech Avia factory, the aircraft received an overall grey finish (probably in RLM 02, as RLM 63 was by then declared obsolete), which was standard for trainers during this period. Things would change in 1943 due to the increasing presence of Allied aircraft in the skies over Germany and occupied countries (Craig Busby coll.)

1.1.2 The first camouflage system 1936 saw the introduction of the first standard camouflage scheme, which was intended for the land-based bomber (including the dive bomber class) and reconnaissance aircraft. The aircraft’s upper surface pattern was to comprise straight-edged patches of three colours: RLM 61 dunkelbraun (dark brown), RLM 62 grün (green) and RLM 63 hellgrau (light grey); whilst the undersides were to be uniformly finished in RLM 65 hellblau (light blue).

RLM 61 dunkelbraun

Hs 123 A-1 WNr. 968, coded 52+A13, from 3./St.G. 165, Kitzingen, Germany, 1937. RLM 61/62/63 upper surfaces with RLM 65 undersides

RLM 62 grün

RLM 63 hellgrau

RLM 65 hellblau (1938)

All these colours were introduced with the first known RLM colour card, issued in early 1936, and they are recorded to have been first applied to Ju 86 A-0 bombers that had been built since February 1936. This camouflage scheme would be officially valid until mid-1937 for dive bombers, and definitively abandoned from use for other aircraft in September 1938, although the situation with reconnaissance aircraft is not fully clear, as many Do 17 Ps, whose deliveries to the units started in late 1938, are documented to carry the four colour finish, whilst the majority of Hs 126 A-1s that had been manufactured from the spring of 1938 and delivered to the units since June 1938, were painted in the new RLM 70/71/65 camouflage. Quite a number of frontline aircraft retained the RLM 61/62/63/65 scheme well into the Polish and French campaigns, with the most notable examples being the Hs 123 dive-bombers and aforementioned Do 17 P reconnaissance aircraft. Worth noting is that available photographic reference indicates that at factory level, the colour patches of this camouflage scheme were typically painted with hard edges. This resulted from the usage of nitrocellulose lacquer paints in this period, which were not suitable for mist spraying.

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Ju 87 A bombers from 1./St.G. 165 are ready for take off. The caption on the rear side of the photo indicates that the aircraft coded 52+A11 was the mount of the unit leader, Hptm. Ott (likely Ernst Ott, who was appointed Kommandeur of the newly formed II./St.G. 163 in November 1938). Both Stukas carried the same upper surface pattern consisting of RLM 61/62/63 hard-edged patches, but different colours were applied to the same areas on each machine (Bjarne V. Jensen coll. via Søren Flensted)

Pictured during the summer of 1938, this Ar 68 E, coded Yellow 4, from 9.(l)/JG 132, is a rare example of a fighter aircraft camouflaged in the RLM 61/62/63 splinter pattern, a few of which are documented to serve with III.(l)/JG 132 in the aforementioned period (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The red circle markings which covered the national insignia of this Do 17 E-1, coded 53+A13, from 3./KG 155, indicate that it took part in the 1938 summer manoeuvers. This aircraft was painted in accordance with diagram 2a, colour arrangement A, which is reproduced in subchapter 1.5 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Reproduced here is a part of the colour listing included in the 1944 edition of the ‘Taschenbuch für Lackierbetriebe’ (‘Pocketbook for Paint shops’). Note that although the upper surface colours for the camouflage scheme introduced in 1936, i.e. RLM 61, 62 and 63, were still correlated with the RAL system, as was the case with RLM 00, 01, 02 (here recorded as hellgrau 1 r, which was its designation within the RAL 840 R system), 04, 21-28 and 66, the RLM 65 along with the camouflage colours introduced afterwards, had no direct RAL equivalent

A complementary colour chart released as a supplement to the RAL 840 B 2 colour set. These colours were added at the request of the German Railways, Minister of Aviation and Commander-in-Chief of the German Air Force, Wehrmacht, and again German Railways, respectively. Colour designated as 35 m (RAL 4000 in RAL 840 R) was used for painting the high-speed diesel train cars and the wagons of the ‘Rheingold’ luxury train. Colour 1 r (RAL 7003 in RAL 840 R) corresponds to RLM 02 grau. Colours 45 and 46 (RAL 7017 and 7021 in RAL 840 R) were introduced by Wehrmacht as new camouflage colors in July 1937. Colour 47 (RAL 3004 in RAL 840 R) was used for painting the Berlin S-Bahn wagons real colors of wwii aircraft /

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This Do 17 P, coded 4U+EH, from 1.(F)/123, was finished to diagram 2a, colour arrangement B, of the factory camouflage specification for the Do 17 E and F. Interestingly, specifications for the Do 17 P and M variants available to this author, show RLM 70/71/65 scheme, but photos of other Do 17 Ps taken before and during the early war period usually show the RLM 61/62/63/65 finish. This particular aircraft was pictured after coming back from a reconnaissance mission on April 21, 1940, during which it had been attacked by French fighters (Harald Rabeder coll.)

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1.1.3 Green camouflage schemes With the introduction of the Bf 109 B to Luftwaffe, and particularly, to II.(s)/ JG 132, in February 1937, a new camouflage scheme appeared on the German military aircraft. This consisted of an upper surface splinter pattern of two dark green colours, namely RLM 70 schwarzgrün (black green) and RLM 71 dunkelgrün (dark green). The undersides retained the RLM 65 hellblau (light blue) finish known from the existing camouflage scheme. Although the camouflage patches may appear to be hard-edged when viewed from a distance, close-up photos reveal that these were usually applied in accordance with the specification which can be found in the Handbook for the Bf 109 C and D: “the execution of the camouflage painting was not to be done with hard edges between colours, but blended into each other with a 50 mm overspray”.

RLM 70 schwarzgrün

The original colour card included in the 1938 edition of L. Dv. 521/1. Colours 21 to 28 were the marking colours (Jens Mühlig, www.historycolors.de)

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RLM 71 dunkelgrün

The new finish was chosen as a standard for the newly manufactured fighter aircraft (Bf 109 B, C, D, E, and He 112 B, as well as the He 51 C-1) until late 1939. The Bf 110 heavy fighters, or Zerstörers (destroyers), were factory-finished to this scheme at least until the late spring of 1940, and many aircraft of this type still wore it well into the Battle of Britain. During the 1937 and 1938, the RLM 70/71/65 scheme gradually became the factory finish for all land-based bombers, reconnaissance (except for high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft painted in grey overall, and recon variants of fighter aircraft that were factory-finished colours specified for fighters) and ground attack aircraft (except for fighter-bombers, which were painted in colours specified for fighter aircraft), and remained the standard for these classes of aircraft until the summer of 1944.

Bf 109 Bs, from 6.(s)/JG 132, finished to the RLM 70/71/65 scheme. These aircraft were photographed in Budaörs, Hungary, at the opening ceremony of the local airport, on June 20, 1937. II.(s)/JG 132 was the first Gruppe with the Luftwaffe to be equipped with the Bf 109 B aircraft in February 1937 (Hungarian National Museum)

Another Jumo-engined Bf 109 (probably a D, from 5.(l)/JG 334) getting ready for take off. Note the demarcation of camouflage patches (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Bf 110 C-1, coded 2N+CH, from 1./ZG 1, Neuhausen ob Eck, winter 1939-1940. Standard factory pattern of RLM 70 and 71 over RLM 65 undersides real colors of wwii aircraft /

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He 111 H-6 production line at Ernst-Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke in Rostock-Marienehe. The aircraft with factory code DJ+LN visible in the background was most likely WNr. 4446. The camouflage pattern generally fit the diagram with the specified scheme which is reproduced in sub-chapter 1.5 (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

A Ju 88 A or D in flight. The RLM 70/71 pattern on the upper surfaces quite nicely resembles the camouflage diagram reproduced in subchapter 1.5 (Erik Mombeeck coll.) 18

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This Ju 87 B-1, coded S2+AP, was flown by Staffelkapitän of 6./St.G. 77, Hptm. Herbert Pabst, during the summer of 1941. St.G. 77 continued using the old B-1s well into 1942. Note the name ‘Anton der Zweite’ on the engine cowling, which may referred to this machine being the second aircraft coded A, flown by this pilot. The RLM 70/71 pattern adheres quite well to the camouflage diagram reprinted in sub-chapter 1.5, with the exception of a surplus RLM 71 patch on the fuselage side, under the rear cockpit (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

A series of photos depicting aircraft of Blindflugschule 4 at CopenhagenKastrup airfield. He 111 G-3, coded CE+NX, was stolen by Danish mechanic on July 6, 1944, and flown to Helsingborg where it crashed upon landing, but the pilot survived (Josef Rotty via Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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This Ju 88 sported the Blindflugschule 4 emblem on the forward fuselage. Note the shade of RLM 65, which apparently represents the ‘1941’ standard (Josef Rotty via Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

A rare picture of a Fw 58 in flight. We can see a large part of the RLM 70/71 upper surface pattern, which is similar to the schemes specified for other aircraft. The aircraft belonged to LNS (See) 6, based at Dievenow (now Dziwnów in Poland). This unit trained Bordfunker (radio operators) for maritime aircraft (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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This Si 204 D from a Blindflugschule (indicated by the two yellow fuselage bands) was photographed in Germany after the end of war. It carried a standard RLM 70/71/65 pattern (James V. Crow coll.)

RLM 72 grün

Fw 200 C-2 WNr. 0023, coded F8+EH, from 1./KG 40, Bordeaux-Merignac, end of July 1941. Standard factory pattern of RLM 72 and 73 over RLM 65. The factory code of this aircraft was apparently BS+AV, as evidenced by visible traces of hastily removed letters (Photo: Chris Goss coll.)

RLM 73 grün

The L. Dv. 521/1 colour card issued in 1938 introduced yet another set of two dark green colours, i.e. RLM 72 grün (green) and RLM 73 grün (green), which were intended for maritime aircraft. Again, the underside colour was to be RLM 65. The style of camouflage patterns was very similar to those designed for the RLM 71/70/65 scheme. The RLM 72/73/65 scheme remained the standard factory finish for seaplanes, as well as some of the land-based maritime aircraft, the notable examples being the Fw 200, Do 217 E-1 and E-3, Do 217 E-2, E-4, K & M (these variants, however, were to carry a night camouflage scheme with the lower surfaces painted in RLM 22 schwarz instead of RLM 65).

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Two photos of He 59, coded NV+AV, which belonged to Seenotstaffel 8 that had been formed in Mamaia, Romania, in April 1941. The first photo shows it with yellow Balkan campaign theatre markings on the rudder and front part of the engine cowling, whilst the other must have been taken some time later, when the unit participated in the war against USSR, as indicated by the yellow fuselage band (Maciej Góralczyk coll./James V. Crow coll.)

A He 115 C from 3./Kü.Fl.Gr. 506, being loaded with a torpedo. The camouflage pattern is clearly visible. Note that RLM 65 was also applied to the lower surfaces of the floats (Maciej Góralczyk coll.) 22

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Do 217 E-4 WNr. 4272, coded U5+KT, from 9./KG 2, wore a camouflage scheme intended for night operations, with the undersides painted in RLM 22. The upper surfaces were finished in RLM 72 and 73 (Chris Goss coll.)

Although the BV 138s captured on these photos after the end of war, were in a rather poor condition, they still give a good idea of the colours used (Lars Berth via Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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1.1.4 Legion Condor curiousities On the following pages we will briefly discuss some notable exceptions from the standard finishes, which concerned the German aircraft that served with the Legion Condor during the Spanish Civil War. It must be emphasized that the large number of aircraft delivered to Spain retained the then-standard finishes for their classes within the Luftwaffe.

The initial finish of the first serial-produced Bf 109s that reached Spain, i.e. the 14 Bf 109 As coded 6-3 through 6-16, is still a matter of numerous discussions between the researchers. This author tends to agree with Lynn Ritger, who proposed a silver (with some parts left in bare metal, as can be seen on photos of 6-7) overall colouring. David Johnston cites a S/88 document from January 1938, which mentions a silberweiss (silver-white) camouflage colour, and Lt. Josef Fözö’s description of his Bf 109 A coded 6-16’s finish being silver-grey. What is certain is that some kind of coating had been applied, as some photos reveal damages to the paint layer, down to bare metal. Worth noting is the very smooth finish of ‘Antons’: the panel lines were apparently taped over (AF Editores archive)

Whilst most of the first Bf 109 Bs delivered to Spain (from 6-17 to 6-43) initially flew in the factory scheme of RLM 70/71/65, with a few aircraft, such as 6-29, 6-32, 6-35 and 6-39, being repainted in silberweiss possibly for the purpose of further comparison of both finishes, Legion Condor eventually adopted a simple scheme of RLM 63 over RLM 65 for their Bf 109s, which became a standard for the remainder of the Spanish Civil War, and was also subsequently applied to the surviving older Messerschmitts. Reproduced here is the only known colour photo showing Bf 109s of the Legion Condor, which was taken in 1939, given the presence of a Bf 109 E coded 6-12x (Akira Takaguchi coll.)

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Bf 109 Bs, coded 6-51 and 6-54, are also known to initially fly in the green factory finish. Furthermore, 6-51 was one of the few Bf 109 Bs of the Legion Condor (along with 6-38, 6-42 and 6-55, all belonging to 1.J/88, 6-44 during its service with this Staffel, and 6-50), which at some point carried a tri-colour camouflage pattern applied to the wings. A photo of 6-42 parked near a Do 17 E offers a good comparison of the colours carried by both aircraft, allowing to assess that this pattern consisted of RLM 61, 62 and 63 patches (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

He 45s were delivered to Spain in an overall grey finish, which wasn’t really suitable for their role. Various camouflage schemes were therefore applied, probably using lacquers for repairs in colours 61 and 62. These ranged from quite small, rounded blotches, through patterns of edgy patches (sometimes even showing a loose resemblance to the lozenge camouflage), to considerably wide bands and large patches of colour, as seen on this example (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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…to more conventional bands and patches (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The camouflage schemes seen on the He 51s ranged from a randomly sprayed mottle in different colours (again, most likely applied using lacquers for repairs in colours 61 and 62)…(Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Some He 51s appear to be delivered in the RLM 70/71/65 scheme (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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In the case of I./JG 53, the available photo reference shows that the autumn 1939 experiments concerned mainly, if not only, the aircraft of Gruppe’s Stabskette. Pictured here is one of them, whose upper surfaces were sprayed with quite large patches of RLM 02, 71 and 70, with angled vertical edges. Note that the fuselage spine was painted in green colours only. A quite similar pattern was also tested by II./JG 53, but both Gruppen abandoned this rather complicated finish in favor of different schemes which would be introduced in early 1940. Posing on the photo is Hptm. Erich Mix, a veteran of WW1 and Mayor of Wiesbaden, which may indicate that the photo was taken before September 26, 1939, when I./JG 53 left Wiesbaden-Erbenheim for Kirchberg / Hunsrück (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

III./JG 53 also tested an upper surface pattern of RLM 70, 71 and 02, although in their case, the patches of the particular colours covered considerably larger areas, making the entire scheme easier to apply. The Bf 109 E whose tail is visible in the foreground, most likely belonged to Lt. Jakob Stoll of 9./JG 53, who scored his 1st victory on November 6, 1939, and added another one to his tally on the next day. Other aircraft of the Gruppe are partially visible in the background, showing the distinctive large patches of RLM 02 applied over engine cowling and the area extending from behind the cockpit to the frame no. 6 or 7. It appears that III./JG 53 repainted the biggest number of aircraft amongst all units involved in camouflage testing, or at least, their ‘Emils’ were most extensively photographed (Chris Goss coll.) 28

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1.1.5 Evolution of the fighter camouflage After the end of the Polish campaign, a series of camouflage experiments have been conducted by the selected day fighter units, whose common feature was location in the Western Germany, and particularly at Wiesbaden, Kirchberg, Mannheim and Böblingen. This resulted in creation of a number of different schemes, and allowed to perform some combat tests during the clashes with Armée de l’air over the French-German border. Some of these camouflage finishes would remain common for the particular units for the next couple of months, whilst the others quickly disappeared, or evolved into different schemes.

The painters from I./JG 54 took a completely different approach, over-spraying their Bf 109 Es in RLM 02, in various ways. The results ranged from quite dense, but not uniform application of the grey colour over the factory green pattern, as visible on example of Bf 109 E-3 WNr. 1227, coded Yellow 1, flown by Staffelkapitän of 3./JG 54, Oblt. Hans Schmoller-Haldy (note the carefully masked-off maintenance markings)… (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

…through dense grey over-spray applied in such a way that the unpainted green surfaces formed meandering streaks, which were subsequently strengthened by random application of a green colour, as can be seen on examples of Bf 109 Es coded White 8 from 1. Staffel and Gruppenkomanndeur’s ‘chevron triangle’ (worth noting is that low-vis character of the marking of the latter machine; white outline markings were also used by 2./JG 54 from the autumn of 1939 until at least late 1940, or possibly until the unit’s reequipment with the Bf 109 F-2 in May 1941) … (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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…to large, quite uniform application of RLM 02 over the fuselage sides, some portions of the fuselage spine, and large areas of the wing upper surfaces, with the remaining surfaces painted in RLM 71. Note the wavy scalloped demarcation between the colours. The camouflage finishes implemented by I./JG 54 during the autumn of 1939 would remain well into the Battle of Britain, and their demise was mainly connected with the deliveries of replacement aircraft finished to the new factory scheme that had been introduced in late spring of 1940, although photo reference reveals that I./JG 54 painters chose to further town down their sides, as can be seen on p.43 (Erik Mombeeck coll. / Craig Busby coll.)

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A different scheme was tested by II./JG 52, or more specifically, their 5. Staffel. This consisted of substantially large rounded patches of RLM 02, 70 and 71, applied over the upper surfaces of the fuselage and wings. The demarcation between this camouflage and RLM 65 undersides was extremely low (Chris Goss coll. / Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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It appears that the exact pattern was different on each of the 5./JG 52 aircraft camouflaged this way. This scheme was rather short-lived, and apparently disappeared soon after December 1939, in favour of the new standard singleengine fighter finish (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The new standard camouflage scheme for the single-engine fighter aircraft was introduced in the December 1939-January 1940 period, both at the unit and factory level. It consisted of RLM 71 and 02 upper surfaces, and RLM 65 lower surfaces, with the latter colour covering most of the fuselage sides, including the entire rudder and tailfin. A few basic patterns can be determined when studying the photo reference. These differed from each other in the arrangement of colours on the wings and upper portion of 32

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the nose; the number of colour patches on the fuselage spine, behind the cockpit; the level of colour demarcation on the fuselage sides, and finally, the layout of the wing pattern. This so-called 40-er Anstrich (40’s painting) would be the standard finish of the majority of Bf 109s during the first half of 1940, and some units would still use a lot of Bf 109 Es painted this way well into 1941, the 3./JG 26, III./JG 26 and III./JG 54 being notable examples.

Bf 109 D, coded White N+5, flown by Lt. Joachim Böhner of 10.(N)/ZG 26, Hage, Germany, early January 1940. An earlier-built aircraft freshly repainted into the new scheme of RLM 71 and 02 over RLM 65. Note the fuselage spine surface divided into four colour patches

A typical example of a Bf 109 E repainted into 40-er Anstrich. Note the high demarcation of the colours on the fuselage. This machine belonged to 6./JG 77, and carried a single black victory bar on the rudder. II./JG 77 managed to shot down a number of RAF bombers during sorties flown over German Bight in late 1939 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

This Bf 109 E-1, coded Yellow 8, from 3./JG 51, was most likely built in 1940, as evidenced by the revised camouflage pattern applied to the wing upper surfaces (Paul Stipdonk coll.) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Photographed in Norway in June 1940, this Bf 109 E-1 belonged to II.(J)/Tr.Gr. 186. It was earlier flown by the CO of the 6. Staffel, Oblt. Kurt Ubben. Note the fairly low demarcation between the fuselage colours, non-standard finish of the port wing, the gun troughs painted with light grey heat-resistant paint, and traces of overpainted witch emblem under the cockpit (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Although JG 26 generally employed aircraft in standard finish well into the Battle of Britain, an interesting exception was the personal mount of the unit’s commander, Maj. Hans-Hugo Witt. The RLM 71 and 02 patches from the fuselage spine were extended downwards; on the nose, they covered the entire engine cowling. Furthemore, a band in RLM 02 was sprayed over the fuselage side, above the wing root. This, or identically painted aircraft, was used by Geschwaderadjutant Oblt. Hasselmann, coded A. Note that although the outer surfaces of the canopy frames appear to be painted in RLM 66, the interior framing and the cockpit itself are finished in RLM 02 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

After a short-lived use of the 40-er Anstrich (possibly only on the newly delivered aircraft), during the winter of 1939-1940 the I./JG 53’s painters designed a new camouflage pattern, which became a standard finish for the unit’s Bf 109 Es until autumn of 1940. In the most basic form of this scheme, the fuselage spine was uniformly painted in RLM 70, most of the fuselage side surfaces got a uniform RLM 02 finish, with the RLM 65 underside colour extending upwards on the rear fuselage, with more or less wavy demarcation lines between the colours. In many cases, additional patches or streaks of a dark colour, either RLM 70 or RLM 71, were sprayed over the RLM 02 areas to break up the monotone finish. The wing upper surfaces were painted in an RLM 02/70 pattern (Chris Goss coll. / Paul Stipdonk coll.)

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After the previous experimental pattern was withdrawn, the ‘Emils’ of III./JG 53 wore either a similar basic scheme to the one seen on the I. Gruppe’s aircraft, or a variation of it with the fuselage sides almost completely covered with RLM 02, often with only a small hint of RLM 65 at the rear fuselage. The main difference between the appearance of aircraft from both Gruppen was that the III/JG 53 painters applied small blotches or streaks of green colour over the fuselage sides. The III. Gruppe’s scheme survived at least until late autumn of 1940 (Chris Goss coll./Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Interesting variations of the 40-er Anstrich were applied to the Bf 109 Es of II./JG 51 during the winter of 1939-1940. White 8, a Bf 109 E-1 from 4./JG 51, was apparently repainted from the green scheme by over-spraying the sides in RLM 65, whilst the fuselage spine and wing upper surfaces apparently were first over-painted in RLM 02. This was followed by application of RLM 70 (or 71) patches over these areas. This also applied to the side surfaces of the upper part of the tail fin and rudder, where the swastika was re-applied in the new position – before 1940, it was superimposed over the fin and rudder (Paul Stipdonk coll.)

Another ‘Emil’ from 4./JG 51, White 9, appears to have the upper surface camouflage applied in reverse way. In this case, the RLM 70 was applied in the first instance, and followed by quite modest over-spray in RLM 02, which appears to be darker than on the previous photo due to being applied over a black green background (Paul Stipdonk coll.)

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Bf 109 E-3 WNr. 1160, coded White 2, was flown by Fw. Johann Illner of 4./JG 51 until July 1940, although the appearance of the aircraft would change in early spring of 1940, when the fuselage sides of II./JG 51 aircraft were toned down. These two photos allow us to see the rather unusual finish of the upper surfaces, with patches and streaks of RLM 02 applied over the green background. This was quite commonly seen on the Bf 109 Es from II./JG 51 during this period (Paul Stipdonk coll.)

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This photo of a Yellow 8 from 6./JG 51 shows how the finish of II./JG 51’s aircraft was toned down before the attack on the West. A dense pattern of dark streaks in RLM 71 or 70 was sprayed over the fuselage sides and probably also the wings (Paul Stipdonk coll.)

During the French Campaign, more units discovered the need for better concealment of their aircraft. One of the most famous finishes was adopted by the Stab, I. and III./JG 2: The fuselage sides of their Bf 109 Es were toned down with RLM 70 paint applied with brushes, used in a tapping motion (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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A very peculiar cross-hatch pattern was applied to a number of III./JG 52 aircraft around June 1940. This finish would remain in use at least until autumn of 1940 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Although its quality isn’t perfect, this photo of I.(J)/LG 2 aircraft taken in June 1940 is significant, as the Gruppenkommandeur’s machine visible in the background may have been one of the first Bf 109 Es with factory-applied mottling. Hptm. Trübenbach lost his previous aicraft on May 31, 1940. Even though the latter wasn’t heavily damaged during the belly-landing, it took some time to recover it from the place of accident (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The need for toning down the fuselage sides of the Bf 109 must have been recognized by RLM before the French Campaign, and the revision appears to be applied at the production level around May 1940. The RLM 71/02/65 scheme with mottled fuselage sides would remain in use at least until late spring of 1941, although the replacement finish consisting of the new colours RLM 74, 75 and 76, will be officially announced in the next edition of L.Dv. 521/1, issued on November 8, 1941. The factory camouflage of the Bf 110 was also changed around May-June 1940. The newly manufactured aircraft were to be painted in a similar way as the Bf 109s, in a high demarcation RLM 71/02/65 scheme, with mottled fuselage sides. The camouflage pattern was also simplified, as it previously happened with the Bf 109.

Bf 109 E-4 WNr. 5323, coded Yellow 5, from 9./JG 27, is a nice example of the revised RLM 71/02/65 finish. The traces of the removed factory code PG+BQ are still visible (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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As mentioned earlier, the fuselage sides of the new Bf 109 Es from I./JG 54 were often further toned down with a green colour, as seen on the example of Yellow 3 from 3./JG 54, which was photographed in the Netherlands during the spring of 1941 (Craig Busby coll.)

Bf 109 F-2 WNr. 12764, black double chevron, flown by Hptm. Rolf Pingel, Kommandeur of I./JG 26, July 1941, England. This aircraft was built in early 1941, and according to the British report, was painted in “dark olive green on the upper surface with pale blue underneath”. The camouflage scheme was obviously RLM 71/02/65 (Photo: via Erik Mombeeck)

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Built in June 1940, Bf 110 C-5 WNr. 2177, coded 5F+CM, from 4.(F)14, was forcelanded near Goodwood Home Farm, Chichester, Sussex, on July 21, 1940. This aircraft belonged to the first Bf 110s finished in the revised camouflage scheme (Chris Goss coll.)

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1.2 New needs, new colours

RLM 74

RLM 75

The original colour card included in the 1941 edition of L.Dv. 521/1. Curiously, the card is entitled ‘1938 edition’, even though it was actually issued in 1941 (Jens Mühlig, www.historycolors.de)

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1.2.1 New fighter colours Although the new colours have already been used for a few months, they were officially introduced with the issue of the 1941 edition of L.Dv. 521/1 on November 8, 1941. This document brought a partial revision of the previous colour assignment for the fighter and heavy fighter (Zerstörer) aircraft, which, according to paragraph ‘Anwendung der Lacke und Lackketten’ (Application of Lacquers and Lacquer Sequence), were to be painted in colours 74, 75, 76 and 65. It is unknown why the colour 65 was referred in this regard, as it is not further mentioned in this role in any other related documents. What’s more, even the introduction to the aforementioned document which lists the main changes, mentions only the colours 74, 75 and 76 as intended for fighters and heavy fighters. It is therefore possible that this single reference to colour 65 was a mistake. The RLM 74/75/76 combination became the standard colour set used for camouflaging Luftwaffe fighter and heavy fighter aircraft until summer of 1944.

RLM 76 v.1 (conforming to L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941)

RLM 76 v.2 (based on many original aircraft parts)

RLM 02 (conforming to L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941)

RLM 65 (conforming to L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941)

Interestingly, the samples of colours 02 and 65 included in colour card attached to L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941, differ from the previously issued variants. The 1941 version of RLM 02 is slightly greener and darker, whilst RLM 65 is more greenish and pale. This change in shade most likely took place before the issue of the 1941 version of L.Dv. 521/1, and may have been associated with the increasing role of both these colours in aircraft (especially fighters) camouflage since early 1940, and the introduction of a camouflage version of RLM 02.

A Bf 109 G-6 aileron painted in RLM 76 v.2 (Jürgen Kiroff )

Bf 109 F-2 WNr. 9553 was manufactured in June 1941 and apparently painted in the new RLM 74, 75 and 76 colours, with some addition of 02 for the mottling on the fuselage sides Note the shiny black finish of the wing root area. The aircraft was coded Yellow 9 and flown by Lt. Siegfried Schnell, Staffelkapitän of 9./JG 2 and one the leading aces of his Geschwader at the end of 1941 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Me 210 A-1 WNr. 2100110139, coded S9+BL, from 3./ZG 1, Lechfeld, January 1942. Standard factory finish of RLM 74 and 75 on the upper surfaces and RLM 76 on the lower surfaces, with the fuselage sides mottled in RLM 74, 75 and 02

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This Fw 190 A-2 WNr. 257 was built by Focke-Wulf Bremen plant during the winter of 1941-1942. Note the clean RLM 74/75/76 factory finish with no signs of mottling on the fuselage sides. The aircraft was initially used by II./JG 26. It first served with the 6. Staffel as Brown 12, and later became the mount of Gruppenkommandeur, Hptm. Joachim Münchenberg (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The Fw 190 A-3s built by Ago at Oschersleben in 1942, such as WNr. 2181, coded Black 13, from 8./JG 2, had not only the fuselage sides toned down with a mottled application of the upper surface camouflage colours (RLM 74 and 75), but carried simplified fuselage crosses consisting of white outlines only, which have been applied over a large patch of RLM 74 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The Fw 190 As built by Fieseler plant at Kassel (especially the later variants) can be distinguished by heavy mottling on the fuselage sides, which consisted of numerous small patches of RLM 74 and 75 upper surface colours that have been applied over an RLM 76 basecoat. WNr. 681385, coded White 16, was belly-landed by Ofhr. Franz Schaar from 5.(Sturm)/JG 4 on September 27, 1944 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The Bf 109 G-6s built by different manufacturers can be quite easily recognized by the specific interpretation of the camouflage patterns in each plant. On these two photos, which shows Gustavs from the 2. (black codes) and 3. Staffel (yellow codes) pictured at Sciacca in Italy in June 1943, we can the aircraft built by Messerschmitt Regensburg and Erla Leipzig. The former can be distinguished by the large RLM 74 area running from the ‘Beulen’ to behind the canopy, which also goes down under the canopy, and fuselage side mottle application in form of quite large patches/bands, often applied diagonally (see Black 4, 7 and Yellow 7). On the other hand, Erla-built machines are easily recognized by the fuselage sides toned down with quite large spots of RLM 02, 74 and 75 (see Black 1, Yellow 6 and 9). The photo of Black 1 also reveals how the Erla painters incorrectly interpreted the drawing from the OS-liste, which showed a zig-zag demarcation of colours on the wing with the purpose of defining it as irregular and soft-edged. At the Erla plant, it was taken literally, which resulted in the wing and horizontal tail upper surfaces finished to a saw-tooth pattern (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The WNF plant camouflage style can be seen on the example of Bf 109 G-6 WNr. 140265, coded Yellow 6, which served with I./JG 101. In this case, the fuselage sides were covered with a dense soft mottle (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

This unmarked Bf 109 G-6 was captured at Reims in September 1944. In this case, the camouflage spots appear to be applied in RLM 74, 75, and possibly 71 or 70 (James V. Crow coll.)

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The first Me 262s were finished to the RLM 74/75/76 scheme. However, this aircraft, WNr. 110956, coded White 17, which was relegated to training duties at III./EJG 2, as emphasized by the letter S (for Schulmaschine – training aircraft) applied to the fuselage and tail fin, was built in 1945, some time after its manufacturer have released aircraft finished to the regular RLM 81/82/76 scheme. It is therefore surprising that this machine was painted in the earlier colours (James V. Crow coll.)

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This diagram included in L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941, identified the surfaces which should be painted with the permanent black lacquer 7124.22

1.2.2 Night fighters and bombers At the beginning of war, the night fighter duties were fullfilled by just a few Staffeln which were equipped with obsolete single-engine fighter aircraft, i.e. Ar 68 F and Bf 109 C/D. These machines were generally used in the then standard camouflage schemes, as this allowed to also use them in the day fighter role if necessary. The first night fighting units that operated twin-engine aircraft, were formed in June 1940, when the danger of RAF night bombing raids on the Reich became imminent. The first true Nachtjagd units adopted an overall black finish in RLM 22 schwarz, which would remain in wide use until 1942, when it was replaced with the new fighter colours 74, 75 and 76, the later being sometimes substituted by RLM 02, as indicated by the camouflage diagram for the Do 217 N-1 (see sub-chapter 1.5). In early 1944, the factory-applied camouflage finish for the night fighter aircraft was simplified to RLM 75 over RLM 76, with the monotony of the single-coloured upper surfaces often broken by the application of streaks or mottles in RLM 76. 1944 saw also the re-introduction of RLM 22 schwarz, which was usually applied to the lower surfaces of the starboard wing in order to create a kind of identification marking for the Flak crews. However, a number of He 219s was factory-finished with black lower surfaces, vertical stabilizers and fuselage sides (up to the wing chord or slightly higher). During the last months of war, many night fighters received ground-concealment camouflage patterns usually consisting of densely applied streaks and squiggles in dark colours. The Luftwaffe bomber units assigned to night operations, were ordered to apply a temporary black camouflage over the lower surfaces, and fuselage and tailplane sides of their aircraft on July 16, 1940. This included blacking out the markings. The 1941 edition of L.Dv. 521/1 introduced a permanent black camouflage, which was to be applied to those areas, where the paint layer was most prone to damage due to weathering, using lacquer 7124.22. The remaining surfaces were still to be painted with the removable lacquer 7120.22. This permanent night camouflage was replaced by another permanent camouflage that was to be applied with lacquer 7126.22, which was described in the “Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2” (Collected Instructions no.2) issued on August 15, 1944. The L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941 also introduced a new colour for markings applied over night camouflage, i.e. RLM 77. A removable lacquer 7120.77 was specified for this purpose. No documentary evidence for existence of other lacquers in this colour is known to these authors. A colour sample of RLM 77 was not included in the colour card issued with the L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941, neither a recipe for a lacquer in this colour was found amongst those discovered by Jens Mühlig, which is discussed in sub-chapter 1.3.

Ar 68 Fs from 10.(N)/JG 2 carried the then standard camouflage scheme of RLM 70/71/65 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The 11. and 12.(N)/JG 2 took part in the invasion of Norway in April-June 1940. As seen on example of two Bf 109 D-1s of the 11. Staffel, the aircraft of the unit were painted in the so-called 40-er Anstrich (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

He 111 P, coded J, probably belonging to KG 55, autumn 1940. The aircraft was painted in the temporary black camouflage that had been applied over the worn standard bomber scheme (Photo: Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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I./LG 1 operated in the MTO during the second half of 1941. Pictured here is a Ju 88 A, coded L1+HK, from 2. Staffel, in night camouflage. Note the blacked national insignia and fuselage band (Erik Mombeeck coll.) Bf 110 C-4, coded L1+DH, from 1./NJG 3, North Africa, 1941. An early night fighter in overall RLM 22 black finish, with a replacement tail unit and white theatre band applied only over the fuselage spine

Another black Bf 110 operated by 1./NJG 3 in the Mediterranean area. L1+BH was a Bf 110 E (James V. Crow coll.)

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An early Bf 110 G-4 camouflaged in RLM 74/75/76 scheme. This aircraft, coded D5+LT, was used by 9./NJG 3 in 1943 (Craig Busby coll.)

This Do 217 N prototype was finished in accordance with the camouflage pattern specified for the type (see subchapter 1.5). The colours were RLM 74, 75 and 76 (Chris Goss coll.)

In late July 1943, 2./JG 2 was assigned to night fighting duties. The aircraft of the Staffel, such as Fw 190 A-6 WNr. 550208, coded Black 2, were painted in RLM 76 overall. This machine was lost on September 6, 1943, when Obfw. Josef Bigge hit a car during landing (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The final night fighter scheme consisted of uniform application of RLM 75 over the upper surfaces, with the lower surfaces and sides painted in RLM 76. Bf 110 G-4 WNr. 180373, built between March and April 1944, still has some mottling sprayed over the vertical stabilizer and rudder, but in the case of WNr. 160790, produced one year later, these surfaces had a pristine RLM 76 finish (James V. Crow coll. / NARA)

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The late standard camouflage of this Bf 110 G-4 WNr. 110509, built in December 1944, was modified by spraying quite large irregular blotches of RLM 76. The G9+VS code points to 8./NJG 1 (James V. Crow coll.)

Bf 110 G-4 WNr. 160616, coded G9+AT, from 9./NJG 1, belonged to a batch manufactured between December 1944 and January 1945. In this case, dense over-spray in RLM 75 and 76 was applied to the upper and side surfaces (James V. Crow coll.)

He 219 A-2 WNr. 290004, coded G9+DH, from 1./NJG 1, Paderborn, Germany, spring 1944. Standard late war RLM 75/76 finish, with the upper surfaces sprayed with streaks of RLM 76

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A Ju 88 G-6 tail with black paint applied to the leading and trailing edges in order to disguise the contours, so it would resemble a bomber or C/R variant tail (James V. Crow coll.)

Ju 88 G-1 WNr. 712344, coded D9+PH, from 1./NJG 7, and a Bf 109 G-14, coded White 11, photographed after the liberation of Denmark. The RLM 75 areas were over-sprayed in RLM 76 at different intensity (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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In the closing months of war, the night fighter aircraft were often camouflaged with dense patterns of dark meandering streaks, as seen on example of this Bf 110 G-4 abandoned at Neubiberg, and Ju 88 G-6 WNr. 621082, coded 9W+EL, from 3./NJG 101 (James V. Crow coll.)

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1.2.3 Tropical colours When the first Luftwaffe units were deployed in North Africa between late January and March 1941, no suitable colours were available for camouflaging them. The first known reference to the newly designed tropical colours may be found in an RLM instruction sent to the Luftwaffe depot at Erding, in Southern Germany, on April 18, 1941. The document mentioned three new colours: RLM 78 blau (blue), RLM 79 sandgelb (sand yellow), and RLM 80 grün (green), and that lacquers in the first two colours will soon be delivered.

RLM 78 (1941)

RLM 79 (1941)

RLM 80

The colour chips for the new colours were issued in loose form only, and only RLM 78 and 79 were subsequently added as attachments to the 1941 edition of L.Dv. 521/1, which leads to two significant conclusions. First, this means that final decision about revision of the initial RLM 78 and 79 was made after the issue of L.Dv. 521/1 in November 1941. The RLM 78 shade was changed to a brighter blue, whilst RLM 79 was modified in the opposite way. RLM 80 remained unchanged, but its samples were not attached to L.Dv. 521/1 most likely because this colour was used only at depot and unit level, so the factories didn’t not need its samples.

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RLM 78 (1942)

RLM 79 (1942)

After the retreat from North Africa, the tropical colours were still used to some extent for painting aircraft operating over Italy and other Mediterranean countries until the end of war. It must also be noted that a number of fighter aircraft finished in desert colours were also sent to the Eastern Front, being operated in unchanged form by I.(J)/LG 2 (Bf 109 Es from the summer until at least the end of 1941), and, upon modification, by I. and III./JG 3 (Bf 109 F-4, spring - summer of 1942), II./JG 5 (Bf 109 F-4 and G-2, late spring of 1942 - spring of 1943), and possibly also II./JG 77 (Bf 109 F-4, spring 1942).

The first ‘Emils’ in tropical colours operated over North Africa by I./JG 27, were repainted at Sicily. This explains the rich use of RLM 80, as seen on example of this Bf 109 E-7 trop, coded Black 8, flown by Fw. Franz Elles of 2./JG 27 (PK-photo)

Bf 109 F-4 trop WNr. 10137 was flown by the top German ace in North Africa, Oblt. Hans-Joachim Marseille from 3./JG 27. This aircraft was delivered to the Luftwaffe in February 1942, and appears to carry the earlier variants of RLM 78 and 79 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

This Fi 156 C-3 trop still wore its factory code PP+QL during the service in North Africa. It was most likely finished in the ‘1941’ variants of the tropical colours (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The upper surface pattern of this Fw 190 A-4, coded White 14, of 4./JG 2, which was photographed at Bizerta in December 1942, does not conform to any typical Fw 190 scheme. The patterns applied to the wings and horizontal tail more or less mirror each other. It is possible that this aircraft was one of the few Fw 190 A that served in North Africa in tropical camouflage. Note how the brighter colour (RLM 79?) was sprayed in form of small blotches over the darker areas (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Bf 109 G-2 trop, coded Black 2, from 2./JG 77, Tunisia, early 1943. RLM 80 meandering lines applied over a mid-demarcation RLM 78/79 scheme (Photo: Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Another G-2 trop from JG 77 photographed in Tunisia in early 1943. In this case, the green pattern, which use was suitable for the local conditions, was composed of numerous patches of RLM 80 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Hs 129 B-2, coded White Chevron Blue O, from 4.(Pz.)/Sch.G 2, Castel Benito, Libya, February 1943. All Hs 129s delivered to North Africa received different RLM 79 patterns that had been applied over the RLM 70/71/65 factory scheme. This ranged from more solid applications like shown on this example, which at first sight may make an impression of aircraft painted overall sand and subsequently camouflaged in green, to numerous meandering lines, the so-called ‘Arabesken’

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A wrecked Fw 58, coded CB+XI, was found by Allied trops at Castel Benito in Libya. Its green factory finish was modified by the addition of ‘Arabesken’ in RLM 79 (NARA)

Aircraft in desert colours served also on different fronts. In May 1942, III./JG 3 picked up 32 new Bf 109 F-4s from Wiesbaden-Erbenheim. All these aircraft were factory-finished in the tropical scheme, which was modified by application of large segments of green and grey colours, presumably RLM 70 and 75, to better fit the conditions in the southern sector of the Eastern Front, where the unit was subsequently deployed (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

A similar finish was also applied to the Bf 109 F-4s, which in April and May 1942 were received by II./JG 5, which fought in the northern sector, operating from airfields in Finland (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Ju 87 R-2 WNr. 6004, coded KC+YV, from IV. (Stuka)/LG 1 later I./St.G. 5, Finland, late 1941. Crudely applied winter camouflage with the fuselage spine left in factory-applied colours for some reason

1.2.4 Winter camouflage This kind of camouflage first appeared on the Luftwaffe aircraft used on the Eastern Front during the winter of 1941-1942. Known documents issued in 1943 and 1944 mention the use of a permanent white lacquer 7126.21, which could be applied by a spray gun, a brush, or even a broom.

Two Ju 87 Ds covered with dense pattern of white squiggles. The aircraft seen in the foreground was operated by 3./St.G. 2, as indicated by the unit emblem (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

An improvised winter scheme applied to He 111 WNr. 4500, coded A1+HN, from 5./KG 53. The damaged machine was belly-landed by Lt. Erich Horn on January 21, 1942, near Yukhnov (Thomas Hesse coll.)

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During the spring of 1942, a number of III./JG 54 aircraft (apparently mostly the newly delivered Bf 109 F-4s) carried a rather unusual form of winter camouflage: the rear fuselage spines of the Messerschmitts were painted in white. Some of these aircraft also had white wing upper surfaces (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

A white squiggle pattern applied to the upper and side surfaces was the typical finish for III./JG 5’s aircraft during the winter of 1942/1943 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

Whilst the Fw 190 A-4s of I./JG 54 had their upper surfaces uniformly painted in white during in late 1942, in early 1943 many aircraft received a segmented pattern especially suitable for operations over wooded or forested areas with traces of snow (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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White 3, flown by Uffz. Karl-Heinz Cordes of 1./JG 54, is another example of the late winter/early spring camouflage used by this unit in 1943. As seen on the second photo, taken during the summer, the white areas would simply be over-painted with darker colours (although note that the white background of the swastika was retained!) (Erik Mombeeck coll.) This Fw 190 from a ground-attack unit carried a highly uncommon white splinter pattern that has been applied over the standard RLM 74/75/76 camouflage scheme (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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1.3 The Late War Colours

In preparation of his last major book on Luftwaffe camouflage and markings, Kenneth Merrick realised that additional progress in the research on this subject could only be made with a deep knowledge of paints and their technology. He therefore approached Jürgen Kiroff and asked him to join the research effort. After Kenneth’s death, research continued and one of the most important advances was the discovery of the original recipes for Luftwaffe camouflage colors, for one of the most important paint suppliers in Germany in World War II, by fellow researcher Jens Mühlig. The collection contains 35 recipes for different ‘Flieglacke’ (aircraft lacquers), thinners, primers, pigmented top coats etc. as well as the necessary ingredients with associated suppliers. The list of recipes covers the time period from around 1943, up to at least December 1944. In a lengthy development process by Farben-Kiroff-Technik, it was possible to re-create the majority of the original colours with original pigments. One of the most fascinating aspects of the recipes is that within the comparatively short period of time from 1943 to the end of 1944, one and the same top coat of an RLM color is included in different shades with different pigmentation, and indeed, with different colours. For instance, there are three different versions of RLM 81 in chronological order, with no indication that one of the recipes superseded another one. There is also no indication that a certain variant of one colour had to be used with a certain variant of another colour.

The early Bf 109 K-4 manufactured by Mtt. Regensburg in the 330xxx batch during the autumn of 1944 (as with this White 2 of 9./JG 77 which had been pictured at Neuruppin in November 1944), are generally thought to have had the upper surfaces painted in the old colours of RLM 75 and RLM 74. The contrast between the colours of the side of the engine cowling and the remaining part of the fuselage, may point to the use of standard RLM 76 for the former, and the green-blue variation for the latter (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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The recipes included the requirement to completely meet a certain colour (‘völlige Übereinstimmung des Farbtons’): The working instructions for each of the pigmented paints refer to, in all cases, the headline testing and release of the ‘RLM-Farbkarte Farbton xx’ (RLM-colourcard shade xx). It can therefore be ruled out that whilst ‘any’ colour could be used, the colour had to match the official colourcard of the Reich Ministry of Aviation (RLM). By the same token, it is becoming clear that many cases where in the past where different shades of late war colours were attributed to the chaotic situation in 1945, were indeed deliberately produced versions of one and the same colour, according to an RLM-standard. A good example of further evidence for the intentional change of colours without changing their name is, for instance, the development of RLM 76.

Amongst various aircraft captured at Wunstorf in April 1945, there were two Bf 109 K-4s. The one in the middle was WNr. 330255 of Stab III./JG 27, which was finished in a rather common way for 330xxx batch K-4s. The fuselage of WNr. 332700 visible on the right, shows the later K-4 scheme with lowered demarcation between the colours. At the time of the 332xxx batch assembly, the upper surface colouring may have been changed to the RLM 81/82 scheme, although the front part of the engine cowling looks lighter than the rest of the fuselage spine, and this feature can be observed on some other photos. Would this mean it was delivered pre-painted in RLM 75? (James V. Crow coll.)

