The Art Of Ancient India_8

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Hindu Rock-cut Architectureof the WesternDeccan

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Control of the Deccan was taken from the Early Western Calukyas around 75o1 by the Raptrakugas, who in this way began a hegemony that was to last more than two hundred years, until about 973. Although the political might of this farnily has been widely acknowledged,very litde is known about the artistic developments that rook place during the period oi thcir supremacy. The principal site associatedwith these rulers is lllora, where several cave excavations were carried out, appalently under their aegis. Without a doubt, the most ambitious and impressive of these-indeed, perhaps in all of South Asia-is Cave 16, the Kailasanetha temple. One of the last important Hindu excavations,it representsnot only the most striking cave temple of the more than thirty at the site, but also the culmination of rock architecturein South Asia. Its boldness suggestscenturies of tradition in which carving techniques and an understandine of the rock medium were de-

veloped, enabling craftsmen to push the architectural type to its limits. The Kailasanatha ternple is more than simply a building; it is a complex with all the essentialelements of contemporaneous free-standing southern-type temple units, including a main building, Nandi shrine, gateway, surrounding cloisters,and subsidiary shrines. It is difficult to say how long it took to create the main temple and its surrounding elements or the precisesequenceof the excavations.Most scholars today feel that the major portion of the monument, including the central temple and Nandi shrine, aswell asperhapsthe gateway, belong to the reign ofthe Rasrakota king Krsna I, who ruled from around 757 to 773. However, it is likely that the temple was planned and begun under his predecessor,Dantidurga, since the excavationnext to the Kailesanatha,Cave rj (the misnamed"Dai Avrtar"). bearsan inscription of the earlier monarch who reigned from

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DYNASTIES OI THE MIDDLE PETIIOD

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arouncl 73J to 7J7 and the tlvo cavc monuDlents bear unr.nistakablestylistic ties to cach other.z Generalconceptualrclations betr,vccnthis monurncnt and the Virfipaksa tcmple at Pattadaka] (Figs.r5.3-9), rvhich datcsfrom approximately thc fourth dccadeof thc cighth century, further s u g g c ' ta d . r t cn e " r f h e m i d d l e o f t l r e e i g h t h centr,ry for the Kailasanatha, althougl.r thc relationships betwccn the two teDrPles havc been vastly overemphasized.Indeed, whilc thcy . h c r c c e r r . r i nf e a r u r c ,b c c - , u s cr h c y r r e b o r h r o r r t h c r n - . r y l cr n o n u n r c n t sd r t i n g f r o n r . L p proximatcly the samc time, the dilTerences bets'een thcm are at least as significant as those ):ctwccn any othcr two crcatioirsin thc sPectrum of lndic art. From the exterior, thc templc compicx is alnost complctcly screcncdby a rock-cut rvall rvith a eateway in the centcr (Fig. 16.r). Although now rnuch dantaged duc to surface abrasion, the gatcway was an important feature

hcrc, just as it is gencrally in latcr south lndianstylc ternples. The southcrn dcrivation for the forn.r is clearly seen in thc piiastcred niches bearing rcprcscntationsof various dcities whosc slendcr builds, ornanentatioll, pointed crowns, and facial features furthcr indicate a southern sourcc(Fig. 16.z).Most of thc deitiesshorvnto thc lcft of the entrAncc are Saivite while those t o t l r c r i g h t r r < p r i m , , r i l y V . r i . n a r i t e. r n r r rangcment also carried oLrt in the gallcry at the rcar of the precinct. After passingthrough the monurncntal gateway in the ccntcr of thc stone screenwall, the visitor enters a pit, for Jike the Paldya ternple is (Fig. ra.37), thc Kailasanatha at Kalugun.ralai a totally free-standingten.rplcr','ithin a larsc Pit that was excxvatcd to cleate a spaccaround the c c n r r . ' lr n . , s '( F r g . r t , . 3 ) .H o w c v e r . i n ( o n t r J . l to thc un{inished Pendya example rvith lvhich the Kailasanathais approximately contemporaneous,the RastrakDtamonunlent is carvecland

HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHTTTCTIIREOr THE r{/XSTERNDECCAN

343

r6.2. Detail, carvinsisto lefr of cnirrnce to Kxiltsanatha tcmple compourld. Ellore, Maherasrrx, India. Rastrakntaperiod.Ca. third quarter eishth ccntur,v.

16.3.Vicw of KailasanathxtcDple from lorthwcst. El]ora, Maharastn, India. Rrstraklta pcriod. MaiDty ca. third quartcr cighrh century.

J44

DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDIE PERIOD

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completed both inside and out. Further, subsidiary shrines, chapels, and gallerres wcre excavated in the surrounding rock wall, creating a temple cor.nplexof ovcrwhelming scope and ambition. Since thcse elements, as well as thc temple parts, occur on lrforc than onc level, it is best to study thc plan of the tenlple in two stagcs,the lower and upper stodes (Fig. rrS.a). The lower srory greatly resemblcsa typical south Indian ternple complcx in its rcctangular format, yet it diflcrs frorn both the Rajasirhhcivara tenplc at K-iicipurxrll and the Virupaksa temple xt Pattadakal in that the surrounding wall does not contain cvenly spacedsubsidi:rry shrincs.Instead,it has sevcralrather large shrincs and a gallery:ilong thrcc siclesat the rear containing huge sculptcclpanels. The monumental ni;vo-storied gateway providing accessto the t e m p i c c o r ) r p o u n do n r h c w e s ( i s o n a o a x i s with :r detaclrcdNandi na4dapaand the ten.rple propcr. The lowcr stories of both the Nandi shrine and main tcmple are solid ancl cannot be cntered. In plan, the lower story of rhc main tcnlple seen-rs somervhat unusual, consisting of a rectangular form lvith projections at the sidesand rear, but the shape is clarified in the upper story, for at dlat icvel, thc ten.rple, which mry be crrrered.brc.rksinro ir, cornponctlt parts: a. ldtrdaparvith sixtcen pillars arrangcd in four groups of four to create a kind of cruciforn.r effect for the aislcs, a projecting porch at the front (west) ancl one on eithcr side, and an antechambcr and srnall cubical slrrine cncased in in extremcly thick rvall. Thc shrine may be circumambulatcd by exiting at tlre rear of the nandapa atd snlkng along an unroofed passagcway that has {ive smallershrincs"garlanding" thc centrrl sancturn. Except for the addition o[ thcse five shrincs, and thc fact that the circumar.nbulatorypassage is not encloscd,the plan of thc tcmple is quite norrllal and n-raybc relatcd to nuncrous nrolluments, both in southcrn and northern Indir. On drc second icvcl, thc Nandi slrrine may also be entered. The excavationsin the sccond story of the surrounding wall do not reflect those below, a {bature th:rt is fcasible in cave architecture when the relationship berwccn the two need not be stmcturrl. Ts,'o shrines occur

in the right wall of the pir .nd arorher templc, rivaling the Kailasanathaitsel{ is located at the left. The latter excavationJcalled the LankeSvara temple, consistsof a pillared nandapaenteredby stairs at the wcst and a shrine with an enclosed circumambulatory passageway.Like thc main tcmple, it is dedicatcdto Siva. Stone bridges, carved from the living rock, connect the gateway, Nandi pavilion, and entrance porch of the ter:rple so that separarestairs are not needed to visit the sccond story of each entity (Fig. 16.5). The main temple has a southe:rr-style flafld that is capped by a pyramidal supcrstructurerising in clearly defined stagcsand 'fhe crowned by a. iikharc. five smaller shrincs surrounding the fi:,ain dflafla arc also southern in form. Thc solid lowcr story of thc Nandi tcmple and that o[ the main temple arc more than seven mcters high and, iu the caseof the main temple, has approximatcly life-size elephants carved around it. A pair of enornous pillars (stanbhas)flank the Nandi pavilion; and a pair of elephants (the one at the right is badly damaged) were also rock-cut and must have been part of the original schemc since matrix had to be left for their crcatron. Thc cxtcrior of the tenplc is riclJy carved with nichcs, pilasters,windows, and cornicesas well as imagcs of deitics, nithrnas, ar'd other figures. Even more elaborate than the monunents of thc Early Western Calukyas and Pallavas,the richncss of carving suggestsrapid movement toward thc alnost totally filled surfacesof n.rany late Indic temples. Although the iconographic prograrn of the temple is not f'lly ktto*tr, most of the depictions are of Saivitc subjects,but a considcrablenumber arc Vaisnavite. Interspersedwith thc many reliefs and {igures of varying sizeson thc temple surfacc are huge panelscontaining gigantic figures or tableaus.Under the stone bridge between thc Nandi shrinc and the ternple porch, on the east side ofthe Nandi shrine,is a large pancl showing Siva in one of his angry aspectsas destroycr of r h e d e n r o n . A n d h a k a ' u r a( f i g . r 6 . 6 ) . C r a c c firlly po'cd arrd rerr-armcd.Sivr hold. rhc skin of a slain elephant bchind him and is accon.rpenied by his consort, Pervati (at the right), whorn he fondlcs afl-ectionatclywith one hand,

IIINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITBCTURT OF TIIB WXSTTRN DECCAN

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16.6. Siva as Descroyerof Andhakasura,Kailasanatha temple. Ellora, Maharestra,India. Rastrakutaperiod. Ca. third quartereighth ccntury.

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DYNASTIXSOF THE MIDDLX PERIOD

and the saptumatrfrar(seven mothers), who appearassmall carvingsin the round at the lower left. The origin of tbe saptamat/
of other Hindu caves. Possibly, the popular name KailSsanathawas given to this temple becauscof the associationwith Siva as lord of Kailasain this relief.s The dramatic efect of the tcmple, enclosed within the mountain inelf, is partly the result of the large and dynamic carvings, such as those discussed,at a number of key locations within the temple precinct. One of the nost compelling groups is found in an excavated hall on the second level of dre right wall of the temple enclosure,which is dedicatedto the saptamaqkas and popularly called the Hall of Sacrifice. Human-size, in thc round, deeply carved representations of the natykas, Galresa, aud other figures line three walls of the shrine, virtually surrounding the devoteewho might enter. Three of the best-preservedfigures are on the western wall, and show Durga at the right with her lion vehicle, a goddessseatedupon a lotus pedestal in the center, and Kala, a male skeleton with the bodies of two naked, dying men, one across his lap and another below (Fig. 16.8). In this case,the robust, fullfigured forns ofthe western Deccan that had been seen at sites like Ajanla and Aurangabad seem to be present, and it is evident fiom other portions of the Kailasanatha complex as well that artisansof both southern and western Deccan heritage worked on the monument, although the southern style prevails. A great degree of realism, probably exploited for dramatic effect, is seenin the naked igures and especiallyin the depiction of Kala. Siva as destroyer of Andhakasura,the story that explains the origin of the saptumatkas,is fittingly depictedto the left of this hall.Tlie assignmentof a separateshrine at a Siva temple to the seven mothers is a feature that becomes increasingly common after this period in the Deccan and other parts of India, and is refective of the growing imporrance of flemale imagery in Hinduism. As in Buddhism, and seen already in the rock architecture created for Buddhist establishmentsin the Deccan, Hinduism of the post-Gupta periods shows increasing use of female symbolism, the female essentiallyrepresenting the jaAri that is a necessalycomponent for the achievement of release(rzo.Qsa), that is, a reintegrationwith the UniversrLPrinciple.

OF THE WESTIRN DTCCAN J49 HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE

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r6.7.RavanaShakirlgMounr Kxil,sa, Kailasxnathr tc rplc. Ellore, Maharastre, Indi.r. Rislrakiita pcriod. Cathird quarter eighth ccntury.

6.8. Matr[as, Kri]asan,dla tcmLldia plc. Ellora, Mrhiragfra, Ra;trakritr Fcriod. Ca. third quar!cr cigllth ceniLrry-

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DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDTE PERIOD

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Although the Kailesanethatemple complex is not the only monument of the RaggakOta dynasty, it is certainly the most impressive.A few other cavesat Ellora and somein&equentlv discussedstructural temple, throughout rhe Deccanarealsoascribed to the Raptrakftaperiod, and all of thesemust be thoroughly studied beforethe full implicationsof the Kailasanatha templeare understood.The motivation behind

the creation of such an extraordinary monument is an intriguing issue,especiallysincea short time after it was made, Hindus virtually abandoned the rock-cut technique in favor of structural buildings. Thus, the artistic tradition ended soon after the production of one of its most remarkable achievementsand never again was a rockcut monument of such scope attempted.4

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PART FOUR

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

Kaimrr and RelatedSchools

Although regional cultural variations havc bccn discerniblc since the carliest begimines of Indic civilizatiot, they bccane incrcasingly rvell dcfincd over the ccnturies. Aftcr thc Gupt:r pcriod in particular, regional art schools parallcling linguistic, cultural, and social patterns rnay be broadly defined according to the tlncc major geographic divisions usually uscd to describe the South Asian subcontincnt, that is, northern, southern, and ccntral (Deccan).Thcsc catcgories should not bc viewed as absolutc, especial)y in thc casc of the Dcccatr schools, which often sharc characteristicsof both northcrn and southem art, or in the caseof the coastal rcgions, where on thc cast and on thc lvest certain artistic ties may bc sccn from north to sorth, alnost seeming to obviate thc threc divisions. Witl.rin thc broad sphcres of the notthern, soLrtlrcrn,aud central divisions, thcre is a grcat dcal ofvariation arising from nuineroLls factors itcl,-rding strong local tr:rditrons,as secn, for exarnplc, in thc cascof thc art of Kaimrr, where the Bactro-Gandhera hcritagc pcrsistccl

353

long after the art tradition of the northwest was viablc. Thc stucly of thc regional styles of art, t1ren,shoulclbe b"sed upon the premise that witl.rin cach region thcrc is sone conrmonality, as wcll as upon the recognition that a great deal ^f -.'i"n,

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The Hinralayan valley of Ka(n.rir, although gcographicallysccludedfrorl the rest of South Asia, has bccn :r part of thc Indic culturel sphere sincc thc timc of A(oka. lts geographicsituation, bounded on all sidesby high nrorrntains,has led to an insularity that contributcd to the dcvclopn-rcnt of its rrniquc cultural characteristics. Kainriri art is nrainly dcpcndcnt on Indic idior.ns, modifieci by inllucnces from BactroGandhera, Iran, and Inner Asia. Through these neighboring rcgions, inlluenccsfrom later western Asiatic Hcllcnisn-rn-ray also bc traced. Howcvcr, for all these inlluences, the Ka6rniri idiom was unique and earned the region a rcprltatiorl throughout Asia for its sophisticated, elegant, and technic;r)ly supcrb schoolsofart. Thc history of Kaimir has been chronicled

354

SCHOOIS LATEI
in an inportant and possibly unique text relativc to Indic historiography, tlte Rajatarcigirl. W titten in about rr481 by Kalhana, son of Ca4paka,a n.rinisterto King Harga (ro89rror) of the first Lohara dynasty, it dcscribes the history of Ka{mir uP to tlrc timc of its writing, detailing the building of cities aud temples, designating the Patrons, and giving some of the undcrlying rcasoning behind thcir actions. Howcver, Kalhana is lnainly accurate concerning thc period of his life and the immediately preceding periods,for which he sccms to have been able to rely on contemPorary documents. His accuracy decreascsthe further hc extendsbackward in tine until the chronicle becomesa jur.nbleof lcgendscoupled with bits of histodcaiinformation for the early periods.Using this material as wcll as some collateral sources, however, it is possiblc to providc an outline of the history of Ka(n.rirfron.r the timc of ASoka t o r h c m i d d l c o I r l r c t w c l f i l r c e t t r t t r y..r g r i n ' t which the artistic dev€loPncnts may bc seen.

