World Of Animals 2 Mammals Large Carnivores

Big Cats, Dogs, Bears, Hyenas

...

Digitized by the Internet Archive in

2015

https://archive.org/details/mammalsworldofan02patm

WORLD

OF

ANIMALS

MAMMALS LARGE CARNIVORES Big Cats, Dogs, Bears, Hyenas...

PAT MORRIS, AMY-JANE BEER

GROLIER

Published 2003 by Grolier,

Danbury, CT 06816

A

division of Scholastic Library Publishing

This edition published exclusively for the school

and

market

library

Planned and produced by

Andromeda Oxford

Limited

11-13 The Vineyard,

0X14 3PX

Abingdon, Oxon

www.andromeda.co.uk Copyright The coat of the red fox occurs (1); silver (2);

in three color forms:

and the indeterminate

cross-fox

© Andromeda

Oxford Limited 2003

reserved. No part may be reproduced, stored

flame-red

All rights

(3).

or transmitted

of this publication in

a retrieval system,

any form or by any means

in

electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,

Library of

or otherwise, without the permission of the

Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

.1

Mammals p.

/

Amy-Jane

[Pat Morris,

-

v.

1

.

Small carnivores

-

-

v.

2.

v.

Large carnivores

-

v.

3.

Sea

/-uO mammals - v. 4. - v. 7. Rodents\J

Ruminant (horned) herbivores - V. 8. Rodents 2 and lagomorphs - v. 9. Insectivores and bats - v. 10. Marsupials. ISBN 0-7172-5742-8 (set alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7172-5743-6 (v.1 alk. paper) ISBN 0-7172-5744-4 (v.2 alk. paper) ISBN 0-7172-5745-2 (v.3 alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7172-5746-0 (v.4 alk. paper) ISBN 0-7172-5747-9 (v.5 alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7172-5748-7 (v.6 alk. paper) ISBN 0-7172-5749-5 (v.7 alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7172-5750-9 (v.8 alk. paper) ISBN 0-7172-5751-7 (v.9 alk. paper) - ISBN 0-7172-5752-5 (v.10 alk. paper) Primates

v.

5.

Large herbivores

Graham Bateman

Project Director:

Beer, Erica Bower].

cm. - (World of animals)

Contents:

copyright holder.

,KG1S

Morris, Pat.

6.

Angela Davies, Penny Mathias

Editors:

Art Editor and Designer:

Steve

Marian

Editorial Assistants:

^

1

:

McCurdy

Dreier, Rita

Demetnou

:

Picture

Manager:

Claire Turner

:

Picture Researcher:

Vickie Walters

:

Production:

Clive Sparling

:

Researchers:

Dr. Erica

Bower, Rachael Brooks,

:

Rachael Murton, Eleanor

:

Mammals-Juvenile literature. [1. Mammals.] Title. IV. World of animals (Danbury, Conn.)

1.

I.

Beer,

Amy-Jane.

II.

Bower,

Thomas

Erica.

Origination: Unifoto International, South Africa

QL706.2 .M675 2003 599-dc21

Printed

China

in

Set ISBN 0-71 72-5742-8

2002073860

About This Volume

A

carnivores

get

and may instead use the remains of dead animals. Some, such as pandas, feed mainly on plant

it

exciting,

live

by

killing

dangerous, and yet attractive of

larger species, such as lions

on small animals, but

some

live in

fish,

and

tigers,

all

mammals. They

groups and even help each other obtain food.

and

now

also carnivores

must always have been

in

on

Some

serious danger of extinction. That

must be

rare. Their

all

eat flesh, but

poachers. Consequently,

projects

aimed

volume include many of the most

do not always

other animals to

kill

less

numerous than

continents except Antarctica.

all

material; but the cats,

feed mainly

Many

are solitary,

are active mainly at night, but others hunt during is

because

their prey.

all

abundant than

large animals are less

That combination means that certain species

numbers have been further reduced because of the threat they appear

people and domestic animals. Several species have fine furs that fetch high illegal

in this

can even be dangerous to humans. Others, such as the smaller

or even insects. Large carnivores are found

the day. Several species are smaller ones,

other creatures, and the large carnivores covered

many

large carnivores

at preventing their extinction.

now

have extensive

prices,

to pose to

encouraging commercial hunters and

legal protection

The continued existence of large carnivores

and major conservation

is

important.

If

they can be

conserved successfully, their presence automatically helps preserve viable populations of their prey and other species.

Contents How to Use This Set

4

Red Fox

Find the Animal

6

Swift Fox

8

Arctic

L7\RGE

CARNIVORES

THE CAT FAMILY

10

64

Fox

Fennec Fox

Lion

Bat-Eared Fox

Tiger

African Wild

Cheetah

Dingo

Leopard

THE BEAR FAMILY

Snow Leopard

Polar Bear

Jaguar

American Black Bear

Bobcat

Brown/Grizzly Bear

Lynx

Giant F^nda

Dog

The puma's distribution range

stretches the length

Canada

THE HYENA FAMILY

Ocelot

Striped

Serval

46

Spotted Hyena

Wildcat

48

Aardwolf

THE DOG FAMILY

50

List

Gray Wolf

54

Glossary

Coyote

58

Further Reading

Black- Backed jackal

62

Set Index

tiger stalks

from the

its

prey, then rushes

rear, it will

aim

its

victim. Usually attacking

for the shoulder, neck, or back.

the south.

Hyena

of Species

Picture Credits

in the

north to Patagonia

Puma

A

of America from

108

112

114

and Websites

117

118

in

How I

M

Use This Set

to

World of Animals: Mammals

If If describes

is

a

10-volume

mammals from

in detail

set that

Articles are of three kinds.

corners of

all

the earth. Each volume brings together those animals that are

most

and have

closely related

similar lifestyles.

the meat-eating groups (carnivores) are 2,

and

are

in

all

in

Volumes

3,

and so on. To help you

interest you, look at

pages

brief introduction to

each volume

find

1

groups

and

introduces smaller groups

mammals)

The

animals to be found

In

A

also given

article

on page 2

(About This Volume).

filled

statistics

of each animal

Introduces large animal

makes up most

like families

articles

(The Raccoon

review the

different groups.

of each volume.

It

full

The

variety of

third type of

concentrates on

describing individual animals typical of the group detail,

Data panel presents basic

One

orders (such as whales and dolphins). Another

all

like

There are two types of

article:

volumes that

6 to 7 (Find the Animal). is

introductory or review

Family, for example).

the seals, whales, and dolphins (sea

Volume

So

Article Styles

such as the

tiger.

Each

artiqle starts

in

great

with a fact-

data panel to help you gather Information

at-a-

glance. Used together, the three article styles enable you to

Image of animal typical

in

become

familiar with specific animals in the context of

their evolutionary history

and

biological relationships.

pose Article describes a particular animal

Name and scientific animal

classification of

Scientific

name

of animal

Common name Sizes given in imperial

Narwhal Scientific

name Monodon

units followed

animal's lifestyle

by

monoceros

Captions to photographs provide additional information about each

Common name metric equivalent

Family

Monodontidae

Order

Cetacea

Size

Length 13-16 feet (4-5 mi Male

of animal

larger than

Weight 1,760-3,520

Visual comparison of

female

average-sized adult

(800-1.600 kg)

lb

Key features Stocky toothed

and short

Habits

Scale in feet (meters)

long, spiral tusk

m

usually seen

Social

being.

(1.83-m)

with

flippers, skin colored

patches of gray-green, cream, and black,

males have unique

6-foot

human

•

whale with no dorsal fin

mammal and

groups of up to 20

animals, sometimes separate groups

according to age and sex, often moves together as part of a

much

larger

—

herd

containing thousands of individuals

Breeding

Most mature females produce

1

years after gestation period of

14-15 months

Weaned

Voice

at

20 months,

sexually

mature

6-8 years May

live

Clicks, squeals,

and whistles used

at

30-40 years for

Basic description

communication or navigation Diet

Mostly

Habitat

Cold

squid,

fish,

summer sometimes seen and

of animal,

and shrimp

arctic seas, generally

fjords,

1TW,--

calf every 3

near sea

ice, in

in estuaries,

bays, migrates

when

its life,

distribution

and

(statistics for

deep

habitat

is

may

breeding and lifespan

unfavorable

Distribution Coastal, western Greenland to mideastern

be based on figures for

Canada

related species) Status

Population- about 25,000-30,000, Deficient, CITES

II

One

of the less

whales, status uncertain

Conservation status •

-

-i:

lUCN Data abundant

.

(see Glossary

Volume

1,

and

pages 9

and

10)

Cross-references

Locator

4

maps showing

to relevant

pages

and other

each animal's

in this

normal range

volumes

Easy-to-read and

comprehensive text

A number

of other features help you navigate

through the volumes and present you with helpful extra

many pages

information. At the bottom of

references to other

articles of interest.

related animals, animals that live

in

are cross-

They may be to

similar places,

animals with similar behavior, predators (or prey), and

much more. Each volume

also contains a Set

the complete World of Animals:

mentioned scientific

with a

the text are indexed by

animals

common and A

there are words used

in

will also

help you

you do not

list

fully

if

of useful Further

"List of

the

understand. Each volume ends

Reading and Websites

help you take your research further.

heading

All

names, and many topics are also covered.

Glossary text that

in

Mammals.

Index to

Species" you

Finally,

will find

of the animals that are covered

in

that

under the

expanded

listings

each volume.

Detailed

maps

clarify animal's

distribution

Meticulous drawings illustrate a typical selection of

group members

At-a-glance “

tUO'-

Tables

truid*

summarize

boxes cover ™

.jiW

classification

,

of groups

Who’s

Who

tables

summarize

topics of special

and give

scientific

names

classification

of each major group and

interest

of animals mentioned in the text

Graphic full-color

photographs bring text to Detailed diagrams illustrate text

life

give scientific

names of animals

mentioned

in

the text

Find the Animal //orld of Animals:

n l

l_y

7

Mammals

library that describes

Each cluster of volumes

in

familiar group of animals

amphibians,

fish,

and

all

is

the

groups of

— mammals,

insects

the kingdom Protista that were once regarded as animals,

animals.

living

World of Animals

World of Animals. Also included are those members of

part of a

first

but

cover a

will

birds, reptiles

now form

part of a group that includes

organisms. Kingdom Animalia

and

is

single-cell

all

numerous

divided into

major groups called Phyla, but only one of them

and other invertebrates.