The Hungarian version of the Messerschmitt document regarding the change of the fighter colours from RLM 74 and 75 to 81 and 82. The date in the upper right corner, is the date of the original document by Messerschmitt Augsburg, the July 29, 1944. The translation was communicated by M.W.G. in Györ on September 2, 1944 – see lower left corner (Dénes Bernád coll.)

This colour was used between 1941 and 1945. The authors found several samples in the original 1941 shade, on late war aircraft wrecks. Within the same timeframe, at least one other version of RLM 76 also existed. This important finding is in line with another primary source: The official shades of some of the RLM camouflage colours also changed between 1938 and 1941. This can be proven by a spectral analysis of the original colour cards as included in the 1938 and 1941 versions of the L.Dv. 521/1 Behandlungs- und Anwendungsvorschrift für Flugzeuglacke (Luftwaffe Service Regulation 521/1 - Treatment and application instructions for aircraft lacquer). For example, RLM 65 changed from a light bluish colour to a slightly darker and ‘dirtier’, almost greenish blue-grey. After a pre-announcement in August 1943, the so called “Sammelmitteilung” (Collected Instructions) of July 1, 1944, stipulated the replacement of the colours RLM 70 and 71 by the new colours RLM 81 and 82, respectively (the darker colour was replaced by a darker colour, the lighter colour was replaced by a lighter colour). Residual quantities of available aircraft lacquers had to be used up. Therefore, it was permitted to combine RLM 70 with 82 and RLM 71 with 81. It will be noted that the replacement of the then standard day fighter upper-surface camouflage colours of 74 and 75 is not mentioned in the “Sammelmitteilung”. The missing link to fighter camouflage colours was kindly provided in document form by fellow researcher György Punka: On July 29, 1944, a communication from Messerschmitt Augsburg to M.W.G. Györ stipulated the replacement of 74 and 75 by “Farbton 81 (olivenbraun)” - olive brown and “Farbton 82 (hellgrün)” - light green for fighters. The original document refers to latest requirements of the ‘General der Jagdflieger’ (General of Fighters), regretfully without giving further details of how these requirements were communicated. The aforementioned document makes it clear that these colours were to be used for “Jägertarnung für alle Verwendungszwecke” (fighter camouflage for all uses). Apart from that, they were also to be used for “Zerstörer, Schlachtflugzeuge, Kampfflugzeuge (Tageinsatz), Tagaufklärer und Höhenaufklärer” (destroyers, attack aircraft, bombers (day use), day reconnaissance aircraft and high altitude reconnaissance aircraft). A document from Blohm & Voss, dated September 13, 1944, relates to the use of 81 and 82 for the upper surfaces and 76 for the under surfaces on the BV 155 fighter.1 The detailed analysis of Messerschmitt Me 262 production run already shows the start of a change from RLM 74/75, to green camouflage colors in August 1944, and from autumn onward the majority of the new jet fighters left the plant in the 81/82 camouflage.2 On August 15, 1944, only a few weeks after the “Sammelmitteilung”, there followed “Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2”. Among other changes, it proclaimed that in future the following colours would no longer be applied: 65, 70, 71 und 74. In the very next sentence it is made clear that the colour 70 would remain mandatory for airscrews. In other words: The classical camouflage scheme of 70, 71 and 65 was cancelled, as was the use of RLM 74, the darker colour of the previous day fighter scheme. The maritime camouflage colours of 72 and 73 were not touched, but the underside colour would apparently be RLM 76 in future.

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The reconnaissance Bf 109 G-10/R2 built by WNF, such as WNr. 770269, coded 5F+12, from 2./NAGr. 14, which was extensively photographed after its surrender at Fürth-Atzenhof on May 8, 1945, were painted in the transition scheme with RLM 75 and 81 v.2 applied to the upper surfaces. The notable exception is the tail fin, delivered by a subcontractor, which appears to be over-sprayed in RLM 81, with some dark green patches, presumably added using a template. The patchy and dirty appearance of Fw 190 A-8 coded Red 5 from 2./JG 6 (probably WNr. 961118, which would point to December 1944-January 1944 production of Norddeutsche Dornier Werke at Wismar) makes it difficult to determine the exact scheme, but the upper surface colour combination may have been the same, or the older RLM 74/75. Note the different shades of RLM 76 on the fuselage and rudder (James V. Crow coll./Lt. Col. Athlee G. Manthos via Dan Manthos)

This machine flew behind the American lines during May 1945. White 3 is presumed to belong to 1./JG 52. It was most likely a WNF-built Bf 109 G-10/U4, and carried the typical RLM 75/greenish RLM 81/76 finish for this manufacturer (James V. Crow coll.)

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The Erla assembly plant continued using the RLM 74/75/76 finish for a longer period than other Bf 109 manufacturers, as may be seen on example of this Bf 109 G-10 WNr. 150816, coded Black 4, which most likely belonged to JGr. 300. The Erla G-10s painted in these colours were finished to a mid-demarcation scheme (James V. Crow coll.)

Strict as the rules regarding the introduction of RLM 81 and 82 might seem, there was also an exception: For the Ju 188 D-2 the colors RLM 70 and 71 were apparently used up to the end of its production run, which was planned for January 1945. The reason for this officially approved exception was the remaining stock of 70 and 71.3 To summarise: RLM 81 and 82 were officially introduced in the second half of 1944 and came into use in about September 1944. The development of these new colours was obviously well-prepared and apparently already finished in 1943: there was a pre-announcement in August 1943 and at least one recipe each of RLM 81 and 82 dated back to 1943.4

RLM 81 v.1

RLM 81 v.2

RLM 81 v.3

As already mentioned, there are three different recipes for RLM 81. They are marked as “7121.81”, “7121.81 A 2” and “7121 A.3.81”. 7121 is the aircraft lacquer for a single coating based on a phenol-alkyd resin, originally developed by the paint manufacturer Warnecke & Böhm. The last-mentioned recipe “7121 A.3.81” is number 100 in the total list, which ends with number 101, and is apparently from late 1944. The letter “A” in the names of the recipes, in all likelihood, stands for “Ausführung” - a frequently used German abbreviation for version or release. Bf 109 G-10 WNr. 15153x, coded Black 22, from 5./JG 52, appears to be a hybrid of the early and late schemes applied to the G-10 at the Erla plant. The engine cowling and tail unit seem to carry a low-demarcation finish in one or two dark shades (possibly RLM 81 v.2 and RLM 82, or just the first one), whilst the remaining part of the fuselage had been painted in the middemarcation RLM 74/75/76 scheme, and subsequently toned down with extensive over-spraying in a dark colour, possibly RLM 81 v.2, in order to match the cowling and tail finish (James V. Crow coll.)

The three recipes of RLM 81 lead to different colours. This is not only shown by the recreation of the colours but becomes clearer in an analysis of the recipes: Whereas some pigments show up in every version of the colours (e.g. Zinc chromate), only the first and the last versions contain a red pigment and show different forms of khaki. Version 2 is a green colour. Apart from that, the quantities of the pigments in each version changed, and it is evident that three different versions of RLM 81 were indeed intended.

RLM 82

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A wrecked Bf 109 G-6 from 4./JG 104 (an advanced training unit), pictured at Herzogenaurach after the end of hostilities. The upper surface camouflage colours are RLM 82 and one of the brown RLM 81 shades, indicating a refurbished aircraft that must have been painted in a repair centre (James V. Crow coll.)

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The official camouflage scheme illustration for the Ar 234 C that had been approved on June 19, 1944, still specified the use of RLM 70, 71 and 65 colours. However, the serial production of the Ar 234 C started after the introduction of the new bomber scheme of RLM 81/82/76 and a colour photo confirms its use. The first serial-built Ar 234 Bs also reached the units after the camouflage change, and it is thought that the most of them carried the new colours. The pattern can be partially seen on this Ar 234 B-2 WNr. 140151, coded T9+KH, from Kommando Sperling, which was pictured at Rheine airfield during the autumn of 1944 (Chris Goss coll.)

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The finish of Me 262 A-1a WNr. 110836, coded Black L, from 2./KG 51, adheres well to the camouflage scheme specified for the type (see sub-chapter 1.5), the only difference being the presence of RLM 76 on the lower surfaces, which on February 23, 1945, were requested to be left in natural metal except for parts made of steel and wood. However, it is very possible that this machine was completed before the new directive reached the assembly plant. The upper surfaces were painted in RLM 81 and 82 (James V. Crow coll.)

Me 262 A-1a WNr. 501232, coded Yellow 5, from 9./KG(J) 6, carried a similar finish to the one prescribed for this aircraft, although the upper surface colours extend downwards, lower than was specified. Furthermore, the undersides were still painted in RLM 76, even though the aircraft was assembled more than one month after the approval of the directive requesting to leave the lower surfaces in natural metal finish (James V. Crow coll.)

Also RLM 82 is represented with three different recipes as well. Again, the first version dates back to 1943, with the last version being the last recipe in the whole compendium. Contrary to these different versions of RLM 81, the first and the third versions of RLM 82 are very similar to each other, and indeed by optical comparison, there is little to choose between them. With regards to the second version of RLM 82, research is still ongoing as it contains a greenish pigment that cannot yet be identified. With any currently known combination of RLM 81 and 82 on an aircraft, 82 will be the lighter of the two colours, although the difference between 81 and 82 sometimes is not that marked. It is obvious that several versions of these late war colours existed within a very short timeframe. As the German manufacturing system in the aircraft industry worked extensively with components manufactured at different locations, it cannot be ruled out that there’s a possibility of different versions of a particular paint with one and the same number appearing on one aircraft.

81 and 82 is connected to the work on the camouflage colors for buildings and ground installations. In April 1941, the RLM released the “Vorläufige Anwendungs- und Verarbeitungsvorschrift für RLM-Tarnfarben (Gebäude- und Bodentarnung)” - Provisional Direction for the Use and Processing of RLM Camouflage Paints (Camouflage of Buildings and Ground Installations). This instruction booklet contained a colour card with eight camouflage colours. Two of these colours - Dunkelgrün (dark green) and Dunkelbraun (dark brown) - are rather dark and are similar, but not identical, to the two khaki versions of RLM 81. The similarity in light reflection and hue might be a coincidence, although a remarkable one. It is possible that a third colour Olivgrün (olive green), is connected to the missing shade of RLM 82.7 The issue of these instructions in 1941 fits nicely into a timeline for the development of new camouflage colours for aircraft, leading to a first official announcement in 1943, and their actual introduction in late 1944.

It should be noted that all official documents refer to the use of RLM 81 and 82 together with RLM 76. There is no indication regarding the use of any other combination of colours, nor is there any evidence from documents that another colour was used for the lower surfaces of Luftwaffe aircraft.5 The exception is the previously mentioned use of existing paint stock: The darker colours RLM 70 and 74 could be combined with the lighter colour RLM 82, and vice versa RLM 71 and 75 could be used with RLM 81. A soft overspray, especially of RLM 82 over 76, created what Ron Belling described as a “soft yellow effect around the green”.6 This is certainly something a modeller should care about in the analysis of photos and the modelling process. On some photographs this effect is quite evident. In the past it was thought that RLM 81, 82 and 83 were introduced without much preparation and were simply reissues of the pre-war colours RLM 61 and 62. Based on current research, a simple reissue can be ruled out. How much the older colours influenced the creation of 81 and 82 is open to speculation. It is much more likely though that the development of RLM

RLM 76 Late War Variation In the context of the late war colors 81 and 82, the painting of the undersides of a number of aircraft, deserves to be mentioned. A green-blue variation of (presumably) RLM 76, was found on a number of museum aircraft and were documented by Ken Merrick.8 The colour remains enigmatic up to this day and has been widely discussed.9 Up to now, no recipe has been discovered for this colour which is included in the Real Color range under the designation “RLM 76 Late War Variation”.

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The He 219 A-2 which is undergoing restoration at NASM, had originally black undersides covered with a wave pattern of a green-blue colour. The latter shows some similarity to the RAF/MAP Sky. The original finish had been applied before the wings were attached, and was retained when the aircraft was repainted into RLM 75/76 finish (Brett Green coll.)

These two photos of Bf 109 G-6 WNr. 163824, preserved at AWM, were taken in different lighting conditions, which results in the remarkable difference of the RLM 76 appearance on the lower cowling. This illustrates very well the difficulties in the interpretation of colours even on modern colour photographs. This aircraft was manufactured in May 1944 and left the factory in the then standard RLM 74/75/76 camouflage, but in December 1944 it was repainted during an overhaul. Interestingly, most of the fuselage sides were painted in the green-blue colour, whilst the fuselage spine appears to be camouflaged in two different RLM 81 shades, which were also used to spray the few mottles on the sides (Brett Green coll.) 76

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Me 262 A-1a WNr. 111685, still wore its former unit code 9K+FH when it was captured by the Allies near the highway in the Hofoldinger Forest, south of München. Despite this, it had actually belonged to JV 44 since April 24, 1945. The initial appearance of the base fuselage finish of this aircraft may be revealed by studying photos of her sister aircraft, WNr. 111690, which was flown to Fassberg on May 8, 1945. This reveals that both machines had their fuselages finished with a very low demarcation scheme of lightly applied RLM 81 and 82 layers, where 81 worked as the basic colour, whilst 82 was quite randomly and thinly sprayed over it. In this case, the aircraft was then additionally camouflaged with numerous patches that appear to be applied in the green-blue colour. The aircraft was fitted with a replacement nose cone which remained in the basic RLM 02 finish (applied as this part was made of steel) with grey putty applied to smooth the joints (NARA)

The saving of lacquer and solvents was definitely an issue as we can see from the aforementioned Sammelmitteilung 2, which contained a ban on the use organic solvents for cleaning, and re-iterated the need to identify a commissioner for saving lacquer (Sparbeauftragter für Lacke) in the plants. This was originally stipulated in September 1943. As the Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2 says: die “erfolgten Mitteilungen … sind vernichtet” (the announcements of these people were destroyed). This laconic statement gives a clear indication about the status the war had reached in August 1944. Originally, all internal surfaces of Luftwaffe aircraft were painted. This practice had already changed by May 1942: Internal parts of certain materials which were not exposed to the airstream were left unpainted from thereon in.10 On the outside of aircraft, the changes and savings were not immediately apparent. This changed around August 1944 with the production of a batch of 50 Fw 190 in the Sorau plant. The under surfaces of these machines remained unpainted with the exception of wooden and fabric surfaces. The focus was clearly to economise resources as savings in labour and materials had to be reported.11 The approach taken for these 50 aircraft must have been a success because the practice of leaving wing under-surfaces unpainted started to then become more common. As far as the Fw 190 is concerned, the methodology implemented included the painting of the leading edges of the wings and the landing gear covers in 76, or an upper surface camouflage colour with many variations.12 This change was apparently done to protect parked aircraft from the eyes of the pilots of enemy ground attack aircraft. The result was that there existed many variations, ranging from the painting of all under side surfaces in RLM 76, to different parts left unpainted.13 The well-known illustration of the Me 262 camouflage scheme dates from February 23, 1945, and carries a note, “Nur Stahl und Holzteile auf Flugzeugunterseite Farbton 76 = lichtblau” - only steel and wooden parts on the underside of the aircraft (are to be painted) color 76 = light blue. In other words, all light alloy aircraft parts on the underside were left without paint. The drawing also shows a dotted line leading from the trailing edge of the wing, along the lower fuselage. The fuselage was to be left unpainted real colors of wwii aircraft /

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A very low demarcation RLM 81/82 camouflage scheme with distinctive circular patches which may also have been sprayed in the green-blue colour, was carried by Bf 109 G-6 coded Black 29, from 2./Erg. KG(J), captured at Pilsen. This finish was probably applied after an overhaul in a repair center (James V. Crow coll.)

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This Erla-built Bf 109 G-6 WNr. 410061, without any unit markings, was captured at Wunstorf. It apparently came from the same repair shop as Black 29, considering the very similar camouflage and national insignia in the form of white outlines only (James V. Crow coll.) Similar patches of a bright colour applied to the forward fuselage can also be found on some Fieseler-built Fw 190 D-9s from the 600xxx range. In their case, RLM 75 was applied in order to disrupt the plain RLM 71 (or 81 v.2)/76 Junkers factory finish of the engine cowling. The upper surfaces of this aircraft, coded Black 11, were most likely painted in the old RLM 74/75/76 colours, which are documented in a movie featuring Fw 190 D-9 WNr. 600150 (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

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Fw 190 D-9 WNr. 500570, coded Blue 12, from 8./JG 6, Fürth-Atzenhof, May 1945. This Fw 190 D-9 is an example of the final scheme applied to the type, with the fuselage mainly finished in RLM 81 and green-blue, and the upper engine cowling pre-painted in green, upper wing surfaces in RLM 76 and 81, and unpainted wing undersides except for the front one third finished in RLM 81, and the ailerons pre-painted in RLM 76. The rudder was also pre-painted in RLM 76 and then toned down with RLM 81 mottling (Photo: James V. Crow coll.)

This wreck of a Fw 190 D-9 from the 601xxx batch was photographed at Fieseler’s Kassel-Waldau factory area by advancing Allied troops. Another rendition of the simplified underside finish is shown, with only the middle part of the wing undersides left in natural metal (which also applies to the lower surface of the horizontal stabilizer). The adjacent surfaces were painted in RLM 76 (James V. Crow coll.)

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The wing undersides of this Fw 190 A-8, captured at AGO factory at Oschersleben in April 1945, were also partially unpainted. The area below the leading edge was over-sprayed in RLM 81. The Focke-Wulfs found in the factory were painted in the RLM 81(brown)/82/76 scheme with quite distinctive large mottle patches on the fuselage sides (Library of Congress)

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The rather unusual position in which this Fw 190 F-8 was placed at the Neubiberg scrapyard after the war, allows to see yet another variation of the Fw 190 underside finish (Raymond Klabechek via Thomas A. Rammer)

US troops pictured at Neubiberg, in front of a ‘sandwich’ formed from Me 262 A-2a WNr. 111728 (?) and Bf 109 G-10/U4 WNr. 612769. The wing undersides of the Gustav are left partially unpainted, whilst the Schwalbe didn’t receive camouflage at all (Raymond Klabechek via Thomas A. Rammer) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Although WNr. 110506 was a standard Me 262 A-1a and not the recon variant, it wore a similar camouflage scheme to the one known from the several Me 262 A-1a/U3s assembled at Eger (Cheb), which consisted of RLM 82 and 81 v.2 streaks and mottles applied over a bright RLM 76 base (James V. Crow coll.)

below this line. To which degree this instruction was actually followed is difficult to say as the affected areas are often very difficult to see on photographs. The reference to steel is important, as the forward fuselage of the Me 262, up to and including the gun bay for the four MK 108 guns, was made of steel for part of the series production. Kenneth Merrick mentioned an earlier version of the Me 262 camouflage scheme dated September 26, 1944.14 Although this document cannot be found up to now, the details given by Ken suggest that he at least had a chance to study it. The main difference of the later version was apparently that the undersides were left unpainted from February 1945 onwards. Another aircraft where it is known that the under-surfaces of the wings were left unpainted, is the Do 335 A.15 It should be noted that whenever under-surfaces were not covered by paint, this concerned only light metal, as all steel and wood surfaces, as well as fabric surfaces, were to be painted. This was necessary for corrosion protection, and to keep surfaces smooth and fabric taut. An aircraft where the under-surfaces were painted up to the end of WWII, was the He 162. This was for the simple reason that the wings were of wooden construction and had to be protected. A communication from Herbig Haarhaus AG of January 29, 1945, mentions the following lacquers for the “Flächen” (a short version of the word “Tragflächen” - wings) of the He 162 program: 7115.76, 7115.81 and 7115.82.16 Lacquer 7115 belonged to the fireproof Flieglackkette 33, which was already included in the L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941. 7115 was based on Vinoflex, a polyvinyl chloride.17

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He 162 A-1 WNr. 310078 (or 310018), coded White 5, from 1./JG 1, Leck, Germany, May 1945. The specified camouflage scheme for the He 162 was RLM 81/82/76. The distinctive sheen of the undersurfaces of the wings painted with semi-gloss polyvinyl chloride based lacquer 7115.76 can be noticed on the photo (Photo: Erik Mombeeck coll.)

This He 162 A-2 WNr. 120230, coded White 23, from Stab/JG 1, was also pictured at Leck in May 1945. Note the differences in the execution of the camouflage demarcation on this Heinkel-Rostock-built aircraft, in comparison with the White 5, which had been assembled at the Junkers factory in Bernburg (NARA)

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Another Me 262 without camouflage. Worth noting is the wide use of putty for sealing the joints, and that some parts, such as the nose, canopy framing and adjacent panels, rudder and upper part of the tail fin, wooden landing gear covers, some engine panels, ailerons and wing leading edge, were already painted either in RLM 02 or 76 (NARA)

Me 262 assembly line. The features described in the previous caption can be seen on another example. The camouflage would be applied in so thin layers that the putty pattern still showed through it (NARA)

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The lower surfaces of the preproduction Do 335 A-0 WNr. 240105, were camouflaged. A colour photo confirms the aircraft’s upper surface colours as RLM 81 (brown) and 82, with the undersides most likely finished in RLM 65 (NARA)

Do 335 A-10 WNr. 240112, that had been captured by the Allies at Oberpfaffenhofen in April 1945, had not only partially unpainted undersides, but this also applied to the engine cowling (James V. Crow coll.)

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This sounds very technical for a modeller, but 7115 paints could only be produced with comparatively small additions of matting agents (talcum powder), the resulting paint was at least semi-gloss. That the wings of the He 162 were indeed semi-gloss is readily apparent on a number of photos of the He 162, especially on the underside of the wings. The only part of the under-surface of the wing of the He 162 that was not painted RLM 76 were the ailerons: they were covered in all-over RLM 82 to make them completely interchangeable.18 The light metal surfaces of the fuselage and the tailplane surfaces of the He 162 were painted in the standard paint 7121 (matt). Wheel bay interiors were painted RLM 66.19

The monthly report of E-Stelle Travermünde of November 1943. The lowest paragraph deals with the development and testing of a camouflage for use in the Mediterranean theatre of operations. The development was finished with a report on November 10, 1943, and the introduction of “Farbton 83 dunkelblau” (shade 83 dark blue) is recommended (Michaell Ullmann via TOCH)

Previously, the color RLM 83 was often associated with dark green. Apparently it was the German researcher Michael Ullmann who found documents identifying RLM 83 as a dark blue colour.20 One document made public by Mr. Ullmann is a monthly report of the E-Stelle Travermünde, dated November 26, 1943. The report refers to the development and testing of a camouflage for use in the Mediterranean. The test work was completed on November 10, 1943, with a final report, and the introduction of RLM 83, for use together with RLM 72 for overwater operations respectively, together with RLM 70 for land based aircraft, was recommended. The next known reference to RLM 83 came with Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2 of August 15, 1944. In the Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2, reference is only made to the use of RLM 83 without giving any details or a name of the colour. Therefore, a document regarding the actual introduction of RLM 83 is still missing.

The illustration shows the original recipe for RLM 83 and the recreation after more than 70 years with the original pigmentation. The first three positions are the pigments with Heliogenblau (Phthalocyanine) being by far the strongest and dominant of the three. Although the other pigments are zinc yellow and zinc oxide, their influence on the final colour is rather small - their colouring power is low but they provide excellent corrosion protection for light alloys and steel. The overall result is a plain blue. The remainder of the recipe consist of lacquer and a solvent (xylol): ‘Farbmahlung’ 7121 consists of an alkyd resin, solvents and talkum as matting agent. ‘Flieglack’ 7122 is simply an alkyd resin with xylol as solvent (Jürgen Kiroff coll.)

In the collection of 35 recipes mentioned above, there is one version of 83 and it is among a group of the colours 70, 71, 81, 82, 72 and 73, which in all likelihood dates back to 1943. Contrary to RLM 81 and 82, there are no other versions of this colour. The re-creation of RLM 83 with the original recipe, shows a dark blue colour. This confirms the information contained in Mr. Ullmann’s document and nicely fits the 1943 period of development.

RLM 83 From the above evidence, it is clear that RLM 83 was a dark blue colour and that it was at least experimented with. Up to this point, no information has come to light to show its widespread use. A field test of RLM 83 around the year 1943 is highly likely though as this was common practice.21 Neither 88

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Ju 88 A-4 trop WNr. 550396, coded B3+MH, from 1./KG 54, Dübendorf, Switzerland, October 1943. This aircraft was mistakenly landed at Dübendorf on October 21, 1943. A Swiss report described its camouflage as ‘Oberseite Wasser- und Wüstentarnung, Unterseite Schwarz’ (Upper surface water- and desert camouflage, under surface black). What was not mentioned, but can be noticed on the available photos, is that the wavy lines of the upper surface camouflage were applied in both sand and black. The base colour remains an enigma, but given that the sand colour was identified as RLM 7922 (which means that the regulation 78 would also be known to the Swiss) and that the former shows up as a considerably dark tone in the photos, it is possible that this is an example of a test use of the RLM 83 (Photos: Warbird.ch)

1) cf. Ullmann, M.: Oberflächenschutzverfahren und Anstrichstoffe der deutschen Luftfahrtindustrie und Luftwaffe 1935 - 1945, p. 169; Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Luftwaffe Camouflage and Markings 1933-1945, Volume One, p. 113 2) see Brown, D. E./Janda, A./Poruba, T./Vladař, J.: Luftwaffe over Czech Territory 1945 III., Messerschmitt Me 262s of KG & KG(J) units, p. 63 3) cf. Ullmann, M.: Op. cit., p. 164 4) The individual recipes do not carry a date. The contents of the recipe collection clearly shows numbered recipes in a chronological order. As certain aircraft lacquers, primers etc. were introduced at given times, it is clear that the first recipes for RLM 81, 82 and 83 date from the second half of 1943. 5) The list of known RLM colors ends with the number 83. The RLM number 99 was used for primers etc. where the actual color did not have to conform to a defined standard. 6) Belling, R.: A portrait of Military Aviation in South Africa, p. 122 7) The same applies to the so called LS Farbtonkarte für Tarnfarben (Gebäude- und Bodentarnung), issued in 1944. 8) cf. Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Luftwaffe Camouflage and Markings 1933-1945, Volume One, p. 118 et seq. 9) Interested readers are especially referred to the analysis in: Deboeck, M./Larger, E./Poruba, T.: Focke-Wulf Fw 190D camouflage & markings, p. 32 the colours 81 and 82 nor RLM 83 were stop-gap colours. The creation of RLM 83 was based on a requirement - apparently from the Mediterranean theatre - and there was the usual development work before the colour was finally introduced. The identification of RLM 83 as a dark blue colour makes it clear that colours thought to have been green, and most often dark green colours, were misidentified as RLM 83. Based on the current research results with no evidence whatsoever of any other shade than blue, a green version of RLM 83 can be ruled out. In light of these new findings, many camouflage schemes drawn over the last few years need to be revisited. A late-war green colour - with the exception of the overwater colours 72 and 73 - was one of the versions of 81 or 82 or the older 70 and 71 colours.

10) cf. Ullmann, M.: Op. cit., p. 148 11) cf. Ullmann, M.: Op. cit., p. 154 et seq., Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Op. cit., p. 102 et seq. 12) cf. Deboeck, M./Larger, E./Poruba, T.: Op. cit., p. 38 et seq. and p. 467 et seq. 13) ibid. 14) see Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Op. cit., p. 78 15) ibid., p. 104 16) see Ullmann, M.: Op. cit., p. 168 17) British Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee Final Report No. 365, p. 28 et seq. 18) see the original document in: Ehrengardt, C-J.: Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger, in: aero Journal Hors-Serie N° 27, p. 77 19) see the “Oberflächenschutzliste” for the He 162 series in: Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Op. cit., p. 222 20) cf. Ullmann, M. at: http://www.clubhyper.com/reference/rlm83darkbluemu_1. htm and http://forum.12oclockhigh.net/showthread.php?t=33931 21) cf. Merrick, K./Kiroff, J.: Op. cit., p. 95 22) Ries, K.: Deutsche Luftwaffe über der Schweiz 1939-1945, p.49 real colors of wwii aircraft /

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1.4 Interior colours RLM 66 conforming to L.Dv. 521/1 of 1941

A study of available painting specifications of the aircraft used at the time when the Luftwaffe was offically founded and soon after, reveales that the main colours used for the aircraft interior painting during this period were silver and grey, standardized as RLM 01 silber (silver) and RLM 02 RLM-grau (RLM-grey) in early 1936. The instrument panels were mainly prescribed to be painted in grey too (and this could mean the use of short-lived RLM 41 grau), although it must be noted that the specification for the Fw 56 A that had been issued on May 27, 1936, mentioned black as the instrument panel colour, whilst the specification for the Fw 44 J issued on October 10, 1936, stated that a ‘Mattemaille schwarz-grau’ (matte enamel black-grey) should be used for painting the instrument board. This may already refer to RLM 66 schwarzgrau (black grey) colour, which was introduced with the first known RLM colour card that had been issued in early 1936. Colour 66 was the last RLM colour to be correlated with the RAL system, although its RAL equivalent will be changed from RAL 7019 to RAL 7021 in 1941, as indicated within the 1941 edition of the L. Dv. 521/1.

Another period documents which mention colour 66, are the painting specifications for the Do 17 E and F that had been issued in April and June 1937, respectively. Both documents prescribe the use of colour 66 for painting the crew compartment up to frame no.7, whilst the remaining inner surfaces of the fuselage, engine cowlings and landing gear bays were to be painted in silver. The 1938 edition of L. Dv. 521/1 stipulated the use of colour 66 only for the instrument panels. From that time, other internal surfaces, including cockpits, were to receive RLM 02 finish. The 1941 edition of L. Dv. 521/1 confirmed the use of RLM 02 as a basic interior colour, although RLM 66 was specified for painting all areas visible through cockpit and canopy glazing. However, it appears that like some other changes officially approved in the 1941 edition of L.Dv. 521/1, the latter was also a confirmation of status quo, as both the photos from the era and analysis of preserved aircraft parts and retrieved wreckages gives a strong indication that colour 66 was widely used for painting aircraft cockpit areas at least in the mid-1940. An unidentified RLM report cited by Kenneth Merrick, mentioned the use of an ivory colour for painting the cockpit areas of aircraft employed in the Mediterranean theatre of operations. In the course of war, shortages of raw materials forced the RLM and aviation industry to simplify the interior finishes. Communication Nr. 7/42 issued on May 18, 1942, requested simplification of the surface protection of certain parts of aircraft such as the Fw 190, He 177 and Ar 96. This included i.e. reduction of the cockpit colouring from one to two layers of colour 66, and leaving some parts made from aluminium and duraluminium unpainted. Sammelmitteilung Nr. 2 (Collected Instructions No.2) issued on August 15, 1944, mentioned that most of the interior surfaces are no longer painted, and specified to replace colour 02 with colour 66 as the interior colour.

Although the landing gear legs of Bf 109 Es were usually painted in the specified RLM 02 colour, some anomalies can be found as early as in 1939 (Eric Mombeeck coll.)

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RAL reference card for colour 7019 / RLM 66, dated April 1940 (RAL archive via Jürgen Kiroff )

Part of the painting specification for the Do 17 E. Cockpit area up to frame no.7 was to be painted in colour 66, whilst the remaining inner surfaces of the fuselage, engine cowlings and landing gear bays were to be painted in silver (Udo Hafner archive)

An early Bf 109 E cockpit. It appears that RLM 02 was also used for the instrument panel, except from the black instrument bezels (Paul Stipdonk coll.)

Unrestored cockpit interior of the He 219 A-2 preserved at NASM. The instrument panel and side consoles are painted in RLM 66, but the seat mount is finished in RLM 02, with an unpainted sheet of metal on the rear (note the stamps indicating the type of material used). The floor area under the seat is also unpainted (Brett Green)

A snapshot from a 16mm movie documenting the appearance of Bf 110 D-0/B WNr. 3341, which was built around July 1940. The cockpit colour appears to be RLM 66 (John Vasco coll.)

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1.5 Official colouring specifications and camouflage patterns

The painting specification for the Arado Ar 76 was issued in October 1935. The reproduced excerpt shows that the specified base colour of the external surfaces was the RLM Grau (Grey). We also learn about the coating system for plywood surfaces. From the inside, two layers of protective lacquer were to be applied and left to dry for 6 hours each. From the outside: •• one layer of varnish was to be rubbed into the surface and left to dry for 3 hours; •• one layer of grey liquid filler was to be sprayed on and left to dry for 4 hours; •• the surface was to be polished with fine sandpaper;

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On this and the following pages, the reader will find various examples of the official colouring specifications and camouflage patterns specified for different aircraft types, which had been reproduced from the handbooks of the relevant aircraft. Initially, these specifications were very comprehensive (for example, the specification for Arado Ar 76 partially reproduced below, has a total of 7 pages; for Arado Ar 68 E and F – a total of 16 pages, with each 8 pages devoted to the particular production batches; for Focke-Wulf Fw 44 J – 9 pages; etc.) mainly due to the mixed construction of the aircraft, which required using different types of paint and varnish materials, and their application schedules for finishing the parts made from different materials. The simplification of aircraft structures allowed for the reduction of the complexity of the painting specifications. Around the 1938-1939 period, this information disappeared from the aircraft handbooks, now being issued as Oberflächenschutzlisten (surface protection lists). Since then, the handbooks only included the diagrams of the official camouflage patterns, although even this basic information appears in the handbooks issued only by certain manufacturers, such as Dornier, Heinkel and Siebel. Note that we do not go as deep as to translate the specifications in their entirety, but the most important information is discussed within the captions. Most of the reproduced documents were graciously provided by Mr. Udo Hafner from Luftarchiv Hafner.

•• two layers of topcoat in RLM Grau (Grey) colour were to be sprayed on and left to dry for 3 hours; •• the surface was to be polished with fine sandpaper; •• two layers of topcoat in RLM Grau (Grey) colour were to be sprayed on and left to dry for 3 hours •• one layer of topcoat in RLM Grau (Grey) colour was to be sprayed on and left to dry for 6 hours; •• one layer of finishing coat in RLM Grau (Grey) colour was to be sprayed on and left to dry.

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The reproduced excerpt of the painting specification for the Arado Ar 68 E and F was issued on November 11, 1935, and applied to three production batches: WNr. 937-945, 1301-1308 and 1571-1640. The handbook included two different specifications for different groups of production batches, but the reason for this is unclear, as this can’t be explained by application to different variants (both E and F variants can be found amongst these batches) or aircraft built at particular plants. Again, the base colour of the external surfaces is specified as RLM Grau (Grey). Worth noting is the coating system for the cotton fabric covering of the tail surfaces, which consisted of: •• one layer of impregnation primer in red colour, applied with a brush and left to dry for 3 hours;

•• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••

one layer of aircraft dope, applied with a brush and left to dry for 3 hours; one layer of adhesive coat, applied with a brush and left to dry for 1 hour; one layer of aircraft dope, applied with a brush and left to dry for 3 hours; one intermediate layer of aluminium lacquer, applied with a spray gun and left to dry for 3 hours; polishing the surface with fine sandpaper; one layer of nitrocellulose lacquer in RLM Grau (Grey) colour, applied with a spray gun and left to dry for 5 hours; softening the paint layer with solvent; one layer of nitrocellulose lacquer in RLM Grau (Grey) colour, applied with a spray gun and left to dry for 3 hours.

The Handbook for the Focke-Wulf Fw 44 J was issued on October 10, 1936. This excerpt from the painting specification included in this document, indicates that the base colour of the external surfaces was silver, which was a common finish for Luftwaffe trainers in that period. Similar specifications can be found in the Handbook for Focke-Wulf Fw 56 that had been issued on May 27, 1936, and the 1937 edition of the Handbook for Heinkel He 42 E.

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From the Handbook for the Heinkel He 51 C and D that had been issued in 1936, we learn that the base colours of the He 51 C were specified as Farbton 63 [i.e. RLM 63 Grey) for the fabric surfaces and grau (grey) for the external surfaces of the metal components. Note that the designation of the paint specified for the latter [Nitrodecklack Nr.7007, i.e. Nitrocellulose lacquer No. 7007] is not related to the colour designation system used for the RAL 840 R range, because this system was introduced between 1939-1940. Worth noting is also the silver finish of most of the inner surfaces, specified by the schedule. 96

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The painting specification included in the Handbook for the Heinkel He 59 C, dated from 1936, reveals that Nitrodecklack grau 7007 could also be applied over the fabric surfaces, if an intermediate layer of aluminium lacquer had been previously sprayed on. Note that the last step for finishing the fabric surfaces was to polish them with a polishing paste.

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The Handbook for the Heinkel He 60 E was issued on May 5, 1937. The coating systems defined in the painting specification did not differ substantially from those intended for the He 59 C, but some of the specified painting products were different. In this case, the base colour was clearly identified as RLM-Grau (Grey).

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Two camouflage diagrams included in the Handbook for the Dornier Do 17 F, which was issued on June 25, 1937. The pattern was essentially the same, and the difference between both variants were the transposed colours for the particular patches. Worth noting is that the painting specification stated that the upper surfaces were first to be sprayed with one layer of DKH-protective lacquer no. 63 grau (grey), and then the camouflage patches in colours no. 61 braun (brown) and 62 grün (green) were to be applied, using brushes. This camouflage scheme was also valid for the Do 17 E, and mirror images were also in use.

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Issued on July 9, 1938, the Handbook for the Messerchmitt Bf 109 C and D may have been one of the last that included the full painting specification. In this case, all camouflage paints (in colours no. 70, 71 and 65) were to be applied with a spray gun. The execution of the camouflage painting was not to be done with hard edges between colours, but blended into each other with a 50 mm overspray.

The Handbook for the Henschel Hs 123 A and B issued on September 19, 1938, still included the pattern diagrams for the RLM 61/62/63/65 camouflage. Above we can see a diagram of the ‘B’ pattern, and a diagram of the lines of separation between the upper surface and underside colours.

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Diagram of the RLM 70/71/65 camouflage scheme for the early Ju 87 B, as promulgated in 1939.

Diagram of the ‘A’ pattern of the RLM 70/71/65 camouflage scheme for the Ju 52/3m, as issued in October 1939.

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Issued on November 18, 1939, the Handbook for the Henschel Hs 126 A-1 and B-1 included both the ‘A’ and ‘B’ pattern diagrams for the RLM 70/71/65 camouflage scheme. Note that both the RLM 70 and 71 are simply referred to as grün (green) in the colour listing.

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The RLM 70/71/65 camouflage scheme was essentially the same for the Dornier Do 17 M, P and Z variants, as well as for the Do 215 B-1. Reproduced here is the diagram included in the Handbook for the Dornier Do 17 P, issued on November 24, 1939. Note that Dornier used different names for the colours, i.e. dunkelgrün (dark green) for the RLM 70 and hellgrün (light green) for the RLM 71.

Dated February 21, 1940, this diagram shows the ‘B’ pattern of the RLM 70/71/65 camouflage scheme for the Ju 88. Note the finish of the engine nacelles, which were to be uniformly painted in RLM 71 on the upper surfaces and RLM 65 on the undersides. In this case, the RLM 70 and 71 are called schwarzgrün (black green) and dunkelgrün (dark green), respectively. 104

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The camouflage pattern for the Dornier Do 217 E-1 and E-3 is a mirror image of the pattern for Do 17 M, P and Z shown on the previous page. The specified colours are referred to as RLM 65 hellblau (light blue), RLM 72 mittelgrün (middle green) and RLM 73 dunkelgrün (dark green). This diagram was included in the Handbook for the Dornier Do 217 E-1 and E-3 that had been issued on August 30, 1941.

Diagram of the camouflage scheme for the Dornier Do 24 T-1 and T-2 as published in the Handbook issued on June 18, 1942. In this case, the RLM 72 and 73 colours are both reffered to as grün (green).

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In accordance with this diagram included in the Handbook for the Dornier Do 217 N-1, which had been issued on February 23, 1943, this night fighter was to be camouflaged with patches of RLM 74 and 75 applied over 02 or 76 background. The propeller spinners were to be painted in RLM 70. It is interesting to note that the previous night fighting variant of this aircraft, i.e. the Do 217 J, was to be uniformly painted in RLM 22 schwarz (black), as mentioned in the Handbook issued August 11, 1942.

The painting scheme for the Dornier Do 217 K-1 was very similar to the one intended for the Do 217 E-1 and E-3, but in this case the undersides and side surfaces were to be painted RLM 22 schwarz (black). The upper surface camouflage pattern retained the RLM 72/73 colouring. The national insignia were to be applied in form of white (RLM 21) outlines only. This diagram was included in the Handbook issued on July 1, 1943. The same scheme was also intended for the Do 217 M-1. 106

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These diagrams were published in the Handbook for the Blohm und Voss BV 222 C, which had been issued in April 1943. They do not include information about the exact colours, but these would obviously be the then-standard seaplane colours, i.e. RLM 72, 73 and 65.

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Camouflage diagrams for the Heinkel He 111 H-6, reproduced from the Handbook issued on June 2, 1943. This pattern was also valid for the H-11, H-14, H-16 and H-20 variants. Worth noting is that the pattern for the vertical surfaces of the tailplane was simplified in comparison with the diagrams intended for the He 111 P. 108

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This coloured diagram shows the camouflage pattern for the sides of the Heinkel He 177 A-3. In accordance with the enclosed description, the sides of the fuselage, engine nacelles and vertical tail were to be painted in RLM 65, and then mottled with RLM 02, 70 and 71 in order to tone down the finish. The upper surfaces were to be painted in a splinter camouflage consisting of RLM 70 and 71 patches. This diagram was reproduced from the Handbook issued on September 14, 1943. The camouflage scheme served also for He 177 A-5, whilst on the A-0 and A-1 variants the RLM 70/71 splinter extended downwards onto the fuselage sides.

The diagram included in the September 1943 edition of the Heinkel He 219 A-0 Handbook (issued on January 20, 1944), shows a camouflage scheme that appears to comprise RLM 75 patches applied over 76 background on the upper surfaces of the aircraft. However, the photo evidence indicates that the latter were actually painted with a uniform layer of RLM 75, and sprayed over with a meandering pattern of RLM 76.

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Camouflage diagram included in the Handbook for the Siebel Si 204 D-1, February 1944 edition. The camouflage scheme still consisted of RLM 70, 71 and 65 colours, which were specified by both their reference numbers and correct official names.

Developed in November 1944, this diagram showed the revised camouflage scheme intended for the Focke-Wulf Ta 152. The aircraft was to be painted with a combination of RLM 81 and 82 on the upper surfaces, with RLM 76 additionally used for the vertical surfaces of the fuselage. The undersides were not to be camouflaged at all. Only the colour reference numbers were mentioned. The initial drawing, which had been issued on March 21, 1944, specified the upper surface colours as RLM 74 and 75, with RLM 76 for the undersides.

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This diagram was included in Handbook for the Dornier Do 335 A-1, issued on December 22, 1944. In this case, the colour names were also specified, both RLM 81 and 82 being called dunkelgrün (dark green). Worth noting is the recommended use of RLM 65 as the under surface colour, considering that this colour had already been withdrawn and replaced by RLM 76 in Sammelmitteilung 2 of August 15, 1944. It is unknown whether Dornier was allowed to use the remaining stocks of paint. Furthermore, photos of many Do 335s reveal that camouflage paint was not applied to their undersides.

Dated February 23, 1945, this diagram is the last known document that regulated the Messerschmitt Me 262 camouflage scheme. The upper surface colours were described as 81 braunviolett (brown violet) and 82 hellgrün (light green). Only the steel and wooden parts of the aircraft undersides were to be painted in RLM 76 lichtblau (light blue). real colors of wwii aircraft /

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1.6 Scale colour effect

The Luftwaffe colours offered by AK Interactive, in the “Real Colors”-range, offer two specialities: •• they are based on the spectral measurement of real colour samples, based on the year-long research of Farben - Kiroff - Technik. •• they offer correct scale colours right out of the paint jar, made possible by the scientific research of Gerald Högl, friend and colourimetric specialist of the historian and special paint producer, Jürgen Kiroff. Without going too deep into the technicalities, lacquer as used for painting aircraft, consists of a binder material, pigments and other substances, dependant on the kind of lacquer used. In a colour system as used in Germany before and during World War II, the colour of a paint was almost independent of the binder material used, be it a nitrocellulose based paint or an alkyd lacquer. Therefore, for a modeller, the most important parts for the actual colour are the pigments used in the paint. The spectral measurements used for the original analysis and the manufacturing of the Luftwaffe range of colours consist of 40 measurement points in the range from 360 to 750 nm, and therefore cover the whole spectrum as is usually seen by the human eye. A green colour, for instance, could consist of a green pigment or a mixture of yellow and blue. Whilst the colour might be the same, the spectra of both colours will be different. Under clearly defined conditions (especially the kind of light), the two colours will look the same. As soon as the conditions change, the appearance of the two colours will change: they will look different. Everyone who has made an effort to match two garments in a shop (artificial light) knows this effect, as on the outside of the shop (in daylight), the same garments will look different. In colour science this is called metamerism. The original pigments used in Luftwaffe colours cannot be used in modelling paints as they contain chemicals whose use in consumer products has already been prohibited for many years. In contrast to modelling applications, any museum wanting to achieve an authentic restoration is advised to use original paints, as otherwise the overall effect of the historic aircraft cannot be achieved. Scale colours have been discussed for many years1 but up until now, how they looked was left to the intuition of the modeller. The simple reason is that a modeller would need an aircraft in original colours in front of him, at a distance that conforms to the scale of the model, in order to mix the scale colour correctly. A 1:72 scale model seen from a distance of, let us say 30cm, conforms to an actual aircraft seen from a distance of 22m, as is shown on the accompanying illustration. Everybody is invited to take a piece of cardboard with the original paint of a large object and then to compare the original colour in his hand with the object at a distance of 22m. The overall appearance of the colour will have changed: The hue is different and it looks lighter, for instance a green will be seen as a different and lighter green. The reasons for this change of colour appearing to the human eye, are quite complex. An important part is explained in the accompanying illustration. Close to a large object, the human eye will see a large field of the color with all the inner parts of the eye which are sensitive to colour. Walking away from the object, the same field of colour will 112

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only be seen by a part of the human eye, an area called the fovea centralis which is very sensitive to colours.2 Scientifically speaking, when measuring colours, the wider field of where we see colours is called the 10 degree observer. The inner, most colour sensitive part is called the 2 degree observer. The illustration of a Fw 190 at a distance of 22m shows that we see the actual colours of the aircraft with the ‘2 degree observer’ of our eye (represented by a red circle).3 This is also how we see the 1:72 scale model at a distance of 30cm. Even for a model larger than 1:72 scale, most of the time it is not possible to overlap the complete 10 deg observer (represented by a green circle) with the aircraft, let alone with only one colour of your modelling subject. This mainly accounts for the change in hue. A deeper analysis of scale colours reveals other aspects as well: Overall a colour seen from this distance has not only changed its hue, but it will also appear lighter. To make matters even more complex, the way a colour changes when seen from a distance depends on the actual spectrum of the colour. A red will change differently compared to a green and a light colour will change differently compared to a dark colour. In other words: The pigmentation of a colour has an influence on how the colour will look from a distance. These combined effects, the changed hue, the brightening up and the metamerism, are integrated into the scale colour effect. For the production of the Real Colors Luftwaffe range, all paints are prepared to represent the actual colour at standard diffused daylight conditions.4 Extensive research and testing by the author, in the field of scale colours, led to the development of a scientific model for the calculation of the appropriate scale colour. The input for the model is the data of the 40 measurement points from 360 to 750nm, as used in the spectral analysis of the original colour. The output is the appropriate

scale colour.5 The spectrum of the original colour plays the key role and the actual pigmentation of your RLM-colour is directly reflected by the colour in the paint jar. The guesswork during long and dark winter evenings is replaced by a paint ready for use.

colours. As a general rule, RLM 70 will always look a bit darker than 71, and 72 will look a bit darker than 73, whilst 74 is darker than 75, and all versions of the late war RLM 81 are darker than 82. The Real Color Luftwaffe range carefully portrays these effects. Should you feel it is necessary to change the appearance of these ready mixed paints, the subtle relationship between the individual colours should be a part of your considerations.