Prr-K alxola The earlicst sitc that has yielded important artistic remains is Herwan (Harvan), a Buddhist monastery a short clistance ftoln Srinagar. It is situatedhalfway up the slopc of a mountain bordcring a lateral branch of the rnain vallcy. Founded under thc Kusenas,pcrhaps at thc tine o[ Kaniska's cottncil, thc r-nonastery was apparentlyactive for a colsiderablclength of tilDe. Constrtlction tcchniques found at Harwan mngc fron-r carefully cxccuted "Kusdna diaper" walls to a rather crudc pcbble and rrud version usually assignedto thc middle or latc Hola pcriod (mid-fiftb ccntLrry or later). Very little has actually survivcd at Harwan, and were it not for thc cottrtyard tilcs found in associationwrth tlte caitya irall, thc site would have little to testify to its former inportance Thcsc early remains, however, alrcady display at least two strands of the an-ralgatuthat is to become thc Ka(n.riri school, as they bctray both wcstern Asiatic and Gupta assocratrotrs. Of the surviving lertulants at Harwan, the caitya hall is the most intercsting. Its plan is

Iarly traditions indicatc that the Kaimlr Valley was a part of thc Maurya empire and that Aioka hin.rselffounded the capital, Srinagara, at a location now lnown as Pendrerhan,z just south of modern Srinagar. Howevcr, no archaeological finds in Ka6rnir testify to Maurya artistic activity in thc region. Only a single monarch is mentioned in the Raiatndigittt as intervening betwcen thc Maurya and thc Kulana pcdods, but during Kusana timcs, the history becomes more clear. Ka(miri cities foundcd by thc Kus-a4asar€ still known, such as Kaniskapura (modcrn Kanispur) and Huvi5kapura (modern U;kur). Of these,Uskur rcmained an important Buddhist site for severalccnturies , n d u n d e r u c n t. r r l e , r sttu o t n a j o r r c n o v . ' t i o n s . one in the latc fourth ccntury and anothcr in the cighth. It is gencrally bclieved that Kaniska held rhc fourth Buddhist council in Ka(n.rir, thereby demonstrating its importance as a Buddhist centcr by thc sccondcentury 4.o.3

RxMAtNs sinilar to that of the railya hall cavc at Kondivtc (Fig.5.r9) cxccpt that therc is no survivrng evidcncc of thc prescnce of thc -vr.rpa.WJrat rcmaitrs is a low section of thc wall and original floor of thc courtyard, which were faced with stamped clay tilcs (Fig. r7.r). Thc floor tilcs lvere arranfled to suggcst the form of an cnormous open lotus, which lnay havc rcpresented the transcenclcnt cosmic lotus, along with borclcr and othcr motifs. The centcr of the lotus has r lorv raiscd arca r,vith a hole in the middle of it, as if it scrvcd as a stand or sttpport. Ka(nir's associationswidr both the northcrn Indian art schools and thosc of western Inner Asie lrc ,.viderrrfrorn the tilc', .rs .ccn in I rather comnlon typc of Har*''an tilc that shorvs thrcc seatedasceticsin the ccntral band, with a rorv of gecsc(iam-sa)bclow and a railing with figures abovc (Fig. r7.z). The gccsc nlotif was known in ancicnt Indic art sincc the Maurya period (Fig. 4.ro) and thc portrayal of figurcs convcrsing above a railing rvas well established by thc Kuslna pcriod at Mathrtra. Howcver,

KASMIR AND RXTATEDSCHOOTS ?55

hat dre Kaimir ur,r'a empire and re capital, Stnar as Pdudreqhan,2 r. Howevet, no mir testify to ' region. Only a the Rajaturaigina daurya and the u!a[a times, the Kaimiri cities . known, such as ) and HuviskaUskur remained severalcenturies 'jor renovations, LCanother in the rat Kaniska held Ka:imir, thereby IS

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avc at Kondivte s no surviving te -rlrpd. What 'all and original ;ere faced with t ire floot trles rm of an enorr1'e rePresented '- along with Lterof the lotus r in thc middle sllPPort. h the northem \restefn Inner . as seeI1ln a rile thac shows I band, with a : railing with :ese motif was t rhe Maurya rval of figures .:ll established ra. Howcver,

r 7.r . Sectionof tile llo or of caityah^11,Herwan, Kaimir, India. Ca. fourth centrry. TeIIa cotta.

r7.2. Floor tile. Fron H,rwan, Ka5mir, India. Ca. fourth century. Stamped terra cotta. H: J3.4 cm. Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Romc.

the rather distinctive facial rypes of the conversing figures are probably derived from the more naturalistic renderings of the Bactro-Gandhara regions of the northwest, here reduced to almost caricaturelike renderings, and not the Mathure style. The ascetictype, too, might be traced to the earlier art of the northwestem portions of the subcontinent.The numerals on the tiles. which may have been used to expedite rhe proccssofcorrcctly placingthem in rheiroriginal contexts, are in the Kharosthi scripr, which was prevalent in tJre northwest. The use of this script suggeststhat the Kidara ("Little") Kuganas, a branch of the main family, were still in power or had recentlycontrollcdthc region.This would confirm the usual fourth-century dadng for thc tiles, a suggestionthat is also supported by the treatment of the foliate motifs in thc band ot geese,which resemblcsCupra-periodcxamples from norrh and north-cenrralIndia. Other important pre-Karkota-period sites are Akhnur and Uskur, ancient Huviskapura, which was founded by rhe Kus5r.racnrpcror Huviskain rhc secondcentury,r.o.Thc surrriving sculpture heads from these sites,asuch as thc

one illustrated (Fig. r7.3), have stimulated some debateregarding their age, but their relationship stylistically to materials from Hadda suggests that they were produccd in the late fifth or early sixth ccntury. Slightly fuller facial features and a softening of the details distinguish these works frour Hadda examples. A few pieces show a strong relationship to the Gupta idiom of the late fifth century, especiallyin thc softly rnodcled facial fearurcs.alrhough a rangc in stylcs suggcstseidrer diffcrcnr periods of production. or. aiternatively.that artistsofseparatc traditions worked at rhe site. Thcse examplcsof the modeler's art may bc considercdrepresentative of a major art form in Ka6mrr during thc pre-Karkota period. Very few. stone sculptureshave been found that belong to the pre-Kerkota period, yet an isolatcd carving representing Karttikeya, fiom Bijbchara, docuruentsthc cxistenccof a mature stone sculptureidiom from that time (Fig. r7.4). Thc image is not a tentative experiment by a scr.rlptorreaching for forms half-realized in the creative moment. On the contrary, it demonstratesa senseof sure cornpletion by a master

356

LA'IERNoRTHERNscHools r7.3. Head. Frorn Akhnur, Ka6rnir, India. Ca. latc frfth or early sixth century. Terra cotta. H: rr.5 cu. National Museum, Karachi.

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r7.4. K:rttikcya. Fronr Bijbehara,Ka(mir, India. Ca. fifth or sixrh century. Grcy-black stone. H: roj.J cur. Sri Pratap Singh MuscuiD,Srinagar.

r7.1. Brddha. Provenanccunknorvn. Frorr norrhwcst Lrdia or Pakisran.Ca. mid-fifth ro nlid-sixth century. Mctal. H: 32.4 cru. Sri PrarapSinsh Museunr, S.inaear.

KASMiR AND RETATID ScHooLS , India. Ca. late ona. H: r t.5 crn.

skilled in his craft and con-{ident of his technical and visual solutions. Although the date of the piece is uncertain, very late Sassano-Iranian elements in the treatment of the streamersat the sidesof the head and the detailing of the girdle and dagger with their pearl ornamentation suggest that this is a work from the H[na period, approximately fifth or sirth century, since these elements are emphasizedon Hu4a coins. The relative\ Hellenjstic tteatment of the torso and rather muscular body, along with the deep folds of the garment, are reminiscent of Kusa4a-period works from Gandhara and Bactria, revealing Ka(mrr's arristicdebt to that rradition. How"ever, other Gatures demonstrate that the Kaimiri style was also touched by the Gupta schoolsof northern and north-central India. The huskv. stockybody build and detailingof rhe anaromy. while ultimately based on the muscular bodytype popularized in Kusana-periodworks, along with the full form of the now badly battered face,suggestworks ofthe fifth century like those at Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh. A few rnetal imagesare also known fiom this period, including a standing Buddha displaying

abhayamudra in the Sri Pratep Singh Museum (Fig. i7.5). Although its findspot and place of manufacture are uncertain, it was collected at a time when the museum's attention was entirely focused on the provinces of Ka3mir, Jarnmu, and to some degreeLadakh, and it is reasonable to assumetlat it came from one of these three regions. The featuresof the face, treatment of the robe, and proportions of the body are related to forms widely found in Bactro-Gandhara images. Further, the compressedstature ofthe figure, the heavinessofthe drapery (wlnch obscuresthe forms of the body), and the large size ofthe hands and feet all suggestthe BactroGandhara sryle of around the fourth century. However, there is a fullness to thc features of the face, especially the cheeks and lips, that is more appropdately identified as fifth or sixth century, and thus a date of 45o-55o may be postulated. Although rather strictly in the Bactro-Gandherastyle, the image provides in.rportant evidence of a stylistic source for later Kadmiri sculptureand painting, whether or not it was actually made in Kaimrr.

T H E K A R K o T AP r u o t

From northwest :id-sixrh century. llus.um, Srinagar.

While there was undoubtedly a great deal of artistic activity during the early part of the Karkota period, it is not until the reign of Lalitaditya (ca.7z4-5o) that monuments may be assignedto a particular patronage.According b the Rajatardigiryt,Lalitadttya conquered most of north India to the Bay of Bengal. These military adventures were probably massive raiding and looting expeditions rather than tme conquests.As a result ofthem, however, lalitaditya carried back to Kaimir inestimable treasure, mostly in the form of gold, silver, and bronze. The vast wealth accrued by Lalitaditya must have been a major factor in stimulating largescaleart production during the eighth century in Kaimir. Some authors attribute virtually any eighth centLlry nonument or sculpture to the period of Lalitaditya, but two monarchs before him also had long and prosperousreigns. Both Durlabhavardhana(ca. 625-6r) and Prate-

JJ7

( c a . 6 z 5r o 8 5 5 )

pedirya II (ca. 66t-vr) could have founded thc Kerkota tradition of monument building prior to the rcigrl of Lalitaditya. Further, it is possible that several of his successorsfollowcd in his footstepsby constructing ten.rplesand patronizing monasteries. The fact remains, however, that the eighth century was a major period of templc construction, using durable materials, largely attributable to the wealth and power of Lalitaditya. The remains at Martaqda probably date from 'fhc the period of Lalitaditya. Rajaturaigitt Ls quite explicit on the subject, for in the section on Lalitaditya it statesthat "That liberal [king] built tlre wonderftrl lshrine] of Matta4da, wrth its massive walls of stone within a lofty enclosute (prasarlantar)."s1^1 r-O rt^, however, was not the fotuder of the site, for his work there was a reconstruction of an earlier temple, perhapsof the sixth century, that is now com-

Ji58

LATERNORTHERNSCHOOLS r7-6. Phlr of Mata4rJa ternplc. Mertaqda, Kr(rrrr, Indn. Krrkota period.probrbly rcign of Lalitaditya. Ca. second cluarter eighth

r7.7. Martttda temple frorn wcst. Mtrtl4da' Kri rrrr, Indir. K,rkor.r pcr'od. probabll rcign of Lalinditya. Ca. second quarter eighth ccnrury, r7.8. North pcristylc, Mart,4da ler1rple.Mart:nda, Kaalnir, India. Karkota Period, probably rcign of Lalit:ditya. Ca. second quarter cighth ccntury.

-fhe of Surya werc placcd around thc plinth of the Rajataraigi1t further reveals pletcly lost. temple. The iconography is Martanda/Snrya as the ;hat tilc temple was dedicatcdto dre dcity of 6 the Univcrsal, r'ith thc temple's ccntral image tcxt sun, S[rya, who is called Martanda in the the secondaryimages. T h c t c n r p l ei , r c c t a n g t t l ai nr p l a n . c o r r s i ' t t n g conceivcdofas en-ranating and its successors thc tenPle Architcctr-rrally, of a ttv4dapaanda shriue(Figs.17.6,r7'7)'Two rcgarding thc discussion n.ruch havc generatcd double slrrincs frank the napdapaon the westcrn like Sir writers, forms. Early of thcir sorirce cnd. It is enclosed in a vast courtyard by a style the Ka(mlri sarv Cunninghan.r, Alexandcr peristylc wall having eighty-four secondary such But stylcs.? Creek of a nanifestation as ,h.io.s i.r it. The colunurs of this peristylc are innew ir.nply ncccssarily not c1o relationships Ilutcd, and their basesand capitals are clearly arc elencnts Hellcnizing influcncc. fusions of reminisccllt of Syrio-Roman typcs (Fig' t7 8)' obviorisly present in tlle architccturAl details of west, the on colnPould the to a gate is Thcrc thc tenpl; such as the pcdiment motif and and major lccondary shrir-rcsin the center of trilobatearches(Fig. r7.7), the surroundingpcricach of the two side rvalls. Each of drc eightystylc, the var,ltcd arches, and tl.re cngagcd colfour nichesoriginally containcd an iurage, prob[n-rns. The use of these fornls reflccts wcsterr ably of somc forn.rofsurya, and morc dePictions

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Asiatic tastes, and especially idioms that had been prescnt in Gandhara, Bactria, and other regions of the northwest. The peaked roof and pyramidal section of pediments were known in Bactro-Gandhara art since the Parthian pcriod; a good exar-npleof a n-ronument that bearsthis motif is the Sttrpa of the Double-headed Eaglc (Fig. 2.8). These later survivalsin Ka(mir should come astro surprise,in light ofthe history of the region and its associationwith adjacent areas. Mertanda is one of the earliestand yer largest of the Ka(n.riri stone tcmples known to have cxisted. It is likely, however, that it was not innovative in design but simply refected cstablished architecturrl traditions, probably primarily in wood. Sincc the Parthian-pcriod traditions at Taxila reveal sirnilar architectural orders, it may be assumedthat the basic style had bccn present in the irnmediatc vicinity since the first century of the Christian era and that it was very much the local convention by thc eighth century. Thus Martenda is an expressionof the contemporaneoLls trends in Kalintr, whilc at the same time it clearly displays its heritage in Bactro-Gandhara and ultimately other western Asiatic sources. In the eighth centruy, Ka6tlrir was a ma1or centcr of lluddhisn whose inllucnce was felt widcly throughout north and castcrn Asia. At the epicenter of Kaimiri Buddhism was the site of Parihasapura,rvl-roscnronuments, though today barely knorvn, scrvcd as models all across Asia from the Pat't.tir Mountains to Japan. Although n.Luch destroyed, Parihasapura still gives thc visitor a senscof its forrner grandcur, for thc sceleof the rcnrains is truly impressive. Originally, there was mtlch more to the site th:rn just the tlrrcc surviving bascmcntsof Br-rd-ll\e Rajaturahgi,li dhist builclingswould indicatc describesthe town as "mocking the residence of Indra" (in Treyastrirh(a paradise)and tells of the imagcs madc by King lalitaditya for drc various temples, including a rePresentationof Vis4u as Ma&rakeiata, one of Visnu as P,rrthasakelaua(thc patron of the city), :utd a Brhad Buddha (Great Buddha), thc thrce rnade respcctively of eighty-four tholrsand rola/
thousandpras&asof copper (nearlythree hundred tons),8 the nurnber eighty-four thousand being a vtsr quantity r convenrionused to design:rte and not a literal mcasurement.Lavish expenditures of this sort, evcn if exaggerated,can only come when there is tremendous incomc to the kingdom, suggcstingthc veracity of the clairns of Lalitaditya's conquests. None of thcse imagcs survives today, but the remainsofthe calt1'abuilt by Lalitaditya, which would have housed the BThad Buddha, verify the claims regarding the size of the Buddha image. The plan of the structure (Fig. r7.9) is known from thc surviving plinth, which had a .eriesofeighr 'tairs on the east.idegiving access around thc massive to the top. A pradok5i4apatha block that originally supported the Buddha would have allowed circrunambulation around thc main figurc. The original appearanccofthe building may be infcrred from a Painting at Alchi that is bclieved to depict this monunlent (Pl. r9),e a suggestionsuPPortedby the internal evidcnceofthe dimensionsand form ofthe plan as determincd by the foundations, the thickness ofthe remaining wall, and textual evidence.The height of the structure was probably between thirty and forty meters, and in style, it may have resen-rbled contemporaneous Ka6miri structurcs charactedzedby a peakcd roof, like that shown in the Alchi painting. The enormous imagc of the Buddha, which may have stood thirty n1eters tall, refected certain rcligious concepts sweeping Asia during this period in which the Universal Buddha (presumably Vairocana) was scen as a B/ra,y' Buddha. That the type must have been comDron in the Indic sph"ie i, indi."ted by prcserved examples in stucco, as at N5land5 in eastell1India, or stone, such as at Kanheri (Fig. rz,.z4) and Bamiyan ( F i g . l o . z 5 ) . H o w c v e r . t n e t a l e x . r n t p L rhs a v e i , , * i u c J o n l y o L r t : i d ct h c l n d i c c o n r e x t .b u c a cornmon source in India for these traditions can hardly be disputed sincc all of the regions irr uhiclr rhc fuhad Buddlr, conrenrion is found wcre in contact lvith ancient India as a source of Buddhological information. The in.rageconn.rissionedby Lalitaditya rrrust havc becn incrcdibly impressive-a ruetal figure, probably gilded or of the yellowish color of

