Usa History E-book

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HISTORY OF USA

Aamir Khan Mahar

Author is not responsible for any fact/information mentioned in this booklet. This is a complied work. All contents had taken from different Internet sources. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Chapter. 01 America at a Glance Chapter. 02 Facts about America Chapter. 03 Presidents of America Chapter. 04 Study Plan for History of USA Chapter. 05 History of USA (Timeline) Chapter. 06 Notes In Brief (National Officers Academy) Chapter. 07 Short Notes (Revised Syllabus) Chapter. 08 Questions and their Answers (Outlines) Chapter. 09 History of USA (Summary) Chapter. 10 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

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A Critical Summary Of USA History Subject Dear Aspirants, History of the United Sates as a subject in the CSS Examination is very easy and informative subject. It has a great similarity with International Relations, Current Affairs, and topics you prepare for Essay. The examiner demands you to answer around 22 different questions rather than 22 Areas of American History. Out of 22 Questions, 14 are purely from Current Affairs and International Relations as per revised syllabus of FPSC. If you start analyzing questions in the Syllabus of USA History Subject- the examiner demands you to have critical approach of those 14 issues that are having high level of resemblance with day-to-day knowledge (Current Affairs & International Relations). It isn’t typical style of history oriented subjects rather a story of the nation. The syllabus is very short compared to any subject in CSS Exam except Gender Studies. As for as MCQs are concerned the examiner ask ten MCQs from history and ten from Current Affairs.

Good Luck.

Aamir Mahar www.facebook.com/Central.Superior.Services123

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USA HISTORY SUBJECT A) Historical Perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

From Discovery to Advent ov Europeans (1492-1606) USA as a British Colony (1606-1783). USA as an Independent Country (183 - 1819) Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949) Constitution of the USA: Salient Features (Check and Balance in US Constitution) Civil War (1850 - 1869) Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916) USA’s role in the Two World Wars a. 1914 – 1918 b. 1939 - 1945 10. American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole super Power (1945 - 1990) 11. Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, 12. The Great Depression and the New Deal 13. Civil Rights Movement 14. US Presidential Election 15. US Congress and its Mandate B) Current Scenario 1. American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations 1945 – 2012 2. Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers. 3. International Concerns of USA: An Overview. 4. The War on Terror and the Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 2012) 5. Global perceptions of the USA. 6. United States Role in International Conflicts

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America at a Glance Independence Date: 3rd Sep, 1783 Declaration of Independence: 4th July, 1776 President: Barrack Hussain Obama Vice President: Joe Biden Speaker of House: John Boehner Chief Justice: John Robert Largest City: New York Current Government: Democratic Current Constitution: 21st June 1788 Total Area: 9,826,675 km2 Population: 312,879,000 (3rd) GDP: Above $16 trillions (1st) Per Capita: $ 48,147/- (15th) Chief of Army Staff: Gen. Raymond T. Odierno Director CIA: General David H. Petraeus Official language(s): None at Federal Level

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Facts about America 1. Columbus discovered America on 1492 A.D. 2. The United States is divided into 50 states. However state each varies in size considerably. The smallest state is Rhode Island with an area of just 1,545 square miles (4,002 sq km). By contrast the largest state by area is Alaska with 663,268 square miles (1,717,854 sq km). 3. Although English is the most commonly spoken language used in the U.S. and is the language used in government, the country has no official language. 4. The hottest temperature recorded in the United States (and in North America) was in Death Valley, California on July 10, 1913. The temperature measured 134°F (56°C). 5. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the United States was at Prospect Creek, Alaska on January 23, 1971. The temperature was 80°F (-62°C). 6. Location: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and Mexico. 7. Rhode Island is the smallest US state in size 8. 27% of Americans believe we never landed on the moon. 9. There are five US states with no sales tax. They are: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon. 10. Alaska is the state with the highest percentage of people who walk to work. Virginia is the birthplace of more Presidents than any other state - eight (G Washington, T Jefferson, J Madison, J Monroe, WH USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Harrison, J Tyler, Z Taylor and W Wilson). Ohio is a close runner up with seven (US Grant, RB Hayes, JA Garfield, B Harrison, W McKinley, WH Taft and WG Harding).

Presidents of America 1. George Washington

23. Benjamin Harrison

2. John Adams

24. Grover Cleveland

3. Thomas Jefferson

25. William McKinley

4. James Madison

26. Theodore Roosevelt

5. James Monroe

27. William Howard Taft

6. John Quincy Adams

28. Woodrow Wilson

7. Andrew Jackson

29. Warren G. Harding

8. Martin Van Buren

30. Calvin Coolidge

9. William Henry Harrison

31. Herbert Hoover

10. John Tyler

32. Franklin D. Roosevelt

11. James K. Polk

33. Harry S. Truman

12. Zachary Taylor

34. Dwight D. Eisenhower

13. Millard Fillmore

35. John F. Kennedy

14. Franklin Pierce

36. Lyndon B. Johnson

15. James Buchanan

37. Richard M. Nixon

16. Abraham Lincoln

38. Gerald R. Ford

17. Andrew Johnson

39. James Carter

18. Ulysses S. Grant

40. Ronald Reagan

19. Rutherford B. Hayes

41. George H. W. Bush

20. James Garfield

42. William J. Clinton

21. Chester A. Arthur

43. George W. Bush

22. Grover Cleveland

44. Barrack Obama

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Study Plan for History of USA JOHN ADAMS 1. President John Adams inherited George Washington’s policy problems but not his aura of leadership. Elaborate. (2000) THOMAS JEFFERSON 1. Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American Presidency in 1800 as “the Second American Revolution”. Was the claim justified? Support your answer with evidence. (2001) 2. Discuss Jefferson's decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory, and explain the political and economic impact of this decision on the United States. (2004) 3. Thomas Jefferson was termed “a bull in the china closet” by the Federalists when he became the President of the United States of America but his policies and performance negated this impression. Discuss. (2009) 4. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2011) 5. Discuss Thomas Jefferson as president, politician and political theorist. (2013) 6. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian? (2015) MONROE DOCTRINE 1. Monroe Doctrine was a Charter of America’s Isolation. Still what circumstances compelled U.S.A. to plunge into the World Wars. (2000) 2. What is Monroe Doctrine? On what occasions has it been enforced and with what results? (2005) 3. Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2001-07) ANDREW JACKSON 1. In what way did the philosophy and purpose of Jacksonian democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2002) 2. What are the Salient features of Andrew Jackson's Presidency and Democracy? (2004) 3. “President Andrew Jackson was a people’s president.” Discuss. (2006) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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4. How did Jeffersonian Democratic thinking differ in philosophy and purpose from the Jacksonian democracy? (2007) 5. What were the factors that ushered in the democratic era and the rise of the common man with the election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency in 1928? (2007) 6. Note: Andrew Jackson (2008) 7. Jackson has been called the first modern President because he was the first to see the power which a President might exercise – Discuss. (2008) 8. “President Andrew Jackson was a People’s President.” Discuss. (2010) 9. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2011) 10. Discuss impact of Jacksonian presidency on American politics of the time. (2013) 11. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian? (2015) RONALD REAGAN 1. What economic problems were faced by Ronald Reagan and how his government dealt with economic problems? (2016) ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1. Evaluate the Presidency of the Abraham Lincoln. (2001) WOODROW WILSON 2. Note: Woodrow Wilson (2001) 3. Note: Wilson’s Fourteen Points (2002) 4. Woodrow Wilson had said, "We had a chance to gain the leadership for the world. We have lost it, and soon we shall be witnessing the tragedy of it all". Comment upon America's attitude towards Treaty of Versailles. (2004) 5. Assess the contributions of President Woodrow Wilson to the problem of world peace and security. (2005) 6. President Woodrow Wilson said in 1917, “The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon tested foundations of political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion …” Discuss what your consider to be the main reason for the United States entry into World War I. Give reasons for your choice. (2007) 7. What were the tribulations of the USA president Woodrow Wilson in the post WW I era to convince the other three associates to his own point of view? (2012) FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT 1. Evaluate the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. (2002) 2. Note: President F D Roosevelt. (2004 - 06) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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3. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said “This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and prosper”. Explain in light of the FDR presidency and the New Deal. (2007) THE NEW DEAL 1. The NEW DEAL was to save capitalism but ironically it was denounced by the Capitalist Class. Why? (2003) 2. Note: FDR and The New Deal (2008) HARRY S TRUMAN (COLD WAR) 1. Note: Truman Doctrine (2002), 2. Truman’s statement on fundamentals of American Foreign Policy in 1945. (2008) 3. Note: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshal Plan (2009) 4. Give an estimate of the tenure of Harry S. Truman with particular reference to Cold War. (2011) DWIGHT EISENHOWER 1. Note: Eisenhower Doctrine (2000) (2016) JOHN FITZGERALD KENNEDY 1. J.F. Kennedy was many men. He was a statesman and politician. Analyze his domestic reforms. (2000) RICHARD NIXON 1. Critically evaluate Richard Nixon's accomplishments and failures during his presidency. (2012) 2. Richard Nixon had many accomplishments as well as failures as the President of US. Critically evaluate. (2014) AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1. The American Civil War brought revolutionary dangers in warfare, but more important, produced significant economic and political reconstruction in the country. Discuss. (2000) 2. American Civil War (1860-65) was a clash of economic interests as well as of Social Ideals. Elaborate. (2003) 3. Was the institution of slavery in the Southern States responsible for the Civil War? Discuss with examples. (2007) 4. Discuss the major factors responsible for the ‘sectional divide’ between the Northern and the Southern states of the United States of America that finally led to the American Civil War. (2009) 5. Examine the events and developments that pushed the American Nation towards the civil war. (2013) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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6. It is said that between the two great wars- The American Civil War and the First World War America transformed. Discuss how a rural republic transformed into an urban nation in less than 50 years. (2014) AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1. The American Revolution was the child of Enlightenment. Comment. (2003)(2016) 2. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of the Revolutionary years. (2005) 3. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of the Revolutionary Years. (2011) US CONSTITUTION 1. The American Constitution is a system of “Checks and Balances”. Discuss. (2001) 2. Describe the salient features of the constitution of USA. (2006) 3. Give the salient features of the Constitution of the USA. (2008) 4. What were the major flaws in the Articles of Confederation (the first constitution of the United States of America) that led to the Philadelphia Convention and the drafting of a new constitution? Discuss the salient features of the present constitution of the United States of America. (2009) 5. The American Constitution is a system of “checks and balances.” Discuss. (2010) WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1. “The American War of Independence was a revolt against Mercantilism.” Discuss. (2006) 2. Describe the reasons that lead to the war of Independence. What part did the dislike of mercantilism play in this war? (2008) 3. Discuss the factors that led to the war of American Independence. Also analyze the reasons for the growing popularity of Independence. (2010) 4. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second made them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012) 5. The Declaration of Independence 1776 actually shapes the way Americans live their lives. Discuss. (2014) SLAVERY ISSUE 1. Critically examine the significance of the issue of Slavery in American history. (2001) 2. One of the bitterest fruits of westward expansion was the intensification of the slavery controversy. Do you agree with this statement? Support your answer with specific incidents. (2002) 3. Note: Issue of Slavery in America. (2004) (2006) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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4. Compare and contrast the views of each of the following towards the institution of slavery in the United States. Charles Summer, Stephen A. Douglas, Abraham Lincoln. (2005) WAR AGAINST TERROR 1. Impact of the tragic terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 on World Trade Centre. (2001) 2. Discuss, ‘War against Terror’ as an instrument of US foreign policy. (2002) 3. Note: US War on terrorism (2003) (2007) 4. Write comprehensively on the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan in the light of 9/11 and War on Terror. (2010) COLD WAR 1. Note: Cold War (2000) (2006) FOREIGN POLICY 2. Discuss, ‘War against Terror’ as an instrument of US foreign policy. (2002) 3. Highlight salient aspects of American foreign policy since World War II. (2005) 4. Discuss briefly the USA relations with Pakistan from the earliest time. (2006) 5. How do you think the foreign Policy of USA concerning Europe and Japan between the two world wars can be held responsible for the World War II? (2006) 6. How has the American foreign policy strategy been altered by America’s war on terror? How has this influenced American relation with Pakistan? (2008) 7. The U.S. foreign policy in the light of 9/11 and the War on Terror (2009) 8. Write comprehensively on the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan in the light of 9/11 and War on Terror. (2010) 9. Discuss American foreign policy towards Afghanistan since 9/11 and her exit strategy. (2011) MARSHAL PLAN 1. ‘The United States would do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace.’ Discuss in the light of Marshall Plan. (2002) 2. Note: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshal Plan (2009) WAR OF 1812 1. Note: War with England 1812 (2005) 2. What developments lead to the war of 1812? How did the war increase American prestige? (2008) 3. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second made them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012) BUSH DOCTRINE USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. The Bush Doctrine is the name given to a set of foreign policy guidelines first unveiled by President George Bush in his commencement speech to the graduating class of West Point given on June 1, 2002. Explain with arguments. (2007) (2016) 2. Note: The Bush doctrine (2008) COLONIAL PERIOD 1. Describe in detail the colonial period in the history of United States of America. (2008) 2. Account for America's emergence as an imperialist -colonialist power after 1898. (2004) 3. Explain the characteristics of Colonial assemblies and representative government from 1776 to 1789. (2004) 4. Why England failed to take the initiative in the colonization of the American continent? What factors were responsible for the British interest in establishing their colonies in the areas that are now part of the United States of America? (2009) 5. Discuss the conditions that led Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven Colonies to form New England Confederation in 1643. (2014) WESTWARD EXPANSION 1. Since the Declaration of Independence Westward expansion is a story of annexations cessions and purchases. Elaborate. (2002) 2. Since the Declaration of Independence, the Westward expansion was a story of annexations, concession and purchases. Discuss. (2015) FEDERALIST 1. Who were FEDERALISTS? What were their political views and economic vision for the US? (2003) 2. Write comprehensively about the struggle between the Federalists and antiFederalists from 1787 to 1800 in the USA. (2006) 3. Discuss the struggle between the Federalists and anti-Federalists in America (1787-1800). What were their respective political and economic ideas? (2010) 4. Discuss the trends and causes leading to the expansion of federal government's power in the U.S. (2015) GREAT DEPRESSION 1. Note: The great depression 1929 (2006) 2. Discuss in the details the causes and effects of the Great Depression on the people and society of the United States of America. (2009) (2016) PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 1. Discuss the progress of the Progressive Movement in the United States between 1900 -1916. (2001) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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2. Note: Progressive Movement. (2004) WATERGATE SCANDAL 1. What do you know about the Water Gate Scandal? What lesson the American national had learnt from it? (2010) US AS A MELTING POT 2. Americans are called ‘a Nation of Nations’ very briefly describe the different waves of immigrants that came to the US. Has America been a ‘melting pot’ or a ‘mixing bowl’? (2003) 3. Discuss evolution of Muslim Community in the US. (2011)

US INVASION OF IRAQ 1. Evaluate the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. How far the American policymakers remained successful in achieving their goals? (2015) OBAMA’S ADMINISTRATION 1. Discuss US financial crises and Obama policy to put the house in order. (2011) 2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world. Examine this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st centuries. (2014) CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1. Write a comprehensive note on the Black Civil Rights Movement in America for equal civil rights and the role played in it by different individuals and organizations. (2009) 2. Write a comprehensive note on the civil rights movement with a particular mention to the American women and the blacks. (2012) 3. What factors led Blacks to start the Civil Rights Movement? Discuss the role of Courts & State in giving rights to the Blacks. (2016) POST COLD WAR SCENARIO 1. Critically examine U.S role as a peace maker in the post-Cold war era, with particular reference to the Balkans and South Asia. (2013) NEW WORLD ORDER 1. Discuss the American efforts to build a New World Order after the end of the Cold war. Comment on its success or failure. (2013) 2. Did US succeed in its attempts to create a New World Order at the end of the Cold War? Discuss with arguments. (2014) 21st CENTURY USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. Will the 21st century as well be an American century or will the USA be obscured by new superpowers like China or the EU? (2012) 2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world. Examine this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st centuries. (2014) US FINANCIAL SYSTEM 1. What are the sources of government Revenues and Funds in U.S.A.? Is it true to say that the Americans pay taxes for civilized society? (2000) 2. Trace out the grounds of augmentation of the US financial system in the post WW II epoch. (2012) 3. What are the Sources of Revenues and Funds of Government in the U.S.? Is it true to say that the Americans pay taxes for civic facilities? (2015) MISCELLANEOUS 1. Describe Pan-Americanism with special reference to Latin American Republics. (2000) 2. Evaluate briefly America’s political and military involvement in Iraq since IranIraq War. (2001) 3. Between 1877 and 1900 the American Society was transformed from being agrarian and rural to being industrial and urban. What factors and forces helped to bring about this change? (2003) 4. After World War-II the dominant focus of the U.S. policy had been antiCommunism on global scale. Discuss. (2004) 5. What do you understand by ‘Manifest Destiny’? What fruits it bore in the shape of expansion of United States? (2005) 6. Discuss the internal and external factors that led the U.S on an imperialist path at the end of the 19th century. (2013) 7. Compare the Lockean philosophy with the American Political thought. (2015) 8. How urban life was affected in USA during two stages of Industrialization? (2016) SHORT NOTES 1. Note: Dollar Diplomacy (2000) (2016) 2. Note: U-2 Incident (2000) (2016) 3. Note: Waterloo Scandal (2001) 4. Note: Missouri Compromise 1820 (2002) 5. Note: New World Order (2002) 6. Note: POPULSM of the 1890s. (2003) 7. Note: The Jazz Age. (2003) 8. Note: McCarthyism (2003) 9. Note: Watergate Scandal. (2004), (2009) 10. Note: Compromise of 1850 (2005) 11. Note: Jay’s Treaty (2005) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Note: NATO (2005) Note: The Declaration of Independence(2007) Note: Navigation Act of 1660(2007) Note: The Scandals and controversies involving President William Jefferson Bill Clinton (2009) Note: George Washington (2010) Note: The issue of slavery (2010) Note: The Great Depression (2010) Note: U.Z Incident (2010) Note: The Atlantic Charter. (2011) Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2011) Note: War of 1812 (2011) Note: Malcolm-X (2011) Note: the beginning and the end of the cold war (2012) Note: what was the Dulles Doctrine? (2012) Note: the Japanese American internment (2012) Note: the modern feminism in the USA (2012) Note: Benjamin Franklin (2013) Note: Marbury vs Madison (2013) Note: Korean war (2013) Note: Watergate scandal (2013) Note: George Washington (2014) Note: Desert Storm (2014) Note: Tammany Hall (2014) Note: Federal Securities (2015) Note: Natural Aristocracy of Thomas Jefferson (2015) Note: Monroe Doctrine (2015)

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History of USA Early Recorded History (10th Century-1619) 10th Century America 1st discovered by Norsemen, Scandinavians 1457 Birth of Columbus 1470 Columbus went to Lisbon for studies 1492 Discovery of America 1496 Columbus 2nd Voyage 1497 John Cabot reaches present day Massachusetts 1498 Columbus 3rd Voyage 1502 Columbus 4th Voyage 1506 Death of Columbus 1507 Continent named America on Italian Mariner Amerigo 1519 Alvarez de Pineda may have discovered the Mississippi River 1524 Giovanni de Verrazano enters New York harbor 1539 Father marcos de Niza explores Southwest, brags of cities of gold 1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado's great party begins exploration of Southwest 1541 Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River 1542 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo discovers San Diego Bay 1565 St. Augustine, Florida, founded 1570 (approx.) Iroquois Federation founded 1579 Sir Francis Drake explores Pacific coast 1586 Drake plunders St. Augustine 1587 First English colony in North America is established in North Carolina, at Roanoke USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1598 Don Juan de Onate explores Southwest 1607 Jamestown, Virginia founded; first permanent English settlement in North America 1607 First ship constructed in the Americas, Popham, Maine 1609 Santa Fe, New Mexico, founded 1609 Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River 1609 Samuel de Champlain explores the Northeast 1614 Captain John Smith explores New Hampshire region 1619 House of Burgesses formed in Jamestown

Growth Continues (1620-1735) 1620 1624 1630 1632 1634 1634 1636 1636 1638 1643 1664 1670 1673 1675 1676 1682 1682 1692 1701 1704 1718 1729 1733 1735

Plymouth, Massachusetts, founded by Pilgrims New Amsterdam (New York City) founded Puritans settle Boston area King grants Lord Baltimore a charter for Maryland Benjamin Syms endows first U.S. free school, in Hampton, Virginia Jean Nicolet passes through straits of Mackinac Harvard University founded, first university in United States Rhode Island is acquired by Roger Williams, who finds Providence Sweeds begin settlement at what is now Wilmington, Delaware Tinicum Island is site of first European settlement in Pennsylvania British conquer New Netherland (New York) Charleston, South Carolina, founded, soon becomes early cultural center Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet discover upper Mississippi, explore vast area King Philip's War with the Wampanoag Indians begins nathaniel Bacon leads Virginia planters in the first conflict over British rule Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, claims vast Louisiana region for France Ysleta founded, first permanent European settlement in Texas Witchcraft trials and executions take place in Salem, Massachusetts Detroit founded by Antoine de la Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac First regular United States newspaper published, in Boston Sieur de Bienville founds New Orleans, Louisiana Baltimore, Maryland, founded James Oglethorpe begins establishment of Georgia Trial of John Peter Zenger recognizes freedom of the press

The Early Frontier (1736-1764) 1741 1748 1754 1760

Vitus Bering becomes first explorer to reach Alaska Ohio Company of Virginia organized to begin Ohio steeltment French and Indian War begins French rule in Detroit ends

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1761 First regular U.S. stagecoach run is begun, from Boston to Portsmouth, New Hampshire 1763 French control in North America ends with British victory in French and Indian war 1763 Chief Pontiac's siege of Detroit begins 1764 St. Louis, Missouri, established

Seeds of Rebellion (1765-1774) 1765 1765 1769 1770 1772 1773 1774 1774

Stamp Act incites the colonists against taxation without representation Patrick Henry fans the flames of the colonists' discontent First visit made by Daniel Boone to Kentucky Boston Massacre occurs Rhode Island residents burn British ship Gaspee to protest tax laws Boston Tea Party takes place Rhode Island abolishes slavery First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia

The Revolution (1775-1783) 1775 Coxasckie declaration of independence signed 1775 Bruno Heceta discovers the Columbia River 1775 Midnight rid of Paul Revere alerts patriots to approach of British troops; battles of Lexington and Concord fought 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, first major battle of Revolution, takes place 1775 Second Continental Congress names George Washington commander in chief of Continental Army 1776 Enemy troops enter, then are forced to withdraw from Boston 1776 Declaration of Independence is approved by the Continental Congress on 4th July 1776 Colonists driven back and defeated in Battle of Long Island 1776 General Washington crosses Delaware River, wins Battle of Trenton 1777 Washington loses Battle of Brandywine 1777 British troops led by Lord William Howe enter Philadelphia 1777 Continental Congress flees to York 1777 Desperate winter spent by Continental Army at Valley Forge 1777 Decisive Battle of Saratoga won by Americans 1777 Articles of Confederation adopted by Continental Congress 1778 Battle of Rhode Island fought 1778 Captain James Cook arrives in Hawaii 1778 Savannah, Georgia, is captured by the British 1778 Benjamin Franklin brings about alliance with France 1779 George Rogers Clark's capture of Vincennes, Indiana, confirms U.S. control in Midwest 1780 French army of over 5,000 lands at Newport, Rhode Island USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1780 British fleet arrives at Newport and blocks Washington's attempt to retake New York 1781 Lord Cornwallis arrives in Virginia, is overtaken by Washington and allies; surrenders at Yorktown 1781 Los Angeles founded 1782 Americans recapture Georgia 1783 Treaty of Paris officially ends Revolutionary War

Becoming a Nation (1784-1815) 1784 1784 1786 1787 1787 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1792 1793 1795 1796 1800 1803 1803 1804 1804 1805 1805 1806 1807 1811 1811 1811 1812 1812 1812

"State of Franklin" proclaimed in Tennessee Russia established settlement in Kodiak, Alaska Last of the eastern states cede western land claims Constitutional convention adopts Constitution of the United States Delaware is first state to ratify new Constitution Northwest Ordinance establishes Northwest Territory Cincinnati founded, becomes "Queen City of the West" Washington is inaugurated as first U.S. President Rhode Island is last of the 13 original colonies to ratify Constitution Virginia becomes a state Kentucky becomes a state American explorer Captain Robert Gray passes the treacherous Columbia River mouth Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin King Kamehameha I conquers most of Hawaii Tennessee becomes a state U.S. government moves to District of Columbia Ohio becomes a state Vast Louisiana Territory purchased from France Great expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark leaves St. Louis Duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr; Hamilton is killed, Burr becomes a fugitive Lewis and Clark expedition reaches the Pacific Zebulon Pike begins two years of exploration of the Southwest Lewis and Clark bring back much knowledge about the Northwest Robert Fulton's steamboat Clermont sails up the Hudson River First steamship sails on Ohio River Indians under the Prophet defeated by William Henry harrison at Battle of Tipecanoe Strong U.S. earthquake devastates central Mississippi River region, forms Reelfoot Lake in what is now Tennessee Fort Ross is built by the Russians in what is now California War of 1812 begins Louisiana becomes a state

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1812 Fort Dearborn (Chicago) massacre by Potawatomi Indians 1813 Detroit recaptured by United States 1813 Oliver Hazard Perry's victory over the British at Put-in-Bay ensures U.S. control of Great Lakes 1814 British attack, are defeated at Fort McHenry; "Star-Spangled Banner" is composed 1814 British burn Washington, DC 1814 Battle of Plattsburgh brings U.S. control of Lake Champlain 1814 Treaty of Ghent ends War of 1812 1814 Andrew Jackson wins Battle of New Orleans after War of 1812 ends 1814 Power loom introduced to the United States

Expansion and Controversy (1816-1860) 1816 1817 1817 1818 1818 1819 1820

Indiana enters the Union Mississippi enters the Union Indian resettlement begins in Oklahoma Illinois enters the Union First steamboat sails on the Great Lakes Alabama enters the Union Maine becomes a state

1821 1821 1821 1822 1824 1824 1825 1827 1827 1828 1828 1830

Andrew Jackson's successes in Indian wars bring Florida to the United States First U.S. cathedral is consecrated in Baltimore Missouri becomes a state (after Missouri Compromise on slavery is reached) Santa Fe Trail blazed First great annual fur "rendezvous" held in West Dr. John McLoughlin establishes Fort Vancouver, Washington Mexico takes control in California First American, Jedediah Smith, struggles overland to California Mechanics Union of Trade Association formed, in Philadelphia America's first passenger railroad, which is horse-drawn, begins operation Gold discovered in northern Georgia Country's first railroad built for a steam engine begins operation in South Carolina Black Hawk War pushes Indians west Henry R. Schoolcraft discovers source of Mississippi River: Lake Itasca, in Minnesota Indian Territory established in present day Oklahoma Cyrus McCormic invents reaper, revolutionizing agriculture Fire destroys 600 New York City buildings Texans besieged by Mexican troops at the Alamo Seminole War begins in Florida, as Indians protest forced removal

1832 1832 1834 1834 1835 1836 1836

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1836 Sam Houston's Texans defeat Mexican leader Santa Anna in Battle of San Jacinto 1836 Texas becomes an independent republic 1836 Arkansas becomes a state 1837 Electric motor invented by Thomas Davenport, in Vermont 1837 John Deere invents steel plow 1837 Michigan becomes a state 1838 Last of Cherokee forced over infamous "Trail of Teers" to Oklahoma, where Indian nations begin their great advances 1838 First Mardi Gras parade held in New Orleans 1841 William Henry harrison becomes the first president to die in office 1841 First commercial use of natural gas, in Malden, West Virginia 1842 Dr. Crawford W. Long is first to use ether as an anesthetic 1842 Webster - Ashburton Treaty establishes northeast border with Canada 1843 First major westward immigration begins, from Missouri 1843 Hawaii recognized as an independent nation 1844 Mormon leader Joseph smith murdered; Mormons leave Iowa 1845 Texas and Florida become states 1845 Naval Academy founded at Annapolis 1845 California Republic is formed 1846 Oregon and Washington come under U.S. control after agreement with Britain; expansions had called for "54o 40' or fight" boundary 1846 War with Mexico over disputed southwest lands 1846 Iowa becomes a state 1846 Elias Howe invents sewing machine 1847 Mormon pioneer refugees found Salt Lake city 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico adds Southwest region to United States 1848 Wisconsin becomes a state 1849 Unparalleled gold rush begins, with arrival of California 49ers 1850 California becomes a state 1853 Gadsden Purchase completes U.S. lands in Southwest 1853 New York holds nation's first world's fair 1854 Republican party formed 1855 Sault Ste. Marie canal opens, eventually becomes world's busiest 1856 Slave disagreement grows, flares in Kansas / Missouri guerrilla war 1858 Minnesota becomes a state 1858 Debates between Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln focus national tention on Lincoln 1859 Comstrock silver boom begins in Nebraska 1859 Five Civilized Tripes hold council, consolidate their gains, in present-day Oklahoma USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1859 John Brown seizes federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; is tried and executed 1859 Oregon becomes a state 1859 World's first petroleum well pumps in Titusville, Pennsylvania 1860 Pony Express begins its brief life 1860 Regular steamboat runs begin in upper Missouri River 1860 Lincoln elected president

Times of Great Travail (1861-1865) 1861 - Kansas enters the Union as a free state 1861- Southern states, eventually numbering 11, form Confederacy 1861 - Civil War begins with Confederate attack at Fort Sumter, South Carolina 1861 - North American continent is spanned by telegraph 1861 - Northern forces routed at first Battle of Bull Run 1861 - Confederates seize Fort Pulaski, Georgia, many other strongholds 1862 - Northern drive on Richomnd, Virginia, fails 1862 - Battle of the Monitor and Merrimae 1862 - Battle of Antietam, Maryland, halts Confederates' northern advance 1862 - Union drive defeated by Robert E. Lee at Fredericksburg, Virginia 1862 - Battles of Pea Ridge and Prairie Grove, Arkansas 1862 - Battles of Shiloh, Iuka, Booneville, Mississippi 1862 - Decoration Day first celebrated, Mississippi 1863 - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves 1863 - Ulysses S. Grant lays siege to Southern stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi 1863 - Battle of Gettysburg halts Lee's drive north, is decisive turning point of civil War 1863 - Federal forces defeated at Chickamauga 1863 - William Clarke Quantrill burns Lawrence, Kansas 1863 - Vicksburg, Jackson, and Natchez fall to north; Union forces completely control Mississippi River 1863 - West Virginia becomes state, maintains Union sympathies 1863 - Battle of Missionary Ridge provides an important Union victory 1864 - Grant placed at head of all Union armies 1864 - Captain David Farragut captures Mobile Bay (Alabama) 1864 - Sand Creek massacre of Indians in Colorado 1864 - General William Tecumseh Sherman captures and burns Atlanta, captures Savannah 1864 - Nevada becomes a state 1865 - Petersburg and Richmond fall to Union forces 1865 - Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House, Virginia 1865 - Lincoln is assassinated 1865 - Jefferson Davis captured in Irwinville, Georgia 1865 - Jesse Chisholm blazes Chisholm Trail USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Reconstruction, Recovery, Road to Greatness (1866-1899) 1866 - First bridge built across Ohio River 1867 - Alaska purchased from Russia by the United States 1867 - Nebraska enters the Union 1867 - C. Latham Sholes invents the typewriter 1868 - President Andrew Johnson is impeached, cleared by Senate 1869 - First transcontinental railroad connects east and west coasts 1871 - Great Chicago fire 1872 - Yellowstone becomes first national park 1874 - George Armstrong Custer expedition finds Black Hills gold in South Dakota 1875 - First Kentucky Derby in Louisville 1876 - Custer defeated, his troops wiped out at Battle of Little Bighorn, Montana 1876 - Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia 1876 - Colorado becomes a state 1877 - Chief Joseph defeated in Nez Perce War 1877 - Thomas Edison invents the phonograph 1878 - Devastating yellow faver epidemic strikes South 1880 - Gold rush in Juneau, Alaska 1881 - President James Garfield is assassinated in Washington, DC 1884 - Cigarette-making machinery fuels growth of smoking 1884 - First U.S. golf course opens in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia 1884 - Minnesota iron ore dominance begins 1885 - Washington Monument dedicated 1885 - World's first steel frame skyscraper rises in Chicago 1886 - Coca-Cola is formulated and introduced in Atlanta 1886 - Statue of Liberty dedicated 1868 - American Federation of Labor formed in Pittsburgh 1887 - Bauxite (aluminum) discovered in Arkansas 1888 - Great Blizzard causes 400 deaths in eastern United States 1889 - First "run" for land titles begins Oklahoma land boom 1889 - Johnstown, Pennsylvania, flood kills 2,200 people 1889 - North and South Dakota, Montana, and Washington enter the Union 1890 - Sioux leader Sitting Bull is killed by U.S. forces 1890 - South Dakota is site of last Indian battle in United States, at Wonded Knee 1890 - Wyoming and Idaho enter the Union 1893 - Hawaiian monarchy is overthrown 1893 - World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, most splendid ever 1894 - First "modern" automobile perfected by Elwood Haynes 1896 - Utah enters the Union 1898 - U.S. battleship Maine blown up in Havanna Harbor, Cuba, igniting Spanish American war 1898 - U.S. Marines invade Cuba, capture Philippines and Puerto Rico USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1898 - War success asserts U.S. presence in Caribbean and Pacific 1898 - Hawaii is annexed by the United States 1898 - City of New York created by five boroughs 1898 - Kensington Runestone discovered in Minnesota 1898 - Mississippi International Exposition held in Omaha, Nebraska 1899 - Nome, Alaska, gold rush occurs

World Conflict / World Power (1900-1920) 1900 - Chicago River is reversed, creating a water route from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico 1900 - International Ladies' Garment Workers Union founded in New York City 1901 - Carlsbad Caverns discovered in New Mexico 1901 - President William McKinley assassinated at Buffalo world's fair; Theodore Roosevelt becomes president 1901 - Spindletop oil flows in Texas, heralds age of petroleum 1902 - Nation's first national forest established, in Wyoming 1902 - Social reforms of Governor Robert M. La Follette in Wisconsin set national pattern 1903 - Gold discovered in Fairbanks, Alaska 1903 - Panama Canal Zone comes under U.S. jurisdiction 1903 - Wright Brothers make world's first powered airplane flight 1903 - Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri 1906 - Diamonds discovered in Arkansas 1906 - San Francisco devastated by earthquake and fire 1907 - Oklahoma enters the Union 1908 - First Model T Ford introduced 1911 - First Indianapolis 500 automobile race held 1911 - President Theodore Roosevelt dedicates Roosevelt Dam in Arizona 1911 - Rebecca Felton, of Georgia, is appointed as first woman U.S. senator 1911 - World's first overland airmail, from Des Moines, Iowa, to Chicago 1912 - Georgia is birthplace of Girl Scouts of America 1912 - Woman gain right to vote in Oregon and Kansas 1912 - Railroad is built across sea over the Florida Keys, from Miami to Key West 1912 - Arizona and New Mexico become last of the conterminous states 1913 - Grand Canyon becomes national park 1914 - Panama Canol opens, just as Germany declares war on France 1916 - Jeannette Rankin of Montana is first woman elected to Congress 1916 - Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark by the U.S. 1917 - The United States joins Allied forces opposing German alliance in World War I 1918 - World War I ends with Allied Victory 1918 - Large-scaleinfluenza epidemic ravages the nation 1919 - Boston police strike broken by National Guard USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1920 - World's first commercial broadcasting station established in Pittsburgh 1920 - 19th Amendment ratified, giving women right to vote

Peace and Depression 1921 - Great destruction of cotton crops by boll weevil 1922 - Lincoln Memorial dedicated 1923 - President Warren G. Harding dies; Calvin Coolidge becomes president 1924 - George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue introduce symphonic jazz 1924 - All Native American Indians are made U.S. citizens 1924 - Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming is elected as the first woman governor in the United States 1927 - First airplane flight from mainland to Hawaii 1927 - Charles Lindbergh makes first solo flight across the Atlantic 1929 - Stock market collapse ignites the Great Depression 1930 - First America's Cup race in the United States, at Newport, Rhode Island 1931 - George Washington Bridge, Empire State Building opened 1932 - Winter Olympics are held in the United States for the first time, at Lake Placid 1932 - First woman elected to U.S. Senate, Hattie Caraway of Arkansas 1933 - Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes president, begins "100 Days" and New Deal to Combat Depression 1934 - Nebraska becomes only state with a unicameral legislature 1935 - Will Rogers and Wiley Post killed in Alaska plane crash 1935 - Controversial Louisiana politician Huey Long assassinated 1936 - Hoover Dam begins operation 1937 - Golden Gate bridge opens in San Francisco 1937 - Dirigible Hindenburg explodes at Lakehurst, New Jersey 1937 - Worst Ohio River floods yet 1938 - Oregon's Bonneville Dam begins operation 1939 - Persident Roosevelt opens New York World's Fair 1940 - Roosevelt elected to unprecedented third term 1940 - Nation's first peacetime draft anticipates war needs

A New World in the Making (1960-1990) 1960 - American U-2 reconnaissance plane is shot down over Soviet Union 1961 - First American troops arrive in Vietnam 1961 - Freedom Riders challange Southern segregation practices 1961 - President John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps 1962 - Astronaut John Glenn makes first U.S. orbital flight 1963 - President Kennedy assassinated in Dallas; Lyndon B. Johnson becomes president 1963 - California becomes largest state in population USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1964 - Reported attack on U.S. destroyers in Gulf of Tonkin; Johnson orders major U.S. involvement in Vietnam 1964 - Landmark Civil Rights Act passed 1964 - Beatles perform first U.S. concert, in New York's Carnegie Hall 1964 - Disastrous Alaska earthquake strikes 1964 - FTC requires health warnings on all cigarette packages 1965 - Hurricane Betsy ravages much of the Gulf Coast 1965 - North American Air Defense Command begins operations in Colorado 1966 - Gateway Arch dedicated in St. Louis 1967 - Thurgood Marshall sworn in as first African-American on Supreme Court 1968 - Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., is shot and killed in Memphis, Tennessee 1968 - Large oil deposits discovered at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska 1968 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Los Angeles 1969 - Neil Armstrong becomes first person to walk on the moon 1969 - Harvard scientists discover a single gene, basic unit of heredity 1970 - McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System begins operations 1971 - Spacecraft Mariner 9 orbits Mars 1972 - President Richard Nixon makes historic trip to China 1972 - First major league baseball strike, lasts for 13 days 1973 - U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ends ingloriously, with 50,000 U.S. servicepersons dead 1973 - In Roe v. Wade decision, Supreme Court rules that abortion is legal 1973 - Senate hearings begin into break-in at Democratic National Committee offices at the Watergate 1973 - Wounded Knee, South Dakota, occupied during Indian protest 1974 - Nixon becomes first U.S. president to resign 1974 - Chicago's Sears Tower becomes world's tallest building 1975 - Columbia/Snake River navigation system completed 1975 - Elizabeth Ann Seton named first American-born Saint 1975 - Ella T. Grasso of Connecticut becomes first woman elected governer without family ties 1976 - Bicentennial recognized with extensive national celebrations 1976 - Agreement makes Mariana Islands a U.S. commonwealth 1976 - Legionnaire's disease identified 1977 - First landing of Concorde SST in United States 1977 - Singer Elvis Presley dies 1977 - Trans-Alaska pipeline opens 1978 - Hannah Gray becomes president of University of Chicago, first woman to head a major U.S. university 1979 - Three Mile Island nuclear power plant malfunctions in Pennsylvania 1980 - Ronald Reagan is elected president 1980 - First woman graduates from U.S. Military Academy at West Point USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1980 - Mt. St. Helens erupts in Washington; ash covers 120 square miles 1980 - Former Beatle John Lennon is shot and killed 1981 - Iran releases 52 Americans held hostage for 444 days 1981 - Reagan is shot and wounded 1981 - First space shuttle is launched 1981 - Sandra Day O'Connor is sworn in as first woman on the Supreme Court 1983 - Bomb destroys U.S. Marine headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241 service persons 1983 - Sally Ride is first U.S. woman in space 1986 - Space shuttle Challanger explodes; six astronauts and teacher Christa McAuliffe killed 1986 - Congressional hearings begin into Iran / Contra affair 1989 - U.S. forces invade Panama, overthrow Manuel Noriega 1989 - Largest oil spill in U.S. history at Prince William Sound, Alaska 1989 - L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia is first African-American elected governor of a U.S. state since Reconstruction 1990 - U.S. forces reach Persian Gulf to defend area against Iraq