The described effects leading to the scale colours do not change very much from scale to scale. This might be surprising at first but even for scales normally associated with ships (e.g. 1:350) the scale colour does not change any further as you portray the ship at a distance of around 100m or a little more. Effects like fading and the colours becoming a greyish blue towards the horizon, set in at distances greater than 100 or 200m. A look into a landscape with objects of a similar colour at increasing distances will show you that the fading of colours really sets in at a much greater distance than what conforms to the distance of your modelling subject.

Extensive development work has gone into this paint range. For you, as a modeller, it means that you will never be as close to the real thing. Happy modelling!

That said, modellers working in 1:32 scale might want to experiment with adding tiny amounts of black to tone the colours down slightly. For 1:48 scale adding an even smaller amount of black is an option which depends very much on the taste of the modeller.

1)  see for instance: Huntley, I.: A Question of Scale Colour, in: Scale Aircraft Modelling, Vol . 12, p. 416 et seq.; Merrick, K./Hitchcock, T.: The Official Monogram Painting Guide to German Aircraft 1935 - 1945, pp. 6/7

It should be noted that the oft-used method of adding white to achieve a scale colour effect leads to a wrong impression of the colour. Adding white means that a colour gets lighter but at the same time it will loose part of its chroma, i.e. it will become less intense and paler. Some modellers use mathematical formulas with increasing quantities of white added, for smaller scales. The overall effect might well be a pale looking model that looks different when compared to the original aircraft. Remember that you are portraying an object at a moderate distance away and not on the horizon.

2)  The author is indebted to the valuable and fascinating input of John Seymour, especially regarding how we see colours from a distance, how we measure colours and the role of the fovea centralis of the human eye. 3)  The illustration also shows an outer circle with a 50 degrees field of view. This is somewhat arbitrary as the actual field of view is much bigger. The intention of this circle here is to enhance the overall impression. The 50 degrees of view roughly conforms to a conventional 50mm lens of a camera. 4)  so called D65

Many Luftwaffe colours were rather dark and indeed quite often at least as dark or darker than contemporary US or British camouflage

1:72 scale

5)  Lab-value in the CIELab color space

distance from model 30 cm distance from original 22 m

10 deg oBserver 50 deg field of view

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NICHOLAS MILLMAN with MACIEJ GÓRALCZYK

U.S. Aircraft Colours in the Second World War

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2.1 Introduction The United States Army Air Corps (USAAC, which became the United States Army Air Forces in June 1941, expanding to greater autonomy. This change in title had no significant effect on the management of colour standards with a continuum from previous USAAC orders.) and United States Navy (USN) were separate services of the US armed forces, and operated aircraft in colour schemes unique to each service. The two services had attempted to introduce a shared colour standard in 1930 which, after various problems in the preparation of samples, resulted in a limited set of Army-Navy (A-N) colours proposed in June 1938. However, there were ongoing issues with the matching of Army and Navy equivalent ‘bright’ (non-camouflage) colours and in practice both services continued with standards for their own colours and nomenclature. With the outbreak of war, US aircraft manufacturers began constructing and supplying aircraft for France and Great Britain, at first under commercial contracts and later, for the latter, as part of Lend-Lease. With the attack on Pearl Harbor and the USA entry into the conflict, the manufacture of aircraft common to both US and British requirements drove the need to standardise for efficiency. In September 1940, the Joint Aircraft Committee (JAC) had been formed to oversee and co-ordinate manufacturing and supply requirements between the British Aircraft Commission (BAC) and US services. In February 1942, a Technical Sub-Committee on Camouflage was formed within the JAC, meeting for the first time on February 17, 1942, to consider standardisation within a fairly limited scope.

It was not until July 1942 that a single camouflage colour standard seeking to reconcile USAAF, USN and British (RAF and FAA) camouflage colours was agreed by the Sub-Committee, but the colours were not formally promulgated until the issue of Army-Navy Aircraft (ANA) Camouflage Color Standards in Bulletin 157 on September 28, 1943, listing 19 colours, ANA 601 to ANA 619 with samples available for manufacturers of aircraft and paints. This treatise presents the colours in use by each service seperately, with reference to official orders and requirements, introducing the ANA colours as relevant. It is to be emphasised that the colour standards were the benchmark for the colour required by the specifying authorities, and aircraft and paint manufacturers were expected to provide and apply paint or dope which matched, within reasonable tolerance, to those standards, sometimes in terms of formulae but always in terms of the colour appearance to be achieved. Applied paints and colour standards were therefore not always identical, and in the case of applied paints other factors such as the application processes, surface treatment and wear, environmental degradation or age-related colour shifts must be considered. All too often extant examples of applied paints are presumed to represent the colour standard accurately and to present a consistent appearance of the paint colour rather than just a matched and aged variant.

A BT-9 Yale, coded 292, from the 46th School Squadron, wore the colourful primary and basic trainer aircraft finish of A-N True Blue and Orange Yellow to Spec. 98-24113-A, dated September 9, 1938 (NARA)

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P-38D from the 1st Pursuit Group, pictured in 1941 in the standard camouflage scheme of the period (NARA)

2.2 USAAC/USAAF Camouflage Colours In August 1940, the Air Corps Board recommended the use of the following colours for aircraft camouflage: Dark Olive Drab 31, Neutral Gray 32, Black 33 and Sea Green 28, all temporary camouflage finishes. By September 1940, the Materials Laboratory (MatLab) at Wright Field had developed matt lacquer paints in these colours, and in the same month Air Corps Bulletin No.41 was issued with colour cards for eight colours, including four non-camouflage colour standards (Insignia Red 45, Insignia White 46, Insignia Blue 47 and Identification Yellow 48) and four camouflage colour standards (including Black 44), which would remain in use until late 1943. The finishing materials for the new camouflage colours were specified to be of two types: camouflage pigmented nitrate lacquer to Spec. 14105, and camouflage pigmented nitrate dope to Spec. 14106. The following pigments were specified for the camouflage colours:

P-36A, from the 51st Pursuit Group, Oakland, 1941. Dark Olive Drab 41 over Neutral Gray 43

Dark Olive Drab 41 - optional Medium Green 42 - optional Neutral Gray 43 - titanium dioxide, yellow iron oxide, lamp black

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These new colours became standard for all US Army combat aircraft just prior to America’s entry into the Second World War, and provided the standard to which manufacturers were expected to match their paints. They continued unchanged until their replacement by Army-Navy Aeronautical Bulletin No.157, dated September 28, 1943, and titled ‘Colors; List of Standard Aircraft Camouflage’ - which incorporated the ANA colours. Note that the pigments for Olive Drab and Medium Green were not specified. That permited manufacturers to use their own procured pigments to create paint that matched the standard, and therefore the colours could, and did, vary with exposure and weathering over time - see below. Chalk-resistant titanium dioxide, a white pigment, is the rutile form. It is significant that this was not specified for Neutral Gray 43 (q.v.) which meant that manufacturers were free to use the cheaper anatase form which was prone to chalking. That suggests that perhaps the Air Force were not too concerned at the prospect of the Neutral Gray becoming lighter in service. It might even be the reason that the colour was standardised so dark to begin with.

2.2.1 Olive Drab 41 and ANA 613

Snapshots from the B-25C bomber painting process at Inglewood factory, 1942. The painter holds a wooden template used for application of national insignia (Alfred T. Palmer via Library of Congress)

Although introduced as a standard upper surface camouflage colour during the Second World War, Olive Drab had a long pedigree for US Army aircraft. A-N Olive Drab (gloss) was originally issued as a ‘wet colour’ standard to paint manufacturers in September 1930, developed directly from the 1923 Spec. 3-1 colour Olive Drab 22. The pigments specified for the paint were Chrome Yellow, Lamp Black, Ultramarine Blue - trace and Zinc White - trace. There were various problems with this system, and several subsequent reiterations of the colour presented in different formats, culminating in ‘dry’ porcelain plates issued in September 1938 with a simplified specification of Chromium Oxide (Green) and Iron-Zinc Brown. In comparison to later Olive Drabs, OD 22 is a much richer, deeper olive green hue. Slight variations in the appearance of the various plates issued were noted by paint manufacturers.

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New B-25s awaiting the final inspection and flight tests. The aircraft in the foreground has a soft and straight demarcation between the camouflage colours, whilst the remaining machines feature a wavy demarcation in accordance with AAF HQ demands. (Alfred T. Palmer via Library of Congress)

Olive Drab 31 was a temporary water colour camouflage paint included in Specification 14057 originally issued in April 1931. This set of temporary camouflage colours continued through Spec. 14057-A issued in August 1932, Spec. 14057-B issued in March 1938, and Spec. 14057-C issued in December 1939, and was not cancelled until 1954.

Dark Olive Drab 41 (OD 41) was a permanent camouflage paint introduced in AAF Bulletin 41 issued in September 1940 following a series of tests. It was promulgated as the standard upper surface camouflage colour for US Army aeroplanes from 1941 to late 1943. As mentioned, the pigment specification was optional, leaving manufacturers free to formulate their own paints to match the standard. The closest FS 595 equivalent to OD 41 is FS 33070, which is very close indeed at 1.64 where <2.0 = a close match (Difference quantifications have been calculated using the DE2000 formula. This formula is the most recently recommended by the Commission International de l’Éclairage. The lower the number the closer the match - a difference calculation of 2.0 or less usually indicates a close match, but the figure is drawn from cumulative values, so the direction of any shift must be quantified by description and/or observation. Whilst it is the experience of the author that wartime paint batch differences of up to 5 were not unusual, for precise matching and visualisation purposes any calculation above 3 can be considered of limited value.). In March 1942, the JAC agreed that OD 41 could be substituted for MAP Dark Green (RAF) on aircraft manufactured for export to Britain. In July 1942, it was agreed that this colour would be standardised as Olive Drab ANA 613, and substituted for MAP Dark Green and MAP Dark Slate Grey (FAA). The new ANA standards were not officially issued until September 1943, by which time an Army intervention had slightly altered the appearance of this colour.

B-17F-95-BO, s/n 42-30301, was delivered in May 1943. It was the first B-17 of the 94th Bombardment Group to survive 50 combat missions. Note the patchy appearance of the olive drab paintwork that resulted from repairs and overpainting the nickname initially carried by this aircraft, i.e. ‘Missy G’ (NARA) 120

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ANA 613 Olive Drab In January 1943, Major A.I. Totten Jr. of the Army Resources and Production Division proposed to consolidate the two shades of Olive Drab in

use at the time, the USAAF OD 41 and the Army Ground Forces (AGF) Olive Drab, into a new colour Army/Navy (AN) 319, which was the same colour as the AGF Olive Drab. In February 1943, Major Totten’s proposal was passed to the JAC Technical Sub-Committee on Camouflage by the Director of Military Requirements, and approved by them in March 1943, prior to the promulgation of the ANA colours. Therefore the standards Olive Drab 319 in US Army Specification 3-1 Revised April 1943 and 613 of ANA Bulletin 157 of September 1943 were supposed to be equivalents, and have been reported as identical. However, the 1943 Bulletin 157 ANA 613 Olive Drab and OD 41 are slightly different in appearance. The Munsell values reveal that although both are of the same hue, ANA 613 is slightly more towards YR (Yellow Red, e.g. slightly more “brownish”) than OD 41, which is slightly closer to GY (Green Yellow, e.g. slightly more “greenish”), but the Value (lightness/darkness) and Chroma (colour saturation) are similar - ANA 613 being just slightly lighter and less saturated than OD 41. The closest FS equivalent to ANA 613 is FS 34086 at 2.15, with just enough shift to create a slightly misleading impression. However, there is a closer RAL value of 7013 Braungrau (Brown grey) at 0.61. The subsequent 1959 standard for ANA 613 is closer to FS 33070 at 1.98. It is safe to say that, taking into account issues of differing pigmentation and weathering, the difference between OD 41 and ANA 613 for modelling purposes is largely academic. An assertion often made is that ANA 613 never actually replaced OD 41. This is untrue and fails to appreciate the difference between colour standards and actual paint supplies. There are at least two officially documented references to the practical (not theoretical or ‘intended’) application of paint colours to these standards to USAAF aircraft late in the war. One of the reasons for the delay in introducing ANA 613 related to the reflectance requirements. The original OD 41 had a reflectivity of 7.8%, but tests by Material Command Engineering Division at Eglin Field in June 1943 revealed that the new paint colour had a reflectivity of 9.4%, which exceeded the recommended 8%. Various measures were then undertaken to reduce the reflectivity of ANA 613 before it was accepted for use. ANA 613 was eventually reduced to 7%, which was about the same reflectivity as MAP/RAF Dark Green.

In March 1943, a P-51 was used to test a special ‘dazzle’ camouflage scheme at Eglin Field. This aircraft was painted in Insignia White 46 and Insignia Blue 47, with the fuselage spine and horizontal tail’s upper surfaces left in Dark Olive Drab 41. The results of comparative trials with a P-51 in standard camouflage were negative (NARA)

B-24D-20-CO, s/n 41-24183, served with the 374th Bombardment Squadron / 308th Bombardment Group in the CBI in the autumn of 1943. The paintwork had faded quite significantly (NARA)

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P-39 Airacobra in sea-search camouflage of Dark Olive Drab 41 over Insignia White 46 in Panama Canal Zone (NARA)

A modified B-24D and its crew from the 19th Antisubmarine Squadron / 479th Antisubmarine Group, pictured at St. Eval, UK, in the summer of 1943. The aircraft carried a mid-demarcation sea-search camouflage scheme of Dark Olive Drab 41 over Insignia White 46 (NARA)

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B-25C-NA, s/n 41-12848, 5th Antisubmarine Squadron, 1943. Sea-search camouflage scheme of Dark Olive Drab 41 over Insignia White 46

In June 1943, a sea-search camouflage scheme of OD 41 (or 32) over Insignia White 46 (or 25) was authorised. TO 07-1-1 of April 1944 announced the discontinuation of camouflage on US Army aircraft, but has sometimes been confused because it listed authorised camouflage finishes for liaison aircraft, helicopters and gliders, using paint to either OD 41 or ANA 613 standards. There is little doubt that stocks of paint to OD 41 standard would have been available through to the end of the war. In Bulletin 157e issued in 1964, Olive Drab ANA 613 was superseded by a new colour FS 34087 incorporated into FS 595a and of appreciably more brownish appearance. The matching of FS 34087 to ANA 613 has caused considerable confusion about the true appearance of the latter colour.

Pictured in the spring of 1944, this P-47D coded HV-U from the 61st Fighter Squadron / 56th Fighter Group, shows signs of several retouches applied to the factory finish of Dark Olive Drab 41 over Neutral Grey 43. This particular aircraft was a D-11-RE, s/n 42-75272, and was flown by an ace pilot, 1st Lt. Donovan F. Smith (James V. Crow coll.)

A fact to be borne in mind when contemplating the closest ‘modern’ FS 595b comparisons to the wartime ODs is that although superficially similar in appearance, the pigment compositions are different. It is also relevant to re-emphasise that no pigment formula was specified for OD 41 or ANA 613. This resulted in paints, which although matched to the appearance of the standard, could and did age and weather very differently once applied to aeroplanes. They could also vary by batch as manufacturers sought alternative pigments to facilitate production in the face of shortages. Army FM 5-20H - Camouflage Materials and Manufacturing Techniques of July 1944 advised in Section 1. Paragraph 5, PAINTS. (e): “In spite of color standardization, there is considerable variation in hue between lots and between the products of different manufacturers.”

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Although camouflage painting had been discontinued in April 1944, the aircraft manufacturers were still using stocks of precamouflaged sub-assemblies delivered by the sub-contractors, as paint removal was considered as waste of time and effort. Chin turrets painted in Neutral Gray 43 can therefore be spotted on many B-17s in natural metal finish (NARA)

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Pre-camouflaged wing panels and control surfaces were also installed, as shown on example of these B-17Gs from the 532nd Bombardment Squadron / 381st Bombardment Group, photographed in the summer of 1944 (NARA)

P-51B-15-NA, s/n 42-106950, coded WR-P, flown by Lt. Robert E. Hulderman of the 354th Fighter Squadron / 355th Fighter Group. Note the different shades of olive drab used for overpainting the invasion stripes and painting the remaining areas. The under surfaces and fuselage sides remained in natural metal finish (NARA)

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This C-47 is an interesting hybrid, having camouflaged rear fuselage and tailplane, as well as port engine nacelle and outer part of the wing. Note the Medium Green 42 blotching on the latter (NARA)

P-51D-5-NA, s/n 44-13357, coded B7-R from the 374th Fighter Squadron / 361st Fighter Group, was the mount of Lt. Vernon R. Richards, who is seen at the controls. The aircraft was in natural metal / silver lacquer finish, with olive drab anti-glare panel, invasion stripes on the lower surface of the fuselage and wings, yellow spinner and nose band, and dark blue wing tips, vertical tail tip and trim tab. Interestingly, blue was the identification colour of the 375th FS (NARA)

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F-6D-10-NA, s/n 44-14841, flown by Capt. William A. Shomo, CO of the 82nd Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron / 71st Tactical Reconnaissance Group, Hill Field, Mindoro, January 12, 1945. Natural metal / silver lacquer finish with olive drab anti-glare panel.

Ground crew maintaining P-47N-1-RE, s/n 44-87957, coded 05 (hardly visible, but present on the top of the tail fin), from the 19th Fighter Squadron / 318th Fighter Group, at Ie Shima, in the late spring of 1945. Natural metal finish with olive drab anti-glare panel and ANA 501 Light Blue squadron markings (James V. Crow coll.)

In 1944, the US Army tested 28 samples of OD from different manufacturers and plotted them against the standard in terms of acceptability or rejection. All were measured as Munsell Y – Yellow, but they varied in a range from 4.5 Y 3.99/1.76 to 7.5 Y 3.73/1.76 against the specified standard of 7.0 Y 3.70/1.73. All pigments have inherently unique characteristics and both interact and evolve in coatings in various ways. This means that an initial ‘match’ to standard of applied paint can behave differently once exposure, oxidisation and various environmental impacts occur. It seems pedantic to emphasise this, but statements like “painted with ANA 613” are misleading. ANA 613 was a colour standard for a paint, not a paint per se, so determining its appearance from applied paints, from colour photographs, or even from extant artifacts is unsafe. Understanding how the various pigments work together, even using a simple water colour set, helps immeasurably in determining their typical appearance.

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Six P-47B-REs from the 56th Figher Group, led by the unit’s CO Lt. Col. Hubert Zemke, whose aircraft carries three squadron leader bands (red, yellow and dark blue) on the rear fuselage and front engine cowl, and Medium Green 42 blotching on the vertical tail. The remaining fighters seem to carry standard DOD 41/NG 43 finish (NARA)

2.2.2 Medium Green 42 Something of a puzzle is why US Medium Green 42 - and later ANA 612 - did not feature more prominently as a substitute or equivalent colour for MAP/RAF Dark Green. In fact, the RAF colour was closer to OD 41. Medium Green 42 as a colour standard arrived with the Bulletin 41 color card issued in September 1940. Although it was not specifically mentioned as a camouflage colour in the August 1940 report that followed a series of camouflage tests, a precedent for using a dark green paint in addition to olive drab was set by its conclusions: “That the best basic color top paint to be used for camouflage under all conditions is solid dark olive drab; the best sky camouflage for all sky backgrounds is solid neutral gray; That a dark green paint offers best concealment in the summertime when viewed against a predominantly green terrain background.” A more specific reference to it was made in T.O. 07-1-1 ‘Camouflaging of Airplanes’ issued in April 1941: “f. Use of special color of camouflage material:  The basic color of camouflage for the top surfaces of all camouflaged airplanes will be dark olive drab, Shade No.41, A.C. Bulletin No.41. However to meet requirements where airplanes are operated over a terrain which is predominantly green, the use of one coat of medium green, Shade No.42, A.C. Bulletin No.41 is authorised to supplement the top-surface camouflage finish.” The ambiguity is obvious and the possibility that any aircraft were camouflaged in a supplementary or solid Medium Green top-surface finish as a result of this order is refuted in some quarters - without any apparent evidence for that efutation.

Sea Green 28 Temporary Camouflage (Paint, Water Dry, Spec. 14057) A major revision of this order was issued in June 1942, referring to Medium Green thus: “For aircraft operating over a terrain predominantly green, the use of one coat of Medium Green Shade No.42, Bulletin 41, in permanent Camouflage Materials is authorized.” This order also allowed for local commanders to use the temporary camouflage paint Sea Green Shade No.28 (a very similar colour to Medium Green) “when operating over terrain predominantly green”.

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B-17F-10-BO, s/n 41-24485, coded DF-A, from the 324th Bombardment Squadron / 91st Bombardment Group, United States, summer 1943. Dark Olive Drab 41 over Neutral Gray 43, with Medium Green 42 blotching (Photo: NARA)

This was quickly amended just over a month later, in July 1942, to introduce the more familiar Medium Green blotching: “Medium Green, Shade No. 42 in splotches or patches along the leading edges, tips and trailing edges of the wing, vertical and horizontal stabilizers and rudders. Application should be made so that the continuity in appearance of the wing, stabilizer and rudder outlines is broken. The size of the splotches or stripes should extend inward from the edges at various distances eanging from 0% to 20% of the width of the wing, stabilizer or rudder member.”    A further revision T.O. 07-1-1B issued in August 1942, affirmed the application of Medium Green blotching and ordered the deletion of the ‘U.S.Army’ titles on the under surfaces of the wings of camouflaged aircraft.

Medium Green 42 As to the colour itself, Robert D. Archer traces its evolution from the Bulletin 41 card to colour 318 in US Army Spec. 3-1 of April 1943, thence to ANA 612 in Bulletin 157 of September 1943, through the first iteration of FS 595 in January 1950 as colour 3406, and finally as FS 34079 in March 1956. There is a slight hiccup within this chronology, as the Color Card Supplement to Army Spec. 3-1 of April 1943 lists 317 without equivalents but called ‘Forest Green’, and 318 as equivalent to ANA Medium Green and called ‘Dark Green’. In 1956, the Army Field Manual 5-22 listed 317 as No.11 Forest Green, also called ‘Shadow Green’ and ‘Medium Green’, but in the Army Corps of Engineers T-1213 that colour was listed as an equivalent to No.12 Forest Green, as were FS 34079, 3406, 317 and ANA 631, the latter being the mysterious ‘Shadow Green’ for which a chip does not seem readily available! real colors of wwii aircraft /

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A pair of B-17Fs from the 322nd Bombardment Squadron / 91st Bombardment Group: s/n 41-24453 coded LG-O, and 41-24497 coded LG-P. As Boeing did not apply Medium Green 42 blotching at the factory level, it was applied at the depot/unit level, which is the reason of prominent difference between the camouflage application on these two sister ships. Note how the MG 42 patches stand out when applied over the fabric doped surfaces (NARA)

Another example of field-applied Medium Green 42 blotching on this B-17F-10-BO, s/n 41-24484, coded LL-C, from the 401st Bombardment Squadron / 91st Bombardment Group; Bassingbourn, UK, October 1943 (NARA)

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B-24D-1-CO, s/n 41-23711, from the 328th Bombardment Squadron / 93rd Bombardment Group, in worn and faded Dark Olive Drab 41/Neutral Grey 43 finish, with Medium Green 42 blotching visible on the vertical tail. Note that the yellow outer wing of the national insignia was overpainted with fresh Insignia Blue 47. This aircraft was lost on October 1, 1943 (NARA)

In 1969, Ross Whistler cross-referenced ANA 612, using June 1943 ANA colour cards, to FS 34092 rather than 34079, noting that 612 was “greyer than 34092”. In 1972, Jerry H. Smith referred to ANA 612 as “slightly glossier than (FS) 34092 and has more yellow in it. The AN color seems more a natural green, and harmonises with ANA 613 (Olive Drab) better than 34092 does.” In 1988, David H. Klaus’ IPMS Color Cross-Reference Guide listed both Medium Green 42 and ANA 612 as 34092 without comment for the former, but repeating Smith’s comment for the latter as well as adding that it had superseded Medium Green and BuAer Light Green. Checking and measuring the standards, this author could not reach those same conclusions. Suffice it to say that there are no particularly close equivalents to Medium Green 42 or ANA 612 in FS 595b. The closest value to both colours is actually 34094, but not that close at 2.86 and 2.96 respectively. The other comparison calculations are as follows:

Medium Green 42 vs 34092 = 5.42 (34092 is a more blueish-green) Medium Green 42 vs 34079 = 5.81 (34079 is more olive green) ANA 612 vs 34092 = 3.93 (34092 is slightly lighter and a more blueish-green) ANA 612 vs 34079 = 4.11 (34079 is slightly lighter and more olive)

FS 34092 is a colour that has been cited to represent Dupont 71-013, which was applied as a substitute colour for MAP Dark Green on export aircraft and also for Dark Green 30, another of the temporary camouflage finishes to Spec. 14057, sometimes cited as the origin of the dark green on AVG Tomahawks - but that colour was a black green, very much darker and greyer than 34092.

Dark Green 30 Temporary Camouflage (Paint, Water Dry, Spec. 14057) FS 34079 is a colour also frequently cross-referenced as a match to MAP/ RAF Dark Green from which it differs at 4.31, so the potential confusions in the visualisation of these colours can be appreciated. The likely variance in Medium Green as an applied paint and the potential shift of up to about 5.0 in wartime paints suggest that it would not be unacceptable to use those FS values as a basis for a range of colour on a model, adjusting it for the particular OD that is chosen. The variance is borne out in colour photos in which Medium Green can appear both lighter and darker than the OD. The darkness of Medium Green 42 has been exaggerated by occasional comparison to RAAF Foliage Green, the origin of which has even been attributed to it. But the clue is in the name... real colors of wwii aircraft /

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P-40N-1-CU Warhawk, s/n 42-104589, from the 51st Fighter Group, in flight over Burma, late 1943. The Medium Green 42 blotching was applied to the vertical tail and possibly also the center/rear fuselage spine (NARA)

C-47A-90-DL, s/n 43-15972, being prepared to be loaded with cargo at Patterson Field, Ohio. The Medium Green 42 blotching was applied to the leading and trailing edges of the wings and tailplane (NARA)

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The T.O. from July 1942 did not specify that Medium Green 42 blotching should be applied over the upper surfaces only, which sometimes resulted in such anomalies as featured on this C-47 pictured on Sicily in 1943 (NARA)

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2.2.3 Neutral Gray 43 Neutral Gray 43 (NG 43) derived from Neutral Gray 32, a temporary camouflage colour. The first reality check with NG 43 is to refute the idea that it was a “pure” neutral grey consisting only of black and white pigments. As already mentioned, the pigments specified for NG 43 included yellow iron oxide, which is a yellow ochre rather than pure yellow, and has the effect of ‘warming’ the colour. Whistler commented on NG 32/43 as follows: “Some sources have incorrectly presented a distinctly bluish paint or color chip as representing Neutral Gray. This may stem from the fact that Neutral Gray was later superseded by Sea Gray, which does have a dinstinctly bluish cast”.

Neutral Grey 43 ANA 603 Sea Grey The FS values most often cited for NG 43 are FS 36270 (supposedly in error) and 36173 (supposedly correct), but both contain rutile titanium dioxide (white), phthalocyanine blue (red shade) and carbon black (blue shade). In addition, FS 36270 contains benzimidazolone yellow, whilst FS 36173 contains red iron oxide (blue shade). Contrary to some assertions, NG 43 did not evolve into any other standard colour after its appearance in Bulletin 41 of September 16, 1940. It was superseded by the darker ANA paint colour Sea Gray 603 (a Munsell B - Blue close to FS 26132 at 2.26) introduced with Bulletin 157 of September 28, 1943, and that colour standard in turn evolved to become FS 36118 (a Munsell PB - Purple Blue).   The closest FS value to NG 43 is FS 36134, which is very close indeed at 0.49. FS 36134 Gray was introduced in 1999, and does not appear in earlier issues of the Federal Standard. Also, at the time of writing, no details of its pigments are available. The closest FS value to ANA 603 is 26132 at 2.26, with FS 36118 close by at 2.29, but distinctly more blueish. Both Smith and Whistler declared ANA 603 as near identical to FS 36118, with Smith qualifying it as having a faint purplish cast (which seems inverted as to the actual colour measurement of 603 vs 36118), and Whistler commenting that 603 is greyer than 36118 (which conforms to this author’s findings).

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The idea of blueish NG 43 probably stems from a prevalent tendency for ‘greys’ to be perceived as blueish as well as its appearance in many wartime colour photos, and many of the NG 43 hobby paints seem to evidence this trait. Even though the popular idea that NG 43 was a pure mix of black and white is repeated, there is an apparent acceptance of the more blueish grey hobby paints being representative, and citing FS 36173 as a close match. Some of these matches are perhaps being made under artificial tungsten light, which draws 36173 closer to a warmer, neutral grey. Certainly the swatch included in J.F. Dial’s 1964 ‘United States Camouflage WW II’ (Scale Reproductions) is significantly more blueish in chroma than the paint chip and printed chip in both the Archer books. Again, it is emphasised that the discussion here concerns the paint colour standard and does not necessarily mean that all applied paints matched that standard perfectly, and/or did not exhibit colour shift as a result of manufacturing processes or environmental and age related stresses. Another clue to the characteristics of this colour is the fact that for the first time in Spec. 14057-C of December 27, 1939, Munsell colour notations had been cited for the colours, and Neutral Gray 32 was notated as Munsell N5 (in the 1929 system). Neutral Gray 32, an earlier temporary camouflage paint, was identical to the subsequent NG 43. The 1929 Munsell N5 is entirely consistent with the Archer chips. A study which explores the subject of applied paint in forensic detail, is ‘The Whole Nine Yards’ by John King, documenting the restoration and service life of surviving RAAF P-40N A29-448 (42-104730). It contains an informative chapter devoted to the subject of paint colours, providing a valuable insight to Curtiss factory applications. This follows convention in matching the undersurface NG 43 paint to FS 36173 based on extant samples from A29-448 and other P-40s, but the following comment is made: “There is little evidence in the literature of wide colour shifts in the Neutral Grey lower surface paint, other than normal oxidisation of the surface layers, which is easily removed with a mild abrasive.” Geoff Thomas, in an article for Airfix magazine in February 1983 (‘True Colours’), matched NG 43 to Munsell 5 PB 4/1 - the closest FA value to which is 36118 at 2.06. But even so, 36118 is visually more blueish than the Munsell value as shown. In the same author’s ‘Eyes for the Phoenix’, NG 43 is matched to FS 36173, Methuen 22D-E2 and Munsell 6 PB 4.1/2.5. This variance possibly represents matching to extant paint samples rather than to a paint standard swatch. All these colours seem more typical for Sea Gray ANA 603 than NG 43.

B-25Cs of the 82nd Bombardment Squadron / 12th Bombardment Group in almost pristine Sand 49 / Neutral Gray 43 camouflage, pictured in flight in December 1942 (Library of Congress)

2.2.4 Sand 49 Sand 49 was added to Bulletin 41 in October 1942 and presumably derived from Sand 26, but it was not originally identical in appearance.

Sand 26 Temporary Camouflage Sand 49 (Paint, Water Dry, Spec. 14057) (Bulletin 41-A October 1942) Sand 26 was a 1931 paint colour standard for a water-based temporary paint to Spec. 14057 (‘Water-Dry’) that Gen. Arnold ordered to be applied to the upper surfaces of aircraft operating over the desert on May 6, 1942, and which was then added to TO 07-1-1 Camouflaging of Aircraft issued on June 1, 1942. On May 27, 1942, Sand 26 had been required to be made available as a permanent enamel to Spec. 14109 to be painted over the existing Olive Drab for the 98th BG ‘project’ for the Ploesti raid (the under surfaces remained Neutral Gray). Sand 26 is very much ‘pinker’ than Sand 49 - almost a salmon pink or flesh colour. It is similar to but slightly darker than FS 21433.

ANA 616 Sand USAAF Sand 49 of Bulletin 41-A of October 1942 evolved to Sand ANA 616 in Bulletin 157 of 1943, then to Sand 3505 in the first FS 595 of 1950, and eventually to FS 30279 in FS 595 from 1956 and onwards. The wartime paint colour was darker and ‘pinker’ than the current 30279, but all those paint real colors of wwii aircraft /

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A P-40K from the 64th Fighter Squadron / 57th Fighter Group in a rather worn Sand / Neutral Gray finish, being loaded with British bombs. Tunisia, early 1943 (NARA)

Another two photos of P-40Ks from the 64th Fighter Squadron / 57th Fighter Group, reveal how the maintenance markings were masked off during the application of Sand 49 layer. The photos were taken after the famous ‘Palm Sunday Massacre’ on April 18, 1943 (Nick Parrino via Library of Congress)

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P-40F-1-CU, s/n 41-14245, coded 87, from the 66th Fighter Squadron / 57th Fighter Group, Tunisia, March 1943. Sand 49 over Neutral Gray 43

B-25C-1-NA, s/n 41-13207, from the 445th Bombardment Squadron / 321st Bombardment Group, arrived in North Africa in February 1943, and logged over 80 combat missions between March 1943 and January 1944. The aircraft was camouflaged in Sand 49 over Neutral Gray 43 with a wavy demarcation between the colours, which is hardly visible on this photo (NARA)

colours were a continuum of the same colour standard and not separate colours. None of them are similar to the much yellower RAF Middle Stone, the US equivalent of which was 304 in the Supplement to US army Spec. 3-1 of 1943 and ANA 615 in Bulletin 157, and all were designated simply as ‘Sand’. The Spec. 3-1 equivalent of Sand 49 and ANA 616 was Desert Sand 313, which was almost exactly similar but just a little brighter and ‘pinker’.

but that both were slightly darker and pinker than 30279. The implication that Sand 26 and 49 were identical was perhaps due to his examining a later Sand 26 swatch in the Bulletin 48 Color Card for Temporary Camouflage Finishes, first issued in May 1942, but valid to August 1954. It is probable that Sand 26 and 49 colours were homogenised after the enamel paint version was developed.

Note that FS 30279 is now officially designated ‘Desert sand/ANA 616’. The colour name was changed from ‘Sand’ to ‘Desert sand’ in Bulletin 157e of October 1964. In evaluating ANA 616 Smith described FS 30279 as “lighter in shade and considerably less “peachy” in hue compared to the 616 of June 1943”. He opined that 30279 seemed like the same colour as ANA 616 with white added to it. Bearing in mind the propensity of wartime paint to chalk, this difference is not really an issue for modellers. Whistler described FS 30279 as a good match to Sand 26 and Sand 49,

Just to complicate the matter, in addition to Desert Sand 313, Spec. 3-1 also had Earth Yellow 305 and Sand 306 which were both featured in the socalled Corps of Engineers camouflage for aircraft in NW Africa. Earth Yellow 305 is a little lighter than FS 30257, and Sand 306 is a beige colour closely similar to FS 33448. The RAF Middle Stone equivalent 304 in Spec. 3-1 and ANA 615 evolved to FS 30266, which is now officially designated ‘Yellow sand/Tan/ANA 615’, but is darker than 304.

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A rare example of a P-38F or G which appears to be at least partially camouflaged in a sand colour. The photo is dated May 31, 1943 (NARA) B-24D-53-CO, s/n 42-40364, flew in the 343rd Bombardment Squadron / 98th Bombardment Group from April 1943. Named ‘Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs’, is one of the best known victims of the Ploesti Raid on August 1, 1943. It was painted in Sand 49 over Neutral Gray 43 (NARA)

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Another bomber from the 98th Bombardment Group. B-24D-85-CO, s/n 42-40654, belonged to the 345th Bombardment Squadron and was crashed on landing on July 29, 1943. The soft demarcation between Sand 49 and Neutral Gray 43 is clearly visible (NARA)

Again, to emphasise that it is the paint colour standard being presented here. The applied paints could and did vary even before colour photography adds a further margin for error! Undoubtedly the combination of the very harsh UV light and the extreme temperatures of North Africa rapidly degraded the paint surface, so it is unnecessary to attempt absolute precision in replicating the paint colours on a model. The paint was on a journey from the moment it was applied. Also be aware of field-size metameric failure which occurs because the relative proportions of the three cone types in the retina vary from the center of the visual field to the periphery, so that colours that match when viewed as very small, centrally fixated areas, may appear different when presented as large colour areas, usually seeming lighter or brighter (although as always illumination will be a factor). The author has experienced this several times when holding a colour swatch up against a larger surface several feet away and thinking “No, too dark”, then finding that when the swatch is placed directly against the surface, it proves to be identical. This is the real reason that small models will sometimes appear too dark when correctly matched to full size paint colour.

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2.2.5 HQ NW African Air Forces Shown here are original copies of the actual instructions from Headquarters of the Northwest African Air Forces for the aircraft camouflage devised by the Engineer Section of that HQ and issued on May 8, 1943. These are often referred to as being from a “US Army Corps of Engineers” colour specification with the assertion that they were never actually implemented. However, the paint colours referred to are those contained with the Supplement to US Army Specification No.3-1 as revised in April 1943, which pre-dated the formal issue of ANA Bulletin 157 in September 1943. The Supplement lists equivalents, which include other US Army specification colours, US Engineers colours, ANA, TAC ES-689, and alternative colour names. So rather than being specific to the US Engineers, the colours were universal to the US Army, and the instruction is clearly an air forces document. 

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No.313 Desert Sand, No.306 Sand, No.305 Earth Yellow (Supplement to US Army Spec. 3-1, April 1943) The colour swatches as shown in the document should not be taken as accurate representations of the actual 3-1 colours and ditto the printed chips in Archer. The schematics in the original have been variously reproduced, not always accurately. There is evidence that some of these supplementary colours were in use in the South West Pacific Area, and it is probable that they also saw use in North West Africa, especially during the era of the supposed “mud” disruptive patterns over factory Olive Drab as seen in photographs of certain aircraft types such as the A-20 and P-38.

Spec. 3-1 No.303 Field Drab, Spec. 3-1 No.304 Middle Stone, ANA 615 Middle Stone Very pale blue under surfaces are visible in some colour photographs of some P-40 types taken before this instruction was issued. They seem too light for Azure and especially too light and too early for the US ANA variant of Azure. Those images have sometimes been interpreted as showing a light grey, but are too light for Neutral Grey. The upper surface camouflage on those aircraft appears like the Spec. 3-1 colours Field Drab No.303 and Middlestone No.304 (those colours unsurprisingly being the equivalents for ANA Dark Earth and Middlestone), but the latter might also be Sand No.306. Field Drab is a colour that has also been referenced in the painting of some P-40Es in Australia, to create a quasi-TLS disruptive pattern applied to aircraft factory finished in Dark Olive Drab over Neutral Grey (this results in a rather low contrast upper surface scheme).

This F-5A, coded 71, from the 90th Photographic Reconnaissance Wing, was apparently finished in the original Haze paint (NARA)

OD 41 with Spec. 3-1 No.303 Field Drab disruptive pattern scheme imitating RAF TLS, and applied to e.g. export P-40 aircraft requisitioned by USAAF - P-40E with Spec. 3-1 No.323 Sky Gray (RAF Sky equivalent) under surfaces; P-40 F, K & L with NG 43 under surfaces It is easy to get hung up on the more extravagant Special scheme requirements in this instruction and to overlook the General provision. For example, the general scheme for the pattern shown for the P-40 (see above) as A + B  is Field Drab and factory Dark Olive Drab - with the under surfaces re-painted in the mixed light blue. Whereas the special scheme for Light Sand or Dessert (sic) areas is either plain Sand, or Sand and Field Drab over light blue. Bear in mind that factory applied Dark Olive Drab 41 is closer to FS 33070, and not the same as Spec. 3-1 No.319 Olive Drab, which is closer to FS 34088.     It seems likely that the requirement for these schemes, which were intended to be discretionary to command, diminished as the threat of air attack on Allied airfields receded, and that the pace of operations and movements made the ground camouflage considerations impractical beyond the basics. When considering the above schematics (which show the colour standards), bear in mind the variance of applied paints, and the bleaching/fading effect from desert exposure and service. Also consider the probability of Sand No.306 applied to OD 41 and Field Drab No.303 applied to OD 41, both over Neutral Grey.

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Known from a number of photos, F-5C-1-LO, s/n 42-67128, was assigned to the 22nd Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron / 7th Photographic Reconnaissance Group. It had a Synthetic Haze finish (NARA)

The unit assignment of this F-5E, named ‘Potent Tater’, is unknown. This aircraft appears to be painted with Synthetic Haze paint (James V. Crow coll.)

comparison with the other shades (refer to Appendix 1 Para C2 for details). The heavier the sprayed coat of Haze Paint was, the whiter and lighter the finish appeared, with the lightest 45% finish on the horizontal under surfaces, the darkest 8% on the horizontal top surfaces and the median 14% finish on the fuselage sides. The Haze Paint was to be applied over two coats of standard black lacquer. Note that the aircraft’s identity markings and insignia were supposed to be applied after the black finish, but before the Haze Paint was applied. In other words, the Haze paint was to be applied over the markings.

2.2.6 Haze Camouflage

80 of the 99 F-4 Photo-Recce Lockheed Lightnings, all 20 F-4As, about 30 of 40 F-5A-1s and -3s, and the only F-5A-2 produced between March and October 1942, were painted using the Haze system. There exists evidence for a Haze painted RNZAF Kittyhawk (above - note also reference to “duck egg blue” rather than “sky grey”!).

There were four shades of Haze Paint to be applied, determined by the heaviness of spraying and for three of those shades sample chips were provided to guide the painters, with a diffuse reflectivity of 8%, 14% and 45% respectively. For comparison, RAF Dark Mediterranean Blue had diffuse reflectivity of 8%, RAF PRU Blue 14% and RAF Sky 43%. The fourth shade intended for the vertical (fin and) rudder surfaces was to be arrived at by

The Haze camouflage system, considered too complex and toxic in application and of dubious effectiveness, was terminated by Lockheed in October 1942 and a two-part Synthetic Haze paint, light blue in character, was developed instead. A deep sky blue hue, which Lockheed designated ‘Sky Base Blue’, was experimentally applied to an F-5A, and then the under surfaces and sides were lightly sprayed with a tinted white designated ‘Flight Blue’. The Sherwin-Williams company standardised these paints as Synthetic Haze for use on all Lockheed F-5As and F-5Bs, but it is not known how many were actually painted in these colours. Some of the F-5As operating in the UK in the standard OD 41 over NG 43 were repainted in service, but there is evidence that RAF paints PRU Blue and Azure Blue were used. The F-5s from the 10th Photo-Reconnaissance Group were reported to be painted ‘sky blue‘ in February 1945. ‘Sky Base Blue‘ has been compared to FS 15123 but a little darker, whilst ‘Flight Blue‘ has been compared to FS 35190, but the author has been unable to verify that, or to present measured sample chips.

It is best to let the original documents shown here do most of the explaining about this unique system of camouflage for high flying and photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The primary ingredient of Haze Paint was zinc oxide (Pigment White 4), which is a semi-translucent white pigment and not blue. As stated in the primary source documents reproduced on the following page, “Haze Paint is a colloidal dispersion of zinc oxide in oil which is manufactured by Samuel Cabot, Inc., 141 Milk Street, Boston Massachusetts.” and “Unlike ordinary paints, the blue color is generated without the use of coloured pigments by a mechanism similar to that by which the atmosphere itself acquires its color.”

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The early night fighters such as these P-70A-2 Nighthawks, were camouflaged in flat black overall. Nonspecular Black 44 was probably used (NARA)

P-61A-10-NO, s/n 42-5569, named ‘Tabitha’, from the 425th Night Fighter Squadron, is an excellent example of overall ANA 622 Jet Black finish (NARA)

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P-61A-10-NO, s/n 42-5583, named ‘Dangerous Dan’, was another aircraft from the 425th Night Fighter Squadron that had been painted in ANA 622 Jet Black overall (NARA)

2.2.7 Jet Black ANA 622 The National Defence Committee issued a report dated October 12, 1943, with the results of trials in which gloss and matt black under surfaces for use in night operations had been compared, using model experiments and full scale tests with searchlights. The report concluded that whereas the matt surface was continuously visible, the gloss surface was completely invisible for 75% of the time. The effective range of radar-controlled searchlights was reduced by at least 50%. The high gloss enamel paint used in the trials was based on carbon black pigment with a high degree of dispersion, with the diffuse reflectivity reduced to less than 0.1%. This paint became the basis for ANA 622 Jet Black, later designated simply as ‘Jet’.

