White Paper-spectroil Q100

Spectroil Q100, the Latest in a Nearly 30 Year Evolution of Oil Analysis Spectrometers Daniel P. Anderson Spectro Inc./Qinetiq North America, Littleton, MA, 01460, USA

Introduction The basis of modern oil analysis is the use of optical emission spectroscopy (OES) to measure the ppm (parts per million) levels of wear metals, contaminants and additives in oil samples. Whatever else, an oil lab may measure, a multi-elemental analysis is the core of in-service oil analysis. This paper reviews the origins of OES as well as its application to in-service oil analysis resulting in the introduction of the Spectroil Q100 Oil Analysis Spectrometer, the latest in a steady progression of smaller, lighter, more versatile instruments. Predictive Maintenance by Oil Analysis Spectrometric oil analysis is applicable to any closed loop lubricating system, such as those found in gas turbines, diesel and gasoline engines, transmissions, gearboxes, compressors and hydraulic systems. In practice, an oil sample is periodically taken from a system. The spectrometer analyzes the sample for trace levels of metals worn from moving parts as well as contamination and additive element levels. The resulting data, when compared to previous analyses and allowable limits, may indicate a sound mechanism showing only normal wear, or it may point out a potentially serious problem in its early stages. With this advanced warning, steps may be taken to correct the situation before serious damage or injury occurs. Spectrometric oil analysis works because fine particles are generated by relative motion of metallic parts in an oil-wetted system. The lubricating oil may be thought of as a diagnostic medium because the oil carries with it the particles generated by the wear contact. Abnormal wear modes such as corrosion, abrasion, severe wear, spalling, etc., cause an increase in the concentration of wear metals in the oil. Contaminants are detected and lubricant mix-ups or badly degraded lubricants are identified by the concentration of additive elements. Multi-element analysis, coupled with knowledge of the materials of construction, often allows identification of a specific component in distress. Cost Avoidance by Detecting Lubricant Mix-Up A serious recurring problem in maintenance procedures is the use of an incorrect lubricant. A condition monitoring program can readily identify such problems through the analysis of the lubricant additive package and lubricant physical property analysis. Lubricant mix-ups often occur when an oil system is "topped off" to replace the oil that has been lost due to use or leakage. Usually a small amount of incorrect oil in a large closed loop system presents few immediate problems. This is, however, not the case in

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certain diesel engines as illustrated by this example . Table 1 is a summary of the last four spectrometric oil analyses for a medium speed diesel engine from a locomotive. Only the data for the most relevant elements are shown. Table 1, Spectrometric Results in ppm for an EMD Medium Speed Diesel Locomotive 30-Sep 23-Dec 23-Mar 11-Jun

Fe 19 21 27 25

Cu 10 10 13 30

Ag 0 0 2 10

Mg 0 0 107 220

P

Zn

0 9 75 110

3 3 90 123

The data clearly show that after the first two samples, an incorrect oil was used to top-off the reservoir. The three additive metals magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), and zinc (Zn) appear in the third analysis and increase in the fourth, a clear indication that the oil formulation has changed. In this type of engine, incorrect oil, which contains a zinc based additive package, can result in severe wear problems. Several components, such as wrist pin bearings have silver coatings that corrode and wear in the presence of zinc. The early stages of the corrosive action cause by the zinc additive are indicated by the increase in the iron, copper and silver wear metals. A recommendation based on the analysis was made to drain and flush the system and to observe correct top-off oil requirements. This particular fault would not have manifested itself by any other condition monitoring technique, such as vibration analysis, thermography, ultrasound, or performance monitoring. Without oil analysis, the wear problem could have resulted in a bearing failure and a major overhaul costing over $150,000. How is spectrometric data such as these obtained? Origins of Spectroscopy Anders Jonas Ångström is credited with being one of the first people to observe discreet bands of color in hot gases. He found it convenient to chart spectral bands in distances of 1 × 10−10 m. This distance became know as the Ångström (Å) which put the Swedish scientist into a pretty select group. It’s not everyone that gets a scientific unit named after them, although others come to mind like Faraday, Coloumb, Stoke, Ampere, Watt, Poise, Joule, Henry, to name several. However, what’s impressive is the Ångström is a unit of length, one of the fundamental metrics of nature, not some fancy unit that needs to combine several units like distance, time and force in a complicated way to come up with something useful. So, it seems spectroscopy got a lot of respect right from the start! Around the same time in the mid-1800’s, two scientists, Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen, were doing experiments together. Most people remember Bunsen because the Bunsen burner was named after him, but he and Kirchoff were doing things a lot more serious such as describing the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, discovering new elements, and advancing understanding of optics and electrical engineering. An easy demonstration of elemental identification by spectral emission is to introduce various elements into the flame of a Bunsen burner. A little table salt and yellow appears from Spectroil Q100, Evolution of Oil Analysis Spectrometers