These groups also represent categories of animals

(Chordata) contains those animals that have a backbone.

recognized by scientists (see The Animal Kingdom below).

Chordates, or vertebrates as they are popularly known, include

The Animal Kingdom The

living

world

is

studied by scientists

divided into five kingdoms,

which (kingdom Animalia)

the animals familiar to us and those most

all

is

amphibians, and

one of

the main subject of the

— mammals,

fish. In all,

birds, reptiles,

there are about 38,000

species of vertebrates, while the Phyla that contain

animals without backbones (so-called invertebrates, such Rodents (Order Rodentia) squirrels, rats, mice chinchillas

Volume

Volume

7;

cavies, porcupines,

as insects, spiders,

and so on) include

at least

million

1

8

many more.

species, probably

To find which set of

Lagomorphs (Order Lagomorpha) rabbits, hares, pikas Volume 8

volumes Tree shrews (Order Scandentia):

Volume

In

the World of Animals

is

relevant to you, see

9

the chart Main Groups of Animals (page Insectivores (Order Insectivora)

7).

shrews, moles, hedgehogs Volume 9

Colugos, flying lemurs (Order Dermoptera)

Primates (Order Primates): lemurs,

Volume

8

Mammals

monkeys, apes Volume 4

Volume

Pangolins (Order Pholidota)

in Particular

World of Animals: Mammals focuses on the

9

most

most

familiar of animals, those

easily

Carnivores (Order Carnivora) raccoons, weasels, otters,

skunks Volume Seals

1;

cats,

and sea

recognized as having fur (although this

dogs, bears, hyenas Volume 2

Volume

lions (Order Pinnipedia)

Odd-toed ungulates (Order rhinoceroses, tapirs

may be absent

3

mammals

Perissodactyla)’ horses,

Volume

in

like

many

sea

whales and

5

dolphins),

and that provide

Even-toed ungulates (Order Artiodactyla) pigs, camels

Volume

5;

deer, cattle, sheep, goats

Volume

milk for their young.

6

Whales and dolphins (Order Cetacea): Volume 3

Mammals

are divided into

major groups (carnivores, Volume

Bats (Order Chiroptera)

9

Xenarthrans (Order Xenarthra) anteaters, sloths, armadillos

Volume

9

primates, rodents, and

marsupials to

name

just

Elephant shrews (Order Macroscelidea):

Volume

9

The chart shows the major Aardvark (Order Tubulidentata) Volume 9

groups of mammals

ir)

this set

Hyraxes (Order Hyracoidea) Volume 8

arranged

In

evolutionary

Dugongs, manatees (Order Sirenia)

Volume

relationship (see

3

Elephants (Order Proboscidea)

Marsupials

Volume

5

volume

in

appears

is

page

10).

The

which each group indicated.

You can

opposums, find individual entries

by

kangaroos, koala

Volume 10 Monotremes (Order

looking at the contents page for each

volume or by

Monotremata) platypus, echidnas Volume 10

6

consulting the set index.

SINGLE-

ANIMALS

CELLED

Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom

LIFE

Protista

The Main Groups of Animals alive

Vertebrates/

Volumes that cover each major

today.

Invertebrates Numerous Phyla

Chordates Phylum Chordata

group are indicated below.

Insects, spiders.

Mammals Class

Mammalia

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds Class Aves

Class

Class Reptilia

Amphibia

Single-Celled

mollusks, spinyskinned animals,

Fish Several classes

Life

worms Volumes

Volumes 1-10

6,

Volumes 44-50

1-20

Volumes 41-43

groups are shown on the chart on

a few). All the major

page

1

To help you find particular animals, a few familiar

in

is

Naming Mammals

the

names

To be able to discuss animals,

Most people regard

animal and lions as another.

are

needed

tigers as

All tigers

one kind of

more

look

for the

They breed together and produce young

or less

all

mammals. A formal system

this possible.

Volume 21

named it

Domestic cats are

was one

species.

makes

of classification

similar to lions

and

tigers,

but not as similar as those species are to each other

example, they do not

genus

(Fells),

but

roar).

Fells,

They are put

in

mammals

PanThera, and other catlike animals

The

flesh-

eating

animals corresponds closely to the zoologists' distinction

together with a few plant-eaters that are obviously

species. All tigers belong to

lions to another.

The

lion species

different languages (for example, in

Swahili),

common

has different

Lowe

a single species

names

all

in

German, Simba

in

may have

several

names. For example, the North American

mountain panther,

and often

one species and

lion

is

also

known

as the cougar,

related to

them

(cats,

(such as pandas), are grouped

Finally,

the

young

are

mammals

it

all

grouped

(fish,

in

in

the

the class Mammalia.

amphibians,

all

other animals

reptiles,

and some other animals that seem to be

puma,

in

the other animals that

are included, with

that have backbones

and catamount.

Zoologists find

dogs, hyenas, weasels, and so on),

order Carnivora. These and suckle their

(for

a different

themselves. This popular distinction between kinds of

between

larger

the catlike animals or

are grouped together as the family Felidae.

like

(part)

at different

make statements about

often necessary to

groups of animals: for example, all

alike.

described and

times without the zoologists realizing It

the chart.

different kinds.

may have been

species

ones, such as sheep, goats, cats, and dogs, have been

included

Volumes 21-30

Volumes 31-40

and

related to

birds)

them.

the Phylum Chordata.

convenient to have internationally

recognized names for species and use a standardized

system of two-word Latinized names. The

lion

is

Panthera leo and the tiger Panthera

The

first

Panthera,

is

the

similar species),

name

of the

genus

which includes the

second word, leo or

Tigris,

within the genus. Scientific

the world. The scientific

Tigris.

(a

group of

lion

called

word,

closely

and the

tiger.

The

indicates the particular species

names

name

is

are recognized

all

over

used whatever the

language, even where the alphabet

is

different, as in

Rank

Scientific

Phylum

Chordata

Class

Mammalia

Order

Carnivora

Family

Felidae

Genus

Panthera

Species

leo

Common name

name

Animals with a backbone All

mammals

Flesh-eaters/carnivores All cats

Big cats

Chinese or Russian. The convention allows for precision

and helps avoid most confusion. However,

common one

for

scientific

it

is

one species to apparently have more than name. That can be because

Lion

also

a particular

The kingdom Animalia families, genera,

and

is

subdivided into phylum,

species.

Above

is

classes, orders,

the classification of the

lion.

7

LARGE CARNIVORES the animals in this

volume are

all

members

no exception and once included such formidable beasts as

of the

group Carnivora. The group includes some of the

the saber-toothed tiger and the cave bear. However, the

world's biggest and most exciting predators: the

largest carnivores that ever lived are

polar bear, and gray wolf, for example. The

tiger,

following families of

together

in this

tiger

mammals have been grouped

volume because they are generally

cat

is

not to say that

some members

is

much

It

1

.

But as a close relative of a giant

like

the

in

Volume

1

all

these

and molar teeth with pointed

cusps (knobs) on their surface. Four of the largest molars,

tiger.

called the carnassials, are specialized for cutting

rather than crushing

Origins

it.

meat

However, the larger members of

the order Carnivora are less carnivorous than their smaller

records

ever lived are

show

now

that

many

extinct.

of the largest animals that

was

general tendency toward the development of giant

many

mammoth

or

of which are Irish elk,

cousins,

During the Miocene and

Pleistocene periods (26 to 2 million years ago) there

species,

of the

animals have the characteristic carnivore dentition, including long canine teeth

in

qualifies here as a large carnivore.

Fossil

members

families respectively.

Along with the small carnivores

smaller

than the European badger or the giant otter described

Volume

—the

Characteristics

of the group are

not rather small. The bobcat, for example,

and bear

largest-ever

with us

larger

than other carnivores (meat-eating animals). However, that

and polar bear are the

still

now

legendary

for example.

—the woolly

The carnivores were

a

and many eat

large quantities of plant material.

Some, such

as the giant panda, are almost exclusively

vegetarian.

Most bears are omnivores, and many do not

have the

distinctive carnassials

meat and tough

Among

used by meat eaters to cut

skin.

those species that hunt and

kill

other animals

for food, hunting techniques include solitary

stalk-and-pounce attacks (most

Family: Felidae— cats: 4 genera, 37 species, including donnestic cat (Panthera

{Felis catus)] lion

ambush

cats),

(leopard),

wonderful examples of teamwork

Family: Canidae (lions,

African wild dogs), short, fast chases (cheetah), and

long,

drawn-out pursuits over several miles

large

means

that

many

— dogs:

{P. tigris):

leopard

(P.

pardus): cheet;

(Neofelis nebulosa)

10 genera, 36 species, including gray wolf

{Canis lupus): fennec fox {Vulpes (Fennecus) zerda): African wild

Being

(wolf).

leo): tiger

{Adnonyx jubatus)' clouded leopard

dog

(Lycaon pictus)

—

Family: Ursidae

of these animals are able to tackle

bears: 5 genera,

8 species, including polar bear

{Ursus maritimus): American brown/grizzly bear (U. arctos): giant panda

and there are few land-dwelling mammals that

large prey,

are not preyed

Most

on by

at least

large carnivores

one

live solitary lives

Family: Hyaenidae

the large carnivores include

some

—hyenas: 3 genera, 4

species, including spotted

(Crocuta crocuta)

when

except

courting and rearing a family, but there are exceptions. fact,

{Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

large carnivore.