KASMiR AND RETATED ScHooTS

j6I

h duee hundred thousand being a vast quantity [-adsh expendirared, can only l income to the n- of the claims r roday, but the hadirya, which Buddha, veriS' d the Buddha r Fig. i7.9) is L l-hich had a f. gro'ing ".ces ni the massive | &e Buddha :Lrion around p:rance ofthe r : lainting at h! monunent f,,r-:he internal re ofthe plan 5 =e thickness | <.: ience. The Ll-,',- berween Lr-e. it may Kaimiri fr:-i le: roof, like f:. :norrnous :il_e stood

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most Kaimiri metal work, larger than most people had ever seenor conceived-of, resplendent as the morning sunlight refected frorr it. One can scarcely imagine the awe and overwhelming sense oftfie majestyofthe Buddhathar a devotee must have Glt as he srood at the feet of the Buddha and looked up ro the image "which reachedup to the sky."ro Another monument at Padhasapura,the Jt pa _ built by Cairkuna, who was the Tokharian minister of Lalitaditya, is also notable for its size and lavishness.In the Rajatffahginl it is described as "loftier even than the mind of the kine."rl ln context, rhe referenceto rhe mind oithe king rnight actually beto the caityaofLalitaditya, which would have been raisedas an expressron

of Lalitaditya's understanding of Buddhism. Thus, Cafrku4a's stipa night have been both taller than the caitya of the king and superior to it due to Cariluna's implied understanding of Buddhism. As in the caseof Lalitaditva's caitva. '"1little remains of the original *ootrrn"o,, though again, other evidence,including textual descriptions,enablesus to make inferencesabout its form. Speci{ically,a secondstructure depicted in the Alchi composition(Pl. r9) almostceriainly represents Cankur.ra's stipa, for tlrc f,wo monuments at Parihesapuramust have stood as twin paragons of Kasmiri Buddhist architecture for generationsafter their creation. The stupa shown in the Alchi painringsecmsto reston a complex basesuggestiveof the cruciforrn p aficarathaplan

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revealed by thc surviving foundations (Fig' r7.ro). A o.u't be, ofstone sculptureshave beenfound in associationwith Cankuna's srlpa, although their original locations on thc monument arc not knorin. Sevcral,including the one illustr:lted h e r ci l i g . r 7 . rt ) . r t e r e p r c ' e n t r t i o no'f c r o w n c d AlLhouglr cx:rt,rplcsof rhis srrbjcct Brrd.'1h,ri. are known ^t le"rt f.om the sixth century, thc crorvned Buddha had becorne a well-known iconograpl.ricform in Buddhist art not only in f"(rn"rr but in other parts of ancicnt India and Asi.rbt rhc eiqhdrccntury.I lte crorvtr'tteckl'ce' rnd cairingsusu.rllyfottndotr rlte'c Ggure'do not indicrrc .r contrldicrion of irscetici5nlor 'rn adoption of a rnaterialistic vicw within the reliiion. Radrer, thesc onancnts symbolize thc hisilest achievencnt, Universality, and thcrefoie, although thcsefigurcs en.rbodythe principlc ofl.ristoricalBddclhasQintaaakaya),they are also ol lnas(snt ,hognkaya)rnd es;'ccially ,.lepictiorrs oI rhe Adi Brrddlr.rslril/ralilaAaya('clf-originated). Crowned Buddha figurcs invariably wcar the norn.ral robe of a Buddha and thus crnnot be confuscd rvith bodhisattvas in art'

Stylistically, the figure betrays the Kaimiri artist's dcbt to the ffaditions of the BactroGandhara region, which are espcciallyvisible in rlre toqdlile;armerrt wirh its cnrphasizedfolds ,,u", rlle tor'o. Thc rarhcrnturcr'thrfotms of che pose reveal furthcr body and s\ight coxtrapposto Howevcr, northwest. ofthe ties to thc traditions revcnls drapcry hich thc r in u rhc clinqing rn.rnn, demonclerrly bcnearh body rh" forir.trof rhe stratcs an overlay of Gupta-period aesthetics. Even the downcf,st eycs, albeit on a western Inner Asian facial type, are reminiscent of GuPta formulations. Thc crown, with its pcarl designs and Sassanid-typestrealners, suggcsts further associationsbetween Kaimlr and the westcrn Asian realn-rs. Another irnportant site of thc Kerkota Pedod is Pendrethan, where A6oka is believed to have founded a capital, and that was often patronized by the rtling monarchs of Ka3lnir. As at n.ranyKaimiri sites,both Buddhist and Hindu rernains have cone to light at Pandrelhan. A snall but nearly perfectly intact Hindu templc at Pandrcthan was probably built in the eighth or ninth century, although it is cornn.ronly

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ascribedto rhc terlrh throlrgh trvcllth centudcs (Fis. r7.rz).1!The tcrnplcillLrstrarcs in rnoclcllike siruplicitv thc besic format of xrchirecturxl ordcrs iclcnti6ablcin l(a(n.rir sincc rhe cighth cclltrlry! but th:it clerivcclfiorl I lone-stending rvoocior lrchitccturc tradition. Thc peakccl, gablcd roof is cspcciallysuitablcfor rhc snorvy H r r ' ; r ' ) . l r l r l c r . . W l ' i l . r / r cs p c r. l i . [ n r r. s . , r r . rnoclificclover tinrc in fcaturcssuch as thc u,idth of the ccntnl ercir or slopcof rhc roof. it is this roof typc that is espcciallycharactcristic of rhe Ka(niri style. Thc tcnrplc rcsts on a ptlnttl built in thc ceDtcr of a tarrk; rhc u.all of thc tenk parallcls thc shapc of the plinth r.ith its oFsct sidcs.In contrastto n-ran1. other tcrrplc traclitionsof thc posr,Guprap",in.1,,.r1r",.uiptural dccorltion of thc nonunrcrrt is sinpL. A rorv of c:Lrvcdelephantsat thc basc of thc cctrtralshrineancltheclccoration ofthe doorrvay, pilastcrs,anrl a fcl. lceturcsofrhc roofcoruprise the nrejor c'nrbcllishr.ncnt of thc strucrure.Tilc figurc oiLakulria ebovcthe lintel olitheJoorrviry inclicatcs tlut tl-rc rnonurucnt r,vasprobebly a Sive tcmple crectcclfor the lralupatasect.Thc itrterior of the tcmplc is also sinLplce-riccptfor

J64

LA'tEk NORTITERNscHooLS

T

r7.r3. Ceiilng parcl, Hindu te rPle. P.ndr€!hen, Karkolapciod. Ca. eighth Krinlir, India.Possibl,v

a beautifully carved ceiling panel (Fig. r7'r3)' Clearly bascd on wooden Prototypesr-and ulti-mately dcrived fron the "lantern-roof" type of westcrn It.ro". Asia, this type of cciling becomes a stlndard feature in n-ranynorthern Indian tellrplc sclrools.In tlris cxample, t'idyadharacouples i."- to r".,r. as atlantids, supPorting the architectural bcams of thc recessedsquares The uitlyadharasstlPporting the ccntral square arc r'r',.,.h smaller in scale than those at the four exterior corncrs of the cciling ancl those around the central lotus panel are still smaller' Thus, the efcct of distance,or ratircr in.rplied heieht, is providecl for the configuration. The uidya/laras in particular seerr.tto snPPortan eighth to ninth ccnttrry date for thc ternple' for the softly modeled, feshy bodics, simple jewelry, and elaborate,curly coifrurcs suggestthe imagcry of thh period throughout northem ancl northcentrallndia. A numbcr of isolated stollc sculPturcsrecovered f.on-r Pindrctl-nn also scctu to datc fron this period, around thc latc eishdr or early ninthcintlry. An imagc of lnclrlni, the consort of

Kaarnir,India.Probr7-r4. Indr,ni. Fronl Pandre{han, ably Kirkotx pcriod. Ce. iatc cighrh-carlyninth ceDrury. Beigc stone.F{: ca. r5o cln. Sr1PratapSingh MuscuIn,Srinagar.

Indra, rcveals thc still visible amalgamatory nature of tl.reKa(n1iri style complex (Ftg' t7't4)' The goddess is recognized by the njru tbat ,he holds in her lcft hand and by thc elcphant, Indr:r's uahana, that aPPea$ behind hcr' Hcr sharply dclineated anatomical structure suggests stylistic associationswith tl.re Bactro-Gandhara idiom, as does the heavy treatment of the lolds The costumc, esPeof drapery ^the acrossher legs. tunic, is Iranian in type and the cially animated posture is relatcd to north-central Indian post--Guptamodcs. In Particular, the figure rr.r"vi" .on.rp^..d to other stylistic idioms that .,,mbine thc Hellenizcd northwcstem and Indian no.1es, srtch as those of the Post-GuPta Period in Rajasthan(Fig. rr.r3). Yct, like them, it is nlorc thxn thc sur-nof these associationsand is representativeof a distinctive local idion'

--

KASMIR AND RELATED SCHOOTS ,65

Trrr Urrera Dvwlsrv (ce. 855ro 939) Avantivarman (r. ca. 855-83), founder of the Utpala d1'nasry, revived the moment of prosperity that Lalitaditya had brought to Kaimir. While still heir apparent, he founded Avantipura (modem Vantipur), and built theie the temple of Avantisvamin. Later, as monarch, he built the Avantiivara ternole. The earlier of the two temples, the Avantisvamin, dedicated to Vipr-ru,

was modeled after the Martanda temple, although it is on a smaller scale(Fig. r7.r5). The more ruined condition of the Avantisvarnin temple makesclosecomparisondifficult, but it is certain that the later temple was more elaborate in detailing. Its iconographic principles are identical to those of Martanda, except that the central shrine contained an image of Viq4u, there called

;mrr, India. Prob-<arlv ninth cenSt Pratap Singh

amalgamatory lex (Fig. r7.r4). th.e vajro that ,r the elephant, :hind her. Her :ucture suggests actro-Gandhdra ent of the folds costume, esPenpe and the )fth{entral Inrrlar, the figure stic idioms that $em and Indian n-Gupta period lilie them, it is ociations and is cal idiom.

r7. r5. Plan ofAvantisvamin temple. Avantipura, Kaimir, India. Utpala period, reign of Avantivannan. Ca. 8JJ-83.

366

Lt'-tERNoRTHERNscHoors

to left of stairsto shrine'Avantisvtnin r?.r6. Sculpturc ,J-pi.. ,qtar"ipt*, Kailnir, lndia Urpala period' Ca. 8J5-83' reigirof Avantivarrnan.

r7.r7. Villru Catrrnhrti. FroDrAvantipura'Ka3mtr' India.Utpalaperiod,posibly rcign o,f Avantivannan C". sss 8':.Bi"ck .to"". H: 47 crn Sri Pradp Singh M.,seu,,t,Srinrgar'

schcme.Abovc the blocLsrr trh figurrtive carving is a cornice of geomctrized l1ower designssupoorted bv in.itition brackets ornarnented with iion, h""i, end intcrspersedwitli bird and plant designs.Each figural con.rpositionis cornpletely frllci by the figures, giving a crowded appearto ihc paoels.An overall flatnessis suggested "nc. by the arrangement of Iigures and the satneness UniversalitY. oi th" depth'of.rrving ai'ott thc entrrcsurfacc' may The orieinal richness of ornamentatlon Stylisticaily.th" ligurc' are fullcr in ltoln rh.rn at bc seen in"some of the surviving sculptures h-aveshorter proportions, and the ih. ,ir". p"n.l, on the balustradesfanking ""ili", "*"-pl.r, o.ni stiffncss, denonstrating that the ,.,r""1 stairsto the shrine demonstratc the exuberance " Ka(mrri idiom, like many othcr Indic styles of the left oi-,tr. ..,, tp,orut 'ryle. Thc fronr face soft of the ninth century, had abandoned the by Urt,,.,r"a. ,t'olv, .t frgtrreof Vi'ntr anended hcritage' post-GuPta and modeling of the Gupta and t-o f"*"1" .o.rro.t,,- p'"'o"-t"bly Laksmi Th" ttt"i" frg.,.", io parti;lar have fattened' the of face Srrrrvarr(Fig. t 7.1o).wlile the imer "rho*, with a taut, muscular aPPearance' r royal figure or possibly broad torsos ,rnt. t,on. of still reminiscent of thc Hellenized heritage lndra, occomprniedby artendrntsThc opposite the region. a similar frl,o,r"d", toth" ,ighi ofrhe stair"'berr"

Each Avantisvami, insteadof Martanda / Sfrya' presur.rably peristyle the around of th" ,h.ir.t", jdentical form corrtaio.cl an imagc of Visnu in figite,.ath considercdto be an to,h" ""or."1 cmanatioll and J reflection of the central deity' -or. nor less than him but identical N.i,i". form his io hi-, they representedin graphic

KASMiRAND RELATED scHooLS ji67

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and an ethicalone,and eachofthcsc is.ssociatcd rvith one gri;ra (quality). Thus, Sarirkarsene begins thc proccssof cre:rtionwitl.r bola(porvcr)I Pradyumna continucs it, at rvhich tinre the duality ofpralrri and p11flta appcar through thc usc of rrl-irarla (sovcrcignty); and Animddha crcatcs iranifcst rratter u'ith Jalrl (crcative cnergy). The cthical activities inclLrdcthe tcaching of uronotheisticthcory by Sarhkarsana, the trrnslrtion of this theory into practicc by Pradyumna,:rnclthe liberationachicvcdthrough the practice by Anirr-rcldha,with the rcspective gunas of jiana (rvisdorr), r,ir7o (hcroism), ancl trjas (spiritual porvcr). In Keimrr, wherc thc Ptiicar-ara doctrinc rvas poptlar, images of \'...... ....

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r7.r8. BrahrDa.Fronr Avarltipura,K:rlurir, lrrdia. Urpaia pcriod, posibly reign of AventivaruranCa 8j5-83.Blick sronc.H: Jr cm. Srr Pntnp Singh MLtscum, Srlnrgrr.