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the sodium, some lithium salt gives a red flame from the lithium and copper compounds gave an intense green color. It wasn’t until many years later, when 20th century physicists, like Rutherford, Bohr, Einstein, Planck, Pauli, Schrodinger and Heisenberg worked out quantum mechanics and the behavior of atoms, that the existence of spectral lines and emission colors could be theoretically explained. Principles of Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is a technique for detecting and quantifying the presence of elements in a material. Spectroscopy utilizes the fact that each element has a unique atomic structure. When subjected to the addition of energy, each element emits light of specific wavelengths, or colors. Since no two elements have the same pattern of spectral lines, the elements can be differentiated. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the quantity of the element present in the sample allowing the concentration of that element to be determined.

Figure 1 – Shell Model of the Sodium Atom Figure 1 provides a simplified view of the events that take place in the spectroscopic process. To begin with, electrons surround the nucleus of the atom in well-defined shells. The first shell, the most inner shell, accommodates only two electrons, the next shell holds eight and the third shell also holds eight electrons. In the case of sodium, there is only one shell in the outer orbital. Figure 1a shows a sketch of an atom in its ground state. When an atom is cool, prior to excitation, the electrons in the atomic structure of each element revolve in their lowest energy or “ground state”. During excitation, whether it be by the heat of a flame, an electric arc or some other means, the atoms get hot and the electrons surrounding the nucleus absorb energy and rise to a higher energy state. The “excited” electrons are temporarily forced away from the nucleus of the atom into a higher, unstable orbit, as in Figure 2b. After reaching this unstable state, the electrons release this absorbed energy as they very quickly return to the ground or stable state. The energy released has a specific value corresponding to the particular electron transition that has occurred in the excited atom. The energy is given off in the form of light, as in Figure 1c. The light has a specific frequency or wavelength (frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength) determined by the energy of the electron in Spectroil Q100, Evolution of Oil Analysis Spectrometers

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transition. Since many transitions of different energy are possible for complicated atoms which have many electrons, light of many different wavelengths is emitted. If this light is dispersed by using a dispersing element, such as a prism, Figure 2, a line spectrum will result.

Figure 2 - Light dispersed by a prism These spectral lines are unique to the atomic structure of only one element. For the hydrogen atom, with only one proton (positive charge of 1) in the nucleus and one electron (negative 1), the spectrum is fairly simple, See Figure 3.

Figure 3 - Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen

Figure 4 - Emission Spectrum of Iron On the other hand, the spectrum of iron with atomic number 26 (the nucleus has a positive charge of 26) is much more complicated with many emission lines in the visible spectrum corresponding to the many possible electronic transitions that may occur. See Figure 4. Figures 3 and 4 are showing only lines in the visible spectrum, which runs from about 400 nm (purple) to 700 nm (red). There are many more lines, often the most intense for some elements, in the ultra-violet region of the spectrum. These cannot be seen as colors, but can be seen as dark lines on photographic film The intensity of the spectral lines is proportional to the concentration of the element present in the sample. If more than one element is present in the sample, spectral lines of distinctively different wavelengths will appear for each element. These lines must be separated in order to identify and quantify the elements present in the sample. Usually only one spectral line among many possible choices is chosen to determine the concentration of a certain element. This line will be chosen for its intensity and freedom Spectroil Q100, Evolution of Oil Analysis Spectrometers

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from interference from spectral lines of other elements. To accomplish this, an optical system is required. Atomic Absorption Spectrscopy (AAS) One thing not yet mentioned is that when atoms of a certain type are present and they are exposed to polychromatic light (light of all wavelengths), they will absorb light at exactly those wavelengths at which they would emit light when they are excited. This process is a lot more efficient if the atoms are already hot. One type of spectrometer, namely an atomic absorption (AA) spectrometer, is built around this principle. Some sample is introduced into a flame. The flame needs to be as hot as possible. Then light of the element being analyzed is directed through the flame. This is done with special lamps, that contain excited atoms of the element being analyzed, so that they emit wavelengths characteristic of that element. If none of the element is present in the sample, the amount of light going through the flame and being measured at the detector is maximum. As the concentration of the element of interest increases, the detector signal decreases. 2