Alone at the Top (1991- Present) 1991 - Soviet Union in disarray, separates into individual nations; United States is only remaining "superpower" 1991 - United States and allies defeat Iraq, liberate Kuwait in Gulf War 1991 - California wildfires bring destruction and 24 deaths 1992 - Riots in Los Angeles follow the acquittal of four policeman on trial for beating a black man 1992 - Hurricane Andrew hits Florida and Gulf straights causing massive destruction 1992 - Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois is first African-American woman elected to Senate 1993 - Midwest suffers one of the most disastrous floods in its history 1993 - Terrorist bomb explodes in New York City's World Trade Center; six people are killed 1993 - Branch Davidian cult headquarters burns at Waco, Texas, during FBI raid; more than 70 cult members die 1994 - Earthquake strikes Los Angeles, claiming 61 lives 1994 - Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis dies 1994 - Republicans gain control of both houses of Congress 1994 - Major league baseball players go on strike; World Series canceled 1995 - California suffers dissastrous floods following torrential rains 1995 - Federal building in Oklahoma City bombed in terrorist attack, killing 169 1995 - Massive heat wave kills over 800 in Midwest and Northeast 1995 - Football great O.J. Simpson is acquitted of murder 1995 - An African-American "Million Man March" is held in Washington, DC USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1996 - Blizzard strikes Northeast 1996 - President Bill Clinton and Congress grapple over the federal budget COLONIZATION 1607 Virginia 1620 to 30 Massachusetts 1622 New Hampshire 1626 New York 1632 Mary Land 1636 Rhodes Island 1636 Connecticut 1638 Delaware 1663 North Carolina 1663 South Carolina 1664 New Jersey 1681 Pennsylvania 1732 Georgia MERCANTILISM 1651 Navigation Act 1660 Enumerated Act 1663 Staple Act 1673 Duty Act 1696 Enforcement Act 1733 Molasses Act 1764 Sugar Act WAR OF INDEPENDANCE Intolerable Act 1730-40 Great Awakening 1730-40 Albany Congress 1754-63 French Indian War 1763 Royal Proclamation 2nd Mar 1770 Boston Massacre 1773 Boston Tea Party 1774 1st Continental Conference 1775 2nd Continental Conference 4th July 1776 Declaration of Independence 1776 Common Sense 3rd Sep 1783 Treaty of Paris GEORGES WASHINGTON USA History by Aamir Mahar

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May 1787 CONSTITUTION MAKING OF AMERICA 22nd Feb, 1732 Birth of Washington 1789-1801 Federalist Regime 1789-1797 George Washington‘s Presidency 1789 Judiciary Act 1791 Bill of Rights 1791 Excise Act 1791 Whisky Rebellions 1793 Genet Mission 1794 Jay’s Treaty 1794 Pinckney Treaty THOMAS JEFFERSON 13th April 1743 Birth of Jefferson 1800 Louisiana Purchase 1801-1809 Presidency ANDREW JACKSON 15th Mar, 1768 Birth of Jackson

DETAILED NOTES Table of Content 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Early America Exploration of America Colonization in the New Continent Road to Independence Mercantilism Other Causes of War of Independence Problems in Formation of National Government Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist USA History by Aamir Mahar

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9) Constitution of United States of America 10) The Amendment Process 11) Salient Features of the American Constitution 12) Amendments in American Constitution 13) System of Check and Balance in American Constitution 14) George Washington (1789-1801) 15) Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) 16) The Louisiana Purchase 17) War of 1812 18) Missouri Compromise (1820) 19) Monroe Doctrine (1823) 20) Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) 21) Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) 22) Civil War 23) Progressivism (1890-1920) 24) Woodrow Wilson (1914-1919) 25) America and World War I 26) Causes of American entry to World War I 27) 14 Points of Woodrow Wilson 28) Great Depression (1930) 29) Effects of the Great Depression Facts 30) Great Depression Facts 31) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1932-1945) 32) The New Deal 33) New Deal Initiative 34) Government Expenditures 35) America and World War II 36) John F Kennedy (1961-1963) 37) Richard Nixon (1969-1974) 38) Nixon Watergate Scandal 39) Slavery in America

Early America At the height of the most recent Ice Age, about 35,000 years ago, much of the world‘s water was locked up in vast continental ice sheets. A land bridge as much as 1,500 km wide connected Asia and North America. By 12,000 years ago, humans were living throughout much of the Western Hemisphere. The first Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia and were believed to have stayed in what is now Alaska for thousands of years. They then moved south into the land that was to become the United States. They settled along the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in the mountains USA History by Aamir Mahar

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and deserts of the Southwest, and along the Mississippi River in the Middle West. Early Settlers in America These early groups that settled in America are known as o Hohokam o Adenans o Hopewellians o Anasazi They built villages and grew crops. Some built mounds of earth in the shapes of pyramids, birds, or serpents. Their life was closely tied to the land, and their society was clan-oriented and communal. Elements of the natural world played an essential part in their spiritual beliefs. The 1st Europeans in America The first Europeans to arrive in North America, at least the first for whom there is solid evidence were Norse. They traveled west from Greenland, where Erik the Red had founded a settlement around the year 985. It would be almost 500 more years before other Europeans reached North America and another 100 years after that before permanent settlements were established. The first explorers were searching for a sea passage to Asia. Others chiefly British, Dutch, French, and Spanish came later to claim the lands and riches of what they called the ―New World.

Exploration of America Europe towards Exploration of the New Land Until the 15th century nobody knew that there was a continent across the Atlantic. The first and most famous of these explorers was Christopher Columbus whose voyage of exploration finally brought the Americans and Europeans in contact. Columbus was born in 1447 in Genoa, Italy; he was a son of a wool comber. He spent eight years seeking to be financed for his trip to explore the Indies across Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, believed that sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean was the shortest sea route to Asia. Ignorant of the fact that the Western Hemisphere USA History by Aamir Mahar

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lay between Europe and Asia and assuming the earth's circumference to be a third less than it actually is, he was convinced that Japan would appear on the horizon just three thousand miles to the west. Like other seafarers of his day. Columbus was ready to sail for whatever country would pay for his voyage. Either because of his arrogance (he wanted ships and crews to be provided at no expense to himself) or ambition (he insisted on governing the lands he discovered), he found it difficult to find a patron. He was twice rejected by Portuguese, and the rulers of England and France were not interested. With influential supporters at court, Columbus convinced King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to partially underwrite his expedition. In 1492, Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, had fallen to the forces of the Spanish monarchs. Voyages of Columbus o 1st voyage, 1492: San Salvador, The Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola o 2nd voyage, 1493: Dominica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica o 3rd voyage, 1498: St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Margarita, Venezuela o 4th voyage, 1502: St. Lucia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama Once Columbus landed in America he discovered that there were already civilizations living in America. He named the Native of America as Red Indians, thinking that he had landed in India and those peoples are Indian. Native Americans Before Europeans there were four civilizations living in America and they were o Red Indians o Mayas o Aztecs o Incas John Cabot John Cabot of Venice came five years later on a mission for the king of England. His journey was quickly forgotten, but it provided the basis for British claims to North America. Name of America in Beginning o New World o Strange Land USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o Golden Land Name of America After the death of Columbus in 1506, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian navigator, sailed extensively along the American coast and is considered to be the first to realize that the Indies were in fact a ―New World‖ and not part of Asia. The first map that identified known parts of the Western Hemisphere as ―America, after Vespucci, was published in 1507.

Colonization in the New Continent The first permanent European settlement in what was to become the United States was established by the Spanish in the middle 1500s at St. Augustine in Florida. However, it would not play a part in the formation of the new nation. That story took place in settlements farther north along the Atlantic coast in Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and the 10 other areas colonized by a growing tide of immigrants from Europe. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Treaty of Tordesillas Columbus returned from his first voyage, they persuaded Pope Alexander VI to issue an edict giving Spain all lands west of an imaginary line through the Atlantic. Portugal was not satisfied. Through the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the two countries agreed to move the line further west and give Portugal exclusive right to the territory to the east. Although the result of the shift was unknown at the time, the change put the eastern quarter of South America (Brazil) in the Portuguese sphere. Colonial Period Most settlers who came to the British colonies in the 1600s were English. Others came from The Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, France, and later from Scotland and Northern Ireland. Some left their homelands to escape war, political oppression, religious persecution, or a prison sentence. Some left as servants who expected to work their way to freedom. Black Africans were sold into slavery and arrived in shackles. By 1690, the population was 250,000. Less than 100 years later, it had climbed to 2.5 million. The settlers had many different reasons for coming to America, and eventually 13 distinct colonies developed here. Differences among the three regional groupings of colonies were even more marked.

Causes of Colonization 1. Improvement in Technology: In Europe, there occurred a rebirth of classical learning. Columbus and other navigators lived in the time when the creativity was vitally at the peak and navigator and mariners were being financed to find out the shortest and safest routes to Asia. Europeans were improving in technology from gun powder to the sailing compass. There were also major improvements in ship building and map makings. 2. Renaissance in Europe: 1400 AD onwards is considered that to be the rising time of Europeans after the Dark Age which was 200 to 1200 AD. The Europeans now were making progress in every field of life and were keenly involve in learning and exploring. The technology of printing press after 1450 also spread the knowledge across Europe which played a very important role in educating the common man in Europe. 3. Religious Conflicts in Europe: The later years of renaissance were a time of religious zeal and conflict in Europe. The dominant Roman Catholic culture was threatened by Othman empire while the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Protestants revolted against the pope‘s authorities in Rome led to a series of war between Protestants and Catholic Christians. The reforms by Protestants were known as Protestants Reformation. 4. Expanding trade: Roots to Asia were blocked after Othman had taken over the city of Constantinople in 1453. Europe were dependant on Asian for trade, herbs and agriculture therefore they were in extensive need to find any other route to Asia. 5. Search for New Routes: To maintain the trade relation with Asia Europeans wanted to find out the shortest possible root which can again connect them to the sub-continent. They started financing navigators for exploration of new sea routes, which ultimately led them to the discovery of America. Although in 1448 Vasco De Gama was the 1st person to reach India by the route of Africa. 6. Pressure of population: 15 million people were living in Europe before America 7. Trade and Agriculture: Since Europe is not an agrarian continent therefore it heavily depended on the agriculture of Asia to fulfill the demands for their huge population. But the discovery of America gives them a land where they were able to cultivate the crops themselves with ideal weather and big rivers i.e. Mississippi and Missouri. 8. Desire for wealth: By the time America was discovered it was known as a ―Golden Land‖. The normal perception was as if there is a lot of gold in America which can be easily excavated. This was another important factor leading toward the colonization of the New Land. 9. Imperial Race: The Imperial powers of Europe were in race of having more and more land of America. As in older days the country with most colonies and vast majority of land was considered to be a super power. Which today is been replaced by economy and technology. 10. Royal Proclamation: Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648, between Spain and Dutch republic by which each state would have the right to determine the religion of his own state and also colonial claims were adjusted.

Road to Independence Britain’s 13 North American colonies matured during the 1700s. They grew in population, economic strength, and cultural attainment. They were experienced in self- government. Yet it was not until 170 years after the founding of the first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, that the new United States of America emerged as a nation. Role of Spain and France USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Decisive help came in 1778, when France recognized the United States and signed a bilateral defense treaty. French government decided to support Americans in the war against British. Spain officially entered was in 1779 and supported Americans Role of Blacks The blacks were the slaves of British master and they were also the once who were suffering from the hands of British. George Washington asked for their help in war and promised them to be freed after the victory. Approximately 5000 black supported America in the war.

Mercantilism Mercantilism is economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerful state. Adam smith coined the term "Mercantile system" to describe the system of political economy that enriched the country by restraining imports and encouraging exports. The goal was to achieve a "favorable" balance of trade that would bring gold and silver into the country, and maintain domestic employment. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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This was a famous economic theory which was used by British to exploit its colonies. According to this theory ― the colonies only existed for the benefit of their mother countries.‖ Mercantilism was a cause of frequent Europeans wars during 16th to 18th century and some schools of thought even suggest that mercantilism was one of the supreme causes which led the colonies to fight for their independence. Few important acts passed in mercantilism are as follow: 1) Navigation Act of 1651 This act stated that all the goods that were carried to England will now only be carried in British owned ships. 2) Enumerated Act of 1660 This act imposed ban on the colonies export. Now the commodities such as sugar, cotton, tobacco and dyes were only to be exported to either England or its colonies only. 3) Staple Act of 1663 These act provided that all the European exports to American colonies must be brought to English port and be reshipped after the payment of duty. 4) Duty Act of 1673 This act aim at the enforcement of all earlier acts through the services of custom collectors 5) Enforcement Act of 1696 This act provided strict measures for checking smuggling and all the colonial ship were now necessarily to be registered in England. 6) Molasses Act 1733 This Act imposed ban on the import of French West Indian molasses into the English colonies. 7) The Sugar Act of 1764 The Sugar Act of 1764 placed taxes on luxury goods, including coffee, silk, and wine, and made import of rum illegal. 8) The Currency Act of 1764 The Currency Act of 1764 prohibited the printing of paper money in the colonies. 9) The Quartering Act of 1765 The Quartering Act of 1765 forced colonists to provide food and housing for royal troops. 10) The Stamp Act of 1765 The Stamp Act of 1765 required the purchase of royal stamps for all legal documents, newspapers, licenses, and leases. Colonists objected to all these measures, but the Stamp Act sparked the greatest organized resistance USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Other Causes of War of Independence 1. Letters of Samuel Adams Samuel Adams of Massachusetts was the most effective and influential person. He wrote newspaper articles, made speeches and wrote letters to the politicians and influential persons appealing to the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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colonists’ democratic instincts. He helped organize committees throughout the colonies that became the basis of a revolutionary movement French Indian War War between Britain and France in 1754-1763 was fought partly in North America. Britain was victorious and soon initiated policies designed to control and fund its vast empire. These measures imposed greater restraints on the American colonists’ way of life. Royal Proclamation of 1763 The Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted the opening of new lands for settlement. This also prohibited the westward expansion of colonies toward Appalachian Mountains. The Coercive Act/ Intolerable Act Certain acts were passed, banning the manufacturing of goods in colonies; o The Hat Act o Iron Act o Woolen Act Self-Government Self-government produced local political leaders, and these were the men who worked together to defeat what they considered to be oppressive acts of Parliament. After they succeeded, their coordinated campaign against Britain ended. Their goal was not accommodation, but independence. Great Awakening This religious movement was started by Jonathan Edward in 1730 to 1740 which laid stress on unity of the 13 colonies. This truly was the 1st event in American history which made them realized that they can be united. Boston Tea Party British government impose ban on production of tea in the 13 colonies and impose the 3rd tax on tea and forced the colonies to buy 17 million pounds of unsold tea of British East India Company to overcome the losses. British Action on Massachusetts In December, a group of men sneaked into to three British ships in Boston harbor and dumped their cargo of tea overboard. To punish Massachusetts for the vandalism, the British Parliament closed the port of Boston and restricted local authority. 1st Continental Conference British action on Massachusetts was strictly condemned by other colonies. All the colonies except Georgia sent representatives to USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Philadelphia in September 1774 to discuss their ―present unhappy state and draw their future policy against the atrocities of the British imperial power. 10. 2nd Continental Conference The Congress met on May 10, 1776, in the State House in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is now called Independence Hall. The Second Continental Congress decided many important things. o Completely break away from Great Britain. o Officially put the colonies in a state of defense. o Form an army called the American Continental Army. o Congress officially appointed George Washington as commander-inchief of the army. o Decided to print paper money. The Second Continental Congress was one of the most important government meetings in the history of the United States of America. It decided some of the most important ideas that the colonists fought for in the Revolutionary War, because, at that meeting, members of the Second Continental Congress wrote and signed The Declaration of Independence. 11. Declaration of Independence The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, headed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, to prepare a document outlining the colonies’ grievances against the king and explaining their decision to break away. This Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. The 4th of July has since been celebrated as America’s Independence Day. 12. Common Sense by Thomas Paine Thomas Paine crystallizes the argument for separation in a pamphlet called Common Sense, which sold 100,000 copies. Paine discussed two main points in his pamphlet o Independence as the will of people o Revolution as the device of liberty and happiness 13. Sons of Liberty Sons of Liberty was a political organization which opposed the stamp act and marched out on the streets shouting Liberty, Property and No Stamp. 14. Boston Massacre 2nd march 1970, a large crowd gathered and protested against the government. The soldiers opened fire on the crowd which resulted in death of three and many were injured. This incidence created a sense of ill felling and hatred towards the British Government. 15. The Treaty of Paris USA History by Aamir Mahar

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The Treaty of Paris acknowledged the independence, freedom, and sovereignty of the 13 former American colonies, now states. The boundaries of 13 colonies were set and the issue of access to the Mississippi river was settled between Great Britain and America. This treaty also removed any chance of war with France.

Problems in Formation USA History by Aamir Mahar

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of National Government The 13 American colonies became the 13 United States of America in 1783, following their war for independence from Britain. Before the war ended, they ratified a framework for their common efforts. These Articles of Confederation provided for a union, but an extremely loose and fragile one. George Washington called it a “rope of sand.” a) No Constitution b) No common currency; c) No national military force; d) Little centralized control over foreign policy e) No national system for imposing and collecting taxes. f) Differences between Federalist and Anti-federalist. g) Foreign Policy h) Economic Weakness i) Slavery j) Powers and election of president

Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist Federalist 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strong Federation Representation according to Population No need of Bill of Rights Wanted to Ratify the Constitution Property and land should be managed by aristocrats.

Anti-Federalist 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strong States Equal Representation In favor of Bill of Rights Opposed Constitution because wanted more powers for state. Equal distribution of wealth

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Constitution of United States of America “A Constitution consists of those fundamental rules which determine & distribute functions & powers among the various organs of the Government’’ (Oxford Dictionary) The United States Constitution was written in May 1787 during Philadelphia Convention, when the states decided to make necessary changes in Article of Confederation but then started all over again and came up with the US constitution. After ratification in eleven states, in 1789 its elected officers of government assembled in New York City, replacing the earlier 1781 Articles of Confederation government. The American constitution is one of the most remarkable and important document in the history which was written more than 200 years before and only amended 17 times after the 1st ten amendments of bill of rights. The American constitution is in written form consisting of 7 articles and 27 amendments. It takes a very lengthy process to make any amendment to it. Therefore it is known as the most rigid document in the constitutional history of the world. Article of Confederation The Articles of Confederation was unanimously adopted in 1781 once Maryland agreed. Over the previous four years, it had been used by Congress as a ―working document‖ to administer the early United States government. Errors in Article of Confederation The article of confederation seems to have many flaws which were far beyond corrections. James Madison called the articles woefully inadequate. Some of major shortcomings in the articles are stated below 1. One house congress 2. No separate executive 3. Considerable powers to state 4. Lack system of judiciary 5. Central government had insufficient power to regulate commerce. 6. It could not tax, generally impotent in setting commercial policy. 7. It could not effectively support a war effort. 8. It had little power to settle quarrels between states. Drafting the constitution The 13 colonies were called at a convention in Philadelphia with the sole and express purpose of revising article of confederation. Rhodes Island was USA History by Aamir Mahar

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the only one which did not trusted the convention and refused to send its delegation. The Delegation The delegation of 55 men met in Philadelphia headed by George Washington. Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Dickenson and James Madison (father of American Constitution) were the other well known politicians in the delegation of 55 men. Where as John Jay, Tomas Jefferson, John Adams and Thomas Paine were on a diplomatic business trip abroad therefore they were not the part of delegation. The American constitution was based on two plans; it was a compromise between the two plans that which plans should be given more weight-age in constitution. 1. Virginia plan 2. New Jersey Plan Two alternative plans were developed in Convention. The nationalist majority, soon to be called ―Federalists‖, put forth the Virginia Plan, a consolidated government based on proportional representation among the states by population. ―Anti-Federalists‖, advocated the New Jersey Plan, a purely federal proposal, based on providing each state with equal representation. This issue remained unsettled for 4 weeks until the Connecticut comprise came as an alternative. Connecticut Compromise Connecticut compromise was composed by William Samuel Johnson which allowed both plans to work together. It suggested that there should be two houses of congress 1. House of Representative (Representation on population) 2. Senate (Equal Representation) The compromise suggested representation on the basis of population in ―House of Representative‖ and equal representation in Senate with 2 Senators from each state. Even the Connecticut compromise was not sufficient enough to bring constitution in working form as 9/13 states had to ratify it. But the small farmers, New York and Virginia were not happy with the idea until the Bill of Rights was added to the constitution. Bill of Rights Bill of Rights were the 1st ten amendments in the American constitution granting rights to the ordinary people of America. Following are the amendments if the bill: 1. Freedom of religions, speech, assembly, press and petition USA History by Aamir Mahar

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2. Right to possess arms 3. No quartering of soldiers during peacetime 4. No search and seizure of people‘s property 5. No criminal case to stand twice for same crime 6. Speedy trail of cases 7. Right to jury in case of 20 dollars and above 8. No excessive bails and cruel punishments 9. Rights not mentioned in constitution lies with peoples 10. Powers not mentioned in constitution will be exercised by states

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The Amendment Process There are essentially two ways spelled out in the Constitution for how to propose an amendment. One has never been used. The first method is for a bill to pass both houses of the legislature, by a twothirds majority in each. Once the bill has passed both houses, it goes on to the states. This is the route taken by all current amendments. Because of some long outstanding amendments, such as the 27th, Congress will normally put a time limit (typically seven years) for the bill to be approved as an amendment. The second method prescribed is for a Constitutional Convention to be called by two- thirds of the legislatures of the States, and for that Convention to propose one or more amendments. These amendments are then sent to the states to be approved by three- fourths of the legislatures or conventions. This route has never been taken, and there is discussion in political science circles about just how such a convention would be convened, and what kind of changes it would bring about.

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Salient Features of the American Constitution Checks and Balances: One of the most powerful weapons in the US constitution which makes it one of the most important written documents in world is the system of check and balance between the three tiers of state i.e. executive, legislative and judiciary. Brief & Simple: The US Constitution hardly consists of 6000 and is less than 12 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest and simply written constitutions of the world. Written Constitution: The US constitution is in the written form and comprises of 7 articles and 27 amendments had been made since the constitution was made in 1787. Dual Citizenship: The peoples living in America are authorized to have dual citizenship according to their constitution. The 1st citizenship of being an American and the 2nd is of the state which a citizen belongs to. Secular State: Since the constitution declares America as a secular state. Therefore no law can be made which prohibits or dents any religion in the country. Supremacy of the Constitution: The US Constitution is the supreme document as described in the article IV. The constitution is declared superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies and the government. No law can be passed contrary to the constitution. Strong Federation: Article I, section 789 declares the federal form of government in America. The stress is laid upon the strong center and relatively weaker states. Bill of Rights: Bill of rights were the 1st ten amendments in the US constitution which defined the rights of the peoples living in America. Rigid Constitution: US constitution is a rigid constitution because it requires a difficult procedure to amend it. Every amendment, which can be moved in two different ways, must be ratified by three-fourths of the states. Separation of Powers: The constitution is based on the doctrine of separation of powers. According to the constitution the national powers are divided into three departments i.e. executive, legislature and judiciary. Bicameralism: American parliament is known as Congress. It consists of two chambers. Upper house is the Senate and lower house is the House of Representatives. Independent Judiciary: The president of USA appoints the judges but he has no power to remove them. It is only the legislature according to Article 1 Section 6, which can impeach the judge of Supreme Court. Universal Suffrage: The Constitution has given right to vote to every citizen who is 18 years old without any distinction of male or female. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Division of Powers: As the Federal Government requires a double set of Government. That of center and those of states there must be a division of powers between the two parts. All those powers which are not stated in the constitution are to be exercised by the states. Spoils System: This system was introduced by President Andrew Jackson. According to this system the new president appoints all important official of the government sacking the previous administration. This system is known as the ―Spoilt System because the jobs are distributed among the party men regardless of their merit, experience and talent. Presidential form of government: The Constitution establishes a presidential form of government. The constitution vests all executive powers to the president. The president is the head of the state as well as the government. Republicanism: There would be Republicanism in the political structure of the US. Laws made by the legislature shall be supreme as it represents the will of the people. The people who made those laws are elected by the people themselves. Sovereignty of the People: The preamble of the US Constitution emphasizes the theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has been vested in the people of the USA.

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Amendments in American Constitution 1st Ten Bill of Rights 11th Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation for sovereign immunity 12th Revises presidential election procedures 13th Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime 14th Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil War issues 15th Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude 16th Allows the federal government to collect income tax 17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote 18th Establishes Prohibition of alcohol (Repealed by Twenty-first Amendment) 19th Establishes women's suffrage 20th Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress (January 3) and the President (January 20); known as the "lame duck amendment" 21st Repeals the Eighteenth Amendment 22nd Limits the president to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years (i.e., if a Vice President serves not more than one half of a President's term, he or she can be elected to a further two terms) 23rd Provides for representation of Washington, D.C. in the Electoral College 24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of poll taxes 25th Codifies the Tyler Precedent; defines the process of presidential succession 26th Establishes the official voting age to be 18 years old. 27th Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until the beginning of the next session of Congress

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System of Check and Balance in American Constitution The United States Constitution provided very direct safeguards to the freedoms of all Americans as the first three Articles of the United States Constitution discuss about the specific powers reserved to the three branches of government that enable a balance of power. The national government is divided into three branches: o Legislative o Executive o Judicial These three branches are not independent of one another because the Constitution set up a system of checks and balances to help ensure that no one branch becomes too powerful. Each branch has powers that it can use to check and balance the operations and power of the other two branches. Following is a look at the specific checks that each branch has been given. The Legislative Branch of Government Makes the Laws Section Seven outlines the procedure for passing bills and resolutions. Here we find a good example of ―checks and balances. A bill might arise in the House and passed with a simple majority. If then passed by the Senate, it goes to the President for signature. Once signed, the bill becomes law. However, if the President vetoes the bill, both chambers can still pass the bill with a two-thirds vote. This is referred to as a vote to override the veto. 1. May override presidential vetoes with a two-thirds vote 2. Has the power over the purse strings to actually fund any executive actions May remove the president through impeachment 3. Senate approves treaties 4. Senate approves presidential appointments The Legislative Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch: o Creates lower courts o May remove judges through impeachment o Senate approves appointments of judges The Executive Branch of American Government USA History by Aamir Mahar

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The Executive Branch is given the power to carry out the laws. It has the following checks over the Legislative Branch: 1. Veto power 2. Ability to call special sessions of Congress 3. Can recommend legislation 4. Can appeal to the people concerning legislation and more The Executive Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch: o President appoints Supreme Court and other federal judges The Judicial Branch of United States Government The Judicial Branch is given the power to interpret the laws. It has the following checks over the Executive Branch: 1. Judges, once appointed for life, are free from controls from the executive branch 2. Courts can judge executive actions to be unconstitutional through the power of Judicial review The Judicial Branch has the following checks over the Legislative Branch: o Courts can judge legislative acts to be unconstitutional. Conclusion The American system of checks and balances has worked well over the course of America's history. Even though some huge clashes have occurred when vetoes have been overridden or appointees have been rejected, these occasions are rare. The system was meant to keep the three branches in balance. Even though there have been times when one branch has risen preeminent, overall the three branches have achieved a workable balance with no one branch holding all the governmental power.

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George Washington (1789-1801) George Washington was the unanimous choice as the 1st president of America after winning the war of independence. He was born on 22nd Feb 1732 in Virginia to an English family. His brother‘s mirage to a royal family helped him enter politics. He was a soldier with exceptional skills and led the army of 13 colonies in war of independence against British. Initially a staunch supporter of reconciliation with British but he also felt that there should be no discrimination in the salaries and ranks of continental and the royal army. He was a more of military General than a politician but still good enough to drive the nascent America out of its crisis as the 1st president of America. Domestic Achievements 1. Hamilton Financial Plan America was going through one of the most crucial financial crisis after its birth. In the meanwhile Alexander Hamilton was appointed as the secretary state of treasury. He gave a comprehensive plan to promote and stable the financial condition of America. 1) Revenue generation via taxation 2) Payment of national and state debts ($54 million State Debts) 3) Establishment of National Bank on the basis of Bank of England 4) Establishment of Uniform Currency in all states of USA 2. Whiskey Rebellion In western Pennsylvania a group of farmers refused to pay federal excise duty on whiskey which was a challenge to the American constitution and the government itself. Farmers insisted they won‘t be able to bear the burden to pay tax on the distilled whiskey from surplus corn. Washington responded by federalizing 15,000 men in the state militia under the supervision of Alexander Hamilton. This led to the collapse of whiskey rebel without any bloodshed. This act of Washington was appreciated by the entire country. 3. Westwards Expansion

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Due to the treaty of Greenville and Jays, US government controlled vast lands. Congress passed a Public Land Act in 1796 for rapid settlement of land and selling federal land at reasonable price. This also allowed process of adding new states to the union and in 1791 Vermont became the 1st newly added stated followed by Kentucky and Tennessee. 4. Judicial Act This act was passed in 1789 and laid the foundation of judicial system of United States of America. It laid stress that the states judiciary should be under the control of federal judiciary. Further points, it discussed are as under a) One Chief Justice b) 5 Associate Judges c) 13 Districts d) Federal District Court along with Attorney General 5. Treaty of Greenville The Native Americans were defeated by the American army lead by General Anthony Wayne and in the battle of Fallen Timber in Northwestern Ohio which led them to sign the ―Treaty of Greenville‖ in which the natives surrendered their claims on the Ohio territory. Foreign Policy 1. French Revolution Americans had humble feeling towards France because of the French Revolution and France was the country that supported America in the war of independence against British but when the revolution of France turned into violence. The American decided to be neutral and sidelined from the internal affairs of France. 2. Citizen Genet Edmond Genet was a French minister who came to America and asked for US assistance in French cause as per treaty of 1778. Genet was so outrageous with his conduct that even Jefferson approved Washington to ask French government to remove the offending diplomat. Once recalled by French government Genet chose to live in USA, where he married and became a US citizen. 3. Jays Treaty Washington sent his Chief justice on a special mission to Britain that they should stop the offensive practice of searching and seizing American Ships and impressing seamen in British Navy. After a year of negotiation, John Jay brought back a treaty in which British agreed to evacuate US post in western frontier but did not said any thing about search and seizure of US ships. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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4. Proclamation of Neutrality A war between England and France broke out. Washington referred his cabinet whether he should remain neutral or support France in the war. Majority of votes went in favor of neutrality as America it self was a nascent country. On 22nd April 1973 Washington issued Proclamation of Neutrality. 5. Pinckney Treaty Spain was in desperate need to have good relations with America because of tense relations with Britain. Realizing the situation, America sent their minister Thomas Pinckney to Madrid where he signed the “Treaty of Son Lorenzo”. This gave Americans the access to lower Mississippi and New Oreland. 6. XYZ affairs The Americans were angered by the reports of US merchant ships search and seizure by France. America sent its minister to France to hold talks with French government. Certain French ministers known as X, Y, and Z met the delegation from US in Paris and demanded a large sum of bribe to enter negotiations. American Delegation refused and returned back. “Millions for defense but not a single cent for tribute to France” became the slogan in America. the condition were so severe that Alexander Hamilton demanded to wage a war against France in North America but John Adam refused saying that the American Army and Navy was not that powerful and neither in the position to wage war against France. 7. Convention of 1800 Napoleon came into power in 1800 and there was a threat that he might wage a war against America. America sent another mission to France to revive the treaty of 1778. The mission was successful this time as napoleon too was eager to have good relations with America and a convention was signed on 30th Sep 1800 which removed the peril of war between the two countries. 8. Two Party System Washington himself was appointed as a unanimous president of America and it became a popular belief that the political parties are not needed as nothing was mentioned about the political parties in the constitution also. But this soon proved wrong as the debates between federalist and anti-federalist indicated that the two party system would emerge in America as the permanent feature of politics.  Democratic Republicans  Federalist USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Washington Farewell Address At the time of his retirement he wrote a farewell which was publish in 1796 in the newspapers. This message had an enormous effect because of Washington’s prestige. The president spoke of the policies that he consider as unwise and warned Americans 1) Not to get involved in European affairs 2) Not to form political parties 3) Not to avoid sectionalism 4) Not to make any permanent foreign alliance

Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) Jefferson was born on 13th April, 1743 grew up in Virginia and was raised with the orphaned children. He studied law with George Wythe, the first American law professor. He was admitted to the bar in 1767. Jefferson served in the House of Burgesses (1769-74). He argued against Britain's actions and was part of the Committee of Correspondence. He was a member of the Continental Congress (1775-6) and then became a member of the Virginia House of Delegates (1776-9). As a member of the second Continental Congress (1783-4), he wrote the Declaration of Independence. He was sent to France as a minister after the war (1785-89). He considered his presidency as the 2nd American Revolution. “My Presidency is the 2nd American Revolution” - Thomas Jefferson

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The Louisiana Purchase Napoleon Bonaparte, who came to power in France in 1799, dreamed of reestablishing the French empire in North America. In the following year, he negotiated a secret treaty, the Treaty of San Ildefonso, with Spanish King Charles IV, which returned the Louisiana Territory to France In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join Robert Livingston, the American minister in Paris, to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida. Bidding of Louisiana By this time, Napoleon had given up his plans for a colonial empire. Two American representatives were therefore surprised to find the French government willing to sell all of Louisiana, 280,000 square miles between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains for a paltry $15 million. Jefferson was unsure whether the United States could legally buy the Louisiana territory because the Constitution said nothing about purchasing land. He considered proposing a constitutional amendment but dropped the idea because it might take too much time, and the opportunity could vanish. The bargain was too good to pass up. Jefferson approved the purchase, the Senate ratified it, and the United States abruptly doubled in size. 1. Judicial Impeachment John Marshall was the chief justice of the Supreme Court and a strong rival of Thomas Jefferson. Therefore the relation between executive and judiciary remained tense in those days. Jefferson tried to appoint his party men to the courts but he was heavily criticized for this act. Whereas John Marshall managed to secures the independence of the federal judiciary through brilliant legal arguments and skilled political maneuvering. 2. Albert Galton and Federal Budget USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Jefferson was of the view that the federal budget should be understandable to the common men also. Therefore he appointed Albert Galton and gave him the task of making federal budget understandable even to the common man. So that their feedbacks and suggestion could help improving the budget further. Immigration Policy The immigration policy before his presidency was quite strict and the immigration was granted to the one who at least had spent 14 years in America. He reduced the time period of 14 years to 5 years for acquiring the US citizenship. Laissez Fair Economy Laissez Fair Economy is an economic environment in which transactions between private parties are free from tariffs, government subsidies, and enforced monopolies, with only enough government regulations sufficient to protect property rights against theft and aggression. Jefferson was of the view that there should be very little involvement of government in private economy. Religious Tolerance Though he himself was an atheist but he was very much tolerant of other religions and passes a bill in 1777 which promoted religious freedom for the state of Virginia (which was before his presidency). Autonomy to States Since he was an Anti-Federalist and his main priority was to make state stronger. Therefore he provided full autonomy to the states. Slavery Issue Jefferson use to consider slavery as an evil institution and believed in equality of man. But no proper measures were taken during his presidency for the eradication of slavery. Since he was a landlord and even he himself had 127 slaves, for which he was often criticized. Belief and importance to common man He considered government as an instrument for the promotion of common men. He was of the view that the common man should be given a chance to enter politics and run government. “Thomas Jefferson was the most brilliant man ever occupied the American Presidency” - John F. Kennedy

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War of 1812 The war of 1812 is recorded as a military conflict between the British and Americans. This probably was the 2nd war fought between the two countries after the war of independence. Britain at first was on the defensive mode as it was busy in the war with Napoleon in Europe but once the war with France ended in 1814 British adopted aggressive strategy and send large invasion armies to fight America. The nation went to war bitterly divided. While the south and west favored the conflict. The U.S. military was weak. The army had fewer than 7,000 regular soldiers, distributed in widely scattered posts along the coast, near the Canadian border, and in the remote interior. The state militias were poorly trained and undisciplined. But yet they decided to declare the war against Britain. Causes of War From US point of view, pressure leading to war came from two sides the continued US neutral rights on sea and troubles with Britain on western frontier. Free Sea and Trade As a trading nation America was dependant upon the free flow of ship over the Atlantic Ocean. Yet the belligerents of Europe France and Britain had no interest in neutral rights respect for each other. Due to support from France in American War of Independence and French Revolution Americans had a soft corner toward France but the British violation was taken very blatantly. Impressments of American USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Merchants in Royal Navy British was involved in capturing and impressing the US sailors in to the royal navy which was another cause that led USA to enter the war with Britain. British Support to Red Indians British were providing military and financial assistance to the Red Indians to fight against the Americans which was denting the situation in America. War Hawks In 1810 there was a group of young republicans in congress. Many of them were from frontier states were very eager to fight a war with Britain. They were led by John Calhoun and Henry Clay and they quickly gained significant influence in House of Representatives

Declaration of War America invited British to held talks on the neutral rights but British delayed. Bothe the political pressure and British delay in talks led Madison to seek the declaration of war in June 1812. Invasion of Canada A poorly equipped American army led the expansion of Canada from three parts on 1812. The forces captured Canada from Detroit, Niagara and Lake Champlain. The American raid on Toronto and burnt officials buildings there but they British army easily repulsed them out and gained control. Burning of White House By the spring of 1814, the defeat of Napoleon in Europe enabled British to be more aggressive in war against US and they send more troops toward North America. At the Chesapeake campaign, British troops marched and captured Washington D.C and set white house and other official building on fire. Treaty of Ghent British Having fought Napoleon for more than a decade; they now were in desperate need of peace in Europe. At the same time Madison and America recognized that America will be unable to get a decisive victory. Therefore American peace commissioner traveled to Ghent, Belgium in 1814 to held peace talk with Britain and finally a Treaty of Ghent was signed between the two countries. Main Points of Treaty of Ghent o A halt to fight o Return of all conquered territories to prewar claimants USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o Recognition of prewar boundary between Canada and America The War Legacy From Madison‘s point of view, the war achieved none of its original aims. Nevertheless, it had a number of important consequences for the future development of the American republic. They may be listed as follows: 1. Having now survived two wars with Britain, a great power, the United States gained the respect of other nations. 2. The United States came to accept Canada as a neighbor and a part of the British Empire. 3. Widely denounced for its talk of secession and disunion in New England, the Federalist Party came to an end as a national force and declined even in New England. 4. Talk of nullification and secession in New England set a precedent that would later be used by the South. 5. Abandoned by their British allies, Native Americans in the West were forced to surrender large areas of land to white settlement. 6. As European goods became unavailable due to the British naval blockade, more U.S. factories were built, and Americans took a big step toward industrial self-sufficiency. 7. War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would soon be in the forefront of a new generation of political leaders. 8. As a result of the war, there was a strong feeling of American nationalism and also a growing belief that the future for the United States lay in the West and away from Europe.

