Understanding-the-self.pdf

WORKTEXT IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF (Theory, Method and Application)

Jigo Rafael C. Catamio Dr. Ronan S. Estoque Trisha Joy O. Gotinga Lovelyn F. Laresma Illustrated by: Jonathan Astrid S. Anabo

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Table of Contents

The Self From Various Perspectives

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Chapter 1: Philosophical Perspective on Self

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Chapter 2: Sociological Perspective of the Self

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Chapter 3: Anthropological Perspective of the Self Chapter 4: Psychological Perspective of the Self Chapter 5: The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought

Unpacking the Self

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Chapter 6: Physical Self

3 0 3 4 4 4 4 8 5 6 6 1

Chapter 7: Sexual Self Chapter 8: Material/Economic Self Chapter 9: Spiritual Self Chapter 10: Political Self Chapter 11: Digital Self

Managing and Caring for the Self

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Chapter 12: Learning to be a Better Student

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Chapter 13: Setting Goals for Success Chapter 14: Taking Charge of One’s Health

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The Self From Various Perspectives Learning Outcomes ∙ Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal perspectives ∙ Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across disciplines and perspectives ∙ Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self ∙ Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s self and identify by developing a theory of the self

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Chapter 1 Philosophical Perspective on Self Philosophy Philosophy is derived from the Greek words “Philos” and “Sophia” which literally means “Love for Wisdom”. It is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves in answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live in. As such, it is imperative to look into the various explanations from different philosophers their notion of what the “Self” its nature and how it is formed in order to have a better picture on how people develop their behaviors, attitude and actions and to be able to identify and understand who we are and how we came to be. Socrates Socrates’ work was never published, we were only able to know who Socrates is and his works because of his illustrious students spoke generously and in detail about his knowledge, wit, wisdom and intellect. His student Plato for example included Socrates in some of his work as a pivotal character. He could be considered as the first martyr of education, knowledge and philosophy. For lighting up the minds of his students, he was literally charged with corruption of minors. He was made to choose between exile and death via the intake of hemlock. Socrates chose the latter, thus dying as a martyr that fights against ignorance and narrow-mindedness. The philosophy of Socrates underlies in the importance of the notion “knowing oneself” for him, men’s goal in life is to obtain happiness and such goal motivates us to act towards or avoid things that could have negative repercussions in our lives. As such, by fully knowing oneself a person will be able to achieve happiness. Socrates also posited that possession of knowledge is a virtue and that ignorance is a depravity, that a person’s acceptance of ignorance is the beginning of acquisition of knowledge. So, one must first have the humility to acknowledge one’s ignorance so as to be able to know what he is lacking and what he needs to know. Socrates believe that the answer to our pursuit in knowing ourselves lies in our own abilities and wisdom, and that the only way for us to understand ourselves is through internal questioning or introspection. This method of questioning oneself, where the person assumes the 5

role of both the teacher and the student is known to the world as the Socratic Method or Socratic Conversation. By continuously asking and evaluating who we are we as a person will also be able to understand our strengths and weaknesses, the things that we like and dislike, how we want people to treat us and how we want ourselves to be treated, so by knowing these things we can act in accordance to what we know we are and live our lives following our knowledge of ourselves.

Plato One of the most prominent thinkers of his time, Plato included in his work the learnings and ideas shared to him by his teacher Socrates. He wrote several literature that tackles politics, human nature, and established the idea of virtue and intelligence. Plato is historically known to be the father of the academy a place where learning and sharing of knowledge happens, that later became one of the pillars and basis of what schools and education is now in the present. Plato generally followed his teacher and the idea of knowing thyself although from his works such with the notable ones’ such as the allegory of the cave, the apology, and his work on a perfect government and societal system, “the Republic” where he said that the world can only be led by a Philosopher king, a person who is virtuous as well as intelligent. According to Plato, a person who is a follower of truth and wisdom will not be tempted by vices and will always be just. Plato also believed in the division of a person’s body and soul which forms the person as a whole aside from the material things and that could be observed and associated with a person, Plato presented the idea the ones’ soul is divided into 3 different parts that has different views leading to different behaviors, these parts of the soul are known as the Appetitive, Spirited, and Rational Soul. Plato’s 3 parts of the soul Appetitive Soul –Plato’s idea of the appetitive soul is the part of the person that is driven by desire and need to satisfy oneself. This satisfaction both involves physical needs and pleasures and desires. As long as the person find an object or situation good or satisfying, the Appetitive soul can drive the person to lean towards those objects and situations.

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Spirited Soul – this part of the soul can be attributed to the couragous part of a person, one who wants to do something or to right the wrongs that they observe. Spirited soul are very competititive and is very active, his competitiveness drives one to expect positive results and winning. Rational Soul – The last part of the soul could be said is the driver of our lives, this is the part that thinks and plan for the future “the conscious mind” it decides what to do, when to do it and the possible results one could have depending on their actions.

St. Augustine A Saint and a Philosopher of the church, St. Augustine follows the idea that God encompasses us all, that everything will be better if we are with God. His work’s focal point is on how God and his teachings affects various aspects in life, he follows the belief that everything is better if we devote ourselves in mending our relationship with God. His idea of a man and how to understand who we are as a person is related to our understanding of who we are and how we question ourselves, though St. Augustine also relates our existence to God being modeled in his likeness though being alive means that we are still far from God and has yet to be truly with him. St. Augustine also rejected the doubtfulness of the academy in which one cannot or should not accept ideas from others. He emphasized that we may not be able to give our agreement to everything other people tell us but we can still agree to those who we, from our own perception, think is right or wrong based from our perception. He believes that our notion of ourselves and our idea of existence comes from a higher form of sense in which bodily senses may not perceive or understand, and the more one doubts and question his life means that, that person is actually living. St. Augustine while integrating the teaching of the church in his philosophy and establishing our sense of self with God which we cannot achieve with our bodies since the limitation of our senses in truly understanding the essence of our existence and role in the world is limited. So people is in need to establish their relationship with god through being virtuous, but at the same time, to be able to stand by on what we think is true, who we think we are that are from our own understanding and solely defined by us alone although people may say differently, by continuously questioning and finding the truth will we be able to find the best answer to who we are and what our role is in the world. 7

Descartes Rene Descartes is a French Philosopher known to be the father of modern philosophy because of his radical use of systematic and early scientific method to aid his ideas and assumptions. Though his works were often compared or said to be similar to the concept of St. Augustine which could be traced back to the works of Plato, what his ideas sets him apart is on his belief in modern dualism or the existence of body and mind and it’s implication to one’s existence were presented with the evidences from experiments as well as philosophical reasoning, he also known to be the proponent of the “Methodical Doubt” which simply meant of a continuous process of questioning what we perceive and accepting the fact that doubting, asking questions are a part of ones’ existence. As such he has defined the roles of the mind and body to the notion of one’s existence and sense of self. Descartes is known for the statement “Cogito Ergo Sum” which means in English as “I think therefore I am”. According to him a person is comprised of mind and body, the body that perceives from the different senses and the mind that thinks and question or doubt what the body has experienced. For him, the body and its perceptions cannot fully be trusted or can easily be deceived, For instance there are times that we feel that a dream is real before actually waking up or having different perception of size based on an objects distance from the viewer. Descartes explained that because we cannot always trust our senses and in turn what we perceive as who we are or the essence of our existence, we as a rational being should focus on the mind and explained that the more we think and doubt what we perceived from our senses and the answer that came from such thinking or doubting leads to better understanding of ourselves. He also implies that being in a constant doubt regarding one’s existence is proof that a person actually exist. Locke John Locke is an English Philosopher, Physician, He is considered to be the father of Classical liberalism some of his works on this subject matter paved the way to several revolutions to fight the absolute powers of monarchs and rulers of his time that led to the development of governance, politics and economic system that we now know. His work on the self is most represented by the concept “Tabula Rasa” which means a Blank Slate. He believed that the experiences and perceptions of a person is important in the establishment of who that person can become. Unlike what the other Philosophers view on human experiences and senses, John Locke does not disregard the experiences of the person in the identification and establishment of who we are as a person. He stated that a person is born 8

with knowing nothing and that is susceptible to stimulation and accumulation of learning from the experiences, failures, references, and observations of the person. Considering this, the process of the mind to absorb information and accumulate knowledge may imply that as a person to be able to be whom we want to be, with the right stimulations, enough experiences, as well as awareness that by primarily knowing nothing will enable one to be open to any kind of learning and does not limit any possibilities for growth implies that the opportunity for one person to develop to anything he wants to be is limited only to the environment, experiences, and the choices of the person. Hume The Scottish Philosopher David Hume, focused his work in the field of Empiricism, Skepticism, and naturalism. Being an Empiricist which believes in concrete evidences and observable experiences that meld a person, his notion on the self contradicts to the ideas of the philosophers before him which said that at the notion of self, one’s identity and behaviour does not exceed the physical realm and that the “Self” is only the accumulation of different impressions. According to him, there is no permanent “self”, that since our impressions of things based from our experiences and from such impressions we can create our ideas and knowledge which leads to the argument that since our impression and ideas change, it may improve or totally be replaced means that one change occurred the same phenomenon of will happen to ones idea of who he is and what he can do.

