Sneak Peek: The Encyclopedia Of Animal Predators

this is an excerpt from THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

ANIMAL PREDATORS The mission of Storey Publishing is to serve our customers by publishing practical information that encourages personal independence in harmony with the environment. EDITED BY Deborah Burns ART DIRECTION AND BOOK DESIGN BY Michaela Jebb TEXT PRODUCTION BY Erin Dawson INDEXED BY Nancy D. Wood COVER PHOTOGRAPHY BY © Don Johnston_MA/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top middle); © Donald M. Jones/

Minden Pictures/Getty Images, front (top left); © Fred LaBounty/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top right); © John Foxx/Getty Images, front (top right); © Juniors Bildarchiv/GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo, back (bottom right); © Mike Lentz Photography/www.mikelentzphotography.com, back (top left & bottom left); © Robert McGouey/ Wildlife/Alamy Stock Photo, front (bottom) INTERIOR PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS appear on page 280. ILLUSTRATIONS BY © Elayne Sears, 117, 242–255, and scat MAPS, TRACKS, SILHOUETTES, AND GRAPHICS BY Ilona Sherratt

© 2017 by Janet Vorwald Dohner All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credits; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other — without written permission from the publisher. The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. All recommendations are made without guarantee on the part of the author or Storey Publishing. The author and publisher disclaim any liability in connection with the use of this information. Storey books are available for special premium and promotional uses and for customized editions. For further information, please call 800-793-9396.

Storey Publishing 210 MASS MoCA Way North Adams, MA 01247 storey.com Printed in China by R.R. Donnelley 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Dohner, Janet Vorwald, 1951- author. Title: The encyclopedia of animal predators : learn about each predator’s traits and behaviors; identify the tracks and signs of more than 50 predators; protect your livestock, poultry, and pets / Janet Vorwald Dohner. Description: North Adams, Massachusetts : Storey Publishing, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016059717 (print) | LCCN 2017004014 (ebook) | ISBN 9781612127057 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781612126999 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781612127002 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Predatory animals. | Predatory animals--Control. Classification: LCC QL758 .D64 2017 (print) | LCC QL758 (ebook) | DDC 591.5/3—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016059717

Contents PA R T I

1

Predators in the Modern World

CHAPTER 6

Weasels: Mustelidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

124

Wolverine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 American Badger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Weasels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

CHAPTER 1

The Predation Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

Mink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 American Marten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

CHAPTER 2

Who’s Out There? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 PA R T I I

23

Predators Up Close

CHAPTER 7

Raccoons: Procyonidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Northern Raccoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 CHAPTER 8

Skunks: Mephitidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 3

Canines: Canidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

28

Striped Skunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Wolves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Spotted Skunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Foxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Virginia Opossum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

CHAPTER 4

Cats: Felidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 9

Opossums: Didelphidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

77

Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar, Panther) . . . . . . . . . . . 78

CHAPTER 10

Jaguar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Rats: Muridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bobcat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Norway Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168

Canada Lynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Black Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Other Cats — Jaguarundi, Ocelot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Cotton Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 11

Bears: Ursidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103

Domestic and Feral Animals . . . . . . . . . .

166

171

American Black Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

North American Grizzly or Brown Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Other Bears — Kodiak Brown Bear, Polar Bear,

Domestic Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Hybrid Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CHAPTER 12

Birds of Prey: Accipitrimorphae . . . .

PA R T I I I

185

Eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Hawks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Vultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Prevention and Protection

237

CHAPTER 18 CHAPTER 13

True Owls: Strigidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Nonlethal Prevention Methods and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Great Horned Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Barred Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Other Owls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 C H A P T E R 14

Crows: Corvidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

210

American Crow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Common Raven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Black-Billed Magpie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

CONCLUSION

Moving Forward Together . . . . . . . . . . . .

267

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

271

Predator Control Guides for Home, Recreation, Farm, and Ranch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Organizations Providing Additional Resources for Predator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

CHAPTER 15

Snapping Turtles: Chelydridae . . . . . . 217 Common Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Alligator Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 CHAPTER 16

Gators and Crocs: Crocodilia . . . . . . . . . 222

American Alligator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 American Crocodile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 C H A P T E R 17

Snakes: Colubridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Online Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

One of the fundamental relationships in nature is that of predator and prey. To feed her fledglings, an eagle swoops with speed and grace to snatch a rabbit on the run. A wolf pack cooperatively chases down an elk, and with that success the whole pack eats. We humans are the ultimate predators, killing both to eat and to survive when threatened by an animal. In the modern world, many of us are somewhat removed from the predatory act, other than observing a cat catching a mouse. Others of us, however, might walk out in our fields on a beautiful morning to find a gruesomely slaughtered lamb or a pile of decapitated chickens. Even in that moment of great anger and grief, the reality of predator and prey is inescapable and basic. We can’t live in a world without predators; therefore, we must learn to coexist with the wild hunters around us while protecting what we raise.