Oxygen-acetylene and nitrous oxide-acetylene fuel are often chosen for AA spectrometers. These flames achieve temperatures around 3000 °C. As hot as that may be, it’s inadequate for certain hard to excite elements. AA spectrometers are capable of doing a good job analyzing typical elements of interest in oil samples, but they are rarely used for this purpose because they analyze only one element at a time. Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) Spectrometers that look at the multitude of spectral lines from a heated (or “excited”) sample, are called optical emission spectrometers. All optical emission spectrometers consist of three main components, these components are: 1. Excitation Source - introduces energy to the sample. 2. Optical System - separates and resolves the resulting emission from that excitation into its component wavelengths. 3. Readout System - detects and measures the light that has been separated into its component wavelengths by the optical system and presents this information to the operator in a usable fashion. Excitation Source One typical method used in the excitation source in modern spectrometers is an electric discharge. The source is designed to impart the energy generated in an arc or spark to the sample. For oil analysis spectrometers, a large electric potential is set up between a disc and rod electrode with the oil sample in the gap between them. An electric charge stored by a capacitor is discharged across this gap creating a high temperature electric arc which vaporizes a portion of the sample forming a plasma. A plasma is a hot, highly ionized gas

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which emits intense light. The light given off as a result of this process contains emissions from all the elements present in the sample. These emissions can now be separated into individual wavelengths and measured using a properly designed optical system. Temperatures in the 5000 to 6000 °C range are achieved and hard to excite elements emit enough light to be readily detected. Since the early days of spectroscopic oil analysis, oil has been sparked (or “burned”) between a rotating carbon disc electrode and a carbon rod electrode. The sample is placed in a sample cap, the disc is partially immersed in the oil sample and the disc rotates as the burn proceeds. See Figure 5. This requires about 2 or 3 ml of sample depending on the exact cap being used. A fresh disc and a newly sharpened rod are required for each sample to eliminate sample carryover. This method is called rotating disc electrode (RDE) optical emission spectroscopy (OES), or combining the two, RDEOES. Alternatively, one often sees it referred to as RDE-AES, for rotating disc electrode atomic emission spectroscopy.

Figure 5 – RDE Spectrometer Sample Stand Showing Oil Sample Being “Burned” Optical System The purpose of the optical system in a spectrometer is to separate the light coming from the plasma into the discrete wavelengths of which it is comprised. Most people are familiar with the phenomenon illustrated in Figure 2, in which a prism is used to separate a beam of white light into a spectrum of different colors or wavelengths. The same principle is employed in the spectrometer, except that instead of a prism, an optical device called a diffraction grating is used to separate the discreet wavelengths. The diffraction grating is a concave mirror with very fine lines on its surface that causes incident polychromatic light to be separated into component wavelengths.

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Figure 6 shows the major components of an oil analysis spectrometer using a polychromator optic based on the Rowland Circle concept. Light from the excitation process (burn) exits the fiber optic cable and passes through the entrance slit and is concentrated on the diffraction grating by a lens. The entrance slit introduces light made up of all the elements present in the oil sample and defines the shape of the spectral lines at the focal curve after it is diffracted by the grating. The purpose of the grating is to separate (diffract) this light into its component wavelengths. The spectral lines can be photographed or electronically quantified by photomultiplier tubes (PMT’s) or charge coupled devices (CCD’s).

Figure 6 – Schematic of an Rotating Disc Electrode Optical Emission Spectrometer for Oil Analysis An important consideration when designing a spectrometer is the region of the spectrum where the wavelengths of interest occur. Many elements emit light in the visible region of the spectrum. However, there are elements that emit mainly in the Far Ultra Violet (FUV) region of the spectrum. This is significant because FUV radiation does not transmit well through air; rather, it is mostly absorbed. For the optic to see FUV spectral lines, it is necessary for the optical system to be mounted in a vacuum chamber or otherwise filled with gas transparent to FUV light, so that the emitted light can reach the grating, be diffracted, and then be detected at the focal curve. Thus, a sealed chamber and a vacuum pump or gas supply system become part of the system. History and Evolutionary Improvements 3

Sometime after World War II, the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad , now defunct, began analyzing diesel locomotive engine oil by looking at the spectral lines emitted by an inservice oil sample when excited by a strong electric arc using carbon electrodes.