Sculpturcsfrom Avantipure exhibit both a varicty in iconosraphic types and a reiatively r,ide rangc of stylistic corlvclltio[s. A rcprcscntation of Visnu in a four-herded forur, rvhich may be calleclCaturnrhrti, shows hin1 as a conpositc of four aspects(Fia- r7.r7).ti The flont (cast) f:rce of thc deity is hunran, those on the propcr left ancl right sides(north ancl south) are heaclsof r boar and Jion rcspecc i v c l y .r v l L i l ct l r . r to r t l t c I e , r ( r n ,. r ) r ' t l ' . r r' ' f . r demon. Thc lion lnd boar llaccsdo not rcfer to thc Nrsirhha and Varaha auafirs of Visnu but rad:'cr to t)yihds (cn.Lanations) dcscribcd in thc Pailcar-tra Vaisnavitc doctrine. The hunan face thus represents Vasudcva, lrom whorr e r n . r r ' . r rl h( e t l r r , c r y r / i , r s rr . r r i r k . r r r . r nl r.,.P r e sentedby the lion), Pradyurura (rcprcsentcclby rhc bo.rr). A n i r r r d d l r "( r e p r e . q n r qbl 1 t h q "n,l derlon). Each lprla has tr,voactivitics, a creativc

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exar.npic,finely carvccl :rncl polished, dcrnonstratcslDost clearly the sculptural styie in usc at Avxntipura, with thc fecial forms associated with lvcstcrn Imrcr Asian types end the torso still rcvcaling tics lvith thc stylcs of the northwest regions. Anothcr figurc fiom Avantipura r-nly also have been a proclnct of Avantivarn.ran'sbuilding activity at thc sitc (Fig. r7.r8). Thc imagc , { c 1i c r . r l r . g ' C R r . ' 1 ' r ' d . rr . . ' , 1 . ' ' . r r : r . c t i c . lvcaring a sin-rplcgermeirt, an anirt al skin on his lcft shouldcr,but no Je$'elry. Thc fullncss ofthc torso,rounclcrllcc, and less:rcce[triated posture arc part ol a disccrniblc trcrrrl in Ka(rutri scuipturc of rhc period, and again snggcstafiinitics to wcstcrn Inncr Asian art. A slccknessaud refinerucrrtof thc surfeceof thc the rvork, charactcrizingthc clcstorc pcrv:rc1es associetecl ganccoftcn rvith thc arr of tlrc l(aintir region. Thc Mtrttnda and Avantisv-min tctrrplesxre i t r t p o r t . nl r, \ t . . l r r ( r rrros t l r ( p o \ \ ( _. r n , lv i - . r l r t y of thc I{arkota :urd Utpala periods rcspcctivcly. l l t c i r r , . r r r r o r gr l e u r l i r r r \ t o t ) r l c n L p ' c s surviving in Kainir, yct they are arnong t r . l . ' 1 3 . . tc v c r b r r i l ri r ) f l ) . r rr c j i o n . I l r e l . e c n r to havc bnrst uliprcccclcntcd on tlle scene at the uromcnt in I{air-nir's lristory rvhen its rulcrs rc:rchecl the summit of thcir powcr. 'Whilc nreny l:Ltcr Klinrri temples arc trrch srteller in scaleand lessgrendioscin conccptioll, they arc oftcn vcry linc cxamples of the architecturaltraclition.

j68

LATER NORTHERN sCHooIs

T u r T w o L o n a n a D y N A S T I E SA N D T H EL a s r H r N n u K r l r c s (Truru ro Fo un.rrrNrs Crurunrrs) In both architecture and sculpture, the art of Kaimir after the tenth century is primarily a tradition of rather limited variation. Small temples similar to the example at Pandrethan were built, some of which had compound walls with nutrerous small cells, like those of the templcs at Martel.lda and Avantipura. Many of the sculptural fonns seen from the cighth century were codified into unvaryilg types, and, in general, the images became incrcasingly stifl showing litdc of thc former vitality of thc KaSmrri tradition. This is clearly seenin a number of sculptures from Verinaga. Onc exanple, probably of the twelfth century, shows Viqru Caturmurti (Fig. r7.r9) and thus can be appropriately conpared to the Visnu Caturnfrti from Avantipura (Fig. I7.r7). In the later example, the enphasis on musculature lessens,the posture is straighter, the {igure is nlore colunnar, and thc face is much broadcr, with clongated eyes. A thicklegged, husky form and an overall stiffnessof the figure characterizethis latcr phaseofKa6nliri art. In tbis cxamplc, all four arms of the deity are preserved,providing a complete example of thc iconographic type. The trvo upper hands hold tlre lotus (padna\ and conch (3an,L/ra) while thc two lower hands rest on tllc heads of rwo vyudhapuru5as. the female personification of thc mace,gadadeuT (to Visnf s right), ancl thc male personification of the rvheel (tabaputusa)to hts left. The dhott worn by Visnu, rvhich is shorter

r7.r9. Vignu Caturnlrti. Fronl Verintga, Kairnir, India.Ca. tweifthcerrtury'. Crcy stonc.H:67.5 cu. Sri PratapSinghMuseurn, SriDxgar. on onc leg than on the othcr, is a fcature seen in a number of othcr in-ragesfrom Verinaga and secmsto have becn a local peculiarity.

KaSvitrrIvonrrs .tNn Mrrar Ahhough divorccd frorr definitivc association w i r h a n y r n o l l l u l i e n r s. i r c . o r t h e r c i g n o f a particular monarch, the stylistic ancliconographic developmentsof ivories and metal images fronr Kainir n.raybe seen to follow much the same pattens as those in stonc. The survival of thcse objccts in sorne cascshas probably been due to their having been exportcd fron Ka(rmr to thc ncighboring regions of rvestern Tibet, where they werc kcpt in monasteriesr-rntilthe

l,nacEs

recent political disturbanccs,during which they were brought out by refugees. One splendid composition consists of a central ivory dcpicting a seated Buddha in dhyara nudra surrounded by a host of other figurcs, including bodhisattvas and emaciated ascetics(Pl. i3). Flanking the central group and sct into adjacent nichcs in thc wooden architcctural fiamework are two standing Buddhas, carved out of separatcpiecesof ivory. A slight

KASMIR AND RELATED SCIIOOI-S

r7.2o. Indrr (left) and Brahnre. From Ka(rrrir resion. Ca. cighth century. Ivory, wirh painr. H: 10.6cnl (lcft); ro cn (righr).Prescnt whereabostsunknown,

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bcvel to the edge of the wooden frame and thc existencc of a second similar compositionla suggeststhat this examplc was part of a sct of Buddhist scencsthat adorned thc drum of a votive stupa. The deiicacy and intricacy of dre carving, both ofthe ivory picccsand tbe woodcn frame, docun-rcntthe once rich carving traclition that 1tlust have existcd in fragile materials alongside the Dlorc nonumcntal arts. Thc architectural orders of the woodcn fiamc, r,vhilc clearly reflecting those used in Ka6urir in the eighth century, alsoderuonstratesorrrcothcrwise unknown fcatures, for the stcpped arches ancl pentafoil may rellect actuai architcctural types. T w o o r i r c ri v o r y f i g u r c 'o [ r h e . " m e a p p r o r i n-utc period rcpresent Indra arrrl Bralrra as they v'ould have appeared in attendance of a ccntralfigurc ofthe Buddha (Fig. r7.zo). hrdra is drcssedin thc manncr of an lndic monarch whilc Brahna r.ears a robe very much like that of a Buddha. Both arc attendedby figurcs who turn thcir attention to thcm as opposed to the location of whar rvould havc been the

central figure. Tire beardcd Brahma is rcn.riniscent of the Bactro-Gandhara artistic tradition of thc Kusata pcriod, visiblc especi:rllyin the treatrncnt of his drapcry and body. Indra's distinctive crown miy bc traccd to a Sassanian source. Thc metal imagcs of rhc Karkora, Urpala, and Lohara pcriods form a contillrurn of s tv l i . r i c t r c n , r . , L , r Jr c o n o g n p h i c i n n o r . r r i o . r . that has yct to bc sttdied in clepth.It is gLrite evident that thc sruvivirlg metal pieccsarc only the slightcst tracc of a massivc,compJcx tradition. In ternrsof qLrllity, it is casyto scefrom extant cxamplcs tlut Dtxny irnagcs rank an-roug the bcst n.rctalwork produced in any culture and that thcre vu'asan cascud facility offabrication that suggcsts a vast ancl activc production. Incleed, sincc thc technology to cast thc Brlal Buddha of Lalitadityahacl alrcady becn achicvcd,therc can bc little doubt asto the technical ability of thc artists.Thc particularalloy of ziuc ancl coppcr popular in Ka(r.r.ririnctalrvork crcatcs a yellorvish color and gives the imagcs,

370

LA-]ERNORTHERN SCHOOLS

cen_ r?.2r. Surya. Frorn Kainrr region Ca_ seventh Art' ioru. B."ri. H: 48.6 cm. Clevciand Museum of Thayer)' Holdcn Katherine (Gifi of Clweland

soft cven when ungilded, an esPcciallybcautiful' s i lver o r c o P l l c r p r r r c t n i n l . r y glou. ofren. nrary he pri rr orks'1 thc"c of thc s,trfrcc !1111q11s. the main evidence available indicatcs that northwestern the of stylistic thrust carlc out the preIidic rcsions as sccn in exampics of later as well as Pieccs' Karkota"period (Fig. 17 5), afi of Gan-iti.lt ,ft'.* stronf affinities to the dhara. Bactria, and associatedregions' that wxs also An overlay of the Gupta style tr'rdiri'rn 'ctrlpturc vi.iblc in rhe Kaimrri stonc tlcganc a r l f o s t c r c d .d. ri s c i n c L i v' cer i c so f s t r b t l c d s cvcntltirn"*.., i".t.''aitg rn'rpprorirtrlely in a drc"ed srtryr ..n,i,ry ,.p."".ni'tion of S urya i n f o u n d . " f t " n , ' b o o t r . . , n dl r e i o f a t y p e T h o trgL r T z r ) i r , " n " t i " A [ g h . ' n i s t a n1 l - i g Strry.. the ,t"niine in a rtricrly ftontrl posc tl,c g'a"ful [orrrr' and "rbde i",r"t. i;;;; lrcritege' lod! tr"n'ir;out sttggestivcof I Gupta

r t . : : . B u d d l r r 'f r o r r r K a i r r r i r e g i ' r r 'C r ' e i g h c hc e n r u r ) . B r r s s .H : o 8 c r r r .C l c r e h n d M ' r ' e u r r ro f A r t ' Cleveland(John L. ScveranccFund)'

Thc caftan clings to the body in a manner reminiscent of Buddhist robes of the Gupta assumes oeriod, and likc then, the dr:rpery and legs' at the hem, bctween the iron.rin.o." '^t linear thc colla, and cufi-s.In this case, thc detail of thc bordcr pattcrn of the garment and tl.re dcsign of the crown contrast sharply with the snr"ooth surfaccs of the rest of the in-rage.On the basis of comparison to works nf ,il. ,",,"nth ccntury in other Parts of South Asia, howevcr, the piece should be assigned ro th.rt period. l i c c e 'd i s p l r l r ' i r n r l a r O r l r c rK ' i r l r r i r r t c t np styles. of the ancient the of amalganation the traditions of and ,rorrh"*a,,"tr1 regions after thc Gupta India .,.,rthern and norilt-ccntral o[ pcriocl. Two rcPrcsentxtions Budd]ras' one (fig r7 'zj)' i . n a l n e f f ; s . r 7 . : z ). n d o n e ' c a t e d datc probably thel tho'rgh b",rry id, ireritagc,

I{ASMiRAND RELATEDsCHooLs J7T

r. Ca. eighth cen' ,\luseum of Art,

17.23.Buddha.Frorn Ka{mir region.Ca. eighthcentury. Brasswith silverinlay.H: 4r.2 crn.Los Angeles County Museumof Aft, Los Angeles(NasliandAlice Heeramaneck Collection).

v ln a manner , of the Gupta raPery assumes :n the legs, and case, the linear rf the garment contrast sharPly rhe rest of the Lrison to works parts of South ilJ be asigned

fiom the eighth century, perhapsthe period of Lalitaditya, by comparison to the standing crowned Buddha figures from Cairkur.ra'ss/r.lpa (Fig. r7.rr). The metal figures are slightly slendererin build, however. The standingimage hasan accentedbend to the hips, and the weight of his body is supported firmly by his stiff left leg, while his right leg appearsto be caught in motion. The left arm swings out fiom his body, as if helping to balancethe figure. The implicit movement ofthe figure bearsa striking similarity to the "walking" Buddhas of Thailand.l5 A great deal of wear on the torso has softened the details of the drapery, although it is clearly based on the Bactro-Gandhara heritage. A Tibetan inscription on the base of the piece calls this the "Respected image of Revered Negaraja." Here, the term Nagaraja refers to Sakyarnuni Buddha, in one of his rarely applied

h.oiav a sin.rilar .-: the ancient : traditions of , aner the Gupta : Buddhas, one L!u

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epithers.16 The presencco[ a Tibetan inscription on an image of unquestionable Ka6miri manu&cture suggeststhat the piece rray have been executed for a Tibetan patron, or that it was made in Ka3mir, but transportedat an early date to the adjacent regions of westem Tibet, where the inscription was added. The seated Buddha figure is worked in a virtually identical style (Fig. 17.23).The position of the hands has protected the drapery on the torso from wear caused by its being touched during worship and it may be suggestedthat the standing {igure might also have had such a clearly delineated robe. The gestLte is the mudra of the fourth level of the teachingsdisplayedin exactly the same manner as seen in the later westem caves. Since this figure only slightly postdatesthe latest of those images, it may be assumed that the iconography is the sarne, although it is unfortunate thar rnore information about the context of the image has not survived. The facial features are typical of Kaimiri rendcrings of this date and include the characteristichigli arching brows; wide, horizontal eyes; plump, curved lips; a marked delineation of the chin; and a narrow chin but broad brow. The fullnes of the face and treatment of the eyes and brows suggestsstrong ties to seventh and eighth century Inner Asian depictions. One ofthe most elaborate of the known Ka6miri bronzes is a represeutationof a crowned Buddha, Vairocana, seatedatop a lotus, f,anked by stilpas,and accompaniedby numerous other figures and elemflrs (Fig. 17.24). Its inscription, which contains a date of the year 3 or 8, is of litde use in detcrmining the date of rnanufacture since the era is unspecifiedand the two donors, Sankarasenaand Princess Devairiya, are unkno.wn.u The ligatures and style of the work, however, suggesta ninth-century date, Thc fact tlrat onc of thc donors was a prince.s indicates the level of patronage that the work represents, that of the nobility. The whole composition rests on a plain base that contains the inscription, above which is a highly conventionalized rock massin wfuch the Buddhist wheel, two deer, and two human figures may beseen.The rusticatedrock massis arranged

372

LA"IER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

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KASilliR AND RETATED sclrools

in cavelike forms containing dresc clemcnts, scparatedby pillarlikc clustcrsof rock. Above the rock basc is e rvater surfacc or,rt of rvhich t } e l o t l s " n . l f \ r ^ , , , i g d r r r c r g c . r h c , , rl , o l e rcprcsenting the cosmic oceu (that r-r-rr1st be crosscd to attain enlightcnment) supportcd by thc goros (drvarves)r'ho representpropcrtics or catcgoricsof tl.rervorlcl in rvhich tire teachings of the Buddha arc prcscnt(r.vhee1/decr). Out of this, thc lotus clncrgcsbcaring aioft tJreUnivcrsal B . r ,. l h . r( s ,a 1 l , a irL a L a y ni n l r r l r i ,h ' . e r l b o , i , , l thc essenceof all Btdclhas (Tathayatagarbha), D r \ r . r l r r \ e n l .. r l , l f i r r r c I l r , l , ' n r . , . r o C i t h c r sidc of him bear sfrlpasof forner Buddhasrnd s y r ' r b o l i z ct h c . r r r . r i n u e not f r l r c . " p . , . r v r c r o r ' o f t h c q L t c r fro r , n l i g h t c t r r l e r. r r\ p , r t o f r l r c ljniversai. Thc BLrddhais seeuas both rrirrrarakayd ^id srabhaL,ikafrayo tlrroLrgh the rlcans of . a ' l h o q o k a y ag.r . ' p l r i c r l l sl l r o w ni r r r l r , " r r a n g e rncnt of elemcnts in the composition. These c l , r | | c' t . . r r e . p c c i f i c r . . c r r r c , . r o c \ o t e r i c initiations (allisefta) that thc practitioner r r n . l c r g o e 'r o ( r c v c l o p h r ' c l r q i o L r .. r b i l r r y . Thus, the cro\r'n rcprcscnts the five jtard and the chasuble refers to the four quarters of thc r r r r r c r . . . I n r l r o r r . r h e f i g r r r
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assymbolizing the sub.jugationof thc hindranccs of tire practitioncr. His corpulcncy is also iconographically spccified. These lcatnres dercrminc tlrrt the fisure is the angry (kro,lha)fotm of Vajrapeni. Angry fornLs wcrc present in the .....-i... -1. -.,ctiti^ner 1r.., i-i,i.-: ; cavcs of Aurangabad and in othcr earlier corlbcconrc a lluddLa. Thts, thc' devotee sees r c x i . .b r r rb 1 l l r , c r ! l l l r . , r n i r r r l .' c n r r r r ) r .r r c himself in drc image as thc fully cnlishrcnccl probable c1:Lte of this image, thc Lrsagehad beBuddha. come rvidespreadin lludclhist arl. Essentially, A drantatic translo|merion of an earlier thcsc forms represeDtthc intcnsity rvith which religiousconccpt is seenin a rcpr.sentationof tirc practitioncr ovcrcoulcs his l-Lindrances and Vajrapani, thc bodhisattva rvho crnbodies thc the fcrvor widr I'l.rich he pursucshis task. concept of thc n-Lysticrlporvcr of trinsccn.lcnt A mctal imagc of Avalokitc(vara datccl in knorvledgc (P1. ra). In contrasr to pcacc-fir1 the reign of Quccn Didcle (98o-roo3)scrvcsas reprcscrtatioDs,Vajrapani. iclcntified by the /ojra an ir-nportant clocun-rcntof stylistic change in ln his lcft hand, hcrc is sho*.n r,ith an angry Ka(miri scrilpturc(Fig. r7.25).20The six-armed cxprcssion orr ]ris face, creatcd by the archecl bodhisattva is llar.iLcd by Tara and Bhrkuti, bron's end barcd fangs.His hair is depictcdin a who appcar in a rnuch reclucedscalc.A greater "1lame-likc" convcntioll and tl-rc c,rnarnenrs arrgularity to thc posc and treatncnt of the that he lvears arc serpents,gcncrally rcaarcled fornrs of the body of thc main figure lnarks a

374

LATE\ NORTHERN SCHOOTS

departure from the more softly nodeled forms of previous centuries, yet the still muscular torso, distinctive facial features with high

arching brows and large, half closedeyes are clearly within the broad definitrons of the Kaimiri style.