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Missouri Compromise (1820) In an effort to preserve the balance of power in Congress between slave and Free states, the Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820 admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. Furthermore, with the exception of Missouri, this law prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Territory north of the 36° 30´ latitude line. In 1854, the Missouri Compromise was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Three years later the Missouri Compromise was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision, which ruled that Congress did not have the authority to prohibit slavery in the territories. The American new boundary lines were being drawn during the presidency of James Monroe. The population of America by that time was 10 millions. During this period of explosive growth new states were being added almost every year and the issue of slavery was increasingly dividing the nation. Addition of as slave and Free states: 1) Mississippi (slave State) 1817 2) Illinois (Free State) 1818 3) Alabama (slave State) 1819 By the time Alabama was added as a slave state the number of free and slave states became equal as there were: o 11 free states o 11 slave states USA History by Aamir Mahar

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But the application of adding Missouri as a slave state was a threat to upset the balance between the free and slave states. The issue was presented in the US congress for an action. Congress had the right to abolish slavery in any of the state including Missouri but this action was strongly opposed by the leaders of the southern slave state. As they feared abolishing slavery in Missouri may result in the imbalance this might help declaring slavery as an illegal institution. Henry Clay, a leading congressman, played a crucial role in brokering a two-part solution known as the MISSOURI COMPROMISE. 1st Point: Missouri would be admitted to the union as a slave state, but would be balanced by the admission of MAINE, a free state, that had long wanted to be separated from Massachusetts. 2nd Point: slavery was to be excluded from all new states in the Louisiana Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri. 3rd Point: Ban on Slavery over the north of Missouri

Monroe Doctrine (1823) The Monroe Doctrine was a regular annual address of the president to the nation delivered on 2nd Dec, 1823 which ultimately became the pillar of US foreign policy in the nineteenth century, but its importance in the twentieth century is disputed. On the one hand, it laid the grounds for American expansion in the Western Hemisphere and provided a framework of reciprocal non-interference in transatlantic relations. Therefore, a reconsideration of its impact is relevant to the discussion of the tension between internationalism and isolationism. An assessment of the relevance of the Monroe Doctrine in twentieth-century US diplomacy must take into account that (i) It outlined a regionalist view of world affairs (ii)It expressed widespread notions of American culture, history, and national identity. The period of 1817 to 1829 can be divided in two phases. The 1st period belongs to James Monroe who brought peace and security in the country therefore his period is known as era of good feelings. The period of John Quincy Adams was considered to be the period of hardship and difficulties. Thus it was known as era of hard feelings 1817-1824 Era of Good Feelings USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1825- 1829 Era of Hard feelings

The Principles of Monroe Doctrine: o o o o

Anti-Colonization Non-Intervention Self Defense American Nationalism and Self-Awareness

Main Points in Doctrine 1. American continent cannot be considered as subject for further colonization by European powers. 2. European political system is different than that of Americans and any attempt to extend to this system to American hemisphere will be considered dangerous to our peace and security. 3. America will not interfere in European war and their politics neither we do have any aim to oppress them. Use of Monroe Doctrine 1) Objection to British Alliance in Texas in 1836 2) 1845 Westward expansion during the presidency of James Polie 3) 1863 French empire in Mexico was seriously taken by Americans as violation of Monroe Doctrine 4) President Theodore Roosevelt declared American right to intervene in continent. Effects The effects of the Monroe Doctrine on Europe were mixed. While Spain did not attempt to restore empire in Latin America, Britain continued as a dominant trade power there. Some Latin American nations resented the implications that the United States was somehow responsible for their wellbeing. It was not until the 1880s and the development of the U.S. Navy that the U.S. actually had the military power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine.

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Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) The era of emergence of popular politics in 1820‘s and the presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) is often called as the Age of Common Man, or the Era of Jacksonian Democracy. Andrew Jackson was born to a Scottish family on the border of South and North Carolina on 15th March, 1768. He was a son of Saddle maker and was groomed in extreme poor condition. He became orphan at the age of 14 years and tasted all the hardships in his life during his childhood. Jackson was a brilliant student of Law. He was very much enthusiastic to be military men and served the military from 1813 to 1400. He was made Major General after defeating Greeks and he also defeated British in the battle of New Orland. In 1828 he became the president of America defeating John Quincy Adams. He was described as ―Old Hickory. 1. Rise of Democratic Society The peoples who traveled from Europe to America (like Alexis de Tocqueville, French Aristocrat) were amazed to see the informal and democratic attitude of Americans. As the rich and poor use to dress in USA History by Aamir Mahar

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the same manner, they normally travel in the same busses and trains and sits on the same tables in hotels. The principle of equality among the white men in America was widespread belief. Politics of Common Man In 1830‘s and 1840‘s the politics of America moved out from the fine homes of rich aristocrats to the lower and middles class society. This was the time when these classes were given the right to vote and the number of vote for president increase from 350,000 in 1824 to 2.4millions in 1840. Universal male suffrage All the white men in America were given the right to vote regardless of their class or religion. This increased the voting ration in America from 37% to 57.6%. The political offices now could also be held by the lower and middle ranks of the society. Party Nomination Convention In past days, a nomination for appointment of a candidate to an office was made by the caucus. Te common peoples had no opportunity to participate. In 1830‘s the caucuses were replaced by nominating convention. The politicians and voters would gather in a large all to nominate the party candidate. Maximum Use of Veto Power Andrew Jackson used the veto power more than any other Americans president in the history. He was the President who enjoyed all the powers of being the president. Rise of Political Parties Andrew Jackson realized the importance of political parties. There were only two parties by that time, the democrats and the Whigs. Jackson allows many other parties during his time. Anti-Masonic and Workingmen Party emerged during his tenure and the common man got a chance to be involved in politics. More Elected offices During the Jacksonian era much larger number of states and locals officials were elected, rather than appointed, as in the past. This increased the interest of voters to participate in elections. Popular Campaigning Candidates for offices directed their election campaign to the interest of the common people. Politics also became a form of local entertainment. Campaigns of 1830‘s and 1840 have featured marching bands and large rallies in which voters were treated with free drinks and food. Spoilt System USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Winning government jobs became lifeblood of political parties. Jackson believed in appointing peoples to federal post strictly according to whether they have campaigned for Democratic Party. Jackson believed in system of rotation in office to make maximum number of democrats to hold office. Spoil system was criticized as it promoted government corruption. 10. Kitchen Cabinet Kitchen Cabinet is normally the consultative and advisory body of the president, but Andrew Jackson started the practice of consulting the informal group of advisers mostly his friends including Major Lewis, Isaac Hill and General Duff. 11. Peggy Eaton Affair The champion of common men also went to the wellbeing of common women at least in the case of Peggy Eaton. She was the wife of Jackson Secretary of war. She by that time was the target of malicious gossips by the other women who avoided inviting her to their private parties. When Jackson insisted to invite Peggy Eaton socially most of his cabinet including Vice President: John Calhoun resigned 12. Indian Removal Act 1830 Jackson concept of democracy did not extents to the natives Americans. He was of the view that the natives should leave their tradition and customs and resettle west of Mississippi. In the presidency of eight years Jackson had 94 treaties with the Red Indian and ultimately used military to drive them out across the Mississippi. The hardship on the ―trails of tears‖ was so great that 4000 Cherokees died on the tragic westward trek 13. Re-chartering of Bank of USA Jackson was of the view that central bank is abusing its powers and is serving the interest of wealthy peoples. His suspicion increases to the arrogant personality of Nicholas Biddle the President of Bank. Henry Clay opposition member was in support of Bank and challenged Jackson on bank issue by persuading majority in congress on bank recharter bill. Jackson vetoed the bill and overhauled the banking system in America. 14. Foreign Policy He managed a balanced and friendly foreign policy with friendly relations with France, Britain and other Europeans Countries maintaining better trade relations and cordial policies in political, economic and social relations. He settled the claims of France in North America which were pending since 1815. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865) Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 in a log cabin near present day Hodgenville, Kentucky. His parents, Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, named him after his pioneer grandfather who was shot dead by hostile Indians in 1786. 1809 was the 16th President of America. His family moved to Indiana and then to Illinois, and Lincoln gained what education he could along the way. While reading law, he worked in a store, managed a mill, surveyed, and split rails. In 1834, he went to the Illinois legislature as a Whig and became the party's floor leader. For the next 20 years he practiced law in Springfield, except for a single term (1847–49) in Congress, where he denounced the Mexican War. In 1855, he was a candidate for senator and the next year he joined the new Republican Party. Achievements of Abraham Lincoln 1. Popular Leadership A poll was released in February 2009. This poll was sponsored by CSPAN and consisted of a survey of 65 historians. The participants were asked to rank the presidents in ten categories ranging from public persuasion and economic management to international USA History by Aamir Mahar

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relations and moral authority. Abraham Lincoln finished first, George Washington was second, and Franklin Roosevelt was third. Abolition of Slavery Abraham Lincoln is remembered for his vital role as the leader in preserving the Union during the Civil War and beginning the process that led to the end of slavery in the United States. The actual fact is that legal freedom for all slaves in the United States did not come until the final passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in December of 1865. Lincoln was a strong supporter of the amendment, but he was assassinated before its final enactment. Lincoln and Domestic Society President Lincoln's domestic policies included support for the Homestead Act. This act allowed poor people in the East to obtain land in the West. He signed the Morrill Act which was designed to aid in the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges in each state. Also, Lincoln signed legislation entitled the National Banking Act which established a national currency and provided for the creation of a network of national banks. In addition, he signed tariff legislation that offered protection to American industry and signed a bill that chartered the first transcontinental railroad. Wisest US President Politicians love to quote Abraham Lincoln because Lincoln is considered America's wisest president. A major effect Lincoln has on the U.S. today is simply through the good example he set when it came to leadership and integrity. Fugitive Slave Act To soften the attitude of peoples in south Lincoln supported the Fugitive Slave Law or Fugitive Slave Act which was passed in 1850. This was one of the most controversial acts of the 1850 compromise and heightened Northern fears of a "slave power conspiracy". It declared that all runaway slaves will be brought back to their masters. Good Relations with Cabinet Lincoln managed excellent relations with his advisors, cabinet and military. When ever, there was disagreement among advisors and he, his leadership style often involved telling a story that demonstrated his point. Lots of times this method worked, and cabinet admired and respected him for it. He could virtually disarm his enemies with his highly moralistic, skillful leadership. Lincoln possessed qualities of kindness and compassion combined with wisdom. In fact, one of his nicknames was "Father Abraham." Foreign Policy USA History by Aamir Mahar

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The Major achievement of Lincoln foreign policy was that it geared toward preventing foreign intervention in the Civil War. He was a very shrewd diplomat and an excellent negotiator. Many countries would have entered the American civil war, had there been no Abraham Lincoln as the President of Union by that time. Some of his major achievements in foreign policy were: 1) Made Great Britain neutral in Civil War 2) Not opted for any political support to abolish slavery from America. 3) Maintained better trade relations with neighboring countries and Europe.

Civil War In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States. He defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater northern population. Southerners were angered by the growing abolitionist movement, and when Lincoln was elected, they feared that their way of life was in jeopardy. South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks, six other southern states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very bloody four year war was to come. PEOPLE North (Union) Abraham Lincoln U.S. Grant William T Sherman

South (Confederacy) Jefferson Davis Robert E Lee Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Election of Lincoln Discrimination of race Slavery The abolitionist (people who wanted to stop slavery) movement Difference in economy Western expansion

Consequences of the Civil War 1. Physical Devastation The American Civil War lasted four years. Measured in physical devastation and human lives, it was the costliest war the American people have experienced. The war killed over 620,000 men and at least that many more had been wounded in a nation of about 35 million. 2. Spread of Disease and Sickness North lost a total of about 364,000 soldiers (nearly one of every four soldiers). Also more than 37,000 black soldiers lost their lives fighting for freedom during the American Civil War. The conditions of the war were so bad more men died of disease and sickness than on the battlefield. 3. Hunger and Homelessness After the war, over 4 million slaves were freed. They didn't know what the future had in store for them. With freedom came hunger and homelessness. Some slaves stayed on the plantations, but others went north. Either way, thousands of former slaves were without homes, clothes, food, jobs, and didn't have any education. The Freedman's Bureau helped both blacks and whites after the war by providing them with food and medical care. Effects of the Civil War The Civil War was one of the most tragic wars in American history. More Americans died then in all other wars combined. Brother fought against brother and the nation was torn apart. In the end, we must look at the important consequences of the conflict. There may be others, but this is a good list to work off. 1) The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed to secede. 2) The South was placed under military rule and divided into military districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the Union. 3) The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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4) Slavery was effectively ended. While slavery was not officially outlawed until the passage of the 13th amendment, the slaves were set free upon the end of the war. 5) Reconstruction, the plan to rebuild America after the war, began. 6) Industrialism began as a result of the increase in wartime production and the development of new technologies.

Progressivism (1890-1920) Introduction By the beginning of the twentieth century, muckraking journalists were calling attention to the exploitation of child labor, corruption in city governments, the horror of lynching, and the ruthless business practices employed by businessmen like John D. Rockefeller. At the local level, many Progressives sought to suppress red-light districts, expand high schools, construct playgrounds, and replace corrupt urban political machines with more efficient system of municipal government. At the state level, Progressives enacted minimum wage laws for women workers, instituted industrial accident insurance, restricted child labor, and improved factory regulation.

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At the national level, Congress passed laws establishing federal regulation of the meat- packing, drug, and railroad industries, and strengthened antitrust laws. It also lowered the tariff, established federal control over the banking system, and enacted legislation to improve working condition. Four constitutional amendments were adopted during the Progressive era, which authorized an income tax, provided for the direct election of senators, extended the vote to women, and prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. Efforts to improve society were not new to the United States in the late 1800s. A major push for change, the First Reform Era, occurred in the years before the Civil War and included efforts of social activists to reform working conditions and humanize the treatment of mentally ill people and prisoners. The second reform era began during Reconstruction and lasted until the American entry into World War I. The struggle for women's rights and the temperance movement were the initial issues addressed. A farm movement also emerged to compensate for the declining importance of rural areas in an increasingly urbanized America. Who were Progressives? Chiefly the Middle class residents of US cities were the active member of this revolution. It was a movement by the urban middle class apart from doctors, lawyers, ministers and storekeepers there now were thousands of white collar office workers and middle class managers employed in banks, firms and other businesses. They were disturbed about what might happen to American democracy.

Progressives Presidents o Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1909) o Howard Taft (1909 – 1913) o Woodrow Wilson (1913 – 1917) Motives and Demands of Progressives 1. Increasing gap between the rich and poor 2. Violent conflict between labor and capital 3. Dominance of corrupt politicians 4. Racism 5. Women suffrage 6. Greater Democracy 7. Monopoly USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Role of the Muckrakers The need for reform was highlighted by a group of journalists and writers known as the muckrakers, who made Americans aware of the serious failings in society and built public support for change. Exposés such as o Lincoln Steffens The Shame of the Cities (1904), an attack on municipal corruption o Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), which chronicled ruthless business, practices. The muckrakers' impact could be powerful, as in the case of Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906), a book whose vivid descriptions of working and sanitary conditions in Chicago's meatpacking plants led directly to federal laws regulating the industry. A. Political Reforms o Tried to put more power into the hands of the people o Innovative changes in city government o Direct Election of Senators o the Vote for Women B. Social Reforms o Child labor laws o Ten-hour work days o Minimum safety standards on the job o Immigration Restriction o Little Help for Blacks NAACP (1909)

Progressive Amendments to the Constitution 16th Amendment (1913)— federal income tax 17th Amendment (1913)— direct election of senators 18th Amendment (1919)— prohibition of Alcohol 19th Amendment (1920)— vote for women Success of Progressives Successes were many, beginning with the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). Progressives never spoke with one mind and differed sharply over the most effective means to deal with the ills generated by the trusts; some favored an activist approach to trust-busting, others preferred a regulatory approach. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Vocal minority supported socialism with government ownership of the means of production. Other progressive reforms followed in the form of a conservation movement, railroad legislation, and food and drug laws. The progressive spirit also was evident in new amendments added to the Constitution (text), which provided for a new means to elect senators, protect society through prohibition and extend suffrage to women. Urban problems were addressed by professional social workers who operated settlement houses as a means to protect and improve the prospects of the poor. However, efforts to place limitations on child labor were routinely thwarted by the courts. The needs of African Americans and Native Americans were poorly served or served not at all — a major shortcoming of the progressive movement. Progressive reforms were carried out not only on the national level, but in states and municipalities. Such reforms as the direct primary, secret ballot, and the initiative, referendum, and recall were effected. Local governments were strengthened by the widespread use of trained professionals, particularly with the city manager system replacing the frequently corrupt mayoral system. Impacts of Progressive Movement  The Exploitation was labor was checked and working hours were decided Natural resources were protected  Brought a change in attitude of the politicians given them a sense of responsibility.  Fair distribution of powers among state and federation.  Local governments were strengthened Acts Passed During Progressive Era 1. Pure Food And Drug Act (inspection of meat) 2. Hep Burn Act (Uniform System of Railroads) 3. Antiquates Act (placed certain lands under federal control) 4. Clayton Anti Trust Act (Removed deficiencies in Sherman Anti Trust Act) 5. Federal Reserve Act (Federal Bank joined Federal Reserved System) 6. New York State Tenement House Act (Ban on Construction of dark and airless buildings) 7. Folleters Sea man’s Act (improved condition of labors on sea ships) 8. Worker men Compensation Act (for benefit of Federal civil servants) 9. Federal Aid Road Act (Construction of road from federal funds money) 10. Federal Form Loan Act (Provided loans to farmers) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Woodrow Wilson (1914-1919) Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia on 28th Dec, 1856. He was the 28th American President and the son of a Presbyterian minister who during the Civil War was a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a professor in the charred city of Columbia, South Carolina. He was nominated as the President at Democratic Convention in 1912 and campaigned on a program called the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states' rights. In the three-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but an overwhelming electoral vote. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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He is the 2nd of the four president of America to be awarded noble prize. He was awarded noble prize for his excellent peace making efforts. In 1919 he suffered a stroke which nearly took his life away and his body was paralyzed. He died in 1924. Achievements of Woodrow Wilson 1. True Progressive president of America 2. Noble Prize winner for peace efforts 3. Balance US policy in World War I 4. Wilson 14 points

America and World War I Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies. It is very difficult to pin point the actual causes of the 1st world war. But here is the list which provides some popular reasons that led the world to their first battle. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was one of the immediate causes of the war. In June 1914, a Serbian nationalist assassinated him and his wife while they were in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This was in protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this region. This assassination led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. 2. Mutual Defense Alliances Countries throughout Europe made mutual defense agreements that would pull them into battle. Thus, if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1, the following alliances existed: 1. Russia and Serbia 2. Germany and Austria-Hungary 3. France and Russia 4. Britain and France and Belgium 5. Japan and Britain 3. Militarism As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun. By 1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military buildup. Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved to war. 4. Nationalism Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led directly to the War. But in a more general way, the nationalism of the various countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but the extension of the war in Europe. 5. Imperialism Imperialism is when a country increases their power and wealth by bringing additional territories under their control. Before World War 1, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention amongst the European countries. This was especially true because of the raw materials these areas could provide. Enetente Powers (France, Britain and Russia) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Centrist Powers (Germany, Turkey, Austria-Hungary)

Causes of American entry to World War I 1. Trade Relations with Europe American had very good trade relations with the European countries, which brings in the economic factor that America entered the war. As huge loan were given to allies by America, defeat of those allies would had resulted in the sinking of American money. Therefore America decided to enter the war and support allies. This resulted in the tripling American trade with allies to $3 billion a year between 1914 and 1916 and helped economic recovery in the United States. 2. German Submarine Warfare In March 1918, German sub marines torpedoed three unarmed American ships including famous ship Lusitania, which resulted in heavy losses. Britain propagated this news and the German aggressive behavior was condemned and US was forced in to the war. 3. Zimmer Mann Telegraph American public opinion was also inflamed by the Zimmermann note. Zimmermann was the foreign secretary of Germany who sought a military alliance with Mexico against United States. When submarines sank three American merchant ships, Wilson abandoned temporary armed neutrality and decided to take the United States into the war. 4. Russian Revolution In 1917, the ruler of Russia ―Czar‖ was dethroned in the Russian revolution and the communist party led by Lenin was all set to take up the new system of government in Russia. America was of the view that the communist revolution will not be favorable to American system. 5. Weapons Credibility Issue America was one of the biggest sellers of arms and artillery to Europe. Since the world war had begun by that time, it was the issues of the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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credibility of American arms as a large number of US arms were being used by the allies in the 1st world war. The failure of allies in the war would have resulted as a disaster for the US weapon industry. 6. Declaration of War In his powerful war message of 2 April 1917, Wilson condemned the German submarine campaign as ―warfare against mankind, and urged Americans to fight, in his famous phrase, to make the world safe for democracy.

"The world must be made safe for democracy." - Woodrow Wilson

14 Points of Woodrow Wilson During the bloody battles of the First World War, President Woodrow Wilson began to explain his plans for the peace following the war. Most widely known was his message of a "peace without victory" most completely explained in his "Fourteen Points" speech before Congress on 8 January 1918. The first five points consisted the idea of an "open" world USA History by Aamir Mahar

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after the war. The next eight points focused mainly upon the idea of granting "self- determination" to national minorities in Europe. Most significant, however, was point number fourteen which stressed a "general association of nations" to ensure "political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike." Essentially, these Fourteen Points signaled a generous, non-punitive postwar settlement. 1. Abolishment of Secret Treaties Abolition of secret diplomacy by adoption of open covenants (agreements) openly arrived at. 2. Absolute Freedom of The Seas Freedom of the seas in peace and war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action to enforce international covenants. 3. Removal of economic barriers and equality of trade Removal of international trade barriers where-ever possible and establishment of equal trading conditions among the nations accepting the peace. 4. Reduction of armaments. Reduction of armaments to the lowest point consistent with public safety. 5. Adjustment of colonial claims. Adjustment of colonial claims, taking into account the interests of the colonial population as well as those of the rival colonial powers. 6. Evacuation of Russian Territories Evacuation of German troops from Russian territory, and an opportunity for Russia, then engaged in the Communist revolution, to determine its form of government without outside interference. 7. Preservation of Belgian sovereignty Evacuation of German troops from Belgium. 8. Restoration of French territory Alsace-Lorraine Evacuation and restoration by Germany of French territory, with restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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9. Re-adjustment of Italian frontiers Readjustment of the frontiers of Italy along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 10. Division and autonomous development of Austria-Hungary Opportunity of autonomous development for the peoples of AustriaHungary. 11. Redrawing of Balkan boundaries Evacuation by the Central Powers of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania; granting of seaports to Serbia; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the Balkan states. 12. Limitations on Turkey Internationalization of the Dardanelles and self-determination for non-Turkish peoples under Turkish control. 13. Establishment of an independent Poland An independent Poland with access to the sea. 14. Association of nations (League of Nations) A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states.

Great Depression (1930) The Great Depression represents one of the darkest periods in American economic history. Most people think the Great Depression started in USA History by Aamir Mahar

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October 1929, with the famous Black Tuesday stock market crash, but economists and historians point to an economic downturn which took hold in early 1929. The stock market crash led to unprecedented selling of 1, 30, 000, 00 shares alone on 24th Oct, 1929. This stock market crash is often known as ―Wall Street Crash‖. Franklin D. Roosevelt‘s New Deal is largely credited with bringing America out of the Great Depression by providing jobs and relief, but in truth, the country didn‘t fully recover until 1941, when munitions and ammunition factories geared up for World War II.

Causes of Great Depression 1. Dust Bowl Draught From 1930-1936 American farmers struggled with conditions of the Dust Bowl, a drought that affected more than a million acres of farmland, and the result was mass migrations of people from rural lands to urban areas. 2. Unequal Distribution of Wealth Although the nation's wealth grew by billions throughout the 1920s, it was not distributed evenly. The top 1% received a 75% increase in their disposable income while the other 99% saw an average 9% increase in their disposable income. 80% of Americans had no savings at all. 3. War Debts At the end of World War I, European nations owed over $10 billion to their former ally, the United States. Their economies had been devastated by war and they had no way of paying the money back. The U.S. insisted their former allies pay the money. This forced the allies to demand Germany pay the reparations imposed on her as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. All of this later led to a financial crisis when Europe could not purchase goods from the U.S. This debt contributed to the Great Depression. 4. High Tariffs In 1922, the U.S. passed the Fordney-Mc Cumber Act, which instituted high tariffs on industrial products. A tariff is a tax on imports. Other nations soon retaliated and world trade declined helping bring on the great depression. 5. Overproduction in Industry USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Factories were producing products; however wages for workers were not raising enough for them to buy. Few workers could afford to buy the factory output. The surplus products could not be sold overseas due to high tariffs and lack of money in Europe. 6. Farm Overproduction Due to surpluses and overproduction, farm incomes dropped throughout the 1920‘s. The price of farm land fell from $69 per acre in 1920 t0 $31 in 1930. In 1929 the average annual income for an American family was $750, but for farm families it was only $273. The problems in the agricultural sector had a large impact since 30% of Americans still lived on farms. 7. Stock Market Crash 24th Oct 1929 Stock Market Crash lead to selling of 130,000,00 shares in one day because stocks were overpriced due to speculation, meaning they were not worth their sale price. Massive fraud and illegal activity occurred due to a lack of regulation and rules. Margin buying, or buying using credit

Effects of the Great Depression Facts 1. Unemployment The primary effect of the Great Depression was that it caused millions of workers to lose their jobs. Unemployment during the Great Depression rose from 3% in 1929 to 25% by 1933. 2. People lost their life savings Because of the Great Depression, more than 9,000 banks closed during the 1930s, causing millions of people to lose their life savings. 3. Drop in US GNP From 1929 to 1933 the U.S. Gross National Product (which is a measurement of how many goods and services are produced in a year) dropped by 33%. 4. Federal welfare or social programs At the start of the Great Depression, there was no federal welfare or social programs in place. Out of the Great Depression and FDR‘s New Deal, these programs were created: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC); Federal Housing Administration (FHA); Public Works Administration (PWA); Social Security Act (SSA). USA History by Aamir Mahar

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5. Increased Taxes One of the effects of the Great Depression is that the tax rate changed significantly for the wealthiest Americans. In 1927, the top tax rate was reduced to 25%, which is a large part of what caused the Great Depression. In 1932, in an effort to pull out of the Great Depression, the rate was raised to 63%. In 1936, it was bumped again, to 79%. In 1945, it reached an incredible 91% and hovered at 88% or greater until 1963 when it was reduced to 70%. In comparison, today‘s top tax rate is 35%. The FDIC was created to insure that people‘s money would be safe and protected against bank failures. 6. Changes in Stock Market Changes were made to the stock market to prevent rampant speculation and further crashes, the most notable of which was that people could no longer buy stocks on margin.

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1. At its highest point during the Great Depression, unemployment reached 25% (in 1933). 2. The Great Depression began in 1929 and ended in 1941 when America prepared to enter World War II. 3. Social Security, a program that continues to this day, was introduced by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the midst of the Great Depression. 4. The ―Roaring Twenties‖ weren‘t roaring for everyone. By 1929, 1% of Americans controlled 40% of the wealth in this country. 5. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was formed in 1934 to insure deposits in banks and restore customers’ faith in the American banking system. 6. The Dust Bowl years spanned 1930-1936, when a million acres of farmland across the Plains became worthless due to severe drought and over farming. 7. After the stock market crash in 1929, it took 27 years to reach precrash levels. 8. In 1939, the unemployment rate in America had dropped from a high of 25% to 15%, largely due to the New Deal programs introduced by Franklin D. Roosevelt. 9. Tuesday, October 29, 1929 is known as Black Tuesday because of the plunge the stock market took, and it largely symbolizes the start of the Great Depression, though the economy had been in decline for at least six months prior to that date. 10. By 1933, more than 11,000 of the nation‘s 25,000 American banks had shuttered victims of the Great Depression. 11. In March 2012, it was reported that 4 out of 15 of the major U.S. banks (including Citigroup) wouldn‘t survive another severe recession, much less a depression.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1932-1945) Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his Inaugural Address, "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." Roosevelt was born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York. He attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School. Following the example of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt, whom he greatly admired, Franklin D. Roosevelt entered public service through politics, but as a Democrat. He won election to the New York Senate in 1910. President Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and he was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920. He was the only American President to be elected four times. Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected four times, in 1932, 1936, 1940, and 1944. He assumed the Presidency on March 4, 1933 and died in office on April 12, 1945, serving for a term of 12 years and 1 month. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

Franklin D. Roosevelt Personal Qualities o He was a practical politician who practiced the art of the possible. o He was a charismatic person who exhibited a warmth and understanding of people. o He knew how to handle press by focusing attention on Washington. o He provided dynamic leadership in a time of crisis. o He was willing to experiment

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The New Deal By 1935 the Nation had achieved some measure of recovery, but businessmen and bankers were turning more and more against Roosevelt's New Deal program. They feared his experiments, were appalled because he had taken the Nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget, and disliked the concessions to labor. Roosevelt responded with a new program of reform: 1) Social Security 2) Heavier taxes on the wealthy 3) New controls over banks and public utilities 4) Work relief program for the unemployed. Purposes of the New Deal 1) Relief: to provide jobs for the unemployed and to protect farmers from foreclosure 2) Recovery: to get the economy back into high gear 3) Reform: To regulate banks, to abolish child labor, and to conserve farm lands First New Deal (1933-1934) o Emphasis: reform o Political Position: conservative o Primary aim: economic recovery o Philosophy: economic nationalism and economic scarcity o Objectives: higher prices for agriculture and business o Beneficiaries: big business and agricultural business Second New Deal (1934-1941) o Emphasis: reform o Political Position: liberal o Primary aim: permanent reform o Philosophy: international economic cooperation and economic abundance o Objectives: increased purchasing power and social security for public o Beneficiaries: small farmers and labor

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New Deal Initiative 1. Emergency Banking Act/Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) Description: Right after taking office as President, FDR shut down all of the banks in the nation and Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act which gave the government the opportunity to inspect the health of all banks. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was formed by Congress to insure deposits up to $5000. Outcome: These measures reestablished American faith in banks. Americans were no longer scared that they would lose all of their savings in a bank failure. Government inspectors found that most banks were healthy, and two- thirds were allowed to open soon after. After reopening, deposits had exceeded withdrawals. 2. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) Description: This agency sent funds to depleting local relief agencies. Within two hours, $5 million were given out. Mr. Hopkins believed that men should be put to work and not be given charity. His program also funded public work programs. Outcome: Revitalized many deteriorating relief programs. 3. Civil Works Administration (CWA) Description: This public work program gave the unemployed jobs building or repairing roads, parks, airports, etc. Outcome: The CWA provided a psychological and physical boost to its 4 million workers. 4. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Description: This environmental program put 2.5 million unmarried men to work maintaining and restoring forests, beaches, and parks. Workers earned only $1 a day but received free board and job training. From 1934 to 1937, this program funded similar programs for 8,500 women. Outcome: The CCC taught the men and women of America how to live independently, thus, increasing their self esteem. 5. Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 Description: This act ended the sale of tribal lands and restored ownership of unallocated lands to Native American groups. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Outcome: The outcome was obviously positive for the Native Americans.

6. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June 1933 Description: The decline in the industrial prices in 1930s caused business failures and unemployment. The NIRA was formed in order to boost the declining prices, helping businesses and workers. The NIRA also allowed trade associations in many industries to write codes regulating wages, working conditions, production, and prices. It also set a minimum wage. Outcome: The codes stopped the tailspin of prices for a short time, but soon, when higher wages went into effect, prices rose too. Thus, consumers stopped buying. The continuous cycle of overproduction and under consumption put businesses back into a slump. Some businesses felt that the codes were too complicated and the NRA was too rigid. It was declared unconstitutional later on. 7. Public Works Association (PWA) Description: The PWA launched projects such as the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River. Outcome: One of the best parts of the NIRA. 8. Federal Securities Act of May 1933/ Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Description: This act required full disclosure of information on stocks being sold. The SEC regulated the stock market. Congress also gave the Federal Reserve Board the power to regulate the purchase of stock on margin. Outcome: Critical for long-term success for businesses. 9. Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) / Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA) Description: In order to help people keep their houses, the HOLC refinanced mortgages of middle-income home told to by the AAA. Many could not believe that the federal government was condoning such an action when many Americans were starving. It was declared unconstitutional later on. Outcome: Farmers killed off certain animals and crops as they were owners. The AAA tried to raise farm prices. It used proceeds from a new tax to pay farmers not to raise specific crops and animals. Lower production would, in turn, increase prices. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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10. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (May 1993) Description: The TVA helped farmers and created jobs in one of America’s least modernized areas. Outcome: Reactivating a hydroelectric power plant provided cheap electric power, flood control, and recreational opportunities to the entire Tennessee River valley. 11. Works Progress Administration (WPA) 1935-1943 Description: This agency provided work for 8 million Americans. The WPA constructed or repaired schools, hospitals, airfields, etc. Outcome: Decreased unemployment. 12. Farm Security Administration (FSA) Description: The FSA loaned more than $1 billion to farmers and set up camps for migrant workers. 13. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) Description: It legalized practices allowed only unevenly in the past, such as closed shops in which only union members can work and collective bargain. The act also set up the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to enforce its provisions 14. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 Description: This banned child labor and set a minimum wage. This law was a long awaited triumph for the progressive-era social reformers. 15. Social Security Act Description: This act established a system that provided old-age pensions for workers, survivor‘s benefits for victims of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and aid for dependent mothers and children, the blind and physically disabled. Outcome: Although the original SSA did not cover farm and domestic workers, it did help millions of Americans feel more secure.

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Criticisms of Conservative Opponents      

Conservative opponents said the New Deal went too far: It was socialism (killed individualism) It added to the national debt ($35 billion) It wasted money on relief and encouraged idleness It violated the constitution & states rights It increased the power of the

Government Expenditures The total cost of the current bailout. It has cost more than all of these government expenditures combined. Figures in parentheses have been adjusted for inflation:  Marshall Plan Cost: $12.7 billion ($115.3 billion)  Louisiana Purchase Cost: $15 million ($217 billion)  Race to the Moon Cost: $36.4 billion ($237 billion)  S&L Crisis Cost: $153 billion ($256 billion)  Korean War Cost: $54 billion ($454 billion)  The New Deal Cost: $32 billion est. ($500 billion EST.)  Invasion of Iraq Cost: $551billion ($597 billion)  Vietnam War Cost: $111 billion ($698 billion)  NASA Cost: $416.7 billion ($851.2 billion)

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America and World War II For the second time in the 20th century, the United States became involved in a devastating world conflict. The mobilization effort of the government in World War II eclipsed even that of World War I. With major operations in both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters, American industries literally fueled two wars simultaneously. The social and economic consequences were profound. The Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to the industrial North was accelerated. New opportunities opened for women. Americans finally enjoyed a standard of living higher than the pre-Depression years. But the war effort also had a darker side. Civil liberties were compromised, particularly for the 110,000 Japanese Americans who were forcibly uprooted from their West Coast homes to be sent to remote relocation camps. In both Europe and Asia, the Axis powers had established a firm foothold prior to American entry into the conflict. Slowly, but surely the Allies closed the ring on Nazi Germany after turning points at El Alamein and Stalingrad. Once Italy quit the Axis and the Allies landed successfully at Normandy, it was only a matter of time before the Nazi machine was smashed. Similar failures marked the early war in the Pacific, as the Japanese captured the Philippines. But once Japanese offensive capabilities were damaged at Midway, the United States "Island Hopped" its way to the Japanese mainland. New technologies emerged during the war as well. RADAR helped the British locate incoming German planes, and SONAR made SUBMARINE detection much more feasible. German v-1 and v-2 rockets ushered in a new age of long-range warfare. But no weapon compared in destructive capacity to the atomic bomb, developed after a massive, secret research project spearheaded by the United States government. World War II was fought over differences left unresolved after World War I. Causalities Over 400,000 Americans perished in the four years of involvement, an American death rate second only to the Civil War. Twelve million victims perished from Nazi atrocities in the holocaust. The deaths of twenty million Russians created a defensive Soviet mindset that spilled into the postwar USA History by Aamir Mahar

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era. After all the blood and sacrifice, the Axis powers were defeated, but the Grand Alliance that emerged victorious did not last long. Soon the world was involved in a 45-year struggle that claimed millions of additional lives — the Cold War.

John F Kennedy (1961-1963) John F. Kennedy was born into a rich, politically connected Boston family of Irish- Catholics. He and his eight siblings enjoyed a privileged childhood of elite private schools, sailboats, servants, and summer homes. During his childhood and youth, "Jack" Kennedy suffered frequent serious illnesses. Nevertheless, he strove to make his own way, writing a best-selling book while still in college. After a short stint as a journalist, Kennedy entered politics, serving in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 and the U.S. Senate from 1953 to 1961. Kennedy was the youngest person elected U.S. President and the first Roman Catholic to serve in that office. For many observers, his presidency came to represent the ascendance of youthful idealism in the aftermath of World War II. The promise of this energetic leader was not to be fulfilled, as he was assassinated near the end of his third year in office. For many Americans, the public murder of President Kennedy remains one of the most traumatic events in memory—countless Americans can remember exactly where they were when they heard that President Kennedy had been shot. His shocking death stood at the forefront of a period of political and social instability in the country and the world. Foreign Policy 1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion The most high-profile and obvious failure was the Bay of Pigs Invasion. In this incident, the US clearly failed to bring off the invasion of Cuba. This made JFK look weak because he allowed the invasion but failed to support it enough to make it work. 2. JFK's policy towards Vietnam Although no one knew at that time that another failure was JFK's policy towards Vietnam. It was during this time that the US got more deeply involved in that conflict. 3. Cuban Missile Crisis USA History by Aamir Mahar

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The major success was the Cuban Missile Crisis. This incident made JFK look much more effectual than he had the year before in the Bay of Pigs incident. Here, JFK's leadership prevented nuclear war and also made the USSR back down. This was the major foreign policy success of JFK's time in office.

Domestic Affairs Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination. 1. Revision of Taxes In his 1963, he proposed substantial tax reform and a reduction in income tax rates; he proposed a reduction in the corporate tax rates from 52 to 47%. Kennedy added that the top rate should be set at 70 percent if certain deductions were not eliminated for high income earners. 2. Civil Rights African-Americans were striving to reverse centuries of social and economic hardship, and activism against legalized racism was growing. He concentrated more on enforcing existing civil rights laws than on passing new ones 3. Trade Expansion Act The presidency of John F Kennedy was the peak time of the cold war between Russia and America. The American relations with European countries were also under tension due to the cold war. He passed a Trade Expansion Act 1962 which made sure that America can even have trade agreements even with the communist countries. 4. Controlling Unemployment Kennedy passed a program worth $435 millions to solve the ever growing problem of unemployment. The workers in poor health conditions were retained to new jobs with better working environment. He passed a Society Security Act which intended to bring the provision of insurance for unemployed by enlarging payments USA History by Aamir Mahar

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5. Space program “We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard." The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower administration. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain given Eisenhower's opposition to manned spaceflight. Kennedy's advisors speculated that a moon flight would be prohibitively expensive, but he postponed the decision out of deference to his vice president. Assassination President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central Standard Time on November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas. He was shot once in the upper back and killed with a final shot to the head. He was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, but pronounced dead at 1:00 pm. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger than any U.S. president to date.