loving

happy

Cold

Impressions

approachable

warm

sad

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That is the idea that Hume reiterated when saying that there should be no permanent concept of the self. He said when a person is asked the question “who you are? “That person tends to answer different impressions such as good, happy, optimistic, contented, sad, etc. generally they apply to who you are now but at the same time these characteristics might change from time to time. If the neighbour you knew your entire life to be happy and have a positive outlook suddenly looked sad and discontented can we say that the person you seeing is not your neighbour anymore? Kant Immanuel Kant, a German Philosopher that is known for his works on Empiricism and Rationalism. Kant responded to Hume’s work by trying to establish that the collection of impressions and different contents is what it only takes to define a person. Kant argued that the awareness of different emotions that we have, impressions and behaviour is only a part of our self. He said that to fully understand who we are, a certain level of consciousness or sense that uses our intuition which synthesizes all the experiences, impressions and perceptions of ourselves will pave the way to define and know who we really are. Kant argued that the sense called “Transcendental Apperception” is anessence of our consciousness that provides basis for understanding and establishing the notion of “self” by synthesizing one’s accumulation of experiences, intuition and imagination goes. Which means that this idea goes beyond what we experience but still able to become aware of. For example the idea of time and space, we may not be able to observe the movement of time and the vastness of space but we are still capable of understanding their concept based from what we can observe as their representation. With that in mind and following the idea of Kant about Self, we can say that we are not only an object that perceives and reacts to whatever it is that we are experiencing, we also have the capabilities to understand beyond those experiences and be able to think and have a clear identification who we are and establish a sense of self that is unique and distinct from others. Freud Sigmund Freud, an Austrian Psychologist and Physician, he is also known as the father of psychoanalysis and is known for his work on human nature and the unconscious. Freud believed that man has different constructs of personality that interacts with each other and along with his

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concept of the different levels of consciousness provides an idea how a person develops a sense of self. Aspects of Personality ID - also known as the child aspect of a person, The ID’s attention is on satisfaction of one’s needs and self-gratification. It is driven by the pleasure principle. SUPEREGO- is the conscience of the one’s personality, Superego has the inclination to uphold justice and do what is morally right and socially acceptable actions.The superego is involved in the notion of right or wrong that is imparted to us by our parents or people that tool care for us during childhood. EGO - Sometimes known as the Police or the mediator between id and superego. It operates within the boundaries of reality, primary function is to maintain the impulses of the ID to an acceptable degree. Freud also introduced the idea that the accumulation of the experiences of a person helps build his personality although such information are not stored in a single area where we can access them at any time. He introduced the levels of consciousness, The Conscious where minority of our memories are being stored and the memories that are in the conscious is easier to be tapped or accessed. The other one is the Pre-conscious, the middle part of the entirety of our consciousness, the memories stored in this area can still be accessed but with a little difficulty. And the last one is the Unconscious, this area is where majority of our memories since childhood are deeply stored. It is very difficult to tap the memories in the unconscious, it would need a trained professional and several special techniques in order to make some memories resurface. Freud believed that we are a by-product of our experiences in the past. And that are actions are driven by the idea of resisting or avoiding pain, and are molded from our need for pleasure or being happy. Ryle Gilbert Ryle with his Behavioristic approach to self, said that self is the behaviour presented by the person, his notion of dualism is that the behaviour that we show, emotions and actions are the reflection of our mind and as such is the manifestation of who we are. Ryle does not believe that the mind and body, though some say can coexist, are two separate entities which is said to be evident in the unexplainable phenomenon or abilities of the 11

mind where the soul is considered. To him, once we encounter others, their perceptions of what we do, how we act, and the way we behave will then result to the understanding of other people and establishing of who we are. His explanation of self is further exemplified in his “ghost in the machine” view. This view said the man is a complex machine with different functioning parts, and the intelligence, and other characteristics or behaviour of man is represented by the ghost in the said machine. He gave further explanation using an example imagining that if you are touring a visiting friend to the university that you are studying and you brought him to the athletic centre, library, buildings and classrooms, but then your friends ask “but where is the university? As such is the point of Ryle, all those places, buildings and offices are the university which supports his idea that the mind and body is not necessarily separate entities. So considering that analogy, the idea of Ryle is saying that the things that we do, how we behave and react and all other components like the way we talk, walk, and look is generally who we are as a person. Churchland Paul Churchlanda Canadian philosopher whose focus is on the idea that people should improve our association and use of words in identifying the self. He has this idea that the “self” is defined by the movements of our brain. Churchland’s work revolves around challenging of the notion and terms being used to explain behavior or to explain how a person feels, thinks, and act with regards to physiological phenomenon that is happening in the body as well as definitions brought about by emotions, this is one of the notion of the concept of Folk Psychology also known as common sense psychology. The main philosophy of Churhland built the idea of “eliminative materialism”. Basically, eliminative materialism opposes that people’s common sense understanding of the mind is false and that most of the mental states that people subscribe to, in turn, do not actually exist, this idea also applies on the understanding of behaviour and emotions. This leads to his idea of Neurophilosophy, he believed that to fully understand one’s behaviour, one should understand the different neurological movement of the brain that pertains to different emotions, feelings, actions and reactions and how such brain movements affect the body. With this in mind we can eliminate the ambiguity of subjective and baseless identification of the mind,behaviour and self in general because by understanding the different neural pathways, how they work, and what implications are those movements are to people, will we not only have proof that there is a measurable classification on one’s behaviour it can also be 12

said that the constant movement of the brain can be the basis of who the person is this is emphasized by Churchland and his wife in the statement “The Brain as the Self”. Merleau-Ponty Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty is a French philosopher that is known for his works on existentialism and phenomenology. His idea of the self, regarded that the body and mind are not separate entities, but rather those two components is one and the same. His idea that follows the gestalt ideation where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts in which pushed his idea on the unity of the function of the mind and body,this idea is called the Phenomenology of Perception. The idea of Phenomenology of Perception according to Merleau-Ponty is divided into three (3) division, The Body, The Perceived World, and the People and the world. The body that both receives the experience as well as integrates such experiences in the different perception. The Perceived world, which are the accumulation of the perception as integrated by the experiences of the body. And the People and the world that enable one to not only be able to integrate the other objects in the world but also to be able to experience the cultural aspect and relate to others. His idea of perception follows the idea of Gestalt psychology which gives important on the whole than the sum of its part. For him, perception guides our action based from what our experiences are, the body perceives while our consciousness provides the meaning or interprets the various perception we have in the world and the self could be established by the perceptions we have in the world, whereas one’s action, behaviour and language used could be said to be the reflection of our united perception of the world.

Required Reading/s: Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. In Pervin and John (eds). Handbook of Personality Theory and Research (pp 134 – 194) . 2nd ed. Guilford Press. Chafee, J. (2013). Who are you? Consciousness , identity and the self. In the Philosopher’s Way. Thinking Critical about Profound Ideas(pp 106 – 169). Pearson.

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Chapter 2 Sociological Perspective of the Self Sociology, or the study of how human society is established, its structure and how it works, the people’s interaction with each other and the effects they have to one another is an aspect in which we have to consider with regards to the development of a person. It is also important to understand that the establishment of the “Self” based on social structures could give us a better understanding of who we are and provide reasons how our interactions can affect us as a person.

George Herbert Mead and the Social Self, George Herbert Mead is an American Sociologist, he is considered as the Father of American pragmatism, and one of the pioneers in the field of social psychology because of his contributions on the development of the person relating to various social factors. Mead rejected the idea of biological determination of the self which proposes that an individual already has an established self from the moment he is born. For him, the notion of a person with regards to who they are develops from one’s social interaction with other people. He reiterated that the process of establishing the self is through the construction and reconstruction of the idea of who we are as a person during the process of social experience. The “I” and the “Me” Mead proposes that there are two components of the self which the person has, these components are the “I” and the “Me”. The “Me” are the characteristics, behavior, and or actions done by a person that follows the “generalized others” that person interacts with, while the “I” 15

is the reaction of the individual to the attitude of others, as well as the manifestation of the individuality of the person. Simply speaking, According to Mead the concept the “I” is one’s response to the established attitude, and behavior that a person assumes in reference to their social interactions while the “Me” are the attitudes, and behavior of the person with reference to their social environment.

Mead’s Three Role-playing Stages of Self Development Mead proposed that there a three stages in which a person has to go through for one to develop one’s self. These stages are the Preparation/Language Stage, Play stage, and Game stage. The Preparatory Stage (Birth – 2 years Old) – According to Mead, during this stage the infant simply imitates the actions and behaviors of the people that the infant interacts with. Because the child is only mimicking what he or she observes from his or her environment their actions are only the reflection of what they can remember without any intention or meaning behind their actions or behavior. The Play Stage (2 – 6 years old) – for the Play stage, it is the time where children begins to interact with other with which certain rules apply, these rules often time does not adhere to any set or standards but rather are rules that are set by the children themselves. Also, this is the stage where the child practices real life situations through pretend play and is the onset of self- consciousness. The development of the self in this stage occurs through the preliminary experiences that serves as practice for the child. The Game Stage (6-9 years old) – The final stage of self-development according to Mead where are characterized by the ability of the children to recognize the rules of the game and be able to identify their roles and the roles of the others that is playing with them. With this, the children at this stage learns the implications of their actions as well as the understanding or taking into account how one can take into account the view point of the society on the attitudes and actions.