In

of the world's

most sociable mammals. Carnivores that

live in

can be models of well-ordered society (such as

groups lions

and

would not support

man, using

a

disperse the effect of

its

its

huge

flat

feet to

enormous weight.

wolves) or uneasy coalitions of animals drawn together by a clustered

food source or the need for security

numbers (brown bears and spotted hyenas,

Most

large carnivores are digitigrade,

in

for example).

meaning that

Carnivores and

Humans

Large carnivores need abundant prey to provide them

with enough to eat and must always

consuming

well spaced out

live

one

they have small, neat feet and walk on their toes. Only

to avoid

the bears walk on the whole foot (plantigrade) and

Therefore they are naturally scarce. That makes them

appear rather flat-footed and clumsy as a

vulnerable

result.

when

the food available

all

hunting pressures or

cause further reductions

Despite their bulk, large carnivores are often

in

in

place.

loss of habitat

numbers. The animals soon

remarkably nimble. Most can run fast,

become too spaced out

to maintain their population, and

climb well, and several are excellent

extinction follows. That

is

swimmers. The clouded leopard

is

now

enough

one foot from a

in

to be able to dangle by

acrobatic tree

order to swipe at small prey, and the huge polar

bear can sneak across thin

ice that

officially listed as

why many

threatened species by the lUCN.

The large carnivores have been

humans because

larger carnivores are

traditionally

hated by

of their predatory habits. Carnivores

have been trapped, shot, poisoned, and

dens for centuries. As a

result,

some

killed in their

are teetering

on the

brink of extinction, while others have already disappeared.

At the other end of the scale two species

owe

in

particular

not only their huge success but also their very

existence to humans: The domestic

dog and

cat are the

most widespread and numerous large carnivores on

©A

lioness drags the

earth.

body of a zebra out of reach

of scavengers.

A

large

kill is

amicably by the pride.

shared

hyena

LARGE CARNIVORES

The Cat Family perhaps the ultimate carnivores. They are

ats are

C

swift runners, agile climbers,

swim

two forms more

prey

and can jump and

well. Different species specialize in

of locomotion efficiently.

one or

order to hunt their preferred

in

Cats have short, rounded heads,

accommodate ending

large lungs.

They also have long

legs

toes on the forefeet and four on the back.

in five

Except for the cheetah,

all

fatalis.

a

modern

teeth.

hooked

cats have very sharp,

from becoming chipped or blunted. The cheetah alive

—the

In

the skin, and

it

would be

apart other than by tiny

all

most species

to the largest

(2.8 rn) long

and weigh

over 660 pounds (300 kg). The earliest cats appeared

about 50

were

million years

initially

ago

in

the Eocene period. They

quite small, but by the Oligocene period (30

million years ago) the family

was dominated by huge

Family Felidae: 4 genera, 37 species

1

Panthera

5 species, lion

at the

daggers

like

major arteries

in

(or

the

prey's throat.

Saber-toothed cats were the dominant mammalian predators on earth

few

until

about 2

The

million years ago.

individuals died out as recently as the last ice

have

still

been around during the Stone Age,

they must have been a terrifying prospect for

humans

living at

common

in

the time. Their ancient bones are

the glutinous traps created by

such as those at La Brea

seepages,

oil

the suburbs of Los Angeles.

in

Well Balanced Cats have a famous free

fall

land on their feet. Even

ability to

they can sense which

way

is

up and

heads into an upright position. Most cats have a

long

tail,

which they use to help

downward

curve, but

upright.

many

In

some

tail is

it

carried

in

a

cats occasionally hold theirs

species the tip of the

make

when

their balance

running and climbing. Usually the

in

rapidly twist

their

probably helps

Adnonyx

teeth

its

pound

{Felis nigripes)

which can measure 9 feet

tigers,

away

considerably from the

long, 3.3-6

.5-2.7 kg) black-footed cat

(1

its

open

cat to

age, 10,000 years ago. Saber-toothed cats would

difficult to tell

13-20 inch (34-50 cm)

power came from

retract.

very similar: Take

size. This varies

and stabbing

sabers), slashing

when

terms of anatomy cats are

particularly strong. All the

last

a Cat?

Is

with greatly elongated upper canine

mouth cavernously wide and use

certainly

What

lion,

animal was the size and weight of

— has

today

underdeveloped claws that cannot

awesome

could not bite hard or chew; indeed, the jaws

It

were not

claws that retract into fleshy sheaths to prevent them

most ancient type of cat

This

huge neck muscles, which enabled the

muscular bodies, and are deep chested to

lithe,

saber-toothed cats, such as the infamous Smilodon

more

visible to

tail is

black,

which

young when they

species, cheetah (A. jubatus)

are following their mother. leopard

30

Felis

{F.

puma

silvestrls);

{F.

tigrinus);

golden cat

{F

snow

leopard {P pardus):

Cats have large, forward-facing eyes and good

onca) {F.

catus);

bobcat

{F.

{F concolor); ocelot (F pardalis); serval

rufus); lynx

{F.

servaf);

eyesight. at the

jaguarundi {F.

{F.

yaguarondi); sand cat

chaus); leopard cat

(F.

bengalensis);

(called the

behind the retina

tapetum lucidum) helps

much

available light as possible onto the retina,

improving visual

sensitivity

and giving

cats their excellent

temmincki)

species, clouded leopard

(A/,

nebulosa)

by

The caracal, a small cat from Africa and the Near large, tufted ears

like servals,

SEE ALSO

layer of reflective material

back of the eye

direct as

0

10

A

black-footed cat (F nigripes); caracal (F caracal);

margarita); jungle cat

Asiatic 1

(P.

species. Including domestic cat lynx);

tiger cat

Neofelis

leo)- tiger {P tigris)-

uncia)] jaguar

{P.

wildcat (F

{F.

{P.

Lion 2:14, Tiger 2:20;

make

and a slender

East, is distinguished

face. Caracals are agile

hunters that,

acrobatic leaps into the air to catch prey.

Cheetah 2:26; Leopard 2:30; Jaguar 2:36; Puma 2:42, Ocelot 2:44; Wildcat 2:48

LARGE CARNIVORES

Domestic Cats night vision. This layer

glow

to

the dark

in

is

what makes

when caught

a cat's eyes appear

by a bright

such as

light

T

he domestic cat has been honed by centuries of

a car headlight. The long-held mystical reputation of cats

breeds. While there

may be

wildcats living alongside

word

partly explained by their "eyeshine." In fact, the

"lynx"

comes from the Greek, meaning

"to shine."

about 30 recognized

selective breeding into

years ago,

it

fossil

is

was not

evidence of African

humans

as long as 7,000

4,000 years ago that

until

domestic cats became distinguishable from wild

Most so,

some

cats are active at night,

and

the size of the cat.

If

into a

space without

sides,

it

is

a cat can push its

backup to

its

body

its

jammed. Cats

of hearing,

hazy, since true

is

readily.

ancient Egypt cats were revered as gods.

In

cats have

been discovered

entombed alongside the Pharaohs, and one

head

whiskers touching the

will

the distinction

(gone wild) cats interbreed

feral

Thousands of mummified

related to

city,

can proceed with confidence, knowing

that the rest of

getting

wild and

exclusively

their sensitive whiskers provide a useful

The length of the whiskers

vision.

now

ones. Even

Night Stalkers

known

honor by

their

entire

as Bubastis, appears to have been built

in

a cult of cat worshippers.

follow without

also have

an excellent sense

A bronze

and many are able to pinpoint prey

sculpture of an Egyptian cat dating from the Saite

dynasty (about 600

bc).

using their large ears to focus on small, directional

Compared with dogs,

sounds.

cats

do not have

a

particularly well-developed sense of smell.

Nevertheless, scent a

means

of

In

common

A

important as

communication, especially among the more such as tigers and jaguars.

territorial species,

urine, feces,

is still

and scratches to mark out

their

use

All cats

home

patch.

with several other mammals, cats have an

extrasensory organ

in

the mouth, called Jacobson's organ.

chemicals

in

the

air,

particularly sex

pheromones

chemical substance produced by an animal stimulate others of the

same

in

lustrous

and sleek or deep and

order to

species of small cat,

shown

left to right, reflecting their

(America) to east (Asia) distribution: ocelot

jaguarundi

(3);

footed cat

(6);

European wildcat

sand cat

(7);

(4):

(1);

yellow, orange, red,

(8);

1

all

continents except Antarctica

(5);

leopard cat

golden cat (W). The range of the cat family includes

is

is

(9):

Asiatic

extensive and

and Australasia.

that are

fur can be short

The background color all

shades of

varies

gray, buff,

and brown. The coat can be

spots, blotches, stripes, rosettes,

plain or

and

streaks.

as unique as a fingerprint, so individual cats

For

making

some

it

is

usually to break

difficult to

see

in its

up the

cat's

favored habitat.

cats their superb coat has attracted

unwelcome human

black-

The

some

can often be told apart by their coat patterns. The

west

tiger cat (2);

African wildcat

jungle cat

fluffy.

function of the patterns

species).

Colors

beautiful.

from white to black and includes

outline,

© Ten

and spectacularly

Each one

(a

Many

Cats have highly variable coats, including

marked with

Using a sense similar to smell, cats are able to detect

Coat of

attention,

and many species have

a

long history of hunting by humans. The fashion for cat fur

peaked

in

the 1960s,

cats, especially big

ocelots,

when hundreds

of thousands of

spotted ones, such as leopards,

and jaguars, were

killed for their coats.

Some

THE CAT FAMILY

pelts could fetch several

Consequently,

many

large parts of their

Where

hundred

dollars apiece.

now

species are

former range.

Cats Live

The natural range of the cat family all

rare or extinct in

is

extensive, including

continents except Antarctica and Australasia. Until the

introduction of domestic animals

were absent from most

islands.

over the world, cats

all

Cats occupy

all

kinds of

habitats from dense jungle or coniferous forest to tropical

grassland, tundra, deserts,

such as the

snow

and mountains. Some

cats,

leopard, are highly adapted to a

particular niche. Others are true generalists: In fact, the

puma, and wildcat

leopard,

widespread of

all

are

among

the most

mammals.