Coexistence

For a long time, humans believed we could exterminate all large predators and shape the earth as we saw fit. We have since found that predators, both large and small, are essential to the healthy functioning of the earth’s ecosystem. We have learned to appreciate the beauty of wild animals and their lives. Many people now work to save animals threatened with extinction, not only because our world is healthier when it is biologically diverse but also because our lives would be less rich without these animals.

Between the two points of view — protecting our domestic animals and valuing nature and all of its inhabitants — lies coexistence. Coexistence is possible, and it begins with knowledge. Knowledge of our predators’ behaviors and habits is essential. Knowledge arms us when we encounter a predator on a walk in the backcountry. With knowledge, we learn how to design and implement predator-friendly systems that protect both our stock and ourselves. Some of the methods of predator protection are old, as ancient as the shepherd who watched his sheep with his guardian dogs. Others are new, as wildlife biologists help us understand the predators around us rather than succumb to old myths or prejudices. These methods may require as much or more effort than simply eliminating all the predators, but when we value a balanced and sustainable world, they are worth the effort. Consumers of meat, milk, or eggs can come to value predators and coexistence as well, just as they learn more about the reality of the lives of the farmers and ranchers who provide them with food.

Is not the sky a father and the earth a mother, and are not all living things with feet or wings or roots their children? — Black Elk (Oglala Sioux)

2

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P R E DATO RS I N T HE MO DER N WO R L D

CHAP TER 2

Who’s Out There? When a livestock or poultry owner discovers the carcass of an animal, it can be emotionally and financially devastating. Owners ask themselves what they could have done differently to protect their animals. Protection begins with an understanding of what threats exist in the place where you and your animals live. Three factors help to determine your potential threats: the region where you live; your home’s location, from city to suburb to semirural exurb to truly rural area; and finally, the animals you keep, whether large stock or small animals,

poultry, or pets. Learning about predator ranges, livestock death statistics, and the migration of predators into suburban and urban environments informs farmers and homeowners alike.

12

Poultry Damage ID Guide — Common Predators After identifying potential culprits below, check individual profiles in Part II for additional details, observations, tracks, and scat.

Missing Birds

Eggs

Time

✔ ✔

Dusk

Teeth or Talon Marks |

Owl

Opposum

Mountain Lion

Mink

Marten

Magpie

Lynx

Human

Hawk

✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

✔

Night

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Dawn

✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔

Eggs eaten

✔ ✔

Eggs missing

✔

One bird missing

✔ ✔

✔ ✔ ✔

✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔

Chick or chicks killed

✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔

✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔

✔

✔

Bodies piled together

✔ ✔

✔

Missing limbs or heads pulled through fence

✔

Breast or anal area eaten

✔

✔

✔

Abdomen eaten

✔ ✔

Talon punctures on head or body

✔

Bites on neck

P R E DATO RS I N THE MO DER N WO R L D

✔

✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Several birds killed

Many bites on head, neck, body, or legs

✔

✔

One or more chicks missing

Bite on head or neck

✔

✔

✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Multiple birds missing

Heads removed or eaten

✔

✔

Breast and legs eaten

18

Fox

Fisher

Eagle

Dog

Crow

Coyote

Cat

Day

One or two birds killed

Dead Birds (Partially or Mainly Eaten)

Bobcat

Badger

Note: Predators can occasionally be active during nonnormal times or behave in atypical ways.

✔

✔

✔ ✔

✔ ✔

✔

✔ ✔

Diagnosing Scat, Tracks, and Gait By observing the “signs” of visiting animals, you can learn a great deal about what lives in your area, even before you acquire livestock. Record notes and take photographs for future reference and comparison.

Scat

Scat can vary in size and content for every individual, but it can reveal clues about the type of animal and its diet. It can be especially useful when combined with other signs. Both fresh scat and dry scat are potentially dangerous to humans. Handle either with great care, and do not inhale dry particles. Track size varies with age and gender of the animal, regional or subspecies variations in size, the surface of the track impression, and the weather. In this book, track sizes measure the deeper minimum impression, not the more variable, broader surface outline. Tracks may also reveal tail drags. Gait, or the way an animal moves, leaves a typical pattern of prints and can be classified into broad predator types of walking, trotting, waddling, and bounding. Stride impressions also vary individually and with terrain. Animals may walk or trot with a direct-register (rear foot lands in front print), overstep (rear foot lands beyond the front print), or understep (rear prints behind front prints). Canines often side-trot with an angled body, their hind prints to one side of their front prints. In a straddle trot, the hind tracks go to both sides of the front tracks. Strides are measured from the point one foot touches the ground to the next point of that same foot.