With the idea of Mead with regards to the establishment of the sense of self, socialization is a lifetime endeavor, and the people one interacts with will change throughout a person’s life, as such, considering the social environment one belongs to along with the changes on the 16

person’s development, may it be at school, home, or work, the interactions and experiences the person acquires from those people and situations helps define a more concrete identity and sense of self. That idea of “Self” may be based on the general attitudes and behaviors of other people or the individuality of the person that manifests as a response to those attitudes and behaviors of others. Required Reading/s: Lanuza, G. (2004). The constitution of the self . In David, R. (Ed.), Nation, self and citizenship. An invitation to Philippine Sociology. Anvil Publishing. Mead, G. (1972). Mind, self and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. The University of Chicago Press.

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Chapter 3 Anthropological Perspective of the Self Anthropology The Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology I. Anthropology and Its Subdisciplines The academic discipline of anthropology, or “four-field” anthropology, studies human species and its immediate ancestors includes four main sub disciplines or subfields sociocultural, archeological, biological and linguistic anthropology. Each sub discipline studies adaptation, the process which organisms cope with the environmental. Anthropology is a systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity. The Subdisciplines of Anthropology 1. Cultural Anthropology Cultural anthropology is the study of human society and culture which describes, analyzes, interprets and explains social and cultural similarities and differences. It explores the diversity of the present and the past. Ethnography and ethnology are two different activities which can study and interpret cultural diversity.

Ethnography (based on field work)

Ethnology (based on cross-cultural comparison)

Ethnography requires fieldwork to collect data, often descriptive and specific to group. On the other hand, ethnology uses data collected by a series of researches, usually synthetic and comparative. 2. Archeological Anthropology Archeological anthropology reconstructs, describes and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns through material remains. These materials remain such as plant, animal and ancient garbage provides stories about utilization and actions.

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3. Biological, or Physical Anthropology Biological, or Physical Anthropology focuses on these special interest, human evolution as revealed by the fossil, human genetics, human growth and development, human biological plasticity and the biology, evolution, behavior and social life of monkeys, apes and other nonhuman primates. 4. Linguistic Anthropology Linguistic anthropology studies language in its social and cultural context across space and over time. Universal features of language are analyzed and association between language and culture are evaluated.. It also studies how speech changes in social situations and over time. The Self Embedded in the Culture Culture refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through enculturation (Kottak, 2008), wherein enculturation is the social process which culture is learned and transmitted. Culture is a social process that is learned and passes from generation to the next. Culture depends on images, which have a specific significance and incentive for individuals who share a culture. Cultural traditions take regular marvels, including organic desires, and transforming them specifically headings. Everybody is cultured. Social orders are coordinated and designed through predominant monetary powers, social examples, key images and core values. Cultural mean of adjustment have been urgent in human evolution. Cultures oblige people, yet the activities of people can change cultures.

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Shared

Adaptive and Maladaptive

Symbolic

Culture Encompassing

Integrated

Natural

Learned

Culture defined: Culture is shared, symbolic, natural, learned, integrated, encompassing and maladaptive and adaptive. Csordas (1999) elaborated that the human body is not essential for anthropological study but the paradigm of embodiment can be explored in the understanding culture and the self. The body is not an object to be studied in relation to culture, but is to be considered as the subject of culture, or in other words as the existential ground of culture. On the other hand, Geertz (1973) described culture as "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life" .The interpretation of the symbols in each culture is essential which gives meaning to one’s action. Each culture has its own symbols and has its own meaning; one must need to comprehend those meanings keeping in mind the end goal to understand the culture. One must disconnect the components of culture, discover the relationship among those components, and portray the entire framework in some broad way. Required Reading/s: Csordas, T. (1999). Self and person. In bode (Ed.),Psychological Anthropology (pp. 331 – 350). Praeger. 331 – 350. Geertz, C. (1973). The Impact of the Concept of Culture and Concept of Man. In the interpretation of culture(pp. 33 – 54). Basic Book. Geertz, C. (1973). Person, time and conduct in Bali. In the interpretation of culture(pp. 360 – 411). Basic Book. 21

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Chapter 4 Psychological Perspective of the Self Psychology Psychology has various ways of understanding a person and the therapist way of helping people understand themselves. Self by definition is a reference by an individual to the same individual person. Having its own or single character as a person, referring to the person as same individual. The psychology of studying self is about either the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology forms the distinction between the self as I, the person knower, and the self as Me, the person that is known.

“The Self and It Selves” William James, a psychologist, has introduced in his document The Principles of Psychology (1890) a numerous concepts and distinction of self. For James, his main concepts of self are the “me-self” and the “I-self”. The “me-self” is the phenomenal self, the experienced self or the self as known. It is the self that has experience the phenomena and who had known the situation. The “I-self” is the self-thought or the self-knower. James had claimed that the understanding of Self can be separated into three categories: “1. Its constituents; 2. The feeling and emotions they arouse – Self-feelings; 3. The actions to which they prompt – Self-seeking and self-preservation (James, 1890, p162) Also, James wrote sub-categories of self, 1. the material self; 2. the social self; and 3. the spiritual self. The Material Self is constituted by our bodies, clothes, immediate family and home. It is in this that we attached more deeply into and therefore we are most affected by because of the investment we give to these things. The Social Self is based on our interactions with society and the reaction of people towards us. It is our social self that thought to have multiple divergence or different version of ourselves. It varies as to how we present ourselves to a particular social group. The most intimate self, the spiritual self. It is the most intimate because it is more satisfying for the person that they have the ability to argue and discriminate one’s moral sensibility, conscience and indomitable will.

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Conception of Self Carl Rogers, had come up with his conception of self through the intervention he used for his client, the Person-centered therapy. It is a non-directive intervention because it believes that all people have the potential to solve their own problems. Rogers believe that people must be fully honest with themselves in order to have personal discovery on oneself. In this concept of self, he had come up with three sides of a triangle. a.

The Perceived Self (Self worth - how the person sees self & others sees them)

b.

The Real Self (Self Image - How the person really is)

c.

The Ideal Self (How the person would like to be)

Concept of Unified and Multiple Self As DanielCW (2016) wrote in his article “Psychoanalysis vs Postmodern Psychology” he has emphasized how Freud percieved person as a unified beings and Gergens concept of multiple “selves” In Freud’s concept, he argued that mind is divided into three connected but distict parts. The Id, Ego and Super Ego. Id as the center of primitive, animalistic impluses (sex, food & comfort) following the pleasure principle. Superego as the center for ethical imperative. The one that reminds the self of what is right of wrong following morality principle. And the Ego as the moderator between these two which was driven by rationality principle. And then also, Freud has stated two important division of mind, the conscious and unconscious. Conscious are the thoughts that we are aware of. And Unconscious as thoughts that we are not aware of. (DanielCW, 2016) Although, Freud has argued that self has a multiple parts, he still believed that ultimately we are a Unified beings (Atleast, when we are healthy). Ego remains at the helm of mind, guiding the Id and Superego and staying at the center. Thus Gergen argued that having a flexible sense of self allows for multiple “selves”. That it is up to the the self to define himself as warm or cold, dominant or submissive, sexy or plain. According to Kenneth Gergen, proponent of Post modern Psychology, The individual has many potential selves. He carries within him the capacity to identify himself, whether warm or 24

cold, dominant or submissive, sexy or plain. How we bring ourselves in every situation will held him get through for a day. Therefore, maybe it is healthy to have many mask. Multiple selfhood is part of what it means to be human, and forcing oneself to stick to one self-concept maybe unhealthy. True Self and Fake Self True Self, as rooted from early infancy is called the simple being. The sense of self based on spontaneous authentic experience and feeling of being alive, having “real self”. Example, as a baby we react base on our sense of reality. The baby reacted spontaneously based on our instinctual sense. Fake Self, is our defense facade. Overlaying or contradicting the original sense of self. Problem would be we might build false set of relationship through concealing a barren emptiness behind an independent-seeming façade.