Lifestyle

® A pride of

Except for courting pairs and mothers with offspring,

most cats are ranges

may

solitary animals. In

and intruders are met with outright

company and The

home

(Africa).

still

each other. Other species are highly

However, some cats of

species

overlap extensively, but the occupants are

at pains to avoid territorial,

some

—

especially lions

live in

size of a cat's

range

is

less

in particular,

which to

A

single cat

dens or favorite hiding places within

life

far the

and usually

and a

been known

hostility.

by

most

coalition of

to contain as

two

many

need a safe den

may have

its

in

several

range, and they

down. Vertebrate prey

is

requirement

is

an adequate

supply of prey. Prey species range from huge wild cattle

large animals often

on

stalk

and dash or

sometimes an ambush, followed

as 18 adult females

Some

and

prides have

10 adult males.

little,

and almost

it

Solitary cats that

go to great lengths

kill

to hide their half-

eaten prey so they can return to feed over several days. lion,

teamwork

raises

the

kill

and allows some adult members of the pride the

luxury of not having to catch their

Young

or even beetles.

Hunting techniques vary surprisingly are based

to three adult males.

neck or a stranglehold on the throat.

rate

all

the unit

usually killed with a bite to the

vegetation. The other

mouse

is

by a leap or pounce that knocks the prey over or pins

important than

For social species, like the

to the tiniest

The pride

consists of three to 10 adult females, their

can include caves, hollow trees, and thickets of dense vital

social of the cats.

—are more tolerant

the content. Solitary cats, rear their family.

Lions are

offspring,

prides of related animals.

home

of social

lions in the Serengeti National Park, northern Tanzania

entirely

on

cats are born blind their

and

own

food.

helpless,

and

rely

mothers for an extended period.

Weaning can begin

quite early, but

it

is

months or even

years before the kittens can fend for themselves.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Lion

Panthera leo

Lions are by far the most social of

and hunting

the cats, breeding

in

large family groups. The male, with

Common name Scientific

name

his magnificent

lionesses are the superior hunters.

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

The lion has always been regarded with awe.

Length head/body: 5-8

27.5-41 leng length:

20-50%

ft

(1.4-2. 5 m);

in

enshrined

at

(107-123 cm). Male

Key features Huge, muscular tipped with black

lb

body

Widespread

tail

light buff to

evidence and cave paintings

Fossil

thick

mane

lions

head large with powerful, crushing

Lives in prides;

most

were once among the world's most

to

hunts alone and cooperatively; rests

up

humans. During the Pleistocene era

in

One

to 6 cubs (average 3-4) born after

gestation period of 100-1 19 days.

6-7 months; sexually mature

May

live

up to 30 years

more than Voice Diet

1

mammal

forests

300

margins, and scrub

in

sub-Saharan Africa;

Vulnerable; CITES

II.

lUCN

I.

BC,

The Greek scholar and

and the Romans made

grisly sport of

North Africa, but the species

were

were captured

is

now

common

relatively

extinct

in

the

reasons, including sport

and self-defense. They

are not instinctive man-eaters, but they will I k

resort to attacking livestock availability of natural

f.

antelope

is

and people

if

the

prey such as deer or

reduced. Lions can

become

a serious

r

in

farming or other

humans

into lion country.

threat to people involved activities that bring

One

pair of lions reportedly killed

people

14

SEE ALSO

Rhinoceros, Black 5:36; Giraffe 6:54

A

itself

with the use of

its

and the

lionesses are cautious of

to death. Such lions

Lions have been killed for a variety of I

keep a close watch on a

rhinoceros can defend

there until as recently as the early 1900s.

outside protected areas

and cubs

resting rhinoceros.

in

Middle East 500 years ago, and some survived

Declining

Lionesses

pitting the animals against Christians

there. Lions

Asian Hons fewer than

300; lUCN Endangered; CITES

©

prey. In

condemned

Gir Forest, northwestern India

Population; several thousand;

main

deadly horns,

in

Status

lion's

philosopher Aristotle wrote about lions

Savanna grasslands, open woodlands, desert

population

age as

grew up and human hunters advanced,

lasted a lot longer.

prey, including antelope,

in

extinct after the last ice

southern Europe and the Middle East lions

roars

hogs, and buffalo; also carrion

Distribution Scattered populations

went

varieties years.

depleting stocks of the

and

lions not only

throughout Eurasia and the

Americas. The American and northern European

in captivity, rarely

Variety of puffs, grunts, snarls,

Large

3-4

Africa but

(2 million

at

3 in the wild

giraffe, zebra,

Habitat

at

Weaned

were

to 10,000 years ago) there

to 21 hours per day

Breeding

that

widespread land-dwelling animals, second only

between dusk and dawn;

active

show

of

jaws; eyes yellowish-brown

Habits

popular image as the King of

(120-250 kg)

tawny brown; male develops fur;

its

Beasts goes back to ancient times.

cat with long, thin tuft;

is

many

the myths and legends of

in

and

cultures,

bigger than female

Weight 265-550

It

tail

(70-105 cm); height

in

42-48

shoulder;

dark

much

is

larger than the female, but

Panthera leo

Family

Size

mane,

Lion

in

Uganda

in

and ate 124

1925. The victims were

approaching.

CATS

Asian Lions

An Asian

lion

and

lioness.

I

ION

Asian lions belong

to a separate subspecies from African lions.

he only wild lions

living

Africa today survive Forest, a tiny

land

in

There are currently 120 or so

the Gir

pocket of protected

northwestern

belong to

in

outside

India.

a distinctive

Asian lions

enough

and highly

threatened subspecies, Panthera leo

known

persica,

as the Asian lion.

far

a

much

shorter

in

mane, which does

was

hunting kills.

all-

livestock;

live

there. In times of

some have even become

man-eaters. Between 1988 and 1991 Gir lions killed

surprising that suggestions to release

20th century, by

which time the Asian

declared a protected animal.

British Raj

too small for the 250

at the start of the

humans.

tne days of the

now

time low of fewer than 100 animals

largely a result of persecution by In

is

prey shortage they resort to attacking

their

The population dropped to an

lion

is

Marksmen showed

sexes have a fold of skin running belly.

the wild

or so lions that

prowess by making hundreds of

The decline of the Asian

in

shooting lions was a popular pastime.

not cover the ears or chest. Both

lengthwise along the

to prevent their extinction,

from secure. The Gir Forest

Reserve

that the males have

around

may be

the future of Asian lions

Asian lions differ from their African cousins

living in captivity

the world. While there

They

lion

had been

some

20 people.

to other reserves

met with

stiff

in

It

is

not

India

have

opposition.

15

LARGE CARNIVORES

working on the construction of project that eventually

humans and

Today

in

much

better because

Africa

a

new

railway, a

had to be abandoned.

most

lions get

along

now

live in

lions

large conservation areas such as the great

national parks of Kenya, Tanzania,

and southern

Here they have the space and prey they

Africa.

need to survive without attacking people, and they contribute to the local

economy by

attracting fee-paying tourists.

About 20 percent nomadic. They

members

of

live in

of African lions are

small groups, the

which come and go. They wander

over a huge area, following migratory herds of

antelope and zebra. Nomadic lions are nonterritorial,

and most encounters are

nonaggressive. However, most lions

live in

same

resident prides, jealously guarding the territory for generations.

Boundary

Patrol

Defense of the

territory

males, but the

whole

is

usually

done by the

pride helps define the

boundaries by roaring, scent marking with

and regular

urine,

The

patrolling.

home range

pride's

size of a

varies considerably.

© Vocal Communication

The roar of a

to 5 miles (8

lion can

km) and

warn off rivals. Lions I

ions have a varied repertoire of vocalizations.

are distinctive

that

makes

their

and are usually accompanied by body language

sound to greet and reassure each

while purring communicates contentment (for example,

a

other,

when

being

groomed). Mewing sounds are used mostly by cubs and vary from short squeaks of excitement to yowls of distress. Growls and snarls are

warning sounds, while charging

sound.

A

"woofing" grunt

a sharp hissing or spitting to

vocalization of

one

year,

is,

lions often give a gruff

signifies surprise

show

and

displeasure.

16

often followed by

The best-known

slightly later.

A

lion

age

full-blown roar can easily be

heard up to 5 miles (8 km) away, and the sound territorial

is

coughing

of course, the roar. Males start roaring from the

females

boundaries and to intimidate

rivals.

used to define boundaries and

also roar after devouring a

kill.

The various sounds

meaning obvious, even to humans. Members of

pride use a gentle huffing

is

be heard over distances of up

is

used to define

Roaring

in

chorus

depending on the number of animals pride

and the

local

abundance of

in

prey.

If

the

food

is

scarce for part of the year, a pride will range

over a

much

The ranges of

larger area.

neighboring prides

may

overlap to an extent,

but individual lions usually take care to avoid

each other. An intruder pride's

range

will

in

be driven off ferociously.

The need to defend reason

why male

the core part of a

a territory

lions are so

females, up to half as big again

They need to be big to chase

competing males

will size

is

much in

the main

larger than

some

off rivals.

cases.

Two

each other up before

enhances the bonds between pride members. Most roaring happens

fighting,

at night.

down and go away without

a fight. This

reduces the

and well-equipped

SEE ALSO

Zebra, Plains 5:46; Impala 6:86

and the

risk

inferior

male

of these big

will usually

back

CATS

LION

animals fatally wounding each other. However, there

is

a definite

home

advantage; the resident

males are more confident and quicker to launch

Social Creatures

an attack, so they usually win any contest.

The mane

is

an important factor

aggression. For a

mane may be

is.

If

male with a huge

is

ions are by far the

iaa

more powerful than he

mane

lion, a

subspecies that lived

Africa until 1920,

had

down

extended well

North

back and under

alone, a solitary lifestyle

leave

and

if

on

the exception rather than the rule

have been ousted from a pride.

group of related females, including

a

try to start their In fact,

own

lives.

In

pride.

whom

they rarely

Females

will

stay

only be required to

such cases small groups splinter off

The adult males of the pride are not

last

more than three

or four years

before they are displaced by younger, stronger animals. Young males are forced to leave the pride

Female Hunters

While some individuals

rarely live long.

the pride gets too big.

permanent.

its belly.

is

usually old males that

with the pride throughout their

extinct

huge mane that

a

its

in

social of the cats.

daughters, mothers, and grandmothers, most of

sisters,

vulnerable area around the neck and throat

now

most

Lion prides are based

helps protect the

from slashing claws and teeth. The

live

Such animals

the bluff does not work and a

fight ensues, the

Barbary

I

and loners are

able to fool opponents into

believing that he actually

start, a

male

in

in

which they were born

at

about the

time they reach puberty (two to three years of age).