Black Bear

Red Wolf

Tracks

5 in. 5"

4 in. 4"

Wolf Wolf

3 in. 3"

Large Dog Large Dog

2.5 in. 21⁄2"

Coyote Coyote

Red Red Fox Fox

Gait

Bounding: Weasel Bounding: Weasel

Waddling: Raccoon Waddling: Raccoon

Walking: Bobcat Walking: Bobcat

Trotting: RedFox Fox Trotting: Red

PREDATORS UP C LOSE

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27

MOUNTAIN LION

MOUNTAIN LION

M (Puma concolor cougar)

ountain lions once roamed throughout the Western Hemisphere from the Yukon in northern Canada to the southern Andes

Mountains in Chile. They were found in virtually every type of ter-

rain, from high mountain forests to deserts to tropical wetlands. The mountain lion was present nearly everywhere in the lower  states.

Mountain lion, puma, cougar, or panther — the lord of the forest once ruled from coast to coast.

78

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P R E DATO RS U P CLOSE

Mountain Lion Ranges Western mountain lion Confirmed sightings Florida panther Confirmed sightings

MOUNTAIN LION

With this widespread presence, the big cat came to have more names than any other animal on earth — including cougar, puma, catamount, mountain lion, and panther. From Mexico southward it is still called by its Spanish names leopardo and el leon; indeed, Vespucci, Columbus, and Cabeza de Vaca all mentioned the “lions” they discovered in the New World. For some time, European fur traders believed they were seeing only female lion pelts and that the larger males were hiding somewhere deep in the forests or mountains. Later it was widely believed that mountain lions were a light-colored African or Asian leopard or panther. In the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, it was often called tyger. Catamount or cat of the mountains was used from New England

down the eastern coast. Panther and painter are still used in the southeastern states, although the mountain lion is definitely not a panther. In , the famed naturalist Comte de Buffon first recorded the name cougar, probably evolved from Portuguese based on native Guarani, and puma itself was not used until . Biologists finally settled on the name Puma concolor, or “one color.” Used as early as 1777, puma is a Spanish word and originated with a native Quechua word meaning “powerful.” The Cherokee klandagi meant “lord of the forest,” and the Chickasaw keo-ishto described the “cat of the gods.”

ϒ Mountain lions can be found in the western states from Texas north to southeastern Alaska, including the Rocky Mountains, the Cascades, and the Sierra Nevada. Breeding populations may be found in the western areas of Oklahoma, Nebraska, and North and South Dakota. Lone mountain lions have also been seen in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Arkansas, as well as reports from farther east, such as Connecticut. In Canada, mountain lions are found in the Yukon, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, with sightings in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. While some sightings may be attributed to escaped pets or misidentification of bobcats, mountain lions are undoubtedly now reclaiming some of their lost habitat.

CATS

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79

D A M A G E I D:

American Black Bear T I M E O F D AY

Livestock, poultry, beehives

Day, night, and dusk near humans

METHOD OF KILL  Hair, tracks, scat usually found in area of damage; veg-  In open area, kill sometimes dragged into cover and etation smashed down around kill; distinctive musky covered with debris, bear returning at dusk to feed odor of bear even as carcass decomposes  Carcasses showing deep teeth marks 1⁄2 inch in diameter on skull or neck and shoulders behind the ears; neck or spine broken; at times, nose or face deeply bitten

AMERICAN BLACK BEAR

PREY ON

 Where stock is confined or unable to escape, 2 or 3 sheep killed  Eggs or nestlings stolen

 Large claw marks of 1⁄2 inch on neck, shoulders, and  Beehives and frames broken and scattered, bear sides of larger animals, either from striking or straddling returning until all eaten  Body opened, internal organs or udders on lactating  Corn or oat crops with large areas of smashed stalks females removed and eaten first, then hindquarters and entire cob of corn eaten and other flesh fed on  In orchards, bark clawed off to mark tree and to eat  Skin of large prey torn off and inside out; skeleton inner bark; branches torn off; bushes smashed often left intact and attached to skin; remains not scattered, unlike with wolves and coyotes.