Required Reading/s: Hater, S. (1996). Historical roots of contemporary issues involving the self-concept. In Bracken (Ed.),Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, social and clinical considerations (pp. 1 – 37). John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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Chapter 5 The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought There is a clash of civilization that is plaguing the country right now and though this is not officially and consciously acknowledged, this war for dominance is victimizing all Filipinos in one form or another. There is really no middle ground, and it is either one is rooting for the other side or opposing all contentions and wisdom from another side. This is the battle for the dominance, and prisoners are not taken and captured. This is literally, the war between the eastern self versus the western self. Western culture basically is about the focus on oneself and personal needs; Eastern culture is about focus on others and the feeling of others. Western culture is predicated on putting egoism first while Eastern culture is about collectivism. Conceptually, there is a vast of difference between egoism and collectivism. While egoism is focused on oneself, collectivism is all about focus on others. While the Western culture is inclined in more acquisition of material things, the Eastern culture is tilted towards less assets (thus the mantra less is more). Western culture is obsessed with being successful, the eastern culture is more inclined towards long life; for the Eastern culture, long life is equated with wealth. In the Eastern culture, wealth and poverty is the result of fortune and luck, for the Western culture, wealth and poverty is the result of enterprise and hard work. The Eastern culture values the wisdom of years and seniority, while the Western culture celebrates the youth and being young. Philosophically, the Eastern culture subscribe to concept of reincarnation while Western culture subscribe to the idea of evolution. Taken as a whole, these basic and subtle differences between the Eastern culture and the Western culture are taking its toll on Filipinos on which culture to adopt. The dilemma is whether to follow and subscribe to the Western influences or subscribe to Eastern ideas. Concept of Self Western and Eastern Thought Western Eastern ∙ Self is a social construction ∙ A gentleman by following the moral which is symbolically and way consisting of the virtues of signally created between and love, righteousness, wisdom, among social beings propriety and loyalty in order to promote harmony in society ∙ Phenomenological object which can be productively studied (Confucianism) through as series of evanscent ∙ (Theravada) detachment and desirelessness to reach actionss, self is nirvana; reciprocal multidimensional entity ∙ Self is an interpersonal unit 27

∙ ∙

∙ ∙

Self takes form in communication Self is intimately connected to bodily experience both ontogenetically and here and now awareness Self is both phenomenal and nonphenomenal Self acquires substance according to semantic, syntactic and pragmatic

relationship;(Mahayana)compassion to other humans for belief that we are part of the same ever-changing universe (Buddhism) Attainment of liberation in the identification of Atman (the spiritual essence of all individual human beings) and Brahman (the spiritual essence of the universe) through the Four Yogas (Hinduism) Attainment of liberation in the identification of Atman (the spiritual essence of all individual human beings) and Brahman (the spiritual essence of the universe) through the Four Yogas (Taoism) Concept of Kapwa, recognition of shared identity, an inner self shared with others; Two levels or modes of social interaction – ibang-tao or “outsider” and hindi ibang-tao or “one-of-us” (Filipino Psychology)

∙

∙

∙

Individualism versus Collectivism ∙ ∙ ∙

Individualism People are autonomous and independent from their in-groups Give priority to their personal goals of their in-groups Behave on their basis of attitudes rather than norms

∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

Collectivism Interdependent within their in-groups Give priority to the goals of their in- groups In-groups primarily shape their behavior Behave in a communal way Concerned in maintaining relationship with others

Required Reading/s: Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. In Pervin and John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Theory and Research 2nd ed (pp. 134 – 194). Guilford Press.

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Johnson, T. (1985). The western concept of self. In Marsella (Ed.), Culture and self: Asian and western perspectives (pp. 91 – 138). Tavistock Publications. Triandis, H. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts.Psychol. Rev. 96.3.506 -520. Wei-Ming, T. (1985). Selfhood and Others in Confucian Thought. In Marsella (ed). Culture and Self: Asian and western perspectives. Tavistock Publication. 231 – 251.

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Unpacking the Self Learning Outcomes ∙

∙

Understand the theoretical underpinnings for how to manage and care for different aspects of the self Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s self and

behaviors

∙

Apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of life

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Chapter 6 Physical Self Physical self refers to the body which we interface with our environment and fellow being. It is a tangible aspect of the person that can be directly observed and examined. People now days are too conscious on how they look. How they see themselves in the mirror, how people will look at them and what will people say about them. Our concept of our self and the perception of people around us will always have big effect on how we deal in a situation, cultural or not. This discussion of Physical Self has found place on different Schools of Psychology, like psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism etc. For example: ∙

∙ ∙ ∙

∙ ∙

William James considered body as initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of personality. It is an element of spiritual hygiene of supreme significance. For example, a boxer during a fight, do not notice/feels his wounds until the intensity of fight has subside. Sigmund Freud, In Psychoanalytical school, construction of self and personality makes the physical body the core of human experience. Wilhelm Reichargued that mind and body are one; all psychological processes, he postulated, are a part of physical processes, and vice versa. According to Erik Erikson, the role of bodily organs is especially important in early developmental stages of a persons life. Later in life, the development of physical as well as intellectual skills help determine whether the individual will achieve a sense of competence and ability to choose demanding roles in a complex society.For example a child get their confidence when they bigger, stronger, faster and more capable of learning complex skills. Carl Jung, argued that the physical body and the external world can be known only as psychological experiences. B.F. Skinner, says that the role of the body is of primary importance.

Which from this different orientation clearly show us and explains how people deals with their physical self. Regardless of what culture or traditions he or she may be, his or her interpretation of himself will be how people act in the community.

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Self – Esteem “We all know that self-esteem comes from what you think of you, not what other people think of you” -Gloria Graynor – People from different culture have opted to change their features in attempt to meet the cultural standards of beauty, as well as their religious and/or social obligations. They modify and adorn their bodies as part of the part of complex process of creating and re-creating their personal and social identity to be accepted by society and to be able to accept them self. This includes body painting, tattooing, jewelries and adornments. Youth in present time are too conscious of their physical attributes that they are not confident to face the day without make- up. As our physical self, dictates how we act in front of other people it also defines how we will manage our self-esteem. Yet, this self-esteem is vital on how we form positive and healthy relationships with people around us. We have different kinds of self-esteem; The Inflated Self- Esteem (this people holds high regards of themselves. Better than the other to the point of under estimating them), High Self-Esteem (this is a positive self-esteem, which make the person be satisfied of themselves) and Low Self-Esteem (this person do not value themselves and do not trust their possibilities). Most of the times, this self-esteem are define by what physical attributes they have. Beauty as define by the society, culture or traditions, is what matter to the person.

Required Reading/s: Demello, M. (2014). Beautiful bodies. Body studies: An introduction (pp 173 – 188). Routledge. Demello, M. (2014). Fat and thin bodies. Body studies: An introduction (pp 189 – 205). Routledge.

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Chapter 7 Sexual Self

As we come to understand the beauty of physical self, it is also proper to learn to understand the sexual self. As psychoanalytical theory states that physical body is the core of human experience as form of construction of self and personality. Freud maintained that nature of the conflicts among id, ego and superego changes overtime as a person grows from child to adult. There are psychosexual stages that focus: oral, anal, phallic and genital. Thus, these stages are directly related to different physical center of pleasure. To fully appreciate sexual self, it is necessary to understand human reproductive system, erogenous zone,and human sexual behavior.

Understanding Basic of Sexual Behavior Human Sexual behavior is complex and complicated, thus, it is not at all different from other species (Feldman, 2010). To illustrate; men sexual behavior can occur at any time, by being arouse to certain stimuli. At puberty, the testes begin to secrete androgens (male sex hormones) which produce secondary sex characteristics like growth of bodily hair and change in tone of voice. Female sexual behavior starts at puberty where the two ovaries begin to produce estrogens and progesterone (female sex hormones). This stage of puberty for female occurs in cyclical manner where also brought changes. While for nonhuman, period of ovulation is only when the ovulation occurs to the female specie is receptive to sex. Human reproductive system is an organ system by which reproduces and bear live offspring. It requires the union between the male and female reproductive system to which carries out to produce another life form. Provided that all organs are present, human reproductive system works from the released of egg cell from female reproductive organ, to the fertilization of sperm cells, to the conception, up to the giving birth of the baby and eventually to the return of the female physical body to the original state. (Harrison, 2018)

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Male Reproductive System a. b. c.

d. e.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Testis – is the most important part of male reproductive organ. It is the source of Spermatozoa (male germ cell) Scrotum – it is a sac of skin where the two testes are enveloped; directly below and outside of the abdomen. Prostate glands – it is a gland that carries out both urine and seminal fluid. It is connected by sperm ducts from sperm ducts joining into single tube called urethra. Urethra then leads to the outside of the body through penis. Penis – it is where the ejaculation occurs by sending sperm cell from testis and secrete out. Sperm – It is a male gametes, one that is necessary for the egg to develop and become a baby.

Female Reproductive System 1.

2. 3.

Ovary – It is a pair of small, oval organs which produces ova (ovum; female germ cells). Thousands of ova will mature and will be taken up to the fallopian tube through the uterus by the time of puberty. Fallopian Tube – are pair of thin tubes that leads from ovaries to the uterus. Uterus – (womb) it is a hollow pear-shaped elastic muscular structure where fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a baby. 38

4. Vagina – It is a tube leading to outside of the body through an opening called the vulva. During the sexual intercourse, the semen from male is discharged in the vagina. The sperms will begin moving up to the uterus reaching the fallopian tube. During the travel most of the sperms will die while climbing up the fallopian tube, only one sperm will enter the ovum and can remain alive for only 12 hours. In this time, if it meets ovum which will lead to fertilization. This zygote (fertilized egg) will form in an embryo from which will enter gestation period. It is around 9 months in time for the woman to give birth.