The adult male members of

a pride

do

Males often team up to defend a

little

pride.

Such coalitions almost

On

hunting. Males are capable of catching their

always consist of related males (brothers or cousins).

own

a pride, by killing or driving out the previous males, the first priority

food, but they are rarely as

A

the females. will find

large

difficult to

it

good

at

it

as

male with a bulky mane remain inconspicuous,

while a slim lioness can creep forward with her

body pressed

flat

to the ground,

making use of

still

©

rarely

inclined to

of the pride, since everybody

is

all

members

closely related.

Cubs are

young cubs, the males

approaching breeding age) may escape with their

deal of care; but

tumble games of the cubs are tolerated by

suckling

cubs and

A

a

defend older cubs

new

boss,

receptive female

cubs will join the lionesses in

the hunt, but they are

usually

more of a hindrance

than a help!

which they have invested

may mate 50

When

the group. At

in

and get on with

any female

in

any

but young

lives,

on the whole they seem to accept the

usually,

than a year the young

kill

permitted to remain. The pride females are more

even allowed to suckle from

less

usually

cubs younger than about 24 months. Older cubs (especially females

males are

lioness with her cubs. The boisterous rough-and-

is

getting the females pregnant. Because female lions cannot breed

while they are

even very sparse cover. The chances of making

A

taking over

later,

raising a

or

new

more times

a great

loss of their

family.

in

but not always, with the

24 hours,

same male.

the cubs arrive three or four months

they are usually allowed to suckle from

any female, and tolerated

their boisterous

games

and even encouraged by

all

are

members

of the pride. This extraordinary benevolence

stems from the fact that the members of the pride are closely related.

be sure that the cubs are but most

will carry his

worth nurturing.

An

adult male cannot

his offspring,

genes and be

LARGE CARNIVORES

a

when

increase

kill

lionesses hunt together.

They are highly organized, with different

on specialized

lionesses taking

roles.

One

female usually takes the lead, selecting the target and signaling the start of the hunt.

do the chasing, while others

fastest females

ambush and whole pride

The

Sometimes the

disable the prey. will join in,

fanning out and

surrounding the victim. Excitable young cubs are often of

help, but by the

little

make

year they can

age of one

a useful contribution.

Surprise Attack hunting technique

The

lion's

and

surprise.

is all

about

stealth

can run up to 38 miles per hour

It

(60 km/h), but only for short distances. To catch a fleet-footed target such as

an impala or

m)

zebra, lions need to be within 50 yards (46

before launching an attack. They do not usually

jump on top knock

it

balance with a mighty swipe of the

off

front feet

of their prey. Instead, they try to

aimed

clamps

its

rump.

at the prey's flank or

Once the prey has been

down, the

pulled

mouth over the

lion

throat or muzzle,

The

killing by strangulation or suffocation.

can breathe deeply through

its

nose, so

it

lion

can

keep a tight hold of the prey for as long as necessary, even after a hard chase.

Scavengers Only about a quarter of hunts are successful,

and

feed by scavenging.

lions also

In fact,

for

prides four out of five meals are stolen

some

from hyenas, a

statistic

that contradicts the

long-held belief that hyenas routinely harass lions

and scavenge

their

kills.

It

is

actually the

opportunist lions that use their superior size

and strength to If

drive the

the carcass

the food

fairly

is

hyenas away.

large, the pride will share

amicably.

On

a definite order of seniority. first,

and young cubs go

the cubs are the

0 An adult pounds of a

18

kill,

lion

if

kills

there

is

The males feed

last.

If

food

is

scarce,

to starve.

needs to eat an average of 11 to 15

(5 to 7 kg)

even

first

smaller

of meat a day. Males get a

they have not participated

in

SEE ALSO Hyena, Spotted 2:108

good share the hunt.

19

LARGE CARNIVORES

Panthera

The

tiger,

with

black-and-orange striped

its

one of the most

nowadays

the world over, but

reduced Common name Scientific

name

Panthera

tigris

In

title

Order

Carnivora

lion.

Length head/body; 4,6-9

23-43

length:

in

shoulder:

t

ft (1

.4-2.7 m);

kg);

Key features Huge,

31-43

in

female 143-364

lb

lb

tail;

Litters of

It

is

from different parts of

into eight subspecies.

region mostly at

i

and swims well 3)

cubs born at

Weaned

at

close cousin, the

the cats, and

its

range

this vast

and

Bali.

range

Tigers

differ

© A Bengal

They are named

after the

May

captivity, rarely

up to 26 years

more than 10

in

Diet

Mainly large, hooved mammals, including deer, buffalo, antelope,

Tropical forests

4 to 5 miles (7 to 8 km)

wide without

660 pounds (300

huge

cats ever to have lived,

extinct species such as the lion.

roars

The smallest

and gaur

are

® Juvenile

parts,

and to protect people and

in

in

in

rule,

and the type of

different parts of the tiger's

need to cope with specialize

catching large prey such as cattle and deer.

In

livestock

contrast, tigers in Indonesia inhabit tropical

jungle

where overheating

for large animals,

pigs

and small

a serious problem

is

and the favored prey includes

deer.

The Chinese

tiger

is

thought to be the ancestor of the other types. Fossils

show

about 2

that tigers

million years ago,

north, south,

appeared

first

China

and they spread

and west from

Chinese tigers have several

in

there.

traits

Modern

that zoologists

consider rather primitive, including a shortened

/

SEE ALSO

skull

and

relatively close-set eyes.

Lion 2:14; Boar, Wild 5:76, Deer and Relatives 6:10

tigers are

fond of play fighting,

rarely

weight. They

and snowy winters, and

intensely cold

and body

and

Bali

probably extinct. As a general

range. Siberian tigers

lUCN Endangered;

Previously hunted for fur

I.

came from

size relates to the climate

prey available

(Burma),

Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Sumatra Population: 5,000-7,500;

now

body

Distribution India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal; China;

CITES

tigers

exceeded 220 pounds (100 kg)

good vegetation cover and water nearby

Myanmar

difficulty.

almost certainly

kg). This

saber-toothed tiger and the cave

and swamps; grasslands with

southeastern Siberia;

swimmers and

than other subspecies, with males weighing up

Different Adaptations

20

through water. Tigers are proficient

example, Siberian tigers are consistently bigger

makes them the biggest

the wild

and blood-curdling

which they occur, but most can also

in

Purrs, grunts,

Status

wades

can cross rivers that are

including live

Voice

Habitat

tiger

be distinguished by their appearance. For

to

3-6 months;

in

females sexually mature at 3-4 years, males years.

its

all

considerably, so the species has been divided

any time of year after gestation period of

4-5

the largest of

(65-165 kg)

territorial; active

1-6 (usually 2 or

95-1 10 days.

King of Beasts than

unmistakable orange coat with

and highly

night; climbs

more deserving of the

is

to the Indonesian islands of Java

(90-300

dark stripes; underside white Solitary

the tiger

eastward to Russia's Sea of Okhotsk and south

(80-110 cm)

highly muscular cat with large head

and long

at

the species is severely

once extended from the fringes of Europe

tail

(60-1 10 cm); height at

Weight Male 200-660

Breeding

It is feared

numbers.

in

many ways

Felidae

Habits

coat, is

Tiger

Family

Size

of ail mammals.

distinctive

tigris

like

the

two below.

The Disappearing Tiger Subtle differences aside,

same adaptations

all

tigers

to a predatory

way

have the of

life.

They have long hind limbs that enable them to cover up to 30 feet (10 m)

in

a single

bound.

Their forelegs are immensely powerful

armed with long claws that can be

when

the tiger

is

and

when

it

charge or hooking

prey

its

is

tiger's

documented. Logging

hunting.

Hunting has also reduced

habitat. It

tiger

numbers

Of the

substantially.

eight recognized subspecies of its

claws into the rump or

and dragging the animal

flank

well

have removed huge areas of tiger

retracted

to the ground with the force of

is

and the expansion of agriculture

usually rushes prey from behind, either

knocking

range and

in

numbers of the magnificent

tiger

walking. The tiger uses this

combination to deadly effect

T

he decline

over. Smaller

dispatched with a bite to the neck. The canine teeth are long, sharp, and slightly

tiger the Caspian, Bali,

have become extinct

tigers last

and Javan in

the

50 years. Siberian and

Chinese tigers are

lUCN

by the

as Critically Endangered,

Bengal tigers are All tigers

even

listed

in

some

listed as

and the Sumatran, Indochinese, and

Endangered.

are supposed to be protected by international law, but national parks

The biggest threat

and reserves

demand

illegal

hunting continues.

for tiger

body

parts for use

traditional Asian medicine. In the past the

main

culprits

Chinese,

Today

who

many

the

have hunted their

tigers are

smuggled

is

own

in

were the

wild tigers to virtual extinction.

hunted by poachers everywhere. Body parts are then

into China,

where they

of which are exported

are turned into

pills

and potions,

and sold on the black market

for vast

sums. Some, such as ground bone to treat rheumatism, can be

bought

in

Asian communities the world over.

Demand

remains high,

despite the lack of scientific evidence that they actually do any good.

,

^

21

Man-Eaters

and can separate the bones

flattened,

A

victim's spine with ease.

T

igers are

among

Some

people.

human

life.

known

even seem to prefer

Sometimes

of other species.

Singapore

the few animals

tigers

to frequently prey

human

tiger predation has

taken a huge

For example, over 1,000 people a year

in

the 1940s, 1,000 a year

now about 100

a year

in

on

of a challenge; but once

flesh over that

were

toll

killed in

India in the 1970s,

tigers. Tigers are

seems that once they have made encounter),

and then is

some

exploit

relatively

it.

easy to

After kill.

common

in

kill

all,

an unarmed

human cannot

food source run fast and

However, most tigers are wary of people and

under normal circumstances

most

a

it

places

will

avoid any contact. Problem tigers are

where human

activity

has encroached on

their habitat, reducing the availability of natural prey

alternatives such as domestic animals

and introducing

a

mortally

wounded,

kill

a

a tiger with

its

hooves, so the tiger maintains the throat

bite long after the animal stops struggling, just

to be sure

(perhaps after an accidental

realize the potential of the alternative

when

large animal like a gaur could flailing

more

on the ground,

is

the throat. Even

and even

not born man-eaters; but

it

is

with a long, suffocating bite around

it

*

Calcutta. However, these alarming statistics actually relate to

comparatively few

kills

on

the Sundarbans mangrove forest near

in

tiger

a

in

larger animal

some

carcass under

feeding.