ANA 622 Jet Black The closest FS 595 colour to ANA 622 is FS 17038 at 1.70, and indeed FS 17038 subsequently superseded ANA 622 with Bulletin 166d of March 11, 1959, being designated equivalent to OSHA Black, ANA 515 (Gloss Black) and ANA 622. The pigments used for 17038 are Rutile Titanium Dioxide, Benzimidazolone Yellow, Carbazole Violet and Carbon Black (Blue Shade). The tatty looking black finish seen on some Northrop P-61 night fighters has its roots in the Spec. 24114-A (E-1b) authorisation of two paint types for coating metal surfaces - lacquer to Spec. 14105 and enamel to Spec. 14109. Northrop adhered perfectly to Technical Order 07-1-1 of April 8, 1941, which stated quite clearly at Para 1e that: “Either of these types may be used, subject to provisions of sub para.b. It will be noted that the use of enamel, camouflage, Spec.14109 on metal surfaces requires the

use of but one (1) coat of enamel and that no primer coat is necessary.” (Subpara.b related to the use of enamel over lacquer and vice versa.) Northrop were later criticised for failing to adhere to subsequent specs which superseded this, and made it clear that even with enamel finishes primer coats were required, but the question of where the blame lay was never resolved, because the issue of the communication and receipt of changes and revisions came up. This came about because the USAAF were investigating and enforcing manufacturer compliance to specifications as a result of quality issues reported by service recipients. A suggestion that Northrop deliberately omitted the primer coat to save money seems tenuous given the existence of, and their compliance to, the earlier Technical Order instructing that a primer coat was unnecessary with enamel finishes. The author was unable to locate any reference to two coats of primer as has been suggested - but only to Spec. 24114-A of September 1942 requiring one coat of primer and either two coats of lacquer or one of enamel. This was reiterated generally in Technical Order 07-1-1 of June 15, 1943: “It will be noted that the use of both types of materials for metal (lacquer and enamel) require use of primer, zinc chromate.” As the Technical Order revisions did not change the T.O. number but only the date, Northrop’s inappropriate compliance may be understood. The unsatisfactory finish of the P-61 as reported from theatre was discussed at the Material Laboratory (MatLab Wright Field) in March 1945, and related to the new Jet (ANA 622) finish (gloss black) being applied to the type. Tests concluded that it was partly due to the absence of primer, but also partly due to the type of enamel being used. As a result of these tests, the MatLab advised the Procurement Section to provide Northrop with the latest list of approved specs and to request them to apply a coat of zinc chromate primer before applying two coats of 622 lacquer. They also advised that the materials being used by Northrop be checked for conformance to specification requirements. The 622 finish was new and there seem to have been no issues with the previously applied OD on the P-61. real colors of wwii aircraft /

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2.2.8 Non-standard Finishes Gallery

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The P-40N Warhawks used by the 15th Fighter Group in late 1943, were finished in a specific scheme, which the 46th Fighter Squadron’s engineering officer, 1st Lt Benjamin C. Warren, responsible for painting the similarly finished P-39s on Canton Island, described thus: “We gave them a coral sand sort of coating on the top and painted the underside sky blue. Looking up you could barely see them against the sky.” It is possible that US Army colours had been used, as mentioned in the instructions from Headquarters of the Northwest African Air Forces cited in sub-chapter 2.2.5 (NARA)

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In late spring 1944, the 78th Fighter Group started to camouflage their P-47Ds (received in natural metal finish). British Dark Green was used for painting the upper surfaces, whilst the undersides of many aircraft of this unit are believed to be painted in British Sky colour (James V. Crow coll. / NARA)

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The 357th Fighter Group also painted the non-camouflaged P-51Ds received by this unit from the spring of 1944. Various reference sources, including the ex-ground crewmen, state that paints from RAF stocks had been used, but all colour photos of 357th FG’s P-51Ds known to this author, show US Olive Drab on the upper surfaces rather than RAF Dark Green. Note the data plate stencil, which had been carefully re-applied. ‘Passion Wagon’ was a P-51D-5-NA, s/n 44-13691 (Lt. Col. Athlee G. Manthos via Dan Manthos)

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These photos show that at least some of the 361st Fighter Group’s Mustangs had the upper portions of the fuselage invasion stripes overpainted in a blue colour, which appears somewhat similar to the blue-grey colour of RAF vehicles. The reasons for this unusual choice remain unknown (NARA)

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The assembly ships were aircraft painted in non-standard patterns, usually using various identification colours, and stripped off armament and unnecessary equipment in order to allow them to spent many hours in the air, helping the bombers to find their position within the formation. Shown above is B-24H-10-DT, s/n 41-28697, the assembly ship of the 458th Bombardment Group in the second half of 1944 and early 1945, which front fuselage half and wing upper surfaces were painted in white and covered with red and blue polka dots, whilst yellow and red spots were applied over the rear half of the fuselage that had remained in Dark Olive Drab 41 over Neutral Gray 43 finish. Red and white stripes were applied to the outer sides of the vertical tail and repeated in similar shape on the fuselage. Note also the shark mouth on the nose. The photo below shows B-24-D-20-CO, s/n 41-24109, which in the spring of 1944 was stripped off paint and subsequently covered with a red zig-zag pattern, becoming the assembly ship of the 466th Bombardment Group (NARA / Library of Congress)

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Pictured at St. Trond in Belgium in the autumn of 1944, P-47D-27-RE, s/n 42-27234, coded Y8-E, was the mount of Maj. Clay Tice, Jr., the CO of the 507th Fighter Squadron. Note the flat black anti-glare panel, which was additionally trimmed in red (Bill Lee via James V. Crow coll.) 154

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Flat black anti-glare became common in the 36th Fighter Squadron of the 8th Fighter Group in the spring/summer of 1945, as seen on this P-38L-5-LO, s/n 44-26176, coded A and named ‘Vagrant Virgin’, which at the end of the war was assigned to Lt. Peter Macgowan. At that time, the markings of the ‘Flying Fiends’ squadron consisted of black and white stripes painted on the vertical tails, wings and spinners, which, along with the distinctive extension of the fuselage anti-glare panel that ran down to the antenna mast on the bottom of the nose, were mostly finished with gloss paint. The individual code letters were black, outlined in white. Worth noting is that all these decorative elements did not appear on the unit’s aircraft at once, but were gradually added over a period of time (Dino Cerutti)

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Without doubt, the most colourful Thunderbolts in the ETO flew with the 56th Fighter Group. Initially, the ‘Bubbletop’ P-47Ds that had been delivered in natural metal finish, were painted in a distruptive pattern in grey and green colours, which are believed to be British Ocean Grey and Dark Green, as seen on example of P-47D-25-RE, s/n 42-26641, coded LM-S, flown by Col. David C. Schilling from July 1944 until early January 1945. The wing and tail undersides were left in bare metal, whilst the fuselage appears to be painted in wraparound fashion (James V. Crow coll.)

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The late production ‘Razorbacks’ of the 56th Fighter Group were often painted in Olive Drab or British Dark Green on the upper surfaces, and grey (possibly British Medium Sea Grey) on the undersides, although the lower wing surfaces of P-47D-22-RE, s/n 42-26293, coded UN-L and named ‘Belle of Belmont’, seem to retain natural metal finish (James V. Crow coll.)

P-47M-1-RE, s/n 44-21125, coded LM-S, was the last mount of Col. Schilling, who led the Group from mid-August 1944 until late January 1945. His aircraft wore the grey/green camouflage that became typical for the 62nd Fighter Squadron during this period, with the other squadrons of the 56th FG switching to different schemes. Interestingly, the grey appears to be lighter than the earlier seen shade, leaning towards Medium Sea Grey rather than Ocean Grey. The leading edges of the tailplane, as well as the undersides of the aircraft, were left in natural metal finish (James V. Crow coll.)

With the introduction of the P-47M in January 1945, the 61st Fighter Squadron went for a black upper surface scheme, as carried by this P-47M-1-RE, s/n 4421147, coded HV-T and named ‘Blue Eyes’. British ‘Night’ is believed to be used for this purpose. The undersurfaces remained unpainted (James V. Crow coll.)

P-47D-28-RA, s/n 42-28810, coded UN-A, from the 63rd Fighter Squadron, carried a camouflage pattern in two shades of blue. The undersides and hood framing were bare metal. This aircraft was lost in a mid air collision on February 1, 1945 (James V. Crow coll.)

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2.3 United States Navy Camouflage Colours On December 30, 1940, following a series of proposals and trials of tentative camouflage schemes, the United States Navy (USN) Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) replaced the colourful interwar scheme for its ship-based aircraft with an overall Non-Specular (NS - non-glossy) Light Gray. Patrol planes were to have their surfaces as seen from above painted in NS Blue Gray (q.v.).

Three F4F-3 Wildcats from VMF-111 with special markings for the Army manoeuvers in Louisiana in November 1941. All aircraft had NS Light Gray finish with white lettering (US Navy)

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M-485 NS Light Gray These camouflage paints, designated M-485, were lacquer with a phthalate resin binder for plasticity of the paint film and the Light Gray was made from Titanium Oxide (white), Burnt Sienna and Lampblack. According to Del Palmieri in ‘USN Camouflage of WW2’, the Burnt Sienna (a brown iron oxide varying in hue from yellow brown to dull red dependent on source and manufacture) was introduced to balance the slightly blueish undertone of the white pigment, in order to ensure a true neutral gray appearance. However, despite being a ‘gray‘ NS Light Gray measures as a Munsell GY - Green Yellow of very low

This J2F Duck of the Fleet Air Photographic Squadron Atlantic 2 featured a quite rare combination of NS Light Gray overall finish and national insignia in the form that was officially valid from May 6, 1942, until June 28, 1943 (NARA)

colour saturation. It is best described as a slightly ‘warm’ gray with a very faint yellowish undertone rather than a pure neutral gray. The closest FS 595 colour by comparison is FS 36440 at 1.36, this FS colour superseding a later USN colour Light Gull Gray (ANA 620) in March 1959.

In ‘The Official Monogram US Navy and Marine Corps Aircraft Colour Guide, Vol.2 1940-1949’, John M. Elliott provides three separate paint chips for the Blue Gray as follows:

On February 26, 1941, BuAer instructed that non ship based amphibian aircraft were to be painted as per patrol planes with Blue Gray upper surfaces. On October 13, 1941, the Blue Gray upper surfaces were promulgated for all ship based aircraft and from February 6, 1942, for all land based USN aircraft. The undersurfaces of any folding parts of wings were also to be painted Blue Gray.

1. An extant sample found on a Grumman FM-2 airframe during restoration by NASM, which he compared to Munsell 10 B 5/4 and FS 35189. Those two colours show a difference of 6.91. The actual #1 chip as measured by the author is very close to Munsell 5 B 4/2 at 1.33, which coincidentally is the same as the 1929 Munsell colour cited by Palmieri! 2. A colour he suggests as interim intended for the later threetone scheme, but not used, which Munsell identified as 5.5 PB 2.6/3.3. 3. A colour chip he found in a classified camouflage publication of the period, which he believes is the actual colour intended, if not actually used, which was visually determined at the National Bureau of Standards as Munsell 9 B 3.5/1.5

Identifying the true hue of the Blue Gray is complex. It has been asserted that the Blue Gray colour was ‘ad hoc’ and not governed by a standard. Palmieri described it as being made from Iron (Prussian) Blue, Titanium Oxide, Antimony Oxide (Lead white; the reason for two white pigments is unknown. From the appearance of aircraft in colour photographs the paint surface chalked significantly, therefore the Titanium Oxide was probably of the anatase kind.) and Lampblack, and compared it to Methuen 23 (E-F) 5, Munsell 5 B 4/2 (1929) and FS 35189 (as a good match). The author found a significant difference of 6.91 between the cited Munsell and FS colours.

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F4U-1, coded 8, from VMF-213, Gualdcanal, June 1943. The aircraft still carried the original Blue Gray over Light Gray scheme, with folding parts of the wings entirely painted in Blue Gray

Ground crew by F4U-1, coded 8, from VMF-213 (NARA)

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SNJ-3 and SBC-4 used as trainers by the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing in spring 1942. Both aircraft carried NS Blue Gray over NS Light Gray scheme. Note the ‘national stripes’ on the rudders, which would be removed after May 6, 1942 (NARA)

A PBY-5A Catalina patrol bomber from VP-31, pictured after May 1942 as indicated by the national insignia without the red circle in the center. Camouflage is NS Blue Gray over NS Light Grey (NARA)

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This series of photos shows OS2U-3 Kingfishers from VS-1D1, based at Squantum Mass in May 1942. All aircraft were painted in NS Blue Gray over NS Light Grey (NARA)

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The only markings of this PBM-3 Mariner are the national insignia, which may indicate that it was captured on photo during its delivery flight. It was finished in NS Blue Gray over NS Light Grey (NARA)

During Operation Torch, the November 1942 invasion of North Africa, the fuselage and underwing national insignia of the participating Navy aircraft received yellow borders, as seen on the example of SBD-3s and F4F-4s parked on the deck of USS Santee (ACV-29). All aircraft are painted in NS Blue Gray over NS Light Grey (Lt. Horace Bristol via NARA)

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An early F6F-3 Hellcat from VF-5 photographed prior to take off from the USS Yorktown (CV-10). Although the picture was taken in May 1943, the aircraft still carried the two tone camouflage scheme (Lt. Charles E. Kerlee via NARA)

Palmieri stated that the Blue Gray paint(ed) chip given by Jay Frank Dial in ‘United States Camouflage WWII’ is ‘very inaccurate, being about the right value but much too purplish’. Bill C. Kilgrai in ‘Color Schemes and Markings US Navy Aircraft 1911-1950’ gives basic colour descriptions, but no comparisons to colour standards and no colour chips. Using Palmieri’s Methuen reference for triangulation, it appears that FS 35189 is a little too light, bright and grey. The closest match is actually 35177 at 3.37, but that is a stronger, clearer blue - a little too blue. The FS 595 pigments are as follows: •• 35189 - titanium dioxide, phthalo blue (green shade), natural raw umber, quinacridone magenta y. •• 35177 - titanium dioxide, benzimidazolone yellow, phthalo blue (green shade), quinacridone red. The Palmieri Methuen values are in the approximate range of the Elliott #1 and #3 chips. FS 35189, although of the correct hue, is considerably lighter than Elliot #1 (4.2 B 5.3/2.1 vs 4.5 B 4.1/2.1). These colours are consistent with the best colour slides of the period and the known pigments used. On January 14, 1942, BuAer issued instructions that for the purposes of night camouflage aircraft were to be painted with removable NS black paint. real colors of wwii aircraft /

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A TBF/TBM-1 Avenger from a training unit. The presence of short-lived red surround to the national insignia indicates that the photo was most likely taken in the summer of 1943. Worth noting is that the inner surfaces of the wingfold joint were painted in upper surface camouflage colour. Also note the different degree of paint layer fading on the wing and fuselage (NARA)

F6F-3, coded 17, from VF-9, USS Essex (CV-9), October 1943. Three-colour scheme of SG and NS Sea Blue, NS Intermediate Blue and NS Insignia White (Photo: NARA)

The Blue Gray over Light Gray scheme continued in use until January 1943, when a major camouflage revision saw the introduction of a complex to apply three-colour, counter-shading and counter-shadowing scheme consisting of Semi-Gloss (SG) and NS Sea Blue, NS Intermediate Blue and NS Insignia White. The diagrams shown here reveal how the paints were supposed to be applied, but in practice may not have been rigidly adhered to as several photos show aircraft with fairly hard edged demarcations. The scheme was referred to as ‘The Basic Camouflage Design’.

All horizontal airfoil surfaces seen from above were to be painted SG Sea Blue, whilst all horizontal airfoil surfaces seen from below were to be painted NS Insignia White. The wing leading edges were to be counter shaded by gradually blending these two colours using NS Sea Blue, which was to extend to approximately 5% of the upper wing chord.

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NS Sea Blue (ANA 607)

A night fighting PBY-5A from VP-52 pictured in flight in 1944. The first ‘Black Cats’ were reportedly covered with a locally improvised ‘gloop’ mix of soap and lamp black, but then they were painted in what is consistently described as matte or flat black and does not seem to be a temporary finish. In 1944, the paint used was probably made to ANA 604 NS Black standard (NARA)

F6F-3 Hellcats of VF-5 being loaded onto the deck of the USS Yorktown (CV-10) in April 1943. The aircraft are painted in “The Basic Camouflage Design”. Interestingly, the SG Sea Blue has a quite light appearance on this photo (NARA)

The slightly lighter appearance of the SG Sea Blue chip compared to the NS Sea Blue chip, appears counter-intuitive if not contrary to the original camouflage rationale, but the Munsell measurements for the colours verify the slight difference. Elliott gives FS 25042 and FS 35042 as the closest FS 595 colours for the two Sea Blues respectively, but Elliott’s SG chip is slightly closer to FS 35045 than 25042. Palmieri gives the same two FS matches as Elliott, but notes a disagreement with Whistler. Elliott compared several sets of preserved chips and concluded that the ANA and FS colours were intended to be identical, showing only minor differences. In 1969, Whistler observed that ANA 606 appeared more blue than FS 25042, which was darker and glossier. The 607 chip was also more blue than 35042, which was darker and more grey. In 1972, Smith observed that the FS colours 2/35042 appeared darker than the 1943 ANA chips, which appeared more blue. It may be worth noting at this point that FS 25042 superseded ANA 606 SG Sea Blue in March 1959, but at that time no FS replacement was cited for ANA 607 NS Sea Blue, the ANA chip being cited as the still current standard. ANA 607 was not superseded by FS 35042 until October 1964. The probable reason for a slightly more blueish appearance of the wartime ANA standard is that Ultramarine (blue) pigment was used instead of Iron (Prussian blue), whereas the FS colours use Phthalocyanine Blue (Green Shade) pigment. real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Official diagrams for ‘The Basic Camouflage Design’

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On the fuselage, the two colours were to be counter shadowed by blending using one of two methods: (A) By blending the two colours over the interventing area so that the near vertical surfaces appeared approximately similar to NS Intermediate Blue. (B) By applying NS Intermediate Blue to the fuselage sides, blending it with the SG Sea Blue and NS Insignia White top and bottom.

This F-6F-3 Hellcat (BuNo 26186 or 26188) from a training unit, had an unusual finish of the vertical tail: the SG Sea Blue extended to the tail fin, whilst the rudder was white. The national insignia points to the summer of 1943 period (NARA)

A Kingfisher in three colour camouflage scheme pictured at USS Iowa (BB-61) in the spring of 1943 (NARA)

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The vertical surfaces of the fin and rudder were to be painted NS Intermediate Blue, as were the under surfaces of the folding parts of wings, with blending at the central wing panels to avoid a definite demarcation. A Chance Vought F4U-1 drawing specifies a four inch blending width. Floats on camouflaged floatplanes and flying boats were to be NS Sea Blue above and NS White underneath, divided at the chine line. Float struts were to be NS Intermediate Blue, with the upper ends of large struts counter-shadowed. System (A) was recommended as preferable for small fighters, whilst system (B) was considered more practicable for large flying boats.

whilst the ANA colour is more of a pure blue. Palmieri gives Munsell 5 PB 4.5/2 for the colour, whilst Elliott also gives a PB value. The author measured the colour as B - Blue, consistent with the Elliott paint chip if not his Munsell values. In Methuen, Palmieri gave 21 (D-E) 4, which is consistent with the Elliott chip. The under surface Insignia White (ANA 601) is shown and described in the Insignia colours section. On 30 January, 1943, BuAer issued instructions as to how new paint colours could be mixed to approximate the new standards using existing paints:

NS Intermediate Blue (ANA 608) Note the similarity of NS Intermediate Blue to the M-485 Blue Gray, which is identical in hue but darker. The closest FS colour is 35164, but at 3.84 it is darker and too grey. Whistler, Smith, Palmieri and Elliott give the same FS colour, but Whistler and Smith both note that 35164 is darker and greyer,

Al Wright of VB-5 pictured in the cockpit of his SBD-5 Dauntless in October 1943. The photo gives a nice close up on the SG Sea Blue and Intermediate Blue surfaces (Lt. Charles E. Kerlee via NARA)

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•• NS Sea Blue: 6 x Blue Gray + 4 x Insignia Blue* + 2 x Black; or 4 x Dark Blue + 5 x Insignia Blue + 2 x Black + 1 x Insignia White; •• SG Sea Blue: 3 x NS Sea Blue (as above) + 1 x Clear Dope or Lacquer; •• NS Intermediate Blue: 12 x Blue Gray + 24 x Insignia White + 2 x Dark Blue + 1 x Insignia Blue + 1 x Insignia Red. The combination of Dark Blue and Insignia Blue is puzzling as no USN Dark Blue colour standard is listed.

An F4U-1A Corsair in three-tone scheme. Note the different hues of blue used for painting the inner part and border of the fuselage national insignia (NARA)

Another F4U-1A with unusually painted national insignia, pictured at Bougainville in December 1943. The paint layer is very worn, making the particular upper surface camouflage colours indinstinguishable (NARA)

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The extreme conditions in which the ship board aircraft had been used, had a big impact on the condition of the paint layer. This OS2U-3 in three colour scheme is a true treat for all weathering fans! (NARA)

The tri-colour scheme continued in use for USN fighters until March 1944, when a new, simpler scheme of overall Glossy (G) Sea Blue was specified. At the same time, all camouflage colours were specified to be glossy rather than SG or NS, but this does not appear to have taken effect as SG and NS colours continued to be specified in schemes for other aircraft types. Palmieri suggests that where it was done, the NS Intermediate Blue was perhaps gloss varnished or waxed, whilst NS Sea Blue could still be used for anti-glare panel on the forward upper fuselage. Glossy Sea Blue is described below whilst Glossy Insignia White existed as ANA 511.

A close view on the Gloss Sea Blue paint layer on the F6F-5 flown by the leading US Navy ace, Commander David McCampbell, October 1944 (NARA)

Glossy Sea Blue (ANA 623) Both Whistler and Smith give FS 15042 as FS595 equivalent to Glossy Sea Blue, but Whistler notes that ANA 623 was darker, and that 15042 appeared bluer and grayer. Smith only examined a 1954 metal plate sample for ANA 623, noting that it was the same shade, but seemed a ‘cleaner’ blue than the FS colour, with ‘less black or green or red in it’ (sic). Palmieri and Elliott also give FS 15042 as the closest match, although Elliott’s painted chip is closer to FS 35045 at 1.72, 15042 being at 7.59, and both darker and more saturated than the Munsell values he quotes. The slight difference in appearance is again probably due to changed pigments used in preparing the FS595 colours. Illustrations and hobby paints seem to have the same inconsistency in depicting Glossy Sea Blue, some being very much lighter and more blue, whilst others depicting the FS colour. Glossy Sea Blue was cited to the ANA Standard 623 until October 1964 when it was finally superseded by FS 15042. In June 1944, the overall Glossy Sea Blue scheme was extended to all carrier-borne aircraft (not just fighters). Patrol and patrol bombing aircraft, together with observation planes, were to remain in the tri-colour scheme. On patrol and bombing aircraft, the SG Sea Blue was to extend from the leading edge to 5% of the under surface wing chord. 172

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An F4U-1D painted in Gloss Sea Blue overall, being reloaded with ammo on the carrier deck, spring 1945 (NARA)

F6F-5 Hellcat no.3 parked on the port catapult of the USS Randolph (CV-15), March 1945. The tail markings indicate the aircraft’s assignment to this ship. The finish is Gloss Sea Blue overall (NARA)

Another F6F-5 in Gloss Sea Blue, photographed on a carrier deck near Okinawa in April 1945 (NARA)

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F-4U4s from VF-82 and VBF-82 pictured at USS Randolph (CV-15) in June 1946 (NARA)

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PBJ-1J, BuNo 64973, coded 0, from VMB-612, Iwo Jima, summer 1945. Gloss Sea Blue overall

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At the same time, a new scheme was promulgated for anti-submarine warfare aircraft operating in areas where there was no risk of enemy air opposition. The scheme was devised to be applied in two ways, dependent on the prevailing weather conditions: I. For prevailing clear conditions or where clouds were scattered with moderate surface haze, upper surfaces were to be Dark Dull Gray ANA 621 with side surfaces Light Gull Gray ANA 620 except for the side surfaces of hulls, fuselages and nacelles beneath the wings and tailplanes, as well as cowling interiors, reduction gear housings, propeller domes and propellers up to the outer edge of the cowlings which were to be NS White ANA 601 (shown below in Insignia section). II. For prevailing overcast conditions or where operations were conducted at night or the twilight conditions of morning and evening, NS White in Scheme I was to be replaced by NS White ANA 601. This scheme had reportedly already been communicated to units in the Atlantic by Commander Aircraft Atlantic (COMAIR-LANT) on July 19, 1943.

Interesting photo of two PBM-3S Mariners, which quite accurately reproduces the shade of ANA 621 Dark Dull Gray (NARA)

ANA 621 Dark Dull Gray ANA 620 Light Gull Gray Dark Dull Gray was a neutral gray, which Whistler compared to FS 36231 as a good match. Smith had no chip to compare, but Palmieri agreed it was matched by 36231. Elliott concurred. The author measured the ANA 621 as slightly darker than 36231, and a more neutral gray of Munsell N 5.5.0 as suggested by Palmieri. The FS colour contains blue and yellow pigments as well as white and black. ANA 621 was superseded by FS 36231 in March 1959.

ANA 602 Light Gray FS 36440 Whistler compared Light Gull Gray to FS 36440 but commented that it was slightly darker. On the contrary, Smith found that ANA 620 was lighter than FS 36440, suggesting that ANA 602 Light Gray (shown above) was darker, and that 36440 was a colour designed to be between 620 and 602. In 1942, the Technical Sub-Committee on camouflage JAC had intended for ANA 602 to replace M-485 Light Gray, but in January 1944 ‘Navy Light Gray‘ ANA 602 was to be eliminated. Of course, the USN had introduced the NS tri-colour scheme in January 1943, before the actual ANA 602 standard had been issued. But ANA 602 Light Gray continued to be used as a substitute standard for British Medium Sea Grey (for example on the P-51 Mustang). Palmieri deemed M-485 Light Gray, ANA 602 and ANA 620 as practically identical, with only minor differences explained as chip production variations and with FS 36440 as a good match. The author found that both ANA 602 and ANA 620 have a slightly more ‘brownish’ undertone than 36440 (Munsell Y - Yellow vs GY - Green Yellow but both very low saturation), which was brighter, and just a little darker than M-485 Light Gray. That might be the result of ageing paint chips. ANA 620 was superseded by FS 36440 in March 1959. The last wartime change to USN colour schemes came in December 1944, when patrol and patrol bombing land based aircraft were ordered to have wings and tailplanes painted overall SG Sea Blue (q.v.), whilst the fuselage including fin and rudder was to be painted NS Sea Blue (q.v.). Patrol and patrol bombing seaplanes and amphibians were to retain the tri-colour NS scheme (q.v.).

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PB4Y-1 in standard ASW Scheme II of ANA 621 Dark Dull Gray over ANA 601 NS White heading to the coast over the English Countryside (NARA)

A formation of SBD-5s from VS-37 searching for enemy submarines near the Virgin Islands in 1944. The aircraft were camouflaged in a specific rendition of the ASW Scheme II, with ANA 621 Dark Dull Gray areas extending down the wingroot (NARA)

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On this photo of an SBD Dauntless inside the hangar of an escort carrier we can see all four identification colours: Insignia Red 45, Insignia White 46, Insignia Blue 47 and Identification Yellow 48 (NARA)

2.4 USAAF/USN Insignia Colours Insignia colours were common to both services and existed as ANA standards in both the exactly similar camouflage ‘600’ series colours and the ‘500’ series gloss colours, with minor differences from their specific service predecessors. Charting all these minor differences is beyond the scope of the current article, so the colours shown are mainly restricted to the USAAF and later ANA camouflage standards.

Identification colours were also used for painting nose art, as in the case of this P-47D from 404th Fighter Squadron / 371st Fighter Group (James V. Crow coll.)

Insignia Red 45, ANA 618 Dull Red, ANA 619 Insignia Red (Bright Red) Both reds have a slightly ‘cherry’ hue. Insignia Red 45 is close to FS 31136 at 1.02, whilst ANA 619 is slightly brighter and closer to FS 31350 at 1.53. Insignia Red 45 was superseded by ANA 618 Dull Red intended to match the RAF Dull Red, whilst ANA 619 was re-designated Bright Red in March 1944. Dull Red was superseded by FS 30109, and Bright Red by 31136 in March 1959. The gloss ‘500’ series ANA 509 Insignia Red was similar in hue to 619, and also used for USAAF squadron/flight identification trim such as spinners, wingtips and fin tips. ANA 509 was superseded by FS 11136 in October 1964.

Insignia White 46 ANA 601 Insignia White Insignia White 46 is close to FS 27722 at 1.77, whilst ANA 601 and the gloss 511 are closer to FS 17875 at 2.33, but not quite as ‘bright’ or white. ANA 601 was superseded by FS 37875 in March 1959. In June 1943, BuAer authorised replacement of Insignia White in the upper surface markings of aircraft finished SG Sea Blue with a gray mixed from one part Insignia White to one part Light Gray (presumed to be the M-485 colour).

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Ground personnel apply the 1st Combat Bomb Wing’s red identification colours to the tail of B-17G-35-VE, s/n 42-97880, coded DF-F and named ‘Little Miss Mischief’ of the 324th Bombardment Squadron / 91st Bombardment Group (NARA)

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This Mustang from the 368th Fighter Squadron / 359th Fighter Group is most likely coded CV-X. The nose colour assigned to this Group was ANA 503 Light Green, whilst the rudder and spinner ring painted in ANA 505 Light Yellow were 368th FS designators (James V. Crow coll.)

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Insignia Blue 47 ANA 605 Insignia Blue Insignia Blue 47 and ANA 605 are close to FS 35045 at 2.09 and 2.46 respectively. Both Whistler and Smith compared ANA 605 to FS 35044, as did Palmieri and Elliott. Smith commented that 35044 is more purplish than 605 with which the author agrees, and found a difference of 7.45 comparing it to 35044. Nevertheless, ANA 605 was superseded by FS 35044 in March 1959. Note that both blues are dark and rather dull, not like the brighter blues sometimes depicted in profiles and decals.

Identification Yellow 48 ANA 614 Orange Yellow Identification Yellow 48 is close to FS 13415 at 2.65, whilst ANA 614 Orange Yellow is closer to FS 23540 at 1.89. The Yellows were used as overall or top surface colour on non-camouflaged training aircraft, and to paint serial numbers on the fin/rudder of camouflaged USAAF aircraft, as well as propeller tip warning markings. ANA 614 was superceded by the lighter and brighter FS 33538 in March 1959.

ANA 501 Light Blue

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ANA 503 Light Green

ANA 505 Light Yellow Although non-camouflage colours are beyond the scope of this article, three gloss ‘500’ series colours are included here, because they were sometimes used as standards for the squadron/flight identification trim on USAAF aircraft spinners, wingtips, fin tips, etc., both on camouflaged and natural metal finish types. ANA 501 Light Blue superseded True Blue and is similar to FS 15102 (which superseded it in March 1959), but is a little brighter blue. ANA 503 Light Green superseded Willow Green and is exactly similar to FS 14187 (which also superseded it in March 1959). ANA 505 Light Yellow superseded Lemon Yellow and is approximately similar to FS 13655 (which also superseded it in March 1959). However, 505 is noticeably lighter, brighter and less ‘orange‘ than 13655.

The inner sides of the cowling of this F6F Hellcat were coated with Zinc Chromate Primer (NARA)

2.5 US Aircraft Interior Colours Specification 98-24 113-A of September 28, 1938, had detailed the colours required for the interior (enclosed) surfaces of Army Air Corps airplanes. The wording of the specification was slightly ambiguous in that it allowed optional colours for tactical airplane cockpits for pilots and observers which were open or for which sliding enclosures were provided, whilst closed cockpits, the top and sides of which formed part of the fuselage structure, were to be Bronze Green 9 (Flat Bronze Green) on the floor and sides to the tops of windows, with aluminium above. A note required this colour to match colour chip No.9 from Color Card Supplement Specification 3-1, and the lacquer or enamel was to have a matte appearance of minimal gloss.

Bronze Green 9 Dana Bell in ‘Air Force Colors, Vol.1’ gave FS 14050 as the closest FS 595 equivalent to Bronze Green, but noted the latter as a little darker and glossy. This author appraised Bronze Green as a more saturated green than 14050 and closer to 14056, but not as dark. This specification also introduced for the first time a so-called Yellow Green finish for luggage, cargo and bomber’s compartment. The Yellow Green was not to an established colour standard, but the Specification included a formula with which to prepare it: The rear fuselage interiors of the B-17 bombers were mostly left unpainted. Only some bulkheads and longerons were primed in Zinc Chromate or Yellow Green (NARA)

Zinc Chromate Primer Specification No.14080 - 1 gallon Black Enamel Specification No.3-98 - 1/10 gallon Aluminium Powder Type B, Specification No. TT-A-476 - 4 ounces Toluene Specification No. 50-11-38 - 1 gallon

Assembly process of a C-87, a transport derivative of the B-24 Liberator. The bulkhead was painted in Yellow Green (Howard R. Hollem via Library of Congress)

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Zinc Chromates are yellow pigments and exist in five separate forms sub-divided into seven known chemical compositions. Zinc yellow was first synthesised in 1800, but no use was then found for it, and it does not appear in chemical dictionaries before 1850. The earliest clear and defining reference to its use as a pigment is ‚On the Materials Used in Painting with a Few Remarks on Varnishing and Cleaning’ by Charles Martel (George Rowney & Co.. Ltd., London 1860). Zinc chromate hydroxide was patented in 1941, but various zinc chromate preparations had been used commercially in industry at least two decades earlier. Their invention is often attributed to their introduction as an anti-corrosive primer for metal parts developed by the Ford Motor Company in the 1920s, but this fails to distinguish between the medium and its adapted use, usually with other materials.

This aircraft most likely already had Interior Green cockpit, with the earliest built examples having their cockpits finished in Bronze Green 9 (Grumman via AJ Press coll.)

Lt. Rui Moreira Lima Of The 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron sitting at the controls of a P-47D somewhere in Italy, in 1945. Thunderbolt cockpits were painted in Dull Dark Green (NARA)

In colour terms, the zinc chromates are Pigment Yellow 36 Colour Index (CI) 77955 and Pigment Yellow 36:1 CI 77956 and CI 77957. Pigment Yellow 36 is a bright, greenish yellow, whilst Pigment Yellow 36:1, also known as Basic Zinc Yellow, is a dull reddish yellow. CI 77957 is an orange-yellow pigment. It has been erroneously stated many times that the use of Zinc Chromate for aircraft was unique to the USA, but the Luftwaffe paint colour RLM 02 Grau also contained basic zinc yellow pigment and that already existed under several other names, even in industrial usage, such as zincgelb, jaune de zin, giallo di zinco, amarillo de zinc, aenki, etc.. Zinc Chromate preparations were also applied to the Spitfire prototype. Several authoritative chemical studies report that zinc yellow has a tendency to darken with exposure to light due to the formation of chromium oxide. This causes the pigment to develop a grey-green colour. Colour mixtures containing zinc yellow suffer the same effect. Zinc chromate primer in USAAC/USAAF use was defined in the Dictionary of Maintenance Terms, Section H Paint and Dope, published by HQ ATSC in November 1944 as TO No.30-1-2-H: “Primer, Zinc Chromate - A semi-transparent, greenish-yellow liquid of zinc chromate base, thinned with toluol, very generally used as a primer on aircraft metal surfaces. Because it dries quickly, coats of lacquer, enamel, etc., can be applied on top of it within a few minutes, though it is best to allow the primer to set for a few hours.” Toluol or Toluene was an industrial grade solvent widely used in lacquers, paints and synthetic enamels. The use of the term zinc chromate base is significant. The basic pigment became synonymous with the coating preparation in which it was a principal component, and was used as a generic term for such coatings. The term Zinc Chromate Green (which became Interior Green in the USN) refers to the coating produced by tinting Zinc Chromate with (usually) black pigment (there are various explanations for this, from improving UV protection to making crew accommodation areas more ergonomic). The term Yellow Zinc Chromate (YZC), a tautology as Zinc Chromate is yellow, then developed as a convenient description to distinguish the original primer from the green tinted form. Such colloquial designations are not unique to the US military and abound in various industries where specific designations of convenience rather than accuracy have developed over time, and are in commonly understood usage within those fields. It has also been erroneously stated that the aluminium powder had no effect on the colour appearance. The type of aluminium powder flakes were non-leafing, as used in primers and build coats, where they are dispersed within the body of the paint film and do not migrate to the surface (Leafing aluminium flakes float to the surface of the paint film to form a layer with overlapping flakes orientated parallel to the surface to form a bright film with high lustre. Non-leafing flakes create a resistant barrier to corrosion throughout the strata of the paint film). However, they still affected reflectivity. Curtiss documentation for the export Hawk 75 described the interior of the fuselage as being “finished with one coat of aluminized zinc chromate primer (green color) in accordance with U.S. Army Air Corps practice.” This was exactly similar to the Yellow Green of Spec. 98-24113A, although Curtiss’ own swatch of the colour appears more yellowish than a test chip prepared to the Air Corps formula. The variance was probably introduced by the type of Zinc Chromate pigment used.  Other interior surfaces are described as being finished with one coat of aluminium enamel. All Alclad parts were anodised and finished with one coat of shop coating (Lionoil, primer or equivalent) before assembly. Lionoil was a proprietary finish - a bright blue translucent protective coating similar to the Japanese ‘aotake’.

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Curtiss continued to apply the yellow green finish in P-40B/C and E cockpits, but by the time of P-40N production were using a different formula, described as Cockpit Green in the Preliminary Handbook of Erection and Maintenance Instructions for the P-40N, as follows:

100 Gallons cited for the Zinc Chromate Primer appears to be a typographical error, possibly for 10 gallons

The points to note here are the variable amount of black in the mix and the addition of white (especially for those who assert that Interior Green was a mix of only Zinc Chromate Primer and Black). The curiously confusing layout of this section could have resulted in both Lampblack and Carbon Black being added to the mix, as well as the variable proportions which would affect the final colour appearance. Some hobby paint interior greens are quite garish and “leap out” on models, perhaps the result of formulating colour based on flash photographic images of cockpits, but it is an illuminating exercise to mix the colour using the specified constituent pigments. The variance in black might have been specified to compensate for a yellow-green variance in the Zinc Chromate Primer in order to better match the standardisation for Interior Green (ANA 611) as ANA Bulletin 157 issued on September 28, 1943, stated: “ANA 611 Interior Green is intended for standardisation of the product obtained by tinting zinc chromate primer, Specification AN--TT--P--656, for shop coat or interior finish purposes.” 

Yellow Green Typically the appearance of the Yellow Green finish was between FS 14255 and 14257, often a little more yellowish, but flat rather than gloss. The conflation of the term Yellow Green with the later ANA 611 Interior Green (q.v.) is not helpful in appreciating their actual colour difference.

continued in the wording. On December 12, 1942, the BuAer Chief advised the manager of the Naval Aircraft Factory as to the proper shade of Zinc Chromate to be used stating that it had been agreed by the Army Air Force to adopt the Navy cockpit green as the standard colour for tinted Zinc Chromate primer, and that it had also been agreed to change the name of this colour to Interior Green. Some colour photographs of USN aircraft taken during 1942 reveal a slightly yellowish grey-green cockpit colour, which does not appear as dark or as green as Dull Dark Green, and is closer in appearance to the later ANA 611 Interior Green.

ANA 611 Interior Green The closest FS colour to the ANA 611 colour standard is FS 34151, but at some distance at 4.30. As measured, ANA 611 appears slightly duller and less green than 34151, but Smith described his 1943 sample as ‘brighter and greener’ than the FS colour.

Meanwhile the USN had developed their own cockpit interior colour during 1940 camouflage experiments based on the Army Air Corps colour Dark Green 30 (q.v.).

Dark Green 30 Temporary Camouflage (Paint, Water Dry, Spec. 14057) Dana Bell compared Dark Green 30 to FS 34092, but stated that 30 was ‘blacker’. This author found the colour a significantly darker black-green of very low saturation. It seems that no official colour standard was established for Dull Dark Green, which in USN applications was subject to BuAer approval. On September 12, 1942, Spec. No.98-24113-A, Amendment No.6, changed the Army cockpit requirement for Bronze Green 9 to Dull Dark Green. The same ambiguity with Yellow Green as to which was to be applied and where real colors of wwii aircraft /

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3

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NICHOLAS MILLMAN with MACIEJ GÓRALCZYK

British Aircraft Colours in the Second World War

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3.1 Introduction

An aspect essential to preliminary understanding in the study of aircraft paint colours is the difference between colour standards and actual applied paints or dopes. The two are often confused. The colour standards were the benchmark for the colour required by the specifying authorities. and aircraft and paint manufacturers were expected to provide and apply paint or dope which matched, within reasonable tolerance, to those standards, sometimes in terms of formulae, but always in terms of the colour appearance to be achieved. It was inevitable that variance was introduced in the manufacture of the paint, even before other factors such as the application processes, surface treatment and wear, environmental degradation or age-related colour shifts had occurred. When extant paint samples which have been subject to any or all these factors are measured, they may be found to vary significantly from the original colour standard, therefore it is inappropriate to cite them as reliable examples of that original colour standard. They are only examples of specific paint as applied to a specific aircraft, reflecting all its life changes, and cannot be considered definitively “typical” for all aircraft of that type or the colour standard(s) concerned. Thus it is essential to refer to the original colour standards in order to understand the actual colour as specified and required. Linked to the tendency to confuse between colour standards and applied paints is a tendency to identify any significant colour variations found on applied paint artifacts as completely new and hitherto unknown colours. This tendency has increased with a general trend for revisionist research marked by a failure to grasp the manufacturing technology, pigment chemistry and ageing characteristics of 1940’s paints. The further away the events become, the more the earlier references (even where impeccably documented) are sometimes disregarded for new theories based on the tangible “smoking gun” or “silver bullet” of an extant applied paint sample

Gauntlet Mk.Is of 19 Sqn. RAF, pictured at Duxford sometime between summer 1935 and summer 1938. All aircraft in anodized metal and aluminium dope (fabric surfaces) overall. The blue and white checkerboard pattern was the unit marking (Alex Crawford coll.)

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or, worse, a colour photographic image. Whilst by no means ruling out the evidential value of such artifacts and images caution is advised, especially when seeking to use a single example as evidence of a colour standard or official painting practice. This study examines the colour standards promulgated for the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy (RN) Fleet Air Arm (FAA) by the British Air Ministry (AM) during the Second World War and disseminated to aircraft manufacturers by the Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP). Aircraft manufacturers were expected to procure paint which matched the official colour standards, but were not constrained by standard formulae. This resulted in paints which when new, matched the colour standards in accepted tolerance, but which could and did vary significantly in terms of colour shift and quality when subjected to age and exposure. In addition, the AM procured paints direct from manufacturers for retention in RAF stores and application by service units for purposes of maintenance and/or re-finishing during overhauls, or for changes in camouflaging practice. Therefore an aircraft finished in standard colours using paint from one manufacturer might be re-finished or touched-up after repair by service personnel using paint ostensibly of the same colour standard but from a different manufacturer and with pigments of quite different photo-chemical characteristics. Air Ministry Orders (AMO) relating to colour schemes were considered to be policy directives and were not intended to be technical instructions. Air Ministry considered that in every case Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) Technical Circulars specifying camouflage colours for aircraft types and types of operation were to be taken as the overriding authority for production and maintenance purposes.

3.2 Camouflage Colours

3.3 Temperate Land Scheme

Following the end of the First World War British aircraft, predominantly fabric-covered biplanes, generally adopted a non-camouflage scheme of aluminium dope with polished natural metal panels and bright identification colours. The aluminium dope ‘V84’ was developed from experiments to achieve an effective protective covering for aeroplanes operating in the Middle East. An exception was made in the case of night bombers where efforts to create an effective night camouflage - night flying dope - were made from 1925 to 1929. Those experiments focussed on improving the ‘invisibility‘ of the dark, greyish green NIVO finish (Night Invisible Varnish, Orfordness, Spec.2.D.103), developed during the First World War, to searchlights, which were becoming more effective. Following a 1917 recommendation, NIVO was being applied overall to aircraft operating at night. The improvements tested included replacing NIVO with various black dopes and a night flying blue developed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough, adding dark brown, ultramarine and various black pigments to NIVO, as well as fibre or cork particles to render the dope surface less reflective - more matt. The experiments were not entirely successful due to application and durability issues with the experimental dopes prepared, resulting in a recommendation to spray the undersides of NIVO camouflaged aircraft with a dope prepared like NIVO but without castor oil and with the addition of 2 lbs of carbon black pigment per gallon, ground in diacetene alcohol, ethyl or butyl phthalate. It is uncertain whether this recommendation was followed but NIVO continued to be applied to the RAF’s night bombers until the general introduction of camouflage prior to the outbreak of the Second World War.

In February 1933, the DTD requested the RAE to design a new camouflage scheme for use on the upper surfaces of aircraft to reduce their visibility when seen from above, either when flying over or stationary on the ground in terrain typical for Southern England. The development work for the new camouflage was co-ordinated by AM HQ’s Research Directorate for Materials (R.D.-Mat) and conducted by the RAE’s Chemistry Department and Experimental Flight, with input from the Aerodynamic, Electrical Engineering and Instrument and Photographic Departments. Preliminary experiments addressed the suitability of different colours and tones, whether more than one colour was desirable and in that event the best kind of pattern to be applied. Testing involved the use of scale models as well as full scale trials with aircraft under observation and photographed. Trials concluded that the predominant colours of Southern England were greens and browns, the green varying from the bright tones of meadows and growing crops to the dark green of woodlands and the browns from the golden yellows of ripe cornfields and stubble to the dark earth of ploughed land. The proportion of greens to browns varied with the season, with greens predominating over browns 3 to 1 in spring and summer, whilst in autumn and winter this was reversed approximately 3 to 1 in favour of browns. It was therefore decided that a camouflage of green and brown in equal parts should be serviceable throughout the seasons. Tests then focussed on choosing the best green and the best brown to meet this requirement, with the understanding that compromise would be required, and a pragmatic realisation that the changing tones due to the seasons and weather (wet earth is generally darker, dry earth lighter and more yellowish) would make minor variance in paints insignificant. More important was the diffuse reflectivity (the average apparent lightness) of the colours. The green selected - designated Dark Green - was a dull bronze green, containing a proportion of red pigment (an ‘olive’ green rather than a blueish - or viridian green) with a diffuse reflectivity of 10%,

Hurricane Mk.IIa (Z2667), coded WX-E of 302 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, Westhampnet, April 1941. The upper surfaces of this aircraft were finished in TLS in ‘A’ pattern. Note the tail band and spinner in Sky colour, introduced on November 27, 1940 (Robert Gretzyngier coll.)

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whereas the brown - designated Dark Earth - was an averaging of the browns observed, with a diffuse reflectivity of 15% to provide optimum contrast with the green. The colour standards for these two colours are shown below.