Physiological Aspects of Sexual Excitement Erogenous Zone These are part of the body that particularly sensitive to touch, pressure and vibration which contributes to sexual arousal. Identifying erogenous zone (“hot spots”) gives different reaction and effect to a person. For one, these could bring sexual satisfaction, also, improves sexual health and stimulating different spots may produce different reaction to the body. Female and male erogenous zone are reproductive organ (vagina, penis, scrotum & clitoris), mouth (lips), neck, breast (nipples) and ears. Phases of Sexual Response Although, erogenous zone brings us to sexual arousal which is unique to each individual, people shares

same basic aspects of sexual responsiveness. According to Johnson & Master (1966), sexual response follows a regular pattern consisting of four (4) phases: arousal, plateau, orgasm and resolution. The arousal phase is a subjective sense of sexual pleasure. The physiological sign in males is penile tumescence (erection) and vasocongestion to female leads to vaginal lubrication and nipple erection. 39

The plateau phase is a brief period of time before the orgasm. It is the body’s preparation for orgasm. The orgasm phase is an intense, highly pleasurable experience. When this phase is reached, rhythmic muscular contractions occur in the genitals. In male, the contractions expel semen, a fluid containing sperm, a process called ejaculation. For women and men, breathing and heart rates reach maximum. Last stage of sexual arousal, the resolution stage where the decrease of arousal (particularly in male) happens. Genitals resume their unaroused state and shape; blood pressure, breathing and heart rate return to normal. Diversity of Sexual Behavior Sexual behavior transcends in different forms. It may be influenced by not only the basic physiological aspect of sexuality but also by different expectations, attitudes, beliefs and state of medical and biological knowledge. It made sexual behavior take a more diverse forms such as heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality and transexuality. Heterosexuality Is a sexual attraction and behavior directed to other sex. More than male-female intercourse, it involves kissing, petting, caressing, massaging and other form of sexual activities. Homosexuality and Bisexuality Homosexualsisa romantic and/or sexual attraction between members of same sex. Bisexuals are person who can be romantically or sexually attracted to same sex and the other sex. Some male homosexuals prefer the term Gay and some female homosexual prefer the term Lesbian. Gays and Lesbian as preference for a terminology refer not only to their sexual preference but also as Gender preference. These by which refer to a broader array of attitudes and lifestyle of the individual than the sexuality itself. Transsexuality These are people who believed they were born with the body of the other gender. Men transsexuals believe that they are men in a women’s body and women transsexuals believe that they are women in a men’s body. Transsexuals sometimes seek sex exchange operations, which undergo several steps such as intensive sexual counseling, hormone injections, living as member of desired sex for several years, surgery.

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Transgenderism These are people who view themselves as a third gender, they are transvestites (who wears clothes of the other gender) or those who believed that traditional male-female classifications inadequately characterized them. Natural and Artificial Method of Contraception As overpopulation and countless cases of Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) such as gonorrhea, syphilis etc., along with the threat of Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), the government educates people the importance of Contraception. There are two kinds of contraception; the Natural Contraception and the Artificial Contraception. Natural Contraceptionare type of birth control that depend with observations on woman’s body through monitoring and recording different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle. Through there different methods one may predict when it is safe or when a woman will more likely to get pregnant. These may be in a form of abstinence, calendar method, basal body temperature method, cervical mucus method, symtothermal method, ovulation detection, lactation amenorrhea method and coitus interruptus. Artificial Method is diverse method of contraception using to prevent conception of a woman. There are different types of artificial contraception but not all types are appropriate for all situation. Using artificial contraception depends on the individual’s health status, age, sexual activity and/or number of partners. These are oral contraception, transdermal patch, vaginal ring, subdermal implants, hormonal injection, Intrauterine device (IUD), chemical barriers, diaphragm, cervical cap, male and female condoms, surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation).

Method Abstinence

Calendar Method

Natural Method of Contraception Rate of Description Failure Most effective way of birth control. Done thru 0% abstaining from sexual intercourse. It is also the most effective way to avoid STIs. Also called as the Rhythm Method. It involves avoiding coitus during the days that the woman is fertile. 25%

Basal Body Temperature

BBT is the woman’s body temperature at rest. Done by monitoring the changes in the woman’s 41

9 to 25 %

Cervical Mucus Method 25%

Symptothermal Method

2%

Ovulation Detection

2%

Lactation Amenorrhea Method

Coitus Interruptus

Method Oral Contraception

Transdermal patch

75%

temperature every morning before any activity. A slight increase and decrease in her temperature will be her sign of ovulation (fertile). This period the woman must abstain from mating for the next three days. Here the basis is the changes in the cervical mucus during the ovulation. According to this method a woman is fertile when the cervical mucus is profuse and watery. During this time she must avoid coitus during this days.

It is a combination of Basal Body Temperature (BBT) and Cervical Mucus Method. It is an over-the-counter kit that requires a urine specimen to detect the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) to predict ovulation.

This is exclusive for breastfeeding woman. Thus, it should be noted that the woman is advise to choose other method after period of three months or if the mother is not exclusively breastfeeding or is using formula drink for the baby. The oldest method of contraception. This is where the couple proceeds with coitus but the moment he ejaculates, the men withdraw before emit spermatozoa outside of the vagina.

Artificial Method of Contraception Description It is known as the “Pill”. Contains synthetic estrogen and progesterone. It is recommended to take the pill on the first Sunday after the beginning of the menstrual flow.

It is a patch applied in the following areas; upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen or buttocks for three weeks.

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Vaginal Ring

Releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and surrounds the cervix. It remains in there for 3 weeks. It was removed on the fourth week as menstrual period flows. The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.

Subdermal Implants

It is a two rod-like implants under the skin of the woman during her menstruation or on the 7th day of her menstruation to make sure that she will not get pregnant. It contains etonogestrel, desogestrel and progestin. Have a 1% failure This injection prevents ovulation and cause change in the cervical mucus. It has an almost 100% effectiveness. And one of the most popular choice for birth control. It is a small T-shaped object inserted in uterus thru vagina to prevent fertilization. It is done only by a physician right after the woman’s menstruation to be sure that she is not pregnant. These are used to cause death of the sperm before it can enter the cervix of the woman. These are spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films. Inhibits the entrance of into the vagina. It should not be left in place for more than 24hours to avoid irritation. It has a failure rate of 16%. Male Condomis a synthetic rubber sheath that is placed in the erect penis before penetration to avoid the sperm to enter the vagina during the ejaculation

Hormonal Injections

Intrauterine Device (IUD)

Chemical Barriers

Diaphragm

Condoms

Surgical Methods

Female Condom is also a synthetic rubber placed against the vaginal opening to prevent the sperm to enter the vaginal during the ejaculation. Vasectomy is a procedure done to male through small incision made on each side of the scrotum to block the passage of sperms. Tubal Ligation is a procedure done to female through cutting, cauterizing, or blocking the fallopian tube to inhibit the passage of both sperm and the ova. 43

Required Reading/s: Feldman, R. (2008).Diversity of sexual behavior. In Bettino (Ed.), Understanding psychology 8th ed (pp. 379 -385).McGraw Hall. Feldman, R. (2008).Understanding human sexual response. In Bettino (Ed.), Understanding psychology 8th ed(pp. 369 -375).McGraw Hall. Feldman, R. (2008).Sexual difficulties. In Bettino (Ed.), Understanding psychology 8th ed(pp. 389 - 391).McGraw Hall. Lugue & De Leon (2001). Textbook on family planning. Rex Printing. Wolfson (2010). The chemistry and chimera of http://healthline.com/healthy/what-is-desire

desire .

Retrive d

from

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Chapter 8 The Material and Economical Self William James, Also known as the father of American Psychology identified various components of the Empirical self, one of which is what he called a Material Self. According to James, that Man’s “Material self” is not only consisting of his own body but also includes the different things he possess from ones family, friends, as well as things such as, ones clothes, house, cars, gadgets, end even the amount of money he has in the bank.

Body

Possessions (house, cars, phone, car, etc.)

Self as"ME"

Family

Friends

In James’ idea of the Material Self, One defines themselves and at the same time is being defined by the people they are acquainted with along with the accumulation of objects and achievements that a person acquired from the different endeavours and experiences in life. For example, a person can identify themselves as a singer not only from their own beliefs that they can sing, we can also consider factors such as if other people also says that he or she can sing, if he or she belongs to a family of singers, have trophies and awards relating to singing (winning a singing contest), or works as a singer in a band or in a concert hall.

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The losing of such objects or people will render one feel that apart of him was also lost at the same time, for example, in cases of death in the family, losing a business that a person have invested for his entire life, sudden inability to play music because of an accident. Also, the time a person died his possessions and associations with other people will be the only objects that will remind the world of who that person were. So we represent ourselves through clothes, the gadgets we wear, the friends we have and the things that we do. All of these contribute to whether we are accepted or not in the world we live in. With this in mind, the choices that we make in order to achieve the recognition of others depends not only on our own capabilities but more so on the value we and the other people give to what we have or can acquire. For example, now the things like having an Iphone, drinking coffee at Starbucks, or buying branded clothes maybe used as a manifestation of a good social standing it may not be similar to owning a company, having a house at an exclusive subdivision but the former are much easier to acquire and achieve than the latter. Having the ability to find the things that will define yourself that will persist through time, were your life and achievements both defines who you are and what you are capable of and at the same time provide you with the direction and knowledge on what to prioritize will result to a more cohesive and easier establishment of who you are as a person and what you want to be in life.