Front

TRACK

GAIT

Front 33⁄4–8 inches long, 31⁄4–6 inches wide; rear 53⁄8–87⁄8 inches long, 31⁄2–6 inches wide. Rear foot resembles human footprint, slightly pigeon-toed. All 5 toes, claw marks, and front heel pad may or may not be visible; hair may obscure track details. Can be distinguished from grizzly bear by smaller size, shorter claw marks, and greater curve in arc of toes.

Walking stride 17–28 inches, may be directregister or overstep; lope or gallop can be longer at 24–60 inches.

S C AT

Rear

7"

Cylindrical, thick, blunt ends, 7 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, usually coiled, black to brown color. Can resemble human feces except contents may reveal hair, bone, and plant fibers. Looser and softer if feeding on berries. Left uncovered at site of kill. 109

DOGS

When Good Dogs Go Bad Roaming domestic dogs chase and injure stock for fun, not for food. Owners are often shocked that their beloved and friendly pet killed farm animals or poultry. In addition to establishing good fencing and using livestock guardian dogs (LGDs), owners can protect their animals by practicing good prevention strategies: · Do not allow unsupervised contact between your own pet dog and your stock, especially if the dog is from a breed with a high prey or chase drive.

If you catch the dog or dogs in the attack, take the following steps immediately: 1.

If the dogs are friendly, restrain them and call the animal authorities rather than their owners. Take photos of the dogs before releasing them to the authorities. Record all identifying information from tags.

2.

If the dogs run away, try to follow them calmly. They are less likely to run if you don’t chase them. Take photos. Most dogs will return home. Do not confront the owners who may deny their dog’s involvement, remove evidence through bathing, or create an alibi before the authorities arrive. Call the authorities.

3.

If you can’t restrain or follow the dogs, write down an accurate description of their sizes, ears, tails, coat color and length, markings, and so on. Again, take photos if possible.

4.

Take more photos to document the full extent of the attack.

· Do not let your dog play with neighbor or roaming dogs, which may lead to dangerous play behavior with your stock. · Be very cautious of visiting dogs, and strongly discourage neighbor dogs from entering your property. · If you use an LGD, discourage anything more than cursory familiarity between your LGD and your pet dogs. Definitely do not allow neighbor dogs to visit your property and interact with your LGD. You want to maintain your LGD’s defensive aggression against a roaming dog that might easily threaten your stock.

What to Do When a Domestic Dog Attacks Your Animals Dog attacks are often very emotionally disturbing because of the violence and widespread destruction or mutilation of your animals. It is helpful to plan ahead and know which authorities to contact in your area, as well as what further actions to take.

Call the authorities even if you come upon the attack after the dogs have gone. Even if they cannot establish ownership, you have a record of the attack and may be eligible for monetary compensation from local government sources or insurance. In some areas, owners of stock have the right to shoot a dog that is attacking their animals; however, the laws differ in various states, provinces, and municipalities. If you shoot someone’s pet, you may find yourself involved in a legal action or lawsuit.

DOMESTIC AND FERAL ANIM A LS

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177

Dealing with Eagles Homes and Yards

Attractants include rodents and free-ranging birds and rabbits.

Livestock Husbandry Bald eagles can be attracted in large numbers to large-scale pastured poultry operations. Newborns are very vulnerable during birthing seasons. Eagles will also prey on - to -week-old lambs and kids as they begin to wander or play farther from mothers, but not generally after  weeks of age.

HUM A N IN T ER AC T ION Eagles are important apex predators in the ecosystem. Golden eagles are more likely to prey on young lambs, goats, and calves than bald eagles are. Occasionally eagles will prey on young swine or other animals such as domestic rabbits, waterfowl, poultry, and small pets. Primary losses of larger stock occur in grazing areas in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, and Texas but also happen elsewhere in their range. Predation of lambs and kids on range during birthing seasons appears to be increasing, but both eagles feed on livestock carcasses left by other predators, which can confuse observers. L EGA L I T IES The federal Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act and Migratory Bird Treaty Act protect bald and golden eagles, their nests, and nest sites. Killing eagles without permit is illegal, as is possessing, selling, or trading any live or dead eagle, feathers, or eggs. Harassing, harming, hunting, shooting, and trapping are also illegal. Hazing with gunfire, explosives, and airplanes is prohibited without permit. Only USDA-APHIS-ADA personnel are permitted to conduct permitted depredation activities after a formal assessment. Relocation is generally a failure, with most eagles returning to their home territories. 19 0