An

really

is

it

the tiger

then drags the

can eat over 90 pounds

one meal, but with a

in

more

is

It

kind of cover before

adult tiger

(40 kg) of meat kill

dead.

likely

to eat smaller

quantities at intervals over the next

Sometimes

one the

few

days.

several tigers are seen feeding

carcass, but they are usually

same

large

from

members

of

family.

and people themselves.

Necessary Requirements Although the habitats,

it

meet three

tiger

can

vital

a variety of

live in

restricted to

is

environments that

requirements: There must be

plenty of suitable prey,

enough dense cover

to

allow the tiger to approach prey, and a reliable

source of water. Areas of suitable habitat must also be large

if

population of alone,

they are to support a viable

tigers.

As

a general rule tigers live

and animals of the same sex tend not to

occupy the same range. The

size of

home

ranges varies greatly from place to place, with

males

in

Nepal

typically claiming 8 to

40 square

miles (20 to 100 sq. km). Male Siberian tigers,

on the other hand, may range over 1,600 square miles (4,000 sq. km). Females occupy

©A

tiger

needs to attack prey from

quite close range.

It

usually rushes a

victim from behind, aiming

its

claws for

the shoulder, back, or neck.

<

© A leaping Bengal that enable

them

tiger. Tigers

to leap

up

bound, helping them bring

22

to

have long hind limbs

30 feet (10 m)

down

in a single

prey.

SEE ALSO Jaguar 2:36 li,

,.t

,

much

smaller mriges; typically three or four

females

live

within the range of one male, and

he can mate with them

Tigers tend not to defend territories fiercely,

and

fights over land are unusual.

Nonresident animals seem to respect the owner's

rights.

tiger

may attempt

males

all.

© A white Bengal

replaced within three or four weeks, another

this usually

to

move

in. In

means the

has died, although females

the case of

All

original resident

may

white tigers

tiger.

in

captivity are descendants

of a white male captured

lose distant

parts of their range while they are confined to

in India in 1951.

a small area by the birth of their cubs.

Although they may pass through

each other's ranges, they do not stay long and

keep out of the way. Resident males,

marks on trees and other

landmarks. The marks not only

know

White Tigers

parts of their range regularly,

visit all

leaving scent

tigers, especially

the area

is

let

other tigers

occupied, they also carry

information about the individual that

them, such as

its

condition. Scent

made

sex and reproductive

marks fade; and

if

they are not

T still

here

is

a rare variety of tiger that lacks the

pigment which gives

other tigers their characteristic orange coat. The dark stripes are

there, but the coat

tiger's

is

otherwise creamy-white. Likewise, the

eyes lack brown pigments and are pale blue. Not surprisingly,

such animals have always been considered very special, so

much

so

that they have apparently been eliminated from the wild by hunters

and

collectors.

The

last

Since then, however, captivity,

record of a wild white tiger

was

in

1958.

many white specimens have been bred

and there are currently about 40

in

in

zoos around the world.

23

LARGE CARNIVORES

Fighting

spats that

among

rare

is

do occur

but those

tigers,

more often than not

are

between females with cubs and unfamiliar males. Rearing cubs

the females, their

young; a

drive

the sole responsibility of

is

are ferocious

new

range, he

any young cubs

kill

When

will

to

male

a

often attempt

the area. This

in

come

that the females

defense of

in

may be enough

spirited attack

even a large male away.

takes over a to

who

so

is

into breeding condition

sooner, and he can begin fathering offspring of his

own. Young

tigers are vulnerable for a long

Fewer than

time:

half of

all

cubs

live

than two years of age, and infanticide

young by

adults)

is

area and can be confident that his

rarely

makes any attempt

established

cubs are

all

female tiger

a cave or

an

his

to approach families.

choose a secure den, such as

will

dense

up to two months while

stay there for

for short periods in

emerge from

order to feed. After that the cubs

wander

the den; but they do not still

The

thicket, to give birth.

mother leaves them

mother

in

Cubs

Playful

their

of

murderous tendencies subside, and he

own,

young

(killing

by far the most significant

is

cause of death. Once a male

A

more

to

and

far,

their

returns at regular intervals to suckle

them. Most of their waking playing, building

coordination they

By the age of

are spent

lives

up the strength, will later

five or

six

agility,

and

use to deadly effect.

months the family

begins to accompany their mother to hunt. By 1

1

months they

killing

depend on food

are capable of catching

and

smaller prey items. Even so, they will

until

their

mother

they are

still

for at least part of their

18 months

old

and often

remain under her protection for a further year. After that they

move

on, usually joining the

ranks of nonbreeding, largely nomadic tigers that occupy marginal habitats on the fringes of

occupied ranges, awaiting an opportunity to claim a range of their own,

0

Licking cubs with the tiger's rough, hairy

helps keep or

24

them

clean.

may be pushed

Young

tongue

tigers leave their mother,

out, at the time her

next

litter is

due.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Cheetah I

I

Acinonyx jubatus

Built for speed, the cheetah is the world's fastest land

animal. However,

extraordinary sprinting ability

its

is

i

no defense against habitat

and other pressures

loss

I

!

Common name Scientific

that threaten its existence.

Cheetah

name Acinonyx jubatus The cheetah

Family

the fastest animal

is

Over even ground OrcJer

it

and

miles per hour (105 km/h),

tail

length:

24-31

in

in (1

1

2-1 50 cm);

(60-80 cm); height

26-37

in

(67-94 cm)

Weight 46-159

lb

(21-72 kg)

shoulder:

acceleration that

Key features Very

Its

body

has powers of

many modern

long and lean,

is

greyhound, and it

spine

its

sports cars.

that of a

remarkably

is

huge

to take

like

flexible,

strides that carry

it

© A cheetah's power of

slender, long-limbed cat with small

head, rounded ears, and long

tail

held

in

sweep; fur pale gold to tawny, paler on with black spots; end of Diurnal; can

be

solitary

tail

forward up to 26 feet (8 m)

low

and nomadic or

in

one bound.

acceleration

and

sprinting ability are

belly

has dark bands

Unrivaled Sprinter The cheetah's

live in

small groups Litters

rival

it

at

allowing

Breeding

legs.

can reach speeds of 65

Carnivora

Length head/body: 44-59

Habits

on four

Felidae

legs are long but very slender, the

lightness of the

of 1-8 (usually 3-5) cubs born at any

unmatched by any other

bones reducing the need

for

mammal. However, begins to

tire

it

after 30

huge muscles. The paws are small but hard,

seconds and after a

with blunt, nonretractile claws that help

minute has

time of year after gestation period of 90-95 days. at

Voice

Weaned

3-6 months; sexually mature

at

18 months but

years.

May

to 14

in

live

rarely

breeds before 2

up to 19 years

the wild, but usually

moans, and

Purrs, yelps,

very fast.

in captivity,

up

No

other

mammal

it

turh

has such extreme

adaptations to speed, and none comes close to

many fewer

the cheetah

snarls; also a high-

fastest

in

terms of sprinting

ability.

The

greyhounds, honed by centuries of

pitched churring; females use birdlike chirping to reassure

selective breeding, reach

young

about 40 miles per

hour (65 km/h) over short distances. The Mostly gazelles and impalas; other hoofed

Diet

American pronghorn antelope can run

animals depending on opportunity

fast for

longer distances, but cannot match the cheetah Habitat

Savanna grassland, scrub, and semidesert for acceleration

and

sprints.

Distribution Widespread but scattered populations

throughout sub-Saharan

Congo Status

Population: fewer than 15,000;

Vulnerable; CITES greatly reduced, its

The cheetah has made

Africa, excluding the

I.

it

lUCN

Range and population

now

protected

in

sacrifices for

supreme speed. Compared with other

Basin. Small population in Iran

has

little

stamina.

its

big cats,

spite of the enlarged

In

lungs and heart that keep oxygen circulating as

most of

fast as possible to the cheetah's muscles,

it

range

cannot keep up a

full

pursuit for

about a minute. Three

in

more than

every four hunts

fail

because the cheetah cannot get close enough to the prey before launching an attack.

The cheetah and I

its

is

not particularly powerful,

relatively small teeth

make good weapons. The

and claws do not

teeth have to be

s';

small

in

order to

nostrils that

efficiently

26

SEE ALSO

make room

for the enlarged

enable the animal to breathe

when

running and

when

strangling

Lion 2:14; Tiger 2:20; Leopard 2:30, Impala 6:86; Gazelle, Thomson's 6:94

virtually

chance of making a

no kill.

CATS CHEETAH

prey with a vicelike throat hold. But once the

its

prey

is

dead, the cheetah has to spend a few

minutes getting

its

breath back before dragging

the prey to a secure place as fast as possible. a scavenger spots the carcass, efforts rarely

may have been

defend a

kill

this

If

the cheetah's

for nothing, since

will

it

against lions or hyenas.

Cheetahs can even be scared although

all

off by vultures,

may have more

to

do with the

fact that vultures attract other, larger scavengers

than a fear of the birds themselves.

Wasted Energy If

abandon

forced to

its

hard-earned meal, a

cheetah has to chase and yet

more energy

and driven in

off

to feed

food

its

national parks

is

kill

again, using

itself.

up

Being disturbed

a constant threat. Even

where they

are safe from other

one that then

is

outrun

try to

it.

Mothers with cubs have

particularly hard time.

They need to

kill

gazelle or impala almost every day to keep

buses to abandon their prey to scavengers.

their families well fed

young, or

every

old,

sick prey like other large carnivores,

nor do they

try to

approach downwind. They

simply select the animal that

is

nearest

them

two

to five days

or

(compared with one

when

there are no cubs).