Required Reading/s: Dittmer, H. The Individual Centered Approach: Material Possessions as Parts of the Extended Self. Pp. 41 – 64 and Possessions as Symbolic Expressions of Identity.Pp 95 – 121 in TheSocial Psychology of Material Possessions: To Have is to Be?. St. Martin’s Press. Gibbs et al. (2006). Self presentation in online personals: The role of anticipated future interactions, self-disclosures and perceived success in internet dating. Communications Research. 33.2.152-172. Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of Exposure to FB on selfesteem. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411 Walther (2007). Selective self-presentation in computer mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language and cognition. Computers in Human Behavior. 23. 2538 – 2557. 49

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Chapter 9 The Spiritual Self William James’ take on spiritual self which is included to the other empirical selves is defined as the inner most workings of the persons mind, the behavior, beliefs and even morals that involves every aspect of the human as a person. Considering the will of the person, how they distinguish between right and wrong and also one’s intellect are some of the manifestation of the spiritual self of a person. According to James (1890) people will find more satisfaction in having been able to show of the spiritual self like their intelligence, to have their wishes be done, and to act upon their conscience than to count or show their possession, because he said that the spiritual self “is the most enduring and intimate part of the self”.

Person's Will

Morals

Intelligence and Abilities Spiritual Self Values

Manifestations of the Spiritual Self Person’s Will – Refers to one’s wishes, these are the things that we want to see and achieve in our lives. Intelligence and abilities – these are the perceived strengths of a person, the things that they have confidence in doing and believe to have a certain level of mastery of. Ex. Morals – it is the definition of what is right and wrong, distinguishing the things that are acceptable for a person, the society and at the same time the determination of the possible effects of their actions to themselves, their environement and other people. Values – is the person’s ability to distinguish what is important and what is not. With one’s values system a person may be able to prioritize what they think are the tasks or things that the 51

need, what are things that should be done or resolve immediately and what are those that they can delay without grave repercussions. With these in mind, the establishment of a person’s notion of what is good, as well as, their ability to not only be able to stand on what they think is the right thing to do but to be able to make life decisions based on such beliefs is what William James consider as the manifestation of a person’s spiritual self. In the Philippines, our country is known to have a culture that values the teachings of religion, where our notion of right and wrong is based on the teachings of the church or any religion that the people are following. Having such guide, it is imperative for one to fully understand the extent and be able to define the cohesiveness of their own beliefs to the teachings of their religion, this will enable one to be able to understand further who they are, what they want to do, and what are the things that they can and cannot do based on the acceptable behaviours that are being taught in one’s religious orientation. People will act according to how they feel, what they believe in and what they want to do or happen, but having the inability to understand that there may be some difference on how others perceive and conflict may arise, since Williams also posits that if the one’s beliefs, abilities as well as emotions are being criticized a person may feel that they are being questioned as a whole which will result to negative reactions. For example, people tend to criticize other people that are different from them (religion, race, gender, etc.) these criticisms may elevate to bigger problems such as discrimination or division of groups, but if we think carefully we cannot expect others to believe what we believe in, one cannot expect others to have the skills that they have, and an individual cannot expect others to be able to think exactly like him, then we will have an easier time to create an environment that promotes the individuality of every members of the society. The Practice of Religion: Belief in Supernatural Being and Power Religion refers to beliefs and behaviors related to supernatural beings and powers. Worldview is broader than religion. Worldview refers to the collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality. Religion also differs from spirituality, which is a concern with the sacred in an individual manner. All cultures have religion, spirituality, a worldview and magic (Haviland, 2007).

Difference between Religion and Spirituality 52

Religion ∙ Religion is an organized system of ideas about spiritual reality, or the supernatural, along with associated beliefs and ceremonial practices (Haviland, 2007).

Spirituality ∙ Concern with the sacred, as distinguished from material matters. In contrast to religion, spirituality is often individual rather than collective and does not require a distinctive format or traditional organization (Haviland, 2007).

Myth, Rituals and Supernatural Myth ∙ A sacred narrative that explains the

Rituals ∙ A culturally prescribed symbolic act or fundamentals of human procedure designed to existence—where we guide members of a and everything in our community in an orderly world came from, why way through personal we are here, and and collective where we are going. transitions. ∙ Two types: calendric and crisis.

Supernatural ∙ The supernatural is around you all of the time, especially in nonindustrialized societies ∙ In a lot of cultures, health, wealth and daily things are related to supernatural.

Functions of Religion Emotional Function Cognitive Function Enabling humans to explain the unexplainable phenomena.

Helping individuals to cope up with anxieties that often accompany illness, accidents, death and other misfortunes

Social Function Social control, conflict resolution and building group solidarity

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The Concept of “Dungan” – Spirit or Soul The “soul“ or spirit of a person has two dimesions; (1) human body and (2)spiritual. Soul referred to as kaluluwa by the Tagalogs or dungan by the Ilonggos comes from the root word duwa,two. The dungan is not seen by the human eye, it takes on a different form. For instance, it can be in a form an insect or a small animal such as lizard. The Bisayans believe that the dungan leaves the body while person is asleep. Travelling dungan outside the body must be free from accidents such as getting trapped in a jar. Only when the soul has safely reunited with the body, the person will be awake. Dungan is also connoted as “willpower”. If a person has a strong willpower, is it said to have a strong dungan (Magos, 1986).

Rituals and Ceremonies Rituals in the Philippines are quite common. Visayan fishing villages practice the offering ritual called harang. A local shaman invokes sea-spirits. There are several stages of the ritual purification, invocation, entreaty and feast which cover community life such as harvest, operation of fishing boats and cases of illnesses (Kawada, 1996).

General Features of Harang Ritual

Purification of the Place (tuob)

Invocation of Spirits (pagtawag)

Explanation of Motivation, Request & Entreaty

Offering Communion

Feast (kan-on)

(bayad)

(pangamuyo)

Finding and Creating Meaning in Life Viktor Frankl, the originator of Logotherapy, indicates how his involvement in quest for the significance of life in a Nazi death camp changed his viewpoint of the world. Frankl states that we can't abstain from affliction, yet we can pick how to manage it and discover significance in it. 54

Frankl's hypothesis question the thoughts of Freud, who trusted the significance of life was to seek after joy. Frankl trusted that the motivation behind life isolates the person from creatures as well as enables us to survive troublesome circumstances. The reason forever isn't identified with the quest for delight, however to finding what you adore and living with significance. For Frankl, man cannot avoid suffering but can find meaning from it. His theory holds three primary human capabilities called as noological possibilities: self-detachment, self-transcendence, and the ability to “spiritually be in touch” with something or someone independent of spatio- temporal dimensions. To complement these capabilities he indentified three postulates.

Anthropological “Man does not simply exist but always decides what his existence will be, what he will become in the next moment.” Man is ultimately self- determining.

Psychological Philosophical Man’s key motivation is the Life has unconditional meaning, regardless of the search for meaning. circumstances or situation. His life in the concentration camp, Frankl writes that he found meaning that helped strengthen his will to survive.

Required Reading/s: Demetrio, Fernando & Zialcita. (1991) The soul, 95 -97. One is not enough. 99 – 101. The soul book. GF Books Frankl, V. (159). Man’s search for meaning:An introduction to logotheraphy (pp 149 -210).Verlag für Jugend und Volk. Haviland,W. et al. (2007). Spirituality, religion and the supernatural. In The essense of anthropology(pp 289 – 306). Thomson Wadsworth. Kawada, M. (1996). Bayad sa dili naton kaipon: A visayan ritual offering to the spirits. In Ushijima & Zayas (Eds), Binisaya nga kinabuhi (Visayan Life). Visayas maritime anthropological studies (pp 213 – 240) . CSSP Publications. Sosis, R. (2010). The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual. In Angelono (ed). Annual editions: Anthropology 10/11. 33rd ed (pp 133 – 137) . McGraw Hill. Stein & Stein (2011). Ritual. In the Anthropology of religion, magic and witchcraft (pp 77 – 102) .Prentice Hall. 55

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Chapter 10 The Political Self Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community and Institutional Factors Collective action, shared vision, means of sustainable future and the link to generation has been crucial in the construction of identity and sense of belonging in the democratic standpoint. On the other hand, in the socio psychological perspective, citizenship or being a Filipino serves a a cognitive and motivational basis for ones beliefs and behavior. Thus, enhancing the practice of citizenship and democracy is crucial to the awareness and understanding of self and community. Three Major Concerns in Building an Identity The level of individual, community and institution are primary factors that come into play in the building an identity. At the same time, it is essential to consider the following concerns in building an identity: 1.Instrumental - An individual act in accordance with rules and identities consistent with supportive of democratic processes. 2. Morals - Values and beliefs embody and reinforce democratic principles. 3.Transformative - Includes process of self-reflection and redefinition of individuals, institutions and communities.

Community

Person Level of Individual

Institution

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Aspects in Developing Filipino Identity Individual Attitudes and Traits •Dualism of Filipino Traits

(negative and positive) •Colonial/Accomodative Surface Value (hiya, utang na loob, pakikisama) •Confrontatie Surface Value(bahala na, sama/lakas ng loob, pakikibaka) • Pivotal Interpersonal Value (pakiramdam) •Linking/socio-personal Value (kagandahang- loob) •Associated Societal Value (karangalan, katarungan,kalayaan)

Institutional Factors • Family • Church • School • Media • Government • Non-government • People's organization

Macro-Factors at the Societal Level •Immediate community with which one readily identifies one's self •Less intimate grouping of which one is a member

Establishing a Democratic Culture Sense of community and public good and empowerment of people are central questions to consider in the development of democracy agenda. The following frameworks were used as a guide in the development of action agenda. According to Diokno 1999, in her article Becoming a Filipino Citizen, Perspective on Citizenship and Democracy, the agenda was crafted in September 1996 conference in which perceptions of citizenship and democracy from different standpoints were discussed.