T n r A r r o F A D J A c T N TR l c r o N s : W r s r r n t H T M A L A v A N F o o r H r L L sA N D W E S T E R N TIBITANCurrunar RrcloN The metal imagcs made by Ka6n.riri craftsnen and, often, the craftsmen themselves,frequently trayeled to neighboring regions, for Ka(mir served as a cultural and artistic source for much oF the surrounding area. Kaimiri rrrists are known to have traveled throughout Inner Asia and even into China, and a number of works of art may be attributed to these individuals. Of more immediate interest are works found in the neighboring hill states and the Tibetan cultural areasof Himalayan India, which provide important insights into thc range of artistic traditions that llourished in Kaimir and its neighboring states. In somc cases, as in tbe western I{imalayan foothills, distinctive local styles prevailed, while in others, as in Ladakh, a virtually pure Ka6miri idion was fostered. The temples and sculptures of the western Himalayan foothills region have been largely overlooked in studiesofSouth Asian art. Because of this, many of the monurncnts remain largely unknown, and those that have been identified have not beenplacedwithin the generalhistorical context.2l However, these regions fostered art schools that werc not only relatcd to those of nearby centers,such as Kaiurir and other parts of northern India, but that were also distinctive in their own right. This can be seen in a large image of Durga M r h i . e srrr . r m a r dri .n c a l l c d L a l , s a n ai n i r s i n scription, rvhich is in a temple namcd for the goddess,the Laksana Dcvi unndir at Br:.hntor in thc Chanrb.rHill rracts(Fig. r7.26). ls inscription further revealsthat it was dedicatedin the reign of Mcruvarman, a king whose capital was at Brahmor, and who is believed to have lived in the mrddle ro ldrc sevenrlrccnrury.22 This datc falls in the pcriod ofgeneral turmoil in north-central India and is just after the establishn.rentof the new Ka6n.riridynasty of the K a r k o L a sf.h u s . i r f o r m . a r r i r n p o r r d n m t issing

link in the development of Hindu sculpture and numbers among the very few surviving large-scalemetal inages fron any early period. Although the image has not been chemically analyzed, its yellow color suggeststiat it is probably an alloy primarily of zinc and copper rather than tin and copper, strongly suggesting ties to the work of KaSmiri craftsmen. Possibly, a local artist using Kaimiri tcchniquesproduced an image of a stylistic type that was heavily dependenton the post-Gupta traditions of westem India in particular. The slenderwaist of the figure contrastedagainstthe full hips and thighs especially characterize thc sryle, although the elongation of the form and the richnessof the prccisely rendered onlalnents is a prelude to the known metal works of Ka6mir. The facial featureslack the highly emphasizedarchedbrows and elongated eyes found in KaSmiri sculptures that were heavily dependentupon BactroGandhara traditions, and instcad, the face may be associatedwith thc post-Gupta styles of northern and wcstern India. Another image in tbc sarne ten.rpleshowing Ngsirhha has been judged by somc to be of a sorncwhat later date (Fig. t7.27)- However, in spite of its unuslral appearance,espccially the pose, the inage probably dates from the same approximate period as the Durga. It cxhibits many of the same ciraracteristicsof quality and materials of fabrication, although it shows an cntirely dillerent anatomical strrlcture, one which n.rore heavily depcnds on the classicistic tr.rdirionsof G.rndharaand rclarcdregions.Tlre fullness of the arns and legs are part of thc attcnlpt to denonstratc graphically the power of tlrc deiry. .ltlrough 1reis shown in r qrriescenr posc, simply scated on an arbitrarily defined landscapesupported by two lions. Again, the high quality of craftsmanship, as well as the iconographic ingenuity of the work, suggest

KASMIRAND RELATEDSCHOOTS J7J

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r7.27. Nrsirhha. At Laksand Dcvi rrraalr'r.Brahrnor, Chamba Hill rracts, Him.chal Pradesh,India. Ca. rnidto-late seve[rh centruy. Mctal. H: 9r.) crn.

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the richness of the traditions of thc region. In the western Tibetan cultural arcas of mNga'-ris (Ndri), La-dwags (Ladakir), and lahul-Spiti to thc eastand southeastof Ka6nir, Buddhist monasteriesfrorn the eleventh century and later have survived ro the present day. While the original buildings have oftcn been s r r b j c c t etdo l a r c ra l t e r a r i o n tsh. e yc o n r a i nm e n y objccts and paintings produced by Kaimiri artists duing their original pcriods of construction. An approximately eleventh-century mctal image of a bodhisattva from Lahul-Spiti is such en exampJe ( F i g . r 7 . 2 8 ) .N e ; r l y h u m a n - s i z ei c. decisivelydemonstratesthat major metal images ofa Kaimiri idiom were in usein the rcgion. The attenuation of the figure, relative still-nessof the pose, and harshncssof the rnodeling, as well as the forms of the claborate jewelry, especiaily the crown, characterize the later Kajmiri and

related forms. It is especiallyuseful to compare this figure to the bronze from thc rcign of Queen Didda (Fig. r7.25) asit provides an understanding of the stylistic direction and an idca of the relative treatmcnt of largc-scaleimagcs as opposed to smaller versions.The anatomical stllcture of the figures is vcry much thc sarae,diIl^cringonly in minor details, although there is lcss of a Geling of flesir in the largcr figure. Becauseof the scale it has becn possiblc to develop the jewelry and textile design in much greater detail, although this greater complexity is also a characterisric of rhe larer dare. An inrcre"ting stylistic Gature is the dctailed elaboration on the navel ofthe latcr image in contrast to earlicr examples, which has becomc a very stylized remlant ofthe cmphasison a muscularanatomy seenthroughout Ka6miri sculpture schools.This Gature occursin painting aswell.

J76

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

Probably thc nost abund:rnt evidencc of tl.re e\tension of Kain:iri art styles beyoncl thc nuin politicalccntersof Kaimir is found in the ancietrt kingdon of Ladakh,norv in thc stateof Ka(nir in Incli:r.In recent ccnturics, the region has bccn almost couplctcly uder thc cultural srvay of I ls aPrl) (ccrl .r( I rbct. .ln.r rnd((,1.L..oeK esscntiallyan outpost of Tibetan culturc. Horvever, through thc eleventh ccntury, thc rcgion was greatly influenccd by the cosmopolitan culture of thc capitals of Kaamir. Such associations lnd thc transurission of Kaimrri culture to Ladakh is suggested by scvcral isolatcd 'ii, sculpturesand inscriptions. A r n o n gr l r e . e . ; , r ' r h . Lrph.e m o s ri m p r c ' s i v ci . an enornoLls rock-cut represenhtion of the Bodhisattva Maitreya carved on the face of a solitary rock pinnacle at Mulbck, an ancient stoppillg point on what is now the road between Srinagarand Leh, thc main netropolis ofLadakh (Ftg. r7.zg). Standing in splendid isolatiorr, the pimracle rmrst have bcen an important beacon for ancient travellers. The nonunental image nray hrvc been cre.,ted:rround tlte eiglrrlr .rr ninth century, a clatcsuggestedby both feeturcs of the anatomy and face of the Maitreya figure. Although at filst glance, thc somewhat stiff posturesuggestsa latcr clate,the rather firil body r.vith its l1eshyappearancerevealstics to cighthninth-ccntury Ka6mtri conventions, Thc attcntion to the abdominal and pcctoral muscles is standardfor Kaimiri works of that tirne, as are :, tl.rc high arching brows and full cheeks of the face. The general simplicity of thc omar.ncntation andjewciry fruther suggestsan earlier rather than a latcr date. The irnage is about nine rneters in height and is onc of the few surviving Brlal sculpturcs in thc Indic spherc. It is likely thac the creation of the sculpturc was related to the Vairocana cult, which was responsible for other gigantic in.ragesin thc Kaimir region, such as the nowlost fuhad Vairocana of Parihasapura. The history of Ladtkh becones increasingly clear around the elevcnth century for it was at that timc that the great Tibctan translator (Tib. /o-rs--la),Rin-chen bZang-po (qs8-ro:s), and Frorn Lahul-Spitircgion,Hirn'chal r7.28.Bodhisattvs. the Indi.ar pa4dita,Drperirkara Atiia (982 roJ4), Pradesh,India. Ca elcventh centurv Metal H: car r e r ea c t i v ei n r h es p r e r do f B u d d h i . r ni n w e 5 t c r t l rzo cn . NatiotlalMuseull, Karachi'

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KASMIR AND RETATEDSCHOOIS

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r7.29. Bodhisattva Maitreya. Mulbck (Ladakh region), Kaimir, I11dia. Ca. eighth-ninth cetltury. H: ca. 9 nr.

Ji77

378

LATF"RNORTHERN SCHOOLS

Tibet and Ladrkh. Rin-chen bZang-po is said to have lourded one hundred eighi iernplc" in Lad;,|h. spiri. and Ctr-gc. *"ny ,nor. "ni bulldlng en(leavorsarc arrributed to his fol_ lowers. T h c f i v c r c r n p l c c" o r n p r i s i r qr h e C l r o s - ' k j r o r \Skr. dharna u,anlala)ai Alclii irr tadakh arc clearly thc result of such building activity, for they may be attributed to the mid_to_late eleventh century on the basis of stylistic and cpigraphic evidence (Fig. r7.3o). Although the exactdrre lor the foundirrgoI Aichi is unc-ertain, inscriptions at rhe 'Du-khang, the earliest and main building o[ the Chos-'khor, rcveals that it was built by one Alchi-pa sKal-ldan Shes-rab of the'Bro fanily, who haclstudicclat Nyar-ma in Ladakh under immediate followcrs of Rin_

chen bZang-po, and had returncd to his fanily estateswith the desire ro share his Buddhist experience with those in his home vil)age. As J n e x p r c r \ i o no f l r i s r r n d c r " r a n d i ror fg t L e B r r d _ d l r i s rt e a c h r n g s . r n"dr o i n , r r r r c rp e o p l ci n r h e e s s e n r i , , l lor yf r e l a r i v i r v\ i t u t y a f i ) . "e r r h e d c d i _ cator)- rnscdption states,23he built the 'Du_ k l ' r r r * . t , , . i c o n o g m p J r i cp r o g r a r r o f r h c D u - l h a n g r c f r e . r rB u J d l r i . r r r a c l r i n g sp r o p agated by Rin-chen bZang-po prior to his convcrsion to forms of drc religion being preached by Ati(a, $,'hich occurred in eithei roJo or roJ4. This scrggeststhat thc structurc was.erectcclby the to4os or 1'erhapsearly ro5os. The enclosedcourtyard in fiont of thc 'Dukhang makcs it difiicLrltto photograph in its entirety. but dctailsshon that thc entranccto

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KASMIRAND REIATXDSCHOOLS 379 -- -i

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the interior of the hall is decorated with fine examples of wood carvings in the Ka6miri style. The toralla ovet the porch of the building bearsrampant lions and other composite animals inhabiting semi-roundels(Fig. r7.3 r), suggesting the vitality of the ancient Kaimri woodcarving tradition. Details of the ornament3tion closely resemblethe stoncwork of surviving monuments in Kaimir proper. However, the woodworking is much more detailed, suggesting that the renowned Ka{miri woodcarving tradition, celebrated for its exquisite workmanship, had ancient roots, The paintings that decorate the walls of the 'Du-khang are truly remarkable, interior of the for they, along with a Gw other examples also in Ladakh and neighboring Himalayan regions,

constitute tte only extant examples of complex Mahayana Buddhist painted mqf.|olas in the Indic context. This astonishingly well preserved collection of ma4daldsdocuments both major oortions of the Ka(miri Buddhist pantheon and ilrtu"lly the whole Brahmanical pantheon as oerceivedbv the Buddhists.hrtendedastechdcal *"dit"tiotr"l devices for the use of the monks, ttrc ma4/alas rcpresent the Sarvadurgatipari! odhana Tantra cycle, in which Vairocana, as Sarvavid (Universal Knowledge), appears in many differins manifestations. All forms, which include Sakyamuni, Mafiju3ri, Saivavid Vairocana ", Prajnaparamita and others, are composed into these huge ma1dalas, each with thirty-seven principal deities and many ancillary figures. One of the best preserved examples (P1. 15)

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tiuy figurcs do not seem at all inappropnate on the wall surfaccs. T L c c o l o r s o f t l r c D L ' - k h r n gp r i n t i n g s' t r e confined to muted hues of the prinary colors o l t r , b l r c k r n d w h i t e . t h c l i n r i r c dt t s eo f g r c e n l , , d r . l l o * r n J t l r c p r c v . r l c n cocf r e d r n d b l u c tonllily to rlie giver'a re.crved "tld-,o"lb "' suitablc for deerned perhaps was ioo-, t l.,i.h purPoses meditational Fig r7 3':)' a Thc Surrr-isek(gSrrnr-brt',cg'1 Du-klI'rng' thc ro ncxr structilre tlrrcc-riercd r t t r c m b e ro F b y b r r i l t w . , r ,l i k e t l r c ' D u - k l r a n g . od' T'lrtrl-klrrimsfamily Bro tlLe influentirl 'Du-khang Alchi conhavc may facadc, Sum-tsek, on thc the founder of rr.rr. Wood carving (iaiakh region), Kainir, India Ca mid-eleventh censtructed this building not long after the'Dukhane was built, asmay be inGrred from stylistic ,nd ipierrphic evidcncc l ike otltcr strucrures ^, nl.hi ,i't" Sutn-t,ek rcverl' hou tlte native meditative shows thc hierarchic schemeof thcse architectural tradition of Ladakh, characterized c1evices.In thc outer ring arc the exterior bv oiled-up rock walls faced with mud plaster' ' ' r ' a i r , r s .d' e i t i c so f v a r i o t r 'n o n - B u d d h i s p r anhlib""n ,1""ot"t"d with delicatewood carvings wlto, oncc converrcd to t]rc BLrddhisr .h"'on, -dh-oru-, of thc Ka(rniri style Triangular pedimcndike prouid. a safehaven for thc practicc of fonns are combined widr pillars, pilasters' and g.ld,lhisi ,r.r".litotions Thc outer portion of the other arcl.ritecturalelemcnts, all of which find Bud,rondalo ,.prrscot, tl-rc four contincnts of corlnteltrarts in the itone monun-rentsfound in ls d l r i s r c o ' r n o l o g y . ? aT h c c e n t r a l P o r t l o n proper' The chnrnbered the Srrnagar region o[ Kaimtr pill'rrcd ..rr."it"a "nd (some tottlcxl' ", ""ii.lrly flgur", 'et'into ttre rrchitecturrl t,"it pt"."a ,lirectly on tle centcr of the pinnacle rlso rcplacctnenr')25 oi which rnry be latcr thesc of lt,,io,,,ntMe.r.t,ti.tcaxis of the univcrsc ln cosmoof conforn-r to the stylistic Paraineten deities vast hxlls residc the thirty-seven urajor Ka(miri art. politan ' of the nv4lala, who reprcsent the thirty-seven of the building is unusual, perhaps Th" ol"n wings (or aspccts)of enlightenrncnr (bodhiPaksiqs'encia)ly c v e n u n i q t r c i, n B u d d h i ' t r r t ' f o r r h c Lo). niclret on by squrre cenlr.rl 'plce is cxrcnded Each fisurc is rendered in exquisite detail and The r7'3o) ,1i" *"rr, ,torrh,'"nd east sides(Fig' elJg"nt, attenuatcd b-ody with a nar{ow h", three by interior of the Surn-tsek is dominated "tt in the -aist ao.l ihe in.rpressionof musculature in thcse sisonric bocllrisattv,itttagc' rhat sr'rnd (Pl' torso, characteris;icof tirc Ka(miri idiom iilh.r, r.pr...n,ing rc'pectrvclyAvalokiteivara of 16). Certain fcaturcs, such as the practice are (Pl. r7). lri.'itreyr. ind Manjtrsri Thc niches deuicrine rhe f:rrlLer eye in ' tlrrrc-qu'rrerswhose ir"o rioti"t in Leight, as are the figures' vieu frie .rs i[ der.rcbedfro'n the l'ce' tugge't heaclsarc visiblc to visitors standing on thc secAsia tics to other rcgional schools of South rlte ond-\torv lloor' A dcdicaroryinscriptionto (Pl. 3z). Often only abottt- tcn centlmcters ln ' l ' r r l k h r i nrsI e f t o f M , i t r e y . ,' f c e r e x p' rlr er nc 'cr hpat rt1c l e " of ireigt.r,,,tt"," fig.,,es "t" clearly the work of Body' bd 'er up tirc'e rlrrcc of ,rriii",otit, xrtis;. h other nural traditions 'ge u rs im M'rnjuiri The Mind.26 rnd Speech. South Asia, xs at Aja+t' (Pls 8 rr)' patnters . . e r t . , i i n o r d e rt o r e t ' t o u cb o d i l yi n r p t r r i r i easn d worked on a lareer s-ale, but hcre the elements to obtairr a human Buddha body (nbnarakaya): litcrally ofth" .o,ttpori iJos xPPcarto have bccn the Avalokite(vara was made to temovc vocal to the tra,rrf".t.d'fro,tt a manuscript tradition as a Buddha-speechimage' and to impurities,.glo.io.r, murirl contcxt. Cornbined into extren-relycombody (so'nbhogakaya);ar.d obi"i,t the plex and enormous cornpositions,however' "