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In those days, emission spectrometers were huge instruments because the diffraction gratings that separated the light from the hot sample into its component wavelengths were not nearly as good as they are today. The essential feature of a diffraction grating is that it has very fine lines of equal spacing ruled onto a reflective surface. In the early days, diffraction gratings were made by ruling machines that were capable of scribing very fine, regularly spaced lines onto an appropriate substrate. Since early diffraction gratings did not do a great job of separating spectral lines, the distance between the diffraction grating and the focal curve of the spectrometer, where the spectral lines are in focus, was very large so that sufficient separation could be achieved between adjacent spectral lines. Early emission spectrometers had focal lengths around three meters. We have one veteran employee who worked on spectrographs in the early days. Occasionally, he would crawl into the optic of one of these big instruments, then have the panels closed to look for stray light leaks. Today, and for the last 30 years or so, holographic diffraction gratings have been used that have superior dispersion and light throughput. The fine spacing on the reflective surface is made by photolithographic techniques created from a holographic interference pattern. The optic of the spectrometer can therefore be a lot smaller and still achieve adequate dispersion. Another inconvenience faced by early spectroscopists was that there was no easy way to measure the intensity of spectral lines at the focal curve of the spectrometer optic. Early spectrometers used glass photographic plates or photographic film along the focal curve of the optic to record spectral lines. See Figure 7. This is a idealized sketch to give an idea of the concept. In actuality, there would be hundreds, even thousands of spectral lines on a typical plate or film. First, the analyst had to determine if he was looking at the correct line correspondingly to the element of interest. Then, to determine concentration in the sample, the analyst needed to compare the density of the spectral line with reference photographs made from samples of known concentration. The analyst was able to report a probable range of concentration, but not exact numbers. For example, he might have been able to say < 5 ppm, 5 to 10 ppm, 10 to 20 ppm, 20 to 30ppm, etc.

Figure 7 – Photographic Film Used to Record Spectral Lines Early optical emission instruments were called spectrographs from the “graph” in “photographs”. A big advancement in the practical application of spectroscopy was the development by Walter Baird and his colleagues at Baird Corporation in the late 1950’s of the “direct reading spectrometer”. Instead of using film to record spectra, photomultiplier tubes were placed behind exit slits at just the right locations along the

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focal curve to collect light from the emission lines of interest. In prior practice, only a few of the most important wear elements, such as Fe, Cu, Pb and Al, were measured with a spectrograph because of the tedious labor involved. With the new photomultiplier tube “direct reader”, as many as twenty or so elements could be measured with no additional burn time. It’s not really correct to call today’s spectrometers, “spectrographs” or to call spectrometric oil analysis, “spectrographic” oil analysis. It’s hardly the worst mistake, but people familiar with spectrometers might think you still work for the Denver and Rio Grande! In 1960, not very long after the introduction of the photomultiplier tube equipped direct reading optical emission spectrometer, the first commercial oil analysis laboratory, 3 Analysts Inc., was founded . The U.S. Navy had been funding research into wear metal analysis as a means of predicting aircraft engine failures. This led to the establishment of the Joint Oil Analysis Program (JOAP), a technical support and service center for all branches of the military. The JOAP manages a correlation program to ensure that all the oil analysis spectrometers enrolled in the program give similar results. Currently, there are nearly 600 U.S. military Spectro spectrometers enrolled in the JOAP correlation program.

Figure 8 – A Direct Reading Oil Analysis Spectrometer from the 1970’s Figure 8 shows a Baird FAS-2C spectrometer from the 1970’s, many of which were purchased by the U.S. military. These were deployed at various military bases throughout the world and were also installed on aircraft carriers. This was still a rather large instrument with a one meter optic (the distance from the grating to the focal curve) and weighing about 800 lbs (364 kg). With original factory crating it weighed 1400 lbs (636 kg). It was hardly a field mobile instrument!