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Richard Nixon (1969-1974) Born on January 9, l913 in Yorba Linda, California into a modest Quaker family, he spent his youth working hard and studying. A brilliant scholar, Dick Nixon graduated second in his class from Whittier College (1934), then third in his class from Duke University Law School (1937). Nixon practiced law in his hometown in Whittier, California from 1937 to 1942. Richard Milhous Nixon, the thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969-74) became President in 1969 after defeating Lyndon Johnson's VicePresident, Hubert Humphrey, in one of the closest elections in US history. Nixon won that election by only one percent of the popular vote. Nixon was the second youngest Vice President and the first Californian to serve in the White House. He was also the first Vice President to be elected President, but not to succeed the President under whom he had served. He was also the first President to resign the presidency. Richard Nixon was a controversial President, nicknamed "Tricky Dick" and demonized by some, while admired by others for his accomplishments. Nixon Domestic Policy 1. Nixon and Economic Policies The American economy was shaking by time Nixon took the presidency due the Vietnam War. Nixon Passed Economic Stabilization Act in 1970 which reduced unemployment in America and brought prosperity back. 2. Civil Rights In addition to reconcile public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970 the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Nixon also Passed Equal Employment Opportunity Act and Comprehensive Child Development Act 1970 (universal child care bill) which helped in eradication of child labor from American society. 3. New Federalism New Federalism is a political ideology that feels certain powers should be transferred from the Federal Government back to the State Government. It would restore some of the autonomy and power the states had before FDR's New Deal and the Civil Rights Acts of the 1960's. 4. Space Program After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11 landed on the moon and Neil Armstrong, Edwin Eldrin, and Michal Collin became the first to land on the moon. These historic scenes were telecasted live worldwide. Nixon Foreign Policy 1. Peacemaker Nixon's goal is to be a great peacemaker works closely with Henry Kissinger Nixon initiates secret talks with North Vietnamese plans to withdraw American troops and replace them with South Vietnamese in 1969 states that the Cold War should be a thing of the past Russian summit communication with Communist China first American troops withdraw from Vietnam arms control talks begin 2. Vietnam War Vietnam War Started in 1969 at was at its peak when Nixon was in office. He adopted a process of gradual withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam to save American life and expenses. The President withdrew 70,000 US troops from Vietnam in 1972. 3. Relation with China Since China was a communist country and there was no concept of US relation with any communist country before his presidency. Nixon was the 1st President to announce a surprising visit to china which developed cordial relationship between the two countries. 4. Relation with USSR Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to USA History by Aamir Mahar

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China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The president and first lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party and other leading Soviet officials. Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: a) SALT-I: The first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers. b) Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty: This treaty banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence. Having made considerable progress over the previous two years in US-Soviet relations, Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, Détente (a term usually associated with the relations between America, Russia and China). 5. Yum Kippur War and Support to Israel When an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked in October 1973, beginning the Yom Kippur War, Israel suffered initial losses. The US took no action for several days, until Nixon ordered an airlift to Israel, taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the US and Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The war resulted in the 1973 oil crisis, in which Arab nations refused to sell crude oil to the US in retaliation for its support of Israel. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, and was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace took hold. Kissinger played a major role in the settlement, and was also able to reestablish US relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967.

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Nixon Watergate Scandal The Watergate Scandal refers to a series of events that occurred between 1972 and 1974. The scandal got its name from the burglary at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate Hotel Complex in Washington, D.C. Evidence found on one of the burglars implied a possible link to the White House and prompted an investigation. Over the next two years, the unlawful acts were committed on behalf of the Committee to Re-elect the President (CRP), which was later referred to as CREEP. The reputations of many politicians were tarnished by the scandal, which ultimately resulted in the resignation of President Richard Nixon. Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) In June 1972, five men were arrested while breaking into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. After it was revealed that one of the men arrested was James McCord, the security coordinator for the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP), the White House denied any culpability for the break-in. Nixon 2nd victory as President Nixon went on to win a landslide victory for a second term over Democratic candidate Senator George McGovern of South Dakota, but the Watergate scandal would not go away. Administration’s involvement in the burglar The investigative reporting by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein in the Washington Post prompted the Senate in February 1973 to open hearings on the administration's involvement in the burglary. Televised Watergate hearings began in May 1973, and the American people were shocked as the widening scandal unfolded with testimony about the Nixon USA History by Aamir Mahar

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administration's enemies list, misuse of government agencies, and trading for political favors. Saturday Night Massacre: When the Senate committee learned about the taping system in the Oval Office in July 1973, it demanded that the tapes be turned over. Nixon claimed executive privilege and refused to give them up. In October 1973, he ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who was investigating the matter for the Justice Department. Richardson refused and resigned, as did the deputy attorney general. When Nixon ordered Solicitor General Robert Bork to fire Cox, Bork complied, and Leon Jowarski replaced Cox. The resignations and dismissal became known as the Saturday Night Massacre. Charges on President and Judicial Committee As the Watergate scandal continued, Vice President Agnew resigned and pleaded no contest to charges of income tax evasion and bribery in a case stemming from his term as governor of Maryland. Nixon named Congressman Gerald Ford as the new vice president, and Congress confirmed the appointment. After a year of legal wrangling, the Supreme Court ordered the president to turn over the Oval Office tapes to the House Judiciary Committee, which was considering impeachment, in July 1974. The committee approved three articles of impeachment covering obstruction of justice and abuse of power, and it was clear that the full House of Representatives would vote for impeachment. Nixon Resignation Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974, and Gerald Ford became president.

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Slavery in America Follow the timeline to learn more about the history of slavery in the United States, including the arrival of the first African slaves to America, the federal banishment of slave importation, and the abolishment of slavery in the United States. 1619 The first African slaves arrive in Virginia. 1787 Slavery is made illegal in the Northwest Territory. The U.S Constitution states that Congress may not ban the slave trade until 1808. 1793 Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin greatly increases the demand for slave labor. 1793 A federal fugitive slave law is enacted, providing for the return slaves who had escaped and crossed state lines. 1808 Congress bans the importation of slaves from Africa. 1820 The Missouri Compromise bans slavery north of the southern boundary of Missouri. 1831 William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing the Liberator, a weekly paper that advocates the complete abolition of slavery. He becomes one of the most famous figures in the abolitionist movement.

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1849 Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and becomes one of the most effective and celebrated leaders of the Underground Railroad. 1850 The continuing debate whether territory gained in the Mexican War should be open to slavery is decided in the Compromise of 1850: California is admitted as a Free State, Utah and New Mexico territories are left to be decided by popular sovereignty, and the slave trade in Washington, DC is prohibited. It also establishes a much stricter fugitive slave law than the original, passed in 1793. 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin is published. It becomes one of the most influential works to stir anti-slavery sentiments. 1854 Congress passes the Kansas-Nebraska Act, establishing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The legislation repeals the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and renews tensions between anti- and proslavery factions. 1857 The Dred Scott case holds that Congress does not have the right to ban slavery in states and, furthermore, that slaves are not citizens. 1861 The Confederacy is founded when the deep South secedes, and the Civil War begins. 1863 President Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring "that all persons held as slaves" within the Confederate state "are, and henceforward shall be free." 1865 The Civil War ends. Lincoln is assassinated. The Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery throughout the United States. On June 19 slavery in the United States effectively ended when 250,000 slaves in Texas finally received the news that the Civil War had ended two months earlier. Role of Malcolm X Role of King Martin Luther Ku-Klux-Klan Movement

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SHORT NOTES Table of Content 1) Introduction: From ancient times to 1492 2) Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (14921606) 3) USA as a British Colony (1606-1783). 4) USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819) 5) Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949) 6) Constitution of the USA: Salient Features 7) Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869) 8) Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916) 9) USA’s role in the Two World Wars (1914 – 1918 & 1939 - 1945) 10) Civil Rights Movement 11) Separation of Powers: Check and Balances Remaining: 12) Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers. 13) American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations (1945 – 2012) 14) American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole Super Power (1945 -1990). USA History by Aamir Mahar

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15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) 22)

International Concerns of USA: An Overview. The War on Terror: The Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 2012) Global perceptions of the USA. Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, The Great Depression and the New Deal United States’ role in International Conflicts US Presidential Election The US Congress: Role and Functions

Assalam-e-Alaikum! All right, I could only manage to do some of the revised syllabus of US History. Other topics are beautifully covered in the Jahangir World’s Times Book by Umair Khan and it is recommended to cover them up from there. I won’t further be adding up to this ebook so I thought to better share what I had managed to do. For clearning up the concepts and expanding your knowledge base, good books need to be studied. Along with the one by JWT, one can go for Howard Zinn’s: A People’s History of the United States or the one by Mujumdar. It is important to reiterate that notes are never enough for a comprehensive and clear understanding of the subject. Anyway, I hope it helps. Best wishes….. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Aamir Khan Mahar Topic 1 Introduction: From ancient times to 1492 1) Historical Background i. 225 million years ago, Earth was one supercontinent (Pangaea) and ocean. ii. About 10 million years ago, the North America that we know today was formed (geographical shape). iii. At the height of the Ice Age, between 34,000 and 30,000 B.C., much of the world's water was contained in vast continental ice sheets. iv. As a result, the Bering Sea was hundreds of meters below its current level, and a land bridge, known as Beringia, emerged between Asia and North America. v. At its peak, Beringia is thought to have been some 1,500 kilometers wide. vi. A moist and treeless tundra, it was covered with grasses and plant life, attracting the large animals that early humans hunted for their survival. vii. The first people to reach North America almost certainly did so without knowing they had crossed into a new continent. viii. They would have been following game, as their ancestors had for thousands of years, along the Siberian coast and then across the land bridge USA History by Aamir Mahar

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ix. Once in Alaska, it would take these first North Americans thousands of years more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to what is now the United States. x. Artifacts such as finely crafted spear points and items found near Clovis, New Mexico, indicate that life was well established in much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. 2) “New World Beginnings”; The Early Settlements i. Claims suggesting that the earliest voyages of exploration to North America were made by Irish monks (St. Brendan), Welshmen (Prince Madoc) and others, but no credible evidence. ii. The first discoverers of North America were nomadic Asians who wandered over here by way of an exposed land bridge from Russia to Alaska during the Ice Age. iii. 10th century America discovered by Norsemen, Scandinavians and Iceland colonized the west coast of Greenland, and then in about 1001 moved on to Baffin Island, southern Labrador, and finally the northern tip of Newfoundland iv. In 1000 AD, Vikings abandoned it due to unfavorable conditions especially due to repeated attacks by hostile natives (known to the Vikings as Skrellings); There, at a site now known as L'Anse aux Meadows, they made an abortive effort to establish a colony which they called Vinland. v. Europeans, though, slowly began to proliferate into non-European worlds starting around the 1400s. Most European trade continued to center on the Mediterranean region, few resources available for sailing westward, and new over-land trade routes to the Far East were established. vi. Variety of factors affecting Europeans created renewed incentives for exploration. 3) Early Settlers in America i. Great pre-European Indian cultures included the Pueblos, the Iroquois, the Mound Builders, the Mayans, the Incas, the Aztec, and the Sioux, among others. The Indians revered nature and land, and didn’t carelessly destroy it. Everything was put to use. ii. Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians, and Anasazi.

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iii. By the first centuries A.D., the Hohokum were living in settlements near what is now Phoenix, Arizona, where they built ball courts and pyramid-like mounds reminiscent of those found in Mexico, as well as a canal and irrigation system. 4) Early Indian Customs And Culture i. Agriculture and Food i. people to reach North America were Asian hunters and nomads ii. Around that time the mammoth began to die out and the bison took its place as a principal source of food and hides for these early North Americans. iii. Gradually, foraging and the first attempts at agriculture appeared. Indians in what is now central Mexico led the way, cultivating corn, squash and beans, perhaps as early as 8,000 B.C iv. By 3,000 B.C., a primitive type of corn was being grown in the river valleys of New Mexico and Arizona v. Then the first signs of irrigation began to appear, and by 300 B.C., signs of early village life. ii. Culture i. Indian society in North America was closely tied to the land. ii. Most tribes (the Midwest) combined aspects of hunting, gathering and the cultivation of maize and other products for their food supplies; They built villages and grew crops iii. extraordinarily diverse; expanse of the land and the many different environments iv. Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal v. a good deal of trade among various groups 5) Important People: i. The Aztecs: Native Americans who that lived in what is now Mexico and routinely offered their gods human sacrifices, these people were violent, yet built amazing pyramids and built a great civilization without having a wheel. ii. The Mound Builders: Indians of the Ohio River Valley. iii. The Mississippian settlement: At Cahokia, near present-day East St. Louis, Illinois, was home to about 40,000 people in at 1100 A.D. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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iv. Hiawatha: This was legendary leader who inspired the Iroquois, a powerful group of Native Americans in the northeaster woodlands of the U.S. v. The Norse: These Vikings discovered America in about 1000 A.D., when they discovered modern-day Newfoundland. They abandoned it later due to bad conditions. vi. Marco Polo: Italian adventurer who supposedly sailed to the Far East (China) in 1295 and returned with stories and supplies of the Asian life there (silk, pearls, etc…) 6) Conclusion

Topic 2 Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (1492-1606) 1) Introduction 2) Timeline i. 1492: Christopher Columbus sails across the Atlantic Ocean and reaches an island in the Bahamas in the Carribean sea ii. 1496: 2nd Voyage of Columbus iii. 1498: 3rd Voyage; John Cobalt sailed the Eastern shore near present day Worcester Country iv. 1502: Columbus’s 4th voyage v. 1506: Death of Columbus vi. 1507: “America” is first used on Italian Amerigo Vespucci vii. 1513: Juan Ponce De Leon explores Florida coast viii. 1524: Giovanni de Verrazano explores the coast from Carolina North to Nova Scotia, enters new York Harbour ix. 1540: Francisco Vasquezde Coronado explores south west x. 1541: Hernando de Soto of Spain discovers Mississipi River xi. 1565: St Augustine, Florida, the first town established by Europeans in America is founded by Spanish and later burned by English in 1586 USA History by Aamir Mahar

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xii. 1585: First English settlement established at RANOKE ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA xiii. 1588: In Europe, the defeat of Spanish Armada by English results in Great Britain replacing Spain as dominant world power and leads to gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New World and widening of English imperial interests. xiv. 1600: Nations interest in Americe xv. 1606: King James I granted charter to Virginia company to establish colony 3) Early America i. First Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia ii. They Lived in (now) Alaska for 1000 years iii. They moved south in today’s mainland U.S. iv. Lived by the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in mountains and deserts of South west and along Mississipi River v. Early Groups called; Adenans, Hopewillians, Anasazi and Hohokam. vi. After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches, Europeans began to explore. First, they set up settlements in Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on plantations. vii. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route to the Far East. viii. Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route influenced Christopher Columbus to sail west. In doing so, he inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it. ix. The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish later became the dominant nation in the Americas. Spanish Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America, destroying the Aztecs and the Incas. Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew sailed around the world in 1519, becoming the first voyage to do so. As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to challenge the Spanish dominance. 4) Important People i. Cristopher Columbus i. Most Famous explorer USA History by Aamir Mahar

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ii. Was an Italian, but Queen Isabella of Spain paid for his trips iii. Landed in 1492 in Bahamas island near Carribean Sea iv. Believed that sailing West across Atlantic Ocean was shortest route to asia v. Ignorant of the Fact that western Hemisphere lay between Europe and Asia and assuming circumference a third less than actual vi. Convinced that Japan would appear on horizon just 3000 miles to west ii. Native Americans; red Indians, Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas iii. John Cabot i. Explorer sailing for England, landed in Eastern Canada in 1497 ii. Arrival established a British claim to land in North America 5) Spanish Dominance in 1500’s i. Spain explored and claimed more land in America than any other country ii. In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida iii. A Florentine who sailed for the French, Verrazano made landfall in North Carolina in 1524, then sailed north along the Atlantic coast past what is now New York harbor. iv. Hernando De Soto landed in Florida and explored the way to Mississipi river in 1541 v. Spain conquered Mexico in 1522. vi. Established by Spain in mid 1500’s at St Augustine in Florida; Within 40 years, Spanish adventurers had carved out a huge empire in Central and South America. 6) England’s Imperial Stirrings i. North America i. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the Spanish had much control in Central and South America. ii. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown. iii. In the 1500s, Britain didn’t really colonize because of internal conflicts. 1. King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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2. After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified. 3. In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in revolting against England, but the English crushed the uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an attitude of sneering contempt for natives. 7) Elizabeth Energizes England i. Colonization i. After Britain basically defeated Spain (i.e. Spanish Armada defeat), British swarmed to America and took over lead in colonization and power. 1. Sparked new literature, like Shakespeare ii. After Drake circumnavigated the globe, Liz I knighted him on his ship. iii. However, English tries at colonization in the New World failed often and embarrassingly. iv. Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604. 8) England on the Eve of the Empire i. Reasons for Emigration i. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming. ii. Farmers were enclosing land for farming. iii. Puritanism took a strong root in the woolen districts of western and eastern England. iv. Younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America. v. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, being a forerunner to today’s corporations. 9) England Plants the Jamestown Seedling; First European Settlement

10)

i. Jamestown i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World. ii. However, story of colonization started from settlement farther North along the Atlantic Coast in Virginia, Massachusetts, NY and 10 other areas due to the growing tide of immigrants from Europe. Conclusion

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Topic 3 USA as a British Colony (1606-1783) 1) Introduction 2) England Plants the Jamestown Seedling a. Jamestown i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World. b. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain. 1. On May 24, 1607, about 100 English settlers disembarked from their ship and founded Jamestown. a. Forty colonists perished during the voyage. b. In mosquito-ridden Virginia, disease was rampant. It didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the Bahamas in 1609 either. 2. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control and whipped the colonists into discipline. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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a. He had been kidnapped by local Indians and forced into a mock execution by the chief Powhatan and had been “saved” by Pocahantas. b. The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted peaceful relations with the colonists. 3. Still, the colonists were reduced to eating cats, dogs, rats, even other people. 4. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr arrived to alleviate the suffering. 5. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8000 would-be settlers, only 1200 had survived. 3) Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake B. The Indian’s Begin to Lose Power 1. At first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists potential allies and tried to be friendly with them, but as time passed and colonists raided Indian food supplies, relations deteriorated and eventually, war occurred. 2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe. 3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a series of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe, dead. 4. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in 1646, and effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands. 5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians were useless, and were therefore banished. 4) Virginia: Child of Tobacco C. Tobacco Info 1. Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted soil and ruined the land. 2. King James I detested tobacco. 3. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when in 1619, settlers created the House of Burgesses. 4. Slavery in the Americas was also born in 1619. 5) Maryland: Catholic Heaven D. Religious Diversity 1. Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to be formed. 2. It was a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge. 3. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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6)

7)

8)

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4. It had a lot of indentured servants. Black slavery became popular The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America E. Their Use 1. As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also settling in the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened the door). 2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655. Colonizing the Carolinas F. Restoration Period 1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver Cromwell had ruled for ten years before tired Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne. 2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization. 3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally created in 1670. 4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with the West Indies. 5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados. 6. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina proved to be too strong to be wiped out. The Emergence of North Carolina G. Conflict 1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people who owned no land. 2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistant to authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors. 3. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially separated. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony H. Georgia’s Purpose 1. Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida and the enemy French in Louisiana. 2. Founded in 1733 by a high-minded group of philanthropists, it was the last colony founded. 3. Named after King George II of England, Georgia was also meant to be a haven for wretched souls in debt. 4. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks.

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10) I.

11) a.

b. c. d.

e.

12) a. b. c. d. e.

5. All Christians except Catholics enjoyed religious toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert the Indians. a. John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to England and founded Methodism. 6. Georgia grew very slowly. The Plantion Colonies Comparisons and Contrasts 1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies. 2. Growth of cities was often stunted by forests. 3. Establishment of schools and churches was difficult. 4. In the South, the crops were tobacco and rice. 5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration. 6. Confrontations with Native Americans was often. France Finds a Foothold in Canada Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the colony race. i. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife. ii. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies. In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the “Father of New France.” He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeated the Iroquois. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate to North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave. New France Fans Out New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de La Salle, to thwart Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the garden of France’s North American empire.

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13) a.

b.

c.

14) a. b. c. d. e. f.

The Clash of Empires King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War (two different fights) i. The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies. ii. Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on. iii. The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America. The War of Jenkin’s Ear i. An English Captain named Jenkin’s had his ear cut off by a Spanish commander, who had sneered at him to go home crying (essentially). ii. This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia. iii. This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George’s War in America. iv. France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cap Breton Island. v. However, peace terms of this war gave Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France, outraging the colonists, which feared it. George Washington Inaugurates War with France i. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French. ii. It was lush and very good land. iii. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen. iv. He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war. Global War and Colonial Disunity The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three. The French and Indian War (aka Seven Years’ War) began with Washington’s battle with the French. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In previous wars, the Americans were not unified, but now they were. In 1754, an intercolonial congress was held in Albany, New York. Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan failed because it compromised too much.

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15)

16)

g. The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on American soil. h. In the peace treaty at Paris in 1763, Britain got all of Canada, but the French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations. i. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war. j. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America. Restless Colonials a. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident. However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered. b. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors.” c. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot in common (language, ideals), and barriers of disunity began to melt. Americans: A People of Destiny a. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain. b. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs too. c. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great Britain in control now. d. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. e. In 1765, an estimated on thousand wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in defiance of the Proclamation. f. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for the Revolutionary War. g. In 1700, there were about 250,000 European and African settlers in North America’s thirteen English colonies. By 1775, on the eve USA History by Aamir Mahar

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17) a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

18)

of revolution, there were nearly 2.5 million. These colonists did not have much in common, but they were able to band together and fight for their independence. Causes of Colonization Improvement in Technology Renaissance in Europe Religious Conflicts in Europe Expanding trade Search for New Routes Pressure of population Trade and Agriculture Desire for wealth Imperial Rac; Imperialistic Designs and Aims Royal Proclamation; Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648, between Spain and Dutch republic by which each state would have the right to determine the religion of his own state and also colonial claims were adjusted. Conclusion

Topic 4 USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819) 1) Introduction I. As a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the new nation controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the north, remained British territory. Great Britain returned Florida to Spain, and Spain continued to control the area west of the Mississippi River.

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II.

The original 13 colonies made up the first 13 states of the United States. Eventually, the American land west of the Appalachian Mountains was divided into territories. III. At the end of the American Revolution, the new nation was still a loose confederation of states. But in 1787, American leaders got together and wrote the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution became the country's basic law and welded it together into a solid political unit. The men who wrote it included some of the most famous and important figures in American history. Among them were George Washington and James Madison of Virginia, Alexander Hamilton of New York, and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. The authors of the Constitution, along with other early leaders such as Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, won lasting fame as the Founding Fathers of the United States. IV. At the start of its history, the United States faced severe financial problems. But before long, the skill of its leaders and the spirit and hard work of its people put the country on a sound economic footing. Early America also faced threats from powerful European nations. ut masterful diplomacy by Washington and other leaders guided the country through its early years in peace. The peace ended with the War of 1812, in which the United States and Great Britain fought again. After the war, America focused its attention on its development, and entered a period of bustling economic growth. 2) Establishing a government: The American people began setting up a new system of government as soon as they declared their independence. Each of the new states had its own constitution before the American Revolution ended. The state constitutions gave the people certain liberties, usually including freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In 1781, the states set up a federal government under laws called the Articles of Confederation. 3) Background to the Constitution. I. The Articles of Confederation gave the federal government the power to declare war and manage foreign affairs. But the Articles did not allow the government to collect taxes, regulate trade, or otherwise direct the activities of the states.

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II.

Under the Articles, each state worked independently for its own ends. Yet the new nation faced problems that demanded a strong federal government. The United States had piled up a huge national debt during the American Revolution. But since the federal government could not collect taxes, it was unable to pay the debt and put the country on a sound economic footing. The government even lacked the means for raising money to provide for national defence. The federal government had no power to regulate the nation's trade. In addition, some states issued their own paper money, causing sharp changes in the value of currency and economic chaos. 4) Creating the Constitution. I. In 1787, delegates from every state except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia to consider revisions to the Articles of Confederation. The delegates agreed to write an entirely new Constitution. II. The delegates debated long and hard over the contents of the Constitution. Some of them wanted a document that gave much power to the federal government. Others wanted to protect the rights of the states and called for a weak central government. Delegates from large states claimed their states should have greater representation in Congress than the small states. But small-state delegates demanded equal representation in Congress. III. The delegates finally reached agreement on a new Constitution on Sept. 17, 1787. The document they produced has often been called a work of political genius. The authors worked out a system of government that satisfied the opposing views of the people of the 1780's. At the same time, they created a system of government flexible enough to continue in its basic form to the present day. IV. The Constitution provided for a two-house legislature--a House of Representatives and a Senate. Representation in the House was based on population in order to satisfy the large states. All states received equal representation in the Senate, which pleased the small states. The Constitution gave many powers to the federal government, including the rights to collect taxes and regulate trade. But the document also reserved certain powers for the states. The Constitution provided for three branches of government: the executive, headed by a president; the legislature, made up of the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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5)

6)

7)

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two houses of Congress; and the judiciary, or federal court system. The creators of the Constitution provided for a system of checks and balances among the three branches of government. Each branch received powers and duties that ensured that the other branches would not have too much power. Adopting the Constitution: Before the Constitution became law, it needed ratification (approval) by nine states. Some Americans still opposed the Constitution, and fierce debate over ratification broke out. Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify. The Bill of Rights: Much opposition to the new Constitution stemmed from the fact that it did not specifically guarantee enough individual rights. In response, 10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights were added to the document. The Bill of Rights became law on Dec. 15, 1791. Among other things, it guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, the press, and the rights to trial by jury and peaceful assembly. Setting up the government: The Constitution provided that the president be elected by an Electoral College, a group of people chosen by the states. In 1789, the Electoral College unani-mously chose Washington to serve as the first president. It reelected him unanimously in 1792. The government went into operation in 1789, with its temporary capital in New York City. The capital was moved to Philadelphia in 1790, and to Washington, D.C., in 1800. Early problems and politics: Solving financial problems. I. Americans were divided over how to deal with the financial problems that plagued the new government. One group, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, wanted the federal government to take vigorous action. Another group, headed by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, opposed government participation in economic affairs. II. Hamilton proposed that the federal government increase tariffs and tax certain products made in the United States. The government would use the tax money to pay both its debts and the debts of the states. Hamilton also proposed a governmentsupported national bank to control government finances. III. Jefferson and his followers, who included many Southerners, finally agreed to support some of Hamilton's financial proposals. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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In return, Hamilton agreed to support a shift of the national capital to the South. Congress approved Hamilton's financial plan and agreed to locate the capital in the South. As a result of this compromise, the capital moved to Washington, D.C., in 1800. Jefferson continued to oppose the national bank proposal. But in 1791, Congress chartered a national bank for 20 years. 9) Early problems and politics: Foreign affairs. I. The new government also faced problems in foreign affairs. In 1793, France went to war against Britain and Spain. France had helped the Americans in the American Revolution, and it now expected U.S. assistance in its war. Americans disagreed over which side to support. Jefferson and his followers wanted the United States to back France, while Hamilton and his group favoured the British. II. President Washington insisted that the United States remain neutral in the European war. He rejected French demands for support, and also sent diplomats to Britain and Spain to clear up problems with those countries. Chief Justice John Jay, acting for Washington, negotiated the Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794. The treaty's many provisions included a trade agreement with Britain which--in effect--ended American trade with France. It also included a British promise to remove troops still stationed on U.S. territory. In 1795, Thomas Pinckney negotiated the Pinckney Treaty, or Treaty of San Lorenzo, with Spain. This treaty settled a dispute over the Florida border between the United States and Spain and also gave the United States free use of the Mississippi River. III. In 1796, Washington--annoyed by the disputes within his Administration--refused to seek a third term as president. John Adams succeeded him in 1797. At about that time, French warships began attacking American merchant vessels. Adams, like Washington, hoped to use diplomacy to solve foreign problems. He sent diplomats to France to try to end the attacks. But three agents of the French government insulted the diplomats with dishonourable proposals, including a demand for a bribe. The identity of the agents was not revealed. They were simply called X, Y, and Z, and the incident became known as the XYZ Affair. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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The XYZ Affair created a furore in the United States. Hamilton and his followers demanded war against France. But Adams was determined to keep the peace. In 1799, he again sent diplomats to France. This time, the United States and France reached a peaceful settlement. 10) Establishing political parties: Washington and many other early American leaders opposed political parties. But in the 1790's, the disputes over government policies led to the establishment of two political parties in the United States. Hamilton and his followers, chiefly Northerners, formed the Federalist Party. The party favoured a strong federal government and generally backed Great Britain in international disputes. Jefferson and his followers, chiefly Southerners, established the Democratic-Republican Party. The party wanted a weak central government and generally sided with France in foreign disputes. 11) The Alien and Sedition Acts. I. The XYZ Affair had a major impact on American internal policies and politics. After the affair, the Federalist Party denounced the Democratic-Republicans for their support of France. The Federalists had a majority in Congress. They set out to silence their critics, who included Democratic-Republicans and foreigners living in the United States. In 1798, the Federalist Congress and President Adams--also a Federalist--approved the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws made it a crime for anyone to criticize the president or Congress, and subjected foreigners to unequal treatment. II. A nationwide outcry against these attacks on freedom followed. The most offensive parts of the Acts soon expired or were repealed. However, the Alien and Sedition Acts gave the Federalists the reputation as a party of oppression. 12) Jeffersonian democracy I. Public reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts helped Thomas Jefferson win election as president in 1800 and again in 1804. Jefferson's political philosophy became known as Jeffersonian democracy. Jefferson envisioned the United States as a nation of small farmers. In Jefferson's ideal society, the people would lead simple, but productive, lives and be able to direct their own affairs. Therefore, the need for government would decline. Jefferson took USA History by Aamir Mahar

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steps to reduce government expenses and the national debt. But in spite of his beliefs and practices, Jefferson found that as president he could not avoid actions that expanded the role of government. The Louisiana Purchase, the first major action of Jefferson's presidency, almost doubled the size of the United States. In 1801, Jefferson learned that France had taken over from Spain a large area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains called Louisiana. Spain was a weak nation, and did not pose a threat to the United States. But France--then ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte--was powerful and aggressive. Jefferson viewed French control of Louisiana as a danger to the United States. In 1803, Jefferson arranged the purchase of the area from France. The Louisiana Purchase added 2,144,476 square kilometres of territory to the United States. Jefferson and foreign policy. In 1803, Great Britain and France went to war again, and both nations began seizing American merchant ships. The British also impressed American seamen, seizing them and forcing them into British service. Jefferson again found it necessary to use government powers, this time to protect American shipping. At his request, Congress passed trade laws designed to stop the British and French interfering with American trade. But the warring nations continued to interfere. The War of 1812 James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. France soon promised to end its interference with American shipping, but Britain did not. Also, people believed the British were encouraging Indians to attack American pioneers moving westward. For these reasons, many Americans demanded war against Britain. They were led by members of Congress from the West and South called War Hawks. Other Americans, especially New Englanders, opposed the War Hawks' demand. But on June 18, 1812, at Madison's request, Congress declared war on Britain and the War of 1812 had begun. Neither side gained much advantage early in the war. But on Aug. 24, 1814, British troops captured Washington, D.C., and burned

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the Capitol and other government buildings. This British action made Americans realize their nation's survival was at stake. Large numbers of American volunteers rushed into service, and helped stop the British offensive. The Treaty of Ghent of Dec. 24, 1814, officially ended the War of 1812. Neither side won the war and little was gained from the struggle. 15) Growing nationalism: A strong spirit of nationalism swept through the United States following the War of 1812. The war itself gave rise to increased feelings of self-confidence and unity. The peace that followed enabled the nation to concentrate on its own affairs. The bitterness that had marked political disputes eased with the breakup of the Federalist Party. Meanwhile, the nation expanded westward, new states entered the union, and the economy prospered. Historians sometimes call the period from about 1815 to the early 1820's The Era of Good Feeling because of its relative peace, unity, and optimism. 16) Nationalism and the economy. I. After the War of 1812, nationalist politicians proposed economic measures that came to be called the American System. They said the government should raise tariffs to protect American manufacturers and farmers from foreign competition. Industry would then grow and employ more people. More employment would lead to greater consumption of farm products, and so farmers would prosper and buy more manufactured goods. In addition, tariff revenues would enable the government to make needed internal improvements. II. The government soon put ideas of the American System into practice. In 1816, Congress enacted a high tariff, and it chartered the second Bank of the United States, to give the government more control over the economy. The government also increased its funding of internal projects, the most important of which was the National Road. Begun in 1811, the road stretched from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois, when completed. It became an important route for the shipment of goods and the movement of settlers westward. 17) A national culture. Many early Americans had tried to model their culture on European civilization. Architects, painters, and writers tended to imitate European models. But in the late 1700's and early USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1800's, art and culture more and more reflected American experiences. Architects designed simple, but beautiful, houses that blended into their surroundings. Craftworkers built sturdy furniture that was suited to frontier life, yet so simply elegant as to be considered works of art. The nation's literature flourished when it began reflecting American experiences. Political writings such as the works of Thomas Paine had high literary merit. The works of Washington Irving, one of the leading early authors, helped gain respect for American literature. 18) Decline of the Federalists. In 1814 and 1815, New England Federalists held a secret political meeting in Hartford, Connecticut. Their opponents charged that they had discussed the secession (withdrawal) of the New England States from the Union. The Federalists never recovered from the charge, and the party broke up in about 1816. James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican presidential candidate in the election of 1820, was unopposed. 19) New territory. The United States gained two new pieces of territory between 1815 and 1820. In 1818, a treaty with Britain gave the country the Red River Basin, north of the Louisiana Territory. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819. 20) "A fire bell in the night." The Era of Good Feeling did not mean an end to all the country's disputes. The issue of slavery was causing deep divisions among the people. Many Northerners were demanding an end to slavery, while Southerners were defending it more and more. Jefferson, then retired, accurately viewed the growing dispute as a warning of approaching disaster, "like a fire bell in the night."

Topic 5 Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949) 1) Introduction USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Between 1821 and 1859, the following States became part of the Union: Missouri (1821), Arkansas (1836), Michigan (1837), Texas (1845), Florida (1845), Iowa (1846), Wisconsin (1848), California (1850), Minnesota (1858) and Oregon (1859). Kansas (1861), Nevada (1864), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876), Dakota Territory was split in two (1889),; Montana Territory (1889), Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), Wyoming (1890), Utah(1896), Oklahoma (1907), New Mexico (1912), Arizona (1912), Alaska (1959) 2) Fate of Indian Territories i. In the 1820s, the USA government began moving what it called the "Five Civilized Tribes" of South East America (Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw) to lands west of the Mississippi River. ii. The 1830 Indian Removal Act gave the President authority to designate specific lands for the Indians (native Americans). iii. The 1834 Indian Intercourse Act called the lands Indian Territory and specified where they were: all of present-day Oklahoma North and East of the Red River, as well as Kansas and Nebraska. iv. But, in 1854 the territory was cut down when Kansas and Nebraska territories were created. White settlers continued to invade the West and half the remaining Indian Territory (West Oklahoma) was opened to whites in 1889. v. In 1907 Oklahoma became a state of the USA, and Indian Territory was no more. 3) Timeline i. August 10, 1821; The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase ii. October 4, 1824; The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted, creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823. iii. November 15, 1824; Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western portion becoming unorganized iv. June 30, 1834: A large portion of unorganized land was added to Michigan Territory, corresponding to present-day Iowa, western Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota. v. June 15, 1836: Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the 25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with increasing irrelevance. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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viii. ix. x. xi.

xii.

xiii.

xiv. xv. xvi. xvii.

xviii.

xix. xx. xxi.

March 2, 1836: The Treaties of Velasco signified the end of the Texas Revolution on May 14, 1836, creating the Republic of Texas. July 4, 1836: Wisconsin Territory was split off from Michigan Territory, consisting of present-day Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and eastern North and South Dakota. January 26, 1837: Michigan Territory was admitted to the US as the 26th state, Michigan March 3, 1845: Florida Territory was admitted to the US as the 27th state, Florida. December 29, 1845: The Republic of Texas was admitted to the US as the 28th state, Texas. December 28, 1846: The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was admitted to the US as the 29th state, Iowa. The remainder became unorganized. May 29, 1848: The southeastern portion of Wisconsin Territory was admitted to the US as the 30th state, Wisconsin. The remainder became unorganized. March 2, 1853: Washington Territory was split from Oregon Territory, consisting of present-day Washington, northern Idaho, and the western tip of Montana, leaving Oregon Territory with all of Oregon, southern Idaho and a portion of Wyoming. May 11, 1858: The eastern portion of Minnesota Territory was admitted to the US as the 32nd state, Minnesota. February 14, 1859: The western portion of Oregon Territory was admitted to the US as the 33rd state, Oregon. January 29, 1861: The eastern portion of Kansas Territory was admitted as the 34th state, Kansas. March 4, 1861: The Confederate States of America (CSA) was formed. The Southern states seceded at different dates and joined the CSA at different dates; Its claim to be a separate country was later denied by its surrender at the end of the Civil War. March 4, 1863: Idaho Territory was created from portions of Washington, Dakota, and Nebraska Territories, consisting of present-day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming. October 31, 1864: Nevada Territory was admitted to the US as the 36th state, Nevada March 1, 1867; Nebraska Territory was admitted to the US as the 37th state, Nebraska. August 1, 1876: Colorado Territory was admitted to the US as the 38th state, Colorado.

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xxii.

November 2, 1889; Dakota Territory was split in two, and it was admitted to the US as the 39th state, North Dakota, and 40th state, South Dakota. xxiii. November 8, 1889; Montana Territory was admitted to the US as the 41st state, Montana. xxiv. November 11, 1889; Washington Territory was admitted to the US as the 42nd state, Washington. xxv. July 3, 1890; Idaho Territory was admitted to the US as the 43rd state, Idaho. xxvi. July 10, 1890; Wyoming Territory was admitted to the US as the 44th state, Wyoming. xxvii. January 4, 1896: Utah Territory was admitted to the US as the 45th state, Utah. xxviii. November 16, 1907: Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were combined and admitted to the US as the 46th state, Oklahoma. xxix. January 6, 1912: New Mexico Territory was admitted to the US as the 47th state, New Mexico. xxx. February 14, 1912: Arizona Territory was admitted to the US as the 48th state, Arizona. xxxi. 1948: Air Force Island, Prince Charles Island, and Foley Island are discovered and added to Northwest Territories. xxxii. January 3, 1959: Alaska Territory was admitted to the US as the 49th state, Alaska. 4) Conclusion

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Topic 6 Constitution of the USA: Salient Features 1) Introduction i. “A Constitution consists of those fundamental rules which determine & distribute functions & powers among the various organs of the Government’’ ii. Adopted at Philadelphia convention held in 1787; Came into force in 1789; Originally 7 articles, but 26 amendments so far iii. Classic example of rigidity; Theory of separation of powers combined with remarkable system of checks and balance iv. Lord Bryce remarked; “yet after all deductions, it ranks above every other written constitution for the intrinsic excellence of its scheme, its adaptation to the circumstances of the people, its simplicity and precision of language, its judicious mixture of definiteness in principles with elasticity in details.” 2) Salient Features i. Bill of Rights: Constitution guarantees fundamental rights of person, property and liberty, Incorporated in the first ten amendments. Rights of citizens are enforceable by the recourse of judiciary, these rights cannot be modified or suspended except by a constitutional amendment. Part and Parcel of constitution; i. Freedom of Speech ii. Freedom of Worship iii. Habeas Corpus iv. No unreasonable search v. No unreasonable seizure ii. Checks and Balances: One of the most powerful weapons in the US constitution which makes it one of the most important written documents in world is the system of check and balance between the three tiers of state i.e. executive, legislative and judiciary. iii. Brief & Simple: The US Constitution hardly consists of 6000 and is less than 12 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest and simply written constitutions of the world. iv. Written Constitution: The US constitution is in the written form and comprises of 7 articles and 27 amendments had been made since the constitution was made in 1787. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Dual Citizenship: The peoples living in America are authorized to have dual citizenship according to their constitution. The 1st citizenship of being an American and the 2nd is of the state which a citizen belongs to. Secular State: Since the constitution declares America as a secular state. Therefore no law can be made which prohibits or dents any religion in the country. Supremacy of the Constitution: The US Constitution is the supreme document as described in the article IV. The constitution is declared superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies and the government. No law can be passed contrary to the constitution. Strong Federation: Article I, section 789 declares the federal form of government in America. The stress is laid upon the strong center and relatively weaker states. Bill Of Rights: Bill of rights were the 1st ten amendments in the US constitution which defined the rights of the peoples living in America. Rigid Constitution: US constitution is a rigid constitution because it requires a difficult procedure to amend it. Every amendment, which can be moved in two different ways, must be ratified by three-fourths of the states. consequently, stood the rigors of industrial of industrial revolution and democratic upsurge, the turmoil of civil and global wars and economic crises of thirties. Separation of Powers: The constitution is based on the doctrine of separation of powers. According to the constitution the national powers are divided into three departments i.e. executive, legislature and judiciary. Bicameralism: American parliament is known as Congress. It consists of two chambers. Upper house is the Senate and lower house is the House of Representatives. Independent Judiciary: The president of USA appoints the judges but he has no power to remove them. It is only the legislature according to Article 1 Section 6, which can impeach the judge of Supreme Court. Universal Suffrage: The Constitution has given right to vote to every citizen who is 18 years old without any distinction of male or female. Division of Powers: As the Federal Government requires a double set of Government. That of center and those of states there must be a division of powers between the two parts.