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P R E DATO RS U P CLOSE

• Set up birthing sheds or protected pens less than  or  acres in size. Temporary pens for night and early morning are very useful since eagles are unlikely to enter smaller spaces. • Use livestock guardians, particularly dogs that alert to aerial attacks. Livestock guardians are more effective in areas small enough for them to actively protect, rather than very large spaces with scattered stock or poultry. • Provide brushy grazing or shelters, which is safer than large open pastures. • Provide an active herding and human presence to discourage eagles. • Remove all carrion. Do not feed eagles. • Mount or suspend clothed scarecrows, with movable arms, on high points near nightly bedding areas, to scare eagles for up to  weeks (after which they become used to them). • Use portable electric netting to subdivide large pastured poultry areas. • Use netting or wires over pastured poultry to disrupt aerial attacks. • Use rounded corners to reduce smothering during an attack. • Remove roosting sites.

W

AMERICAN ALLIGATOR

AMERICAN ALLIGATOR (Alligator mississippiensis)

hen European explorers first encountered the American alligator,

they confused it with the very real and legendary Old World Nile crocodile. The name alligator came from the Spanish el lagarto, or “the lizard,” which became alagarto in Florida. Soon gaining the

nickname gator, they were hunted into near extinction in the s

and ’s. With protection, the population has now very successfully recovered.

DES C R IP T ION The osteoderms or scutes on the alligator are olivebrown or black with an off-white underside. Young alligators have yellow stripes on their tails. The snout is broader than that of the crocodile, and the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw is not visible when the mouth is closed, unlike the crocodile. Although an alligator is mature when it reaches  to  feet in length, females will grow to  to  feet long and males to  to  feet long, weighing  pounds. Larger animals are frequently seen. Females take  to  years to mature, and males  to  years. Life span is uncertain but ranges from  to  years in the wild and as long as  years in captivity.

Alligators swim, propelled by their long, strong tail, at speeds as high as  mph. They can dive for long periods. On land they either crawl or sprawl and can rise up on their legs for a high walk, with speeds of  to  mph for short distances. Alligators will crawl to new bodies of water if necessary. They can stand and step forward in a lunge. They are also strong climbers. Alligators have a wide range of vision and are excellent at seeing and sensing movement. They also have a good sense of smell. Their jaws are extremely powerful in biting and gripping but comparatively weak in opening against restraint.

Most active when the temperature is between 82 and 92°F, alligators will bask or seek warmer water to keep themselves warm.

GATORS AND C ROCS

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As social herd animals, guardian llamas will act protectively in defense of their flock mates.

Advantages

Considerations

• Generally aggressive and effective against small canines, such as foxes, coyotes, or dogs.

• Cannot protect against more than one roaming dog or coyote.

• Able to guard sheep, goats, cattle with calves, deer, alpacas, or poultry.

• Vulnerable to multiple dogs or coyotes and bears, mountain lions, or wolves.

• Easy to feed and fence with stock.

• Does not provide protection against most small predators, feral animals, or raptors.

• Best suited to flocks of less than  animals in fenced pastures without dense vegetation and close to the farmstead.

• May injure or attempt to breed stock, especially intact males.

• Long working life.

• May injure working farm dogs.

• Naturally social to pasture mates and bond readily to stock.

• If not socialized and trained, can be dangerous to humans and difficult to handle.

• Creates little disturbance or threat to neighbors.

• Often do not work well in pairs, since a single llama will bond better to stock. • Not suited to hot, humid weather.

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P R EV E N T I O N A ND PROTECTIO N

Beehives In addition to the threats of disease, mites, and other pests, beehives are highly attractive to some animal predators. Bears are the major threat, capable of causing serious destruction and significant economic loss. A clean, well-tended bee yard will discourage predators and reduce temptations; however, good fencing can exclude raccoons, skunks, and bears. Strapping the hive together and weighing down the top will also make it harder for a predator to take it apart or gain access. Mice. Install mouse guards to prevent mice from entering the hive, especially before winter. Wooden reducers can be enlarged by chewing mice.

Raccoons. Place a heavy rock, brick, or cement block on top of the hive to prevent raccoons from removing top boards. Skunks. Raise hives higher than a skunk can reach, up to  feet. Place plywood with a nail “pincushion” in front of the hives. Predator-proof fencing, chicken wire, and netting will keep skunks away from hives. Bury wire netting, mesh, or hardware cloth  inches down and extending out  inches. Bears. Place electric netting or fencing around the hives, and use sturdy livestock panels for the best combination of deterrents.

ό Backyard beekeepers can prevent predation by grouping their hives together, surrounding them with closely spaced electric fencing, and weighing down the hive top.

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P R EV E N T I O N A ND PROTECTIO N