XASMiR AND RELATID SCHooLs :: ':roPrlxte on

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362

LA'|ERNORTHTRNSCHOOLS

the Maitreya image was made to obtain an "absolute" Buddha-body (dharnakaya)and as a. Buddha-mind image. Manju(ri, Avalokite6vara, and Maitreya are the thrcc Great Bodhisattvas of the Sarvavid cycle. In Mahayana Buddhism, all characteristics of existence are divided into "families" (ftr.rla), usually given as live or six in number. These bodhisattvxs represent rcsPectively the Vajru, Palrra, and Buddha families and may document a holdover from an early tradition that emphasized only three major family divisions. In contrast to the wooden sculptures on the exterior ofthe building, theseenormous figures arc made of mud phster that has been painted with the sarnecxquisitc detail found on the walls of the buiiding. Each bodhisattva's/ftofl displaysan array of forms, including figures and buildings, and eachhasits own iconographic theme. 'Du-khang, In contrast to the paintings of the which were somber and reservedin their coloration, the paintings of the Sun.r-tsekvirtually shinner with warnth and color through the gcnerous Lrseof ycllow and green, in addition to red, blue, black, and white (Pls. r7-24). It i. unlikcly that the differcnce in paletre between the two buildings was due to a chronological difference since the buildings were aparently built within a short time of each other. Instead, a religious reason may have accounted for the differences, for while the 'Du-khang was apparently built fqr the neditations of the nonkhood, the Sum-tsek was probably intended for the laity. A smal1 painting of Amitayus, Part of a scherneshowing Sukbavati, the western Paradlse over which he presides,from the lower story of the Sun.r-tsek,demonstratesthe full richness of the Sum-tsekcoloration(Pl. r8). The crown worn by the figure clcarly indicates that he is Amitayus, and not Amitabha or Ardtabha/ Anitayus. The throne configuration in this composition is lessthan half a meter in height, 'Du-khang, the artists so, as in the caseof the essentixilyworked in a miniaturist stylc, combining tiny elcnents to achieve a mural design. Thc central {igure of Amitayus is garbed in a robc decorated with elephant-riding warriors, rnany of rvhom are shown performing the

"Parthian shot," that is, thcy are tumed shooting backwards over their elephants in the manner charactedstic of alcient Parthian horsemen. Tlresedeadly warrion uould seemincongruous as ornaments on the robe of a Buddha whose very name nreans"Etem,rl Life." It may be suggested,however, that such a design, wl.rich may bc traced back to much earlier Iranian sources,rePresentsa late survival in the Ka(miri context and is indicative of the cultural crossroads that define Kaimir itself. It is possible tbar suchIururiou" fabricswere the prerogative of Ka6miri nobility, and that the clothing as worn by the Amitayus indicates his royal prerogative as the king of Sukhavati. Unlike the paincingsofthe'Du-khang, where color was applied in a flat, gcnerally unshaded nanner, the Sum-tsek Paintings arc notable for the richnessoftheir coloristic cffects.Often, two colors are used to suggest a kind of glowing surfaceto the skin offigures and also to provide the impressionofdepth and three-dirnensionality to the forrns. Such "shading" may be an outgrowth of a long distant ancestry in the Hellenistic-Romanized art of the Indic northwest, for the forms of the bodies seem to be the painted equivalentsof the sharply defined, often muscular physiquesseenin Ka6miri sculpture. One of the most interesting painted compositions at Alchi shows Prajfiaparanrita,identified by the book and rosary that she holds, which is also on the lower story ofthc Surn-tsek(Pl. r9). She is attended by for.rr emanations of herself and is the object of devotion ofa noble woman and a priest, who are shown just below her. To either sideis a depiction ofa tall structure. Given the archaeoiogicalremains at Parihasapuraand the renown of that site as a Buddhist center, along with the forms depicted in the painting, it is likely that theserepresentLaliaditya's caitya at ??dhasapura with its towering form and gigantic metal Buddha irnege.on the ic[t. and Canknr1a'sstupa, at the right. Thc practice of depicting important Buddhist shrinesand monube traced to thc earliest pcriods of -.nt, ""o surviving Buddhist art. In the Sunga period, for example, depictions of the Mahabodhi temple and other shrines, were alrcady represented That these monuments are shown with Prajia-

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A N DR I I A T E DS C H O O I SJ 8 J KASMIR peramite suggests that she was the primary deity of Parihasapura and that the site may have been an inportant center for her worship in Ka6mir. The shading of the anatomy of the central figure is done with meticulous care. As is the practice throughout the Sum-tsek paintings, each element of the shading is a single pointillistic stroke, so {inely executed that this feature is observableonly at great enlargement.Prajfiaperamita's garments and those of her attebdants and worshipers are alsofinely painted renderings of the luxurious textiles that may have been used by the Ka3miri nobility. Her diadem, with its very linear forms, may be a descendentof the "hair net" type of crown seen occasionally in Bactro-Gandhara sculptures of the Kugar.ra period. Her hemispheric breasts, attenuated 'waist and animated posture are feninine characteristics that appear widely in South Asian art; however, the extreme narrowness of the waist and the attention to anatomical detail and musculature in the abdomen and torso typify the KaSmiri idiom. Although the identification of this {igure as a form of Prajfieparamite is confirmed by the attdbutes she holds, her green color does not conform to the usual iconographic descriptions ofher. Further, the presenceofthejfua Buddha Amoghasiddhi at the top center in the group of five jiras rbove her suggeststhat she may also Sydnrarart(GreenTara),and therefore. represenr 12r2 mlght be rdentllledas rrajnaParamlraThis suggestionis strengthenedby the presence of a secondpainted figure in the Sum-tsek that more clearly combines the features of Prajfraparamita and Tara (P1.zo). Although this figure holds Prajfiaparamita's characteristicattributes, the book and the rosary, she is surrounded by depictions of peopie affiicted with the eight perils and their salvation by means of devotion to Tara. T'his figure is thus a dual goddess, symbolizing not only the salvationism of Tara but thc suprene salvation dbtainable through the knowledge symbolized by Prajf,aparamita. This representation,which is on a wall of the second story of the Sum-tsek, is one of the few major scaleirnagesren.uining in the Ka6miri painting style; the figure alone stands about a

meter in height. Yet, the techniquesofmodeling, the coloration and extreme attention to detail are comparable to these elementsof the miniatures more commonly seenat Alchi. In general, the paintings of the second and third stories of this three-tiered building are painted lessfinely and with more limited use of the expensive brighter pigments used on the first story. The secondstory was not a public area(and can only be reached by climbing a notched log ladder to the right of the veranda on the exterior of the building) and the third story is in fact totally inaccessiblebecauseit has no floor at all, and can only be viewed from below. These stories were painted for the completion of the iconographic program rather dran to be seen up close, a fact which may have infuenced the artists to use larger scale depictions for their walls, as in the caseof the Prajfrtperamita-Tera. Over the door on the south side of the Sumtsek and visible to the viewer as he exits the building is a representation of Mahakala, an angry, protective form ofAvalokiteivara (Pl. zr). As a dharnapalaor "protector of the Buddhist law," Mahakala is chargedwith overcoming the enemies of the faith, namely, those who are difliculr to convert. hence explaining in part his fierce appearance.His name may be translated as"The Great Time," (that is, the Great Destroyer [Death]) or "The Great Black-One." He is characteristicallyshown as blue in color, though can be other colors as well, depending on the specific form of Mahakala being depicted. His position over the entrance/exit to the building befits his protective role. Thc triangle bcneath 'iail" of mctcoric irnn him represcntsLhe Ofparticular all evil-doers. intended to imprison surround Mahainterest among the figures who angry female who of an kala is the depiction dre Buddbist said to be may be Sri (sometimes hypostasis oi the Hindu goddess Sri; Pl. zz). The iconography of this figure is generalized so that it is dificult to determine which of the several manifestationsof the Sri-type goddesses she represents.She is characterizedby her angry appearance, skull ornaments, and the mule (aluatara) she rides. Like Mahakala, deities of this classare also dhatmapalas.The shading on her skin and that of the animal sherides creates

,'E4 TATTRNORTHTRNSCHOOLS the sense of an intrer glow, which, Iike the skin tones ofthe other figurcs as well, is striking against the f,at, dcep blue of the backgrouud. The ccilings ofthe Sur.n-tsekarc also painted. The dcsign, which consistsof painted replicas of lcngths of cloth, accomrnodatesthe strlrctural divisions of the ceiling with its wooclen beams (Pl. z3). Today, many Ladekhissuspcndlengths of cloth as faise ceilings in their: honcs and sirrines, suggestitrgthat the Sur.n-tsckpaintings docun-rcntan early nanifestatior-rof this prlctice. It is likely that thc cloth clesignspainted so carefully by the Alchi artists \.vereclose rcplicas of somcofthe luxnrioustextilcsavailabledurirg the clcventh ccntury. Rcflccting thc Ka(n.riri position as part of the crossroaclsof Asia, the textiles revcal a broad cross sectiou of what must l-ravcbeen popular techniqucs thct in use, including dying, tie-dying, printing, brocrding, and enbroidcry. Thc varietiesofpattcrns further b e t r a y t l r e . r n , i c t t rl L e r i t r g co f t J r er e g i o t . f o r dcsignswhich werc cLlrrcDtfrorI lnner Asia to India and China are reprcscntcd. One popular r n o t i f .r s c r i c 5o f r o u n d c l rt i r t t t r r u ,rlv i t l t p c . r r l . . is known from Iran to Japan and is ultimately based on Sassaniandesignsof the sixth century (Pl. z4). Thc exanple illustratedbearsa pair of dancing figures of clearly Indic origin, thus rcvcalingthe blcnding of traditionstbat is chxractcristic of much of l(ailuri art. A tbird building in the Chos-'khor group, a modest building known asthe Lha-khang-so-ma (Fig. 17.33),bearspaintings of a sl.rarplycontrasting style. Its siurplc construction i11 the typical Ladrkhi rnud ancl rock tcchniclue cloes not prcpxre the visitor for thc surprise of the paintings within, which arc in a style thxt is clcarly clcrived from the painting idiorn develo p c d i r r B i l , n , l B c n g l l i t r r l t c c . L ' t c r np . , r t i o n "r of the subcontinent during tl.re Pala and Scna p e r i o d s .T h o u g l r t l ' e d . r t t o f r h i . . l r t t c l t t r ci ' not fixed by inscription or historjcal documcntation, its traditional namc, Lha-khang-so-ma, Iirerally "thc ncw ternple," suggcststhxt it was built aftcr at ieast thc original buildings at thc site rverc already in place. Yet, tl.rcstrong favor of the Pala idioln in thc paintings suggcstsdrat it might have beeq creatcd not long aftcr the great castern lndian patlrlita, Atisa, had come to

;

I 17.33.Sourhfaccof Lha-khang+o-rna from southeast. Alchi (Ladakhrcgion),Kalnrr, India.Ca. third quartcr cleventhcentrry.

Ladakh from the east and had exerted his influence on Rin-chen bZang-po around ro5o-54. T h e L h e - k l r a n g - ' o - n r tah. c n . a n d i t s p a i n t i n g s . are vcry propably products of about thc third quarter of thc clcventh century. The style of paintings in this building is exemplified by a represcntation of Vairocana/ Sakyarnuni in thc center of the north wall (Pl. z5). Though painted on a much grander scalc, lvith thc central figurc almost a meter 1n height, thc composition may be comparcd to examplcs knorvn from Pala-pcriod paln leaf m:rnuscriptpainting. Notable amolrg the distjnctive P-la clcments arc the lockcd knecs of the standing bodhisattva attcndants, their arched backs, and badring-suitlikc dlorls. The use of a biack outline to defilc thc contours and forms ofthe elcmentsin thc con.rpositionis also typical in rnany Pala paintings. Yet, whilc the Buddha are stronglybased rnd his attendentbodhisattvas on Pala types, the figures are "modcled" in a manuer not seenin Bihar and Bcngal printings. Instcad, the attention to anatomy and shading allics the figures to thc KaSmiri stylc and the painting traditions presumably derived from thc n o r r l r ! \ c ( t e r tnr l d i r i o n . .l n c o n t r a stto p a i n t i t t g . strictly of thc Kaimiri mode, howcvcr, Iike the examples in thc Sur.n-tsek,the shacling of the skin, particularly seen in tl.rc two standing boclhisattvas, does not crcatc the sense of a

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iron southeast. 3:- third quarter

xened his inound ro5o-54. lia paintings, bout the third buildingis exot Valrocana/ re north wall much grander lost a metef In -' compared to iod palm leaf rng the distincd knees of the . their arched !- lne use or a rurs and forms n is alsotypical iie the Buddha : suongly based modeled" in a ngal paintings. rv and shading i sr,vleand the erived ftom the ast ro paintings 's'ever, like the shading of the ts'o standing the sense of a

glow or sheenbut rather appearsmonled, which "-ieht ,uqg.rt that arrists of the easrernschool to Ladakh and had added some h"J .o.i misunderstood "touches" of the KaSmrri idiom to their works. Such hybridization could, of course,be the rerult of many factors;it is also Dossible,for example.that artiststrained in the kaimiri srylehad modified their works bccause of a desire to emulate the paintings in manuscriptsbrought to this region from the east' A second-composition from the Lha-khargso-ma shows Kalacakra, a tutelary deity of the Vairayana/Tantric Buddhist pantheon whose name literally means "time-wheel" (Pl. zo)' He is shown as blue in color, multiarmed, and in tlre pose of sexual union (yugaxaddha) with his female cowterpatt (yajfi6) while surrounded by a na4dalicarrangement of subsidiaryfigures. Tiough the style of the painting clearly shows ties to the easternIndic traditions, we can only infer thar such complex painred compositions

jid5

wele once produced in Bihar and Bengal, for wall pajntingshave vani'hed almost large-scale wiihout a trace from the casternregions and the extant miniatures on palm leafdo not display the intricate arangements of forms seen here. However, later Tibetan and Nepali paintings, which are clearly bascd on Pala prototypes, offer some documentation of the earlier Indic compositions, and from surviving texts and the known teachings of great religious masters, it may be inferred that such iconographic arrange-"nt, -"r" in use during the Pala pcriod. The paintinqs of the tha-khang-so-ma. tlren. are erp.ciaiiyimportant. for they provide a glirnpsc of th. i"rtein rradition. tfiough modi6cd by Ka{miri form, at an early datc and testify to the imponanceof the Ladaklrrcgion in transmining the beliefs and art of the Buddhist religion from the Indic regions to those of the Himalayan realms.

C o Nc t u s l o u The Buddhist and Hindu art of Kaimir came to an abrupt end when the Muslims bccame the dominant political force in the region around 1339, when Shah Mirza, a Muslim adventurer,overthrew the Lohara dynasryend maior patronage was no longer avail:rble. ffo*.u"., rhe traditions of Kaimiri art lived on in other regions, most notably Gu-ge in western Tibet, wbere it remained the dominant style for some time. There is still much to be learned about the movements within and influences uDon Kairniri artistic traditions, as well as the impacr of Kainttri art on orhcr oarts ofAsia. Clearly, Kaimir served asa source and influence for the northern and of i*"g"ry eastem movements of Buddhist art. The Yunkang caves in China, the wall paintings from

several sites in Inner Asia, especially Qizil and Tun-huang, the paintings from the cache at Tun-huang, and some iconographic manuscripts from Japan. for cxamplc. should bc evaiuaredwith Ka6mir in mind as a possible source. Kaimir's position relative to the rest of South Asia and its geographic isolation allowed the Ka6n.rrristo maintail a kind of independence.Yet its role as a trade and cultural center berwccn ancient India, Gandhara and related regions, western Tibet, and Jnner Asia left it subject to intcrcoune with a vast variety of artistic and cultural sources.A full understanding of the transmission of Buddl.rist art through Asia is dependent on dcveloping a greater knowledge of Kaimlri art.