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All those powers which are not stated in the constitution are to be exercised by the states. xiv. Spoils System: This system was introduced by President Andrew Jackson. According to this system the new president appoints all important official of the government sacking the previous administration. This system is known as the ―Spoilt System‖ because the jobs are distributed among the party men regardless of their merit, experience and talent. xv. Presidential form of government: The Constitution establishes a presidential form of government. The constitution vests all executive powers to the president .The president is the head of the state as well as the government. xvi. Republicanism: There would be Republicanism in the political structure of the US. Laws made by the legislature shall be supreme as it represents the will of the people. The people who made those laws are elected by the people themselves. Sovereignty of the People: The preamble of the US Constitution emphasizes the theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has been vested in the people of the USA. xvii. Popular Sovereignty: “We the people of U.S.”, ultimate sovereignty is thus attributed to people xviii. Dual Citizenship: An American is the citizen of U.S and also of the State, where he is domiciled 3) Amendments in American Constitution i. 1st Ten Bill of Rights ii. 11th Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation for sovereign immunity iii. 12th Revises presidential election procedures iv. 13th Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime 14th Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil War issues v. 15th Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude vi. 16th Allows the federal government to collect income tax vii. 17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote viii. 18th Establishes Prohibition of alcohol (Repealed by Twenty-first Amendment) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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ix. x.

xi. xii.

xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii.

19th Establishes women's suffrage 20th Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress (January 3) and the President (January 20); known as the "lame duck amendment" 21st Repeals the Eighteenth Amendment 22nd Limits the president to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years (i.e., if a Vice President serves not more than one half of a President's term, he or she can be elected to a further two terms) 23rd Provides for representation of Washington, D.C. in the Electoral College 24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the nonpayment of poll taxes 25th Codifies the Tyler Precedent; defines the process of presidential succession 26th Establishes the official voting age to be 18 years old. 27th Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until the beginning of the next session of Congress.

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Topic 7 Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869) I. Civil War i. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States. He defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater northern population. Southerners were angered by the growing abolitionist movement, and when Lincoln was elected, they feared that their way of life was in jeopardy. South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks, six other southern states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very bloody four year war was to come. II. PEOPLE i. North(Union), South(Confederacy) ii. Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis , Robert E Lee , Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson iii. U.S. Grant: William T Sherman III. Causes Leading to Civil war i. Election of Lincoln ii. Discrimination of race iii. Slavery iv. The abolitionist (people who wanted to stop slavery) movement v. Difference in economy vi. Western expansion IV. Consequences of the Civil War i. Physical Devastation: The American Civil War lasted four years. Measured in physical devastation and human lives, it was the costliest war the American people have experienced the war killed over 620,000 men and at least that many more had been wounded in a nation of about 35 million. ii. Spread of Disease and Sickness: North lost a total of about 364,000 soldiers (nearly one of every four soldiers). Also more than 37,000 black soldiers lost their lives fighting for freedom during the American Civil War. The conditions of the war were so bad more men died of disease and sickness than on the battlefield. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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iii. Hunger and Homelessness: After the war, over 4 million slaves were freed. They didn't know what the future had in store for them. With freedom came hunger and homelessness. Some slaves stayed on the plantations, but others went north. Either way, thousands of former slaves were without homes, clothes, food, jobs, and didn't have any education. The Freedman's Bureau helped both blacks and whites after the war by providing them with food and medical care. V. Effects of the Civil War i. The Civil War was one of the most tragic wars in American history. More Americans died then in all other wars combined. Brother fought against brother and the nation was torn apart. In the end, we must look at the important consequences of the conflict. There may be others, but this is a good list to work off. ii. The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed to secede. iii. The South was placed under military rule and divided into military districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the Union. iv. The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states. v. Slavery was effectively ended. While slavery was not officially outlawed until the passage of the 13th amendment, the slaves were set free upon the end of the war. vi. Reconstruction, the plan to rebuild America after the war, began. vii. Industrialism began as a result of the increase in wartime production and the development of new technologies. Course of War I. Introduction Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War” 1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness. 2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit. i. The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as Congressmen gathered in picnics. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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II.

III.

ii. However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray. 3. The Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would not be a short, easy war. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign 1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops but also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance. 2. Finally, he decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond, called the Peninsula Campaign, taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to the Richmond. i. At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days’ Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862. ii. The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation. 3. The Union strategy now turned to total war: i. Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade. ii. Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations. iii. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River. iv. Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas. v. Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia. vi. Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission. The War at Sea 1. The Union blockade started leakily at first, but it clamped down later. 2. Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since Britain herself often used blockades in her wars. 3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union USA History by Aamir Mahar

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IV.

V.

navy also seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate destination” [to the South] as their reasons; the British relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they did in World War I). 4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from the North. The Pivotal Point: Antietam 1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.] 2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win, hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South. i. At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan. 3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans and were able to stop the Southerners at Antietam on September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of the Civil War. i. Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day, since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded. ii. Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which didn’t actually free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January 1, 1863. iii. Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to save the slaves a well. A Proclamation without Emancipation 1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yetconquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered territories were not liberated; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he could. 2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted. 3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of its purposes: the undermine the labor of the South. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to have a slave insurrection. VI. Blacks Battle Bondage 1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union army. 2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and in one case at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were massacred. i. Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!” 3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs when Union armies conquered territory that included the plantations that they worked on. VII. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg 1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for sideburns) took over the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862. 2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his girls, aka prostitutes) was badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men mistakenly shot him during dusk, and he died. 3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G. Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.” i. In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge up a hill that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates. ii. A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address. VIII. The War in the West 1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a mediocre West Point graduate who drank a lot and also fought under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.” 2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then lost a hard battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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IX.

X.

XI.

3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans. 4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi River. 5. The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for foreign intervention was lost. Sherman Scorches Georgia 1. After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing his famous “march to the sea” at Savannah. i. His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging “total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields, and destroying everything. The Politics of War 1. The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War was created in 1861 was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble. 2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas, as “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace Democrats” did not. i. Copperheads were those who totally against the war, and denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his “nigger war.” ii. The most famous of the copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham, who harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to Ohio illegally but was not further punished, and also inspired the story “The Man without a Country.” The Election of 1864 1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan. i. The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign was once again full of mudslinging, etc… ii. Near Election Day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln killed his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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iii. The popular vote was closer: 2,206,938-1,803,787. XII. Grant Outlasts Lee 1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford to lose many men while Lee could not. i. In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men. ii. At Cold Harbor, Union soldiers with papers pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses rushed the fort, and over 7000 died in a few minutes. iii. The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but Ulysses stayed. 2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burning it, and cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over. XIII. The Martyrdom of Lincoln XIV. The Aftermath of the Nightmare. 1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the cream of the American crop. 2. However it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its growing power and reputation; plus, slavery was also destroyed, which was great. 3. It paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of its destiny as the dominant republic of the Western Hemisphere—and later, the world.

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Topic 8 Industrialization and its emergence as one of the World Powers (1870 -1916) 1) Introduction I. The industrial growth had major effects on American life. The new business activity centered on cities. As a result, people moved to cities in record numbers, and the cities grew by leaps and bounds. The sharp contrast between the rich and the poor and other features of American life stirred widespread discontent. The discontent triggered new reform movements. II. The industrial growth centred chiefly on the North. The war-torn South lagged behind the rest of the country economically. In the West, frontier life was ending. III. America's role in foreign affairs also changed during the late 1800's and early 1900's. The country built up its military strength and became a world power. 2) The rise of big business I. The value of goods produced by American industry increased almost tenfold between 1870 and 1916. Many interrelated developments contributed to this growth. II. Improved production methods. The use of machines in manufacturing spread throughout American industry after the Civil War. With machines, workers could produce goods many times faster than they could by hand. The new large manufacturing firms hired hundreds, or even thousands, of workers. Each worker was assigned a specific job in the production process. This system of organizing labourers, called the division of labour, also sped up production. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

Development of new products. Inventors created, and business leaders produced and sold, a variety of new products. The products included the typewriter (1867), barbed wire (1874), the telephone (1876), the phonograph (early form of record player) (1877), the electric light (1879), and the petrol-engine car (1885). Natural resources. America's rich and varied natural resources played a key role in the rise of big business. The nation's abundant water supply helped power the industrial machines. Forests provided timber for construction and wooden products. Miners took large quantities of coal and iron ore from the ground. A growing population. More than 25 million immigrants entered the United States between 1870 and 1916. Immigration plus natural growth caused the U.S. population to more than double during the same period, rising from about 40 million to about 100 million. Distribution and communication. In the late 1800's, the American railway system became a nationwide transportation network. The total distance of all railway lines in operation in the United States soared from about 14,500 kilometres in 1850 to almost 320,000 kilometres in 1900. A high point in railway development came in 1869, when workers laid tracks that joined the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railways near Ogden, Utah. This event marked the completion of the world's first transcontinental railway system. The system linked the United States by rail from coast to coast. The new railways spurred economic growth. Mining companies used them to ship raw materials to factories over long distances quickly. Manufacturers distributed their finished products by rail to points throughout the country. The railways became highly profitable businesses for their owners. Advances in communication provided a boost for the economy. Railways replaced such mail-delivery systems as the stagecoach. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. These developments, along with the telegraph, provided the quick communication that is vital to the smooth operation of big business. Investment and banking. The business boom triggered a sharp increase in investments in the stocks and bonds of corporations. As businesses prospered, people eager to share in the profits invested

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heavily. Their investments provided capital that companies needed to expand their operations. X. New banks sprang up throughout the country. Banks helped finance the nation's economic growth by making loans to businesses. Some bankers of the era assumed key positions in the American economy because of their ability to provide huge sums of capital. 3) The South and the West I. The war-torn South. After the Civil War, Americans in the South faced the task of rebuilding their war-torn society. The South lagged behind the rest of the nation economically. Some industry developed in the region, but the South remained an agricultural area throughout the period of industrialization. II. Many Southern farmers--both black and white--owned the land they worked. But in general, the land of these small, independent farmers was poor. The best land was given over to tenant farming--a system in which labourers farm the land and pay rent in money or crops to the owner. The tenant farming system had neither the virtues of the plantation system of pre-Civil War days nor of the independent owner system. The tenant farmers lacked the incentive to improve land that was not their own, and the owners did not have full control over production. For these and other reasons, agriculture remained more backward in the South than elsewhere. III. The end of the Western frontier. The long process of settling the United States from coast to coast drew to a close after the Civil War. In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which offered public land to people free or at very low cost. Thousands of Americans and immigrants started farms in the West under the provisions of the act. IV. After 1870, settlement became so widespread in the West that it was no longer possible to draw a continuous frontier line. The United States Census of 1890 officially recognized the fact that America's frontier had ended. V. The settlement of the West brought an end to the American Indian way of life. Farmers occupied and fenced in much of the land. White people moving westward slaughtered buffalo herds on which Indians depended for survival. Some Indians retaliated against the whites by attacking wagon trains and homes. But, as in earlier days, USA History by Aamir Mahar

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the federal government sent soldiers to crush the Indian uprisings. In the end, the Indians were no match for the soldiers and their superior weapons. Over the years, the federal government pushed more and more Indians onto reservations. 4) Life during the industrial era I. The industrial boom had major effects on the lives of the American people. The availability of jobs in industries drew people from farms to cities in record numbers. In 1870, only about 25 per cent of the American people lived in urban areas. By 1916, the figure had reached almost 50 per cent. II. The lives of people in the cities contrasted sharply. A small percentage of them had enormous wealth and enjoyed lives of luxury. Below them economically, the larger middle class lived comfortably. But at the bottom of the economic ladder, a huge mass of city people lived in extreme poverty. III. The wealthy. The business boom opened up many opportunities for financial gain. The economic activity it generated enabled many people to establish successful businesses, expand existing ones, and profit from investments. Some business leaders and investors were able to amass huge fortunes. The number of millionaires in the United States grew from perhaps about 20 in 1850 to more than 3,000 in 1900. IV. The middle class. Other city people prospered enough to live lives of comfort, if not wealth. They included owners of small businesses, and such workers as factory and office managers. They became part of America's growing middle class. V. The underprivileged. The laborers who toiled in factories, mills, and mines did not share in the benefits of the economic growth. They usually worked at least 60 hours a week for an average pay of about 20 cents an hour, and had no fringe benefits. VI. As the nation's population grew, so did the competition for jobs. The supply of workers outstripped the demand. The oversupply of workers led to high unemployment. In addition, depressions slowed the economy to a near standstill in 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907. VII. The everyday life of the city poor was dismal and drab. The poor lived crowded together in slums. Much of their housing consisted of USA History by Aamir Mahar

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VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

cheap apartment buildings called tenements. The crowded slum neighbourhoods bred crime. Overwork, poor sanitation, and inadequate diet left slum dwellers vulnerable to disease. Many poor children received little or no education, because they had to work to contribute to their families' welfare. The farmers. American farmers also suffered hardships after the Civil War. Advances in agricultural equipment and techniques had enabled most of the farmers to increase their production. However, middlemen between the farmers and the consumers took a large share of the money earned from farm products. The middlemen included owners of railways, mills, and gins. The Gilded Age. American author Mark Twain called the era of industrialization "The Gilded Age." Twain used this term to describe the culture of the newly rich of the period. Lacking tradition, the wealthy developed a showy culture supposedly based on the culture of upper-class Europeans. The enormous mansions of the newly rich Americans imitated European palaces. The wealthy filled the mansions with European works of art, antiques, rare books, and gaudy decorations. Most Americans, however, had a far different idea of culture. They enjoyed fairs that exhibited industrial machines, the latest inventions, and other items related to America's material progress. The American people were eager spectators at circuses, vaudeville shows, and sporting events. Baseball became so popular after 1900 that it was called the national pastime. Also after 1900, a new kind of entertainment, the cinema, began attracting public interest. Government and the people. After the Civil War, the Democratic and Republican parties developed strong political machines. Members of these organizations kept in contact with the people, and did them favours in return for votes. But in general, political leaders strongly favoured business interests. Government of the era was also marked by widespread corruption. Ulysses S. Grant became president in 1869. Members of Grant's administration used their government positions for their own financial gain. Corruption also flourished in state and local government.

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5) Reform I. A strong spirit of reform swept through the United States during the late 1800's and early 1900's. Many Americans called for changes in the country's economic, political, and social systems. They wanted to reduce poverty, improve the living conditions of the poor, and regulate big business. They worked to end corruption in government, make government more responsive to the people, and accomplish other goals. By 1917, the reformers had brought about many changes. Some reformers called themselves progressives. As a result, the period of American history from about 1890 to about 1917 is often called the Progressive Era. II. Early reform efforts included movements to organize labourers and farmers. In 1886, skilled labourers formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL)--now the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). Led by Samuel Gompers, this union bargained with employers and gained better wages and working conditions for its members. Farmers founded the National Grange in 1867 and Farmers' Alliances during the 1870's and 1880's. These groups helped force railways to lower their charges for hauling farm products and assisted the farmers in other ways. III. The drive for woman suffrage became strong after the Civil War. In 1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. The Territory of Wyoming gave women the right to vote the same year. Soon, a few states allowed women to vote, but only in local elections. IV. The Progressive Era. The outcry for reform increased sharply after 1890. Members of the clergy, social workers, and others studied life in the slums and reported on the awful living conditions there. Educators criticized the nation's school system. Increasingly, unskilled workers resorted to strikes in an attempt to gain concessions from their employers. Often, violence broke out between strikers and strikebreakers hired by the employers. Socialists and others who opposed the U.S. economic system of capitalism supported the strikers and gained a large following. V. As public support for reform grew, so did the political influence of the reformers. In 1891, farmers and some labourers formed the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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People's, or Populist, Party. The Populists called for government action to help farmers and labourers. They gained a large following, and convinced many Democrats and Republicans to support reforms. VI. Reformers won control of many city and some state governments. They also elected many people to Congress who favoured their views. In addition, the first three presidents elected after 1900--Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson--supported certain reform laws. VII. Local and state legislation. Reformers in local and state government passed many laws to help the poor. Such laws provided for tenement house inspection, playgrounds, and other improvements of life in the slums. Some reform governments expanded public education and forced employers to protect workers against fires and dangerous machinery in factories. VIII. Federal legislation. Theodore Roosevelt, who became president in 1901, was a liberal Republican who called for a "square deal" for all Americans. Roosevelt became the first president to help labourers in a strike against employers. In 1902, the United Mine Workers struck for better wages and working conditions. Roosevelt asked the miners and the mine owners to settle their differences through arbitration, but the mine owners refused. Angered, the president threatened to have the army take over the mines. The owners gave in, and reached a compromise with the miners. IX. Republican William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt in 1909. Although a conservative, Taft helped further the cause of reform. In 1912, conservative Republicans backed Taft for their party's presidential nomination, and liberal Republicans supported Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination. The liberals then formed the Progressive, or "Bull Moose," Party and nominated Roosevelt for president. The Republican split enabled reform Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win the presidency. X. The reform movement flourished under Wilson. The many reform measures passed during Wilson's presidency included the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered a high tariff that protected American business from foreign competition. 6) Foreign affairs USA History by Aamir Mahar

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During the 1870's and 1880's, the United States paid relatively little attention to foreign affairs. In comparison to such European nations as France, Germany, and Great Britain, the United States was weak militarily and had little influence in international politics. During the 1890's and early 1900's, however, the United States developed into a world power and took a leading role in international affairs. II. The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in United States foreign policy. Spain ruled Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and other overseas possessions during the 1890's. In the mid-1890's, Cubans revolted against their Spanish rulers. Many Americans demanded that the United States aid the rebels. On Feb. 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine blew up off the coast of Havana, Cuba. No one was certain what caused the explosion, but many Americans blamed the Spaniards. On April 25, 1898, Congress declared war on Spain. The United States quickly defeated Spain, and the Treaty of Paris of Dec. 10, 1898, officially ended the war. Under the treaty, the United States received Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines from Spain. Also in 1898, the United States annexed Hawaii. III. A world power. After he became president in 1901, Roosevelt expressed his foreign policy strategy with the slogan, "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick." Roosevelt meant that the country must back up its diplomatic efforts with military strength. In 1903, the president used a threat of force to gain the right to dig the Panama Canal. America took over the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905 to keep that country stable and free from European intervention. These and other actions showed that the United States had emerged as a world power. IV. War clouds in Europe. In 1914, long-standing problems among European nations led to the outbreak of World War I. Before long, events would drag the United States into war and test its new role as a world power. 7) Conclusion

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Topic 9 USA’s role in the Two World Wars 1) 1914 – 1918 2) 1939 - 1945 1) Introduction: A new place in the world (1917-1929) I. The United States stayed out of World War I until 1917. But then, German acts of aggression convinced most Americans of the need to join the war against Germany. For the first time in its history, the United States mobilized for a full-scale war on foreign territory. II. The decade following World War I brought sweeping changes. The economy entered a period of spectacular--though uneven-growth. The booming economy and fast-paced life of the decade gave it the nickname of the Roaring Twenties. But the good times ended abruptly. In 1929, a stock market crash triggered the worst and longest depression in America's history. 2) World War I and the peace I. The United States in the war. After World War I began in 1914, the United States repeatedly declared its neutrality. But increasingly, German acts of aggression brought America closer to joining the Allies. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine sank the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. Woodrow Wilson won reelection to the presidency in November 1916, using the slogan, "He Kept Us Out of War." But USA History by Aamir Mahar

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three months later, German submarines began sinking American merchant ships. This and other acts of aggression led the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. II. The American people rallied around their government's decision to go to war. Almost 2 million men volunteered for service, and about 3 million were conscripted. On the home front, the spirit of patriotism grew to a fever pitch. Americans willingly let the government take almost complete control of the economy for the good of the war effort. III. World War I ended in an Allied victory with the signing of an armistice on Nov. 11, 1918. IV. The peace conference and treaty. In 1919, the Allies held the Paris Peace Conference to draw up the terms of the peace with Germany. Wilson viewed the conference as an opportunity to establish lasting peace among nations. But the other leading Allies were chiefly interested in gaining territory and war payments from Germany. They adopted the Treaty of Versailles, which ignored almost all of Wilson's proposals. V. The Treaty of Versailles did make provision for one of Wilson's proposals--an association of nations (later called the League of Nations) that would work to maintain peace. But the U.S. Senate failed to ratify (approve) the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, the Senate rejected U.S. participation in the League of Nations. 3) Life during the Roaring Twenties I. In many ways, the 1920's marked the point at which the United States began developing into the modern society it is today. II. The role of American women changed dramatically during the 1920's. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, which became law on Aug. 26, 1920, gave women the right to vote in all elections. In addition, many new opportunities for education and careers opened up to women during the decade. III. Social change and problems. Developments of the 1920's broadened the experiences of millions of Americans. The mass movement to cities meant more people could enjoy such activities as films, plays, and sporting events. Radio broadcasting began on a large scale. The car gave people a new way to get around. Cinemas became part of almost every city and town. The new role of women USA History by Aamir Mahar

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also changed society. Many women who found careers outside the home began thinking of themselves more as the equal of men, and less as housewives and mothers. IV. The modern trends of the 1920's brought about problems as well as benefits. Many Americans had trouble adjusting to the impersonal, fast-paced life of cities. This disorientation led to a rise in juvenile delinquency, crime, and other antisocial behaviour. V. The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, called the prohibition amendment, caused unforeseen problems. It outlawed the sale of alcoholic beverages throughout the United States as of Jan. 16, 1920. Many otherwise law-abiding citizens considered prohibition a violation of their rights. They ignored the law and bought alcohol provided by underworld gangs. VI. Looking backward. Not all Americans saw the changes brought about during the Roaring Twenties as being desirable. Many people yearned for a return to old American traditions, a trend that was reflected in many areas of life. In politics, it led to the return of a conservative federal government. In his successful presidential campaign of 1920, Warren G. Harding used the slogan "A Return to Normalcy." To many people, returning to "normalcy" meant ending the strong role of the federal government that marked the early 1900's. It also meant isolation, a turning away from the affairs of the outside world. VII. In religion, the trend toward tradition led to an upsurge of revivalism (emotional religious preaching). Revival meetings were most common in rural areas, but also spread to cities. VIII. The Ku Klux Klan had died out in the 1870's, but a new Klan gained a large following during the 1920's. The new Klan had easy answers for Americans who were troubled by modern problems. It blamed the problems on "outsiders," including blacks, Jews, Roman Catholics, foreigners, and political radicals. 4) The economy- boom and bust I. During the 1920's, the American economy soared to spectacular heights. Wartime government restrictions on business ended. Conservatives gained control of the federal government and adopted policies that aided big business.

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II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

But in spite of its growth and apparent strength, the economy was on shaky ground. Only one segment of the economy-manufacturing--prospered. Business executives grew rich, but farmers and labourers became worse off. Finally, in 1929, wild speculation led to a stock market crash. Government and business. The American people grew tired of the federal government's involvement in society that marked the Progressive Era and the war years. They elected to Congress conservatives who promised to reduce the role of government. Also, all three presidents elected during the 1920's--Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover--were Republicans who agreed with the policy. Technology enabled American manufacturers to develop new products, improve existing ones, and turn out goods much faster and more cheaply than ever before. Sales of such items as electric washing machines, refrigerators, and radios soared. But the manufacturing boom depended most heavily on the growth of the car industry. Before and during the 1920's, Henry Ford and others refined car manufacturing to a science. The cost of cars continued to drop and sales soared. In just 10 years between 1920 and 1930, the number of cars registered in the United States almost tripled, growing from about 8 million to 23 million. Agriculture and labour did not share in the prosperity. A reduced market for farm goods in war-torn Europe and a slowdown in the U.S. population growth led to a decline in the demand for American farm products. Widespread poverty among farmers and labourers cut into the demand for manufactured goods, a contributing factor to the forthcoming depression. Investments, speculation, and the crash. The economic growth of the 1920's led more Americans than ever to invest in the shares of corporations. The investments, in turn, provided companies with a flood of new capital for business expansion. As investors poured money into the stock market, the value of shares soared. The upsweep led to widespread speculation, which pushed the value of shares far beyond the level justified by earnings and dividends. Such unsound investment practices led to the stock market crash of 1929. In late October, a decline in share prices set in. Panic selling

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followed, lowering share prices drastically and dragging investors to financial ruin. The stock market crash combined with the other weaknesses in the nation's economy to bring on the Great Depression of the 1930's. 5) Depression and a world in conflict (1930-1959) I. The United States suffered through the Great Depression that followed the stock market crash of 1929 for more than 10 years. During the depression, millions of workers lost their jobs and large numbers of farmers were forced to abandon their farms. Poverty swept through the nation on a scale never before experienced. II. The Great Depression was not limited to the United States. It struck almost every other country in the world. In some countries, the hard times helped bring to power dictators who promised to restore the economy. The dictators included Adolf Hitler in Germany and a group of military leaders in Japan. Once in power, both Hitler and the Japanese rulers began conquering neighbouring lands. Their actions led to World War II, the most destructive conflict in world history. The United States fought in the war from 1941 to 1945, and played a key role in defeating Germany and Japan. III. Victory in World War II brought a spirit of great relief and joy to the United States. The postwar economy boomed. More people shared in the prosperity than ever before, creating a huge, well-to-do middle class. Even so, Americans still faced problems. Chief among them were the new threat of nuclear war, the growing strength of Communism, and discontent among Americans who did not share in the prosperity. 6) The Great Depression I. The road to ruin. The stock market crash sent shock waves through the American financial community. Banks greatly curtailed their loans to businesses, and businesses then cut back on production. Millions of people lost their jobs because of the cutbacks. Spending then dwindled, and businesses suffered even more. Factories and shops shut down, causing even higher unemployment. Consumption of farm products declined, and farmers became worse off than ever. Thousands of banks failed and foreign trade decreased sharply. By the early 1930's, the nation's economy was paralysed. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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II. The depression and the people. At the height of the depression in 1933, about 13 million Americans were out of work, and many others had only part-time jobs. Farm income declined so sharply that more than 750,000 farmers lost their land. The Dust Bowl, the result of a terrible drought on the western Great Plains, also wiped out many farmers. Hundreds of thousands of people lost their life savings as a result of the bank failures. III. Throughout the depression, many Americans went hungry. People stood in "bread lines" and went to "soup kitchens" to get food provided by charities. Often, two or more families lived crowded together in a small apartment. Some homeless people built shacks of tin and scraps of wood on waste ground. IV. Roosevelt, recovery, and reform. Early in the Great Depression, President Herbert Hoover promised that prosperity was "just around the corner." But the depression deepened as the election of 1932 approached. The Republicans supported Hoover for reelection. The Democrats chose Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In his campaign, Roosevelt promised government action to end the Great Depression and reforms to avoid future depressions. The people responded, and Roosevelt won a landslide victory. V. Roosevelt's programme was called the New Deal. Its many provisions included public works projects to provide jobs, relief for farmers, assistance to manufacturing firms, and the regulation of banks. VI. Roosevelt's efforts to end the depression made him one of the most popular U.S. presidents. The voters elected him to four terms. No other president won election more than twice. Roosevelt's New Deal was a turning point in American history. It marked the start of a strong government role in the nation's economic affairs that has continued and grown to the present day. 7) The United States in World War II I. World War II began on Sept. 1, 1939, when German troops overran Poland. France, Great Britain, and other nations (called the Allies) went to war against Germany. At first, America stayed out of the war. But on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan on December 8, and three days later Germany and Italy--Germany's chief ally-declared war on the United States. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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II. The war effort. The American people backed the war effort with fierce dedication. About 15 million American men served in the armed forces. About 338,000 women served in the armed forces. At home, factories were converted into defence plants where aeroplanes, ships, weapons, and other war supplies were made. The country had a shortage of civilian men, and so thousands of women worked in the defence plants. ven children took part in the war effort. Boys and girls collected used tin cans, old tyres, and other "junk" that could be recycled and used for war supplies. III. Allied victory. On May 7, 1945, after a long, bitter struggle, the Allies forced the mighty German war machine to surrender. Vice President Harry S. Truman had become president upon Roosevelt's death about a month earlier. The Allies demanded Japan's surrender, but the Japanese continued to fight on. Truman then made one of the major decisions in history. He ordered the use of the atomic bomb, a weapon many times more destructive than any previous weapon. An American aeroplane dropped the first atomic bomb used in warfare on Hiroshima, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. A second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, and the war was over. 8) Conclusion

Topic 10 Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two World Powers 1) The Threat of Communism I. The United States and the Soviet Union both fought on the side of the Allies during World War II. But after the war, the two countries became bitter enemies. The Soviet Union, as a Communist country, opposed democracy. It helped Communists take control of most of the countries of Eastern Europe and also aided Communists who seized control of China. II. The Soviet Union and China then set out to spread Communism to other lands. The United States, as the world's most powerful democratic country, took on the role of defending non-Communist nations threatened by Communist take-over. The containment of Communism became the major goal of U.S. postwar foreign policy. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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III.

The Cold War and foreign policy. The postwar struggle between the American-led non-Communist nations and the Soviet Union and its Communist allies became known as the Cold War. The conflict was so named because it did not lead to fighting, or a "hot" war, on a major scale. IV. Both the United States and the Soviet Union built up arsenals of nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons made each nation capable of destroying the other. The threat of nuclear war made both sides cautious. As a result, Cold War strategy emphasized threats of force, propaganda, and aid to weak nations. The United Nations (UN), founded in 1945, provided a forum where the nations could try to settle their Cold War disputes. V. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first two presidents of the Cold War era, pledged American military support to any nation threatened by Communism. Also, the United States provided billions of dollars to non-Communist nations. VI. The Korean War resulted from the Cold War friction. On June 25, 1950, troops from Communist North Korea, equipped by the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The UN called on member nations to help restore peace. Truman sent American troops to aid South Korea, and the UN sent a fighting force made up of troops from many nations. The war lasted for three years, ending in a truce on July 27, 1953. VII. Communism and internal friction. The spread of Communism caused deep divisions within the United States. Conservatives blamed the Roosevelt and Truman administrations for allowing the Communist postwar gains. They also claimed that Communists were infiltrating the American government. The charges led to widespread investigations of--and debate over--the extent of Communist influence in American government and society. Conservatives believed the investigations were needed to save the country from Communist control. Liberals charged the conservatives with conducting "witch hunts"; that is, trying to fix guilt on people without evidence. 2) Postwar society I. After World War II, the United States entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history. Periods of inflation (rapidly rising USA History by Aamir Mahar

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II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

prices) and recession (mild business slumps) occurred. But overall, prosperity spread to more Americans than ever before, resulting in major changes in American life. However, millions of Americans-including a high percentage of the nation's blacks--continued to live in poverty. The existence of poverty amid prosperity brought on a period of active social protest that has continued to the present day. Prosperity returns. Military spending during World War II drew the United States out of the Great Depression. Major industries, such as car manufacturing and housing construction, had all but stopped during the war. After the war, these industries resumed production on a much larger scale than ever. elatively new industries such as electronics, plastics, frozen foods, and jet aircraft became booming businesses. The shortage of goods during the war and other factors combined to create a vast market for American products. A population boom increased the number of consumers. Between 1950 and 1960 alone, the population of the United States grew by about 28 million. Trade unions became stronger than ever, and gained high wages and other benefits for their members. Wage laws and other government regulations also helped give workers a greater share of the profits of business. These developments also meant that more Americans had more money to spend on goods. A new life style resulted from the prosperity. After the war, millions of people needed, and were able to afford, new housing. Construction companies quickly built huge clusters of houses in suburbs around the nation's cities. Vast numbers of Americans moved from cities to suburbs. The suburbs attracted people for many reasons. They offered newer housing, more open space, and--usually--better schools than the inner cities. A rise in car ownership accompanied the suburban growth. Increased car traffic led to the building of a nationwide network of motorways. The car and prosperity enabled more people than ever to take holidays. New motels, fast-service restaurants, and petrol stations sprang up to serve the tourists. Prosperity and technological advances changed American life in other ways. Television--an experimental device before the war--became a feature of most American homes during the 1950's. This wonder of USA History by Aamir Mahar

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modern science brought scenes of the world into the American living room at the flick of a switch. New appliances made house work easier. They included automatic washing machines, driers, dishwashers, and waste disposal units. VII. Poverty and discrimination. In spite of the general prosperity, millions of Americans still lived in poverty. The poor included members of all ethnic groups, but the plight of the nation's poor blacks seemed especially bleak. Ever since emancipation, blacks in both the North and South had faced discrimination in jobs, housing, education, and other areas. A lack of education and jobs made poverty among blacks widespread. VIII. During the early 1900's, blacks, joined by many whites, had begun a movement to extend civil rights to blacks. The movement gained momentum after World War II. Efforts of civil rights leaders resulted in several Supreme Court decisions that attacked discrimination. In the best-known case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the court ruled that compulsory segregation in state schools was illegal. IX. In spite of the gains, many civil rights leaders became dissatisfied with the slow progress of their movement. In 1955, Martin Luther King, Jr., a Baptist minister, began organizing demonstrations protesting against discrimination. Before long, the public protest would become a major tool of Americans seeking change. 3) Conclusion

Topic: 11 Civil Rights Movement (1954–65) 1.

Introduction a) The American civil rights struggle is an ongoing fight for the personal rights, protections, and privileges granted all U.S. citizens by the Constitution and Bill of Rights. b) At the end of the American Civil War (1861–65), constitutional amendments were enacted to protect African Americans recently released from slavery. c) The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) declared that all former slaves were U.S. citizens and received equal protection under the laws of state and federal governments. d) The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) assured equal voting rights to all citizens, regardless of race. Until the 1950s, however, the civil

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rights of African Americans were systematically denied, particularly in the South where the majority of black Americans resided. A remarkable era of nonviolent e) African American activism began in 1954, known today simply as the civil rights movement. It was launched by the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, in which the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in the public schools was illegal. This phase of the civil rights struggle ended with the passage in 1965 of the Voting Rights Act, which nearly a century after the Fifteenth Amendment had already done so once again assured voting rights to all citizens. 2. Background of the movement a) After the Reconstruction Era (1865–77), a period after the Civil War in which the federal government controlled the southern states that had se- ceded (withdrawn) from the Union, whites in the South enacted the Jim Crow laws. b) These were a series of laws throughout the South that required segregation, the separation of the races in public places. c) White southern state legislatures limited African American rights to own land, to enter certain occupations, and to gain access to the courts. d) By 1900, southern whites had accomplished the disfranchisement (exclusion from voting) of most southern blacks. e) In the early twentieth century, because it was too dangerous to effectively resist racial injustice in the South, most civil rights struggles were carried out in the North. f) In 1905, black scholar and author W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963) and other black leaders began the Niagara movement, named after their meeting place near the Niagara River bordering the United States and Canada, to fight racial injustice. Their organization eventually became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which fought for racial equality mainly through the courts and the press. g) Until World War II (1939–45), the NAACP’s progress was slow. After the war, a new sense of urgency prevailed in American black communities. Soldiers who had risked their lives to fight for the country expected equal treatment when they returned home. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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3. a) b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

h) More than one mil- lion African Americans migrated from the rural South to northern cities in the first decades of the century. Over two million blacks had registered to vote by the late 1940s. i) In December 1948, President Harry S. Truman (1884–1972; served 1945–53) ran for his second term as president on a strong civil rights plank. Although some southern whites quickly abandoned him, he received 70 percent of the northern black vote and won the election. Two years later, he began to desegregate the armed forces. j) By the late 1940s, the NAACP’s chief legal counsel, Thurgood Marshall (1908–1993), brought the principle of segregation in public education before the Supreme Court. Marshall argued that segregation denied blacks equal protection of the laws as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. k) In 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled against segregation in public schools in Brown v. Board of Education. The aftermath of Brown Brown’s most immediate effect was to intensify the resistance of white southerners to civil rights progress. The Ku Klux Klan, a secret society of white southerners in the United States that uses terrorist tactics to suppress African Americans and other minorities, stepped up its violent intimidation of African Americans. Southern congressmen and governors vowed to resist desegregation. In 1957, when nine black students at- tempted to attend classes at a formerly all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas, federal troops were required to protect them from the furious white mobs. Even so, Brown provided the spark that ignited a movement. African Americans across the country recognized that the highest court had up- held their rights; leaders began to prepare bolder assaults on segregation in the South. One common form of protest is a boycott, an organized re- fusal to do business with someone. In December 1955, blacks in Montgomery, Alabama, organized a bus boycott after the former NAACP secretary of the Montgomery branch, Rosa Parks (1913–2005), was arrested for refusing to yield her seat to a white man. The boycott leader was Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968).

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g) Only twenty-six years old, the minister from Atlanta was an inspiring speaker who invoked Christian morality, American ideals of liberty, and the ethic of nonviolent resistance in his campaign against racial injustice. h) In November 1956, despite growing Special counsel for the NAACP Thurgood Marshall argued that segregation denied blacks equal protection of the laws as guaranteed by the Constitution. i) White violence, the bus boycott triumphed when a Supreme Court decision overturned Montgomery’s laws enforcing bus segregation. 4. Nonviolent activists organize a) In 1957, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the Reconstruction Era. African Americans, however, had seen that court decisions and federal acts had consistently failed to make changes, so during the late 1950s they moved their struggle for equality to the streets. b) In January 1957, King organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), a network of nonviolent civil rights activists drawn mainly from African American churches. c) In 1960, four African American students began the sit-in movement, when they sat at the lunch counter at a Woolworth’s store in Greensboro, North Carolina, which served only whites. d) The store closed down the lunch counter. Later that year, several hundred student activists gathered in Raleigh, North Carolina, to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced “snick”) to promote nonviolent resistance to Jim Crow laws. e) By the summer of 1960, the sitins had desegregated dozens of lunch counters and other public accommodations, mainly in southern border states. f) Guided by King and other nonviolent activist leaders, protesters courageously endured insults, intimidation, violence, and arrest without striking back. g) The Kennedy administration Black protests intensified during the presidency of John F. Kennedy (served 1961–63), a Democrat elected in 1960 with heavy black support. Kennedy had started out his administration avoiding civil rights measures that might trigger southern white racial violence and political retaliation.