Dark Green

Dark Earth

The tendency of Dark Earth to chalk (the polymer of the paint surface is eroded by a combination of heat, moisture and light resulting in a powdery, greyish-white pigment or patina forming on the surface. This process is exacerbated by certain types of white pigment, for example the anatase form of titanium dioxide as well as by common paint fillers and extenders like China clay. Titanium dioxide is both a UV-activated oxidation catalyst and a UV absorber. Free radicals are formed at the surface of the paint film and these then oxidise the paint binder by photocatalytic degradation. This reduces the gloss and produces a friable layer on the surface of the paint film - “chalking”. In effect the titanium dioxide pigment and any extender/filler particles are being ‘released’ from the fractured binder to form a greyish-white powdery patina over the surface of the paint. This has the effect of dulling and greying the appearance of the underlying colour and is often mistaken for colour fading. The powdery residue, like fine chalk dust but usually slightly greyish rather than pure white, will appear on the hand when rubbed across the paint surface. Within a careful maintenance regime the surface chalking can be reduced by cleaning off or “cutting” to reveal the original colour of the paint strata beneath.) more significantly than Dark Green with exposure resulted in increasing contrast between the two colours with the appearance of the Dark Earth often becoming lighter, more yellowish or greyer. The Dark Green is comparable to FS 34083, a close and useful match in the modern US FS 595 colour standard. FS 34079 is often cited as a match for Dark Green but it is lighter, less saturated and slightly less olive than the standard, being a Munsell GY - Green Yellow rather than Y - Yellow (in the Munsell and other colour systems olive drabs are effectively very dark yellows). The Dark Earth has no close equivalent in FS 595, the closest being FS 33105 which is not reddish enough and is less saturated. FS 30118 is also cited for Dark Earth, but is similarly not reddish enough and less saturated, Dark Earth being a Munsell YR - Yellow Red, whilst 33105 and 30118 are both Munsell Y - Yellows. The pattern of camouflage for Dark Green and Dark Earth was based on a study of aerial photographs of Southern England which revealed “a broken, irregular patchwork of small fields separated by hedges and interspersed

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with small patches of woodland”. The general principle was to use the approximately equal areas of green and brown in “a bold design with the object of breaking up the characteristic outline of the aircraft” and that “at any given moment the aeroplane in flight would be projected against a background, the colour and tone of which would harmonise sufficiently well with one portion of the aeroplane’s surface and render it inconspicuous; the other portion, even though seen, would not give the immediate impression of an aircraft.” The colours and general scheme having been decided on, trials of the camouflaged aircraft were held elsewhere, tested in the Army Manoeuvres of September 1934 and with service trials in Army Co-operation and Fighter Squadrons, all of which resulted in favourable reports. As the aircraft in use were still predominantly biplanes, the RAE devised a shadow shading scheme whereby the upper surfaces of the lower wings and lower fuselage sides of biplane aircraft were painted in lighter shades of the Dark Green and Dark Earth to compensate for the shadow caused by the upper wings and the darker appearance of the lower fuselage as seen obliquely.

Light Green

Light Earth

The Light Green is comparable to FS 34102 as a fair equivalent, the FS colour being a slightly more saturated green. The Light Earth is comparable to FS 33245 also as a fair equivalent, again the FS colour being slightly more saturated. A curious anomaly is that the contrast between the shadow-shading colours was greater than for Dark Green and Dark Earth, Light Green being 11% but Light Earth 30%. No explanation for this has so far been discovered. In February 1936, the Air Ministry decided on their policy with regard to the camouflaging of aeroplanes, concluding that all Home based fighters and bombers should be camouflaged, and to incorporate a conspicuous yellow ring around the national markings which could be painted out on mobilisation. In March 1937, the new camouflage colours were established for the ‘high speed interceptor monoplane’, the Hawker Hurricane, with Hawker Aircraft Ltd. confirming that the scheme could be applied in production. Hawk-

Air Ministry Scheme for High Speed Interceptor Monoplane

er requested details of the alternative scheme as it was intended that the pattern would be applied in two variants, ‘A‘ and ‘B‘ with the colours and pattern reversed. In respect to the diagram accompanying this confirmation, it was pointed out that the undercarriage fairings, shown as Dark Green, were to be considered part of the under surface and should be finished in aluminium. The Air Ministry further advised RAE that the national insignia should show red, white, blue and yellow rings, and that the diagram should indicate that the under surfaces were to be shown as aluminium. The title was also to be amended to read ‘Camouflage Scheme for Single-engined Monoplanes and Army Co-operation, etc.’ In May 1937, the C-in-C Fighter Command, Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, endorsed the adoption of the ‘approved green camouflage scheme’ (it was later clarified that he meant TLS). Also in 1937, with the basic colours and pattern settled on, the RAE conducted tests of various proprietory camouflage paints submitted by in order to meet the new standards, including Night (q.v.). By August 1938 the standardised Dark Green and Dark Earth upper colours were being referred to as the Temperate Land Scheme (TLS). Camouflage pattern designs specific to each type of aircraft had been developed by the time of the Munich crisis in 1938 with the exception of Fleet Air Arm and Coastal Command. Scheme colours for aircraft based overseas had not been decided on, but TLS and Temperate Sea Scheme (TSS - q.v.) would form the basis for all future, non-specialised camouflage schemes in the RAF. Air Observation aircraft (e.g. Auster) were camouflaged with TLS on both upper and under surfaces. Squadron and individual aircraft code letters with TLS were to be Medium Sea Grey (q.v. under 3.5 Day Fighter Scheme) which was first standardised for identification markings on camouflage aircraft in October 1936. Spinners on Day Bombers were to be Dark Green or Dark Earth.

3.3.1 Night Night was an alternative under surface colour to aluminium for night bombers in TLS and other types where considered appropriate to operations. As a camouflage colour Night has a longer pedigree than is generally realised, mainly because it was often referred to colloquially as ‘matt black’ by RAF personnel and even in official documents. In early 1935, experiments re-commenced to explore a superior under surface anti-searchlight finish to NIVO, still considered effective night camouflage from above, but very clearly visible in searchlight beams from below. A darker and more matt finish was considered to be more effective, but difficulty was experienced in creating a serviceable matt black dope using the standard carbon black pigment. As a result, it was found that adding ultramarine (a

bright blue pigment) to the basic carbon black or black dye produced a “serviceable matt blue-black surface”. In May 1936, searchlight trials of the new Night colour were conducted at Lee-on-Solent and at Fort Monkton in co-operation with the School of Electric Lighting using Fairey IIIF aircraft. These were deemed successful and it was recommended that the dark, matt blue-black finish should be standardised as ‘Night’. Night became a standard finish for the under surfaces of night bombers.

Night

Black

Night still exists in the modern British Standard (BS) 381C as 642 Night and although included in the “greys” section, now has a cited Munsell value of 8.9 B (Blue) 2.1/0.2 which is indeed an extremely dark blue - or blue-black of low colour saturation. A wartime MAP swatch for Night confirms a similar very deep blue-black hue of 0.3 B 1.3/0.9. A pure black, without colour tone, is Munsell N 1.0/0.0 and in some post-war BS 381c colour listings 642 Night was given a Munsell value of N 1 for gloss and N 1.5 for matt, possibly being confused with the ‘Glyptal Synthetic’ type glossy black paint adapted from the USA (as a result of searchlight trials held in May and July 1944, the latter using a Halifax repainted with the US gloss black paint at USAAF Burton Wood, specifications were drawn up for the new glossy black under surface paint and with materials imported from the USA it was applied to new bombers in production from April 1945). On its own, or in juxtaposition to other colours Night might simply look like black to many observers. The colour chip published in ‘British Aviation Colours of World War Two’ is a Munsell YR - yellow red - and effectively a very dark black brown! Apart from a possible aberration, it might have a lot to do with variance in the carbon black pigment used - available from blue shade to red shade. Applied Night could present a slightly blueish - or slightly purplish-brown undertone, dependent upon actual pigment composition and illumination. However, in colour science terms the wartime standard was not pure black but blue-black.

Air Ministry diagram showing TLS with Night under surfaces on a Bristol Blenheim Mk.1

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Air Ministry diagrams showing TLS with Night under surfaces for four engined monoplane bombers

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Three Battle Mk.Is of 218 Sqn. RAF, in flight over Northern France, probably in January 1940. K9325, HA-D, was shot down on May 11, K9353 HA-J crashed one day later, whilst K9324 was one of the few aircraft of this unit which survived the French campaign. The aircraft were painted in TLS with Night undersides. Note the overpainted serial numbers under the wings (Crown Copyright)

Another similarly painted Battle Mk.I (K9408), coded PM-N of 103 Sqn. RAF, photographed at Betheniville, France, in March 1940. Note the gas detection patch on the port wing (Crown Copyright) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Defiant Mk.I (N1744) of 256 Sqn. RAF in very worn overall Special Night finish, spring 1941 (Phil Listemann coll.)

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Hampden B Mk.I (R5852), coded OL-Y of 455 Sqn. RAAF, pictured in flight in June 1942. It carried the standard finish of Bomber Command aircraft of the time, i.e. TLS over Special Night, with high demarcation between the colours on the fuselage sides (Phil Listemann coll.)

Hampden Mk.I (L4074), coded KMO, from 44 Sqn., Drem, Scotland, December 1939. Temperate Land Scheme of Dark Earth and Dark Green on the upper surfaces with Night on the undersides

As searchlights became more powerful, concern was raised about the effectiveness of Night and in consequence a Special Night finish was developed from 1939 as “dead black cellulose camouflage dope”, with minor changes to improve its composition over time. Unlike Night which was a dark blue-black, Special Night was a true matt black finish. Manufacturers were allowed some leeway in its specification and the finish required special application and special cleaning. A post-war report on the development of RAF wartime camouflage described the development of Special Night from 1940, but that related to a revision of the original 1939 Special Night specification in February 1940 as Ch.127 or R.D.Mat.2A, where the pigment became a “special black dye on a metallic oxide base”, and was considered to be superior in terms of resistance to wear and tear. On May 22, 1939, trials of Special Night were held at the Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) at Northolt with a Wellington painted overall in the finish. In August of the same year, further trials were held by No.6 Group

of Bomber Command with three Blenheims and three Whitleys finished in Special Night on their under surfaces. In January 1940, Special Night was authorised for the under surfaces of all night bombers. RAE stated that during 1940/41 Special Night was being misapplied as an overall finish on RAF night fighters such as the Boulton-Paul Defiant, Bristol Beaufighter and De Havilland Mosquito, as well as Night Intruder aircraft like the Hawker Hurricane. This related to an instruction issued by the Air Ministry on November 27, 1940 that night fighters were to be painted ‘matt black (special night)’ on all surfaces with national markings as for night bombers, a requirement repeated in AMO A.513 of July 10, 1941 (Para 2(i) (c)). During 1941/42 Special Night was also applied overall to the Whitleys of No.4 Group. However, Special Night was never intended as an overall finish for night flying, but only as an under surface anti-searchlight finish for night bombers.

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Short Stirling Mk.IV, probably coded 8E-W from ‘B’ Flight of 295 Sqn. RAF, at Kastrup airfield in September 1945. The photos provide a nice view of the Dark Earth, Dark Green and Night scheme. Note the quotation from Shakespeare’s “Merchant of Venice” and mission markings under the cockpit (Hanne Laursen via Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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Special Night to Spec.D.T.D/R.D.M.2A was held in RAF Stores with its own specialist thinners as well as standard Night, which was the required undercoat for Special Night, so it was feasible for aircraft originally in Temperate Land scheme to be re-painted or touched up with Special Night on station without the same preparation or quality of finish to be achieved in aircraft factories. Special Night was declared obsolete by November 1942, but some aircraft painted in the finish remained in service beyond that. The under surfaces of night bombers then reverted to standard Night. Both Night and Special Night were also available in RAF Stores as Distempers for temporary camouflage under DTD 441. Spinners and aircraft serial numbers were usually painted in Night although RAF stores also held stocks of plain black synthetic enamel for brush application (33B/159) under specification DTD 260A ‘S’.

3.3.2 Sky

A nice in-flight shot of Whirlwind Mk.I (P6985), coded HE-J of 263 Sqn. RAF, reveals yet another interpretation of the order issued on November 27, 1940 (Phil Listemann coll.)

Hurricane Mk.I (most likely P2549), coded SD-L of 501 Sqn. RAF, prepared for a sortie at Betheniville, France, in May 1940. This aircraft was finished in TLS in ‘A’ pattern, with white/Night undersides, although it appears that the under surface of the starboard stabilizer and elevator remained in aluminium dope (Crown Copyright)

Sky was developed from a pre-war proprietory paint colour devised by Sidney Cotton for his secret pre-war photographic reconnaissance flights. He described it himself thus: “One day at Heston I was watching the Maharajah of Jodhpur take off in his private plane, and very soon after it left the ground I lost sight of it. Soon I realised that it had disappeared altogether. It was painted a pale, duck-egg green, and I was convinced that this was why I had lost sight of it; it had simply merged in the background. I got the Titanine Dope Company to make up a similar paint, slightly lighter in hue, and I registered it as ‘Camotint‘ (although I took out no patents), and I had the Lockheed painted with it.” In May 1937, Air Chief Marshal Dowding had suggested that fighter aircraft with aluminium painted under surfaces should be finished with one under surface wing painted ‘dull black‘ to improve anti-aircraft recognition. Aluminium was critical to wartime aircraft production and RAE began an exploration of aluminium versus white as an under surface colour. In October 1937, Dowding reported the results of experiments at North Weald, and recommended that the Hurricane should be produced with the under surface of the wings painted white to starboard and black to port. A memo of January 8, 1938, from DTD to the Resident Technical Officer (RTO) at Hawker Aircraft Ltd., confirmed

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Blenheim Mk.IV (R3600) of 110 Sqn. RAF, Wattisham, June 1940. It carried a factory-applied TLS with Sky undersides (Crown Copyright)

Groundcrew refuelling Spitfire Mk.IIa (P7420) of 19 Sqn. RAF at Fowlmere airfield in September 1940. The aircraft was just recently delivered from 6 MU, and carries a freshlyapplied TLS over Sky (Crown Copyright)

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Hurricane Mk.I (P2923), coded VY-R, flown by F/O Albert G. Lewis of 85 Sqn., landing at Castle Camps in July 1940. Temperate Land Scheme of Dark Earth and Dark Green in “A” pattern on the upper surfaces with Sky on the undersides (Crown Copyright)

Hurricane Mk.Is of 303 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, pictured at Leconfield in late November 1940. All the aircraft were painted in TLS over Sky, with the under surfaces of the port wings painted black with temporary camouflage distemper under DTD 441, which was available as both Night and Special Night. The wing centre area remained in Sky (Robert Gretzyngier coll.)

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PDU Spitfire in overall Camotint or Sky finish - March 1940

that the port side colouring “is not strictly black but the standard ‘night‘ finish”. At first, the centre section of the aircraft continued to be painted aluminium. In April 1938, the scheme was extended to Spitfires, and in May it was confirmed that the black and white colours should meet on the centre line, obviating the aluminium-painted centre section. Correspondence then continued as to whether the ailerons could be painted by service units re-painting earlier delivered aircraft in view of balance considerations. It was not until April 1939 that the Director of Operational Requirements confirmed that ailerons should remain as factory-doped in aluminium. With the commencement of hostilities and RAF aircraft operating over France, the colouring of under surfaces was again considered, but considerable confusion at first reigned over the introduction of ‘Camotint‘ for the under surfaces of Blenheim bomber and fighter squadrons. The RAE had been investigating under surface camouflage, comparing ‘Camotint‘ to a blue finish which they had developed and which they preferred. On November 25, 1939, C-in-C Bomber Command had advised the Air Ministry that the under surfaces of Blenheims of 139 Sqn at Watton (in TLS) had been painted “grey-blue so as to merge into the background of the sky when viewed from below”. Whether this colour was related to ‘Camotint‘, to the French gris-bleu clair (light grey-blue) colour (as the aircraft were preparing to go to France) or to the blue developed by the RAE as ‘Sky Blue‘ (q.v.) is uncertain. On November 30, a telegram was sent to Fighter and Coastal Commands that a ‘light blue‘ rather than black under surface colour was being introduced for Blenheim squadrons. On December 2, 1939, the Air Ministry formally approved the adoption of ‘grey-blue‘ for the under surfaces of Blenheim aircraft. At a Directorate of Equipment meeting held on January 10, 1940, a representative of RAE produced samples of the original ‘camotint green egg-shell finish‘ and the ‘new egg-shell blue finish’. It was recorded that samples were being made up by Cellon as an alternative source of supply to Titanine, and that DTD would decide the best colour and finish to be adopted, after which the finish would be introduced and given a DTD specification. By April 1940 Bristol Aeroplane Co. Ltd., were advised that “the pale blue-green which has been called Camotint is now defined as Standard Sky and this description should be given in your schedule” (for Blenheim IV). Despite this, the new paint was still being referred to inconsistently in documentation, including ‘Light Sea Green‘ and ‘Duck Egg Green’. 200

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PDU Blenheim in overall Camotint or Sky finish - March 1940

Sky Sky is a Munsell GY - Green Yellow and bearing in mind the variance in formulae and pigments used, FS 34424 is a useful if not precise match in FS 595. The original proprietory Titanine ‘Camotint’ formula for Sky of White rinted with about 4% Yellow Oxide and a trace of Prussian Blue used on early photo-reconnaissance unit (PRU) aircraft, later gave way to various revised formulae combining White, Black, Green and Yellow “bases”, the constituent pigments of one of these being Antimony Oxide (white), Vegetable Black, Chromium Oxide (green) and Yellow precipitated Iron Oxide with China Clay as an extender. Other proprietory formulae were used and the paint was available in several media, including distemper, resulting in considerable variation in the appearance of the colour. As with many paints of this era, surface “chalking” tended to reduce the colour to a lighter and more greyish appearance unless a rigorous maintenance regime was in place. By March 1940 Camotint or Sky was already in use as an overall colour on Spitfires and Blenheims of the Photographic Development Unit (PDU), Heston. On June 6, 1940, the Air Ministry advised all Commands that all fighter aircraft were to be painted with ‘Sky Type S’ on the their under surfaces. A flurry of immediate queries resulted in a clarifying instruction the following day that Sky could be described as ‘Duck Egg Bluish Green’. On June 10, a further instruction stated that in view of a shortage of Sky paint, aircraft could continue to be operated with black and white under surfaces in the interim, but by the end of the month it was clear that units were mixing their own ‘pale blue‘ paints from available stores of white, yellow and blue paints to re-paint aircraft. This resulted in non-standard versions of Sky bearing resemblance to contemporary BS colours ‘No.1 Sky Blue‘ (not to be confused with MAP/RAF Sky Blue) and ‘No.16 Eau-de-Nil’. Indeed units may have referred to those standards when attempting to mix ‘Duck Egg Bluish Green‘ themselves.

Eau-de-Nil

BS Sky Blue

The unit mixed and applied Eau-de-Nil type colours typically resembled FS 14533, whilst the Sky Blue type colour(s) resembled FS 34325, but there was variation. DTD Circular No.83 issued on August 23, 1940, established that the under surfaces of all operational aircraft would be either matt black (e.g. Night) or Sky (still referered to as duck-egg blue), and might be one or the other at the discretion of Commands to meet operational requirements. It was emphasised that the following classes of aircraft would be produced with duck-egg blue under surfaces: Fighters, Army Co-operation, General Reconnaissance, Torpedo Bombers, Blenheim Bombers, Close support Bombers, Troop Carriers and Bomber Transports. All Bombers except those mentioned were to be produced with matt black under surfaces. Subsequently, DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, required all day bombers with the exception of Mosquitoes to be finished in TLS with Sky under surfaces. On November 27, 1940, the Air Ministry ordered that the under surface of the port wing on day fighter aircraft of Fighter Command was to again be painted black and the roundel on that side surrounded by a yellow ring. Additionally, a vertical band, 18 inches wide, of duck-egg blue, was to be applied completely around the fuselage in front of the tail plane, and the spinner was to be painted duck-egg blue. The use of the term ‘duck-egg blue‘ in this instruction and the appearance of some colour photographs has given rise to speculation that some units possibly painted the band and spinner using Sky Blue (q.v.) paint. On April 7, 1941, the Air Ministry instructed that day fighter aircraft were to revert to an all Sky under surface finish, dispensing with the port black wing, but owing to a shortage of Sky (again!) implementation was postponed until April 22.

Another Hurricane Mk.I photographed at Leconfield in late November 1940. V6941, coded WX-W of 302 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, had the black area extended well under the wing centre (Robert Gretzyngier coll.)

Hurricane Mk.Is of 306 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, March 1941. V7118 carried TLS in ‘B’ pattern, whilst the remaining two aircraft were finished to ‘A’ pattern (Robert Gretzyngier coll.)

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3.3.3 Sky Blue

Sky Blue Sky Blue originated as an RAE developed colour to be used on the under surfaces of target aircraft (the upper surfaces were Identification Yellow q.v.). It was described as a ‘greyish violet-blue colour with a large admixture of white’. The colour is decidely pale and unsaturated in comparison to the contemporaneous BS 381c No.1 Sky Blue standard (see the previous sub-chapter) and should not be confused with it. There is no comparable FS colour to Sky Blue. The closest, FS 25530, is a Munsell BG - Blue Green, and therefore more greenish than Sky Blue’s Munsell B - Blue value. The possible use of Sky Blue for other purposes during the war is contentious and not supported by firm evidence. This uncertainty is exacerbated by the habit of referring to colours inconsistently in official documents with Azure Blue (q.v.) for example frequently being referred to as ‘sky blue’ (sic). At one time it was believed that Sky Blue was possibly used for the under surfaces of RAF aircraft in the Far East, but official instructions of the time actually required Azure Blue.

Sky Blue on Queen Wasp target aircraft

Walrus Mk.I (K8343) of 718 Sqn. FAA finished in aluminium dope overall, aboard HMS Exeter in the late 1930s (Naval History & Heritage Command)

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3.4 Temperate Sea Scheme From 1933 a requirement for sea camouflage colours for the naval aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm went through a similar period of development involving experimentation, tests and trials as those which had resulted in TLS. The first tests of proposed colours took place at Lee-on-Solent in October 1935, again using Fairey IIIF aircraft and later Blackburn Sharks. The Admiralty were keen to discover whether a single scheme could be adaptable for FAA aircraft for Home and Overseas service. The camouflage scheme identified as S.1.E. was adopted in 1939, consisting of Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey in a similar pattern to the TLS, with shadow shading colours of Dark Sea Grey and Light Slate Grey for the lower wings of biplanes. With the exception of fighter aircraft, which were to follow the RAF requirement of split black and white under surfaces, the under surfaces of all other

Extra Dark Sea Grey

Dark Slate Grey

aircraft were to be painted Sky Grey (q.v.) with that colour brought up on the vertical sides of the fuselage. The scheme was formally promulgated in Confidential Admiralty Fleet Order 640 of April 25, 1940, referencing Air/ Naval Aircraft Diagram 1002 of 1939. The scheme was of slightly lower contrast than TLS, the Extra Dark Sea Grey being a Munsell PB - Purple Blue, comparable to FS 26118, and the Dark Slate Grey a low saturated Munsell GY - Green Yellow. FS matches to that colour are unsatisfactory, FS 34086 being slightly too dark and FS 34096 being too green. The closest FS colour to Dark Sea Grey is 36118, but the FS is darker. The closest FS value to Light Slate Grey is 14159, but the FS is significantly lighter. By August 1940, when DTD Technical Circular No.83 was issued, this scheme was being referred to as the Temperate Sea Scheme (TSS). At a conference held on July 23, 1940, to discuss achieving standardisation and at which the Admiralty were represented, it was agreed that was no objection to the FAA adopting duck-egg blue (Sky Type S) for under surfaces of aircraft rather than Sky Grey. CAFO 1719 of September 26, 1940, set out that all operational FAA aircraft were to have under surfaces in Sky except that, in certain circumstances, under surfaces could be painted matt black to meet operational requirements.

Dark Sea Grey

Light Slate Grey

Swordfish Mk.I (P4167), coded U4B, from 816 Sqn., based at HMS Furious, in April 1940. Temperate Sea Scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey on the upper surfaces with shadow shading of Dark Sea Grey and Light Slate Grey for the lower wings and Sky Grey on the undersides

Walrus Mk.I (W3040), coded AA5R, from 751 Sqn., based at Dundee, Scotland, in 1944. Temperate Sea Scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey on the upper surfaces with Sky on the undersides

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Albacore Mk.I (BF712), coded S5R, from 812 Sqn., based at Malta, in December 1942. Temperate Sea Scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey on the upper surfaces with Night on the undersides

Northrop NP-3B patrol bombers of 330 (Norwegian) Sqn. RAF, which flew operational sorties from Iceland since late June 1941. All aircraft were painted in TSS with Sky undersides (Riksarkivet, Norway)

A diagram from the DTD Technical Circular 360 of July 1943, showing the two patterns used in the schemes specified for Special Coastal Duties 204

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A formation of Rocs in flight in August 1940. Although both aircraft seem to carry the later Temperate Sea Scheme with the upper surface camouflage extended down the fuselage sides, the nearest aircraft is fitted with cowling panels painted to the early TSS, possibly with Sky Grey lower portions (Phil Listemann coll.) A line-up of Albacores from 820 Sqn. FAA. All aircraft had their undersides quite crudely painted in Night. The upper surfaces were finished in standard Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey pattern (Phil Listemann coll.)

From August 10, 1941, RAF Coastal Command (CC) adopted TSS for the upper surfaces of all operational aircraft. Wellingtons, Whitleys and Liberators were to have matt white sides and glossy white under surfaces. Torpedo bomber and long range fighter squadrons were to have a 50/50 diversity of aircraft with duck-egg blue (Sky) and matt black (Night) under surfaces. All other General Reconnaissance (GR) landplanes were to have duck-egg blue (Sky) under surfaces. Units were instructed to re-paint their operational aircraft as soon as possible, whilst arrangements were in hand to make the necessary changes on Hudson, Beaufighter and Beaufort aircraft on the production line and at Maintenance Units (MUs). However, it was not possible to introduce the new colour scheme into the production line in the case of Blenheim, Wellington and Liberator aircraft, although it might be possible in certain cases for Whitley V aircraft. The new scheme was not at that time to be applied to CC Operational Training Unit (OTU), Development Unit (DU) or Tactical Development Unit (TDU) aircraft. DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified schemes for aircraft on coastal duties except PR, Meteorological, Air/Sea Rescue and other Special Duties as single colour Extra Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces and Glossy White under surfaces. Also schemes for Special Coastal Duties of

single colour Extra Dark Sea Grey on the upper surfaces and either Scheme A with Glossy White under surfaces to Pattern No.1 (low demarcation) or Scheme B with Night under surfaces to Pattern No.2 (high demarcation) were specified. However, Amendment No.1 of March 30, 1944, to DTD Technical Circular 360 Issue 2 of November 2, 1943, specified Sky for the under surfaces of Scheme A. The same Circular also specified the scheme for low-flying photo-reconnaissance (PR) aircraft as Extra Dark Sea Grey and Extra Dark Sea Green (q.v.) on the upper surfaces with PR Mauve (q.v.) on the under surfaces. Spinners could be either Extra Dark Sea Grey or Extra Dark Sea Green. A note was included that the service were permitted license in the colouring and marking of PR aircraft, and although the colour schemes given had been used for a considerable period, before camouflage was applied to any new type or mark of aircraft known to be alloted for those duties the requirements were to be confirmed. Light Slate Grey was specified for the colour of code letters and serial numbers against white on Coastal Command aircraft.

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A rare colour photo of a Fulmar in standard TSS (AJ-Press coll.)

Taken in April 1942, this picture clearly shows the camouflage pattern on a newly-built Fulmar Mk.II (DR661). The aircraft would soon be delivered to 808 Sqn. FAA (RAF Museum)

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Catalina Mk.I (W8424) of 1477 (Norwegian) Flt., finished in standard TSS. Note the name ‘Vingtor’ (Riksarkivet, Norway)

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Corsair Mk.II fighters at Squantum in 1943. These aircraft were factorypainted with U.S.-manufactured, near equivalent colours, i.e. ANA 613 Olive Drab and ANA 603 Sea Gray on the upper surfaces, and ANA 610 Sky on the undersides (NARA)

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A clear view of the camouflage pattern on the upper surfaces of Seafire L Mk.IIc (LR647), coded R of 808 Sqn. FAA, which was nosed over HMS Hunter on February 5, 1944 (RAF Museum)

Swordfish Mk.II (LS298) of ‘O’ Flt. of 860 (Dutch) Sqn. FAA, based aboard merchant aircraft carrier MV Macoma in mid-1944. This aircraft had Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey upper surfaces, and white undersides (AJ-Press coll.)

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Beaufighter TF Mk.X (NE429), coded P6-S of 489 (NZ) Sqn. RAF, escorted by Mustang Mk.III (FB123), coded PK-W of 315 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, July 30, 1944. The torpedo bomber had Extra Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces over Sky undersides, whilst the Mustang carried Day Fighter Scheme, which most likely had been re-applied with British paints at MUs (Instytut Sikorskiego via Robert Pęczkowski)

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Barracuda Mk.II (LS674), coded 4Y of 826 Sqn. FAA, takes off for a sortie during Operation Goodwood. The Extra Dark Sea Grey and Dark Slate Grey pattern on the upper surfaces is clearly visible (IWM via Adam Jarski)

Sunderland Mk.III coded WH-R of 330 (Norwegian) Sqn. RAF, pictured at Oslo-Fornebu on May 10, 1945. Extra Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces and white undersides (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

Sea Hurricane Mk.IIc fighters of 835 Sqn. FAA on board HMS Nairana. NF700, coded 7-T, served with this unit from July 1943 until it was lost in an accident on March 2, 1944, whilst NF672, coded 7-K, was used from late September 1943 until a crash landing on June 27, 1944. The Hurricanes of 835 Sqn. had their upper and side surfaces painted in white, except from anti-glare ‘panels’ in front of the windscreens that had been left in previous camouflage colours. It is unsure whether the undersides were also painted white, or remained in Sky. A photo of crashed NF672 reveals a clear demarcation between white, which was brought down the leading edge, and a darker tone of the remaining wing under surfaces (FAA Museum)

3.4.1 Sky Grey Sky Grey was the under surface colour originally established for the FAA S.1.E scheme. Despite being replaced by Sky on FAA aircraft, it remained in Stores nomenclature until the end of the war, being declared obsolete only on February 23, 1946. The only other official use for Sky Grey identified so far was for the codes, when applied, on high altitude fighters in the Medium Sea Grey (q.v.) finish. These are often depicted as white, but Sky Grey had a diffuse reflectivity of 43%, similar to Sky, and against the 26% of Medium Sea Grey could appear very pale and whiteish in photographs. Sky Grey was also used, in combination with other colours, for trials of experimental high altitude colours by the AFDU at Duxford, applied to the under surface of Spitfire Ia X4816, camouflaged on the upper surfaces with Medium Sea Grey and Dark Sea Grey, and as a camouflage pattern, with ‘Olive Grey‘ (described as mid-way between Dark Sea Grey and Light Slate Grey) on the upper surfaces of Spitfire Ia X4815 in the ratio two-thirds to one-third, with Sky Blue under surfaces. The precise appearance of these camouflage patterns is unknown. DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified that night fighters for Naval use were to be camouflage Sky Grey and Grey Green (q.v.) on the upper surfaces with Sky Grey and Sky (camouflage) extending to the under surfaces. The boundary between the upper and under surface colours was to be roughly along the centre line of the fuselage curving downwards or upwards to meet the leading and trailing edges of the wing and tailplane roots.

Sky Grey Sky Grey is comparable to FS 26373 which is a close match. Rather than a true neutral grey it is a Munsell BG - Blue Green of very low saturation (0.4). real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Hurricane Mk.IIb (Z2405), coded SZ-S of 316 (Polish) Sqn. RAF, Colerne, July 1941. This aircraft was delivered from 56 Sqn., where it had been used for camouflage tests in May 1941 (Robert Gretzyngier coll.) This Mosquito was painted in Medium Sea Grey overall with Dark Green disruptive pattern on the upper surfaces, which was promulgated as standard night fighter scheme from October 1, 1942. However, DZ700 was operated by 333 (Norwegian) Sqn. RAF as F Mk.II, without the radar system which was not needed for the fighter reconnaissance sorties off the Norwegian coast. When this photo was taken during late spring or early summer of 1943, RAF Leuchars was also home of 235 Sqn. RAF, whose Beaufighters can be seen in the background, including Mk.Ic (JL725), coded T, which was finished in TSS. This aircraft was damaged and belly-landed on July 4, 1943. The Hampdens visible in the far background probably belonged to 455 Sqn. RAAF (Riksarkivet, Norway)

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Typhoon Mk.Ia (R7635), coded UO-V, from 266 Sqn., based at Duxford, in early 1942. Day Fighter Scheme of Ocean Grey and Dark Green over Medium Sea Grey

3.5 Day Fighter Scheme Following concerns expressed about the effectiveness of TLS on fighter aircraft operating at higher altitudes from 20,000 to 30,000 ft, trials of colours intended to lighten the scheme were conducted by AFDU. During May 1941 the Hawker Hurricanes of 56 Sqn at North Weald had been trialled with an experimental scheme consisting of Medium Sea Grey (q.v.) and ‘Smoke/Olive Grey’ on the upper surfaces with Sky Blue (q.v.) on the under surfaces. This experimental scheme was not adopted, but it was agreed that a predominantly grey camouflage would be more effective on day fighters. On August 11, 1941, DTD requested RAE to prepare standards for a new grey colour to be used on the day fighters of Fighter Command for the use by Aircraft Inspection Department (AID) and to give the colour a new name. The new colour was mixed from 7 parts of Medium Sea Grey to 1 part Night. RAE replied immediately that the new colour was to be called Ocean Grey. On August 12, 1941, HQ Fighter Command instructed a change to day fighter camouflage with effect from August 16, 1941. Upper surface Dark Green camouflage was to be retained, but the Dark Earth was to be replaced with the grey mixed from 7 parts of Medium Sea Grey to 1 part Cellon Night.

The mixed grey is often presumed to have been darker than the subsequent official Ocean Grey, but that is unconfirmed. Apart from speculation regarding the tonal values of monochrome photographs and the expected variance from mixed paints, it is probable that the idea has also arisen from modellers seeking to replicate the mixed grey according to the formula, but using black instead of the blue-black of Night. The scheme was subsequently designated the Day Fighter Scheme (DFS), and the change was made immediately in 10, 11 & 12 Groups (and in order of priority for 13, 14, 9, 82 & 81 Groups as supplies of Ocean Grey paint became available). For DFS, squadron code and individual aircraft letters were usually applied in Sky, but there were exceptions to this. At a conference on camouflage held at RAE on September 1, 1941, it was noted that in Coastal Command Medium Sea Grey had replaced Sky as an under surface colour “because it provided a better compromise camouflage, covering both high and low altitude flying.” From September 11, 1942, the Air Ministry required night fighter aircraft of Fighter Command to be camouflaged Dark Green and Medium Sea Grey on the upper surfaces, with Medium Sea Grey on the under surfaces. Spinners, fins and rudders were supposed to be Medium Sea Grey too. The following types of aircraft employed as night fighters were specified: Mosquito, Boston, Hurricane, Beaufighter, Havoc, Typhoon. Intruder aircraft were similarly camouflaged except that under surfaces were specified to be Night. DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified that Mosquito Day Bombers were to be finished in DFS. From June 7, 1943, Medium Sea Grey was designated as the upper surface colour for High Flying Day Fighter Aircraft (e.g. Spitfire VII). From April 1944, the under surface colour of aircraft under South-East Asia Command (SEAC) was changed from Azure Blue (q.v.) to Medium Sea Grey, probably to ease production and delivery, as the requirement for aircraft to be finished in the Desert Scheme had diminished with the commencement of the Italian campaign.

Ocean Grey

Medium Sea Grey

Ocean Grey is a Munsell B - Blue to PB - Purple Blue, approximately similar to FS 26152, which is not quite blueish enough. FS 26187, which has also been cited as comparable, is lighter and not blueish enough. Medium Sea Grey is a Munsell B - Blue to PB - Purple Blue, comparable to FS 35237, which is darker, and FS 36270, which has similar reflectivity but is also not blueish enough. Under surfaces were to be finished in Medium Sea Grey rather than Sky (RAE had suspended work on the visibility of under surfaces for day flying when Sky was introduced, but on July 18, 1941, resurrected a recommendation from a September 1937 study of daylight camouflage by Professor Morton [RAE Report E&I 1082] in favour of grey. Whether this influenced the introduction of Medium Sea Grey as an under surface colour for DFS is unconfirmed but probable), but the Sky rear fuselage band and spinner were to be retained. In addition, the leading edges of the wings were to have a strip of Identification Yellow (q.v.) from the wing tip to half way along the wing. On August 21, more detailed instructions regarding the yellow leading edge strips were issued by Air Ministry to HQ Maintenance Command, copied to Fighter Command Group HQs. On Spitfire aircraft, the strips were to have a depth of 4 inches with 2 inches each side of the centre line of the wing edge. On Hurricane aircraft, the strip was to extend from the wing tip to the landing light with the depth of the strip measured round the curve to be 6.5 inches and at the wing top 2.5 inches.

A Typhoon Mk.Ib of a RCAF unit. The photo was taken in 1945, as evidenced by the black spinner colour introduced in January of this year (Library and Archives Canada) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Spitfire F Mk.VIII (JF404), coded GZ-M, from 32 Sqn., based at Foggia, Italy, in early 1944. High Flying Day Fighter Aircraft Scheme of Medium Sea Grey upper surfaces over PRU Blue undersides

Spitfire LF Mk.VIII (MT982), coded UM-C, from 152 Sqn., based at Thedaw, Burma, in summer 1945. SEAC Scheme of Dark Green and Dark Earth over Medium Sea Grey

The air display at Kastrup on July 1, 1945. According to 137 Sqn. diary, yellow, blue and white sections took part in the display, and it appears that the markings of the Typhoons were painted appropriately (Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

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A Spitfire Mk. XIV of 41 Sqn. RAF pictured at Kastrup airfield after the end of the hostilities (Hanne Laursen via Nationalmuseet, Danmark)

3.6 Desert colours 3.6.1 Middle Stone (sometimes referred to as Midstone) On August 25, 1940, after a perod of flux, the Air HQ Middle East (ME) issued a statement summarising the situation regarding aircraft camouflage and identification in that theatre. A colour referred to as Midstone (sic) together with ‘Dark Brown’ (sic) was specified for the sides and upper surfaces of Gladiator, Gauntlet and Valentia bomber transport aircraft. Bombers, Hurricane and Blenheim (fighter) aircraft were in TLS with black and black/ white under surfaces respectively, in the process of being altered to ‘Light (Middle East) Blue’ (sic). A colour standard for Middle Stone existed as No.62 under that name in BS 381 of 1930, and was of similar if slightly lighter appearance to the subsequent MAP colour Middle Stone. Middle Stone was formally introduced in Air Ministry Order (AMO) A.513 of July 10, 1941, for the so-called ‘Tropical Land Scheme’, where apparently it was to replace the Dark Earth of the Tempeterate Land Scheme to create an upper surface camouflage of Dark Green and Middle Stone. However, a correction issued on December 11, 1941, made it clear that this order was issued in error and the Middle Stone colour was to replace Dark Green

rather than Dark Earth on aircraft operating in the Middle East. A Desert Scheme (DS) was formalised in AMO A.664 of July 2, 1942, with Middle Stone replacing Dark Green and the upper surface camouflage becoming Dark Earth and Middle Stone with Azure Blue (q.v.) under surfaces.

Middle Stone Middle Stone or Midstone is a yellow ochre with a strong yellowish tone when new, but in applied paint a tendency to fade to a lighter, sandier colour with ultra-violet (UV) exposure. The closest FS 10266 equivalent may therefore be reasonably visualised as a slightly weathered example of the colour.

Tomahawk Mk.IIb (AK402), coded GA-F, flown by F/O Neville Duke of 112 Sqn., based in Egypt, in November 1941. Desert Scheme of Middle Stone and Dark Earth upper surfaces over Azure Blue undersides

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A Tomahawk Mk.IIb of 112 Sqn. RAF painted in Desert Scheme, late 1941 (Argy Spurr via Brian Spurr)

Spitfire F Mk.IXc (EN459), coded ZX-1 of Polish Fighting Team, Tunisia, April 1943. The oversprayed edges of the national insignia indicate that the desert camouflage was sprayed freehand. Note the unusual blue colour of the unit codes, possibly a field mix (Crown Copyright)

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Hurricane Mk.IId anti-tank aircraft (HV663 & HW313) of 6 Sqn. RAF, Tunisia, April 1943. HW313 was lost on April 6, 1943. All aircraft were finished in Desert Scheme (Phil Listemann coll.)

3.6.2 Azure Blue

3.6.3 Deep Sky

On November 21, 1940, the Air Ministry advised RAE that Air HQ ME had stated that Sky on the under surfaces of Blenheim bombers sent to that theatre was too light and too green for local skies. The Air Ministry agreed that a more suitable colour was required and forwarded a sample of paint colour that HQ ME considered satisfactory and obtained by mixing blue, yellow, and a small quantity of aluminium powder. The Air Ministry considered aluminium powder unsuitable for use in a finish of that type and that it should be avoided. The RAE was requested to prepare panels with Type S finish showing the colour required and also to give the colour a suitable name. It appears that the sample concerned was not Azure Blue but a colour referred to as ‘Iraq Sky’. The RAE had already been involved in developing experimental tropical schemes since 1936, but the actual antecedence of Azure Blue is uncertain. On December 10, 1940, the MAP advised RAE under title ‘Under Surface Colour for Aircraft in Middle East’ that the colour and finish of 20 standard panels of ‘azure blue‘ were considered satisfactory and requested a further 50 panels for AID.

Deep Sky originated from RAE colour experiments initiated from November 1940 to achieve a suitable under surface finish for high altitude flying. The RAE prepared a ‘Note on the Visibility of Under-surfaces at High Altitude’ proposing that a range of blues be prepared and examined at altitudes over 30,000 ft using pre-prepared panels. In January 1940, full scale trials were conducted at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down, using a Hurricane with the under surfaces of each wing painted in different blue colours, one 25% darker and one 25% lighter than Azure Blue. After these trials it was considered that an even darker blue was required, and further tests were conducted with deeper blues of decreasing reflectivity, down from 20% to 18% and 12% respectively on two aircraft. After the trials the darker of the blues, being made more dull and less vivid, was standardised on high flying aircraft as Deep Sky. On August 13, 1943, the RAE stated that Deep Sky was optimised for aircraft operating from 35.000 to 40,000 ft in response to a request from ORS India for PRU aircraft in that theatre to be finished in ‘a deep sky blue’.

Azure Blue

Deep Sky

Azure Blue, a Munsell PB - Purple Blue of strong saturation (6.0) has no close or useful equivalent in FS 595. The closest colour FS 35240 is too dark and less saturated, being more greyish, whilst FS 35231 also cited as an equivalent and of the same hue and of similar saturation, is even darker.

Reflectivity was reduced to only 8% on the final colour. Deep Sky has no close equivalent in FS 595, the closest FS 15080 being darker and less saturated. The application of Deep Sky to the under surfaces of RAF Flying Fortress day bombers is contentious and beset by apparently conflicting documentation. The use of Deep Sky as an overall colour on PR aircraft in the Middle East is unconfirmed.

On October 30, 1941, the Air Ministry instructed that operational aircraft for service abroad were to be camouflaged in TLS or DS according to the nature of the country in which they were to operate. Under surfaces were to be Azure Blue and this included the TLS aircraft of SEAC. The tendency for RAF personnel to refer colloquially to Azure Blue as ‘sky blue’, even in official documents, has caused confusion with the colour Sky Blue (q.v.), which was paler and more greyish in appearance.

Spitfire Mk.Vs of 417 Sqn. RCAF camouflaged in desert colours, Tunisia, spring 1943 (Phil Listemann coll.) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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3.6.4 Mediterranean Blues Light and Dark Mediterranean Blue were developed from 1935 as experimental sea camouflage in combination with Dark Sea Green and Light Sea Green for use in tropical environments by both flying boats and landplanes. Their use for these purposes beyond trials is uncertain, but both blues were listed in Stores Vocabulary in 1942. Interestingly, at that time Dark Mediterranean Blue was only available in 5 gallon containers to DTD 83A Cellulose 33B/318 for Home and 33B/411 for Overseas use, whilst Light Mediterranean Blue was only available for Overseas use as DTD 314 Synthetic in half gallon 33B/354 and one gallon 33B/355 containers. By 1943 Dark Mediterranean Blue retained the same categories, but Light Mediterranean Blue was then available in both Cellulose to DTD 83A or 308 in 5 gallon containers 33B/319 for Home and 33B/412 for Overseas use, as well as Synthetic to DTD 314 or 517 in 5 gallon containers 33B/347 for Home and 33B/442 for Overseas use. Home use were possibly intended for Maintenance and/or Delivery units preparing aircraft for overseas use, but the 1942 imbalance in stores availability is mysterious.

Light Mediterranean Blue

Dark Mediterranean Blue

Both colours have been associated with operations from Malta. On April 30, 1942, a signal from Director of Movements noted that Hurricane IIc aircraft for Malta reinforcement were to be fitted with 2 cannon only and camouflaged to meet Malta’s requirements - duck-egg blue (Sky?) underneath and ‘plain Mediterranean blue above’ (presumably Dark Mediterranean Blue?). DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified that the under surfaces of Day Fighters for Malta were to be coloured Light Mediterranean Blue.

3.7 Photo-Reconnaissance (PR) Colours The RAF’s Photographic Development Unit (PDU) and later Photo Reconnaissance Unit (PRU) developed from Sidney Cotton’s clandestine pre-war aerial photo surveys. The unit was permitted extensive leeway in its own development and use of specialised finishes for its aircraft. AMO A.926 of December 12, 1940, stated that: “Aircraft of the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit and No.421 Flight (Early Warning Reconnaissance) are coloured and marked in accordance with operational requirements and the colour schemes need not conform to the standard system. Special arrangements are to be made by the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit and No.421 Flight with HQ Fighter Command for the safety of these aircraft.” Not all the schemes used, especially experimental or ad hoc schemes, have been documented or confirmed. Monochrome photographs showing apparently unusual tones and combinations have attracted much speculation but very little certainty. Contemporaneous descriptions suffer from the usual tendency to refer to colours by generic or popular names rather than official nomenclature. Spitfire PR.IV aircraft of the PRU Egypt and operated in the Middle East received a finish referred to as ‘royal blue’ or ‘bosun blue’, and the two PR Hurricanes sent to Burma as well as the Hurricane and B-25 aircraft of No.5/ No.3 PRU (India) were reportedly painted in this colour. Whether this ‘royal blue’ was actually Deep Sky, Dark Mediterranean Blue or some other unofficially promulgated colour is unknown. It has been suggested that the colour might have been the No.6 Royal Blue of BS 381c of 1930 (still extant in BS 381c as No.106 Royal Blue), but that colour is such a dark purplish blue as to be almost black, and seems an unlikely contender. A memo from the Deputy Director of Operational Research dated October 28, 1944, notes that low altitude Mosquito PR aircraft were then finished in TSS over Sky.