Before the age of three months,

begin to gain

a

a

dangers, cheetahs are often forced by tourist

Cheetahs do not seem to target

© An adult cheetah

separate from the main herd and

when

some hunting sense

they

of their own,

stands

among

tali

savanna grasses

in

Zimbabwe, southerncentral Africa. Scattered

cheetah populations are

found throughout subSaharan

Africa.

the cubs can be a serious hindrance.

27

LARGE CARNIVORES

© A cheetah

separate ways. The female gives birth

suffocates a gazelle

secluded spot, usually

in

nostrils

allow

it

to

a

dense vegetation. The

in

cubs are blind and helpless at

Kenya. The

animal's enlarged

in

birth,

and the

mother goes to great lengths to keep them hidden. She

will

move them one by one

to a

breathe efficiently

new

while keeping a

spotted. After five weeks, however, they are

vicelike

hold on

its

hiding place

she suspects they have been

if

able to follow her around. For the

victim's throat.

have

first

three

months young cheetahs

cape of long gray fur covering the back

a

of the head, the shoulders,

and back.

It

helps

Solitary Females

disguise their outline

Female cheetahs are generally

camouflage and the mother cheetah's best

Unusually

home

among

cats,

solitary.

they have

much

larger

ranges than males, anything from 20 to

580 square

miles (50 to 1,500 sq. km).

cannot hope to defend an area

They

and

this size,

efforts,

in

long grass. Despite their

the great majority of cheetah cubs do

not survive to independence. Estimates of infant

and juvenile mortality vary from 70 to 95 percent.

A

great

many

many

are killed by lions

others starve or

the ranges of several females usually overlap,

hyenas, while

although they rarely meet.

disease or congenital birth defects.

and

succumb to

Males, on the other hand, are highly territorial,

but unlike females rarely

Territories are in

have to team up

such in

two

alone.

that the males

order to defend one. Such

teams are known as contain

demand

live

coalitions

and often

Cheetahs need open country with patches of tall

grass or other vegetation, which they can

use as cover

or three males, usually brothers. By

working together, they can keep other males off their patch

Threatened Existence

and win access to any females

much

when ambushing

of this type of habitat has

to

live.

generally aggressive animals, but males from

serious problem

been known to

fight to

territory. Fights

within a coalition are very rare.

A

pair of

cheetahs

may mate

several times

over a couple of days, but then they go their

been given

Hunting also took a grave

cheetah numbers

different coalitions have

However,

over to agriculture, depriving cheetahs of places

that might pass through. Cheetahs are not

the death over females and

prey.

in

in

toll

on

the past and remains a

some

places.

Cheetah populations have undergone a worrying decline

in

recent years, despite legal

©

The unusual

markings of a king

protection for the species almost everywhere.

cheetah. The coat pattern

At one time the species was widespread

is

throughout

Africa, the

Middle

East,

and

blotchier than that of

the majority of cheetahs

and

is

due

like that

©A

to a rare gene,

found

in albinos.

typical family of

three cubs. The

youngsters

will

remain

with their mother for up to six

months before

becoming

fully

independent.

southern Asia.

Now

population

outside Africa.

left

there

mere 250 animals and In

is

only one

is

It

found

consists of a in

Africa the cheetah's distribution

northern is

now

Iran.

highly

in

danger of becoming inbred.

Studies of cheetah genetics have that there

is

seems that

very

at

little

some

shown

individual variation.

point

It

the past the

in

n

1927 zoologists studying cheetahs

second, which they called distinguished by a

much

longer hair around rare,

and

its

Zimbabwe. However,

small. Today's population

edge of the Sahara

rather inbred, with

all

is

therefore already

the animals being

virtually identical genetically.

Now

that

in

Zimbabwe came

fact

two

species

rex,

the king cheetah,

in

blotchier coat pattern

in

to the

the area. The

and

a

was

"mane"

of

shoulders. King cheetahs have always been

until recently

cheetah population must have been extremely

in

Adnonyx

I conclusion that there were

fragmented, and the small remaining populations are

King Cheetahs

it

was thought

a wild

that they only occurred

in

specimen has since been found on the

number

of animals with

in captivity.

We now know

Burkina Faso, and a

king cheetah markings have been born

that king cheetahs are not a separate species or even subspecies of

populations are declining again, there are

cheetah. They are simply a rare genetic form of A. jubatus that turn

concerns that their lack of genetic variation

up

could

make the whole population

vulnerable to

in

the population,

like

albinos

in

other animals. King cheetahs can

be born to normal-looking parents and have normal-looking

siblings.

disease or other natural disasters to which there will

be no inherited resistance.

29

“

LARGE CARNIVORES

Leopard The leopard

perhaps the

is

archetypal big

cat. It

can

be

still

found across wide areas of Africa and

Asia, but

some subspecies

are

j

I

Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

i'

tail

23-43

length:

Weight Male 160-200 kg);

;i

"melanistic" leopards, which are

the forests of Southeast Asia, are

lb

lb

(73-90

(28-60 kg) I

Key features

Large, lean cat with long

tawny coat marked

all

tail;

pale gold to

I

I Breeding

Litters of

1-6 (usually 2 or

after gestation period of

3)

as

range of any species of the family Felidae cat.

The leopard's range

has shrunk over recent centuries, but

90-105 days during

in

known

still

Leopards have the largest geographical

except for the domestic

young born

common

black panthers, but so are melanistic jaguars

I

mostly nocturnal; excellent climber

Solitary;

"lion-

and pumas from the Americas.

over with black spots

arranged into rosettes on back and flanks

Habits

means

h

(45-78 cm)

female 62-132

literally

ancient general term for any large cat. Black or

=

in

The leopard's name

(90-190 cm);

(58-1 10 cm); height at

in

18-31

ler:

in

threatened.

panther," with panther or "pard" being the

;

Length head/body: 35-75

Size

now severely

its

decline

has not been nearly as precipitous as for other

favorable season (varies throughout range).

Weaned at years. May

3 months; sexually mature at 3 live

over 20 years

probably well over 20

in

and

It still

occurs widely

and southern

Africa

with a few scattered populations

Rasping

Diet

Mostly small- to medium-sized hoofed

grunts,

most of sub-Saharan

the wild

Voice

calls,

big cats such as the tiger.

i

in captivity,

roars

and the Middle

I

in

in

Asia,

North Africa

Leopards are more tolerant

East.

of people than other large cats

and manage to

I

mammals;

also

monkeys,

rabbits, rodents, I

© Leopards are the best

make

a living in disrupted habitats that defeat

climbers of

many

smaller predators.

cats

all

the big

and invertebrates, such as beetles f

Habitat

Varied; includes lowland forest, grassland,

and

will

spend time

f

eating, resting,

and

brush, and semidesert

Versatile Eating Habits Distribution Most of southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, excluding rain forests of

Small populations East, Arabia,

Status

in

Congo

Basin.

North Africa, Middle

Population: fewer than 700,000;

Endangered and

A

I

Critically

lUCN

Endangered

(several

declining

I.

Widespread but

due to habitat

loss

diet.

It

will

is

due to

its

eat almost any small- to

s

medium-sized animal that

I

inch-long beetle to a 2,000

it

can catch,

will

from an

pound (900

of a favorite

even attack prey

from tree branches, dropping

kg)

eland.

gazelles

;

and impala,

in

the north wild pigs,

Asia mostly goats and sheep.

The leopards

in in

I

S'

Israel

eat rock hyraxes and porcupines, while

j

Arabian leopards eat ibexes, partridges, and the I

occasional camel. Long-term studies have revealed that at least 90 species are regularly i

taken as prey, compared with just 12 normally taken by

‘

:

lions.

leopards can

and avoid

Such

versatility

live in a

wide

means

SEE ALSO

Lion 2:14; Jaguar 2:36;

Puma

that

variety of habitats

direct competition with

more

specialized predators. Leopards can

30

down onto

victim from above.

southern Africa the diet includes

In

i

and hunting

They

tree.

i

I

subspecies); CITES

large part of the leopard's success

broad

I I

and China

sleeping in the branches

I

live

almost

2:42; Boar, Wild 5:76; Impala 6:86; Ibex 6:106; Hyrax, Rock 8:106

a

anywhere that provides food, and they

will

and

sufficient cover

modify

their behavior to

take advantage of the most abundant local prey. In

some

places this

means hunting by day

instead of night; elsewhere

it

has caused

leopards to attack livestock and even humans.

Tree Dwellers Of

Leopards from different parts of the

the big cats, the leopard

all

climber.

Its

is

species' range can be markedly different

the best

and appearance. The

shoulders are especially muscular

and provide most of the power necessary to pull

and

it

much

its

prey (often weighing twice as

as the leopard

(storing)

food

itself)

off the

into a tree.

ground keeps

it

southern

Caching

kg) have

out of

much

are

the opportunity to feed at leisure. The leopard

rarely

and eats

in

the branches and can

descend headfirst, using

in

and

flexible ankle joints

powerful claws to grip the treetrunk. There be several favorite trees within a leopard's

will

home

trees

down from

reserves of

such as Kruger National Park,

been recorded. Elsewhere, leopards smaller, with those living in Arabia

exceeding 80 pounds (35

kg). Variations

coat color and pattern were used to

species into dozens of subspecies.

them have been about nine

reassessed,

officially

split

Many

the

of

and there are now

recognized subspecies

based on geographical distinctions as much as

range, which the animal returns to time and again. Forest leopards may drop

size

where males weighing over 200 pounds (90

reach of most scavengers and gives the leopard

sleeps

game

the well-stocked parks and Africa,

in

largest individuals live in

the

on anatomical differences.

onto prey animals passing beneath, but

they do not generally

lie in

wait,

and such

0 A common

color variation

is

the melanistic or black

attacks are opportunistic rather than

leopard. Such animals are often called "black panthers,"

deliberately planned.

but so too are black pumas and jaguars.

31

Vulnerable to Attack During the 1960s over 50,000 leopards

were

killed

populations were reduced to

The leopard

of CITES, so trade restricted

and

is

in

skins

and other parts

common. Today

the

demand

in

I

several

relatively

for

a serious

been

different subspecies

and

problem for some of the

mean

genus Panthera, which have no

wide

leopard's

is

Young leopards

will

avoid confrontation with these species. Leopards

have been known to abandon freshly a single jackal or

domestic

terrier

killed

—animals

prey less

which under other circumstances they might

when

than half their

easily

Females with young to feed and defend are more

or

engage

a standoff that

in

attention. Apparently, prize

it

is

is

challenged by

kill

and

lUCN

strangely reluctant to fight

might attract yet more unwanted

simply easier for the leopard to give up

©A

snarling leopard.