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h) Civil rights leaders stepped up campaigns to pressure Kennedy to fulfill his campaign promises. In 1961, a nonviolent civil rights group called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the freedom rides, in which volunteers rode buses through Sitins, peaceful demonstrations outside and inside businesses, helped desegregate several lunch counters and other public accommodations. i) The South, testing compliance with a Supreme Court order to desegregate interstate bus terminal facilities. White mobs beat the riders in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama. As several hundred more volunteers stepped in to continue the project, Kennedy quietly persuaded southern communities to desegregate their bus terminals. j) In 1962, Kennedy again was forced into action. He sent federal marshals to protect a black student named James Meredith who had registered at the all-white University of Mississippi at Oxford. After mobs killed two people at the campus and besieged the marshals, the president reluctantly called in more troops to restore order. In 1963, demonstrations throughout the South led to fifteen thou- sand arrests and widespread white violence. k) On May 3 and for several days afterward, police in Birmingham beat and unleashed attack dogs on nonviolent followers of King, in full view of television news cameras. The resulting public revulsion over the Birmingham protests spurred Kennedy to urge Congress to enact a strong civil rights law. 5. I Have a Dream a) A coalition of African American groups and their white allies sponsored a march on Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963, to advance the civil rights bill then before Congress. b) Standing before the Lincoln Memorial, King delivered his famous plea for interracial brotherhood in his “I Have a Dream” speech, enthralling several hundred thousand blacks and whites. c) On July 2, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which barred segregation in public accommodations, ended federal aid to segregated institutions, outlawed racial discrimination in employment, sought to strengthen black voting rights, and extended the life of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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d) Voting rights in the South In 1964, SNCC initiated Freedom Summer, a massive black voter registration and education campaign aimed at challenging white supremacy in the deep South, starting in Mississippi. About one thousand college students, most of them white, volunteered. The freedom workers were not well received by a segment of Mississippi’s white population. e) Three volunteers were murdered by a mob led by the deputy sheriff of a Mississippi town. Nevertheless, the project continued. f) In 1965, King led a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to extend voting rights to black Americans. State and local police almost immediately attacked the black marchers, stopping the march. The televised scenes of violence brought about strong national support for the protection of blacks attempting to vote. g) Ten days later, twenty-five thousand black and white marchers reached Montgomery escorted by federal troops. After the Selma-Montgomery march, Johnson signed a strong Voting Rights Act, which authorized the attorney general to send federal voting examiners to make sure that African Americans were free to register. The examiners were granted the power to enforce national law over local regulations wherever discrimination occurred. 6. Black power a) After 1965, the civil rights movement began to fragment, primarily over the nonviolent tactics of King and his supporters and the goal of integration into the dominant society. Malcolm X , a leader of the religious and sociopolitical group the Nation of Islam, questioned the value of integration into a society that had exploited and abused African Americans for centuries. b) He did not believe that the sit-ins, marches, or other tactics of civil rights activists were effective tools with which to gain rights, especially when confronted with violent resistance in the South. In 1966, SNCC leader Stokely Carmichael (also known as Kwame Ture ridiculed nonviolent efforts and demanded “black power,” a militant slogan that alienated white liberals and divided blacks. c) The focus of the Black Power Movement began to shift to eco- nomic injustices in the North. Violent ghetto riots began to break out in large cities like Detroit and Los Angeles.

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d) On April 4, 1968, the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. touched off riots that left Washington, D.C., in flames for three days. The movement would continue, but this initial remarkable phase of the nonviolent civil rights struggle was over. 7. A revolutionary movement a) The central goal of the African American civil rights movement full equality between blacks and whites remains a distant vision. Neighborhoods, private schools, and jobs remain segregated along racial lines; African American incomes remain significantly lower than those of whites; and job and educational opportunities are not distributed equally. Nonetheless, the civil rights movement of 1954– 65 transformed American race relations. b) In communities throughout the South, “whites only” signs that had stood for generations vanished from hotels, rest- rooms, theaters, and other facilities. By the mid-1970s, school desegregation had become fact as well as law in more than 80 percent of all southern public schools (a better record than in the North, where residential segregation remains pronounced). c) The protection of the right to vote represents the civil rights movement’s greatest success: When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act in 1965, barely 100 African Americans held elective office in the country; by 2000 there were more than 9,000.

Topic: 12 Separation of Powers: Check and Balances 1.

Introduction a) Checks and Balances Checks and balances refers to a system of separation of powers within a government. b) The framework of separation is intended to balance govern- mental power to prevent any part of the government from overreaching its defined responsibilities. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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c) The Constitution of the United States, writ- ten in 1787 and adopted in 1788, established a system of checks and bal- ances for the U.S. federal government. 2.

3.

Systems of government throughout the world use different systems of checks and balances. The Constitution defines three divisions of government for the United States: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. Each branch is responsible for a separate governmental function, and the conduct of each branch can be evaluated and challenged (or “checked”) by the other two branches, at least to some extent. The three branches a) The legislative branch is made up of two separate chambers of Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. b) Congress is responsible for making the nation’s laws. Each chamber checks the power of the other, as both need to approve bills (proposed laws) for them to become laws. c) The legislative branch as a whole is checked by the powers of the other two branches. The judicial branch has the ability to decide that a law is unconstitutional and therefore invalid. It also has the power to interpret what a federal law means. The executive branch has the ability, through the president, to veto, or reject, a law passed by Congress. d) A presidential veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of Congress. The executive branch, led by the president, has the responsibility of enforcing the nation’s laws. e) The armed forces as well as many administrative and regulatory departments and agencies are under the control of the executive branch. The judicial branch checks the executive branch by interpreting the laws in legal cases involving the executive branch and its departments. f) The legislative branch balances the executive branch by overriding presidential vetoes, approving presidential appointments, and using the power to impeach and remove executive officers who USA History by Aamir Mahar

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commit certain crimes. The judicial branch consists of a system of federal courts, with the U.S. Supreme Court at the top. g) The Supreme Court has the responsibility of hearing cases that involve constitutional questions and federal laws, and it makes decisions based on its interpretations of those laws. The executive branch has the ability to appoint judges as openings occur. h) The legislative branch has to approve those appointments and has the power to impeach judges if needed. By using amendments to rewrite laws, Congress has the power to change the effect of a court’s interpretation of the laws. 4.

Makers of the Constitution: a) The authors of the Constitution embraced the system of checks and balances, knowing the danger of abuse of governmental power. b) By establishing three branches of government, they attempted to ensure that no single branch would wield more power than the others by compelling each branch to be checked by the other two. c) Over time, interpretation of the Constitution and laws has created a complex system of ways in which the checks and balances function.

Conclusion

Questions and their Answers (Outlines) CONTENT USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. Causes of American Colonization OR War of Independence 2. War of Independence 3. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? OR A Question on founding father. 4. The American Constitution is a system of Checks and Balances? Give Silent Features of US Constitution and what were the flaws in Article of Confederation? 5. System of Check and Balance in American Constitution 6. Is America as a Melting Pot or a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic 7. Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American Presidency in 1800 as “the Second American Revolution”. Was the claim justified? Support your answer with evidence. 8. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said, “This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and prosper”. 9. Explain in light of the FDR presidency and the New Deal? 10. Discuss in Details the impacts of Obama's 2nd terms as the President and policy toward Pakistan? 11. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian?

Causes of American Colonization OR War of Independence 1. Introduction o Exploration of America o Christopher Columbus o His Visits to America o Natives American (their groups) 2. Causes of Colonization USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o o o o o o o o o o 3. 4.

Improvement in Technology Renaissance in Europe Religious Conflicts in Europe Expanding trade Search for New Routes Pressure of population Trade and Agriculture Desire for wealth Imperial Race Royal Proclamation Critical Analysis Conclusion

War of Independence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Role of Spain and France Role of Blacks School of Thoughts Mercantilism (If required in details) o Navigation Act of 1651 USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o o o o o o o o o 6. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 7. 8.

Enumerated Act of 1660 Staple Act of 1663 Duty Act of 1673 Enforcement Act of 1696 Molasses Act 1733 The Sugar Act of 1764 The Currency Act of 1764 The Quartering Act of 1765 The Stamp Act of 1765 Other Causes of War of Independence Letters of Samuel Adams French Indian War Royal Proclamation of 1763 The Coercive Act/ Intolerable Act Self-Government Great Awakening Boston Tea Party British Action on Massachusetts 1st Continental Conference 2nd Continental Conference Declaration of Independence Common Sense by Thomas Paine Sons of Liberty Boston Massacre Critical Analysis Conclusion

In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? OR A Question on founding father.

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Introduction Jacksonian democracy v/s Jeffersonian democrats o Political USA History by Aamir Mahar

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a. Universal Suffrage b. citizens considered eligible for office holding c. candidates for president chosen o Economic d. Chosen Class e. Industrialization f. Attitude toward the Bank of the United States o Social g. Views on education h. attitude toward equality for women i. attitude toward American Indians j. attitude toward slavery? o Religious k. To what extent was separation of church and state accomplished in each period? 3. Critical Analysis 4. Conclusion

The American Constitution is a system of Checks and Balances? Give Silent Features of US Constitution and what were the flaws in Article of Confederation? NOTE: Candidates should carefully analyze that what is been asked AOC/Salient feature or check and balance? And then answer accordingly.

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Introduction Flaws in AOC USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o o o o o o o o 3. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 4. 5.

One house congress No separate executive Considerable powers to state Lack system of judiciary Central government had insufficient power to regulate commerce. It could not tax, generally impotent in setting commercial policy It could not effectively support a war effort It had little power to settle quarrels between states Salient feature of US Constitution Checks and Balances: Brief & Simple: Written Constitution: Dual Citizenship: Secular State: Supremacy of the Constitution: Strong Federation: Bill Of Rights: Rigid Constitution: Separation of Powers: Bicameralism: Independent Judiciary: Universal Suffrage: Division of Powers: Spoils System: Presidential form of government: Republicanism: Sovereignty of the People Critical Analysis Conclusion

System of Check and Balance in American Constitution 1. Introduction The national government is divided into three branches: 1. Legislative 2. Executive 3. Judicial a.

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May override presidential vetoes with a two-thirds vote Has the power over the purse strings to actually fund any executive actions May remove the president through impeachment Senate approves treaties Senate approves presidential appointments b. The Legislative Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch: o Creates lower courts o May remove judges through impeachment o Senate approves appointments of judges c. The Executive Branch of American Government o Veto power o Ability to call special sessions of Congress o Can recommend legislation o Can appeal to the people concerning legislation and more d. The Executive Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch: o President appoints Supreme Court and other federal judges e. The Judicial Branch of United States Government o Judges, once appointed for life, are free from controls from the executive branch o Courts can judge executive actions to be unconstitutional through the power of o Judicial review f. The Judicial Branch has the following checks over the Legislative Branch: o Courts can judge legislative acts to be unconstitutional. o o o o o

2. 3.

Critical Analysis Conclusion

Is America as a Melting Pot or a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic America as a Melting Pot o Melting-pot model of American, prevalent at the beginning of the 20th century o Immigrants were encouraged to completely discard the cultural heritage o It is particularly used to describe the assimilation of immigrants to the USA o The melting-together metaphor was in use by the 1780s. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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o Israll Zangwill, whose drama Melting Pot published in 1908 popularized the concept of white melting pot o After 1970 the desirability of assimilation and the melting pot model was challenged by proponents of multiculturalism o Many different types of peoples, ideas and religions successfully co-exist o The history of America is a history of multiracial society o The white majority somehow interacted with blacks and Native Indians. Consisting of Anglo-Saxons, Irishmen, Germans, Jews, Italians, Poles and other Europeans this majority was not homogeneous. o All immigrants tried to learn American way of living and become a part of the “melting pot” America as a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic o People of different backgrounds can fit together without losing their original identity o Multiculturalism, celebrating diversity and teaching tolerance o African American civil rights movement should also be mentioned among the events that changed the ethnic situation in the USA o The ethnic distribution of population all over the USA resembles “a mosaic”: the South is black, the West is Asian, Hispanic and Native Indian o The report of the Council of Economic Advisers indicates that different ethnic groups choose not only different parts of the county to live in, but also different parts of the metropolitan areas o The separation between ethnic groups involves the distribution of jobs as well. For instance, in California, Mexicans work as gardeners, domestics, cooks and food preparers. Koreans open small business. Filipinos become nurses and medical technicians. African Americans work in government jobs. o Have equal rights with other American citizens the prejudices against them are still strong o All scholars point out that there is a line between blacks and others and doubt that African Americans will ever be included in the “melting pot”. o Blacks are resistant to exogamy too. Such marriages are regarded as the betrayal of one’s own race. Conclusion In conclusion it would be appropriate to state that the American society now is in the transition from a “mosaic” to a “melting pot”, creating a new culture, which will absorb and mix races and cultural peculiarities of different ethnic groups.

Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American Presidency in 1800 as “the Second American Revolution”. Was the claim justified? Support your answer with evidence. 1. Introduction USA History by Aamir Mahar

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"My Presidency is the 2nd American Revolution" The answer to the 1st question will discuss the difference between federalist and anti federalist to prove that Jefferson Victory as the president was 2nd American Revolution. 2. The Second American Revolution 1st common man to become US President Rejected Washington's Idea of no need of political parties in USA. 3. Justifying the Claim of 2nd American Revolutions We simply have to write the achievement of Thomas Jefferson and the services he rendered to the conman man of USA. 1. Rise of common man 2. Laissez Fair Economy 3. Understandable budget for common man 4. Immigration Policy 5. Religious Tolerance 6. Belief and importance to common man 7. Autonomy to States (As of popular demand by US citizens) 4. Critical Analysis 5. Conclusion "Thomas Jefferson was the best man ever to occupy American Presidency" John F. Kennedy

President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said, “This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and prosper”. Explain in light of the FDR presidency and the New Deal?

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1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. o o o o o o o o o o o 7. 8. 9.

Introduction Background (Great Depression & FDR life) Purposes of the New Deal Relief Recovery Reform First New Deal (1933-1934) Second New Deal (1934-1941) Reforms by FDR Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 Emergency Banking Act/Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) Civil Works Administration (CWA) National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June 1933 Public Works Association (PWA) Federal Securities Act of May 1933/ Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA) Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (May 1993) Impacts of New Deal Critical Analysis Conclusion

Discuss in Details the impacts of Obama's 2nd terms as the President and policy toward Pakistan? USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. 2. o o o o o o 3. o o o o o 4. 5.

Introduction Background of Obama First terms as president Raymond Davis case Bin Ladin Episode Salala Post Attack Drone Policy Pak withdrawal from Bonn conference Karry Lugar Bill Obama Second Term and Policy toward Pakistan Aggressive Policy Continuation of Do More from US point of view Aid Embargos Afghan Exit Plan and Role of Pakistan Bilateral relations likely to remain Low Critical Analysis Conclusion

In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian? USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Comparison of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy 1. Political To what extent was universal white manhood suffrage achieved? Jefferson - Believed property requirement was a test of character that man of initiative should be able to meet Jackson - Property requirements for voting had been eliminated Which citizens were considered eligible for office holding? Jefferson - Believed the educated elite should rule, although he proposed education for all to prepare poorer individuals for public office Jackson - Believed all men were qualified to hold office and that political positions should be rotated How were candidates for president chosen? Jefferson - Candidates were chosen by caucuses of political leaders Jackson - Nominating conventions were introduced during Jackson’s time

2. Economic Concepts of the “Chosen Class”? Jefferson - Yeoman farmer as the “chosen class” Jackson - included planters, farmers, laborers, and mechanics in “chosen class” Industrialization? Jefferson - Originally feared the consequences of industrialization Jackson - Accepted industry as essential to American economy How did the Charles River Bridge vs Warren Bridge decision affect the access to corporate charters prevalent in Jefferson’s time? Jefferson - In J’s time corporate charters were granted to favorites of state legislators & often implied monopoly rights to a business Jackson - Roger Taney, Jackson’s appointee as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, ruled in Charles River Bridge decision that corporate charters should be available to all who chose to risk starting a business Attitude toward the Banks? Jefferson - Both disapproved, originally at least, disagreed with a loose interpretation of the elastic clause Jackson - saw Bank as a monopoly of the rich

3. Social Attitude toward slavery? USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Jefferson - Owned slaves, saw slavery as an evil that time would eradicate Jackson - Owned slaves, but seemed little interested in abolition Attitude toward equality for women & American Indians Jefferson - Neither man saw women or American Indians as equals Jackson - Had a particularly negative attitude toward Native Americans Education? Jefferson - An educated man himself, believed education was necessary for officeholding and for preparing citizens for participation in a democracy Jackson - Had little education & believed education was relatively unimportant Obstacles to upward social mobility? Jefferson - Education & ambition were keys to success; however, he was never able to build support for his proposed system of public education Jackson - Ended the Bank & with it, control over credit, CRB decision opened opportunities for individuals to get corporate charters & thus rise on both economic and social ladders. Jackson, a self-made man, believed his economic progress had accounted for his own upward social mobility & others could follow his example

4. Religion Separation of church in each period? Jefferson - Most state constitutions had eliminated established churches after the Revolution; Jackson - Massachusetts, the last state to maintain an established church, ended the practice in 1834

History of USA (Summary) USA History by Aamir Mahar

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1. European Exploration and Settlement 2. Colonial America 3. The States in Union 4. Washington, Adams, and Jefferson 5. Madison, Monroe, and Adams 6. Jackson to the Mexican War 7. Slavery, Civil War, and Reconstruction 8. The Late Nineteenth Century 9. Expansionists and Progressives 10. World War I 11. From Prosperity to Depression 12. World War II 13. The United States in a Divided World 14. The Great Society and the Vietnam War 15. The Nixon Years 16. Ford and Carter 17. The Reagan Years 18. Bush, Clinton, and Bush 19. Economy 20. Government

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Exploration of the area now included in the United States was spurred after Christopher Columbus, sailing for the Spanish monarchy, made his voyage in 1492. John Cabot explored the North American coast for England in 1498. Men who were important explorers for Spain in what now constitutes the United States include Ponce de León, Cabeza de Vaca, Hernando De Soto, and Coronado; important explorers for France were Giovanni da Verrazano, Samuel de Champlain, Louis Jolliet, Jacques Marquette, and La Salle. These three nations— England, Spain, and France—were the chief nations to establish colonies in the present United States, although others also took part, especially the Netherlands in the establishment of New Netherland (explored by Henry Hudson), which became New York, and Sweden in a colony on the Delaware River The first permanent settlement in the present United States was Saint Augustine (Florida), founded in 1565 by the Spaniard Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. Spanish control came to be exercised over Florida, West Florida, Texas, and a large part of the Southwest, including California. For the purposes of finding precious metals and of converting heathens to Catholicism, the Spanish colonies in the present United States were relatively unfruitful and thus were never fully developed. The French established strongholds on the St. Lawrence River (Quebec and Montreal) and spread their influence over the Great Lakes country and along the Mississippi; the colony of Louisiana was a flourishing French settlement. The French government, like the Spanish, tolerated only the Catholic faith, and it implanted the rigid and feudalistic seignorial system of France in its North American possessions. Partly for these reasons, the French settlements attracted few colonists. The English settlements, which were on the Atlantic seaboard, developed in patterns more suitable to the New World, with greater religious freedom and economic opportunity. The first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown (Virginia) in 1607. The first English settlements in Virginia were managed by a chartered commercial company, the Virginia Company; economic motives were paramount to the company in founding the settlements. The Virginia colony early passed to control by the crown and became a characteristic type of English colony—the royal colony. Another type—the corporate colony—was initiated by the settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Colony in 1620 and by the establishment of the more important Massachusetts Bay colony by the Puritans in 1630. Religious motives were important in the founding of these colonies. The colonists of Massachusetts Bay brought with them from England the charter and the governing corporation of the colony, which thus became a corporate one, i.e., one controlled by its own resident corporation. The corporate status of the Plymouth Colony, evinced in the Mayflower Compact, was established by the purchase USA History by Aamir Mahar

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(1626) of company and charter from the holders in England. Connecticut and Rhode Island, which were offshoots of Massachusetts, owed allegiance to no English company; their corporate character was confirmed by royal charters, granted to Connecticut in 1662 and to Rhode Island in 1663. A third type of colony was the proprietary, founded by lords’ proprietors under quasi-feudal grants from the king; prime examples are Maryland (under the Calvert family) and Pennsylvania (under William Penn). The religious and political turmoil of the Puritan Revolution in England, as well as the repression of the Huguenots in France, helped to stimulate emigration to the English colonies. Hopes of economic betterment brought thousands from England as well as a number from Germany and other continental countries. To obtain passage across the Atlantic, the poor often indentured themselves to masters in the colonies for a specified number of years. The colonial population was also swelled by criminals transported from England as a means of punishment. Once established as freedmen, former bondsmen and transportees were frequently allotted land with which to make their way in the New World.

Colonial America The colonies were subject to English mercantilism in the form of Navigation Acts, begun under Cromwell and developed more fully after the Stuart Restoration. As shown by C. M. Andrews, G. L. Beer, and later historians, the colonies at first benefited by these acts, which established a monopoly of the English market for certain colonial products. Distinct colonial economies emerged, reflecting the regional differences of climate and topography. Agriculture was of primary importance in all the regions. In New England many crops were grown, corn being the closest to a staple, and agricultural holdings were usually of moderate size. Fur trade was at first important, but it died out when the New England Confederation defeated Philip in King Philip's War and the Native Americans were dispersed. Fishing and commerce gained in importance, and the economic expansion of Massachusetts encouraged the founding of other New England colonies. In the middle colonies small farms abounded, interspersed with occasional great states, and diverse crops were grown, wheat being most important. Land there was almost universally held through some form of feudal grant, as it was also in the South. Commerce grew quickly in the middle colonies, and large towns flourished, notably Philadelphia and New York. By the late 17th century, small farms in the coastal areas of the South were beginning to give way to large plantations; these were developed with the slave USA History by Aamir Mahar

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labor of Africans, who were imported in ever-increasing numbers. Plantations were almost exclusively devoted to cultivation of the great Southern staples—tobacco, rice, and, later, indigo. Fur trade and lumbering were long important. Although some towns developed, the Southern economy remained the least diversified and the most rural in colonial America. In religion, too, the colonies developed in varied patterns. In Massachusetts the religious theocracy of the Puritan oligarchy flourished. By contrast, Rhode Island allowed full religious freedom; there Baptists were in the majority, but other sects were soon in evidence. New Jersey and South Carolina also allowed complete religious liberty, and such colonies as Maryland and Pennsylvania established large measures of toleration. Maryland was at first a haven for Catholics, and Pennsylvania similarly a haven for Quakers, but within a few decades numerous Anglicans had settled in those colonies. Anglicans were also much in evidence further south, as were Presbyterians, most of them Scotch-Irish. Politically, the colonies developed representative institutions, the most important being the vigorous colonial assemblies. Popular participation was somewhat limited by property qualifications. In the proprietary colonies, particularly, the settlers came into conflict with the executive authority. Important points of difference arose over the granting of large estates to a few, over the great power of the proprietors, over the failure of the proprietors (who generally lived in England) to cope with problems of defense, and over religious grievances, frequently stemming from a struggle for dominance between Anglicans and other groups. In corporate Massachusetts religious grievances were created by the zealous Puritan demand for conformity. These conflicts, together with England's desire to coordinate empire defenses against France and to gain closer control of the colonies' thriving economic life, stimulated England to convert corporate and proprietary colonies into royal ones. In general, royal control brought more orderly government and greater religious toleration, but it also focused the colonists' grievances on the mother country. The policies of the governors, who were the chief instruments of English will in the colonies, frequently met serious opposition. The colonial assemblies clashed with the governors notably with Edmund Andros and Francis Nicholson—especially over matters of taxation. The assemblies successfully resisted royal demands for permanent income to support royal policies and used their powers over finance to expand their own jurisdiction. As the 18th century, progressed, colonial grievances were exacerbated. The British mercantile regulations, beneficial to agriculture, impeded the colonies' commercial and industrial development. However, economic and social growth continued, and by the mid-18th cent. There had been created a greater sense of a separate, thriving, and distinctly American, albeit varied, civilization. In New England, USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Puritan values were modified by the impact of commerce and by the influence of the Enlightenment, while in the South the planter aristocracy developed a lavish mode of life. Enlightenment ideals also gained influential adherents in the South. Higher education flourished in such institutions as Harvard, William and Mary, and King's College (now Columbia Univ.). The varied accomplishments of Benjamin Franklin epitomized colonial common sense at its most enlightened and productive level. A religious movement of importance emerged in the revivals of the Great Awakening, stimulated by Jonathan Edwards; the movement ultimately led to a strengthening of Methodism. Also inherent in this movement was egalitarian sentiment, which progressed but was not to triumph in the colonial era. One manifestation of egalitarianism was the long-continued conflict between the men of the frontiers and the wealthy Eastern oligarchs who dominated the assemblies, a conflict exemplified in the Regulator movement. Colonial particularizim, still stronger than national feeling, caused the failure of the Albany Congress to achieve permanent union. However, internal strife and disunity remained a less urgent issue than the controversy with Great Britain.

The States in Union After the British and colonial forces had combined to drive the French from Canada and the Great Lakes region in the French and Indian War (1754–60; see under French and Indian Wars), the colonists felt less need of British protection; but at this very time the British began colonial reorganization in an effort to impose on the colonists the costs of their own defense. Thus was set off the complex chain of events that united colonial sentiment against Great Britain and culminated in the American Revolution (1775–83; the events are described under that heading). The Revolution resulted in the independence of the Thirteen Colonies: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; their territories were recognized as extending north to Canada and west to the Mississippi River. The Revolution also broadened representation in government, advanced the movement for separation of church and state in America, increased opportunities for westward expansion, and brought the abolition of the remnants of feudal land tenure. The view that the Revolution had been fought for local liberty against strong central control reinforced the particularism of the states and was reflected in the weak union established under the Articles of Confederation (see Confederation, Articles of). USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Before ratification of the Articles (1781), conflicting claims of states to Western territories had been settled by the cession of Western land rights to the federal government; the Ordinance of 1787 established a form of government for territories and a method of admitting them as states to the Union. But the national government floundered. It could not obtain commercial treaties or enforce its will in international relations, and, largely because it could not raise adequate revenue and had no executive authority, it was weak domestically. Local economic depressions bred discontent that erupted in Shays's Rebellion, further revealing the weakness of the federal government. Advocates of strong central government bitterly attacked the Articles of Confederation; supported particularly by professional and propertied groups, they had a profound influence on the Constitution drawn up by the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The Constitution created a national government with ample powers for effective rule, which were limited by “checks and balances” to forestall tyranny or radicalism. Its concept of a strong, orderly Union was popularized by the Federalist papers of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, which played an important part in winning ratification of the Constitution by the separate states.

Washington, Adams, and Jefferson The first person to be elected President under the Constitution was the hero of the Revolution, George Washington. Washington introduced many government practices and institutions, including the cabinet. Jay's Treaty (1794) allayed friction with Great Britain. Hamilton, as Washington's Secretary of the Treasury, promulgated a strong state and attempted to advance the economic development of the young country by a neomercantilist program; this included the establishment of a protective tariff, a mint, and the first Bank of the United States as well as assumption of state and private Revolutionary debts. The controversy raised by these policies bred divisions along factional and, ultimately, party lines. Hamilton and his followers, who eventually formed the Federalist party, favored wide activity by the federal government under a broad interpretation of the Constitution. Their opponents, who adhered to principles laid down by Thomas Jefferson and who became the Democratic Republican or Democratic party, favored narrow construction—limited federal jurisdiction and activities. To an extent these divisions were supported by economic differences, as the Democrats largely spoke for the agrarian point of view and the Federalists represented propertied and mercantile interests.

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Extreme democrats like Thomas Paine had ebullient faith in popular government and popular mores; Joel Barlow, too, envisioned a great popular culture evolving in America. From such optimists came schemes for broad popular education and participation in government. Men like John Adams had mixed views on the good sense of the masses, and many more conservative thinkers associated the “people” with vulgarity and ineptitude. The Federalists generally represented a pessimistic and the Democrats an optimistic view of man's inherent capacity to govern and develop himself; in practice, however, the values held by these two groups were often mixed. That a long road to democracy was still to be traveled is seen in the fact that in the late 18th cent. few but the economically privileged took part in political affairs. The Federalists were victorious in electing John Adams to the presidency in 1796. Federalist conservatism and anti-French sentiment were given vent in the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and in other acts. Deteriorating relations with France were seen in the XYZ Affair and the “half war” (1798–1800), in which U.S. warships engaged French vessels in the Caribbean. The so-called Revolution of 1800 swept the Federalists from power and brought Jefferson to the presidency. Jefferson did bring a plainer and more republican style to government, and under him the Alien and Sedition Acts and other Federalist laws were allowed to lapse or were repealed. Jefferson moved toward stronger use of federal powers, however, in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase (1803). In foreign policy he steered an officially neutral course between Great Britain and France, resisting the war sentiment roused by British impressment of American seamen and by both British and French violations of American shipping. He fostered the drastic Embargo Act of 1807 in an attempt to gain recognition of American rights through economic pressure, but the embargo struck hardest against the American economy, especially in New England.

Madison, Monroe, and Adams Under Jefferson's successor, James Madison, the continued depredations of American shipping, combined with the clamor of American “war hawks” who coveted Canada and Florida, led to the War of 1812, which was, however, opposed in New England. The Treaty of Ghent settled no specific issues of the war, but did confirm the independent standing of the young republic. Politically, the period that followed was the so-called era of good feeling. The Federalists had disintegrated under the impact of the country's westward expansion and its new interests and ideals. Democrats of all sections had by now adopted a Federalist approach to national development and were temporarily in agreement on a nationalist, expansionist economic policy. This policy was implemented in 1816 by the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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introduction of internal improvements, a protective tariff, and the second Bank of the United States. The same policies were continued under James Monroe. The Monroe Doctrine (1823), which proclaimed U.S. opposition to European intervention or colonization in the American hemisphere, introduced the long-continuing U.S. concern for the integrity of the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, the strength of the federal government was increased by the judicial decisions of John Marshall, who had already helped establish the power of the U.S. Supreme Court. By 1820, however, sectional differences were arousing political discord. The sections of the country had long been developing along independent lines. In the North, merchants, manufacturers, inventors, farmers, and factory hands were busy with commerce, agricultural improvements, and the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. In the South, Eli Whitney's cotton gin had brought in its wake a new staple; cotton was king, and the new states of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi were the pride of the cotton kingdom. The accession of Florida (1819) further swelled the domain of the South. The American West was expanding as the frontier rapidly advanced. Around the turn of the century settlement of territory W of the Appalachians had given rise to the new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Settlers continued to move farther west, and the frontier remained a molding force in American life. The Missouri Compromise (1820) temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in new states, but under the presidency of John Quincy Adams sectional differences were aggravated. Particular friction, leading to the nullification movement, was created by the tariff of 1828, which was highly favorable to Northern manufacturing but a “Tariff of Abominations” to the agrarian South. In the 1820s and 30s the advance of democracy brought manhood suffrage to many states and virtual direct election of the President, and party nominating conventions replaced the caucus. Separation of church and state became virtually complete.

Jackson to the Mexican War An era of political vigor was begun with the election (1828) of Andrew Jackson to the presidency. If Jackson was not, as sometimes represented, the incarnation of frontier democracy, he nonetheless symbolized the advent of the common man to political power. He provided powerful executive leadership, attuned to popular support, committing himself to a strong foreign policy and to internal improvements for the West. His stand for economic individualism and his attacks on such bastions of the moneyed interests as the Bank of the United States won the approval of the growing middle class. Jackson acted firmly for the Union in the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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nullification controversy. But the South became increasingly dissident, and John C. Calhoun emerged as its chief spokesman with his states' rights doctrine. Opponents of Jackson's policies, including both Northern and Southern conservative propertied interests, amalgamated to form the Whig party, in which Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were long the dominant figures. Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren, attempted to perpetuate Jacksonian policies, but his popularity was undermined by the panic of 1837. In 1840, in their “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign, the conservative Whigs adopted and perfected the Democratic party's techniques of mass appeal and succeeded in electing William Henry Harrison as President. The West was winning greater attention in American life, and in the 1840s expansion to the Pacific was fervently proclaimed as the “manifest destiny” of the United States. Annexation of the Republic of Texas (which had won its own independence from Mexico), long delayed primarily by controversy over its slave-holding status, was accomplished by Harrison's successor, John Tyler, three days before the expiration of his term. Tyler's action was prompted by the surprising victory of his Democratic successor, James K. Polk, who had campaigned on the planks of “reoccupation of Oregon” and “reannexation of Texas.” The annexation of Texas precipitated the Mexican War; by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo the United States acquired two fifths of the territory then belonging to Mexico, including California and the present American Southwest. In 1853 these territories were rounded out by the Gadsden Purchase. Although in the dispute with Great Britain over the Columbia River country, Americans demanded “Fifty-four forty or fight,” under President Polk a peaceful if more modest settlement was reached. Thus the United States gained its Pacific Northwest, and “manifest destiny” was virtually fulfilled. In California the discovery of gold in 1848 brought the rush of forty-niners, swelling population and making statehood for California a pressing question. The westward movement was also stimulated by many other factors. The great profits from open-range cattle ranching brought a stream of ranchers to the area (this influx was to reach fever pitch after the Civil War). The American farmer, with his abundant land, was often profligate in its cultivation, and as the soil depleted he continued to move farther west, settling the virgin territory. Soil exhaustion was particularly rapid in the South, where a one-crop economy prevailed, but because cotton profits were frequently high the plantation system quickly spread as far west as Texas. Occupation of the West was also sped by European immigrants hungry for land.

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Slavery, Civil War, and Reconstruction By the mid-19th century, the territorial gains and westward movement of the United States were focusing legislative argument on the extension of slavery to the new territories and breaking down the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The Wilmot Proviso illustrated Northern antislavery demands, while Southerners, too, became increasingly intransigent. Only with great effort was the Compromise of 1850 achieved, and it was to be the last great compromise between the sections. The new Western states, linked in outlook to the North, had long since caused the South to lose hold of the House of Representatives, and Southern parity in the Senate was threatened by the prospective addition of more free states than slaveholding ones. The South demanded stronger enforcement of fugitive slave laws and, dependent on sympathetic Presidents, obtained it from Millard Fillmore and especially from Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which repealed the Missouri Compromise, led to violence between factions in “bleeding Kansas” and spurred the founding of the new Republican party. Although there was sentiment for moderation and compromise in both North and South, it became increasingly difficult to take a middle stand on the slavery issue, and extremists came to the fore on both sides. Southerners, unable to accept the end of slavery, upon which their entire system of life was based, and fearful of slave insurrection (especially after the revolt led by Nat Turner in 1831), felt threatened by the abolitionists, who regarded themselves as leaders in a moral crusade. Southerners attempted to uphold slavery as universally beneficial and biblically sanctioned, while Northerners were increasingly unable to countenance the institution. Vigorous antislavery groups like the Free-Soil party had already arisen, and as the conflict became more embittered it rent the older parties. The Whig party was shattered, and its Northern wing was largely absorbed in the new antislavery Republican party. The Democrats were also torn, and the compromise policies of Stephen A. Douglas were of dwindling satisfaction to a divided nation. Moderation could not withstand the impact of the decision in the Dred Scott Case, which denied the right of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, or the provocation of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry (1859). The climax came in 1860 when the Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated three opponents to win the presidency. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Southern leaders, feeling there was no possibility of fair treatment under a Republican administration, resorted to secession from the Union and formed the Confederacy. The attempts of the seceding states to take over federal property within their borders (notably Fort Sumter in Charleston, S.C.) precipitated the Civil War (1861–65), which resulted in a complete victory for the North and the end of all slavery. The ensuing problems of Reconstruction in the South were complicated by bitter struggles, including the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson in 1868. Military rule in parts of the South continued through the administrations of Ulysses S. Grant, which were also notable for their outrageous corruption. A result of the disputed election of 1876, in which the decision was given to Rutherford B. Hayes over Samuel J. Tilden, was the end of Reconstruction and the reentry of the South into national politics.

The Late Nineteenth Century The remainder of the 19th century, was marked by railroad building (assisted by generous federal land grants) and the disappearance of the American frontier. Great mineral wealth was discovered and exploited, and important technological innovations sped industrialization, which had already gained great impetus during the Civil War. Thus developed an economy based on steel, oil, railroads, and machines, an economy that a few decades after the Civil War ranked first in the world. Mammoth corporations such as the Standard Oil trust were formed, and “captains of industry” like John D. Rockefeller and financiers like J. P. Morgan controlled huge resources. The latter part of the 19th century, also saw the rise of the modern American city. Rapid industrialization attracted huge numbers of people to cities from foreign countries as well as rural America. The widespread use of steel and electricity allowed innovations that transformed the urban landscape. Electric lighting made cities viable at night as well as during the day. Electricity was also used to power streetcars, elevated railways, and subways. The growth of mass transit allowed people to live further away from work, and was therefore largely responsible for the demise of the “walking city.” With the advent of skyscrapers, which utilized steel construction technology, cities were able to grow vertically as well as horizontally. Into the “land of promise” poured new waves of immigrants; some acquired dazzling riches, but many others suffered in a competitive and unregulated economic age. Behind the facade of the “Gilded Age,” with its aura of peace and general prosperity, a whole range of new problems was created, forcing varied groups to promulgate new solutions. In the 1870s the expanding Granger USA History by Aamir Mahar

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movement attempted to combat railroad and marketing abuses and to achieve an element of agrarian cooperation; this movement stimulated some regulation of utilities on the state level. Labor, too, began to combine against grueling factory conditions, but the opposition of business to unions was frequently overpowering, and the bulk of labor remained unorganized. Some strike successes were won by the Knights of Labor, but this union, discredited by the Haymarket Square riot, was succeeded in prominence by the less divisive American Federation of Labor. Massachusetts led the way (1874) with the first effective state legislation for an eight-hour day, but similar state and national legislation was sparse, and the federal government descended harshly on labor in the bloody strike at Pullman, Ill., and in other disputes. Belief in laissez faire and the influence of big business in both national parties, especially in the Republican party, delayed any widespread reform. The Presidents of the late 19th century, were generally titular leaders of modest political distinction; however, they did institute a few reforms. Both Hayes and his successor, James A. Garfield, favored civil service reforms, and after Garfield's death Chester A. Arthur approved passage of a civil service act; thus the vast, troublesome presidential patronage system gave way to more regular, efficient administration. In 1884 a reform group, led by Carl Schurz, bolted from the Republicans and helped elect Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic President since before the Civil War. Under President Benjamin Harrison the Sherman Antitrust Act was passed (1890). The attempt of the Greenback party to combine sponsorship of free coinage of silver and other aids to the debtor class with planks favorable to labor failed, but reform forces gathered strength, as witnessed by the rise of the Populist party. The reform movement was spurred by the economic panic of 1893, and in 1896 the Democrats nominated for President William Jennings Bryan, who had adopted the Populist platform. He orated eloquently for free silver, but was defeated by William McKinley, who gained ardent support from big business.