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The next advance in spectrometers applied to oil analysis was the development of the Spectroil Jr., the first field-mobile oil analysis spectrometer. Quite a few of these were purchased by the military, both U.S. and overseas. One important innovation that allowed the Spectroil Jr to be transported without losing focus between the emission source and the optic was the use of fiber optic cable to carry light from the source to the entrance slit of the optic. A certain number of Spectroil Jr’s were deployed in the first Gulf War in 1991 and from that experience, the Spectroil M was designed from the frame up as a military fieldmobile oil analysis spectrometer. The Spectroil M was somewhat smaller and lighter than the Spectroil Jr, had automatic voltage and frequency selection and had various protections against shock, vibration, operator error, electro-magnetic radiation (into and out of) and dust ingression. One notable feature was the use of a heat exchanger mounted on the rear of the instrument to provide instrument cooling rather than the conventional approach of a filter and a fan. Upon the conclusion of the first Gulf War, a number of the Spectroil Jr’s found their way back to our factory for service and the filter/fan approach in the Spectroil Jr’s did not stop fine dust from being deposited throughout these instruments. The heat exchanger in the Spectroil M provides much better protection in dusty environments. The next big improvement to the Spectroil M, in 1998, was the design of a solid-state excitation source to drive the electric discharge between the disc and rod electrodes. This made the source frequency far more stable, especially with changes in atmospheric pressure, or if input power was switched from 50 to 60 Hz and vice-versa. This resulted in improved repeatability, greater long-term stability and also allowed water, coolant and other highly conductive samples to be run without shorting out the source ignition circuit. CCD Optics The most recent improvement to the Spectroil M was the introduction of a spectrometer optic using CCD detectors at the focal plane rather than using exit slits and photomultiplier tubes. A CCD detector is a semiconductor chip which is sensitive to light. The Spectroil M optic has 15 such CCD detectors which are mounted on the focal plane to cover the wavelength range of the analytical program. The chips are rectangular in shape and are subdivided into a grid of 2048 pixels. When light from the excitation process by way of the entrance slit and grating strikes a pixel, it generates a small electrical charge which is stored for later read-out. The size of the charge increases cumulatively as more light strikes the surface, and the greater, or brighter the light, the greater the charge. The CCD’s are connected to electronic circuitry for power, control and read-out. The clear advantage of CCD light detectors is that the signal at any place along the focal curve can be measured so that one optic can be used for any combination of elements and ranges. Multiple spectral lines can be used for a single element and very closely spaced spectral lines can be readily measured without concern for the proximity of exit slits and photomultiplier tubes. New elements can be added later without hardware modification.

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A further important mobility advantage is that changes in atmospheric pressure (i.e., altitude) can be easily accommodated. Readout System The readout system of the Spectroil M is controlled by an industrial grade processor and software. A clocking circuit and amplifier periodically reads the charge on a CCD chip and converts it from an analog to digital (ADC) signal to measure the light that has fallen on a pixel. The charge accumulated on a pixel is converted to an arbitrary number defined as “intensity” units. At the end of the analysis, the total intensities for each element are compared to calibration curves stored in memory and are converted to the concentration of the element present in the sample. Concentration is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm). This information is displayed on a video screen, or can be printed out on a printer. Once the analysis is completed and the results recorded, the system is ready for the next analysis. The analysis results may be left on the screen, stored on the hard disk, or can be sent to an external computer. User friendly software enables simple operation with automatic recalibration, while providing statistical functions for averaging and repeatability. Spectroil Q100 The Spectroil Q100, Figure 9, is Spectro’s newest and completely solid-state spectrometer designed specifically for the analysis of oil samples. It measures trace quantities of elements dissolved or suspended as fine particles in mineral or synthetic petroleum based products using the time-tested and reliable rotating disc electrode (RDE) technique.

Figure 8 – The New Spectroil Q100 Oil Analysis Spectrometer With a modern look, the Spectroil Q100 uses the same technology and design concepts that Spectro Incorporated has applied over the years to the Spectroil M family of spectrometers. All Spectro oil analysis instruments benefit from this technology, providing innovative features, ease of use and ruggedness that have made them the

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standard workhorse instrument at most commercial oil analysis laboratories throughout the world that require the rapid analysis of wear metals, contaminants and additives in lubricants. The Spectroil Q100 fulfills the requirements of ASTM D6595 Standard Method for Determination of Wear Metals and Contaminants in Used Lubricating Oils or Hydraulic Fluids by Rotating Disc Electrode Atomic Emission Spectrometry. The Spectroil Q100 standard configuration has 22 elements, contaminants and additive; see Table 2. Additional elements can also be added in the field at any time. Table 2, Standard Configuration of the Spectroil Q100 Wear Metals