Beaufighter Mk.I (T3301) was converted for PR use at 2 PRU in Heliopolis in late 1941. It was initially uniformly painted in a light colour which might be Medium Sea Grey or PRU Pink. The latter is known to be around as early as October 1941 (Argy Spurr via Brian Spurr) 218

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Another photo of a Beaufighter Mk.I in service with 2 PRU. It is probably the T3301 after repainting into a dark colour, possibly the so-called ‘bosun blue’ (Argy Spurr via Brian Spurr) This drawing of a Hudson Reconnaissance Bomber and PR Spitfire was supplied to HQ CC by the PRU at Heston for the purposes of identification on July 21, 1940. The colours shown were not specified in the covering memo

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3.7.1 Photo-Reconnaissance Unit Blue This colour was developed by the PRU and originally supplied by Titanine Ltd as ‘Cosmic Blue’, subsequently referred to as ‘PRU Special Blue’ and ultimately as PRU Blue. DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified PRU blue as an overall colour on high-flying PR and Meteorological aircraft. PRU Blue was also specified as the under surface colour for high-flying day fighters with Medium Sea Grey upper surfaces.

Hurricane PR Mk.II (DG622) is another aircraft from 2 PRU which received the dark overall finish that seems distinctive for this unit (Argy Spurr via Brian Spurr)

PRU Special Blue The colour chip here is rendered from a measured PRU Blue sample as provided by PRU Benson to Research Directorate Materials in August 1941. There is no useful match in FS 595, the closest FS 15109 being too blue. Like many RAF wartime paints, PRU Blue tended to chalk in service to a lighter, less greenish appearance.

Mosquito B Mk.IX (ML897), coded D, from No.1409 Met Flight, based at Wyton, in late 1944. PRU Blue overall. The external fuel tanks that had been painted in Medium Sea Grey, were probably replacement parts

Spitfire PR Mk.XIX of 682 Sqn. RAF pictured in Italy in 1944. This machine was finished in PRU Blue overall (James V. Crow coll.) 220

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Mosquito PR Mk.XVI (NS502) of 544 Sqn. RAF, illustrates the overall PRU Blue scheme with full invasion markings. July 1944 (Crown Copyright)

3.7.2 PRU Special Pink PRU Special Pink was applied overall to fighter-reconnaissance Spitfires, but does not appear as a specification within AMOs or DTD Technical Circulars. PRU Special Pink was not in Vocabulary of Stores (NIV) therefore not a ready mixed colour.

DTD Technical Circular 360 Issue 2 of November 2, 1943, also specifies this scheme for PR low flying aircraft. Spinners were to be Extra Dark Sea Grey or Extra Dark Sea Green.

Extra Dark Sea Green PRU Special Pink The PRU Special Pink is rendered from a measured sample of the colour provided to RD Materials by PRU Benson in August 1941. It is a pale, pink-tinted greyish ‘pumice’ colour and not as saturated as many depictions suggest. It has been compared to FS 31668 and althought that is the closest colour in FS 595 it is more saturated and ‘warmer‘ than the actual colour being a Munsell YR - Yellow Red rather than R - Red.

PRU Mauve

PRU Mauve was at first made up from 5 parts PRU Pink, 2 parts PRU Blue and 1 part Identification Red (Bright), but was later held in stores as listed in DTD Technical Circular 360 Issue 2 of November 2, 1943, as 33B/594 in 5 gallon containers to DTD 83A or 308 Cellulose and 33B/597 and 33B/599 in 5 gallon containers to DTD 314 or 517 Synthetic for Home and Overseas use respectively. However, the use of this colour overseas has not been confirmed.

3.7.3 Extra Dark Sea Green and PRU Mauve The low-flying PR scheme of Extra Dark Sea Grey and Extra Dark Sea Green upper surfaces over Mauve under surfaces is described in a memo from PRU Benson to HQ Coastal Command dated December 22, 1942, as Scheme ‘B’ for low flying aircraft.

Spitfire FR Mk.IX (MK716), coded X, from 16 Sqn. RAF, photographed at A-12 Balleroy, Normandy, in September 1944. This low-lever reconnaissance aircraft was painted in PRU Pink overall, with the invasion markings applied to the lower areas only (Phil Listemann coll.) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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3.8 Air Sea Rescue Aircraft AMO A.664 of July 2, 1942, specified TSS with Sky under surfaces for aircraft engaged on air sea rescue (ASR) duties. Amendment No.5 to DTD Technical Circular 360 of June 5, 1943, permitted Azure Blue under surfaces if specially required for aircraft destined Overseas. Spitfire Mk.Vb (BL591) of 277 Sqn. RAF, summer or autumn 1944. Note the yellow codes that had been specified for ASR units in January 1943, and invasion markings limited to the lower areas of the aircraft (Chris Thomas coll.)

On January 24, 1943, the HQ Fighter Command requested that the red code letters of 277 ASR Sqn Spitfires should be replaced with yellow code letters. The red code letters were found to be without authority and should have been Sky for Spitfires engaged on ASR duties. After discussion with Air Ministry the code letters for both 276 and 277 Sqns were specified to be yellow, with additionally a black line, 12” wide, running from the root of the spinner to the tailwheel underneath the aircraft.

3.9 Transport Aircraft Amendment No.5 of June 29, 1943, to DTD Technical Circular 360 of February 23, 1943, specified that service transport aircraft were to be finished in TSS with Azure Blue or, if specially required, Night under surfaces. 222

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3.10 Grey Green Grey Green, referred to as ‘Cockpit Grey Green’ in some RAF documents, was originally intended as a standard interior colour applied to both crew areas and other interior areas, such as wheel wells, etc. Cockpit paint trials were held by RAE in 1925 to replace the white enamel, which was then being applied to cockpit interiors with a matt oil paint of more suitable colour. Three colours were tested - a light grey, a grey green and a buff. The light grey was suggested as most suitable, pending approval for tropical use, but ultimately a grey green was selected as the light grey was considered too bright for use Overseas. Interestingly, this colour was NIV in Enclosure 1A Leaflet B.8200/39 issued as a draft by RD Mat in September 1939, and was not included in Aircraft Design Memorandum No.332 (Issue 2) of the same year. However, the colour does appear in the

Stores listing appended to painting instructions issued on September 14, 1942, as synthetic enamel to DTD 260A in one gallon containers 33B/216 for spray application. Curiously, this colour was not listed as obsolete as with other colours in February 1946 by RD Mat, but thereafter does not appear in Stores listings.

(Cockpit) Grey Green Grey Green is a Munsell GY - Green Yellow of low saturation. There is no close FS 595 equivalent, FS 24227 being too green and FS 24226 being too grey - the colour is approximately between the two.

A viev into the pilot’s cockpit of Barracuda (FAA Museum)

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This picture of Spitfire Mk.Vc (JG726), coded AN-L of 417 Sq. RCAF, gives a good view of the identification colours. Note the different shade of the red colour of the fin flash and bright blue colour of the fuselage roundel. (Crown Copyright)

3.11 Identification Colours Prior to the re-introduction of camouflage, the national insignia - roundels and fin flash on RAF aircraft were in ‘bright’ colours - red and blue. On June 30, 1936, DTD advised that all colours used for application in connection with camouflage schemes should be matt finish, and additionally requested the RAE to provide 100 standards on metal for Dull Red and Dull Blue. Some confusion has arisen from the fact that Stores listings and official documentation did not always distinguish between bright and dull colours, but simply state ‘Red’ and ‘Blue’. Terminology has also caused problems where ‘Dull’ is sometimes used ambiguously in relation to a matt finish rather than to colour value. However, the actual 33B (Aircraft Dopes & Finishes Vocabulary) listings in Aircraft Design Memorandum No.332 (Issue 2) of 1939 onwards verify Dull Red 33B/73-74 and Dull Blue 33B/6970. The question of whether bright paints continued to be used in some cases has not been fully resolved as Vocabulary numbers for Red and Blue listed in parentheses were noted ‘to be used first’ before the Dull Red and 224

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Dull Blue stores items, but simply described those paints Red 33B/166-167 and Blue 33B/164-165 as ‘Colour, identification, cellulose, matt’. This suggests that the latter were possibly the original ‘bright’ colours. However, on September 1, 1940, the MAP wrote to RTOs referencing DTD Circular No.84 Identification Colours on Aircraft, requesting them to advise their firms that dull identification colours were required “because it is understood that several firms are still purchasing the bright colours which are glossy.” The issue appears not to have been resolved because on September 29, 1941, the MAP again wrote to RTOs referencing DTD Technical Circular No. 227 Aircraft Roundels - Glossiness of Paint, advising that when existing stocks of paint were exhausted, the non-glossy yellow, dull blue, dull red and white were to be used on all types of aircraft. An RAE note on Identification Markings in November 1941 suggests that the Red in particular might have been subject to variance, because reflectivity of 18% is given for it, whereas reflectivity of the bright Red standard was 12% and for the Dull Red standard 10%. The Blue, however, was consistent with Dull Blue at 4%, and the Yellow at 57%. On July 20, 1942, the HQ Bomber Command noted that No.4 Group had issued local instructions to tone down their identification markings and the description of that in the document tends to exacerbate uncertainty as to whether bright red and bright blue paint were still being used: “Where ‘red’ dope is required, ‘dull red’ to be used

Where ‘white’ is required , ‘sea grey’ to be used Where ‘blue’ is required, ‘dull blue’ to be used Where ‘yellow’ is required, 1 part yellow and 2 parts ‘light earth’ to be used” Unfortunately this uncertainty is unresolved at the time of writing. Official memoranda make it clear that the bright red and blue were re-instated post war.

(Bright) Red

Dull Red

(Bright) Blue

Dull Blue

The ‘bright’ red is close to FS 21105. The ‘bright’ blue is approximately similar to FS 15052, but the FS colour is slightly darker. The Dull Red is approximately similar to FS 20109, but just a little more red saturated. The Dull Blue is approximately similar to FS 25053 in hue, but darker. Identification Yellow was a uniquitous paint colour used for many purposes. Aircraft Design Memorandum No.332 (Issue 2) of 1939 stated that unless otherwhise specified, all training aircraft were to be given a glossy yellow finish real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Spitfire DP845 in flight in October 1943. Being a prototype, it had undersurfaces painted in yellow (Phil Listemann coll.)

Tempest Mk.I (HM599) prototype, spring 1943. Ocean Grey and Dark Green over Identification Yellow

over all their external surfaces. The Memorandum listed materials to be used and emphasised that a glossy finish was required - for metal and wood parts 33B/162 Synthetic Yellow and for fabric covered components 33B/77-78 Identification Yellow, followed by 33B/85-86-87 Covering, transparent with a note that ‘the colour, identification yellow, is for use over the standard red dope, and the covering transparent is to be used as the final coat, to impart a glossy finish’. Enclosure 1A of B.6200/39 appended to a minute of RDM on September 2, 1939, required the top surfaces of communications aircraft to be finished in TLS with sides and under surfaces in yellow. On November 21, 1939, the Air Ministry advised a change whereby training aircraft were to be camouflaged but with sides and under surfaces remaining yellow. On August 1, 1940, an instruction sheet issued to the Civilian Repair Organisation by Director of Repair & Maintenance (DRM) advised that all training aircraft, communication aircraft and air transport squadron (sic) with TLS or TSS upper surfaces had the lower half of the fuselage and all under surfaces painted yellow, whilst Anti-Aircraft (Searchlight Co-operation) aircraft were similarly painted, except that their upper surfaces were ‘black’. AMO A.926 of December 12, 1940, now required aircraft with yellow under surfaces to have the upper surface camouflage extended downwards to cover the whole of the side surfaces of the fuselage, a requirement first signalled to units on November 27, 1940, following a proposal in an Air Ministry meeting on October 30, 1940, to discuss the matter. All aircraft 226

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of OTU, AFDU, Fighter Interception Unit (FIU) and No.2 School of Army Co-operation were to conform to normal camouflaged colour schemes for the aircraft role. Target towing aircraft were to have yellow under surfaces with 3 ft wide, black diagonal stripes, set 6 ft apart on the yellow background. Anti-Aircraft (Searchlight Co-operation) aircraft were not to be painted black underneath rather than yellow, whilst prototype and experimental aircraft, including private venture aircraft, were to have yellow under surfaces. DTD Technical Circular 360, Amendment 4 of May 28, 1943, exempted prototype flying boats and amphibians from having yellow under surfaces, but instead to be painted according to their intended role. DTD Technical Circular No.489 issued on April 5, 1945, required all escape doors, hatches and break-in panels to be marked internally and externally in yellow in two stages. In Stage I, inside the aircraft, all knobs, handles and releases were to be painted yellow with the periphery of all normal hatches and exits to be marked with a continuous 2” wide line. Externally, all knobs, handles and releases were likewise to be painted yellow and on camouflaged aircraft all normal hatches and exits were to be marked with a broken yellow line 0.5” in width, each yellow segment 1” long with a gap of 12” or less if necessary, between each segment. On uncamouflaged aircraft, all these markings were to be bright red (q.v.). In Stage II, all external break-in panels were to be marked by right-angle corner markings, yellow on camouflaged aircraft and bright red on uncamouflaged aircraft.

A Spitfire F.21 of 602 Sqn. RAF pictured during the take-off. Note the hood and door marked with broken yellow lines (Phil Listemann coll.)

3.12 Code Letters Identification Yellow The yellow of the standard is close to FS 13415, which is a useful equivalent. FS 33538, which has often been cited as an equivalent, is further away, being both lighter and brighter.

The complex subject of RAF squadron code and individual aircraft letters is beyond the scope of this article on colours, but as an overview of the subject, the Air Ministry letter of April 30, 1942, to all Commands, is relevant. This stated that code letter colourings for day fighters and Fighter Command OTU aircraft excluding night fighters was duck egg blue (Sky), for Coastal Command aircraft with white under surfaces was Light Slate Grey, and for all other operational and OTU aircraft excluding Fighter Command OTU day fighter aircraft, was Dull Red. The widespread use of Dull Red code letters outside Bomber Command is not well appreciated and many monochrome photos of e.g. communications aircraft are misinterpreted as having Medium Sea Grey or Sky letters.

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4

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Mikhail V. Orlov

Soviet aircraft colours, 1940-1945

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The widespread use of camouflage on Soviet Air Force aircraft actually began with an order dated June 20, 1941, two days before the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. Naturally, this order could not be executed within a few days, so Soviet aircraft entered the battle painted in accordance with previous instructions and regulations. This varied from single-colour schemes to camouflage patterns consisting of several colours, the latter of which were carried by a considerably small number of aircraft that had previously been utilised in local conflicts. To describe this diversity, the story has to begin with the events that had occurred a few years before the war. But before we discuss the paints and colours, we need to clarify the meaning of such terms as “camouflage”, “protective painting”, and some others used in the USSR in the 1930s-1940s.

4.1 Terms and definitions Many use the term “camouflage” as a synonym for “painting”. However, camouflage or disruptive painting refers to the painting of the upper and side surfaces of an aircraft, with large patches of colour that are close to those prevailing on the ground terrain, thus helping to break up the outline of the aircraft. Protective painting [защитная окраска] means painting the upper and side surfaces in one colour, which is close in tone, saturation, and especially in lightness, to the basic background of the earth. Depending on the area where it has to be used, protective painting can be applied not only with a green or white (during winter) colour, but also in other colours. Protective colour [защитный цвет] was the name used in the USSR during the period under review, for a green colour with a yellowish or yellowish-brown tinge. The official name of the colour АII З was “protective” [“З” in Cyrillic represents the letter “Z” for защитный / “zashchitnyi” - “protective”]. However, the letter “Z” was often deciphered as зеленый / “zelenyi” - “green”. Aircraft dopes [аэролаки – “aerolacs”] were nitrocellulose lacquers intended for painting exterior surfaces of aircraft. Aerolacs were available in unpigmented (colourless) and pigmented variants. Colourless aerolacs were called ‘aerolacs of the first coating’, and designated AIN [АIН]. Pigmented aerolacs were used for final surface finishing. They were called ‘aerolacs of the second coating’, and denoted AII [AII]. Two variants of pigmented aerolacs had been manufactured: AII(k) [AII(к)] were to be applied with brush, whilst AII(p) [AII(п)] were to be applied with spray gun. The only difference between them was in viscosity. Due to this, in the following text I will not make any distinction between the AII(k) and AII(p) paints, but the reader must be aware that the full names of the particular lacquers were, for example, AII(к) светло-голубой [“svetlo-goluboi” “light blue”] or AII(п) защитный [“zashchitnyi” - “protective”], although the name of the colour was often reduced to one or a few letters. In 1941, the new matte nitrocellulose lacquers of the AMT series were introduced, whose colours were indicated by numbers. Aircraft enamels [аэроэмали - “aeroemali”/”aeroenamels”] were aviation paint and varnish materials with an oil enamel base, and used for painting the metal surfaces of aircraft. The designation of an aircraft enamel consisted of letters “AE” [АЭ] and a number denoting the colour, e.g. AE-8 or AE9. In 1940, letter “E” was removed from the designation of enamel paints. If the enamel was glyptal-based, the letter “f” [ф] was added behind the number, e.g. A-19f [A-19ф]. When the matte oil enamels were introduced in 1941, the letter “m” was added behind the number, e.g. A-24m. The designation of the enamels intended for painting internal surfaces consisted of the letter “A” and the number denoting the colour (oil-based), or letters “DM” [ДМ] and the name of the colour (nitrocellulose-based). Furthermore, there existed some lacquers and enamels whose designations did not fit the system described above. Their designations will be deciphered where necessary. Non-decodable or indistinguishable paints [недешифрируемые краски], are classified as paints, aeroenamels or aerolacs, whose colour is indistinguishable from the earth’s background, even with the help of special means (for exam230

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ple, photographing using light filters). The difficulty in creating such paints is that the painted surfaces, with different spectrograms, may have the same colour, but if the observation conditions are changed (for example, a light filter is applied, or the illumination spectrum is changed), the difference between them can become striking. This phenomenon is called the metamerism of colour. Ideally, non-decodable paints should have a spectrum of reflection that is absolutely identical to the earth’s background, so it is not worth dreaming about full non-decoding. Coating system [система лакокрасочных покрытий]. The painting process consists of the application of successive layers of primer, putty, lacquer and enamel. The need for applying several layers is driven by the fact that it is impossible to combine in one material all the properties that a coating must have: high adhesion, good protective properties, weather resistance and high decorative or camouflage properties. The number of layers and the materials used depend on the type of the surface to be painted. Each layer was applied after the previous one had dried. Sequentially applied layers of various painting materials formed the coating system.

The typical coating system for fabric surfaces consisted of:

•• four-five layers of colourless ‘aerolac of the first coating’ AIN, applied only with a brush. The lacquer was applied to stretched fabric, increasing its strength, giving resistance to gasoline, oil and water, and allowing for the creation of an even surface; •• intermediate (priming) layer of aluminum ‘aerolac of the second coating’ AII Al., applied in order to protect the fabric from exposure to ultraviolet rays. It was applied with a spray gun or brush; •• two sprayed layers of an ‘aerolac of the second coating’ in decorative or camouflage colour, in accordance with the colour scheme specified for the particular aircraft.

The typical coating system for external surfaces of the aircraft with a wooden (plywood) skin, glued to a framed structure, consisted of:

•• two layers of nitrocellulose glue AK-20; •• a thin layer of putty; •• a layer of nitrocellulose glue AK-20 and a fabric coating that was glued on; •• two layers of putty; •• a layer of aluminum ‘aerolac of the second coating’ AII Al.; •• two layers of an ‘aerolac of the second coating’ in decorative or camouflage colour, in accordance with the colour scheme specified for the particular aircraft.

The typical coating system for external metal surfaces of mixed construction aircraft, consisted of:

•• a layer of oil-based primer ALG-5 [АЛГ-5] with hot air drying, or glyptal primer 138A. •• two layers of an ‘aerolac of the second coating’ in decorative or camouflage colour, in accordance with the colour scheme specified for the particular aircraft.

The typical coating system for external surfaces of all-metal aircraft consisted of:

•• a layer of oil-based primer (for example, ALG-5). •• one opaque and one finishing layer of oil enamel in decorative or camouflage colour, in accordance with the colour scheme specified for the particular aircraft, applied with wet brush or spray gun.

Unspecified types of painting materials, as well as a number of certain layers, varied depending on the time of the aircraft production.

4.2 Until 1940 138A primer

ALG-1 primer

ALG-5 primer

Experimental work on the study and implementation of camouflage in the USSR, was carried out from 1926, but the first Soviet aircraft painted with disruptive patterns appeared as late as in 1939, during the Battles of Khalkhin-Gol. Before that, protective painting was mainly applied to Soviet aircraft, but they did not suffer from monotony. Since 1937, the colours of Soviet aircraft changed like a kaleidoscope. Before one option had been fixed as a standard, another one, and subsequently a third one, came to replace it. The air force units could be equipped with differently painted aircraft of the same type, at the same time. As the aircraft were not repainted at the unit level, all this diversity was partially preserved until June 22, 1941. Around 1937, probably under the influence of the painting schemes carried by the German aircraft of the Legion Condor, used during the Spanish Civil War, light grey colours were added to the “palette” of Soviet military aviation. These were oil enamel AE-9 and nitrocellulose lacquer AII light gray, both intended for finishing the external surfaces of land-based aircraft. Technical specifications [технические условия, abbr. as ТУ - “TU”] for these paints were officially introduced on January 1, 1938, but they could be manufactured earlier in accordance with temporary specifications. ‘Aerolacs of the second coating’ AII were intended for painting the fabric skin that had been pre-impregnated with a colourless ‘aerolac of the first coating’ AIN, as well as wooden surfaces that had been covered with fabric and prepared for painting. The AE-9 enamel was designed for painting the external duralumin surfaces of the aircraft, but it could also be used for the internal surfaces of the fuselage. In the case of aircraft of mixed construc-

A SB from the 5th SBE (High-speed Bomber Squadron) / 162nd RAP (Reserve Aviation Regiment) had an accident at Shaikovka airfield on June 7, 1940. The aircraft was painted in light grey overall (Russian State Military Archive)

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This I-153 entered the war in silver finish. Inside the star insignia a black circle is inscribed (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

tion, these paints were to be applied together, which indicates that their colour was identical. However, the AE-9, which was made from a zinc oxide (white) base, gave an unstable coating which drastically chalked in a short period of operation in open air conditions, so it was soon forced out from use on aircraft external surfaces in favour of the silvery AE-8 oil enamel. The latter consisted of 90% of LM-15A oil varnish and 10% of aluminum powder with a particle size of no more than 130 microns. The application of the AE-8 over the surface that had been previously coated with a zinc chromate primer ALG-1 [АЛГ-1] in yellow colour, was carried out with a spray gun, in two layers. This coating protected the duralumin surface from corrosion. The

DB-3T of the 1st MTAP (Mine-torpedo Bomber Aviation Regiment), 1938. The aircraft was painted with AE-8 (metal surfaces) and AII Al. (fabric surfaces)

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TU for the AE-8 paint was introduced in December 1938. Its nitrocellulose equivalent for painting wooden and fabric skin was aluminum lacquer AII Al.. The examples of aircraft entirely painted in grey and aluminum colours were the UT-2 trainers, and the SB and DB-3 bombers. Some silvery DB-3s flew at least until 1943. Introduction of the AE-9 light grey, AE-8 aluminum, and the AII lacquers of the same colours did not exclude the use of the usual painting of the upper surfaces of aircraft in a protective colour. At the beginning of February 1937, the head of the Department of the Material and Technical Supply of the Air Force of the Red Army, Brigade-engineer E.V. Aleksandrov, signed Circular No. 133580 for all senior military representatives of the Red Army Air Defense Forces at the aircraft factories on “the issue of choosing standard colours for painting the aircraft, engines and aggregates”. According to this document, the upper surfaces of the wings, stabilizers and fuselages were to be painted in a protective colour, whilst the undersides in silver-aluminum, instead of the previously used blue. The reason for this

An I-16 type 5 manufactured in 1938. The aircraft is in quite a good condition, although the armament and gun sight were removed, and the German souvenir hunters cut out the red stars from the wings and an aperture in the fuselage, behind the cockpit. This machine was probably finished with AE-8 and AII Al. aluminium paints. The lack of shine may be explained by the fact that the photo was taken on a cloudy day, which is confirmed by the absence of sharp shadows. The silver finish, unusual for an I-16, speaks for the special purpose of this aircraft. Judging by the presence of attachment points for the PAU-22 gun camera, it may have been used for aerobatic demonstration. It is possible it retained the factory-applied finish until 1941. The national insignia were also present in the pre-war position. A red number “1” was painted on the rudder (E. Mombeeck coll.)

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Photographed in the summer of 1941, this I-16 type 5 still had the upper surfaces painted in a protective colour, and the national insignia in the pre-war positions. Note the vertical tail tip painted in red or yellow (M. Maslov coll.)

The 150th BAP under the command of Lt. Col. I.S. Polbin, was transferred from Siberia to the front in the summer of 1941. The SB bombers of this unit retained the camouflage finish that had been applied during the military conflict on Khalkhin-Gol (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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change was most likely that the shiny aluminum paint had a maximum reflectivity that makes the lower surfaces covered with them, closer in lightness to the background of the sky, than if they were painted in blue. Aircraft such as the I-15bis, U-2 and R-5 were painted this way. This period also featured, albeit to a rather limited extent, the first use of camouflage on Soviet aircraft. Based on the analysis of emergency regulations stored in the Russian State Military Archive, it was possible to determine some camouflage patterns used during the military conflict on Khalkhin-Gol. From the beginning of the conflict in May 1939, until July 1939, all of the SB bombers captured on the photographs had a single (grey or silver) colour scheme. The first photograph of a camouflaged SB bomber (thin serpentine bands applied over the original light background) is dated July 27, 1939. A similar situation (except for the date) is observed in regard to the I-153 fighters. The same camouflage scheme also appeared on the Putilov-Stal and Douglas DC-3 transport aircraft which operated in this area. The bands were probably applied with a standard paint of a protective colour, even though it did not fit the colour of the summer faded steppe. However, no yellow or brown paints were available at that time. After the end of the conflict, the aircraft retained their camouflage pattern. The 150th BAP (Bomber Aviation Regiment) under the command of Lt. Col. I.S. Polbin, transferred from Siberia in the summer of 1941, entered the battle with Germans flying the SBs finished in a “snake” painting scheme. In the rear Trans-Baikal military district, due to the general shortage of materials during the war years, aircraft painting schemes were not updated since peacetime, and the aforementioned camouflage patterns survived until 1943 on such aircraft as DB-3s and MBR-2s. At the end of the conflict on Khalkhin-Gol, in September 1939, another camouflage test was conducted on the I-16 fighter that belonged to Lt. N.V. Grinyov, commander of one of the squadrons of the 22nd IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment). The painting process was carried out by the technical staff of the squadron, under the direction of a camouflage specialist who arrived in the regiment. According to the description of A.V. Vorozheikin, “there were black zebra stripes and leopard spots, yellowness of the desert and spring greenery of the steppe, and all this was mixed with brown, white and blue shades. Most importantly, the specialist was proud that everything met the requirements of the science, and as a confirmation, he flipped the pages of an album of aircraft camouflage schemes in front

of us”. However, such a camouflage pattern stood out sharply against the monotone background of the steppe. Furthermore, during the first combat sortie, this aircraft attracted the attention of the Japanese pilots, and became the target of violent attacks from their side. The result was that Grinyov ordered the camouflage to be washed off.

4.3 1940 The camouflage experience gained during the conflict on Khalkhin-Gol was not implemented into the entire air force. Soviet military aviation entered the Soviet-Finnish war (November 30, 1939 – March 13, 1940) without proper camouflage. Only two months after the outbreak of hostilities, on January 31, 1940, the Air Force of the Red Army issued Order No. 14 with the “Instruction on the camouflage of operational airfields of active armies for the winter period”. This regulation officially called for application of camouflage painting for the aircraft when they are based in terrain with bushes or trees, although only for the winter period. In this case, the main colour should be the basic colour of the aircraft, whilst white patches should be temporarily applied with a washable paint, which consisted of zinc white, chalk and casein. The instructions provided exemplary winter camouflage patterns for the TB-3, SB, R-5 and I-16. When based in a treeless terrain, the aircraft were recommended to be painted entirely in white. The instruction did not require exact copying of the recommended painting schemes and was calculated for “the manifestation of a maximum initiative by the personnel”. For this reason, the camouflage patterns included in the manual were only considered as examples. Subsequently, it was required to fulfill only two conditions: the size of the white patches was to be no less than one meter in each direction, and their shape was to be curvilinear. The instruction was developed in short time by the Military engineer 2nd rank E.Z. Yasin, a specialist in military deception [маскировка - “maskirovka”] from the Department of Logistics, who later became the head of the camouflage service of the Air Force during the Great Patriotic War. However, with only 420 copies printed, the instruction could not even reach all concerned units.

Yak-1 s/n 0209 painted by Factory No. 301 in the pre-war protective finish. The accident took place on January 28, 1941. The aircraft was flown by S.G. Plygunov (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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June 1941. A “Chaika” captured by the Germans, painted in accordance with the resolution of the USSR Defense Committee No. 220cc of May 23, 1940. The upper surfaces were green, the underside - blue. Black circles were inscribed within the red stars (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Another order was issued on April 9, 1940, already after the end of hostilities. Order No. 034 was entitled “On camouflage measures of the Air Force units”, and this referred to ignoring the elementary requirements of camouflage. As can be seen from the content of this order, despite the lessons of the war, everything remained the same at the front line. In the spring of 1940, the issue of aircraft painting began to be addressed at state level. On May 23, 1940, the USSR Defense Committee adopted Resolution No. 220сс [совершенно секретно - “top secret”], which stipulated that from May 25, 1940, the upper surfaces of aircraft should be painted in green, with the undersides finished in blue. On the same day, pursuant to the aforementioned regulations, the People’s Commissariat of the Aviation Industry [НКАП – “NKAP”] issued Order No. 228c [секретно - “secret”], which, since May 25, “cancelled the existing painting schemes for the aircraft (red, steel, white, grey, etc.) as exposing”, and ordered the directors of the aircraft plants to switch to “the following coating colours: a) for the upper surfaces of the wings and tailplanes, upper and side surfaces of the fuselages - a greenish colour (looks like the colour of grass), b) for the lower surfaces of the wings, stabilizers and fuselage - a pale bluish colour (the colour of the clouds).” Aircraft already painted before May 25, 1940, were not to be repainted. At the remote Factories No. 83, 99, 125, 126, and 153, the production of aircraft in the new colours was to begin on June 10, 1940. The same order specified that samples of the new colours should be coordinated with the Main Directorate for Aviation Supply of the Red Army [Главное управление авиационного снабжения Красной армии; abbr. as ГУАС КА - “GUAS KA”] no later than on May 24 (therefore, in one day), and subsequently delivered to the paint and coatings factories. Initially, paints were supposed to be manufactured in accordance with the “current technical specifications for the corresponding types of products in the previously used colours, guided by the new colour standards coordinated with the GUAS KA”. Worth noting is that blue oil enamels were not produced at all at the time when the aforementioned orders were issued. 236

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On May 24, 1940, a meeting was held at the Krasnopresnenskiy Factory of the Main Directorate of the Paint and Coatings Industry, in order to review the standards of new colours. It was attended by the representatives of the GUAS KA and the Krasnopresnenskiy Factory, director of the Factory No. 36 Pichugin, and senior engineer Krol, from the Third Department of the First General Directorate of the NKAP. The Krasnopresnensky Factory took up the manufacture of enamels intended for painting all-metal aircraft. Until June 3, 1940, a ton of dark green enamel had to be produced and delivered to the factory No. 22, where a trial batch of aircraft was to be painted using it. The Factory No. 36 was to present “samples of coatings for fabric and wooden surfaces based on the approved samples of enamel coatings for metal surfaces”. During the meeting, the representatives of the GUAS KA and the Main Directorate of the Air Force [Главное управление Военно-Воздушных сил, abbr. as ГУ ВВC – “GU VVS”] stated that “the adopted colours are temporary, and that it is urgent to develop methods for aircraft camouflage painting and corresponding paint compositions”. For painting the lower surfaces of aircraft, a glyptal-based enamel, AM-4, in a grey-blue colour, was chosen for the first trials. That paint was successfully used for painting the crankcases of engines from 1935. However, inspections of the SB bombers painted with this enamel in the Kiev and Belorussian military districts, which were conducted in May, revealed that the AM-4 could not be recommended for painting the external surfaces of aircraft. Despite the tight deadlines, the execution of the orders was soon fully supported with material and technical supplies. Looking ahead - in November 1940, another “Specification for paint and coating materials” was approved, which listed all the “lacquers, enamels, primers, fillers and diluents used in the aviation industry”. According to this document, oil-based and glyptal-based enamels, as well as nitrocellulose lacquers, were used for painting the exterior surfaces of aircraft. For the application of the newly prescribed protective coatings, glyptal enamel paints, A-19f light green and A-18f light blue, were introduced. They were manufactured from June in accordance with temporary specifications. The colour range of the AII nitrocellulose lacquers was also expanded. The already known light gray, red, black, protective and aluminum colours were supplemented by light blue, light green, tobacco, cream and orange. If the orange colour was used for polar aviation aircraft, the cream color had a decorative purpose, and the light blue was the usual colour of the lower surfaces, then the light green and tobacco, combined with each other or with the protective colour, opened the way to the introduction of camouflage as a standard aircraft finish.

MiG-3 s/n 2171, flown by Lt. N.M. Estyen of the 5th IAP VVS KBF (Fighter Aviation Regiment of the Red Banner Baltic Fleet Air Force). It was shot down on July 12, 1941. The aircraft was painted with A-19f and A-18f (metal surfaces), and AII Sv.Zel. and AII Sv.Gol. (fabric surfaces) (Erik Mombeeck coll.)

The inspection of the execution of the orders, conducted by the military authorities, revealed that by July 22, 1940, they had already been implemented at fighter aircraft factories No. 1 (I-153), No. 21 (I-16), No. 153 (I-16), No. 292, and No. 301. Indeed, the “Seagulls” [Чайка – “Chaika”] painted in a protective (green) colour start to appear on the photographs dated summer of 1940. The situation was different in the case of the bomber aircraft factories. The Factory No. 126 in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, in June 1940 still painted the DB-3s in the old way. The Factory No.125 in Irkutsk, supplied the Air Force with unpainted SB bombers even in early August 1940! It was only from August 9, ie. starting with the aircraft No. 47/11, that this factory began painting aircraft in the protective colour. However, the new colours approved by the GUAS KA were sharply rejected by the Air Force Staff. On May 29, the deputy head of the logistics department of the Air Force Staff, Col. Romanov, wrote about the new protective finish in a report to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. F.K. Arzhenukhin: “On May 28, the logistics department accidentally learnt that the factories were painting aircraft in accordance with a newly developed and approved recipe, taking into account the camouflage requirements.

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I-16 in tricolour camouflage (sand/green/dark brown) developed for the Kiev Special Military District. Scheme No. 9 (Russian State Military Archive)

I-16 in tricolour camouflage (green/green/sand) developed for the Special Red Banner Far Eastern Army. Scheme No. 12 (Russian State Military Archive)

I-16 in two-colour camouflage (green/dark brown) developed for the Moscow Military District. Scheme No. 14 (Russian State Military Archive)

I-153 in tricolour camouflage (grey/green/ yellow-green) developed for the Special Red Banner Far Eastern Army. Scheme No. 18 (Russian State Military Archive)

I-153 in tricolour camouflage (sand/4BO green/ dark brown) developed for the Kiev Special Military District. Scheme No. 15 (Russian State Military Archive)

SB in tricolour camouflage (grey/green/dark brown). Scheme No. 6 (Russian State Military Archive)

The signature in the test report states that this SB was painted in five-colour camouflage (sand/ grey/4BO green/yellow-green/dark brown). Scheme No. 1 (Russian State Military Archive)

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A review of the approved new colour samples available in the department, determined that: 1. The paints are decodable, which is unacceptable given the current status of military deception. 2. When prescribing the use of a green colour scheme, the changes in lightness valid for camouflaging the aircraft in the air, when viewed from above, were not considered. 3. It is doubtful if the use of blue colour for the lower surfaces helps reducing visibility of the aircraft against the sky background. 4. Furthermore, the adopted finish is glossy and therefore more reflective in the sunlight…”

August 1940. UTI-26-1 painted in black and green camouflage, developed in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev. Rear sides of the prop blades were black (A.S.Yakovlev Design Bureau)

The Air Force leadership, and in particular its commander, Lt. Gen. Y.V. Smushkevich, considered the proposal of the Staff as rational, and decided that instead of many scattered works, one study that will combine efforts of all the interested parties, should be conducted. As a result, fifteen camouflage schemes were developed: six for SB, six for I-16 and three for I-153. These schemes were prepared for different military districts within the country. The patterns intended for the SB consisted of five, four and three colours. To avoid applying patches of a small size that may merge together when viewed from a long distance, the patterns for fighter aircraft were limited to two or three colours. Practically all of them included the 4BO green (protective), which by that time has already been selected as the standard colour. In addition, sand, dark green, dark brown, yellow-green and grey were used.

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I-28 fighter painted in black and green camouflage, developed in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev (A.S.Yakovlev Design Bureau)

I-30 fighter painted in black and green camouflage, developed in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev (A.S.Yakovlev Design Bureau)

The aircraft used for comparison, carried factory finishes that had been standard at the time of manufacture: the upper surfaces of the I-16 were painted in protective colour AII Z; I-153 - a new, lighter green colour AII Sv. Zel.; SB - light grey colour AE-9. Furthermore, the recently purchased example of a German Bf 109 E in standard factory camouflage was delivered. From all heights (500, 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 m), the Messerschmitt was clearly visible. The observers reported: “... the best seen is the MSh-109 aircraft, which immediately catches the eye with its dark paintwork.” On August 28, 1940, six aircraft from the 134th SBAP (High-speed Bomber Regiment), based in Podolsk, flew over the airfield of the Air Force Research Institute (Научно исследовательский институт военно воздушных сил, abbr. as НИИ ВВС - “NII VVS”). The crews were tasked with determining the number and type of aircraft located on the airfield. It turned out that none of the crewmen detected all aircraft. Different numbers from 0 to 17 were specified. Only one bomber crew specified the type of aircraft, indicating the presence of two SBs. In fact, there were 16 camouflaged planes at the airfield: six SBs, seven I-16s, and three I-153s, plus one example of each type finished in standard protective painting. The largest test of disruptive patterns conducted in the USSR ended in success. The camouflage was washed off from the aircraft, and the latter were sent back to their units. Now the leadership of the Air Force inquired the NKAP about introducing camouflage patterns in three, four or five colours for all aircraft from December 15, 1940. However, the implementation of this plan was not

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possible due to lack of paint. To accelerate the trials, they were carried out using easily washable casein paints, whilst permanent coatings had yet to be developed and manufactured. The new recipes were only tested in December, but major difficulties were ahead. There was a limited set of pigments for non-decodable paints: ocher; orange, lemon and yellow lead chromates; umber; red iron oxide; mummy brown; green chromium oxide; ultramarine; cobalt blue and cobalt green. Deposits in the USSR could quantitatively satisfy the needs of the paint and coatings industry, but practically all pigments proven to be of inadequate quality. It was necessary to ensure the paint factories were supplied with high quality - in particular, finely grinded - pigments. Temporarily, prior to the development of matte coatings, it was decided to produce non-decodable paints “on the currently used base”, ie. glossy.

Worth noting is that there was one experimental design bureau [Опытное конструкторское бюро, abbr. as ОКБ - „OKB”] that applied camouflage on its experimental aircraft, without even waiting for the end of tests of disruptive painting schemes that were conducted in the NII VVS. This was the OKB of A.S. Yakovlev. The UTI-26-1 tested in July-August 1940, the I-28 built in October 1940, and the I-30 tested in April 1941, all carried the same quite simple, two-colour camouflage scheme consisting of black patches applied over a green (protective) background. In 1940, the design bureau formalized the aforementioned camouflage pattern in form of a drawing entitled “I-26 single fighter. Camouflage”. However, the first swallows did not bring the spring, and the German pilots who attacked the Soviet airfields on June 22, 1941, did not have to search long for their targets.

The base colour for camouflage painting was to be a protective colour. The process of repainting the entire aircraft fleet of the Red Army Air Force as of 1941, with this colour, would require 124 tons of glyptal or oil enamels, and 266 tons of nitrocellulose lacquer. Moreover, it was necessary to paint new aircraft built in the factories. It took time to produce so many paints. Despite all the works carried out in 1940, none of the multicolour schemes had eventually been used in mass production. The last pre-war governmental orders were those issued on May 23, 1940, which had been discussed above. In accordance with them, at the beginning of war most of the Soviet aircraft had green upper surfaces and blue undersides. There were also earlier-built aircraft in the ranks, which were still entirely finished with light grey or silver paint.

A drawing of the black and green camouflage scheme for the I-26 fighter, developed in 1940 in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev (A.S. Yakovlev Design Bureau)

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Paints used for painting the external surfaces of aircraft 1937-1940

Name

Colour

Date of introduction

Type

AE-7 [АЭ-7]

Protective

Late 1937 - early 1938

Oil enamel

AII Zasch. [AII Защ.]

Protective

Approx. 1937

Nitrocellulose lacquer

AII Sv.Serv. [AII Св.сер.]

Light grey

Approx. 1937

Nitrocellulose lacquer

AE-9 [АЭ-9]

Light grey

Approx. 1937

Oil enamel

AE-10 [АЭ-10]**

Dark grey

Approx. 1937

Oil enamel

AE-8 [АЭ-8]

Silver

1938-1939

Oil enamel

AII Al. [AII Ал.] *

Silver

1938-1939

Nitrocellulose lacquer

Light blue

1940

Nitrocellulose lacquer

Tobacco

1940

Nitrocellulose lacquer

AII Sv.Zel. [AII Св.зел.]

Light green

1940

Nitrocellulose lacquer

AII Krem. [AII Крем.]

Cream

1940

Nitrocellulose lacquer

AII Or. [AII Ор.]

Orange

1940

Nitrocellulose lacquer

A-19f [А-19ф]

Light green

June 1940

Glyptal (alkyd) enamel

A-18f [А-18ф]

Light blue

June 1940

Glyptal (alkyd) enamel

AII Sv.Gol. [AII Св.гол.]

AII Tab. [AII Таб.]

Notes: Oil and glyptal enamels were used for painting metal surfaces, whilst nitrocellulose lacquers (“aerolacs of the second coating”) were intended for wooden and fabric surfaces, and metal surfaces previously primed with hot-dried primer. * From mid-1940 used only for the priming layer for nitrocellulose lacquers. ** Used for duralumin surfaces of seaplanes.

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4.4 1941-1942 By the end of 1940, the industry had already mastered the manufacture of protective, light green and tobacco (probably brown) colours, which enabled to introduce at least three camouflage schemes: protective + light green, protective (or light green) + tobacco, and protective + light green + tobacco. However, information on the production and use of AII Tab. colour has not yet been discovered. The development of aviation paint and coating materials in the Soviet Union was carried out in laboratory No. 9 of the All-Union Institute of Aviation Materials Science [Всесоюзный Институт Авиационного Материаловедения,

abbr. as ВИАМ - “VIAM”]. At the end of November 1940, the VIAM reported the development of a set of six colours of matte nitrocellulose lacquers and glyptal-based enamels designed for camouflage painting, and another colour intended for painting the lower surfaces of aircraft. The colours of the paints were as follows: No. 1 light brown, No. 2 grey with yellowish shade, No. 3 yellow, No. 4 green with yellowish shade, No. 5 dark green, No. 6 black, No. 7 blue. However, before they could be applied to mass-produced aircraft, it was necessary to manufacture an experimental batch of each paint, and conduct a test consisting of painting a few dozen aircraft with these paints and operating them for several months under supervision of specialists. Based on its results, a decision would be made as to whether the paints could be introduced for mass production, or if their recipes needed to be modified. Furthermore, participation of a number of chemical factories would be required, in order to organize the supply chain of the new paint components.

I-16 fighter from an unknown unit. The camouflage pattern matches the standard scheme introduced in June 1941

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The camouflage pattern carried by these I-16s also resembles the standard scheme (M. Maslov coll.)

Force were summoned to the Kremlin in regard to camouflage matters”. The reason was a letter directed to the Central Committee about the lack of aircraft concealment in the military districts close to the borderline. During the meeting, ongoing work on the camouflage was reported. Stalin gave instructions to finish this within three days. By this time, the OKB Yakovlev manufactured models of aircraft with disruptive camouflage, which were soon approved as samples.

In the first half of 1941, temporary TUs for the new range of nitrocellulose lacquers, in new colours, were developed. To quickly launch their production, a glossy version was also designed, which differed from the matte one in the absence of the so-called “additives for dullness”, ie. talc and zinc stearate. Glossy nitrocellulose lacquers received the designation AGT [АГТ: A - аэролак - “aerolac”; Г - глянцевый - “glossy”; T - meaning unknown]. Each colour was marked with a different number that coincided with the colour reference numbers mentioned in the previous paragraph. However, during the war glossy nitrocellulose lacquers were practically unused. Their time came after the war’s end, when their usage increased due to a lack of combat losses. An aircraft’s longer service life would then require using more durable and weather-resistant paint and coating materials. However, in 1941, the Air Force applied constant pressure to the industry, demanding the release of matte nitrocellulose lacquers. These were designated AMT [A - аэролак - “aerolac”; M - матовый - “matte”; T - meaning unknown]. The numbers that indicated the particular colours, remained the same as those of the AGT lacquers. For the purpose of painting all-metal aircraft, oil-based enamels of nearly the same colour, were developed.

On the last peaceful Friday, June 20, 1941, the USSR People’s Commissariat of Defense issued Order No. 0043 “About camouflaging aircraft, runways, and airfield structures”. In addition to ascertaining negative facts, the order included instructions for action: “By July 20, 1941, the aviation units, through their own efforts and with the involvement of aircraft workshop manpower, should apply camouflage to all available aircraft in accordance with the attached colour scheme, with the exception of the lower surfaces which are to be left in the old colour (…) Action plans to be reported on June 23, 1941.”