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Bihar and Bengal Under The Ptla and SenaKinss

From the eishth to the twelfth centuries, the .asternresioi of the South Asian subcontinent, roughly equivalent to the modem states of Bihar and West Bengal in hdia and the nation of Bangladesh (East Bengal), was host to a florescenceof artistic activity.l Under the Pala dvnasw. which ruled large portions of this ,Jeion'for nearly the entiri Four-hundred-year oth.t -or" limited ruling famisp""n,as well ", lLs, such a, the Senas,and, to a lesserextent, the Candrasand Varmans, vital centersofBuddhism and Hinduism fourished. In Bihar, which derives its name from the many Buddlist viharas that once dotted the land, and particularly in the region of Magadha, the homeland of Sakyamuni Buddha, Buddhism reachedan apogee.During this period, Buddhist monks and pilgrims from near and distant parts of Asia, including China, Southeast Asia, Nepal, and Tibet, came to Bihar and Bengal to study Buddhism and ultimately to transmit to their homelands.much

of the religious, cultural, and artistic heritage of this region. Indeed, the art of the so-called Pala-Senaperiod is as notable for its influence abroad as it is for its rolc as a major art school in the Indic sphere. Hinduism, particularly Vai5r.ravism,also reached a peak during this period and became especiallyprominent in the cuhural region of Bengal (West Bengal and Bangladesh) during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Pala dynasty came to Power around 75o, when the first king, Gopala, is said to have ended the "reign of fishes,"zthat is, the Practice of the larger principalities swallowing up the smaller ones that had characterized the politics of Bengal after thc collapseof Sa6airka's empire in the seventh century. Taranatha, the Tibetan historian writing in the seventeenth century, claimed that the school of Pala art, however, was not founded until the reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala, the second and

362

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

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ill*{ji;Tftiff;#}ffi :#,r""**i+ r-r'xlit:**i '$l.;ilJ:j:L}n1 -i*t exampres' orarchi'lcc'lurar rack i# T"l'"yllfi t = "'':"iT't

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UNDERTHE ?AIA AND SENATfiNGS J69 crion ascribed he practiced urndred years Llmost to the lgin, although e religion in rt and culture m incursions, rially underrital force in rcriviry of the mlctureswere rese buildings g alrnost no d and making Et a systenatic :lopments.6In may be exot stone, was I other fragile r. and thatch, rhe continual moist clirnate ,hich organic built of these ive over the ural examples, ferv paintings ' rhe sculptures a ferv wooden n the case of naterials were irere generally itic stone local allr: created in t itould h"ve a, part of the r might have s of devotion. from this aqes -specific alloy : r ro rvorkshoP a high copper e\ls, the alloy ^ll \a:tadhntu),1 r rirual correct: gold or silver,

and many exanples made of bronze had gilded surfaces. In general, metal images fiom this region are hollow cast, except in the case of the smaller works, which are usually solid. Mctal sculpturesserved alone or in groups as objects of meditation and devotion and many must have formed part of three-dimensional flal!{alas.'fhe varieties of wood sculpture in this region can only be imagined,but surviving examplcs suggest that wood carvings were used as part of architectural decoration, and for the creation of objects of veneration as well. Although works of art from Bihar and Bengal of the eighth through twelfth centuries sharea number of features,many distinct workshops wcre responsiblefor the vast artisric output. Some atelier., Iike thosc at major religious centers such as Nalande or Bodh Gayt, wcre sustained over the centuries and their lengthy histories r.nay be traced for the full four-hundred-year span of this period. These rnajor centersserved as sourcesof stylistic and iconographic inspiration for smaller, less prominent establishmcnts. Thus, within the broad geographical range of Bihar and Bengal, regional subschools,largely based on the styles of the main centers,may be discemed. Along with regional developn.rents, very precise cLronological distinctions may be made for thc arr of this period. Such refinemenrsare possible bccause several dozen sculptures, including cxanples in both stone and rnetal, with inscribed dates, survivc fiorn this period. Thc basictendencyofthe sculpturalstyleover tlis ex-

tended period was toward increasedelaboration of detail and complexity oficonography, greater stylization of forrn, stiffening of body postures and facial features,as well as increasedemphasis on the detailing of the back-slabor surrounding elements at the exoense of the orominence of -of the central figure the composition. These featuressuggestthat the developmentsin Bihar and Bengal were part ofthe overgll cultural and artistic pattems of South Asia during the postGupta periods.s th" regional and chronological As i-po.t"ttt ". distinctions of Pala-period art is the fact that this corpus of images displays a tremendous richnessof iconograpbic types. Some of the fonns preserved in this artistic tradition may refect religious concepts that had been formulated in earlier periods. Others undoubtedly indicate the vitality of the Buddhist and Hindu religions in Bihar and Bengal from the eighth through the twelfth centuries and are innovations resulting from the keen insight and advanced religious understanding of spiritual masters who lived at that time. The present discussion, while touching on some of the stylistic developments of the period, primarily focuseson the religious and iconographic developments.The Buddhist icons demonstrate the vigor of the Buddhist religion at this time and comprisc a point of departure for studying the Buddhist art of many other regions of Asia. The Hindu sculptures document the intensity of Hindu belief in the eastcrnregions, in spite of a rathcr delayed advent of Brahmanism there.

Buoonrsr Arr During the Pala pcriod, a number ofmonasteries and relieious sites that had been founded in earlier periods grew into prominence. At the sarne time, the intense religious activity and apparent wealth of the region fostered the establishmentof many new centers throughout the regions of Bihar and Bengal. In spite ofthe paucity of architecturalmonuments surviving frorn this period, it is evident that ambitious and impressive structureswere built. The large cu,clform stula at Pahelpur (ancient Somapura)

in Bengal, for cxample, measuresmore than one hundred meters fiom north to south (Fig. r8.r). It is set within a vast quadrangularcourtyard that containsa number ofsmalier structures, suggestingthat the main conpound may have been a product of more than one building phase (Fig. r8.z). It is believed to have been founded during the reign of Dharmapala, the second Pala king, around the latc eighth or early rrinth century, though other objects from thc site ciating fiom later periods suggest that xrtistic

J9O

SCHO'L\ LATFR NO]]TI]ERN

tury' tcrracesof Thc rvrils of thc plinth and lorv"r *"t" decorated rvitlr -""ti-tt' irrdi\idtrrl.,h"';;t1t;;;, r,77 i,..".''''y"jtont'in r8 3) aod :r rorv of (Fig ii" ;"-.;;;i' of ;kr*' j i ' i r"trri.i 'rit.t '. .".,1 at 'lrritrc' ln tlre certtcr tlre llinrh firrrlrcr on sirrr-rlrrce ,rone in'^get An 'crrlpi'rr"l
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irrrPortrnt r84) , , u . i r o n i N i l . , n d a 1 li 3 -an of the prtncrpu Bucldhist nionastcry and onc fr"rn 'pproxt."-"r. oi Pal.'-pcriod'rrt d rrcs cl' 'rrly dcrllont".r"n, ,f,. 5cvcntllcenrlrr) 'rld P:'lr-pcrio'lstylisic :;;,;.1 ,1'. p,"-Pil "n'l caril 'crrlPttrrJl J c p c n , l c n c
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o f " r r c i r c dJ s ' t Lr"..i..r'ut''"t"'* 'n'l ir ^ ior the tcrr"ced edirrccsor :::;;;;; rhc Prlrrpur { ' i " , " , " a t . " t f t ' r ' r A s ir ' Y c t B i l r r r''rrdli'"rgJl i r r , t l l ' 1 , , ' t " ' ' ' "'.t"ttr.'r.t " < l 't t i q r r < the sitcof plan.orlp'et iit'"' ,t-ti"t (thought to bc--t}.rc ^"ri.f*t- ttt easternBiirar n-ronestcryl Vikranairla rt encient ,,,-, " 'rrchbrril'lings "f 'l'I

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Lbhrdr" or \''11r'rnt iu.'lokir..u.,r.'

of lete Gupta-periodcarvi.gs' ;, .;;;tit.""t of the iJ trt*rt,ro rclxxeclPostttrc'trcatmcnt 'i"tplitity in particularrecall i"tt, crl\Pncqs "tT""tJt rdolt. Horvcver. .l ErcAte-r rhc ..,rlrcr ol the lotrl\ rn tltc crrvinq rnd rhe dcr'Liling trom anci jeweiry indicate a dcParturc fedestri

UNDER THE PALA AND STNA KINGS

o c

Stupa

n-er tgrracesof lecorated with md a row of plinth further llishment. An lecorations has gh the terra Lrming, fieely dirinities, anif architectural thousands of almost over:k stone sculpan important ' rhe principal &orn approxi:learly demon-period stylistic rist sculptural . lne slenoer, n'a. who may runantabhadra,9 riod carvings. 2rment of the ardcular recall :eater crlsPness 1 of the lotus leparture from

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r8.2. Plan of Great Sr[pa. Paharpur,Bangladesh.pala period, probably reign of Dharmepela. Ca. late eighth<arly ninth century.

?01

392

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

r8.3. Tena-cotta plaqucson Great StaPa Pahalpur, Bangladcsh. Ptla period, probably rcig11 of Dhrrmap:la. Ca. late eighthearly nirth ceiltury.

the early style. Accompanying thc bodhisatrva are two femalc figures. Tl.rcc iila Buddhas appear on his l.ralo and a fourth, perhaps the spiritual progenitor of the bodlrisattva, aPPcxrs in his headdress. Another inage from Nalanda, this tirne identifiable as the Bodhisattvlt Khasarpana Avalokite6vara,was probabiy carvcd in the late elevcnth centLrryand sl-rowsluauy of the charactcristicsof the fully dcvelopcd Pala-Sena tradition (Fig. i8.5). Tl.reccntral {igure and his attendantsstand in the accentedtribhaiga, or thdce-bcnt Posture. Not only is this positiolr collllr1only seen in imagcsfrom this datc, but the anguler transitions between thc sectionsof the body are typical of this pcriod as well and imPart a stylizcd, rather

than naturalistic,effect to the figurcs. In contrast to the earlier inage frorn Nalanda, thc back-slab is now pointed at the top, rathcr than rolrndecl, and it has been grcatly elaboratcd upon in its dccoration as well as in thc iconographic additions of the various attendants and other figurcs. Even the clothing of thc bodhisattva is more detailed than that of thc earlier fignrc. Also typical of this later plnse of Pala art, the lotus pedestal upon which the ccntral figurc stards is l.righly ciaborate xnd is carvcd in a scries of thrcc-dimensionally conccivcd layers. Khasarpaqa Avalokite6vara is attcndcd by his usual con-rpanions,Tara and Sudhanakun-rara (Very Rich Princc) to his right and Bh;kurr and Hayagriva (Horse-Ncck) to his lcft, while above,

UNDER THT PALA AND SENA KINGS

ures.In contrast la. the back-dab r rhan rounded, rrared upon in r iconographic hnrs and other e bodhisattva is : :arlier figure. o: Pala art, thc ' ;cntral figure i. carved in a ::r;cived layers. ---- r.t L., h;. S:ihanakumara nj Bhrkuli and r-. rvhile above,

J9J

r8.4. Bodhisatwa.From Nelanda,Bihar, India. Pre-P,la period. Ca. seventhcentury. Black stone. H: 2oo cm. Nelanda Site Muscum, Ntlandl.

r8.J. Khasarpa4a Avalokiteivara. Frour Nalanda, Bihar, India. Pela pcriod. Ca. late eleventh century. Black stone. H: r2J cnl. Ndlarde Site Museum, Nalandt.

all five of thejinc Buddhas are represented.Like many other Pala-period sculptures, the image may have been painted in its original state, according to the iconographic precepts of the theBrddhist textual ritual guide. Thus, sadhanas, Khasarpap might bave been white; Tara, green or white; Sudhanakumera and Bhgkuti, gold; and Hayagriva, red. The {ivejiza Buddhas might also have been painted their respective colors. The arimal-headed,skeletalfigure at the extreme bottom left of the stele is the preta Socimukha. Pretas are a form into which beings who have been lustful and greedy are born. This preta, whose destiny it is to be insatiably hungry, is being saved by the bodhisattva, who lets him suck the nectar that falls from his hand. Bud-

dhologically, this is an exarnple of the compassion exhibited by the bodhisattvaof conpassion. This specificaspectof Khasarpa4aAvalokiteivara is known as Prctasarhtarpita Lokeivara, the pr et a-satlsfying Loke6vara. Numerous other bodhisattvas and forms of bodhisattvas are also represented within the span of Pala-period art. A repres6ntation of SadakgariAvalokite6vara found at Colgong, in eastemBihar, was probably carved in the latc eleventh or twelfth century as indicatcd by thc elaboration of the various elernents in the composirion(Fig. r8.o). Ir is inrererringto note that the foliate motifs are suggestive of the Nepali painted designs of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries tlut are based upon Pala

394

LA'|ER NORTHTRN SCHOOIS

r8.6. $adaktari Av:lokitelvara. From Colgong, Bihar' Indie. Palapcriod. Ca. lxle elevcnth or trl'clfih centurt. Blacksrone.H: t43.3cm. PatnaMuseunr,Pxtrla.

Bir8.7. Sirihan,daAv.lokitc(varr'FrourSultangafrj, har, lndiA. Pala pcriod. Ca. late elcvclth or early rwelfih ccntury.Blackstone.H: ca.r8o cDl.Birming_ hamMuseumandArt Gallery,Birrningham.

prototypcs. Iconographically, this figure is yet anothcr nanifestation of the ubiquitous bodhisattva Avalokiteivara. Thc two principal hands, now lost, would have bccn in aiTjali tndra, d:'e second right hand should have carried a rosary, and the sccond left, a lotus. The central figure is accor.npaniedby Manidhara, the n.ralcon the figurc's proper right, and by $adaksari Mahavidya, the Gn.rale to his left. These two attcndants exhibit the same attributes as thc central figure, that rs, thc anjali 'lhe five jin wdra, the losary, and the lotus. Buddhas are representedalong the top of the stele and the irnagc of Amitabha probably aPpeared in the headdressof SadaksariLoke(vara. Sadaksari(Six Syllables)reGrs to tl.'e tdtitra of Avalokiteivara, Oth naqi padne hutir, ',vhtch consistsof six syllables.A trarr,"a is a phonetic syrnbol that both evokesand vivifies thc diviniry

being propitiated, and this sculpnrre therefore reprcsents a personification o{ the maxtra of -fhe padna or lotus held in his Avalokitc(vara. hand signifiesthe lamily (Arrla)of this figure and is his principal emblcm. The rosary (rriala)is thc ritual tool used in reciting rhe ruanha the ncccssarynumber of times (usually one hundrcd eight) in thc propitiation of Avalokite(vara. Thc trvo principal hands were rt aiijali nudrd to signify the deep respcct and devotion that the practitioner is supposedto feel whilc performing tl:'e fidt1trq. In csoteric teachings, $adaksari holds between his two hands drc gem of enlightcnment that, while concealed from the casual viewer, is promised to tlle devotee who visualizeshimsclf as $adaksari. A figure of Sirirhanada AvalokitcSvara, also found in eastcrnBihar, at Sultangaiij,and probably of the san.rc approximate date, further

UNDERTHE PALAAND SENAKINGS J95 to its roar, or his teachings.Thus, Avalokite6vara-of-the-lion's-roar leiterates the complete body of dharna that the Buddha Promulgated. The analogue of the lion's roar stemsfrom the fact that the Buddha was considered a lion among people aswell asa menb.r ofthe Sakya clan, which had the lion as its totem. The voice ofthe lion is, ofcourse, a roar, asbefits one of the mightiest animalsLnown in India. The Buddha's teachingsamong people are thus likened to the roar of the lion among animals. There is a trident with a serpent entwined about it to the right of the bodhisattva and the remains of a lotus bearing a flaming sword aloft may be seen to his left. The sword is equated with ptajna , the Buddhist concept of transcendentalknowledge. An unusual Gature of this stele is the Posture o{ the jixa Buddhas above the central figure, with their legs akimbo in the manner of flying gaxdhoruasor uidyadharcsrather than their usual

r8.8. Avalokitelvara. Frorn Tapandighi, West Bengal, India. Pale period. Ca. late eleventh-early twelfth century. Black stone.H: ro5 cnr. StateArchaeological Museum of Beugal, Calcutta.