Contaminants

Additives

Aluminum Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron Lead Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Silver Tin Titanium Vanadium Zinc

Boron Calcium Potassium Silicon Sodium

Barium Boron Calcium Chromium Copper Magnesium Molybdenum Phosphorus Silicon Zinc

The Spectroil Q100 has a low cost of ownership because of its high sample throughput. An experienced operator can comfortably process 45 to 50 samples an hour. The Q100 requires not special utilities, such as bottled gas or cooling water. It requires only electric power. A built-in exhaust fan is capable of venting the fumes generated when the sample is burned up to 20 feet (6 meters) through standard (USA) 4 inch (10 cm) flexible exhaust duct. The Q100 provides overall ease of operation requiring minimal operator training. The Q100 is continuously available to perform analyses. Warm-up and standardization with calibration standards is not necessary for performing a measurement. The Q100 sample stand has been redesigned to make changing electrodes, inserting the sample cap, gapping the electrodes and routine cleaning easier than ever before. The Spectroil Q100 is the ideal spectrometer for the in-service oil analysis laboratory because technology has made it smaller and the inclusion of an innovative CCD optical system has made it more flexible for even the most exotic in-service oil analysis applications. An external computer with current Windows software controls the system. Additional capabilities to analyze engine coolants and water are available as options.

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Data is easily downloaded to other programs, such as LIMS (laboratory information management system), or the very versatile web-based SpectroTrack software from Spectro. LIMS software manages laboratory operations, analytical data, and maintenance recommendations and histories, see Figure 9.

Figure 9 – SpectroTrack Analysis Recommendation Maintenance Feedback

Who does Oil Analysis? Commercial oil analysis and machine condition monitoring have experienced rapid growth in the last decade. The market is more diverse than the military application, and machine condition monitoring based on oil analysis can be found in all of the following industries: • Commercial Laboratories • Oil Companies • Chemical Processing • Electric Power Generating Companies • Railroads • Refineries • Construction Equipment Manufacturers and Dealers • Airlines • Mining Operations • Public Transportation Companies • Steel Mills • Manufacturing • Marine Fleets • Formula One Racing Teams Commercial laboratories typically receive samples from a large variety of oil wetted systems. Applications are not limited to a few systems but include almost anything that uses oil as a lubricant. Typical requirements include generators, turbines, gear boxes,

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engines, compressors, transmissions and even hydraulic systems. The Spectroil Q100 can process all of these samples types with essentially no carryover from one type to another. Benefits of Oil Analysis Typical advantages of an oil analysis program include: • Reduced Maintenance Costs - By detecting a failure mode from its early stages, money is saved by: - preventing total loss of the equipment, - limiting the amount of secondary damage. For example, if a bearing which is wearing abnormally is replaced before damage is done to the shaft it supports, a great deal of money is saved. • Increased Equipment Availability - Monitoring of equipment will prevent unexpected failures and unscheduled downtime. • Improved Safety - In some equipment, most notably single engine aircraft and helicopters, mechanical failures can be life threatening. • Extended Oil Drain Interval - With a well planned oil analysis program, oil change intervals can often be extended giving savings in labor, equipment availability and oil consumed. • Longer Equipment Life - One of the side benefits of an oil analysis program is improved cleanliness and physical condition of the lubricant. More attention is paid to contaminant levels so that filters are more likely to be in proper working order and better housekeeping habits are practiced around the equipment. Since ingestion of outside contaminants is one of the principal causes of wear, cleaner oil means extended overall equipment lifetime. Conclusion The Spectroil Q100 is the latest member of a family of spectrometers with a long lineage that permit the rapid, convenient and reliable determination of the elemental content of wear metals, additive and contaminants in oil samples in support of a predictive maintenance program by oil analysis.

References 1) Malte Lukas & Daniel P. Anderson, Machine and Lubricant Condition Monitoring for Extended Equipment Lifetimes and Predictive Maintenance at Power Plants, Proceedings of Power-Gen International, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1996.

2)http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/smprimer/aa/aa.html#Operation%20of %20Flame%20for%20Atomic%20Absorption

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3) Jack Poley, 21st Century Oil Analysis, article in TLT magazine published by the STLE, March, 2009

4) http://www.analystsinc.com/documents/BasicsOA.pdf

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