March and Olsen’s Framework of Democratic Political Development •

Building institutions that civilize expressions of solidarity and confrontation of conflict among identities.

Przeworski’s Concept of Effective Citizenship ∙ ∙ ∙

Official conduct in accordance with the law. A judicial system appied equally to all. Social conditions for the exercise of citizen's rights. 60

•

•

Forming specific identities (character, habits of thought, sense of reality and codes of conduct) that fit into and support a democratic political order Sense of solidarity that connects the individual to a broad political community of others and organize others and organizes other belongings in a way that enriches the community

Based on the following frameworks, the democratic agenda was crafted. 1. Improve the political and social environment and reduce poverty through structural reforms in order to foster a sense of community and enable citizens to exercise their rights and fulfill their obligations. 2. Continually re-examine societal institutions responsible for value formation so that they can inculcate, rather than indoctrinate, democratic citizenship values. 3. Incorporate cross-cultural activities in public and private sector programs, including those of schools, churches, NGOs and POs, so as to recognize ethnolinguistic and cultural diversity in the country and encourage the sharing of experiences. 4. Further promote the use of Filipino and Philippine languages in all transactions so as to enable the articulation of citizenship and democratic views and values. 5. Continue to harness institutional as well as informal mechanisms that open up space for the exercise of citizenship and democracy. Required Reading/s: Doronilla, ML (1997). An overview of Filipino perspectives on democracy and citizenship. In Perspectives on citizenship and democracy(pp 69 – 112). UP TWSC. Diokno, MS (1997). Becoming a Filipino citizen. In Perspectives on citizenship and democracy(pp 17 -38) . UP TWSC. Zialcita, F. (1997). Barriers and bridges to a democratic culture. In Perspectives on citizenship and democracy ( pp 39 – 68) . UP TWSC.

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Chapter 11 Digital Self: Self and Others in Cyberspace I, Me and Myself and My User ID online Digital self is a mask we put on to draw in the innovative world. With the digital technologies such as web pages, online games, virtual worlds, social media, smart phones, Internet, self- extension is extensive. Objects that one’s possess can truly extend the self, as when an instrument or weapon enables us to get things done of which we would somehow, or another be unable. Belonging can likewise emblematically extend self. Sartre explained that the reason we want to have something is to enlarge our sense of self and that the only way we can know who we are is by observing what we have. Belk (1988) presented the concept of the extended self: (1) Dematerialization, (2) Reembodiment, (3) Sharing, (4) Co-construction of Self, and (5) Distributed memory. This reasonable refresh looks to renew the idea, consolidate the effects of digitization, and give a comprehension of consumer feeling of self in the present innovative condition. It is essentially a work in advance, for the computerized condition and our conduct inside it keep on evolving. Be that as it may, some vital changes are now certain. Five changes with advanced utilization are viewed as that effect the idea of self and the idea of belonging. Required alterations and increments to the extended self are laid out, and bearings for future research are recommended. The advanced world opens a large group of new implies for self-extension utilizing numerous new items to come to an incomprehensibly more extensive crowd. Despite the fact that this requires certain reformulations, the fundamental idea of the extended self stays crucial.

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Belk’s Summary of Digital Modification of the Extended Self Digital Dimension Self Possession Dematerialization Attachment to and singularization of virtual possessions; almost, but not quite the same Reembodiment Avatars affect offline self; Attachment to avatars multiplicity of selves Sharing Self revelation; loss of Aggregate possessions; control sense of shared place online Co-construction of self Affirmation of self;building aggregate extended self; “Attachment to Virtual Possessions in Videogames” Distributed memory Narratives of self Digital clutter; digital cues to sense of past Selective Presentation and Impression Management Self-presentation is behavior that attempts to convey some information about oneself or some image of oneself to other people. These behaviors are activated by the evaluative presence of other people and by others' knowledge of one's behavior. In new situations, many people would like to impress and become self-conscious. People behave in ways designed to create a favorable impression or even to one’s ideals. Humans are social animals and regulate our behavior to fit in world or adjust it to impression that we desire. People monitor their behavior, observe how others react and adjust their performance to create a desired impression. Two Types of Self-Presentation 1.Pleasing the audience – This type of self-presentation which try to match self to the audience's expectations and preferences. 2.Self-construction – This type of self-presentation tries to match oneself to one's own ideal self. The expression of the audience-pleasing motive varies across situations. Multiple Aspects of the Self Higgins (1987) argues that there are three domains of the self: the actual self, the ideal self and the ought self. 1. Actual self – this refers to the attributes an individual possesses. 64

2. Ideal self – this refers to the attributes an individual would ideally possess. 3. Ought self – this refers to the attributes an individual ought to possess. According to Higgins, the discrepancies between the actual self and ideal self leads to feelings of dejection. Our sense of self helps organize our thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Our overall self- evaluation influences our cognitive processes. For instance, when people with high self- evaluation fail, they sustain their self-worth by looking at others failure.

Ideal Ought

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Multiple Aspects of the Self

Impact of Online Interaction on Self Computer-Mediated Communication Computer-mediated communication encompasses human communication involving several exchanges through various platforms such as text, audio, and/or video messages. A CMC interaction occurs through various types of networking technology and software, including email, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), instant messaging (IM), Usenet and mailing list servers. An interesting discussion can stem from a comparison of how we construct our identity in the “real world” versus how we construct it in the online world. As Dutton (1996) points out, that technology can work two ways – open or close social choices. Individuals shape the impact of technology has on their lives by choosing which technology to use and how to use it.

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Boundaries of Self Online The line between offline and online self has become blurred. Since people nowadays are becoming more connected digitally, self-identity is becoming more fashioned in transmedia paradigm. In the present culture of constant connectivity, the Internet is coordinated into our lives with the end goal that the experience of being on the web is subjectively not quite the same as before.

Required Reading/s: Belk, R. (2013). Extended self in a digital world. Journal of consumer research . 40.3. 477 -500. Ellison, et al. (2006). Managing impressions online: Self presentation processes in the online dating environment. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication. 11. 415 – 441. Doi 10.111/j. 1083-6101.2006. 00020x Gibbs et al. (2006). Self Presentation in online personals: The role of anticipated future interactions, self-disclosures and perceived success in internet dating. Communications Research. 33.2.152-172. Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of Exposure to FB on selfesteem. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. Doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0411 Walther (2007). Selective self-presentation in computer mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language and cognition. Computers in Human Behavior. 23. 2538 – 2557.

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Managing and Caring for the Self Learning Outcomes ∙ Understand the theoretical underpinnings for how to manage and care for different aspects of the self ∙ Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s self and behaviors ∙ Apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of life

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Chapter 12 Learning to be a Better Student Becoming a Better Student As a person growth is an inevitable goal and change will always be present in what we do. As such, for students, the need to understand that just barely passing the different subjects and graduating after is not necessarily the best option for successfully landing you dream job, or becoming successful in the world of work. It is also important to note that being a student does not necessarily mean that the only thing you have to do is to read books, go to class, or prepare and answer tests, these things may be the usual things expected for a student to do in school, but understanding that the preparation for real life endeavors may start in the class room, but not necessarily end there. In terms of having freedom in the classroom, there are several things that needs to be noted, one of which is in the freedom of the students towards their choices of what to learn as well as how they are going to use such learning in real life situations. Aside from having a good learning environment where the needs of the students are being met, the students should also understand the value of what they are learning and why they are learning those (Kujjpers, Meijers, Gundy, 2011). To become a better student, several things are needed to be done, aside from just listening from the discussions and following the directions taught by the teachers a student should be able to have a better understanding of what they are doing, have the ability to recognize and sort the different information that they are encountering, and to be able to have a certain level of understanding on the concepts that they are studying in which could result for better application and appreciation of such learnings.

Tips to Become a Better Student 1.

Prepare Before going to school ∙ Always try to research or read the next lesson, do your assignments at home or before going to school, eat and have proper rest before going to school. ∙ In preparation for school not only your assignments, or making sure that you have all the tools you need for class ready and prepared but to also make sure to have your body prepared by making sure to have enough rest and eating as 69

to ensure that you as a student have enough energy to go through the entire day.

2.

Use different Resources ∙ Aside from books provided for the class, don’t forget to use the library, and the internet. Using different resources will enable you as a student to access more information and be able to learn the latest learnings and information related to the subject matter that you are studying.

3.

Be Critical and make learning personal ∙ Know what you are learning, why you are learning and how they are important to you and your plans in life. ∙ By being critical to the information that you acquire you will be able to appreciate more their value and be able to apply and relate them to your situation and let these learning help you to be able to achieve your goals.

4.

Ask Help ∙ The school may focus on the interaction between the teachers and students but the institution is comprised of more than what or who are inside the class room and the people in the school from the guidance office, librarian, registrar, etc. and even people outside the school such as your parents and friends or other professionals can help you as a student to break limitations, ease the difficulties that is brought about by the requirements of the curriculum.