An active participant in the development of the new colours was a VIAM associate, V.V. Chebotarevskiy, who is not widely known despite the fact that his contributions to the Soviet aviation, were no less significant than those of the famous general designers. A magazine article dedicated to him was entitled “The man who painted Aeroflot”, but this is not true, or rather, not the whole truth. Chebotarevskiy “painted” not only (and actually, not really much) the Aeroflot fleet, but also the entire Soviet military aviation. Since the late 1930s, the USSR did not build a single aircraft which didn’t use putty, paint or varnish developed by Chebotarevskiy, or with his participation. On May 6, 1941, the NKAP issued Order No. 417сс “About disruptive painting of aircraft”, which instructed the directors of aircraft factories to deliver aircraft with disruptive camouflage of the upper and side surfaces, and light grey undersides, from October 1, 1941. However, the camouflage schemes had not yet been determined, so the whole process was broken into several stages, and eventually the plan went awry. A critical impulse to the introduction of camouflage was given less than a month before the outbreak of war. As A.S. Yakovlev writes in his memoirs: “In late May or early June, senior executives of the NKAP and the Air 244

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On the same day, the Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. P.F. Zhigarev, approved the “Instruction on the camouflage painting of aircraft of the Air Force of the Red Army”. That document contained four short instructions signed by the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Air Force, Maj. Gen. B.L. Teplinsky, and two colour diagrams of black-green camouflage schemes. The inclusion of such a number of instructions was caused by the need to introduce uniform camouflage for aircraft already in service, that had been painted in varying ways. The whole process was to be performed in a way that would ensure the minimal use of materials and time. On all-metal aircraft with upper surfaces painted in a protective colour, black patches should be applied using the new oil paint, A-26m. The paint should be applied in one layer, using a brush or a spray gun. Within the instructions, it was also designated AM-26, whilst on the colour schemes - FM-26 (glyptal variant of enamel). In the case of aircraft with wooden or fabric skin, the camouflage patches were to be applied with black AMT-6 nitrocellulose lacquer. The colour of the lower surfaces and the green (protective) base colour of the upper surfaces was to remain the same. Repainting aircraft that had been painted in a light (grey or silver) colour, was more difficult. Firstly, the upper and side surfaces had to be covered with a green A-24m enamel (for all-metal aircraft) or AMT-4 nitrocellulose lacquer (for aircraft of wooden or mixed construction). Then the camouflage patches were to be applied with a suitable black paint. Again, the instruction did not say a word about repainting the lower surfaces. It therefore can be concluded that the aircraft that had been previously painted grey or silver overall, retained their original colour on the lower surfaces. The first camouflage diagram included in the instructions was intended for single-engine aircraft, whilst the second - for twin-engine aircraft. Howev-

The camouflage scheme intended for single-engine aircraft, included in the “Instruction on the camouflage painting of aircraft of the Air Force of the Red Army” that had been issued on June 20, 1941

The camouflage scheme intended for twin-engine aircraft, included in the “Instruction on the camouflage painting of aircraft of the Air Force of the Red Army” that had been issued on June 20, 1941

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LaGG-3 s/n 3121376, completed on June 10, 1941, was one of twenty-eight LaGGs built by Factory No. 21, which had been painted in multicolour camouflage. On the photo we can see light brown, black and green camouflage patches. This aircraft crashed on June 14, 1941 (Russian State Archive of Economy) The camouflage of this I-16 looks like the standard one, but it was obviously applied at the front (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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Judging by the light tone of the base colour, this Il-2 left the factory in the standard “1940” finish, i.e. with the upper surfaces painted with A-19f and AII Sv.Zel.. The unusual camouflage scheme was most likely applied at unit level, or at the repair shop. The number of the national insignia, and the size of the star on the fuselage, indicate that final painting process took place after July 17, 1941, as the insignia were applied in accordance with the protocol of the concurrence meeting of the NKAP and GU VVS, on the issue of identification markings. According to that document, the national insignia were supposed to be applied on the fuselage, in addition to the vertical tail and the lower surfaces of the wing. These stars were supposed to be of 1m diameter, and without black edging. However, as you can see on the photos, the pre-war insignia on the vertical tail was not repainted, whilst the fuselage star that had been painted after the application of black camouflage patches, still featured the black edging. Factory-applied stars on Il-2s were either of the same size, or those painted on the vertical tails were considerably larger (E. Mombeeck coll.)

er, the camouflage scheme was, in fact, the same - the camouflage patches had the same colours (green and black) and similar shape and arrangement. The artist used drawings of the Yak-1 and Yak-4 aircraft as a basis. As the latter had a twin tail, the scheme could be easily used for the Pe-2 bombers, but problems could arise when camouflaging SB, DB-3 and Li-2 aircraft. In the case of single-engine aircraft, no complications were foreseen. Each diagram depicted the aircraft in four views, but their choice was strange: port side, top, bottom, and… front. The camouflage of the starboard side was therefore left for free interpretation. One circumstance allows us to assert that these painting schemes were intended for the aircraft industry, rather than for military units. In contrast to the instructions, which ignored the case of underside colour, the diagrams included the following information: the lower surfaces should be painted with “matte light blue paint”. The type was not listed, but the mention of matte paint indicates that these were to be the new colours that had received the designations A-28m (oil-based enamel for all-metal aircraft), and AMT-7 (nitrocellulose lacquer for aircraft of mixed construction). The shape and arrangement of the black patches strongly resembled the camouflage schemes applied to Yakovlev UTI-26-1, I-28 and I-30 fighters. This was especially notable on the tail part of the aircraft, whilst the forward part of the fuselage, tailfin and wing, the black patches had a simpler form. Thereby, A.S. Yakovlev, without hesitation, proposed a widespread introduction of a somewhat simplified disruptive camouflage scheme of his fighters. Worth noting is that the diagrams and instructions show the changed, four-position arrangement of the national insignia. The stars were removed from the upper surfaces of

the wings and relocated to the tailfins on the fuselage sides. Only those located on the wing undersides remained unchanged. In practice, the national insignia were usually applied both on the tailfins and fuselage sides. The instruction was signed for printing on the second day of the war - June 23, 1941. However, on June 23, hardly anyone remembered the instructions and the “action plan”. The war itself repainted the aircraft, and this had to be performed under the enemy fire. Of course, the instructions could not reach the front lines in a timely manner, but the included schemes were used with sufficient accuracy to paint aircraft in the factories. This especially concerned Yakovlev and Lavochkin fighters. At the factories subordinated to the NKAP, the rush was not smaller. In response to the order for efficient camouflage painting, at the beginning of June 1941, Factory No. 21 in Gorky started to apply multicoloured camouflage to LaGG-3 fighters. According to the memoirs of Chebotarevskiy, who took part in these works, glossy and matte nitrocellulose lacquers of light brown, grey, green and black colours were used. The shape and arrangement of the camouflage patches were determined by sketches that had been drawn in several variants. A total of 28 aircraft were painted this way. Amongst them was LaGG-3 s/n 3121376, completed on June 10, 1941, which crashed during tests at maximum speed on June 14. The camouflage proved to be effective even at close distances. Despite this, the remaining 27 aircraft, which had not yet been transferred to the Air Force, were repainted in accordance with the new order No. 547cc, issued by the real colors of wwii aircraft /

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Il-2 s/n 1618, built by Factory No. 381, in standard ‘1941’ camouflage scheme, June 1942 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

NKAP on June 20, 1941, which introduced the two-colour camouflage as a standard. The factories were ordered from July 1 to paint combat, training and passenger aircraft in accordance to the approved scheme. Exceptions were made for the remote Factories No. 153 and No. 126, which were given two weeks more to implement the order. The order defined the colours of the paints: blue, green and black. Furthermore, the aircraft already serving in the Air Force units were to be repainted. However, the order was not even sent to the factories before the war began. The dispatch was carried out on June 24 and 25. Numerous confirmations for the application of black and green camouflage can be found in the instructions and repair documentation issued during the first years of the war. This included the Production Instruction VIAM K17 (LK9) entitled “The main types of protective coatings of land-based aircraft from corrosion” (approved on July 18, 1941); “Interim guidelines for the repair of the Yak-1” (1942); “Repair of the LaGG-3 and La-5” (1942); “Catalogue of 248

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Very accurate rendition of the standard ‘1941’ camouflage scheme on a Su-2 M-88 artillery spotter (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

AII light blue nitrocellulose lacquer was the last ‘aerolac of the second coating’ that remained in limited use for painting the external surfaces. Its colour was a really light blue, lighter than AMT-7, and almost without a grey tinge. The album of paint samples from 1948 does not include a paint chip of AII light blue, because at this time, this lacquer was no longer used. Description of the shade is provided on the basis of the earlier archival samples and remnants of fabric skin that had been sourced from aircraft wrecks.

materials for the repair of aircraft and engines” (approved on April 10, 1943); “Norms for the consumption of materials for single restoration and field repair” (1943); etc.. All these documents regulated the use of AMT-4 green, AMT-6 black and AMT-7 light blue nitrocellulose lacquers or A-24m, A-26m and A-28m oil-based enamels of the relevant colours for camouflage painting. Paints for exterior surfaces with other colors and designations are not mentioned in documents issued before 1943. With the exception of AMT-1 light brown, which was introduced in 1943, nitrocellulose lacquers in the remaining three colours from the range of seven developed in late 1940, had never been used in Soviet aviation. In the case of the AII lacquers, aside from the light blue colour that had been used very rarely, only red and white (for insignia) and aluminum (for the priming layer for AMT paints) are mentioned.

The TUs for AMT-4 and AMT-6 were introduced in early July 1941, whilst the TU for AMT-7 came in August 1941. This explains the lack of this name in the instructions dated June 20, 1941. The colour of these lacquers was controlled “in accordance with the sample reference cards, within the limits of the approved technical tolerances”. The AMT lacquers were designed for painting the fabric skin, pre-impregnated with a colourless ‘aerolac of the first coating’ AIN and primed with an ‘aerolac of the second coating’ AII Aluminum (in wartime used only for combat aircraft), as well as for painting wooden skin that had previously been covered with fabric, puttied, and primed with AII Al.. What’s more, the AMT lacquers were used for painting the metal surfaces of mixed construction aircraft. For this purpose, a special primer was used.

Let’s try to clarify the shades of these colours. An album of paint samples, ie, samples that are painted with the actual paints, and not printed, can help us. Such an album was issued by the Ministry of Chemical Industry in 1948. It included all the basic colours used during the war. Of course, during almost 50 years (the description and comparison of colours was done in 1996), the shade of the colours had changed, but preserving the album in a library. under constant temperature and with the absence of light, had significantly reduced the level of these changes, which makes the album the most reliable source in existence. Moreover, the samples from this album match other samples of aviation paint that are preserved in the Russian archives. AMT-4 green nitrocellulose lacquer. “Green” is the so-called “normative” name, which in some cases does not accurately describe the actual colour. The colour of the AMT-4 was based on the 4BO standard (although was not a direct match for the latter), so the name “protective” or “green with a yellowish tinge” is more appropriate for it. Despite “matte” included in its name, a fresh layer created with this lacquer was semi-matte, and this feature was typical for all paints from the AMT range. Sometimes aircraft painted with AMT lacquers were covered with a layer of AV-4d/v [АВ-4д/в] colourless varnish, which gave the surface a glossy finish. As explained in the Manual for Aviation Engineering Service [Наставление по инженерно-авиационной службе, abbr. as НИАС-43 - “NIAS-43”), this was done “to improve the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft”, so to raise the speed of the mass-produced aircraft to the level achieved by the polished prototypes, the camouflage properties could have been sacrificed. AMT-6 black nitrocellulose lacquer. In this case, the colour name faithfully reflects the reality. AMT-7 light blue nitrocellulose lacquer. More precisely, it can be described as light grey-blue. When stored, a “slight change in colour” was allowed.

At the same time as the nitrocellulose lacquers, oil enamels of similar colours were developed: A-24m (green), A-26m (black), and A-28m (light blue). These enamels could truly be called “matte”, as this was ensured not only by inclusion of the “additives for dullness” (talc and kaolin), but also by their film-forming component. But the same component, because of its yellowish hue, brought some colour change that was especially noticeable in the case of bright colours. For example, the colour of the A-28m enamel eventually got a greenish tinge due to the addition of the oil varnish’ yellowness to the blue pigment part. The greenness was enhanced under the influence of temperature and sunlight exposure, etc. The A-24m green enamel differed a little in colour from the AMT-4 lacquer. Its rather dark shade made the difference in the optical properties of nitrocellulose and oil varnishes indistinguishable. The A-24m and AMT-4 were originally made from lead chromate (yellow pigment), Milori blue or chromium oxide (green), and carbon black with addition of other pigments. Oil enamels were designed to be applied over the previously primed external metal surfaces of aircraft, using a spray gun. Due to the unsatisfactory painting properties, brush application was allowed only as an exception, under the condition of subsequent flicking, ie. leveling applied to the painted surface with the tip of a dry brush. Despite the numerous orders issued by the NKAP and the Air Force, there were still many unresolved issues at the factories and repair organizations. However, the leaders did not dare to act at their own discretion. On July 17, 1941, the Deputy People’s Commissar of the Aviation Industry, P.A. Voronin, sent a letter to the Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. P.F. Zhigarev, in which he enquired as “to indicate whether it is necessary to strictly follow the scheme approved by you on all aircraft, both with respect to the shape of camouflage patches and the relative arrangement of colours”. In the same letter, he suggested to clarify whether it was possible to use the old glossy (AII light blue) instead of the new matte light blue paint (AMT-7). The simplification of the paintwork usually concerned the priming layers rather than the finishing layers. For example, in the case of U-2 aircraft, conreal colors of wwii aircraft /

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Yak-1 flown by Sr. Lt. M.D. Baranov of 183rd IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment), summer 1942. The aircraft is finished in the standard camouflage scheme of AMT-4/AMT-6/AMT-7

Yak-7s pictured at Factory No. 153 in 1942. The standard ’1941’ scheme is fairly accurately reproduced on the port side of the aircraft, although the patches on the vertical tail correspond to the pattern developed in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev in 1940 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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sidering the reduction of the service life during wartime, and to speed up the painting process, from the beginning of war two layers were omitted: a layer of АIN clear dope and a priming layer of АII Al. lacquer. In August 1941, Factory No. 21 for the same reason abandoned the application of AII Al. primer to the LaGG-3 fighter. The painting process at this plant consisted of application of “one double layer” of AMT-4, AMT-6 and AMT-7 nitrocellulose lacquers, which was done using a spray gun, with the black patches applied using a stencil. Further attempts to simplify the painting processes were made by the factories after 1942, but they were often not allowed by the controlling organizations. From the response of the NII VVS to the Factory No. 387, which manufactured the U-2: “Reduction of aircraft’s service life during wartime cannot serve as the basis for the endless removal of one coating after another”. We cannot rule out the possibility of using other types of paints in the NKAP factories, and, especially, in the repair workshops of the Air Force during the first months of the war. There are many reasons for this: evacuation of the paint and coatings factories, difficulties with supply of raw materials and ready-made paints, loss of territories on which deposits of raw materials were located, etc. All of this disrupted the program of military equipment production and could force the use of stocks of the old AII nitrocellulose lacquers. The shortage of raw materials was practically constant. The main task was to replace the rare raw materials with less deficit ones. In 1941-42 period, there was not even enough chalk, which

was required for production of washable white camouflage paint, not to mention nitrocellulose, acetone, ethyl acetate, and tricresyl phosphate for nitrocellulose lacquers. Despite all difficulties, in the summer of 1941 the aviation industry started production of camouflaged aircraft. The situation with paints began normalizing only from the beginning of 1942. The supply of raw materials was improved, and new chemical factories were tasked with production of aircraft paints. From 1942, this included one of the largest factories in the country, the “Free Labor” plant at Yaroslavl. Of course, there were still some problems with raw materials, as many deposits of pigments were located in Ukraine, and they were captured by the Germans. This forced the industry to look for suitable substitutes available from local sources. One of the conditions for successful camouflaging is using a variety of colours, as their repeatability leads to uncovering the objects camouflaged in the same way. However, mass production has a reverse requirement, ie. the use of standard colours and patterns, so it is quite natural to see variations of the standard camouflage scheme that are distinctive for aircraft manufactured in a particular factory, rather than for a certain type of aircraft. For example, the LaGG-3 and La-5 fighters built by Factory No. 21 in Gorky show a fairly accurate rendition of the standard ‘1941’ scheme. Particularly noticeable is a semi-circular black patch on the rear fuselage. Despite

Yak-7s in Factory No. 153. The pattern on the starboard side of the aircraft in the center of the photo, which was not regulated by the instructions issued on June 20, 1941, is distinctively similar to the scheme developed in OKB of A.S. Yakovlev in 1940 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Yak-7s pictured at Factory No. 153 in 1942. Their starboard sides are camouflaged in accordance with the standard ’1941’ scheme, The black edges of the national insignia are clearly visible (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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UT-2MV painted in standard ‘1941’ camouflage scheme, as interpreted by Factory No. 47. October 1942 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Standard ‘1941’ camouflage scheme for twin-engine aircraft applied to Yak6s, pictured during a ceremony in April 1943. The aircraft were founded by the workers from Chkalov (now Orenburg) and dedicated to the partisans of Belarus, as indicated by the inscription on the fuselage (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

the differences in some details, the painting scheme of these aircraft may be called standard, which means not full compliance with the approved scheme, but the use of most of its elements: colours, shape and arrangement of the basic camouflage patches. Curiously, some photographs of Lavochkin fighters reveal a reversed colour scheme, ie. with green patches applied in place of the black ones, and vice versa. The presence of such scheme does not contradict the requirements of camouflage. On the contrary, it is confusing that there are very few photos documenting it. The standard ‘1941’ scheme was also used for painting Yakovlev fighters. The Yak-1 aircraft produced by Factory No. 292 in Saratov usually carried a semicircular patch on the tail part. The same is observed on the photos of Yak-7 built by Factory No. 153 in Novosibirsk. However, sometimes this patch is missing. In most of such cases, however, the forward fuselage wears the standard pattern. Often, the aforementioned patch may be found on the photos of the starboard side of the aircraft. As it is difficult to find photos showing both sides of the same aircraft, a question arises: did the factories, in order to reduce the repeatability of colours, sometimes apply the camouflage scheme in a mirrored way, and that deviations from the standard were accepted only when they concerned the starboard side, which was not shown in the camouflage diagrams? OKB Yakovlev continued to stand out among others. Experimental Yaks were often painted dif-

An U-2 in black/green camouflage scheme (V. Vakhlamov coll.) 252

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On the stills taken from the newsreel you can see that the camouflage scheme of this LaGG-3 is the same on both sides, and corresponds to the standard pattern (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

ferently, and some mass-produced aircraft built by Moscow factories (No. 82 and No. 301) could adopt their camouflage. Photographs of biplanes (I-15, I-153, U-2), camouflaged in accordance with the standard ‘1941’ scheme, are practically unknown. On some photos of the I-16, the camouflage patterns resemble the standard to some extent. The same situation is observed with regard to MiG-3s, many of which were completed before the war. All these aircraft received their black and green camouflage not at the factories, but at the unit level, or at the mobile aircraft repair shops [Подвижная авиационная ремонтная мастерская, abbr. as ПАРМ - “PARM”]. It’s likely that the “Instruction on the camouflage painting of aircraft of the Air Force of the Red Army” did not reach many combat units, or was found by them too complicated. However, the NKAP factories did not always adhere to the standard scheme. The patterns applied to the Il-4, Yer-2 and Pe-2 bombers, as well as the Li-2 transports, differed a lot from it. The only common feature was the use of the prescribed combination of colours. At the same time, the two colour camouflage of the Yak-6 can safely be called standard.

Управления Заказов и Технического Снабжения ВВС КА, abbr. as ГУЗиТС ВВС КА – “GUZiTS VVS KA”] requested the NKAP to paint 20 LaGG-3 and Pe-2 aircraft at the Factories No. 21 and No. 22 for testing a new tricolour camouflage. This scheme was tested in several regiments in the rear and at the front line and received positive evaluation. Its total advantage over the standard two-colour scheme, was noted. Until 1943, the question about the introduction of the tricolour painting passed through a number of instances, but no final decision was made. Another discussed camouflage option was a bright, single-colour scheme intended for fighter aircraft. However, the factories continued production of aircraft in two-colour camouflage until mid-summer of 1943. In 1942, the VIAM developed inflammable chlorovinyl (chlorinated PVC) paints in standard colours: KhV-4 [ХВ-4] green, KhV-6 [ХВ-4] black, KhV-7 [ХВ-4] blue and DD-118А grey. The latter was intended for painting the internal surfaces. In July, tests of the new paints were conducted on Yak fighters. From August, work was carried out on the introduction of these materials to the industry, but in April 1943 it was far away from being finished, as the paint factories had no free capacity. Chlorovinyl paints became widespread only after the war.

One way or another, due to the efforts of industry and the Air Force, camouflage became commonly used. According to the recollections of Maj. Gen. K.D. Denisov, in August 1941 he received an I-16 fighter with camouflage finish. There was no other similar aircraft in his regiment. However, in June 1942, he fought in a single, uncamouflaged Yak-1 in the regiment. The number of “patched” aircraft in the Air Force increased, but the effectiveness of the standard black and green camouflage did not suit the military. “The camouflage of the La-5 aircraft, like other domestic fighters, is unsatisfactory” - such phrases are often found in reports and letters sent to the NKAP. This led to the tests of the new schemes. In June 1942, the Main Directorate of Orders and Technical Supply of the Air Force [Главное real colors of wwii aircraft /

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La-5FN from the 32nd IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment), summer 1943. The black and green camouflage was applied to the starboard side of the aircraft in accordance with the ‘1941’ scheme. The spinner and front cowling are probably painted in light greyblue (AMT-7). This could have been a squadron or regiment marking (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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La-5F flown by A. Maksimenko, founded by the pioneers of Arzamas, Gomel area, October 1943. The fighter still carries the standard ‘1941’ camouflage scheme, applied to the starboard side. The four small stars behind the cockpit are victory markings (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

4.5 Winters of 1941-42 and 1942-43 “White as snow” should be the winter protective paint. However, it was discovered that many white pigments (for example, zinc and lead white) have a reflection spectrum that is very different from the snow spectrum in the ultraviolet range. This made possible to easily detect aircraft that would be unnoticeable for the naked eye on a snow background, using special photographic filters.

Winter of 1941-1942, MiG-3 of the 16th IAP PVO (Fighter Aviation Regiment of the Air Defence Force). Judging by the shine of the engine cowling, we can assume that the aircraft, in violation of the rules, was painted with white oil paint or AII Al. (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Yak-1B flown by Maj. V.I. Shishkin of the 581st IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment), January 1943. The upper surfaces are uniformly painted in white, whilst the undersides remained in AMT-7

By October 1941, the VIAM developed MK-7 paint, which was indistinguishable in the ultraviolet range of the spectrum. It consisted of a paste (chalk diluted with water with alcohol, and 0,1-0,2% ultramarine added to eliminate the yellowing of chalk) and a fixer (casein glue mixed with water). The paste and the fixer had to be mixed immediately before use in a 6:1 ratio, filtered, and then diluted with water in order to achieve the proper consistency. The paint was to be applied directly over the summer camouflage in two layers, using a spray gun, or in one-two layers using a brush. The resultant paint layer should have been smooth, without any signs of roughness, and applied in such a manner that the summer camouflage layer would slightly show through it. Depending on the size of chalk

grain, the winter camouflage could reduce the aircraft’s speed from 10 to 25 km/h. It was possible to significantly reduce the loss of speed, or even fully avoid it, by polishing the painted surfaces with fine sandpapers No. 1, 00, and 000, or simply a rough rag, once the paint layer dries, but such measures were not realistic in frontline conditions. The MK-7 was applied in two ways. According to the instructions issued on October 12, 1941, it should cover the entire upper and side surfaces of an aircraft, except for the identification markings. The aircraft was to remain in this form until the spring. When the snow started to melt, exposing patches

Loading ammunition to a Li-2 transport, 1943. The winter camouflage of this aircraft was created by overpainting the green patches with white paint. The aircraft carries both the military star insignia and civil registration on the rear fuselage (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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1943. The winter camouflage of this A-20 “Boston” was undoubtedly applied at the front, using brushes (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

An U-2 liaison aircraft in service on the Central Front, 1943. The summer camouflage was left untouched in the areas around the markings (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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of ground at an airfield, the winter camouflage had to be partially washed off, and when there was very little snow, the white coating was completely removed, using water or soda solution. In the second case, which was not validated by the orders, but quite often used in practice, white paint was applied in the form of patches, thus forming a winter camouflage scheme. Various combinations of colours were possible, depending on the imagination of the technicians and the amount of white paint available. Aircraft manufactured in the winter period should have had the MK-7 paint applied over the summer camouflage scheme at the factory level. Worth noting is that MK-7 paint was rather fragile and, if the coating was not refreshed, it gradually erased, exposing the summer colours. In result, by the end of winter the so-called “spring” camouflage appeared on the aircraft by itself.

Yak-7 s/n 3322, painted with washable white paint in the factory, in the way prescribed by the instructions, i.e. “that the summer camouflage layer would slightly show through it”. The only violation of the rules is the application of white paint to the propeller blades, which will lead to reduction of aircraft’s maximum speed. This fighter was tested at the NII VVS in 1943 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Yak-7B, spring 1943. The aircraft carries the so-called ‘spring’ scheme: the uniform white camouflage was partially washed off, revealing the black and green undercoat.

In addition to the chalky MK-7, two other variants existed. The MK-7Sh [МК7Ш] was gypsum-based, whilst in the case of MK-7F [MK-7Ф], chalk was diluted with water, with alcohol and formalin. Due to the shortages of chalk, other white washable paints were developed and tested in 1942: S-1 [C-1], S-4a [C-4a], and V [B], which were based on alabaster, lime, and gypsum, respectively. In January 1942, the State Union Bureau of Paint and Varnish Coatings “Lakokraspokrytiye” [Лакокраспокрытие] proposed a recipe for white paint based on the Ural gypsum to the Main Artillery Department. The paint, named AB-1 [АБ-1], was manufactured in Perm, and used for painting the Su-2 aircraft in Factory No. 135, which had been evacuated there. According to the conclusion made by the NII VVS, in terms of properties such as: flow, weight gain, drying time, and others, the AB-1 was very close to the MK-7, and its camouflage properties (non-decodable in ultraviolet) exceeded the latter. Nevertheless, AB-1 was not widely used in aviation. The MK-7 remained the main white paint. In addition to the use of washable paints, the documents mention individual cases of applying winter camouflage to the aircraft using white oil enamels and nitrocellulose lacquers, and even aluminum lacquers - for example, in the 6th IAK (Fighter Aviation Corps) in November 1942. Such attempts were suppressed by the command and were not validated.

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4.6 1943 In the second half of 1943, aviation units began to receive unusually painted aircraft, which gradually replaced those camouflaged in green and black. The new camouflage scheme was regulated by the document entitled “Schemes for aircraft camouflage painting”, which was developed in accordance with the Order of the NKAP and the Air Force of the Red Army No. 389c/0133 that had been issued on July 3, 1943, and approved on July 18. The document defined the colours and types of paints to be used, as well as the shape and arrangement of the camouflage patches. The upper and side surfaces of all fighter aircraft were to be painted in two colors: grey-blue and dark grey, whilst for aircraft such as Pe-2, Il-2, U-2, UT-2 and Yak-6 a tri-colour pattern was prescribed, which consisted of green, light brown and dark grey. In the case of the Il-4 and Pe-8 bombers, black colour was to be used instead of dark grey. The lower surfaces of all aircraft were to remain in the same blue colour as previous. Two variants of camouflage pattern were developed for all aircraft, except for fighters. Worth noting is that the tactical and technical requirements of the NII VVS for the development of aircraft paint and varnish coatings for 1943, approved by Maj. Gen. P.A. Losyukov on February 24, 1943, stipulated that “the upper and side surfaces of aircraft should be camouflaged with at least three colours: green (colour no. 4), black (colour no. 6), and sand (colour no. 1)”. The colour numbers matched the numbers of the relevant AMT lacquers. Furthermore, according to the draft of the order to switch to the new painting schemes that had been developed in April 1943, the tricolour camouflage was planned for all aircraft, including fighters, and the ratio of green, black (rather than dark gray, as eventually used) and light brown colours was supposed to be 5:2:3. In April, the NII VVS also tested a Yak-9, which was painted in two shades of grey. The conclusion of this camouflage trial was sharply negative: both shades of grey “stand out against the background present in most of our districts. This makes the aircraft parked at the grass/ground apron easily distinguishable even for visual observation with the naked eye. In terms of its physical properties, both shades of the grey paint are decodable, and the painted aircraft is easy to detect when viewed from the air through special glasses. As far as the concealment measures are concerned, this kind of painting scheme is completely unsuitable for combat aircraft”. In conclusion, it was only allowed that one grey be used as one of the components of 3- or 4-colour camouflage scheme. Let’s remember these facts, and return to the “Schemes ...”.

Standard camouflage scheme for fighter aircraft, introduced in 1943

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Only the standard colours of the following types were allowed to be used for aircraft painting: green - AMT-4 (for metal surfaces: A-24m), light brown - AMT-1 (A-21m), grey-blue - AMT-11, dark grey - АМТ-12 (А-32m), blue АМТ-7 (А-28m). Two paints, ie. AMT-4 and AMT-7 (and their oil analogs), are already known. The list didn’t specify black paint (for Il-4 and Pe-8), which was without doubt the AMT-6, also used since 1941. And what about the rest? The AMT-1 light brown nitrocellulose lacquer was also developed in 1941 but was not demanded by the Air Force until July 1943, when the specification for it was approved along those for AMT-11 and AMT-12. The colour of AMT-1 can be described as light grey-brown. The TU allowed “minor colour changes during storage”. Like other AMT paints, the AMT-1 gave a semimatte finish. The TU for the A-21m paint, the oil enamel analog of AMT-1, was introduced in September 1943. The colour of this enamel was slightly different from the AMT-1 colour, probably due to the differences in film forming. The oil base had a yellowish shade, so the colour of A-21m was more yellowish and warmer. Like all oil enamels, the A-21m gave a matte finish. The AMT-11 had a medium grey colour with a slight bluish cast. The TU for its oil enamel analog was not introduced in 1943, as it was specified only for the camouflage of fighter aircraft, whilst at that time there were no all-metal fighter aircraft built which would require painting with oil enamels. The metal cowlings of mixed construction aircraft were painted with nitrocellulose lacquers, which were applied over the surfaces that had been previously primed with ALG-5 primer and dried with hot air. This process could be performed without any special difficulties at the NKAP factories. The AMT-12 nitrocellulose lacquer and A-32m oil enamel were to replace the black AMT-6 and A-26m paints in the new camouflage scheme. From now on, the latter would only be used for painting propeller blades. Both new dark grey paints were quite dark, with the AMT-12 lacquer being a bit darker than the A-32m. The reason for such a seemingly insignificant change was the conclusion drawn by the camouflage specialists that the pure black colour does not occur in the background of the earth. Even the shadows made by the folds of the terrain, when viewed from above, do not appear to be black, but dark gray. The Order No. 389c/0133 also determined the procedure for introduction of the new camouflage schemes. The supplies of all necessary paints should have been delivered by July 25, 1943. The fighter aircraft painted in the new camouflage scheme should start leaving the factories from July 15, the remaining aircraft types - from August 1, and before that date, on July 15, it was prescribed to replace the black colour used in the existing two-colour scheme of built aircraft, with dark grey. Prior to receiving the

Standard tricolour camouflage schemes for Pe-2 and Pe-3, introduced in 1943

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Standard tricolour camouflage schemes for Pe-8, introduced in 1943

Standard tricolour camouflage schemes for Il-4, introduced in 1943 260

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Standard tricolour camouflage schemes for Yak-6, introduced in 1943

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Standard tricolour camouflage schemes for UT-2, introduced in 1943

standard blue-grey and dark grey paints, it was acceptable to use mixtures of AMT-7 light blue and AMT-6 black nitrocellulose lacquers, or A-28m light blue and A-28m black oil enamels, made in accordance with the special instructions and samples provided by the VIAM. Such measures for mixing paints, never allowed before, indicate a special urgency in the introduction of the new camouflage. Documentary evidence of the use of paint mixtures was not found, nor were the “special” instructions and samples themselves. However, it is impossible to exclude their use at the initial stage of the introduction of the new camouflage. In this case, the colours of such paints could significantly differ from the “real” AMT-11 and AMT-12 (A-32m). In the same part of the order, the need for delivery of aircraft painted in different variations of camouflage schemes (concerning those types for which two variants of camouflage had been developed) was highlighted. Repainting the aircraft that had already served with the Air Force, was not planned. The new camouflage was to be applied to them only during overhauls. How meticulously were the requirements of the “Schemes…” met? The standard scheme is very often observed on the photos of fighter aircraft from that period, such as LaGG-3, La-5, Yak-3, and Yak-9, although the shape of camouflage patches happens to be somewhat distorted. Usually this is expressed in the absence of precise angles, which became rounded when the camouflage pattern was applied with a spray gun, without using a stencil. Most differences from the prescribed schemes are observed in engine cowling areas. The reason for this was probably that the paint coating on the latter was more likely to be repaired, being the most prone to damage during the operational use of aircraft. The situation was different in regard to the tricolour camouflage, which was not easy to apply to aircraft such as Pe-2, Il-4, Pe-8, etc. because of their large size. In many factories, the introduction of new camouflage schemes was delayed due to the lack of new paints, and it was more difficult to apply three colours (not counting the blue for the lower surfaces) than two. On the last day of July, the NKAP appealed to the Chief of Main Directorate of Orders of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. of Engineering and Aviation Service 262

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N.P. Seleznev, requesting to give instructions to the military leaders of the 11th Main Directorate (mass production of light aircraft: U-2, Yak-6, etc.) to accept aircraft painted in two-colour camouflage until September 1. From the draft of that letter, as an unreal dream, the Deputy People’s Commissar of the Aviation Industry, P.V. Dementyev, removed the proposal to also retain the two-colour camouflage on these aircraft “for a further period”. Even if the aircraft was actually painted in a tricolour scheme, it’s not always possible to see this on the photographs, because the AMT-4 and A-24m greens, and the AMT-12 and A-32m dark greys had similar reflectivity: up to 9% and 12%, respectively. Given that the green colour on black and white photographs looks like a dark gray, you can distinguish these colours only on high quality images, on which the camouflaged surfaces are well illuminated. On this background, only the AMT-1 light brown enamel is clearly visible (reflectivity up to 22%). These bright patches that fully match the shape and arrangement ordered in the “Schemes...”, are visible in some photographs of Il-2, U-2 and, less commonly, Pe-2. Based on this, the presence of standard tricolour camouflage schemes on these aircraft types can be confirmed with sufficient confidence. There are photos of other aircraft, such as the Il-4, which clearly show tricolour camouflage, but the patterns do not match the prescribed schemes. The “Schemes...” do not include any patterns for the Tu-2. At the time of the development of this document, the mass production of Tu-2 at the Factory No. 166 in Omsk was stopped. On July 17, 1943, the day before the approval of the “Schemes...”, the State Defense Committee issued Resolution No. 3754 on the launch of the Tu-2 production at the Factory No. 23 in Moscow. The first production aircraft left the assembly line only in November. Although it was possible to use the Pe-2 camouflage schemes for painting the Tu-2, the factory preferred to develop their own pattern consisting of the same three colours: A-21m, A-24m and A-32m. And what were the reasons for changing the camouflage colours? The green and black camouflage gave best protection from detection from above to the aircraft standing on the ground or flying at a low altitude, i.e. when the distance from the aircraft to the earth background was sig-

Improved La-5F s/n 392101109, built in August 1943. The camouflage scheme resembles the “1943” standard (Russian State Archive of Economy)

nificantly smaller than to the observer, and therefore the influence of the haze layer of the atmosphere between the camouflaged aircraft and the earth, was limited. With an increase in the observation altitude, the colour difference between the areas of the earth’s surface gradually decreases, increasingly changing to an achromatic difference, i.e. only in lightness. The haze layer gives the colours of the earth’s background a cold, bluish shade. Therefore, a fighter aircraft camouflaged in green and black, whilst gaining altitude and approaching the enemy flying at high altitude, stands out with its green patches that contrast with the bluish-greyish background of the earth. Given the long-standing discontent of the military with black and green camouflage, the reason seemed clear: Soviet aviation was to move to offensive operations and gain - in a literal and figurative sense - altitude, for which a new camouflage was needed. But it was not that simple. Let’s remind ourselves of how the wooden skin of aircraft was created. The plywood covering was glued to the framework and covered with two layers of nitrocellulose glue, then a thin layer of putty was applied, again a layreal colors of wwii aircraft /

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Yak-7B flown by Capt. A.V. Vorozheykin of the 728th IAP (Fighter Aviation Regiment), December 1943. The aircraft carries a fairly standard AMT11/AMT-12/AMT-7 finish

er of nitrocellulose glue, and the fabric was glued on. The fabric was subsequently covered with two layers of putty, a priming layer of AII Al. (during wartime, this layer could be omitted) and two layers of AMT nitrocellulose lacquer. At the end of 1942 / in early 1943, at the factories in Chelyabinsk and Novosibirsk, the composition of the nitroputty ASh-22 [АШ-22] was changed. Without any serious study, the lead chromate was replaced with red iron oxide. The resulting putty was used at aircraft factories during the entire winter and spring. In summer, under the influence of heat, internal stresses appeared in the layer of putty, which caused the cracking of the

A classic photo of a classic example of the standard camouflage scheme prescribed for fighters in 1943. In the foreground, Yak-9D flown by Hero of the Soviet Union, Capt. M.I. Grib, from the 6th GvIAP VVS ChF (Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment of the Black Sea Fleet Air Force). Note the victory markings in form of small stars applied above the “shoulders” of the national insignia on the tailfin. May 1944, Sevastopol area (Author: Y.A. Khaldei)

paint layer. Moisture penetrated through the cracks, dramatically reducing the strength of the fabric adhesion, and led to its separation. Cracking concerned nearly a thousand aircraft, including the Yak-7 fighters built in Factory No. 153, Yak-1s from Factory No. 292, and La-5s from Factories No. 21 and No. 99. The factory brigades were sent at the front and returned the defective aircraft to service in 2-3 weeks (in the rear, the repairs continued until September). And literally within 2-3 days, as A.S. Yakovlev notes in his memoirs, the famous battle at Oryol-Kursk salient began!

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As we can see, an attempt to solve the problem of lead chromate shortage by its removal from the putty composition, almost led to serious shortages of aircraft in a decisive battle. However, the lead chromate was included in the green paints A-24m and AMT-4. If you cannot remove it from the putty,

On the photos of aircraft in tricolour camouflage, usually only the light brown patches are clearly visible. In this case, three of the four “Sturmoviks” are painted in accordance with one of the variants of the standard scheme, whilst the aircraft no. 12 features the second variation of the scheme. Leningrad Front, May 21, 1944 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Il-2M built by Factory No. 30, May 1944. The aircraft is painted with AMT-1/AMT-4/AMT-12/ AMT-7. Camouflage of the upper surfaces resembles one of the variants of the standard scheme

A reference Il-2. The camouflage scheme is generally consistent with the “1943” standard. Inside the cockpit, test pilot V.K. Kokkinaki (OKB Ilyushin)

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Il-2s “Sturmoviks” in the workshop of Factory No. 1 in Kuybyshev. The lightcoloured camouflage patches on the wing perfectly resemble the standard “1943” scheme (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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September 1944. An Il-4 belonging to 5th GvAP / 50th AD / 6th AK ADD (5th Guards Aviation Regiment / 50th Aviation Division / 6th Aviation Corps of the Long Range Aviation), presumably flown by double Hero of the Soviet Union, Capt. V.I. Osipov. The tricolour camouflage is clearly visible, and it doesn’t resemble the prescribed scheme. The undersides are black (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

For unknown reason, the designers of the “Schemes for aircraft camouflage painting” in 1943, ignored the Li-2 aircraft. The pattern remained unaltered for a long time, but the colours were probably changed. This particular machine was tested at the NII VVS in 1943 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

In this photo, the tricolour camouflage scheme is clearly visible (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

then can you reduce the consumption of chromate in paints? The paint formulations allowed for the possibility of replacing the yellow chromate and Milori blue with a single pigment: green chromium oxide, but the chromium oxide was scarce too - in 1943, the NKAP received only 53.8% of the required amount. It was also impossible to replace the lead chromate with zinc chromate: in March 1943, due to the total shortage of zinc chromate, production of ALG-1 and ALG-5 primers was suspended. The only way out was to sharply reduce the production of green paints. The painting schemes of 1943 simply respond to this decision: from the most common type of aircraft, i.e. the fighters, the green colour is completely missing, whilst in the case of other aircraft, the demand for green paints is reduced by more than 1,6 times. Of course, to become standard, the painting scheme consisting of two shades of grey, should be, at least, not worse than the other options. To determine its camouflaging properties, between June 20 and 27, 1943, the NII VVS conducted comparative tests which involved a Yak-9, painted with blue-grey nitrocellulose lacquers in two shades, and two Yak-1s, one finished in the then standard black and green scheme, and one that carried a tricolour camouflage consisting of patches of green, black and light brown colours, which had been designed by the camouflage service of the Air Force. During the tests, the aircraft were visually observed on the ground and in-flight, against the sky, clouds, forests, fields and residential areas. In addition, the aircraft were pho-

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U-2 in standard tricolour camouflage scheme (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

In 1945, the comedy entitled “Heavenly Slug” was filmed. The main role was played by the U-2, renamed in 1944 to Po-2. Thanks to the professionalism of cameraman A. Sigaev, the standard tricolour camouflage is clearly visible

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Tricolour camouflage scheme for Тu-2, developed by Factory No. 23

La-5FN s/n 392120104, built by Factory No. 21 in May 1943. It was withdrawn from trials at the NII VVS due to repeated damage of the fabric covering of the wing (Russian State Archive of Economy)

tographed from various distances. The grey camouflage scheme turned out to be the best, but some points raise doubts. For example, if aircraft standing on the ground that are painted in grey-blue and tricolour scheme, are equally poorly visible and merge with the background of the grassy terrain when viewed from 3000 m - which is quite possible - then as the observation altitude decreases, strange things begin to occur. From an altitude of 2000 m, the tricolour Yak-1 “is easily detectable and sharply visible against the background of the airfield”, whilst the Yak-9 painted in grey-blue tones “is difficult to detect, merges with the background of the terrain”. Even more interesting are the views from altitudes of both 500 m and 1000 m: “both aircraft are easily detectable, but the grey-blue scheme better merges with the background of the green terrain, making it difficult to determine the silhouette of the aircraft, whilst the tricolour scheme sharply stands out, and highlights the contour of the aircraft”. Of course, the light brown patches of the tricolour scheme could “stand out” on a green background, but it’s strange that the grey-blue camouflage is said to merge with green terrain when viewed from 500 m. Perhaps other factors had an impact on the conclusions drawn by the testers? Undoubtedly, the blue-grey painting scheme provided the best camouflage effect in the air, both when viewed against the background of the earth, and against the sky. In the latter case, it allowed for the concealment of the dimensions, and in some cases, the silhouette of the aircraft and the distance to it. Finally, it is interesting that in the conclusion of the report from the camouflage tests, the blue-grey scheme was not compared with the tricolour camouflage, but only with the standard two-colour finish: 1. “Painting the upper and side surfaces in the blue-grey scheme gives a better camouflage effect than the standard two-colour scheme used for mass-produced aircraft”. 2. “The blue-grey painting scheme of the Yak-9 aircraft No. 01-18 is considered to be the standard”. real colors of wwii aircraft /

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June 1943, comparative tests of camouflage at NII VVS. A Yak-1 painted in a tricolour camouflage consisting of patches of green, black and light brown colours (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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Yak-9 fighter painted with blue-grey nitrocellulose lacquers in two shades, pictured during the same tests. During the development process the shape of camouflage patches was eventually changed (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

Aerial photo of the Yak-9 (1) in grey two-colour scheme and Yak-1 in tricolour scheme, taken during the tests (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

4.7 Winter of 1943-1944 An Il-4 flown by the crew of Jr. Lt. Chizhov from the 1st GvAD DD (Guards Long Range Aviation Division) pictured after an accident on February 16, 1944. The painter apparently used a lot of imagination when applying the winter camouflage to the vertical tail (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

During the winter of 1943-1944, the winter camouflage of Soviet aircraft was a subject of some changes. Formally, due to the introduction of a new fighter camouflage of two shades of grey, but most likely in order not to reduce the maximum speed, the white camouflage was ceased to be applied, which was recorded in a number of orders. This, however, did not apply to other aircraft. In this regard, we provide the full text of the letter sent by S.V. Ilyushin to the People’s Commissar of the Aircraft Industry A.I. Shakhurin, dated October 1943 (original spelling and punctuation are preserved): “The Il-2 aircraft leave the factories painted in summer and winter camouflage schemes.

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Winter camouflage is made by painting the aircraft with chalky paint, whose quality is only suitable for painting fences, but does not work well for aircraft painting, firstly because it makes the surface of the aircraft incredibly rough, and secondly, during the service life, the paint peels off and the aircraft surface becomes dirty and even rougher, and thirdly, when this paint is washed off with hot water, the fabric covering of the aircraft is damaged, and therefore the wooden parts will rot. Factory No. 30, in agreement with myself, recommended painting the Il-2 aircraft like fighter aircraft, i.e. so that the painting scheme is unified for winter and summer. One Il-2 was painted as Yak and La fighters and was presented for approval to the Chief Engineer of the Air Force of the Red Army, Comrade REPIN. REPIN rejected our proposal. Therefore, the chalky paint remains in use for winter camouflage of the Il-2 aircraft. Comrade REPIN, in a conversation with the director of Factory No. 30, com. SMIRNOV, suggested that the loss of speed caused by application of chalky paint does not matter for the Il-2. I consider it necessary to report to you my disagreement with painting the Il-2 aircraft with chalky paint. Aviation industry is doing a lot to improve the production of the Il-2 aircraft in order to increase the maximum speed of the aircraft, and the improvements carried out by the factories are worth a lot of effort and labour. Nevertheless, despite this, here at the factory, after the aircraft surface is well finished, the aircraft is painted like the most common fence. Of course, the factory workers will have no desire to work on improving the aerodynamics of the Il-2 aircraft, as all this work is destroyed there. I ask you to put the question to the Secretary of the Central Committee of the VKP(b) Com. MALENKOV about the cancellation of painting Il-2 aircraft in white camouflage and approval of a unified fighter painting scheme”. In the aforementioned letter, the reader can see not only the dissatisfaction with the MK-7 paint, but also at what level the paint issues were solved: the general designer had the authority enough only for painting one “own” aircraft. However, accidentally or not, his efforts were not completely useless, and development began in late 1944.