:tr

:i1 his

a :::a and

--:;the

h:.'r':ra. also lc- . =ad probfurther ;::.

exemplifies the great iconographic variety of this school (Fig. r8.7). This stele was found in associationwith the famous, larger than humansizemetal image of a Buddha (Fig. rr.6) and two elaborately carvcd black stone pillars that were unearthedin r87z during the courseofconstruction of a railroad, The nearby ruins suggest that these sculptures belonged to a monastqry and might have been hidden when the establishment was attacked by Muslim invaders. The carving is again highly refined and the figure and back-slabare detailedwith the precision and care found in the finest of theseworks. The accented posture, sharply outlined Gatures of the face,and detailing ofthe back-slabindicate a date of the late eleventh or early twelfth century for this sculpture. The name Sirhhanadais a direct reference to the teachings of the Buddha, the Buddha being the lion or sithhaandnadarefetritg

uajroparyahkdsano. The full richnessof the srylistic develoPments of Buddhist art under the Palasor Senasmay be seenin a figure ofthe BodhisattvaAvalokite6vara of about the late eleventh or early twelfth century from Tapandighi in West Bengal (Fig. I8.8). While clearly deriving from the same stylistic milieu as the Colgong $adaksari, this sculpture is more elaborate and three dimensional. The fowers and jewels are not simply incised, but have become deeply carved forms rising out of the surfaceof the stcle.The main figure occupies only a relatively small portion of the total spaceof the stele and the viewer's attention is captured by the variety of other features. In contrast to thc KhasarPalp Avalokite(vara image from Nalande (Fig. r8.5), this bodhisattva is attended only by Hayagriva and Sudhanakumara; Tare and BhJkuti are absent. Buddha images also abound from the Pala and Senaperiods.Typically, Pala-Senadepictions show seated Buddhas displaying bhanisparla ruu&a.lrst as tlte prevalenceof dharnacakramudrd and the prominence of Samath (where Sakyamuni Buddha first preached)during the Gupta period are undoubtedly correlated, a rclationship seemsto exist between thc PoPuladty ofthe bhunisporla mudra ar.d the importance of Bodh

396

LATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

moment of calling thc eath to witncss depicted by thc bhamispaiamilra and the prcsenceof the bodhileavesabove the head of thc central Buddha, but also,immediately surrounding him, the armics of Mdra arc shown in the act of attacking him with stones and other weapons in thcir attemDt to swav him from his resolve. Io iddition to this event in the life of Sakyamuni Buddha, sevenother ircidents are depicted in the stele. From thc botton left, along the perimetcr. the sceuesare: tl)e offering of rhe monkcy: the 6rsr sermott;tlte dcsccnrfrom t]re hcavenof the thirty-rhreegods:rft pariniruana; rhe taming of rhe wild elcplratrr;the miracleof Sravavi; and the birth of Salyrmrrni Buddha. Each of thesescenesbearsat least one distinctive featurc that identifics it as a specilic event in the lifc of Sakyamuni Buddha. Thus, in the offering of tlre nonley, the Buddha rs tn dhyana tuudta holding a bowl and is ofi-eredanother bowl by a mork.y. Th" first sernon is indicated by the two small dccr ilanking the wheel of the law bencath thc Buddha's scat and the Buddha is showrr in dharnacakranudra.'flrc descentGom the heaven of the thirty-three Trayastrirh6a, r8.9. Victory over Mara, ard other Lifc Eventsof idcntified because of the easily gods, is also SakyanuniBuddha.At Jagdilpur(Neland.),Bih.r' stone Black deities, Indra and century. Brahmanical tenth the late of ores.oce India.Pelaperiod.Ca. Buddha on his H: over3oocm. thc -ho accompanied b."hme, being hcld the un.rbrella and by eartl.I, rctnrn to reclining The head. Buddha's aloft ovcr tl.re the mourning with stelc, Buddha at the top ofthe Gaya (the site of the Sekyamuni Buddha's enand the pair of lightenment) in Magadha during the Pala-Sena attcndants, thc strtpa in the sky, is a standard drums hands beating hcavenly periods. The Pala-period image within the reprcsentationof the grcat deccase(pariniruatla) Mahabodhi temple.at Bodir Gaya shows a BudThe gcsture of the standing Buddhe in the next dha, trndoubtedly Sakyamuni, ln tbe bhimispario sceneand the rcprescntationof the clephant are mudrdin contrnernorationof the Buddha's defeat asain spccific referenccsto a well-known subject of Mdra at that very site. This image must llave literaturc, that is, thc taming of thc iti luailirt scrvedasa model for nruch of the imagery of the wild clcphant, Nelegiri, who had becn releascd art of this period, not only in India but in other by thc Budclha'sevil cousin Dcvadatta with the to looked Gaya was Bodh Buddhist lands where intcntion of killing the Buddha. The second of a represcntation asa spiritual center. Often, representation of a prcaching episodc may be served mudra liaky"-"ni Buddha in bhrtntispaia identifred asthe n.riracleofsravasti becauseofthe wcre around which asthe central image in a stele, secondary Buddha figurcs occurring to cither life. A his depicted sevcn morc events from side of the n.rainfigurc, indicating the occasion of such paiticularly fine and cxplicit cxaurple the Buddha muitiplied himself in order when at an "eight scencs"stele is enshrined JagdiiPur Thc scene at the tl-rc schisr-natics. confound to sitc of the (a modern village at thc ancient birdr, with Sakyanuni's rcpresents right lower around Nalanda monastery), which dates fiorn of the jal branchcs the Maya grasping is the only Qr-reen the late tcnth century (Fig. r8.9). Not

UNDER THE ?ALA AND SENA KINGS

--:eir a:

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j rl'"

fc= the b-. ana; i::,e of k:dha. n:--:tive r :r the of:ring a':,{lfa

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ubject of the leased th the -'cond rt be oithe :irher 4510n

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J97

tree while the child is bom fiom her risht side. Numerous other versionsof theseeigf,t scenes togethe.r appear in stelae of the pa[ period. A small devotional image from Nalanda of about rhe renrh century offers an abbreviated, but more typical version rhan the Tasdiipur relief(Fig. r 8.ro). The order o[ rhe,..n"id;fi.., trom the previousexample and the weahh of specificderailhas nor been included.The army of Mera attacking the central figure is impliej, not shown, and in each of the o-th., ,.""o, ,t identifying characteristics have been limited to" only the barest necessities. In this version. the presenceof rhe drree Buddhas benearhthe main image adds a new dimension to the alreadv complicated iconography. Indeed, the nu-.ror', stela-eshowing rhe eighr scenesof the Buddha,s lile trequentlyhave addirionsand variations rhar amplify their iconographic meaning. These suddhas.togerherwith the centralfigure. may represent four of the five Buddhas of-the aaAri_ jitta na4dala. The three figures alone mav depicrrhe threesragesoIBuddhahood: the or.ipresent,and furure. Speci6cally.rhe Buddha on the lett. who5f uaradamudrd offers the gift of r8-ro. Vicrory over Mera and orher enlighrenmenr.might represenrrhe prediclon Life fvenr of of 'r*IrIr], r,uddha.From Nai.lnda.Biher, India.pala enjrghrenmenr;rhe centralBuddha. medirating t:. dh!*! nudrd wirh a serpent. p.csurnrbly Mrrcaiinda.who prorectcdSaiyanrrrniBucldha lrom rhe rains during his post_enJighten ment medrratlons.could indicatethe achievemenr of such.an example, for it does not depict Sakya_ enlightenment; and the Buddha at the dghr, muni. bur.rather Aksobhya. recognizedby ihe whose a[haya mudra grants rhe abscnccofiear bhumispariamudraas well as the elephantuihana rhroughlnowledge oIBuddhahoodmay indicatc beneath his lotus seat. A lotus vrne emerges the teaching o{ thc dharna and therefore the fiom the point of the halo and issues lo"tus postenlightenmentactivities of a fullv enlisht_ flowe-rsupon which the five jina Buddhas are cned Buddha. As has been seen in other .1n_ seared.. The. cenrrrl figLrrc is again Ak.,qbhys. terts. mulriple lcvelsof meaningare ch.rracteris_ tndrcatlngthat he is in thi. cascrhc centcr of ric oI Btrddhistinragery.end during this pcrio<1 the matllala and as such is sfibhauikqkayaor Increasedrconographiccomplexiry rhey are Vajrasdepictedalong the siderofthe srele, about rnvanably present. halfway up. are further references ro Aksobhya While' ernphasis on Sakyanrunr Buc{dha sincc his is known as irc vojra hmtiy aid, .[ala (and rhereby the nirnnnakayajrenraincclgreat as such.rhl\ eJemcnrsyrnbolizesborh his own rhroLrgirour Pala-.rndSena-pciiodBrrddhisiart, exrstenceas well as that of thc bcings who are growrng cxplicitnessand anenrion ro rhe jiaa his progeny. BuddL,.s(anbhogaAaya)is also apparenr.An Another stele of about the eleventh century approxlmatety elevcnI h_centr try representarion shows rhc jira. Rarna.ambhava.recognizedby of a seatedBrrddlra.again in bhunisparianudra, tus characteristic uaruda nudrd and lLis horsc tron Bareya, in West Bengal (Fig. rS.rr), is uahana d,eptcted beneath his lotus seat (Fig.

H:47.5 cm. ffiiff ""iiil'.|,lT,K,i:::" stone

i I

398

L^TER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

r8.rr. Akgobhya. Frorn Bareya, Nadia distlict, West Bengal, India. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Black stone.H: 70 cln. Siate ArchaeologicalMuseum ofBengal, Calcutta.

r8.rz). Iconographically. the. format

is quite

similar to representationsof Sakyamuni found tluoughout Bihar and Bengal and, stylistically, it rellecrsfeaturesboth of central Bihar (mainly Magadha) and of Bengal, as miglrt be expected, sinceit was found in the Bhagalpur district that is situarcd between Bengal and central Bihar. The arrangement of the stele with its centrally placed Buddha, the coniguration of the throne, the treatment of the halo, and the position of the vidyadharascan be rraced to the earliest examples of the Pala school in Magadha, although the elongation of the head and buoyant featuresof the face impart a speciallivelineis to the image. While the fo.,n"t of the stelefollows ninth-century examples rather closely, the pointed top suggestsan eleventh-century date and indicatcs that this sculpture is an intentional copy of an earlier mode of representauon,

r8.r2. Rahasanbhava.From Bhegalpur district, Bihar, Indie. Pala period. Ca. eleventh century. Black stone. H: 67.4cm. Bangiya SahityaParisad,Calcutta.

except for a few features that clearly assignit to its own time. More typically Tantric in nature are a number of images that show angry forrns of deities (krodhahaya). Heruka, a name given to a specific deity as well as to a classof angry deities that are euunations of Aksobhya, was undoubtedly known in Buddhist theory long before his images became cornmon in art. One example fiom Subhapur, in Bangladesh, of about the early eleventh century shows a specific form of Heruka that stands in the irdhaparyaika (half-squatting, that is, one-leg-folded) pose a t o p a - l o r u sp e d e s r a1l F i g .r 8 . r 3 ) . H i s b u l g i n g eyes. bared langs. and ornamenral details, including the garland of severed heads, all suggest his krodha natrlre. While frightening perhr.psro rhe uninitiared. worship of rhe deiry by advancedpracuirioners is intendedto destroy

UNDER THX PETA AND SENA KINGS

r8. r3.. Heruka. From Subhapur, Bangladesh.pala penod. Cr. e.rrly elevenLhcenrurl. Black stone. H: I65.2cm. DaccaMuscum,Dacca.

all Maras and confer Buddhahooo on oevorees. In his left hand, Heruka holds a now damaged khatvaigawnh a bejl and srreamers;rt ls nor known what the right hand held as it has been desrroyed.A khatuitipais a typc of staff or clut. rhar symbolizesvictory iou.. d"mons). While surviving representationsof Heruka and Heruka-class deities are relatively rare in the Indic.sphere, images such as thi; undoubtedly servedas-thebasisfor rhe nrany dcpicions o[ the god found in Nepali and Tibetan art of a slightly later date. Heruka+ype deities sometimes appear alone, as in, the case of the example from^subhapur, but they uray also be shown with a female in yuganaddha union). In this case.rhc dciry ,(ssxLt rs oJten callcd Hcv;rjr.r.I he femalc represents P:aiia or, knowledge_andthe malc symbolizes rne methods of achieving rhi. knowledge

Ji99

I8.r4., HevJjra,-_FroDrprhirpur, Bangladesh.pila pcnoo..La.t\ elirh cenrury.Blackstone.H: ca. 7.5crn. IndlanMuseum,Crlcutta.

(upaya). When the rwo are combined, differen_ tirtion-ceases to exisr. By meansof the rcaliza_ tron ot rlusnondifcrentiationthrough a Jcngthy ritual, the Buddhist practitioner hopes to achleve lanyata, wlu,ch is somctimes defined as neither being nor nonbeing. In this state,hc has ceased to have desiresof any kind and rhus.by defini_ uon. carurolbc concernedwirh rhe erotic aspccts of the representation. A very small imagc of Hevajrawas found at ^ P,aharRur..rndicaring thar advancedTantric Bud_ dhologrcal _rheorywas known and apparenrJy praciced therc,(Fig. r8.r4). probabiy daring rrom,thc rwelfth cenrury. as suggeved by the comPlcxlry,ol the rrnage,and rhus represenring rhe lare5rphaseof Buddhistarr in rhe .r,te.i portion of the subcontinent, the deity is shown with a profusion of arms and heads, in inter_ coursewith his female companion. The standing

SCHOOLS 40O LATEIINORTHERN posture shown hcrc is most commonly found in Ncpali and Tibetan paintings and sculptures o f . r l - r e r J r t e . r l t h o u g h a g a i n .i r i s a p p a r e n t rirat (]rc source[or t]rosctradlrionswas.rncicnt India. Lnagcs such as this were reservcd for thosc initiated to the highest level of Anuttarcyogifti-tatra, The proponents of Anuttara yoga recognized that the initiations and their prictices should be kept secretin order to avoid misreprc.cntation.mi'underscrnding.and persecrtion. Indeed, such images have often been misread in modem timcs by those who ascribe an crotic aspcct to them and who viewcd the sexualsyrnbolisn.runderlying many of thc basic concepts as degcnerate. Rather than being intcnded as erotic works, such images express the basic principle of the duality within the unity of the universal that is a basic themc of much religious symbolism in India. Sexually explicit images and the rituals associatedwith them were kept secret to Protect from danger thosc individuals who might bc ill-prepared to runder takcthesepracticcswil]rolrl ProPertrrinilrg and initiation. The incorrect uscofthese practices held thc very real possibility of severepsychological or rnoral damage and many would ersily lose thcir wry .rlongthr' Prtlr if not deterred. An itrage suchasthis would have beenhanded down from mastcr to disciple, fiom generation ro generalion.as cach tcacher[c]t -r ncw initiate was ready to acccptthc teachings.It is ofinterest that in the Buddhist context, an imagc that had belongcd to a series of iilustrious teachers is consicicrcdto bc of tntrcll grcrter importance than one that has only aesthctic appeai. This vicwpoint does not dcny an interest in tl.re visual n.reritsof a work, for it is known that artists were sought out arrd praised for thc quality of their creations.Yet it can be inferred fiorn the traditional histories associatedrvith devotional objectsin countries whcre Buddhisn.r is still practiced today that the illrportance of a rcligious image cven at an early dete in ancient Lndia was bascdprimarily on its sPiritual $'orth. Parqa(abari,t fcnale ktodhdkayadeity, is also an enunation of Aksobhya. Gencraily, she is depicted as a stout, dwerflikc figtte. An in.rage of Parnaiabari of the eleventh century from

.:.r:

t:; ir' a';

::i

rs.rj. Parnaiaben. From Vikramapura, Bangladesh. Pala period. Ca. eleventh ccntury. Black stone H: rrz crn. DaccaMuseum, Dacca.

Vikramapura, an ancient capital city and rnajor art center near present-day Dacca (Dhaka) in Bangladesh,closely follows the textual descripin tion of thc goddessgiven in the Sadhanamala her six arms, three faces,garment rnade of leavcs and the attributes held in her hands, including the 'ajra, clusterof leaves,and bow (Fig. r8.r5). She tramples on personifications of uighnas (obstacles)and holds her front left hand in tarjanT nu&a, a threatening gesture, as if admonishing other t'ighnas.In spite of her own terrifying appearance,suggestedby her bulging eyes,bared fangs, and flan.relikel.nir, worship of Parna6abariis said to remove the Gar of the terror stricken. Judging frorn the abundant remains of metal ilnages dating from the Pala and Sena periods, the Bihar and Bengal regions rnust have been important centers of metal image production.