5.

Do other things ∙ The school provides co-curricular or extra-curricular activities, join clubs, or school groups to widen you experiences as a student. Not only can you have better relationships which will translate to more help in the future, but an active body and mind that may or may not necessarily related to school work can also help a student to balance their lifestyle and maintain a healthy body and mind.

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Required Reading/s: J. Dunlosky, K.A., Rawson, E.J. Marsh, M.J. Nathan, & D.T. Willingham (2013). Improving student’s learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from Cognitive and educational psychology.Psychological science in the public interest, 14 (1), 4 -58. Doi10.1177,1529100612453266

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Chapter 13 Setting Goals for Success Bandura’s Self- Efficacy Albert Bandura, one of the most renowned psychologist. He has made significant contributions to all branches of psychology. Self-Efficacy Theory is part of his Social Cognitive Theory (or Social Learning Theory) which is a fundamental to positive psychology. Self-Efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. It is the ability to influence events that affect one’s life and control the way these events are experienced (Bandura, 1994). Students with high self-efficacy may more likely to challenge themselves with difficult tasks and be highly motivated to achieve the task. They put high degree of effort and will do everything in their power to meet their commitments. Self-efficacious students may more likely recover quickly from setbacks and ultimately are to achieve their personal goal. However, student with low self-efficacy, believe that they cannot be successful and will less likely to make extended effort and may consider challenging task to be avoided. They have low aspirations and may result from poor academic performances. Four Ways to Build Self-Efficacy 1. Mastery Experience Every experience is not always positive outcome. It may also bring failure. This experience’s will help us build resilience thru treating failure as learning opportunity and chance to reach our goal with different approach. 2. Social Modeling Observing those who practice high self-efficacy in their lives and who have reached their goals despite hardships can provide great motivation to a person. Bandura notes that it is necessary to draw role-models from one’s own social surroundings. In this age, internet and social media can be big source of employing role-models. 3. Social Persuasion 73

It is about finding the right mentor. Social Persuasion is about having other’s (role model) directly influence one’s self-efficacy by providing opportunities to master experience. These social persuasion may are mentors that are knowledgeable and practices what they preach. 4. States of Physiology Our own emotions, moods and physical state can influence our interpretation of self-efficacy. Having feeling of tension, anxiety and weariness can lower our self-efficacy. Positive emotion can help build positive insight for high self-efficacy to a person. Dweck’s Mindset Theory Another learning theory that explains persons acquiring of intelligence and realizing his/her goals is the Mindset Theory by Carol S. Dweck. She is a psychologist from Stanford University that tries explain the way to understand the effects of learning and education to a person. Dweck proposed that people hold for the nature and the cause of intelligence have several implications, specifically the way the person motivates himself to learn and practice. “Mindset” is a term used by Dweck to explain the assumptions, methods, or notations held by one or more people or group of people. It represents the cognitive processes activated in response to a given task. There are two kinds of mindset, the fixed and growth mindset. Fixed mindset (before termed as entity mindset) is an innate or in-born personality of a person. It is basically “who you are”, how God made you. And Growth Mindset (or the Incremental mindset), where people believe that training and an effort to learn can change one’s qualities and traits. Whena parent constantly attribute the child’s success to inborn or innate ability, children will come to develop a fixed mindset. (e.g. Pedro failed the math exam because he finds the math subject as his weakness) Thus, praising his success to performance will be attributing the success to child’s intelligence. However, when the child’s success in school was particularly attributed to the child’s effort to review to pass the test, it can be then be that the child has developed a growth mindset. (e.g. Pedro failed the math exam because he did not review for the test.) It is then said that acquiring a Growth Mindset is much better kind of mindset because it attributes success to learning and continuous practice. Thus, the individual is not afraid of failure, it only directs the person to need to practice more, pay attention, invest on effort, and master new learning. The person then be more confident to face challenges and believe in him/herself that he will improve his performance. 74

Goal Setting Theory Most people would probably agree that goal setting is one of the main ingredient for a person to succeed. It is a powerful way of motivating people and motivating yourself. Dr. Edwin Locke pioneers a research in 1960s’ about setting goals. This theory was more known to work or industrial setting, much from where the SMART goal originated. It was also then after several years he collaborated with Dr. Gary Latham to a seminal work “A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Goal Setting Theory states that there is a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and the people’s performance task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. Motivating words such as “Try Hard” or “Do your best” is less effective than phrases such as “Try to get more than 80% correct” or “Try beating your best score” Having goal that is too easy is not motivating force than hard and specific goals. Five Principles of Goal Setting a. b. c. d. e.

Clarity – Clear, measurable and unambiguous (specific) goals. Challenge –Set a level of challenge to beat yourself with. Commitment – The more harder the goal, the more commitment is required. Feedback – Listen to feedback from people to provide opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty and gain recognition. Task Complexity – The more complicated and demanding the role would give high level of motivation to a person.

Required Reading/s: Locke, E. (2002). Setting goals for Life and Happiness. In Snyder & Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of postive psychology ( pp 299 – 312). Oxford University Press. Zimmerman, B. (2002).Becoming Learner: Self-Regulated Overview. Theory into Practice, 41 (2), 64 -70. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2.

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Chapter 14 Taking Charge of One’s Health

Stressors and Reponses Stress is person’s response to events that threaten them. A student can experience various kinds of deadline from deadline of projects or exam, family problem, peer pressure to the complex stress such as ever changing environment or terrorist attack. Even the pleasant events, such as preparing for a party or starting a sought-after job can produce stress. In recent years, focus on this issue has been broadened as psychology came to see stress and coping in broader context. Health Psychology, a newer subfield of psychology, investigates the psychological factors such as stress of different kind and in different situation. It also includes coping mechanism, prevention, diagnosis and treatment. ∙ Muscle Tension ∙ Uncontrolled blood glucose Stress Effect on the Body level ∙ Tension-type headache and migraine headache ∙ Heartburn or acid reflux ∙ Ulcer ∙ Difficulty in breathing ∙ Severe stomach pain ∙ Asthma ∙ Diarrhea ∙ Increased heartrate ∙ Constipation ∙ Stronger contraction of the heart muscle ∙ Increased respiration rate ∙ Dilated blood vessel in the ∙ Elevated blood pressure arms and legs ∙ Heart attack ∙ Stroke ∙ Inflammation of the respiratory system ∙ Elevated epinephrine and cortisol hormones

∙ Affects testosterone production ∙ Sperm production ∙ Erectile dysfunction ∙ Absent or irregular menstrual cycle ∙ Difficult premenstrual symptoms

Stress and Filipinos: The Social and Cultural Dimension of Stress Stress is the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it (Selye, 1926).Stress is an individual’s physiological and/or psychological reaction to the real and imagined demands of life. It is the way a person reacts physically and emotionally to change. On the other hand, 77

culture is best defined as a highly complex, continually changing system of meaning that is learned, shared, transmitted and altered from one generation to another (Triandis, 1995). How does culture might influence environmental system, personal system, transitory conditions, cognitive appraisal and coping skills, and health and well-being? Stress has turned into an unavoidable truth, and for a few, the day by day standard. However, incidental stress can help enhance our concentration and execution, living with incessant stress can reverse discharge by causing uneasiness, discouragement, and serious medical issues.Stress affects the body’s immune system. Filipinos experience stress and results to illnesses, physical and mental, fleeting and serious and life-threatening. This can also lead to depression and other maladaptive behavior that can be harmful to self and others. On the other hand,stress can be mediated through culture. For instance, Filipinos have various threshold and ways to cope with stressors. Concurrently, men and women express emotion in different patterns. Women deal with stressful situation through tiis (endurance)and kimkim (repression). Men are less expressive than women and prone to confront “political economy of stress “(Tan, 2006). Thus, culture influences how people react to stressors.

Required Reading/s: Tan, M. (2008).Stress and the Filipino. Retrieved from http://pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the- filipino/

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Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self Care and Compassion Self-compassion is composed of three main components: (1) self-kindness, (2) a sense of common humanity and (3) mindfulness. Self-compassion is not self-pity, self-indulgence and self- esteem (Neff, 2003). Main Components of Self-compassion Self-kindness ∙ Being warm and understanding when she/he suffer, fail or feel inadequate rather than self- critical ∙ Recognizing imperfection and consider life difficulties as inevitable ∙ Acknowledging problems and shortcomings without judgment ∙ Tendency to be gentle when confronted with painful experience

Common Humanity ∙ Suffering and individual deficiency is part of human existence

Mindfulness ∙Nonjudgmental, receptive mind-state in which thoughts and feeling are observed ∙Equilibrated stance in terms negative emotions ,feelings are neither suppressed or exaggerated ∙Inadequacies are ignored or distorted

Benefits of Self-compassion 1. Self-compassion enhances motivation. 2. Self-compassion promotes health-related behaviors. 3. Self-compassion benefits interpersonal relationships. 4. Self-compassion predicts happiness and optimism. 5. Self-compassion enhances well-being.

Required Reading/s: Neff, K. (2012). The science of self Compassion. In Germer & Siegel (Eds.), Compassion and wellness in psychotherapy. NY, Guilford Press. 79 – 92.Retreived from http://self- compassion.org/the-research

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