4.8 1944-1945 On March 15, 1944, a new order of the NKAP and the Air Force of the Red Army No. 194c/045, was issued. The directors of Factories No. 116 and No. 168, which manufactured the UT-2 and UT-2M aircraft, were ordered to paint the entire aircraft in blue-grey colour with AMT-11 nitrocellulose lacquer, instead of applying the tricolour camouflage to the upper and side surfaces, and a light blue colour to undersides. Factory No. 168, in Volzhsk,

Standard camouflage scheme for fighter aircraft, introduced in autumn 1944

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had to start releasing aircraft in the new painting scheme from May 1, 1944, whilst Factory No. 116 in Semenovka (Primorsky Krai), had to began from June 1. Repainting the existing fleet of aircraft was not planned. Simultaneously, the national insignia (stars) were ordered to be applied with red nitrocellulose lacquer AII Kr [АII Кр], with a black edging. However, the changes in Soviet aircraft painting that year did not end. On October 1, 1944, the State Defense Committee adopted Resolution No. 6639c, in which, amongst other things, approved “the proposal of the Military Council of the Air Force on the transition to unified painting of all types of aircraft in accordance with the pattern established for fighter aircraft”. In accordance with this resolution, on October 6, 1944, the NKAP and the Air Force issued Order No. 5590/0207 “About the new camouflage painting of aircraft”, which served as the basis for the development of the new schemes. By the same order, “on the basis of extensive experience in the combat operation of aircraft on the fronts of the Patriotic War and taking into account the current situation in the air”, it was prescribed on November 15, 1944, to launch the production of all types of aircraft in the same colours as used for fighter aircraft and complete the transition to this camouflage on January 1, 1945. All aircraft that carried the new camouflage, were not to be painted in white for the winter period. A new album of camouflage schemes had already been signed by the Chief of the Camouflage Service of the Air Force, Engineer-Lt. Col. E.Z. Yasin, on October 18, 1944, but it was released only in 1945. The album says: “The upper and side surfaces of all types of aircraft are painted in two colours: blue-grey and dark grey”; for painting it was allowed to use “only the standard paints of the following types”: blue-grey AMT-11 (for metal surfaces - А-33m) and dark grey АМТ-12 (А-32m). Camouflage schemes were provided for fighters; Il-2 and Il-10 (mutual scheme for both types); Pe-2, Pe-2I, and Tu-2 (mutual scheme); Il-4; Pe-8; Li-2; Shche-2; Po-2; UT2, and Yak-6. Only one variant of camouflage pattern was now provided for each type of aircraft. Even if we consider that grey camouflage proved to be effective for fighters, its use for Il-2 and Il-10 ground attack aircraft, and Po-2 and UT-2 liaison aircraft, which operated at low altitudes, is a strange idea. Near the ground, at small distances, typical for enemy fighter attacks at these aircraft, grey camouflage is less effective than a painting scheme, which includes patches of green colour. At the same time, at large observation distances (for example, when enemy reconnaissance aircraft search for ground-based attack aircraft), the green colour would naturally change its shade just like the background colour. The introduction of a painting scheme consisting of patches of dark grey and blue-grey colours on ground attack and liaison aircraft can only be explained by disregarding the camouflage in the conditions of air supremacy, and (or) an even greater shortage of pigments needed for manufacturing green paint. In addition to the already known AMT-11, AMT-12, and A-32m paints, the A-33m oil enamel appeared on the list. In 1944, this enamel was produced in accordance with temporary specifications. It was necessary only for

Standard camouflage scheme for Il-2 and Il-10, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Pe-2, Pe-2I and Tu-2, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Il-4, introduced in autumn 1944

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Standard camouflage scheme for UT-2, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Pe-8, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Li-2, introduced in autumn 1944

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Standard camouflage scheme for Shche-2, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Po-2, introduced in autumn 1944

Standard camouflage scheme for Yak-6, introduced in autumn 1944

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The camouflage pattern of this Yak-9 matches well to the prescribed scheme. The camouflage was not covered in white for the winter. The aircraft seen in the background was apparently repaired and received enlarged national insignia during this process. Winter 1944-1945, 3rd Air Army (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

La-5FN armed with two ShVAK cannon, painted in standard camouflage scheme. Early 1945 (Russian State Archive of Economy)

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all-metal aircraft, as in other cases, AMT-11 blue-grey nitrocellulose lacquer (applied over the ALG-1 primer) was used for painting the metal surfaces. The A-33m was darker than AMT-11. In the TU, which was introduced only in 1947, its colour was called dark grey-blue. The lower surfaces of all aircraft were to be painted in light blue (AMT-7 or A-28m). As with the album from 1943, repainting aircraft that had already served with the Air Force, was not planned. The new camouflage was to be applied to them only during overhauls. The standard camouflage scheme for fighters was the same as the one specified in 1943. In the case of Pe-2 aircraft, the ‘1943’ camouflage scheme was modified into the new one by covering the green areas with blue-grey colour, and light brown patches with dark grey, except for the patch on the port tailfin. The pattern intended for Yak-6 was modified in a similar way, except for one light brown patch on the port side of the nose. The new camouflage schemes for other aircraft did not resemble the previous ones. On the Po-2 and UT-2 aircraft, the demarcation of dark grey and blue-grey colours is formed by straight, broken lines, which, although simplified the process of application, was effective only at large observation distances, when the corners of the pattern blended with their surroundings. However, such camouflage was probably justified by its intended use in the conditions of the Western Euro-

Shche-2 s/n 171747, released by Factory No. 47 on May 25, 1945. This aircraft was painted with strict accordance with the camouflage scheme prescribed in 1944. It belonged to the flight detachment of Factory No. 32, and crashed on May 24, 1946, four kilometers from the airfield of Factory No. 21 in Gorky. Crew: I.I. Velikorad, A.F. Mozalev (Russian State Archive of Economy)

A Shche-2 built by Factory No. 47 and owned by Factory No. 387, pictured on June 13, 1946. Another example of application of the prescribed camouflage scheme. The war has ended, but the aircraft still carries a combination of civil and military markings. The Po-2s were overturned by a hurricane (Russian State Archive of Economy)

pean landscape, which often looked as drawn using a ruler. The ‘1944’ camouflage schemes were the least used in practice. Before they were printed and sent out to be implemented, the war in Europe was near its end, whilst in peacetime the need for camouflage ceased to be sharp, and aircraft production began to decline. Nevertheless, Shche-2 aircraft built by Factory No. 47 in 1945, were painted in accordance with the new pattern. Concluding the review of aviation colours of the war period, we should say a few words about the black paints used for painting the lower surfaces of aircraft that operated at night. Initially, these were washable casein paints. In July 1941, the MK-6 casein paint was developed, which consisted of equal parts (by weight) of carbon black and kaolin, with the addition of casein glue. This paint was characterized by deep matte finish and had to “firmly stick to the lacquer coating”. However, exploitation revealed insufficient adhesion of MK-6 to painted surfaces, and in 1942, other variants of black paint were created: casein MK-8 and chlorovinyl “Night” [“Ночь”]. The latter was washed off with pyrobenzene, instead of water. Both new paints used the carbon black pigment. The “Night” paint was manufactured at Factory No. 36 and was widely used for painting aircraft of the Long Range Aviation [Авиация дальнего действия, abbr. as АДД - “ADD”] units. In comparison with AMT-6 black nitrocellulose lacquer, MK-8 and “Night” had a 10-14 times lower reflectivity. Furthermore, in 1943, on request of the ADD, a non-washable, nitro-oil, matte black enamel A-31NM [А-31НМ] was developed. The customer liked the paint, but its release was not established.

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An Il-4 with black undersides. This aircraft belonged to the Black Fleet Air Force (V. Vakhlamov coll.) Il-4 from the 1st GvBAK (Guards Bomber Aviation Corps). The aircraft is finished in the winter night bomber camouflage, with the upper surfaces painted white and black underside (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

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Enamels and lacquers used for camouflaging aircraft in 1941-1945 Colour

Colour description

Use

Period of application

АМТ-6

Black

Black

Upper surfaces of all aircraft together with AMT-4 *

1941-1943

А-26m

Black

Black

Upper surfaces of all aircraft together with А-24m

1941-1943

АМТ-4

Protective

Green with a yellowish tinge

Upper surfaces of all aircraft together with AMT-6 until July 1943, later upper surfaces of all types of aircraft except fighters together with AMT-1 & AMT-12

Since 1941

А-24m

Protective

Green with a yellowish tinge

Upper surfaces of all aircraft together with А-26m until July 1943, later upper surfaces of all types of aircraft except fighters together with А-21m & А-32m

Since 1941

АМТ-1

Light brown

Light brown

Upper surfaces of all types of aircraft except fighters together with AMT-4 & AMT-12

Since 1943

А-21m

Light brown

Light brown with a yellowish tinge

Upper surfaces of all types of aircraft except fighters together with А-24m and А-32m

Since 1943

АМТ-12

Dark grey

Very dark, close to black

Upper surfaces of fighter aircraft together with AMT-11, for other aircraft together with AMT-1 & AMT-4

Since 1943

А-32m

Dark grey

Very dark, close to black

Upper surfaces of fighter aircraft together with А-33m, for other aircraft together with А-21m & А-24m

Since 1943

АМТ-11

Light blue-grey

Grey with a bluish tinge

Upper surfaces of fighter aircraft together with AMT-12

Since 1943

А-33m

Dark blue-grey

Darker than AMT11

Upper surfaces of fighter aircraft together with А-32m

Since 1944

АМТ-7

Light blue

Light blue-grey

Undersurfaces

Since 1941

А-28m

Light blue

Light greenish blue **

Undersurfaces

Since 1941

МK-7

White

White

Winter camouflage

1941-1943

MK-7f [МК-7ф]

White

White

Winter camouflage

1941-1943

МK-6

Black

Black

Undersurfaces of aircraft used at night

Since 1941

МK-8

Black

Black

Undersurfaces of aircraft used at night

Since 1942

“Night” [“Ночь”]

Black

Black

Undersurfaces of aircraft used at night

Since 1942

Name

Notes: The “A-” oil enamels were used for painting the external metal surfaces, whilst the “AMT-“ nitrocellulose lacquers were intended for wooden and fabric surfaces, and external metal surfaces of mixed construction aircraft. * From the second half of 1943, used only for painting the propeller blades. ** After some time of use. real colors of wwii aircraft /

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4.9 Frontline experience

Yak-1M M-105PF built by Factory No. 115, tested in 1943 at the NII VVS. The camouflage pattern applied at Factory No. 115 differed from those applied by other factories (OKB Yakovlev)

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The previous sub-chapters discussed how Soviet aircraft paintwork evolved during World War Two, in accordance with orders and other official documents. Now, let’s see what remained from the instructions in ordinary life of the military repair units, such as the mobile aircraft repair shops PARM-1, which were part of the aviation regiments. It is based on the memories of V.V. Pshenichnov, who commanded PARM-1 No. 1087 of the 562nd IAP PVO (Fighter Aviation Regiment of the Air Defence Force), in 1941-1945, and illustrated with photographs he took during that period. Pshenichnov finished the war as a technician-lieutenant and devoted his life to the development of rocket and space technology. He eventually became a doctor of technical sciences, a professor, and was awarded six orders, including the Order of Lenin.

In autumn of 1941, during the Battle of Moscow, the regiment lost aircraft one after another. The limited personnel of PARM were mainly concerned about how to repair the damaged Yaks, which had reached the airfield; how to pick up those aircraft which had force-landed outside the base, and put all the more or less usable equipment back into operation. There was no time to think about painting during that period. Only the damaged areas were touched up. In winter, all aircraft were painted white. Coarsely ground chalk was used, which could only be applied with brushes. As the painting process was carried out in cold weather conditions, in order to prevent the mixture of chalk, casein and water from freezing, an alcohol-based liquid had to be added. The resulting surface was very rough. White paint layer successfully survived until the spring of 1942, when it was washed off, not without difficulty. The need for painting occurred for two cases: mechanical damage to the aircraft and damage to the surface itself. Most of all, the personnel tried to paint only the repaired areas, without touching the remaining ones. At the same time, they did not follow any standard schemes, which, by the way, they did not know. During the painting process they were rather guided by instinct and intuition, although they naturally looked around and considered the appearance of other aircraft. In result, the regiment was composed of quite differently painted aircraft, which camouflage often did not resemble the factory-applied schemes after various repairs and installation of spare parts.

PARM-1 No. 1087 belonging to the 562nd IAP PVO. Carpenter Popov, who successfully mastered the painting process, at work (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

The painting process is almost finished. The camouflage pattern follows the scheme applied by Factory No. 115 (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

One of the most common defects of Soviet aircraft was the poor quality of paint coatings. Aside from the reasons mentioned above, the aircraft were constantly parked in the open air and suffered from the sun, rain and snow (the tarpaulin covers covered only the engine cowling and the cabin). As a result, the surface was covered with a net of cracks. This mainly concerned the wings. The aircraft of the PVO units had a longer service life than those from the frontline aviation, but after a year, or a year and a half of operation, it was necessary to change the fabric coating of the wings. When restoring the aircraft skin, the PARM personnel tried to follow the factory technology. After removal of the old coating, the wing was covered with nitrocellulose glue, then the fabric was stretched over it, and sealed with another layer of nitrocellulose glue. Once it had dried, the ‘aerolac of the first coating’ was sprayed over, the putty applied, sometimes in two passes, then the surface was sanded and, finally, the ‘aerolacs of the second coating’ could be applied, using a spray gun. The latter were usually applied in one layer,

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Painting the aircraft number using a stencil. On the left, Sgt. V.I. Dubrovin (V. Vakhlamov coll.)

as the shortage of paints was permanent. Contrary to popular belief, only the AMT nitrocellulose lacquers were used, which were received through the Battalion of Airfield Support [Батальон аэродромного обеспечения, abbr. as БАО - “BAO”]. Any car, tank, or occasionally acquired (in general, non-specified for aircraft) paint, had never been used. It was not customary to mix the lacquers in order to achieve the desired colour. When the workshop lacked any particular colour, the ratio of the camouflage patches was simply changed. Otherwise, the PARMs were not officially supplied with camouflage pattern diagrams. Nevertheless, some kind of typical painting I-15bis from the Pacific Fleet Aviation, painted in the distinctive scheme used in the Far East. The camouflage patches are edged in black (Central Naval Archive)

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schemes existed, as the same personnel dealt with the same type of aircraft. Once the painted surface had dried, the personnel tried polishing with rags, but this did not result in any noticeable increase of aircraft speed. In the end, they applied the tactical numbers and national insignia, using plywood stencils, as well as the maintenance inscriptions and the number of PARM at the rear part of the fuselage (with red paint). The 562nd IAP aircraft didn’t carry any distinctive markings that would be uniform for the entire regiment or its squadrons, but some machines sported emblems and other colour elements, which were applied either on a pilots’ request, or had already been present on the aircraft when they came from other regiments. At the request of several pilots, Pshenichnov painted a leopard on their aircraft, whilst others were adorned with a devil emblem, which resembled a Kasli iron sculpture (famous folk craft and art products, made of cast iron, produced at the factory located in the town of Kasli, in Chelyabinsk region). When reading the preceding text, we must consider that the 562nd IAP was based near Moscow for the entire war, and therefore its aircraft repair shop did not have the worst supply of materials. However, these conditions could be different in other air regiments. Many repair workshops moved together with their units, first to the east, and then to the west. This caused additional difficulties in their work, and it may be assumed that deviation from the requirements of the official regulations, could be more significant. Whilst studying the documents of the Aviation Engineering Service [инженерно-авиационной службы, abbr. as ИАС - “IAS”), we can note two facts. Firstly, the shortage of paint and coating materials was almost permanent, and secondly, the applications for these materials mention only those enamels and lacquers that were regulated by the current regulations. This explains all deviations from the prescribed painting scheme on those aircraft which had undergone repairs at the front. Here are a few examples. During an overhaul performed in January 1945, the upper surfaces of Yak-7B s/n 2822 that belonged to 736th IAP PVO, were painted with a mixture of green and blue enamels, which gave a light brown colour. Worth noting was the high level of surface smoothness, which gave hope for an increase of the aircraft speed. An inspection of a similarly painted Yak-9D s/n 0211 that belonged to the regiment commander, which had been performed in the summer of 1944, revealed that the fabric coating was maintained in no worse condition than in the case of aircraft painted with standard AMT-11 and AMT-12 lacquers. In 1945, the Air Force began to pay less attention to the camouflage requirements, and fighter aircraft with polished surfaces and single-colour finish of the upper and side surfaces began to appear more often in the units. These were mostly overhauled machines. At the end of the war, the range of paints used in Soviet aviation increased due to war booty. It can’t be said that they were extensively used, because captured paints and solvents were mastered with great difficulty, but the following fact is known from documents. Before the attack on Berlin, the

This U-2 from the Pacific Fleet Aviation had the camouflaged patches edged in a bright colour (Central Naval Archive)

units of the 2nd Fighter Air Corps, which were based at Sagan and Sorau air bases (now the cities of Żagan and Żary in Poland), collected damaged aircraft from previously used airfields and places of forced landing, and started repairing them. All available technical staff were involved in order to restore as many aircraft as possible for use in the spring-summer operation. As a result, on a total of 217 La-5, La-7, Yak-9 and Yak-3 fighters, “the paintwork was restored by puttying, painting and polishing, using captured paint and coating materials”. What kind of paints and which colour schemes were used, is unknown. Perhaps the worst situation with paint and coating materials concerned the 12th Air Army, which was stationed in the Far East. Until August 1945, this air army did not participate in military operations. It guarded the far eastern air border of the USSR, and trained flight personnel for the operational units. In 1942, due to shortage of nitrocellulose lacquers in the air force of the Transbaikal Front, the command of the 12th Air Army requested permission to receive 5,5 tons of paint from the reserve of the People’s Commissariat of Defense. Next year the situation did not improve. In June 1943, Sen. Lt. Bespaltsev, senior engineer of the 12th ORAP (Independent Reconnaissance Aviation Regiment) that was subordinated to the 12th Air Army, reported to the commander: “A big drawback in the condition of our equipment is that the Pe-2 aircraft are used for two years and have never been painted. Now I think about painting them, but I cannot do this due to the lack of paint”. The aircraft of the Pacific Fleet were in a similar situation. However, there were craftsmen who despite, or maybe thanks to, the lack of paint, managed to create an original camouflage for their planes. The camouflage scheme applied to various types of aircraft (U-2, I-15bis, I-16, MiG-3, MBR-2) that belonged to different regiments, had one common feature: the camouflage patches were edged with white or black bands. A bright edge at the junction of dark patches, or a dark edge between bright patches, increased the contrast of camouflage and, therefore, its effectiveness. This method was described in 1928 by E.F. Burche in his book “Camouflaging the aircraft in the air”. During the war, Burche led the camouflage service at the headquarters of the Naval Air Force. Amongst other awards, E.F. Burche received the medal “For the victory over Japan”, so his authorship in this case is beyond doubt.

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4.10 A view from the inside Since the 1930s, the basic paint for the internal surfaces was the A-14 steel (grey) oil enamel, and its glyptal variant, A-14f [А-14ф]. During repairs, it could be applied over a surface that had previously been painted in almost any way. It was used for painting the internal surfaces of aircraft fuselage, cockpit, framework, wheel rims, landing gear, engine frame, flaps, sometimes engines, etc. On metal surfaces, the enamel was applied over a layer of ALG-1 yellow zinc chromate primer (whose colour varied from light to

Instrument panel painted with FG-5 nitrocellulose lacquer. It was intended for the short-range bomber version of the Bolkhovitinov S aircraft. 1940 (M. Maslov coll.)

dark yellow), whilst on wooden surfaces it could be applied directly, without previous priming. The dried film of A-14 enamel was shiny, grey, of a medium lightness, without noticeable tonal variation. Duralumin frameworks could only be covered with one layer of ALG-1 primer. At the beginning of war, an attempt was made to simplify the rules for painting internal surfaces. An instruction issued in July 1941, specified the following options for painting metal surfaces: coating with paint consisting of equal parts of ALG-1 primer and A-14 enamel, or ALG-1 with an addition of 6% of aluminum powder. Before applying the aforementioned paint coating, parts made from aluminum and magnesium alloys underwent chemical oxidation or anodization in chromic acid. The aluminum parts were not painted after anodic oxidation in sulfuric acid. Later, for painting parts made from magnesium alloys, a system of coatings from layers of ALG-1 primer, ALG-5 oil-based primer of a grey-green colour, and an outer layer of A-9 blue oil enamel (or glyptal A-9f ), was used. Before painting, the parts made from magnesium alloy, as the least corrosion-resistant, underwent chemical oxidation. Later, steel and aluminum parts were simply painted with ALG-5 primer. This coating was matte, grey-green, of medium lightness. Difficulties in supplying aircraft factories with paint and coating materials, required allowance for some colour variation, depending on the availability of certain colours. During the war, the internal surfaces of aircraft built in the NKAP factories could therefore be painted in one of several ways listed below.

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Instrument panel painted with “T” matte nitrocellulose lacquer. It comes from an UPO-21 aircraft that had been built by Factory No. 21, which suffered an accident on November 19, 1940 (Russian State Archive of Economy)

Wooden surfaces had four basic colour options:

•• two layers of AII Al. nitrocellulose lacquer over a layer of ND-113 grey nitro primer; •• two layers of DD-118B grey chlorovinyl paint (when using DD-118A, three layers were applied). It should be noted that some batches of these paints could be made using aluminum powder because of the shortage of zinc white. In this case, the grey colour thus became silver-grey; •• two layers of A-14 grey oil enamel (or glyptal based A-14f); •• one layer of VIAM-B3 [ВИАМ-Б3] resin glue (mainly intended for aircraft in the construction of which delta-veneer wood was used, and the parts were glued with this adhesive. The experimental I-301 was “painted” in this way, not only from the inside, but also from the outside.)

With the outbreak of war, the painting of instrument panels was simplified. Pictured in August 1941, the instrument panel of LaGG-3 No. 3121715 is painted with A-14 enamel (Russian State Archive of Economy) real colors of wwii aircraft /

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The instrument panel of this Yak1M “Dubler”, which was released by Factory No. 115 in September 1943, had been painted with ordinary black paint (OKB Yakovlev)

As an exception, AII light blue or AMT-7 nitrocellulose lacquers could be used. The internal surfaces of the wooden aircraft framework could be covered with 17-A colourless lacquer or AS [АС] antiseptic lacquer. For the convenience of monitoring the condition of welds, the 17-A lacquer could also be applied over welded joints. When repairing the aircraft, the choice of options depended on the availability of materials and the type of paint that had been applied earlier. The A-14 enamel could be applied over any coating, but the VIAM-B3 glue only over an old coating applied with the same glue (which formed a film of red or red-brown colour). In the absence of resin glue, or at low temperature, the DD-118B chlorovinyl paint could be used. Due to its shortage, AII Al. was ruled out from being used for painting the internal surfaces during repairs. The cockpit surfaces were painted, as a rule, with A-14 grey enamel, except for the instrument panels/dashboards. From the first half of the 1930s, the latter were painted with FG-5 [ФГ-5] black, semi-matte nitrocellulose lacquer, which later was replaced by T black, matte nitrocellulose lacquer. Once dry, the film of this paint cracked, revealing the priming layer, which was usually red. In result, a net pattern was formed from numerous red cracks on a black background. For painting the engines, special oil and nitrocellulose paint and coating materials were used. There were several options. Before painting, the engine parts were primed with ALG-1 or ALG-5 hot-drying primer. Then, in the first two variants, the paint was blackened with 2086f [2086ф] glyptal enamel, or with two layers of MV-109 [MB-109] nitrocellulose lacquer and the outer layer of MV-6 [MB-6] nitrocellulose lacquer. MV-6 created a film that was semigloss black, with a violet hue. The engines could also be painted in grey-blue colour with two layers of AM-4 glyptal enamel, or subsequent layers of MV-1 [MB-1] and MV-2 [MB-2] nitrocellulose lacquers. The latter gave a glossy coating of medium lightness. The engine parts made from magnesium alloys were oxidized, primed with ALG-1 zinc chromate primer, and coated with the same paints as other surfaces, but necessarily applied in two layers. Other options for engine painting included the use of MV-8 [MB-8] and MV-108 [MB-108] nitrocellulose lacquers, which formed glossy coatings of a light grey colour. The octane number of consumed gasoline, was applied to the suction pipes of the engines, using MV-3 [MB286

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3] and MV-4 [MB-4] orange nitrocellulose lacquers. The air-cooled engines were primed with a layer of 101/19 black primer. Afterwards, the cylinders were blackened with 2318/19 oil lacquer, whilst other parts with painted with 102/19 finishing lacquer, which colour was also black. Painting the propellers was never a secondary matter. Aside from protecting the metal blades from corrosion and the wooden ones from rotting, there are two other issues. Firstly, the colour should reduce the light reflection caused by rotating propeller, and secondly, the rough paint coating of the airscrew greatly reduced the aircraft speed. Since 1941, the propeller blades were painted with A-26m matte oil enamel or AMT-6 nitrocellulose lacquer. In both cases, ALG-1 or ALG-5 primer was used for priming the metal blades. For the AMT-6, a red-brown 138A primer could also be used. In the winter period, when the aircraft were camouflaged with MK-7 washable white paint, this did not concern the propeller blades, as otherwise the maximum speed of the aircraft could be reduced by 0,5-1%. The fuel tanks, pipes and components of various systems were always painted in the same colour for convenience of maintenance. The tanks and pipes of the fuel system were painted in yellow (A-6 oil enamel); cooling system - green (A-7); oil system - brown (A-8); components and aggregates of the hydraulic system - dark blue (A-9), oxygen system - blue (A-10), air conditioning and pressurization system - black (A-12), fire-fighting equipment and inerting system - red (A-13). This painting system was used since at least 1937, and deviation from it could only occur due to the shortage of necessary colours. Therefore, for example, in 1943, at Factory No. 21, hydraulic pipes were painted with AII Al. aluminum nitrocellulose lacquer. All oil enamels used for the aforementioned purposes were glossy. The A-7 had a toxic-green hue, whilst A-8 brown was quite dark. In addition to oil enamels, all these systems could be painted with DM nitrocellulose lacquers of the same colours, which differed a little in shades. When using the ski-equipped landing gear, the skids were covered with a special varnish AV-4 d/l [АВ-4 д/л (д/л - для лыж - „d/l - dlya lyzh - for skis”)], which served to prevent the freezing of skis. The colour of the varnish could vary from straw yellow to light brown. The varnished surface acquired a uniform satin finish.

Painting finish of internal surfaces and aggregates of aircraft 1935-1945 Painted surface

Top coat colour

Paint type

Period of application

Steel grey

А-14 (A-14f) [А-14ф]

Since 1930s (since 1940)

Light grey

AE-9 [АЭ-9]

Second half of 1930s

Dark grey

AE-10 [АЭ-10]

Underwater parts of wooden seaplanes

Light blue

AE-14 [АЭ-14]

Underwater parts of wooden seaplanes (below the waterline)

Colourless

N 17

Since 1930s

Cockpits

А-9

Grey-green

50% ALG-1 + 50% А-14

Yellow

АLG-1 + 6% Aluminum

Sulfur yellow

Without paintwork

Red-brown

Resin varnish No.1 (VIAM-B3 glue) [клей ВИАМ-Б3]

Light blue

AII Sv.Gol. [АII cв.гол.]

Blue

АМТ-7

Silver

AII Al. [AII Ал]

Approximately since 1942

Grey

DD-118A [ДД-118А] (DD-118B) [ДД-118Б]

Approximately since 1943-1944

Wooden surfaces

Grey-green

ALG-5 [АЛГ-5]

Since 1940s

Steel part surfaces

Dark green

А-15 (A-15f) [А-15ф]

Late 1940s

Steel grey

А-14 (A-14) [А-14ф]

Late 1930s

Grey-blue

Black

MV-6 [МВ-6] 2086f [2086ф] АМ-4 MV-2 [МВ-2]

Light green

2318/19

Surfaces made from deltaveneer wood

Since 1930s 1935

Since 1930s

Cylinders Other components

Since early 1930s DV [ДВ] AE-11 [АЭ-11] DM [ДМ] А-26m АМТ-6

Yellow

Since 1941

102/19

Red

Black

Dural surfaces after anodizing in sulfuric acid

MV-108 [МВ-108]

Protective

Propellers

Since 1940

Metal surfaces

Light grey Air-cooled engines

Parts made from magnesium alloys

Dark blue

Black Water-cooled engines

Metal and wooden surfaces

Wooden surfaces, details of duralumin frameworks

Antiseptic AS [АС]

From light to dark ALG-1 [АЛГ-1] yellow

Internal surfaces of the fuselage, cowling, hatches, etc.

Notes

А-6 DM [ДМ]

Second half of 1930s

Wooden propellers. After painting, a layer of AV-4(/v) [АВ-4(/в)] varnish was applied

1930s Backside of metal blades Since 1941 Since 1940s

Blade tips

Aggregates and pipes: Fuel system

Yellow

А-6 (A-6f) [А-6ф]

Cooling system

Green

А-7 (A-7f) [А-7ф]

Oil system

Brown

А-8 (A-8f) [А-8ф]

Hydraulic system

Dark blue

А-9

Oxygen system

Blue

А-10 (A-10f) [А-10ф]

Air conditioning and pressurization system

Black

А-12

Fire-fighting equipment

Red

А-13 (A-13f) [А-13ф]

Ski skids

From straw yellow AV-4 d/l [АВ-4 д/л] to light brown

Since 1930s

Since 1930s

The colour was specified for varnishing unpainted surfaces real colors of wwii aircraft /

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Chapter 1: • Belling, R. (1989). A portrait of Military Aviation in South Africa. Struikhof Publishers. • Bernád, D., & Punka, G. (2013). Hungarian Fighter Colors 1930-1945, Vol.1. Sandomierz: Stratus s.c.. • Bernád, D., & Punka, G. (2014). Hungarian Fighter Colors 1930-1945, Vol.2. Sandomierz: Stratus s.c.. • Brown E. D., Janda, A., Poruba, T., & Vladař, J. (2010). Messerschmitt Me 262s of KG & KG(J) units. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Brown E. D., Poruba, T., & Vladař, J. (2012). Messerschmitt Me 262 Production & Arado Ar 234 Final Operations. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Crandall, J. (2007). The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Dora. Vol. One. Hamilton: Eagle Editions Ltd. • Crandall, J. (2009). The Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Dora. Vol. Two. Hamilton: Eagle Editions Ltd. • Deboeck, M., Larger, E., & Poruba, T. (2005). Focke-Wulf Fw 190D Camouflage & Markings, Part I. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Deboeck, M., Larger, E., & Poruba, T. (2007). Focke-Wulf Fw 190D Camouflage & Markings, Part II. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Forsyth, R., & Creek, E. J. (2008). Heinkel He 162 Spatz. From Drawing Board to Destruction: The Volksjäger. Hersham: Ian Allan Publishing. • Forsyth, R., Creek, E. J., & Roletschek, G. (2017). Dornier Do 335 Pfeil/Arrow. Manchester: Crecy Publishing Ltd. • Green, B. (2000). Augsburg’s Last Eagles. Colors, Markings and Variants of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 from June 1944 to May 1945. Hamilton: Eagle Editions Ltd. • Green, B., & Evans, B. (2002). Stormbird Colors. Construction, Camouflage & Markings of the Messerschmitt Me 262. Hamilton: Eagle Editions Ltd. • Griehl, M. (2005). Dornier Do 17 E-Z. Do 215 B. The Flying Pencil in Luftwaffe Service. Erlangen: AirDoc. • Hitchcock, T. H. The Focke-Wulf Ta 152. Hamilton: Eagle Editions Ltd. • Janda, A., & Poruba, T. (1997). Messerschmitt Bf 109K. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Janda, A., & Poruba, T. (2004). Messerschmitt Bf 109s of JG 52 in Deutsch Brod. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Janda, A., & Poruba, T. (2004). Messerschmitt Bf 109G-10/U4 Production & Operational Service. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Johnston, D. (2018). German Eagles in the Spanish Skies. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 in Service with the Legion Condor during the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. • Mankau, H., & Petrick, P. (2003). Messerschmitt Bf 110/Me 210/Me 410. An Illustrated History. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. • Merrick, K. A., & Kiroff, J. (2004). Luftwaffe Camouflage and Markings 1933-1945, Volume One. Hersham: Classic Publications. • Merrick, K. A., Kiroff, J., Smith, J. R., & Willis, T. (2005). Luftwaffe Camouflage and Markings 1933-1945, Volume One. Hersham: Classic Publications. • O’Connell, D. (2005). Messerschmitt Me 262 The Production Log 1941-1945. Hersham: Classic Publications. • Parker, N. (2013-2018). Luftwaffe Crash Archive. A documentary history of every enemy aircraft brought down over the United Kingdom. Vol.1-12. Walton-onThames: Red Kite. • Poruba, T., & Mol, K. (2000). Messerschmitt Bf 109K. Camouflage & Marking. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Poruba, T., & Vladař, J. (2017). Messerschmitt Bf 109s of KG(J) 6. Hradec Králové: JaPo. • Prien, J. et al. (2000-2018) Die Jagdfliegerverbände der Deutschen Luftwaffe 1934 bis 1945, Teil 1-13. Eutin: Struve’s Buchdruckerei und Verlag / Buchverlag Rogge GmbH. • Rabeder, H. (2017). Die Knullenkopfstaffel. Luftwaffe long-range photo reconnaissance with Staffel 1.(F)/123 over France, Great Britain, the Mediterranean and over the Reich. Würzburg: Flechsig Verlag. • Ries, K. (1978). Deutsche Luftwaffe über der Schweiz 1939-1945. Mainz: Verlag Dieter Hoffman. • Ritger, L. (2005). The Messerschmitt Bf 109. A Comprehensive Guide for the Modeller, Part 1: Prototype to ‘E’ Variants. Bedford: SAM Publications. • Smith, J. R., & Creek, E. J. (1992). Arado 234 Blitz. Sturbridge: Monogram Aviation Publications. • Ullmann, M. (2000). Oberflächenschutzverfahren und Anstrichstoffe der deutschen Luftfahrtindustrie und Luftwaffe 1935-1945. Bonn: Bernard und Graefe Verlag. • Ullmann, M. (2013). Hornets’ Nest. RLM 83 Dark Blue. Retrieved November 1, 2018, from: http://www.clubhyper.com/reference/rlm83darkbluemu_1.htm • Vasco, J., & Estanislau, F. (2008). Messerschmitt Bf 110 C, D and E, An Illustrated Study. Variants, Weapons, Equipment. Hersham: Ian Allan Publishing. • Waiss, W. (2014). Legion Condor. Berichte, Dokumente, Fotos, Fakten. Band 2. Aachen: Helios. • Weiss, D. (n.d.). Falcon’s Messerschmitt Bf 109 Hangar. Retrieved November 1, 2018, from: https://me109.info/ • Widfeldt, B. (1983). The Luftwaffe in Sweden 1939-1945. Boylston: Monogram Aviation Publications. • 12 O’clock High. Luftwaffe and Allied Air Forces Discussion Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2018, from: http://forum.12oclockhigh.net/index.php • BV 222 C, Do 17 E, & Do 17 F Flugzeug-Handbuch. • D. (Luft) T. 318/2; 2015/1; 2111 H-6; 2177 A-1; 2204 D-1; 2217 E-1, E-3; 2217 J; 2217 K-1; 2217 M-1; 2217 N-1; 2335 A-1. • L. Dv. 304, 310, 350, 359, 365, 371, 374, 383, 521/1, 553/3, 553/4, 553/5, 556/2, 564. • Werkschrift 2024 T-1, T-2; 2177 A-3; 2219 A-0. Chapter 2: • Archer, R. D. (1995). The Official Monogram US Army Air Service & Air Corps Aicraft Color Guide, Vol.1. Sturbridge: Monogram Aviation Publications. • Archer, R. D., & Archer, V. G. (1997). USAAF Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 1941-1947. Atglen: Schiffer Publishing. • Baugher, J. (n.d.). USAAS/USAAC/USAAF/USAF Military Aircraft Serials. Retrieved November 1, 2018, from: http://www.joebaugher.com/usaf_serials/usafserials.html • Bell, D. (1979). Air Force Colors Vol.1. Carrollton: Squadron/Signal Publications. • Bell, D. (1997). Air Force Colors Vol.3. Carrollton: Squadron/Signal Publications. • Bell, D. (2018). Aircraft Pictorial #9. Aircraft Painting Guide Volume One. Tucson: Classic Warships Publishing. • Dial, J. F. (1964). United States Camouflage WW II. Arlington: Scale Reproductions. • Elliott, J. M. (1989). The Official Monogram US Navy and Marine Corps Aircraft Colour Guide, Vol.2 1940-1949. Sturbridge: Monogram Aviation Publications. • Kilgrain, B. C. (1973). Color Schemes and Markings US Navy Aircraft 1911-1950. s.l.: self-published. • King, J. (2002). The whole nine yards. The story of an Anzac P-40. Auckland: Reed Publishing. • Martel, C. (1860). On the Materials Used in Painting with a Few Remarks on Varnishing and Cleaning. London: George Rowney & Co. Ltd. • McDowell, E. R. (1998). Thunderbolt. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt in the European Theater. Carrollton: Squadron/Signal Publications. • Pamieri, D. (1981, July). USN Camouflage of WW2 Part 13. US Naval Aircraft Colours. Scale Models (UK). • Smith, J. H. (1972). ANA Standard Aircraft Colors 1943-1970, Modeler’s Journal Color Chart Supplement C.3. s.l.: self-published. • Thomas, G. J. (1983, February). True Colours. Airfix Magazine. • Thomas, G. J. (1999). Eyes for the Phoenix - Allied Aerial Reconnaisance Operations South East Asia 1941-1945. Aldershot: Hikoki Publications. • Whistler, R. (1969). USAAF Camouflage 1933-1969. Dover: self-published. • AER-E-25-FZ, F-39-5 (00261) dated September 30, 1940. • AER-E-25-HY, F-39-5, F-39-1 (010282) dated February 26, 1941. • AER-E-2571-DMC F-39-5, VV(063183) dated October 23, 1941. • AER-E-2571-MVS F-39-5, F-39-1 (021076) dated February 6, 1942. • SR-2c dated January 5, 1943, effective February 1, 1943. • AER-E-2574-MVS F-39-1 (14708) dated January 30, 1943. • AN-1-9 dated March 1, 1943. • AN-1-9a dated June 29, 1943. • SR-2d Amendment 1 dated March 13, 1944, effective March 22, 1944. • SR-2e dated June 25, 1944, effective October 7, 1944.

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Chapter 3: • Barker, R. (1969). Aviator Extraordinary: The Sidney Cotton Story. London: Chatto & Windus. • Tanner, J. (1986). British Aviation Colours of World War Two. The Official Camouflage, Colours & Markings of RAF Aircraft, 1939-1945. London: Arms & Armour Press. • National Archives, UK. Chapter 4: • Hornat J., & Migliardi, B. (2006). Colours of the Falcons. Ottawa: Iliad Design. • Бурче Е.Ф. «Маскировка ВВС ВМФ», М-Л., 1944. • Бурче Е.Ф. «Маскировка летательных аппаратов в воздухе», М-Л., 1928. • ВИАМ, Производственная инструкция № К17 (ЛК9) «Основные виды защитных покрытий сухопутных самолетов от коррозии», М., 1941. • Ворожейкин А. В., “Истребители”, М., 1961., стр. 257, 264. • Грекин А.И., Лебедев М.С., «Инструкция по ремонту самолета УТ-2», М., 1939. • ГУ ВВС КА, «Инструкция по маскирующей окраске самолетов ВВС Красной Армии», М., 1941. • ГУ ВВС КА, «Военные самолеты СССР», М., 1941. • «Древесина и ее обработка в самолетостроении», М. 1941. • Келейников А.М., Маскирующие окраски подвижных объектов», М., 1942. • МХП СССР, «Альбом накрасок. Образцы накрасок, характеристика красок, основные физико-малярные показатели, применение красок», М., 1948. • НКАП СССР, Инструкция по технологии лакокрасочных покрытий деталей и агрегатов машин металлической и смешанной конструкций», М., 1939. • НКАП СССР, “Спецификация на лакокрасочные материалы” 203 АМТУ (взамен 180 АМТУ), М., 1941. • НКАП СССР, ВИАМ, «Каталог действующих ТУ на авиационные материалы», М., 1942. • НКАП СССР, Эксплоатационный бюллетень №60 на самолет Ла-5, «Устранение и предупреждение дефектов лакокрасочного покрытия». • НКАП СССР, «Действующие технические условия на авиационные материалы», Выпуск 18 «Лакокрасочные материалы», М., 1943. • НКАП СССР, «Руководство для конструкторов», т. 3, М., 1944. • НКОП СССР, Инструкция ВИАМ №4 «Окраска металлических сухопутных самолетов», М., 1938. • Платонов Г.П., Карпов Г.И, Полевой ремонт самолетов, М., 1943. • Русский архив: Великая Отечественная: Приказы народного комиссара обороны СССР. т 13 (2-1), М., 1994. • Туманов А, Маскировочная окраска, в журнале «Авиация и космонавтика» № 3 1969. • Технические условия на авиационные лакокрасочные материалы. • УВВС КА, «Схемы маскирующей окраски самолетов», М., 1943. • УВВС КА, «Руководство по нанесению лакокрасочных покрытий при ремонте самолетов», М., 1944. • УВВС КА, «Схемы маскирующей окраски самолетов», М., 1945. • Чеботаревский В.В., Лаки и краски в народном хозяйстве», М., 1960. • Яковлев А.С., «Цель жизни», М., 1987. • Архив ОКБ им. Яковлева. • РГВА, ф. 29, оп. 23, д. 348. • из “Ведомости выполнения постановлений КО при СНК СССР по истребителям” по состоянию на 22. июля 1940 г., РГВА, ф. 29, оп. 56, д. 175, л. 246. • РГВА, ф. 29, оп. 56, д. 183. • РГВА, ф. 29, оп. 63, д. 30. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 307. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 652. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 849. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 952. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 996. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 998. • РГАЭ, ф. 8044, оп. 1, д. 1123. • ЦАМО, ф. 317 ИАД ПВО, оп. 1, д. 122. • ЦАМО, ф. 4 ГИАД, оп.1, д.77. • ЦАМО, ф. 7 ГИАД, оп. 1, д. 33. • ЦАМО, ф. 2 ВА, оп. 4233, д. 2. • ЦАМО, ф. 12 ВА ИАС оп. 6134, д.4. • ЦАМО, ф 12 ВА ИАС оп. 6155, д. 2, 8, 19. • ЦАМО, ф. НИИ ВВС, оп. 485690, д. 161. • ЦАМО, ф. НИИ ВВС оп. 599240, д .3, д. 51. • Запись беседы с В.В. Чеботаревским, личный архив М.В. Орлова.

Publication under the patronage of

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289

WWW.RLM-FARBEN.DE T

RLM-Farben is the Aircraft Branch of Farben – Kiroff – Technik, the specialist in historic German and international paints for aircraft, cars and other industrial goods. The heritage of the rich German industrial culture and the inventive genius of its chemical experts has a strong and lasting impact up to today and fascinated the researcher and paint manufacturer Jürgen Kiroff already as a boy. The expertise gained over the years culminated in two extraordinary events: •

Jürgen Kiroff was chosen by RAL gemeinnützige GmbH to take care of its historic archive of original colors and for several years now he has the honour to be in charge of the RAL archive.

•

Kenneth Merrick, the famous Australian ‘Father of German Camouflage’ asked Jürgen to join him as paint adviser for his last and most complete two volume book: Luftwaffe Camouflage and Markings 1933-1945. The reason for this choice of Ken Merrick is simple: he realised that further progress in research in historic colours can only be made with a deep understanding of the chemistry involved in the paints.

For a long time now Jürgen has been consultant and supplier of the Deutsche Technikmuseum - DTM in Berlin. Worldwide renown aviation experts like Prof. Dr. Dr. Holger Steinle, the former curator of DTM aviation exhibition, Koloman Mayrhofer of CraftLab in Austria, Jerry Crandall in the USA and Alexander Kuncze in Bavaria appreciate the up to date know how of Jürgen and he is in very good contact with the Norwegian Aviation Museum and the Flugwerft Schleißheim of Deutsches Museum. A network of experts in the chemical industry ensures access to detailed knowledge and the ability to get the necessary raw materials. Jürgen Kiroff is also the speaker of the “NIL - Nürnberger Interessengruppe Lack” the Bavarian network of paint manufactures. Part of Jürgen’s knowledge was made available for historically interested enthusiasts and modellers through his participation as co-author of two recent books: Real Colors of WWII and Real Colors of WWII Aircraft.

For you as a customer it means: You have a historian at hand who is also a paint manufacturer.

[email protected] Your benefits:

1. Choice of correct colors: We can help to choose the correct colors for your historic object. This is more important than most people think: The current RAL-color range does not match the range of historic colors, even if the name is the same. RLM colors changed between 1933 and 1945. Traces of the historic colour on your restoration object are in almost all cases faded but they are often the key to identify the original color. Farben - Kiroff - Technik can take the uncertainty out of your choice of colors. Correct colors are an import part of live, be it a new car or a new dress. Give your historic object the correct color it deserves.

2. Choice of the correct gloss: One Re ference :

“… A rem inder th Reserve e Grand C Aircraft WON 2014 SU h ampion N ‘n FU at the N the sec ond larg Annual Air sh ow est air s how in United the States. It also w o n an A W WII R ward fo e r BES T the Rep plica Aircraft 2 lica Fig hters A 014 from Oshkos s soc h A nn u al Air Sh iation at ow 2014 I flew th . e Aircra ft 2000 trip in 3 m iles rou 0 hours nd fr Florida to Oshk om Orlando osh Wis consin. (Mike Ta ylor Flo rida)

The grade of gloss depends on the chemistry used and this depends on the historical context, even if the color did not change. In most cases it takes a deep expertise to know about these details and give your historic object the correct look.

3. Choice of the correct Binder: In the comparatively short period between 1933 and 1945 the binder material of the paints changed due to the scientific progress, the changing demands due to higher speeds, a changing operational environment and economic circumstances. This is most important for a museum object and for a restoration to flying condition you may want to choose a more recent binder but you want it to match the look of the historic paint.

4. To summarise: We are able to identify and to produce almost any paint and color that was used on historic German aircraft according to your individual needs.

Our knowledge in paints will protect your warbird and give it a long and powerful life with a perfect look!

www.ak-interactive.com Phone: (+34) 941 44 52 28 [email protected]