Expansionists and Progressives By the 1890s a new wave of expansionist sentiment was affecting U.S. foreign policy. With the purchase of Alaska (1867) and the rapid settlement of the last Western territory, Oklahoma, American capital and attention were directed toward the Pacific and the Caribbean. The United States established commercial and then political hegemony in the Hawaiian Islands and annexed them in 1898. In that year expansionist energy found release in the Spanish-American War, which resulted in U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, and Guam, and in a U.S. quasi-protectorate over Cuba. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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American ownership of the Philippines involved military subjugation of the people, who rose in revolt when they realized that they would not be granted their independence; the Philippine Insurrection (1899–1901) cost more American lives and dollars than the Spanish-American War. Widening its horizons, the United States formulated the Open Door policy (1900), which expressed its interest in China. Established as a world power with interests in two oceans, the United States intervened in the Panama revolution to facilitate construction of the Panama Canal; this was but one of its many involvements in Latin American affairs under Theodore Roosevelt and later Presidents. By the time of Roosevelt's administration (1901–9), the progressive reform movement had taken definite shape in the country. Progressivism was partly a mode of thought, as witnessed by the progressive education program of John Dewey; as such it was a pragmatic attempt to mold modern institutions for the benefit of all. Progressives, too, were the muckrakers, who attacked abuse and waste in industry and in society. In its politics as shaped by R. M. La Follette and others, progressivism adopted many Populist planks but promoted them from a more urban and forward-looking viewpoint. Progressivism was dramatized by the magnetic Roosevelt, who denounced “malefactors of great wealth” and demanded a “square deal” for labor; however, in practice he was a rather cautious reformer. He did make some attacks on trusts, and he promoted regulation of interstate commerce as well as passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and legislation for the conservation of natural resources. Roosevelt's hand-picked successor, William H. Taft, continued some reforms but in his foreign policy and in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, passed in his administration, favored big business. Taft's conservatism antagonized Roosevelt, who split with the Republican party in 1912 and ran for the presidency on the ticket of the Progressive party. But the presidency was won by the Democratic reform candidate, Woodrow Wilson. Wilson's “New Freedom” brought many progressive ideas to legislative fruition. The Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission were established, and the Adamson Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act were passed. Perhaps more than on the national level, progressivism triumphed in the states in legislation beneficial to labor, in the furthering of education, and in the democratization of electoral procedures. Wilson did not radically alter the aggressive Caribbean policy of his predecessors; U.S. marines were sent to Nicaragua, and difficulties with Mexico were capped by the landing of U.S. forces in the city of Veracruz and by the campaign against Francisco (Pancho) Villa.

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The nation's interest in world peace had already been expressed through participation in the Hague Conferences, and when World War I burst upon Europe, Wilson made efforts to keep the United States neutral; in 1916 he was reelected on a peace platform. However, American sympathies and interests were actively with the Allies (especially with Great Britain and France), and although Britain and Germany both violated American neutral rights on the seas, German submarine attacks constituted the more dramatic provocation. On Apr. 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies and provided crucial manpower and supplies for the Allied victory. Wilson's Fourteen Points to insure peace and democracy captured the popular imagination of Europe and were a factor in Germany's decision to seek an armistice; however, at the Paris Peace Conference after the war, Wilson was thwarted from fully implementing his program. In the United States, isolationist sentiment against participation in the League of Nations, an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles, was led by Senator William E. Borah and other “irreconcilables.” The majority of Republican Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, insisted upon amendments that would preserve U.S. sovereignty, and although Wilson fought for his original proposals, they were rejected. Isolationist sentiment prevailed during the 1920s, and while the United States played a major role in the naval conferences for disarmament and in the engineering of the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which outlawed war, its general lack of interest in international concerns was seen in its highly nationalistic economic policies, notably its insistence (later modified) on collecting the war debts of foreign countries and the passage of the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act.

From Prosperity to Depression The country voted for a return to “normalcy” when it elected Warren G. Harding President in 1920, but the ensuing period was a time of rapid change, and the old normalcy was not to be regained. The Republican governments of the decade, although basically committed to laissez faire, actively encouraged corporate mergers and subsidized aviation and the merchant marine. Harding's administration, marred by the Teapot Dome scandal, gave way on his death to the presidency of Calvin Coolidge, and the nation embarked on a spectacular industrial and financial boom. In the 1920s the nation became increasingly urban, and everyday life was transformed as the “consumer revolution” brought the spreading use of automobiles, telephones, radios, and other appliances. The pace of living quickened, and mores became less restrained, while USA History by Aamir Mahar

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fortunes were rapidly accumulated on the skyrocketing stock market, in real estate speculation, and elsewhere. To some it seemed a golden age. But agriculture was not prosperous, and industry and finance became dangerously overextended. In 1929 there began the Great Depression, which reached worldwide proportions. In 1931, President Herbert Hoover proposed a moratorium on foreign debts, but this and other measures failed to prevent economic collapse. In the 1932 election Hoover was overwhelmingly defeated by the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. The new President immediately instituted his New Deal with vigorous measures. To meet the critical financial emergency he instituted a “bank holiday.” Congress, called into special session, enacted a succession of laws, some of them to meet the economic crisis with relief measures, others to put into operation long-range social and economic reforms. Some of the most important agencies created were the National Recovery Administration, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the Public Works Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. This program was further broadened in later sessions with other agencies, notably the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects Administration). Laws also created a social security program. The program was dynamic and, in many areas, unprecedented. It created a vast machinery by which the state could promote economic recovery and social welfare. Opponents of these measures argued that they violated individual rights, besides being extravagant and wasteful. Adverse decisions on several of the measures by the U.S. Supreme Court tended to slow the pace of reform and caused Roosevelt to attempt unsuccessfully to revise the court. Although interest centered chiefly on domestic affairs during the 1930s, Roosevelt continued and expanded the policy of friendship toward the Latin American nations which Herbert Hoover had initiated; this full-blown “good-neighbor” policy proved generally fruitful for the United States. Roosevelt was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1936 and won easily in 1940 even though he was breaking the no-third-term tradition.

World War II The ominous situation abroad was chiefly responsible for Roosevelt's continuance at the national helm. By the late 1930s the Axis nations (Germany and Italy) in Europe as well as Japan in East Asia had already disrupted world peace. As wars began in China, Ethiopia, and Spain, the United States sought at first to bulwark its insular security by the Neutrality Act. As Axis aggression led to the outbreak of the European war in Sept., 1939, the United States still strove to stay out of it, despite increasing sympathy for the Allies. But after the fall of France in June, 1940, the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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support of the United States for beleaguered Britain became more overt. In Mar., 1941, lend-lease aid was extended to the British and, in November, to the Russians. The threat of war had already caused the adoption of selective service to build the armed strength of the nation. Hemisphere defense was enlarged, and the United States drew closer to Great Britain with the issuance of the Atlantic Charter. In Asian affairs the Roosevelt government had vigorously protested Japan's career of conquest and its establishment of the “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.” After the Japanese takeover of French Indochina (July, 1941), with its inherent threat to the Philippines, the U.S. government froze all Japanese assets in the United States. Diplomatic relations grew taut, but U.S.-Japanese discussions were still being carried on when, on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor. The United States promptly declared war, and four days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. (For an account of military and naval events). The country efficiently mobilized its vast resources, transforming factories to war plants and building a mighty military force which included most able-bodied young men and many young women. The creation of a great number of government war agencies to control and coordinate materials, transportation, and manpower brought unprecedented government intervention into national life. Rationing, price controls, and other devices were instituted in an attempt to prevent serious inflation or dislocation in the civilian economy. The war underscored the importance of U.S. resources and the prestige and power of the United States in world affairs. A series of important conferences outlined the policies for the war and the programs for the peace after victory; among these were the Moscow Conferences, the Casablanca Conference, the Cairo Conference, the Tehran Conference, and the Yalta Conference, at which Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin planned for postwar settlement. Roosevelt was also a key figure in the plans for the United Nations. After Roosevelt's sudden death in April, 1945, Harry S. Truman became President. A month later the European war ended when Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945. Truman went to the Potsdam Conference (July–August), where various questions of the peacetime administration of Europe were settled, many on an ad interim basis, pending the conclusion of peace treaties. Before the war ended with the defeat of Japan, the United States developed and used a fateful and revolutionary weapon of war, the atomic bomb. The Japanese surrender, announced Aug. 14, 1945, and signed Sept. 2, brought the war to a close. Peacetime readjustment was successfully effected. The government's “G.I. Bill” enabled many former servicemen to obtain free schooling, and millions of other veterans were absorbed by the economy, which boomed in fulfilling the demands for long-unobtainable consumer goods. The shortening of the postwar factory work USA History by Aamir Mahar

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week and the proportionate reduction of wages precipitated a rash of strikes, causing the government to pass the Taft-Hartley Labor Act (1947). Some inflation occurred by 1947 as wartime economic controls were abandoned. Congress passed a host of Truman's measures relating to minimum wages, public housing, farm surpluses, and credit regulation; thus was instituted acceptance of comprehensive government intervention in times of prosperity. The nation's support of Truman's policies was signified when it returned him to the presidency in 1948 in an upset victory over Thomas E. Dewey.

The United States in a Divided World The most striking postwar development was America's new peacetime involvement in international affairs. U.S. support for the United Nations symbolized its desire for peace and order in international relations. However, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union worsened during the late 1940s. In addition, a serious human problem was presented by Europe, prostrated and near starvation after years of war. The Truman Doctrine attempted to thwart Soviet expansion in Europe; massive loans, culminating in the Marshall Plan, were vital in reviving European economies and thus in diminishing the appeal of Communism. As the cold war intensified, the United States took steps (1948) to nullify the Soviet blockade of Berlin and played the leading role in forming a new alliance of Western nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In the Korean War, U.S. forces played the chief part in combating the North Korean and Chinese attack on South Korea. Thus the United States cast off its traditional peacetime isolationism and accepted its position as a prime mover in world affairs. International policy had significant repercussions at home. The fear of domestic Communism and subversion almost became a national obsession, culminating in such sensational events as the Alger Hiss case and the trial and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Security measures and loyalty checks in the government and elsewhere were tightened, alleged Communists were prosecuted under the Smith Act of 1940, and employees in varied fields were dismissed for questionable political affiliations, past or present. The most notorious prosecutor of alleged Communists was Senator Joseph McCarthy, whose extreme methods were later recognized as threats to freedom of speech and democratic principles. Two decades of Democratic control of the White House came to an end with the presidential election of 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower was swept into office over the Democratic candidate, Adlai E. Stevenson. Although it did not try to roll back the social legislation passed by its Democratic predecessors, the Eisenhower administration was committed to a laissez-faire domestic policy. By the midUSA History by Aamir Mahar

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1950s, America was in the midst of a great industrial boom, and stock prices were skyrocketing. In foreign affairs the Eisenhower administration was internationalist in outlook, although it sternly opposed Communist power and threatened “massive retaliation” for Communist aggression. Some antagonism came from the neutral nations of Asia and Africa, partly because of the U.S. association with former colonial powers and partly because U.S. foreign aid more often than not had the effect of strengthening ruling oligarchies abroad. In the race for technological superiority the United States exploded (1952) the first hydrogen bomb, but was second to the USSR in launching (Jan. 31, 1958) an artificial satellite and in testing an intercontinental guidedmissile. However, spurred by Soviet advances, the United States made rapid progress in space exploration and missile research. In the crucial domestic issue of racial integration, the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of decisions supported the efforts of AfricanAmerican citizens to achieve full civil rights. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states of the Union. Despite hopes for “peaceful coexistence,” negotiations with the USSR for nuclear disarmament failed to achieve accord, and Berlin remained a serious source of conflict. In 1961, the older Eisenhower gave way to the youngest President ever elected, John F. Kennedy, who defeated Republican candidate Richard M. Nixon. President Kennedy called for “new frontiers” of American endeavor, but had difficulty securing Congressional support for his domestic programs (integration, tax reform, medical benefits for the aged). Kennedy's foreign policy combined such humanitarian innovations as the Peace Corps and the Alliance for Progress with the traditional opposition to Communist aggrandizement. After breaking relations with Cuba, which, under Fidel Castro, had clearly moved within the Communist orbit, the United States supported (1961) an ill-fated invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro forces. In 1962, in reaction to the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, the United States blockaded Soviet military shipments to Cuba and demanded the dismantling of Soviet bases there. The two great powers seemed on the brink of war, but within a week the USSR acceded to U.S. demands. In the meantime, the United States achieved an important gain in space exploration with the orbital flight around the earth in a manned satellite by Col. John H. Glenn. The tensions of the cold war eased when, in 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union reached an accord on a limited ban of nuclear testing.

The Great Society and the Vietnam War On Nov. 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Tex. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, proclaimed a continuation of Kennedy's policies and was able to bring many Kennedy measures to legislative fruition. Significant progress toward racial equality was achieved USA History by Aamir Mahar

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with a momentous Civil Rights Act (1964), a Voting Rights Act (1965), and the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished the poll tax. Other legislation, reflecting Johnson's declaration of a “war on poverty” and his stated aim of creating a “Great Society,” included a comprehensive Economic Opportunity Act (1964) and bills providing for tax reduction, medical care for the aged, an increased minimum wage, urban rehabilitation, and aid to education. Public approval was given in the landslide victory won by Johnson over his Republican opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater, in the 1964 presidential election. The victory also represented voter reaction against Senator Goldwater's aggressive views on foreign policy. Ironically, international problems dominated Johnson's second term, and Johnson himself pursued an aggressive course, dispatching (Apr., 1965) troops to the Dominican Republic during disorders there and escalating American participation in the Vietnam War. Authorization for the latter was claimed by Johnson to have been given (Aug., 1964) by Congress in the Tonkin Gulf resolution, which was passed after two U.S. destroyers were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese PT boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. The federal military budget soared, and inflation became a pressing problem. The Vietnam War provoked increasing opposition at home, manifested in marches and demonstrations in which casualties were sometimes incurred and thousands of people were arrested. An impression of general lawlessness and domestic disintegration was heightened by serious race riots that erupted in cities across the nation, most devastatingly in the Watts district of Los Angeles (1965) and in Detroit and Newark (1967), and by various racial and political assassinations, notably those of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Senator Robert F. Kennedy (1968). Other manifestations of social upheaval were the increase of drug use, especially among youths, and the rising rate of crime, most noticeable in the cities. Opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War so eroded Johnson's popularity that he chose not to run again for President in 1968.

The Nixon Years Johnson's position as leader of the Democratic party had been seriously challenged by Senator Eugene McCarthy, who ran as a peace candidate in the primary elections. Antiwar forces in the Democratic party received a setback with the assassination of Senator Kennedy, also a peace candidate, and the way was opened for the nomination of Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey, a supporter of Johnson's policies, as the Democratic candidate for President. Violence broke out during the Democratic national convention in Chicago when police and national guardsmen battled some 3,000 demonstrators in what a national investigating committee later characterized as “a police riot.” The Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon, ran on a platform promising an end to the Vietnam War and stressing USA History by Aamir Mahar

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the need for domestic “law and order”; he won a narrow victory, receiving 43.4% of the popular vote to Humphrey's 42.7%. A third-party candidate, Gov. George C. Wallace of Alabama, carried five Southern states. The Congress remained Democratic. Pronouncing the “Nixon doctrine”—that thenceforth other countries would have to carry more of the burden of fighting Communist domination, albeit with substantial American economic aid—Nixon began a slow withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam. Criticism that he was not moving fast enough in ending the war increased and massive antiwar demonstrations continued, and when Nixon in the spring of 1970 ordered U.S. troops into neutral Cambodia to destroy Communist bases and supply routes there, a wave of demonstrations, some of them violent, swept American campuses. Four students were killed by national guardsmen at Kent State Univ. in Ohio, and 448 colleges and universities temporarily closed down. Antiwar activity declined, however, when American troops were removed from Cambodia after 60 days. The institution of draft reform, the continued withdrawal of U.S. soldiers from Vietnam, and a sharp decrease in U.S. casualties all contributed toward dampening antiwar sentiment and lessening the war as an issue of public debate. Racial flareups abated after the tumult of the 1960s (although the issue of the busing of children to achieve integration continued to arouse controversy). The growing movement of women demanding social, economic, and political equality with men also reflected the changing times. A dramatic milestone in the country's space program was reached in July, 1969, with the landing of two men on the moon, the first of several such manned flights. Significant unmanned probes of several of the planets followed, and in 1973 the first space station was orbited. In domestic policy Nixon appeared to favor an end to the many reforms of the 1960s. He was accused by civil-rights proponents of wooing Southern support by seeking delays in the implementation of school integration. Such actions by his administration were overruled by the Supreme Court. Nixon twice attempted to appoint conservative Southern judges to the U.S. Supreme Court and was twice frustrated by the Senate, which rejected both nominations. In an attempt to control the spiraling inflation inherited from the previous administration, Nixon concentrated on reducing federal spending. He vetoed numerous appropriations bills passed by Congress, especially those in the social service and public works areas, although he continued to stress defense measures, such as the establishment of an antiballistic missiles (ABM) system, and foreign aid. Federal budget cuts contributed to a general economic slowdown but failed to halt inflation, so that the country experienced the unprecedented misfortune of both rising prices and rising unemployment; the steady drain of gold reserves after USA History by Aamir Mahar

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almost three decades of enormous foreign aid programs, a new balance-of-trade deficit, and the instability of the dollar in the international market also affected the economy. In Aug., 1971, Nixon resorted to the freezing of prices, wages, and rents; these controls were continued under an ensuing, more flexible but comprehensive program known as Phase II. Another significant move was the devaluation of the dollar in Dec., 1971; it was further devalued in 1973 and again in 1974. In keeping with his announced intention of moving the United States from an era of confrontation to one of negotiation, Nixon made a dramatic visit to the People's Republic of China in Feb., 1972, ending more than 20 years of hostility between the two countries and opening the way for a normalization of relations. A trip to Moscow followed in the spring, culminating in the signing of numerous agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union, the most important being two strategic arms limitations accords, reached after lengthy talks begun in 1969. The attainment of a degree of friendly relations with China and the USSR was especially surprising in view of the provocative actions that the United States was taking at that time against North Vietnam. Although U.S. ground troops were being steadily withdrawn from Vietnam, U.S. bombing activity was increasing. Finally Congress halted the bombing and limited Nixon's power to commit troops. A cease-fire in Vietnam was not achieved until Jan., 1973. In the presidential election of 1972, the Democratic party reforms that increased the power of women and minority groups in the convention resulted in the nomination of Senator George S. McGovern for President. Senator McGovern called for an immediate end to the Vietnam War and for a drastic cut in defense spending and a guaranteed minimum income for all citizens. His candidacy was damaged by the necessity to replace his original choice for Vice President and by the continuing perception of McGovern as a radical. Nixon was reelected (Nov., 1972) in a landslide, losing only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia. But Nixon's second term was marred, and finally destroyed, by the Watergate affair, which began when five men (two of whom were later discovered to be direct employees of Nixon's reelection committee) were arrested after breaking into the Democratic party's national headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, D.C. Nixon resigned on Aug. 9, the first president in the history of the republic to be driven from office under the threat of impeachment.

Ford and Carter Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald R. Ford. (Nixon's first Vice President, Spiro T. Agnew, had resigned in Oct., 1973, after being charged with income tax evasion.) Ford promised to continue Nixon's foreign policy, particularly the improvement of relations with China and the USSR (in his last days in office, Nixon had made trips to the Middle East and the Soviet Union to promote peace). USA History by Aamir Mahar

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In domestic affairs, the United States was hurt by skyrocketing fuel prices due to an Arab oil embargo. The embargo was imposed (1973) in retaliation for U.S. support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Ford attempted to formulate new policies to stem the ever-increasing inflation rate, which by late 1974 had reached the most severe levels since the period following World War II. He was also confronted with mounting unemployment and with the threat of a devastating world food crisis. Ford's popularity suffered a sharp setback when he granted Nixon a complete and unconditional pardon for any crimes that Nixon may have committed during his term as President. The public disapproval of this decision, along with the deteriorating economy, contributed to a sharp reversal in Republican fortunes in the elections of 1974. In Dec., 1974, Nelson A. Rockefeller, a former governor of New York, was sworn in as Vice President following extensive hearings before Congressional committees. Thus, neither the President nor the Vice President had been popularly elected, both having been chosen under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. Ford's tenure as President was hindered by difficult economic times and an inability to work with the Democrat-controlled Congress. Ford vetoed dozens of bills, many of which were overridden by Congress to provide funding for social programs. Ford also lacked broad support within his own party, as former California governor (and future President) Ronald Reagan made a strong challenge for the Republican presidential nomination. The Democratic contender in the 1976 presidential election, former Georgia governor James E. “Jimmy” Carter, ran a brilliant and tireless campaign based on populist appeals to honesty and morality. His position as a newcomer to national politics was considered an asset by an untrusting nation in the wake of the Watergate scandal. In spite of a late surge by Ford, Carter narrowly won the election. The day after being sworn in as President, Carter pardoned thousands of draft evaders from the Vietnam War. In domestic affairs, Carter focused a great deal of attention on energy issues, creating the Department of Energy in 1977 and insisting on the necessity of nuclear energy as an alternative to fossil fuel consumption. However, nuclear energy in the United States suffered a severe setback in 1979 when an accident at the Three Mile Island power facility near Harrisburg, Penn. resulted in the partial meltdown of the reactor core. States with large energy industries such as Texas, Louisiana, Wyoming, and Colorado all benefited from extremely high energy prices throughout the 1970s. Alaska's economy also boomed as the Alaska pipeline began transporting oil in 1977. Soaring oil prices as well as increased foreign competition dealt a severe USA History by Aamir Mahar

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blow to American industry, especially heavy industries such as automobile and steel manufacturing located in America's Rust Belt. Central cities in the United States experienced great hardship in the 1960s and 70s. Rising crime rates and racial unrest during the 1960s accelerated the outmigration of people and businesses to the suburbs. By the late 1970s, many large cities had lost their middle class core populations and suffered severe budgetary problems. Inflation continued to rise dramatically as it had during Ford's administration and eventually reached a 30-year high in 1979. Efforts to control inflation such as raising interest rates plunged the economy into recession. In 1977 Carter signed the Panama Canal Treaty and a year later Congress voted to turn over the canal to Panama in 1999. Carter's greatest achievement in foreign policy came in 1978 when he mediated unprecedented negotiations between Egypt and Israel at Camp David, Md. The talks led to the signing of a peace treaty by Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin in 1979. Also in that year the United States resumed official diplomatic relations with China and Carter entered into a second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) with the Soviet Union. Carter's pledge to stand against nations that abused human rights resulted in a grain and high-technology embargo of the Soviet Union in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Carter also organized a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. His decision in 1979 to allow Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi, the deposed leader of Iran, to receive medical treatment in the United States inflamed the already passionate anti-American sentiment in that nation. On Nov. 4, 1979, a group of militants seized the U.S. embassy in Iran, taking 66 hostages. The Iran hostage crisis destroyed Carter's credibility as a leader and a failed rescue attempt (1980) that killed eight Americans only worsened the situation. (The hostages were only released on Jan. 20, 1981, the day Carter left office.) With the hostage crisis omnipresent in the media and the nation's economy sliding deeper into recession, Carter had little to run on in the 1980 presidential election. Republican nominee Ronald Reagan promised to restore American supremacy both politically and economically.

The Reagan Years The nation enthusiastically responded to Ronald Reagan's neoconservative message as he soundly defeated Carter and third-party candidate John Anderson to become, at the age of 70, the oldest man to be elected president. Reagan's coattails proved to be long as the Republicans made large gains in the House of Representatives and won control of the Senate for the first time since 1954, ushering in a new wave of conservatism. His program of supply-side economics sought to increase economic growth through reduced taxes which would in turn create even greater tax revenue. Critics argued that his tax cuts only benefited USA History by Aamir Mahar

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corporations and wealthy individuals. Reagan drastically cut spending on social programs as part of his vow to balance the federal budget. In labor disputes, Reagan was decidedly antiunion. This was never more evident than in 1981 when he fired 13,000 striking air traffic controllers. In Mar., 1981, Reagan was wounded in an assassination attempt but fully recovered, dispelling doubts regarding his age and health. The U.S. economy continued to worsen; in 1983 the unemployment rate reached its highest point since the Great Depression at almost 11%. By the end of that year, however, oil prices began to drop, slowing the inflation rate and helping the economy to begin a recovery. Reagan's deregulaton of the banking, airline, and many other industries spurred enormous amounts of economic activity. In 1984 the unemployment rate fell and the dollar was strong in foreign markets. With the economy recovering, Reagan was unstoppable in the 1984 presidential election. Democratic nominee Walter F. Mondale chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate; she was the first woman to gain a major party's vice presidential nomination. Reagan scored an overwhelming victory, carrying 49 states and winning a record 525 electoral votes. Economic recovery did not last, however; while Reagan was cutting government funding for social programs the defense budget skyrocketed to levels not seen since World War II. The federal budget deficit also soared and in 1987, Reagan submitted the first trillion-dollar budget to Congress. In addition, the deregulated economy proved extremely volatile; financial scandals were prevalent and the trade imbalance grew. Finally in 1987 the stock market crashed, falling a record 508 points in a single day. Reagan's foreign policy was aggressively anti-Communist as he discarded the policy of détente employed by Nixon, Ford, and Carter. He revived Cold War rhetoric, referring to the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and used increased defense spending to enlarge the U.S. nuclear arsenal and fund the Strategic Defense Initiative, a plan popularly known as “Star Wars.” In 1981, Reagan imposed sanctions against Poland after the establishment of a military government in that country. Reagan also sought aid for the Contras—counterrevolutionaries seeking to overthrow the Marxist-oriented Sandanista government in Nicaragua. At the same time the United States was secretly mining Nicaraguan harbors. In 1983 241 U.S. marines stationed in Beirut, Lebanon as part of a UN peacekeeping force were killed by terrorists driving a truck laden with explosives in a suicide mission. Later that year Reagan ordered the invasion of the tiny Caribbean nation of Grenada; the action was roundly criticized by the world community, but succeeded in toppling the pro-Cuban regime. In 1986 the space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after liftoff, killing the entire seven-person USA History by Aamir Mahar

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crew, including six astronauts and a civilian schoolteacher. Reagan's aggressive policies in the Middle East worsened already bad relations with Arab nations; he ordered (1986) air strikes against Libya in retaliation for the Libyan-sponsored terrorist attack in West Berlin that killed two American servicemen. Although the president had vowed never to negotiate with terrorists, members of his administration did just that in the Iran-contra affair. Against the wishes of the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, Reagan officials arranged the illegal sale of arms to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages in the Middle East. The profits from the sales were then diverted to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Reagan improved his image before he left office, however, by agreeing to a series of arms reduction talks initiated by Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. Reagan was also able leave a powerful legacy by appointing three conservative Supreme Court justices, including Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman to serve on the high court.

Bush, Clinton, and Bush Reagan had groomed his Vice President, George H. W. Bush, to succeed him. The presidential election of 1988 was characterized by negative campaigning, low voter turnout, and a general disapproval of both candidates. The mudslinging especially hurt the Democratic nominee, Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis, who rapidly lost his lead in the polls and eventually lost by a substantial margin. Bush vowed a continuation of Reagan's policies and in foreign affairs he was as aggressive as his predecessor. In 1989, after a U.S.-backed coup failed to oust Panamanian President Manuel Noriega, Bush ordered the invasion of Panama by U.S. troops. Noriega was eventually captured in early 1990 and sent to Miami, Fla. to stand trial for drug trafficking. Bush's major military action, however, was the Persian Gulf War. After Iraq invaded Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, Bush announced the commencement of Operation Desert Shield, which included a naval and air blockade and the steady deployment of U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia. In November the United Nations Security Council approved the use of all necessary force to remove Iraq from Kuwait and set Jan. 15, 1991, as the deadline for Iraq to withdraw. A few days before the deadline Congress narrowly approved the use of force against Iraq. By this time the United States had amassed a force of over 500,000 military personnel as well as thousands of tanks, airplanes, and personnel carriers. Less than one day after the deadline, the U.S.-led coalition began Operation Desert Storm, beginning with massive air attacks on Baghdad. Iraqi troops were devastated by continual air and naval bombardment, to the point that it took only USA History by Aamir Mahar

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100 hours for coalition ground forces to recapture Kuwait. On Feb. 27, with the Iraqi army routed, Bush declared a cease-fire. The quick, decisive U.S. victory, combined with an extremely small number of American casualties, gave President Bush the highest public approval rating in history. Mounting domestic problems, however, made his popularity short-lived. When Bush took office, he announced a plan to bail out the savings and loan industry, which had collapsed after deregulation during the Reagan administration. In 1991 it was estimated that it would cost taxpayers $500 billion to save the industry. The United States went through a transitional period during the 1980s and early 90s, economically, demographically, and politically. The severe decline of traditional manufacturing which began in the 1970s forced a large-scale shift of the economy to services and other sectors. States with large service, trade, and hightechnology industries (such as many Sun Belt states) grew in population and thrived economically. Meanwhile, states heavily dependent on manufacturing, including much of the Midwest, suffered severe unemployment and outmigration. Midwestern states grew less than 5% during the 1980s while Sun Belt states grew between 15% and 50%. In addition, the end of the Cold War, precipitated by the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of Soviet Communism, resulted in a reduction of the U.S. armed forces as well as the opening of new markets in an increasingly global economy. In Apr., 1992, after the severe police beating of an African American, one of the worst race riots in recent U.S. history erupted in Los Angeles, killing 58, injuring thousands, and causing approximately $1 billion in damage. Smaller disturbances broke out in many U.S. cities. After the Persian Gulf War the nation turned its attention to the domestic problems of recession and high unemployment. Bush's inability to institute a program for economic recovery made him vulnerable in the 1992 presidential election to the Democratic nominee, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton. Clinton won the election, gaining 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes. Incumbent Bush won 38% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Although independent candidate H. Ross Perot did not win a single electoral vote, he made a strong showing with 19% of the popular vote, after a populist campaign in which he vowed to eliminate the $3.5 trillion federal deficit. Clinton, generally considered a political moderate, was particularly successful in appealing to voters (especially in the Midwest and West) who had previously abandoned the Democratic party to vote for Reagan. Bush, for his part, was unable to convince voters that he could transform his success in international affairs into domestic recovery. One of his last actions as president was to send (Dec., 1992) U.S. troops USA History by Aamir Mahar

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to Somalia as part of a multinational peacekeeping force administering famine relief. The economy gradually improved during Clinton's first year in office, and this, along with a tax increase and spending cuts, caused some easing of the budget deficit. The North American Free Trade Agreement, signed by the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 1992 and designed to make its participants more competitive in the world marketplace, was ratified in 1993 and took effect Jan. 1, 1994. During his first two years in office, Clinton withdrew U.S. troops from Somalia after they had suffered casualties in an ill-defined mission; he also sent troops to Haiti to help in reestablishing democratic rule there. The president proposed a major overhaul of the way American health care is financed, but it died in Congress. Clinton's problems with Congress were exacerbated in 1994 after the Republicans won control of both the Senate and the House and attempted, largely unsuccessfully, to enact a strongly conservative legislative program, dubbed the “Contract with America.” There were prolonged stalemates as the president and Congress clashed over the federal budget; in Apr., 1996, a fiscal 1995 budget was agreed upon after seven months of stopgap spending measures and temporary government shutdowns. In Apr., 1995, in the worst act of terrorism ever on American soil, a bomb was exploded at the federal building in Oklahoma City, Okla., killing 169 people. Late in 1995, the antagonists in the Yugoslavian civil war accepted a U.S.-brokered peace plan, which U.S. troops were sent to help monitor. U.S. efforts also contributed to Arab-Israeli acceptance of agreements to establish limited Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza. By 1996, President Clinton had improved his standing in the polls by confronting House Republicans over the federal budget, and he subsequently adopted a number of Republican proposals, such as welfare reform, as his own, while opposing the more conservative aspects of those proposals. Clinton won his party's renomination unopposed and then handily defeated Republican Bob Dole and Reform party candidate Ross Perot in the November election. As his second term began, Clinton's foes in and out of Congress pursued investigation of Whitewater and other alleged improprieties or abuses by the president. By late 1997 independent prosecutor Kenneth Starr had been given information that led to the Lewinsky scandal, which burst on the national scene in early 1998. Battle lines formed and remained firm through Clinton's impeachment (Oct., 1998), trial (Jan., 1999), and acquittal (Feb., 1999), with a core of conservative Republicans on one side and almost all Democrats on the other. The USA History by Aamir Mahar

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American people seemed to regard the impeachment as largely partisan in intent. Lying behind their attitude, however, was probably the sustained economic boom, a period of record stock-market levels, relatively low unemployment, the reduction of the federal debt, and other signs of well-being (although critics noted that the disparity between America's rich and poor was now greater than ever). This, combined with the afterglow of “victory” in the cold war, continued through the end of the 1990s. In foreign affairs, the United States (as the only true superpower) enjoyed unprecendented international influence in the late 1990s, and in some areas it was able to use this influence to accomplish much. There was steady, if sometimes fitful, progress toward peace in the Middle East, and George Mitchell, a U.S. envoy, brokered what many hoped was a lasting peace in Northern Ireland. On the other hand, America had little influence on Russian policy in Chechnya, and it remained locked in a contest of wills with Iraq's President Saddam Hussein nine years after the end of the Persian Gulf War. The reluctance of the Congress to pay the country's UN dues nearly led to the embarrassment of the loss of the American General Assembly vote in 1999 even as Secretary-General Kofi Annan expressed a desire for greater American involvement in the organization. Meanwhile, in Kosovo the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, led by the United States, was unable to prevent a Yugoslav campaign against Kosovar Albanians but ultimately forced Yugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro) to cede contral of the province; U.S. and other troops were sent into Kosovo as peacekeepers. That conflict showed that the United States was again reluctant to commit military forces, such as its army, that were likely to suffer significant casualties, although it would use its airpower, where its great technological advantages enabled it strike with less risk to its forces. Negotiations in the Middle East, which continued in 2000, broke down, and there was renewed violence in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank late in the year. The Clinton administration worked to restart the negotiations, but the issues proved difficult to resolve. In the United States, the Nasdaq Internet and technology stock bubble, which had begun its rise in 1999, completely deflated in the second half of 2000, as the so-called new economy associated with the Internet proved to be subject to the rules of the old economy. Signs of a contracting economy also appeared by year's end. The 2000 presidential election, in which the American public generally appeared uninspired by the either major-party candidate (Vice President Al Gore and the Republican governor of Texas, George W. Bush) ended amid confusion and contention not seen since the Hayes-Tilden election in 1876. On election night, the television networks called and then retracted the winner of Florida twice, first USA History by Aamir Mahar

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projecting Gore the winner there, then projecting Bush the winner there and in the race at large. The issue of who would win Florida and its electoral votes became the issue of who would win the presidency, and the determination of the election dragged on for weeks as Florida's votes were recounted. Gore, who trailed by several hundred votes (out of 6 million) in Florida but led by a few hundred thousand nationally, sought a manual recount of strongly Democratic counties in Florida, and the issue ended up being fought in the courts and in the media. Ultimately the U.S. Supreme Court called a halt to the process, although its split decision along ideological lines was regarded by many as tarnishing the court. Florida's electoral votes, as certified by the state's Republican officials, were won by Bush, who secured a total of 271 electoral votes (one more than needed) and 48% of the popular vote (Gore had 49% of the popular vote). Bush thus became the first person since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 to win the presidency without achieving a plurality in the popular vote. The slowing economy entered a recession in Mar., 2001, and unemployment rose, leading to continued interest rate reductions by the Federal Reserve Bank. The Bush administration moved quickly to win Congressional approval of its tax-cut program, providing it with an early legislative victory, but other proposed legislation moved more slowly. The resignation of Senator Jeffords of Vermont from the Republican party cost it control of the Senate, a setback due in part to administration pressure on him to adhere to the party line. Internationally, the United States experienced some friction with its allies, who were unhappy with the Bush administration's desire to abandon both the Kyoto Protocal (designed to fight global warming) and the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (in order to proceed with developing a ballistic missile defense system). Relations with China were briefly tense in Apr., 2001, after a Chinese fighter and U.S. surveillance plane collided in mid-air, killing the Chinese pilot. The politics and concerns of the first eight months of 2001 abruptly became secondary on Sept. 11, when terrorists hijacked four planes, crashing two into the World Trade Center, which was destroyed, and one into the Pentagon; the fourth crashed near Shanksville, Pa. Some 3,000 persons were killed or missing as a result of the attacks. Insisting that no distinction would be made between terrorists and those who harbored them, Bush demanded that Afghanistan's Taliban government turn over Osama bin Laden, a Saudi-born Islamic militant whose Al Qaeda group was behind the attacks. The U.S. government sought to build an international coalition against Al Qaeda and the Taliban and, more broadly, against terrorism, working to influence other nations to cut off sources of financial support for terrorists. In October, air strikes and then ground raids were launched against Afghanistan by the United States, with British aid. Oman, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan permitted the USA History by Aamir Mahar

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use of their airspace and of bases within their borders for various operations. The United States also provided support for opposition forces in Afghanistan, and by December the Taliban government had been ousted and its and Al Qaeda's fighters largely had been routed. Bin Laden, however, remained uncaptured, and a force of U.S. troops was based in Afghanistan to search for him and to help with moppingup operations. The terrorist attacks stunned Americans and amplified the effects of the recession in the fall. Events had a severe impact on the travel industry, particularly the airlines, whose flights were temporarily halted; the airlines subsequently suffered a significant decrease in passengers. Congress passed several bills designed to counter the economic effects of the attacks, including a $15 billion aid and loan package for the airline industry. A new crisis developed in October, when cases of anthrax and anthrax exposure resulted from spores that had been mailed to media and government offices in bioterror attacks. Although consumer spending and the stock market rebounded by the end of the year from their low levels after September 11, unemployment reached 5.8% in Dec., 2001. Nonetheless, the economy was recovering, albeit slowly, aided in part by increased federal spending. In early 2002 the Bush administration announced plans for a significant military buildup; that and the 2001 tax cuts were expected to result in budget deficits in 2002–4. Prompted by a number of prominent corporate scandals involving fraudulent or questionable accounting practices, some of which led to corporate bankruptcies, Congress passed legislation that overhauled securities and corporate laws in July, 2002. The fighting in Afghanistan continued, with U.S. forces there devoted mainly to mopping up remnants of Taliban and Al Qaeda forces. U.S. troops were also based in Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan to provide support for the forces in Afghanistan. In the Philippines, U.S. troops provided support and assistance to Philippine forces fighting guerrillas in the Sulu Archipelago that had been linked to Al Qaeda, and they also trained Georgian and Yemeni forces as part of the war on terrorism. During 2002 the Bush administration became increasingly concerned by the alleged Iraqi development and possession of weapons of mass destruction, and was more forceful in its denunciations of Iraq for resisting UN arms inspections. In March, Arab nations publicly opposed possible U.S. military operations against Iraq, but U.S. officials continued to call for the removal of Saddam Hussein. President Bush called on the United Nations to act forcefully against Iraq or risk becoming “irrelevant.” In November the Security Council passed a resolution offering Iraq a “final opportunity” to cooperate on arms inspections, this time under strict guidelines, and inspections resumed late in the month, although not USA History by Aamir Mahar

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with full Iraqi cooperation. Meanwhile, the U.S. Congress voted to authorize the use of the military force against Iraq, and the United States continued to build up its forces in the Middle East. The November election resulted in unexpected, if small, gains for the Republicans, giving them control of both houses of Congress. After the election, Congress voted to establish a new Department of Homeland Security, effective Mar., 2003. The department regrouped most of the disparate agencies responsible for domestic security under one cabinet-level official; the resulting government reorganization was the largest since the Department of Defense was created in the late 1940s. Dec., 2002, saw the negotiation of a free-trade agreement with Chile (signed in June, 2003), regarded by many as the first step in the expansion of NAFTA to include all the countries of the Americas. President Bush ordered the deployment of a ballistic missile defense system, to be effective in 2004; the system would be designed to prevent so-called rogue missile attacks. In advance of this move the United States had withdrawn from the Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty with Russia in June. North Korea, often described as one of the nations most likely to launch a rogue attack, had admitted in October that it had a program for developing nuclear weapons, and the United States and other nations responded by ending fuel shipments and reducing food aid. In the subsequent weeks North Korea engaged in a series of well-publicized moves to enable it to resume the development of nuclear weapons, including withdrawing from the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The United States, which had first responded by refusing to negotiate in any way with North Korea, adopted a somewhat less confrontational approach in 2003. President Bush continued to press for Iraqi disarmament in 2003, and expressed impatience with what his administration regarded as the lack of Iraqi compliance. In Feb, 2003, however, the nation's attention was pulled away from the growing tension over Iraq by the breakup of the space shuttle Columbia as it returned to earth. Seven astronauts were killed in this second shuttle mishap, and focus was once again directed toward the issues of the safety of the space shuttle and the dynamics of the decision-making process at NASA. Despite vocal opposition to military action from many nations, including sometimes rancorous objections from France, Germany, and Russia, the United States and Great Britain pressed forward in early 2003 with military preparations in areas near Iraq. Although Turkey, which the allies hoped to use as a base for opening a northern front in Iraq, refused to allow use of its territory as a staging area, the bulk of the forces were nonetheless in place by March. After failing to win the explicit UN Security Council approval desired by Britain (because the British public were otherwise largely opposed to war), President Bush issued an ultimatum to Iraqi president Saddam Hussein on March 17th, and two days later the war began with an airstrike against Hussein and the Iraqi leadership. Ground forces invaded the following day, and by mid-April the allies were largely in USA History by Aamir Mahar

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control of the major Iraqi cities and had turned their attention to the rebuilding of Iraq and the establishment of a new Iraqi government. No weapons of mass destruction, however, were found by allied forces during the months after the war, and sporadic guerrilla attacks on the occupying forces occurred during the same time period, mainly in Sunni-dominated central Iraq. The cost of the military campaign as well as of the ongoing U.S. occupation in Iraq substantially increased what already had been expected to be a record-breaking U.S. deficit in 2003 to around $374 billion. The size of the deficit, the unknown ultimate cost of the war, and the continued weak U.S. economy (the unemployment rate rose to 6.4% in June despite some improvement in other areas) were important factors that led to the scaling back of a tax cut, proposed by President Bush, by more than half to $350 billion. In Aug., 2003, a massive electrical blackout affected the NE United States. Much of New York and portions of Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and neighboring Ontario, Canada, lost power, in many cases for a couple days. The widespread failure appeared to be due in part to strains placed on the transmission system, its safeguards, and its operators by the increased interconnectedness of electrical generation and transmission facilities and the longer-distance transmission of electricity. An investigation into the event, however, laid the primary blame on the Ohio utility where it began, both for inadequate system maintenance and for failing to take preventive measures when the crisis began. The economy improved in the latter half of the 2003. Although the unemployment rate inched below 6% and job growth was modest, overall economic growth was robust, particularly in the last quarter. A major Medicare overhaul was enacted and signed in December, creating a prescription drug benefit for the first time. The same month the Central American Free Trade Agreement was finalized by the United States, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, and in early 2004, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic agreed to become parties to the accord. The United States also reached free-trade agreements with Australia and Morocco. U.S. weapons inspectors reported in Jan., 2004, that they had failed to find any evidence that Iraq had possessed biological or chemical weapons stockpiles prior to the U.S. invasion. The assertion that such stockpiles existed was a primary justification for the invasion, and the report led to pressure for an investigation of U.S. intelligence prior to the war. In February, President Bush appointed a bipartisan commission to review both U.S. intelligence failures in Iraq and other issues relating to foreign intelligence; the commission's 2005 report criticized intelligence agencies for failing to challenge the conventional wisdom about Iraq's USA History by Aamir Mahar

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weapon systems, and called for changes in how U.S. intelligence gathering is organized and managed. The Senate's intelligence committee, reviewing the situation separately, concluded in its 2004 report that much of the CIA's information on and assessment of Iraq prior to the war was faulty. Also in February, U.S., French, and Canadian forces were sent into Haiti to preserve order. Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide had resigned under U.S.French pressure after rebel forces had swept through most of the country and threatened to enter the capital. U.S. forces withdrew from Haiti in June when Brazil assumed command of a UN peacekeeping force there. By March, John Kerry had all but secured the Democrat nomination for president. With both major party nominees clear, the focus of the political campaigns quickly shifted to the November election. Both Bush and Kerry had elected not to accept government funding, enabling them each to raise record amounts of campaign funding, and the post-primary advertising campaign began early. In July, Kerry chose North Carolina senator John Edwards, who had opposed him in the primaries, as his running mate. U.S. forces engaged in intense fighting in Iraq in Apr., 2004, as they attempted to remove Sunni insurgents from the town of Falluja. The battling there was the fiercest since the end of the invasion, and ultimately U.S. forces broke off without clearing the fighters from the city, a goal that was not achieved until after similar fighting in November. Guerrilla attacks by Sunni insurgents continued throughout the year. Also in April a radical cleric attempted to spark a Shiite uprising, and there was unrest and fighting in a number of other Iraqi cities. By mid-April the Shiite militia was in control only in the region around An Najaf, but the militia did not abandon its hold there until after intense battling in August. At the end of June, Paul Bremer, the head of the U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority, turned over sovereignty to an Iraqi interim government. Nonetheless, the unrest called into question the degree to which Iraq had been pacified, and the 160,000 U.S.-led troops still in Iraq were, for the time being, the true guarantor of Iraqi security. Meanwhile, the prestige of the U.S. military had been damaged by revelations, in May, that it had abused Iraqis held in the Abu Ghraib prison during 2003–4. In July, 2004, the U.S. commission investigating the terror attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, criticized especially U.S. intelligence agencies for failings that contributed to the success of the attacks, and called for a major reorganization of those agencies, leading to the passage of legislation late in the year. In the following months the country's focus turned largely toward the November presidential election, as the campaigns of President Bush and Senator Kerry and their surrogates escalated their USA History by Aamir Mahar

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often sharp political attacks. In a country divided over the threat of terrorism and the war in Iraq, over the state of the economy and the state of the nation's values, election spending reached a new peak despite recent campaign financing limitations, and fueled a divisive and sometimes bitter mood. Ultimately, the president appeared to benefit from a slowly recovering economy and the desire of many voters for continuity in leadership while the nation was at war. Amid greatly increased voter turnout, Bush secured a clear majority of the popular vote, in sharp contrast to the 2000 election that first made him president. Republicans also increased their margins of control in both houses of Congress, largely through victories in the more conservative South. The very active 2005 hurricane season saw several significant storms make landfall on the U.S. coast. In August, Hurricane Katrina devastated the Mississippi and SE Louisiana coasts, flooded much of New Orleans for several weeks, and caused extensive destruction inland in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, making it the most expensive natural disaster in U.S. history. The following month, Hurricane Rita caused devastation along the SW Louisiana coast and widespread destruction in inland Louisiana and SE Texas. Katrina displaced many Louisiana residents, some permanently, to other parts of the state and other states, particularly Texas. Some 200,000 persons were left at least temporarily unemployed, reversing job gains that had been made in the preceding months. The storm had a noticeable effect on the economy, driving up the already higher prices of gasoline, heating oil, and natural gas (as a result of well and refinery damage) to levels not seen before, and causing inflation to rise and industrial output to drop by amounts not seen in more than two decades. The striking ineffectiveness of federal, state, and local government in responding to Hurricane Katrina, particularly in flooded New Orleans but also in other areas affected by the storm, raised questions about the ability of the country to respond to major disasters of any kind. President Bush—and state and local officials—were criticized for responding, at least initially, inadequately to Katrina, but the Federal Emergency Management Agency in particular seemed overwhelmed by the disaster's scale and incapable of managing the federal response in subsequent weeks. Many Americans wondered if the lessons of the events of Sept. 11, 2001, and the changes in the federal government that followed had resulted in real improvements or if those very changes and their emphasis on terror attacks had hindered the ability of the United States to respond to natural disasters. The perceived failings in the federal response to Katrina seemed to catalyze public dissatisfaction with President Bush, as Americans became increasingly unsettled by the ongoing war in Iraq, the state of the U.S. economy, and other issues less than a year after Bush had been solidly reelected. Congress, meanwhile, passed a USA History by Aamir Mahar

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$52 billion emergency spending bill to deal with the effects of Katrina, but did not make any significant spending cuts or reductions in tax cuts to compensate for the additional outlays until Feb., 2006, when Congress passed a bill cutting almost $40 billion from a variety of government benefit programs, including Medicare, Medicaid, and student loans. Internationally and domestically, the United States government was the subject of condemnation from some quarters for aspects of its conduct of the “war on terror” in the second half of 2005. In Aug., 2005, Amnesty International denounced the United States for maintaining secret, underground CIA prisons abroad. Subsequent news reporting indicated that there were prisons in eight nations in E Europe and Asia, and in December the United States acknowledged that the International Committee of the Red Cross had not been given access to all its detention facilities. A Swiss investigator for the Council of Europe indicated (Dec., 2005) that reports that European nations and the United States had been involved in the abduction and extrajudicial transfer of individuals to other nations were credible, and he accused (Jan., 2006) the nations of “outsourcing” torture. In Jan., 2006, the New York–based Human Rights Watch accused the U.S. government of a deliberate policy of mistreating terror suspects. In Dec., 2005, the National Security Agency was revealed to be wiretapping some international communications originating in the United States without obtaining the legally required warrants. The practice had begun in 2002, at the president's order. The administration justified it by asserting that the president's powers to defend the United States under the Constitution were not subject to Congressional legislation and that the legislation authorizing the president to respond to the Sept., 2001, terror attacks implicitly also authorized the wiretapping. Many politicians, former government officials, and legal scholars, however, criticized the practice as illegal or unconstitutional. The revelations and assertions did not derail the renewal of those parts of the USA PATRIOT Act, a sometimes criticized national security law originally enacted in 2001 after the Sept. 11th attacks; with only minor adjustments most of the law was made permanent in Mar., 2006. There are a great number of articles on Americans of major importance, on the principal government agencies and departments, and on numerous topics of American history, e.g., Whiskey Rebellion, Ohio Company, Independent Treasury System, and Santa Fe Trail. There are also articles on more than 2,000 cities, towns, and villages in the United States. The state articles supply bibliographies for state history. Aspects of American culture are discussed under American architecture, American art, American literature, and jazz. Many general articles (e.g., slavery; diplomatic service) have useful material and bibliographies relating to the United States. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Economy The mineral and agricultural resources of the United States are tremendous. Although the country was virtually self-sufficient in the past, increasing consumption, especially of energy, continues to make it dependent on certain imports. It is, nevertheless, the world's largest producer of both electrical and nuclear energy. It leads all nations in the production of liquid natural gas, aluminum, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. It is also a leading producer of copper, gold, coal, crude oil, nitrogen, iron ore, silver, uranium, lead, zinc, mica, molybdenum, and magnesium. Although its output has declined, the United States is among the world leaders in the production of pig iron and ferroalloys, steel, motor vehicles, and synthetic rubber. Agriculturally, the United States is first in the production of cheese, corn, soybeans, and tobacco. The United States is also one of the largest producers of cattle, hogs, cow's milk, butter, cotton, oats, wheat, barley, and sugar; it is the world's leading exporter of wheat and corn and ranks third in rice exports. In 1995, U.S. fisheries ranked fifth in the world in total production. Major U.S. exports include motor vehicles, aircraft, food, iron and steel products, electric and electronic equipment, industrial and power-generating machinery, chemicals, and consumer goods. Leading imports include ores and metal scraps, petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, transportation equipment (especially automobiles), and paper and paper products. The major U.S. trading partners are Canada (in the world's largest bilateral trade relationship), Mexico, Japan, the United Kingdom, South Korea, and Germany. The volume of trade has been steadily increasing. The gross domestic product has continued to rise, and in 1998 it was easily the largest in the world at about $8.5 trillion. The development of the economy has been spurred by the growth of a complex network of communications not only by railroad, highways, inland waterways, and air but also by telephone, radio, television, computer (including the Internet), and fax machine. This infrastructure has fostered not only agricultural and manufacturing growth but has also contributed to the leading position the United States holds in world tourism revenues and to the ongoing shift to a service-based economy. In 1996 some 74% of Americans worked in service industries, a proportion matched, among major economic powers, only by Canada.

Government The government of the United States is that of a federal republic set up by the Constitution of the United States, adopted by the Constitutional Convention of 1787. There is a division of powers between the federal government and the state governments. The federal government consists of three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive power is vested in the President and, in the event of the President's incapacity, the Vice President. (For a chronological list USA History by Aamir Mahar

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of all the presidents and vice presidents of the United States, including their terms in office and political parties, see the table entitled Presidents of the United States.) The executive conducts the administrative business of the nation with the aid of a cabinet composed of the Attorney General and the Secretaries of the Departments of State; Treasury; Defense; Interior; Agriculture; Commerce; Labor; Health and Human Services; Education; Housing and Urban Development; Transportation; Energy; and Veterans' Affairs. The Congress of the United States, the legislative branch, is bicameral and consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch is formed by the federal courts and headed by the U.S. Supreme Court. The members of the Congress are elected by universal suffrage as are the members of the electoral college, which formally chooses the President and the Vice President.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) From 1800- 1825 1. 1800 election was one of only 2 elections which were transferred to House of Representatives, other being 1824 election. This happened because electoral votes tied 2. Population of US according to 1800 census was 5.3 Million 3. Oliver Evans made steam engine in 1801 4. War of Tripoli started in 1801, City of Tripoli was bombarded in 1804 and a treaty with Pasha of Tripoli was signed in 1805 5. Under Expansion of Judiciary act of 1801, Adams created 16 new federal judgeships and appointed federalists to them in what was dubbed as Midnight Appointments USA History by Aamir Mahar

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6. Organic act, passed in 1801, officially organized D.C. and put it under control of Federal government 7. Virginian Dynasty spanned from 1801 to 1825 8. Treaty of Amiens was signed in 1802 as ceasefire between France and UK 9. Famous Marbury vs. Madison case was headed by CJ John Marshall, a federalist, in 1803and this case set up the tradition of Judicial Review 10. Louisiana Purchase was carried out by Monroe (Governor of Virginia) and Livingston (US ambassador in France) 11. 12th Amendment was ratified in 1804. It was passed in order to rectify the flaw in 1800 election and directed electors to cast votes distinctly for POTUS and VP. Prior to that, all electors voted for POTUS and the runnerup was elected as VP. This consequently a. prevented a deadlock in case of equal votes b. Prevented the POTUS and VP’s being from opposing parties 12. Clarke and Lewis expedition of 1804-06 was crucial in solving issue of Oregon with UK later 13. Burr-Hamilton duel took place in 1804 14. Embargo Act was enacted to assert American sovereignty from 1807 to 1809 but backfired 15. According to census of 1810, population was 7.2 Mn 16. William Henry Harrison defeats pan-Indian alliance at Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 17. Henry Dearborn was sect. of war in 1812 war 18. Tecumseh, native Indian warrior against US, was killed in Battle of Thames in 1813 19. In 1814, Francis Scott Key, a Washington lawyer, while prisoner on British ship, wrote a song, “The Start-Spangled Banner”, in his book published later, The Defense of Fort Mchenry, which became US national anthem in 1931 20. Battle of New Orleans, most famous battle of 1812 war, was fought in January 1815, by Andrew Jackson who got title of Hero of New Orleans. This battle was fought after the after the Peace Treaty was concluded! 21. The start of the American Industrial Revolution is often attributed to Samuel Slater who introduced cotton milling 22. Tariff Laws were passed in 1816&1824 (Protective tariffs to curb import of cheap British products) 23. 1816 election was the last election competed by Federalist Party USA History by Aamir Mahar

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24. Charter to renew First Bank of US in 1811 failed. Second Bank of US was established in 1816 which was to expire in 20 years. Bank would have $ 35 Mn capital one-fifth of which will be provided by government. Bank would have 25 directors (one-fifth appointed by govt.). Its renewal in 1836 also failed, so it worked as a normal bank till its bankruptcy in 1841 25. Erie Canal (363 Miles) was built from New york rom 1817-25 and opened in 1825 26. Missouri requested admission as a slave state in 1818. At that time no. of slave and Free states was balanced i.e. 11. Petition was taken up in 1819 and Missouri compromise was reached in 1820 thanks to Maine’s petition at the critical time. 27. Rush-Bagot Treaty of Joint occupation of Oregon (US & GB) signed in 1818 (for 10 years) and renewed in 1826 28. Economic collapse of 1819 resulted in a 6-year depression 29. Purchase of Florida for $ 5Mn (Transcontinental treat or Adams-Onis treaty) was signed in 1819 and Spain ratified the treaty in 1821. Spain gave up her claim on Texas and Oregon also 30. Cast Iron plough was invented in 1819 31. Famous case heard by John Marshal a. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)-rendered state-defying of National bank unconstitutional b. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)-ruling about federal govt’s authority to control interstate commerce 32. 1820 election (James Monroe) was the 3rd and last instance where there was no opposing candidate. First 2 being 1789 and 1792 (George Washington) 33. According to census of 1820, population was 9.6 Mn 34. US accorded recognition to Mexico in 1822 35. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison unsuccessfully advocated a joint declaration with GB 36. Monroe doctrine came in Dec 1823, Roosevelt added a corollary to it in 1904- right to interfere in domestic affairs of Latin American countries 37. Russo-American treaty took place in 1824 38. 1824 election was one of only 2 elections which were transferred to House of Representatives, other being 1800 election. This happened because no candidate got sufficient plurality by electors. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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39. 1824 election is the only election in which candidate who got most electoral votes could not become POTUS, that person being Andrew Jackson 40. During and after 1824 election, Democratic - Republican Party segregated into 4 factions due to Corrupt Bargain in which Henry Clay manipulated HOR to elect John Q. Adams rather than Jackson. Out of these factions emerged the 2nd Party System and came into play in 1828 election where contenders clearly came from two opposing parties: Democratic and National Republicans (later merged into Whigs) 41. New Harmony Community (a stunt of Robert Owen to form utopian society) was formed in 1825 42. Second great awakening, a Christian revival movement, started in 1800s, peaked in 1820s and declined in 1870s. It is well known for its Camp Meetings. It. A famous activist was Charles Grandison Finney 43. Mormons, a faction of Christians, was formed by Joseph Smith. Its center is Utah

From 1826- 1850 44. American Temperance society was formed in 1826 45. Second party system ranges from 1828 to 1854. Two main political parties were Democrats and National Republicans who merged laterin Whigs (1833). 1828 election was the first election where 2ndparty system came out explicitly 46. Andrew Jackson hailed from frontier (west)and was dubbed as Old Hickory. His cabinet was dubbed as Kitchen Cabinet 47. Under spoils system, Jackson rusticated 1000 officers 48. Eaton affair created a rift between Calhoun and Jackson 49. Tariff of 1828, dubbed as Black Tariff or Tariff of Abomination was passed to protect woolen industry. 50. The Indian Removal Act was passed in 1830 USA History by Aamir Mahar

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51. Peter Cooper invented steamlocomotive in 1830, first railroad was developed in 1828 and opened for passengers in 1831 52. Webster-Hayne debate (on nature of union) occurred in 1830. Webster espoused federal supremacy whereas Hayne advocated state-rights. Calhoun presided over the debate 53. Famous Cherokee vs. Georgia case was taken by Supreme Court in 1831in which court said it cannot hear the case because Cherokees are not a foreign nation but a dependent one 54. Calhoun wrote address to people of South Carolina in 1831 55. Nat Turner led slave abolition movement in Virginia in 1831 56. Famous Worcester vs. Georgia case was taken by Supreme Court in 1832 in which court prevented Georgia from prosecuting a Cherokee messenger Worchester saying that only center has authority to enforce prosecution, not the state 57. In Tariff of 1832, many tariffs were reduced but were not enough to placate South Carolina which issued Nullification Ordinance in 1833. To warn South Carolina, Jackson passed Force Law(1833) and to appease South Carolina, Henry Clay passed Compromise Bill (1833) 58. Jackson ordered withdrawal of federal money from National bank in 1832 59. In Georgia-Worcester case (1832), SC ruled Georgia’s actions unconstitutional 60. Special Circular (use of hard current to buy land)was issued in 1836 61. Whigs Party came into being in 1834, founded by Henry Clay, and had 4 presidents. This party got dissolved due to internal discord on issue of slavery in 1854. a. Henry Harrison (1841-41)- Died in office b. Tyler (1841-45) -rose from VP to POTUS after Harrison’s deathdeserted by Whigs because his supporters were a minority faction(runaway democrats) and due to issue of Bank Bill. He is the only POTUS to be expelled from party while in office c. Zachary Taylor- (1849-50)- Died in office- Served in War of Mexico d. Fillmore (1850-53)- rose from VP to POTUS after Taylor’s death 62. Henry Clay moved the compromise bill of 1833 to curb Nullification Ordinance and mediated. He also moved the compromise of 1850. He was dubbed “The Great Pacificator”. He espoused close ties with Latin USA History by Aamir Mahar

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American countries and supported re-chartering of 2nd National bank. He also used to support the protective tariffs. 63. Crop Reaper was invented in 1834 64. Texan revolt occurred in 1835. Texas (aka Lone star state) got independence and framed their constitution in 1836. Massacre of Alamo occurred in 1836 conducted by Santa Anna. Till its cession to US in 1845, it stayed independent country for 9 years 65. Bureau of Indian affairs was established in 1836. 94 treaties were conducted with Indians 66. Bank Panic occurred in 1837- a 4 year recession 67. Caroline affair (Canadian rebellion)occurred in 1837 68. Samuel Morse invented Electric telegraph in 1837 69. After Jackson, till Lincoln (excluding), all presidents served for a single term 70. Independent US Treasury was formed in 1840 71. Creole affair(Slave ship issue) took place in 1841 72. Webster-Ash burton treaty was signed in 1842 to solve issues of Northern boundary with British 73. A hot issue of 1844 election was Texas’s annexation 74. Word Manifest Destiny (westward expansion after 1829) was coined by John Sullivan, a journalist, in 1845in an article titled Annexation. Politically it was used by Winthrop for the first time at issue of terminating joint occupation of Oregon. This divine concept was used as a tool to initiate Mexican war (to gain Texas and California) and Oregon treaty 75. Oregon treaty (US & GB) took place in 1846- Oregon was dividedalong 49th parallel. At that time 54o40’ or fight was slogan of expansionists 76. Elias Howe invented sewing machine in 1846 77. Oneida community was founded in 1847 and continued till 1881 78. Treaty of Guadeloupe-Hidalgo was carried out in Jan 1848to end Mexican war. US got 500,000 square mile area and paid $ 15 Mn for New Mexican territory. US also got California, Texas, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. Boundary between US and Mexico was fixed at Rio Grande 79. Gold Rush occurred in California in 1848 80. Wilmot Proviso was a rider-act presented in 1846 on the discussion on $ 2 Mn appropriation bill. Was put to debate twice and failed both times 81. Issue of admitting states gained after Mexican war caused division in political parties. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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82. Free soil Party was created (1848) with alliance of Conscience Whigs and anti-slavery Democrats. It got merged in 1854 in Republican party (created 1854) 83. Compromise of 1850 consists of 5 laws. According to it a. California was admitted as a free state b. Texas gave up New Mexico for $ 10 Mn c. North Mexico named as Utah d. Texas , New Mexico & Utah admitted as neutral states- federation would not pass any law regarding slavery there e. Slave trade was abolished in DC f. Fugitive slave act was passed. Fugitive Slave cases put under Federal Jurisdiction and run-away slaves to be returned 84. Compromise of 1850 unconsciously espoused the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty 85. Gag rule was a way of muting all anti-slavery petitions in HOR. It was repealed in 1844 with efforts of John Quincy Adams

From 1851- 1900 & Civil War 86. Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852 87. Gadsden purchase was conducted in 1853 with Mexico, ratified by senate in 1854, to build a transcontinental railroad 88. Kansas-Nebraska act was passed in 1854, proposed by Stephen Douglas, an attempt to legalese the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty. It repealed Missouri compromise, giving states right to decide the status. 89. Eventually both Kansas and Nebraska entered as Free states. 90. The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to annex Cuba as a slave state USA History by Aamir Mahar

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91. Appeal of independent democrats of Congress was written by Chase, signed by Free-Soil Democrats 92. In Kansas, two opposing constitutions, Topeka Constitution (antislavery- 1855) and Lecompton Constitution (pro-slavery- 1857) were proposed. In Congress debate (1858), former won and Kansas entered union as Free state (1861) 93. In 1856, Pottawatomie massacre took place- free men under John Brown attacked Pro-Salves 94. Kansas-Nebraska act had huge impact on 1856 election in which Buchanan, a democrat, won 95. In 1857, Supreme Court heard the famous Dred Scot vs. Sanford case ruled in favor of slave owners and also declared Missouri Compromise unconstitutional plus declared Negros as Non-Citizens of US. This decision was later overruled by 15th amendment(1870) 96. Lincoln-Douglas debate took place in 1858, as a contest for Senate seat from Illinois 97. In 1859, John Brown’s Raid on Harper Ferry took place- An attempt to eradicate slavery by armed slave revolt 98. According to 1860 census, population was 31.4 Mn 99. 1860 election was won by Abraham Lincoln- a republican; democrats were divided on nomination (Douglas was main nominee). Another party called Constitutional Union Party also participated Civil War 100. First state to secede was South Carolina (20 Dec 1860) and by Feb, 6 more states seceded. In Feb 1861, 7 states -SAFMGTL (Some apples feel more good than lemon)–met at Montgomery (Alabama) and formed a Confederate state of America with Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president. Richmond (Virginia) was selected as capital. This happened even before Lincoln took office (4thMarch 1861). 101. 4 more states – VNAT (Very Tasty And Nectarous)- joined confederation later to make total 11 states 102. Union had 25 states on its side 103. War started with attack of Southern forces on Fort Sumter on 12th April 1861. War was conducted on 2 fronts- east and west. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers 104. 1st battle of Bull Run/Manassas was conducted in east in 1861, a failed attempt by US to take Richmond. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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105. 2nd attempt at Richmond was conducted in 1862(7 days war), driven back by confederation 106. 2nd battle of Bull Run/Manassas was conducted in 1862 107. Confederation got a ship Alabama from GB, it sunk 63 US ships 108. Battle of Gettysburg (1863) was the battle with most (50,000) causalities in war. It was conducted near Pennsylvania, and put t halt to General Lee’s invasion of North 109. Final battle of civil war took place in Appomattox, Confederation surrendered in April 1865 110. Lincoln changed 5 generals during the war 111. Confederation resorted to conscription in 1862, US in 1863 112. Prominent generals of US were a. McDowell (Lost 1st battle of Bull Run) b. McClellan (Led 2ndsiege at Richmond) c. Sherman (notorious march through Georgia, 1864) d. Grant (Chief of US forces in Civil War, won final battle at Appomattox) 113. Prominent generals of confederation were a. Beauregard (Initiated war with Fort Sumter attack, won first battle of Bull run) b. Johnston (won first battle of Bull run, injure in 2nd siege on Richmond) c. Robert E. Lee (Lost Final battle) 114. GB stayed Neutral though it wanted to help Southerners, France too stayed neutral following GB, because of timid leader Napoleon 3. Russia supported US by sending 12 vessels 115. Trent affair occurred in 1861 between US and GB 116. Proclamation of Emancipation was read by Lincoln in 1862, operational from 1st Jan, 1863. It freed slaves only in South 117. Congress passed National Banking Acts in 1863 and 1864 to stimulate sale of war bonds 118. Gettysburg address was given by Lincoln in Nov 1863 119. War-time nurses were called Angels of the Battlefields 120. Charles and Mary Beard called Civil war as second American revolution 121. William Seward was Lincoln’s Secretary of State USA History by Aamir Mahar

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122. 6 volumes of "Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion" were published. It was prepared under the direction of Joseph Barnes 123. Lincoln’s Sect of war was Edwin Stanton 124. 10 percent plan was given by Lincoln for admission of Southern states in union 125. Assassination of Lincoln occurred on 12th April 1865, at hands of John Wilkes Booth, a Maryland actor, while Lincoln was watching a drama Our American Cousin at Ford Theatre. Booth shouted SIC SEMPER TYRANNIS. ASSASSINATORS WERE TRIALED BY A MILITRY TRIBNAL “HUNTER COMISSION” 126. Andrew Johnson was a democrat 127. Ban on slavery all over US (except as punishment)was added in constitution as 13th Amendment in 1865 128. Hiram Rhodes Revels was first ever African-American in US Congress (Senate) 129. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $ 7.2 Mn, became 49thstate in 1959 130. National Labor Union was founded in 1866, dissolved in 1873 131. 14th Amendment was ratified in 1868. It is about equal protection for all citizens under law. This amendment was later used in the Supreme Court Case: Brown vs. Board of Education 132. Ku Klux Klan was formed in Tennessee in 1868 133. Democrats called themselves as Redeemers 134. Andrew Johnson was the first president to be impeached in 1868. Blame was "Violation of Office Tenure act high crimes and misdemeanors. Impeachment failed 135. 15th Amendment was ratified in1870. It grants citizenship (right to vote) to all residents no matter which race or color. This amendment overruled the decision of SC on Dred Scott case (1857 ) 136. Thomas Edison invented Phonograph in 1877 137. Rise and Fall of Confederate govt. was written in 1881 by Jefferson Davis 138. In 1886, France gifted USA with Statue of Liberty, at the time of president Grover Cleveland. It was designed by French sculptor Fredric Bartholdi and symbolized immigrants USA History by Aamir Mahar

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From 1900- 1925 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145.

Spanish American war ended in 1898 by treaty of Paris USA got Philippines in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1899 Boxer rising in China and Open Door policy in china occurred in 1900 Platt Amendment was introduced in 1901 USA Steel Corp. was formed in 1901 Teddy Roosevelt was given Nobel Prize in 1906 Ford-T was designed in 1908 USA History by Aamir Mahar

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146. Teddy Roosevelt formed Bull Moose Party (Progressive) in 1912 after split in Republican Party. 147. Panama Canal was opened in 1914 148. Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915 149. Lafayette escadrilles were American volunteers fighting for France in 1916 150. Zimmermann Telegram was captured in 1917- German attempt to incite Mexico 151. USA entered war in April1917, Selective Service Act was passed in 1917, Espionage and sedition act was passed in 1917, War Industries Board was formed in 1917 152. US Bought Virgin Islands in 1917 from Denmark for $ 25 Mn 153. Paris Peace Conference was held in 1919, at the end of which Treaty of Versailles was signed. Important participants were Big Four. This treaty could not be ratified in US due to stiff opposition from Henry Cabot who opposed 10th article of treaty 154. 1919: Wilson got peace Nobel prize for his 14 points 155. Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1919, ratified in 1920: gave women the right to vote 156. US entered WW1 in 1917 157. Ww1 was also called A war to end all wars 158. Woodrow Wilson was a democrat president 159. The United States remained officially at war until 1921

From 1926- 1950 160. Black Thursday is the day when stock markets crashed in USA 161. The Great Depression lasted for a decade 162. Hawley-Smoot tariff of 1930restricted foreign imports highly, worsening conditions 163. Dust Bowl is name given to the region which faced drought in great depression USA History by Aamir Mahar

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164. Four freedoms were given by Roosevelt (Speech, religion, from want, from fear) 165. F.D. Roosevelt was elected to office 4 times. He was 32nd president of USA 166. TVA was established in 1933 under FD Roosevelt 167. US entered WW2 in December 8, 1941after attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) 168. Following peace conferences were held in wake of world war 2 a. Atlantic Charter (1941) b. Moscow conference (1943) c. Yalta conference (1945)- Post war plan for Europe was discussed d. Potsdam conference (1945) e. San Francisco (1945)- Charter of UNO was adopted 169. Truman’s domestic policy was known a Fair Deal 170. GI bill of rights and Atomic Energy Act were passed by Truman 171. Truman doctrine was presented in 1947 172. Marshall plan(aka European Recovery Plan)was presented in 1947 and enacted in 1948 173. Korean war started in 1950 and armistice was conducted in 1953

From 1951 onwards 174. Dulles was sect of state of Eisenhower, architect of Eisenhower doctrine 175. Vietnam war lasted from 1955-75 176. Bay of Pigs invasion occurred in 1961 USA History by Aamir Mahar

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177. Apollo program was put forward by Kennedy in 1961 and succeeded in 1969 178. Ronald Regan used to call Soviet Union an evil empire 179. Hawaii became part of USA in 1959, 50th state to join USA 180. Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in 1962 181. Civil Rights Acts of 1964 discarded all discrimination towards blacks including segregation 182. Martin Luther King was assassinated in 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee 183. Nixon presented his 5 principles for Latin America in 1969 184. SALT was signed between US and USSR in 1971 185. Richard Nixon was the first US president to visit China in 1972 186. US built Panama Canal in 1914, held it till 1977 when Torrijos –Carter Treaty provided for the transition of control to Panama. In 1999, complete control was given to Panama Canal Authority 187. Camp David Accord was signed in 1978 between Egyptian and Israeli presidents under Jimmy Carter. 188. Regan and Gorbachev met in 1988 in New York 189. Bush and Gorbachov met at Malta Summit 1989 190. US established diplomatic relations with China in 1979 191. Henry Kissinger was sect. of state for Nixon and Ford, wrote a book The White House Years 192. George H. W. Bush (senior) was a former head of CIA.

Uptill 1977 193. New Hampshire was the first state to adopt a constitution in 1776 194. On July 8, 1776, Liberty Bell rang from the tower of Independence Hall summoning the citizens of Philadelphia to hear the Declaration of Independence by Colonel John Nixon. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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195. Thomas Paine wrote a book Common Sense (1776) which aroused the public revolutionary spirit 196. Virginia Statute of religious freedom was drafted by Jefferson in 1777, included in Virginia’s state law in 1786 197. Benjamin Franklin was a Pennsylvanian Radical 198. Samuel Adams, John Adams and John Hancock were Massachusetts’ radicals 199. George Washington, Madison, Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry were Virginian radicals 200. Alexander Hamilton and Robert Livingston were New York radicals 201. American capitals were a. Philadelphia (1st and 2nd Continental Congress) b. Then due to WOI it was changed frequently to Baltimore, Lancaster and York and finally again back to Philadelphia c. Under AOC it was changed to New York City d. Under US Constitution, first ever capital was New York City, changed to Philadelphia (1790) and finally to Washington DC (1800)where congress held its first meeting In 1800 202. ROBERT MORRIS became the Congress' superintendent of finance in 1781 and setup Bank of North America 203. Continental congress issued paper money called “Continental” 204. Annapolis Convention, presided by John Dickinson, was held in September 1786, first attempt to modify the AOC to give Congress more control, but failed. It called for Philadelphia convention. 205. Shay’s rebellion took place in 1786-87in Massachusetts 206. Three-fifth compromise was suggested by James Wilson and Roger Sherman. 207. Benjamin Franklin is called the “sage of constitutional convention” 208. The committee of detail was headed by John Rutledge 209. The preamble of constitutionwaswritten by Committee of Style 210. Anti-federalists were led by Patrick Henry, federalists by Alexander Hamilton 211. Constitution was ratified by 9th stateson June 21, 1788,New Hampshire being that state; became operational on 4th March 1789 with first meeting of congress and repealing of AOC on 3rd March 212. George Washington is the only president not to belong to any political party; he called political parties “factions” USA History by Aamir Mahar

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213. Bill of rights (9 proposed by Massachusetts, 12 proposed by GW, but 10 accepted amendments), sent to states on 25th Sep, 1789, ratified by 9 states and became operational in Dec 1791. Connecticut and Georgia ratified them in 1941 a. 1st Amendment: Freedom of speech, no religion established b. 2nd Amendment: A state militia and right to keep arms c. 9th Amendment: Rights not listed will be protected d. 10th Amendment: Powers not enlisted in constitution are reserved by states 214. Supreme Court of USA was established in 1789 215. Population of US according to census of 1790 was 3.9 Mn 216. First cotton mill was established in 1790by Samuel Slater 217. The First Bank of USwas established in 1791 at Philadelphiaas a private corporation with an expiration date of 20 years.Bank would have $ 10 Mn capital one-fifth of which will be provided by government. Bank would have 25 directors (one-fifth appointed by govt.) 218. National currency was issued in 1792 (Mint Act) by establishing a mint at Philadelphia 219. 11th amendment in US Constitution was passed by Congress in 1794, ratified in 1795 was in order to overrule the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Chisholm v. Georgia 220. Jay’s treaty was signed with UK in 1794 221. Washington DC was previously called Federal City 222. French Revolution broke out in 1789 223. Anglo-French war broke out in 1792 224. Ellen Whitney invented Cotton Gin in 1793 225. First party system ranges from almost 1794 to 1828. Two major parties were Federalists and Democratic-republicans (Jeffersonian). 226. Election of 1796 was the first election where candidates at all levels ran from well-organized partiesand the only electionwhere POTUS and VP were from opposing parties 227. Alien and sedition acts passed in 1798, contained 4 sub-laws and expired in 1801 228. Virginia resolution (1798-Madison) and Kentucky resolutions(1798 & 99-Jefferson) were passed in state legislatures, in opposition of Alien & USA History by Aamir Mahar

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Sedition Acts and the principles incorporated in theme became known as principles of ‘98 229. George Washington died in 1799

History of USA Solved MCQS - 2012 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247.

FDR highest vote in which term? 2nd Term Harvard was established in which year? 1636 How many states signed Declaration of Independence? 13 Colonies Ronald Reagan said Evil Empire about which state? USSR Fourth Constitution Amendment is about? Search and Seizure Paris Treaty in which year? 1783 First US Consensus in which year? 1790 Fourteen points of Wilson deals with? Germany NASA US space shuttle Colombia in which year? 1981 Intermediate Range Nuclear Treaty signed between Reagan and Gorbachev in which year? 1987 I have a dream speech by Martin Luther in which year? 1963 Capital Punishment in America is followed in how many states? 35 Malcolm X killed in which year? 1965 National Organization of Women was established in which year? 1966 American Bar Association established in 1878. Miranda rule pertains to warn you in advance before arresting you. Truman doctrine was to contain communism in Greece and Turkey. Reader Digest was introduced in America in 1922.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES USA History by Aamir Mahar

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248. The term muckraker is closely associated with reform-oriented journalists who wrote continued a tradition of investigative journalism reporting, and emerged in the United States after 1900. 249. Indentured servitude is practice of contracting to work for a fixed period of time, typically three to seven years, in exchange for transportation, food, clothing, lodging and other necessities. They included men and women, most were under the age of 21. They were Europeans mostly. 250. Clara Barton was a famous nurse in Civil War, made American Red Cross. 251. Louis Armstrong was a trumpeter. 252. Babe Ruth is a baseball player in USA. 253. Dean Rusk was a sect of state of US. 254. Affirmative actions policy is to help under-represented communities in USA. It was signed in an executive order signed by Kennedy. 255. NASA stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 256. Camp David is located in Maryland. 257. Black birding is illegal importation of slaves. 258. Alaska has the longest coastline in USA, Florida on second. 259. USA has an area of3.79 million square miles (9.83 Million Km square). 260. National Security of USA is a document prepared by Executive Branch of government. 261. Constitution of USA has 7 articles, 10 bill of rights, 27 ratified and6 ungratified amendments. USA History by Aamir Mahar

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262. HOR requires 25 years of age with 7 years of citizenship minimum. 263. Until now, 33 amendments have been proposed, 27 ratified. 264. In US constitution:  Article 1: Legislature (also census)  Article 2: Executive  Article 3: Judiciary  Article 4: Relations between states  Article 5: Amendments  Article 6: Central Govt  Article 7: Ratification 265. In US constitution, amendments are  proposed by two-third of Congress or State legislatures (States convention)  ratified by third-fourth of Congress or State conventions (only 21st Amendment)

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