Despite

thicket of dense vegetation. High branches that

ferocious

its

or ledge as a den, or perhaps a tree hole or

it

seems that

make good

conservation into plans for the development of

the leopard

is

vulnerable

would be much too dangerous

of the world's poorer countries,

and they

help strengthen the case for legal protection.

to attack

by other large

predators.

It

will

often

choose to give up

Home Ranges

rather than

home

large

is

ranges,

source of prey.

It

will also

suitable for feeding, resting,

and

for hiding

overlap with those of up to

may have

the male

breeding.

In

six

larger.

They

females to

exclusive access for

spite of such a

complex mosaic of

leopard activity areas, the core of an individual leopard's

home

is

usually respected,

an adult leopard for the cubs,

which are born blind and barely able to crawl.

Young leopards spend

a long time with their

mother. Unless the babies die very young,

be at

least

again.

two

it

will

years before the female breeds

Young males

disperse

and go

first

inbreeding later on. Their mother

contain

young. Male ranges are significantly

resting places for

farthest away, so reducing the risk of

always a core area

several trees or other secure places that are

whom

prey

in

confrontation.

that remains private. Such an area will have a reliable

its

engage

However,

at the edges.

within the range there

its

and begin hunting again elsewhere.

appearance

live in

eat.

draw

to

governments and other

Female leopards

size,

to stand their

likely

organizations trying to incorporate leopard

which may overlap

are

frequently killed by lions, hyenas, and wild dogs, and even fully

its

attention to their status. Separate designations

some

vulnerable to

that the subspecies

are listed separately by the

are useful to

of the

ground, but on the whole the leopard

body

and the varying fortunes of

members

enemies other than humans, the leopard

natural

mature adults

is

traditional Asian medicines,

more threatened subspecies. The distribution

in

for skins has

demand

replaced by an increasing

is

on Appendix

permitted

is still

U

nlike other

attack and harassment by other predators.

low

listed

where they remain

African countries

poaching

critically

now

tightly controlled. Killing leopards

for sport, however,

parts for use

for

Many

fashionable fur coats and stoles.

levels;

demand

every year to satisfy the

© A leopard with her

less tolerant of

cub of three months.

hunt

Male cubs generally

Daughters may stay close to

them

become

will

as soon as they learn to

successfully, usually at

about 18 months. their

mother much

remain with their mother

longer and continue to share

for 18 months, until they

family arrives. After that the younger females

learn to

hunt

successfully.

Daughters stay for

have

little

kills until

the next

or no contact with their mother,

although they may set up

home

nearby.

longer, usually until the

mother breeds again.

and

strangers tend to keep away. Overlying male

and female home ranges, there may be layer of less well-defined ranges

a third

occupied by

younger, nonbreeding animals. Copious scent

marking and vocalizations mean that unrelated leopards hardly ever meet.

Pregnant females do not build a nest, but will

give birth to their cubs

their core range.

in

a secure part of

They may use a rocky crevice

33

LARGE CARNIVORES

Snow Leopard A

large leopard of the high mountains, the

ieopard Common name Snow

a unique species. Aithough

is

leopard (ounce)

distributed, Scientific

name

Panthera

now becoming scarce.

it is

Panthera unda {Unda unda)

Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

The rare and beautiful snow leopard

Length head/body: 39-51

Size

tail

length:

24

shoulder:

^

31-39

Key features Long-bodied

(45-55

lb

kg);

tail;

fur

is

thick

all

and pale

more

are

Breeding

Active dusk to Litters of

dawn;

reason

1-5 (usually 2 or

3)

cubs born

Voice

in

some

pikas,

roar,

and

those of the smaller

cats. For this

loudly

in

its

zoologists place the species

own,

members

and huffing sounds;

its

exact relationship with other

of the cat family, the

enigmatic of

courtship; does not roar

snow

leopard

is

all

mammals.

Its

much coveted

coat grows up to 3 inches (8 cm) thick and has

deer,

a dense, woolly underlayer to protect the

and marmots; some domestic animals

Rocky mountainsides and grassy alpine plateaus at 9,000-20,000

ft

mountain home. The of icy

India, Pakistan,

Tajikistan,

fur

in its

even covers the soles

(2,700-6,000 m)

Distribution Mountainous parts of China, Nepal, Bhutan,

Status

a

in

Unda.

called

leopard from the bitterly cold weather Habitat

its

and feeding technique

undoubtedly one of the most attractive and

Mountain animals, including goats,

Diet

like

Whatever

the wild

Soft growls, grunts,

moans

Felis,

Thickly Furred Coat

Weaned at 2-3 months; sexually mature May live up to 15 years in 21

genus

90-103

at 2 years. captivity,

it

solitary; very agile

April-June after gestation period of days.

many ways

over body, except the underside

genus of Habits

leopard cannot

characteristic postures

gray to creamy-white, with gray spots and rosettes

snow

the

cats,

cat with relatively short legs,

and long

in

such as the lynx and puma. Unlike other big

(35-40 kg)

lb

and leopards. But

also resembles small cats of the

Weight Male 100-121 female 77-88

small head,

cats like lions at

(60 cm)

in

usually

(100-130 cm);

in

(80-100 cm); height

in

is

the genus Panthera alongside big

classified in

its

huge

feet, providing insulation against

ground and protection from sharp

rocks.

the It

Afghanistan, Uzbekistan,

also helps spread the cat's

Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia

Population: fewer than 7,000;

Endangered; CITES

I.

In

move

lUCN

hunting; also persecuted by livestock farmers

life

weight so that

over the surface of soft

sinking

decline as a result of

in.

it

can

snow without

For an animal that spends most of

above the snow

line,

it

its

might be thought

that a pure-white coat like a polar bear's

would

provide the best camouflage. But on the

mountainsides of the Himalayas and Hindu

Kush there are nearly always exposed gray rocks

and stones, and against ;

a

snow

this

type of background

leopard's highly patterned coat

is

virtually invisible.

The snow leopard has other adaptations to

I

I I f

34

SEE ALSO Leopard

the cold, including large nostrils

warmed way

as

it

is

in

which

air

is

inhaled and cooled again on the

out. Exhaling

stiii

warm

breath into cold

2:30; Fox, Arctic 2:70; Bear, Polar 2:84; Pika Family, The 8:94

air

snow wideiy

unda

CATS SNOW LEOPARD

wastes energy;

it

condensation that could

alert a prey

the leopard's presence, and ice

on the

head

snow

Q

Living

on “the roof of

the world," the rare beautiful

and

snow leopard

is

cat's face.

The

it

fur

is

sleeping,

as a muffler to keep

its

it

animal to

also could turn to

on the face and

not as thick as elsewhere; so

leopard

leap a vertical distance of about

also creates puffs of

curls

when

its tail

nose warm. The

the

around tail is

Its

in

is

be able to

said to

a single

technique. So long as

of a

Despite the chunky appearance created by the

snow

those of a yeti.

agile

leopard's thick

members

few

on to

wailing mating cries

fur,

it

is

one of the most

of the cat family.

It

is

able to

5 m) is

can get close enough

bring the animal to the ground and

a

in

Snow

In

a

which the leopard moves range.

its

home

leopards occupy overlapping

ranges, but they are generally

of prey.

inflict

hunting ground within

of the range

can

several sittings over a period

days, after

new

it

one powerful movement. Large

prey are eaten

could be mistaken for

it

to prey like the Himalayan blue sheep,

when

Agile Hunter

(1

an important part of the leopard's hunting

killing bite in

the leopard leaps from rock to rock.

50 feet

travel

m)

(6

bound! This great leaping prowess

extremely long and serves as a counterbalance

has attained almost mythical status.

and

20 feet

depends on the

solitary.

local

The

abundance

Nepal, for example, a leopard

spend most of

size

may more

its life in

an area of

little

than 5 square miles (12

sq. km). In

Mongolia,

on the other hand,

a

range may extend to

over 400 square miles

(1

,000

sq.

km) and

include large expanses of desert plateau

in

between mountains.

Snow from

leopards are suffering greatly

loss of habitat to

grazing livestock,

and they are often persecuted as Not after

open

surprisingly, their fur

is

pests.

highly sought

and even today can be found on sale in

some

legal protection.

parts of Asia, despite

There are probably no

more than 7,000 snow leopards

left in

the wild, and an intensive

program of education and law enforcement throughout species

is

is

its

required

range

if

the

to survive.

.f

m

_

r

35

LARGE CARNIVORES

Jaguar The jaguar

Panthera onca

Hemisphere equivalent

the Western

is

t

of the leopard, occurring widely I

:

in Central

and southern America.

f

I

Common name Scientific

name

Jaguar

The jaguar has a distinctly stocky build and short tail

4

compared with

the largest cat

Panthera onca

in

its

cousin the leopard.

is

It

the Americas, having survived

‘j

5

.

Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

mammals

the mass extinction of other large

at

the end of the Pleistocene era (2 million years ago).

Length head/body: 44-73

Size

in (1

12-185 cm);

length:

18-30

in

(45-75 cm); height at

shoulder;

27-30

in

(68-76 cm)

tail

Weight Male 200-264 kg);

Key features

female

1

30-200

lb

and

lb

(90-120

(60-90 kg)

and broad, heavy-looking head;

*

and

rings; black individuals

known

| |

but mostly around

I

any time of day

Solitary; territorial; active at

dawn and

massive jaws

shells. This explains

much in

I

Habits

such as crocodiles and

may have

turtles,,

evolved as an

the jaguar's enduring

fondness for waterside habitats; even though

fur pale

gold to reddish-brown with spots arranged rosettes

its

to survive by preying on fish

reptiles,

adaptation for cracking open turtle and tortoise

Large, robust-looking cat with short, thick

tail

managed

It

and large

dusk; excellent

land,

of

its

it still

prey kills

is

nowadays caught on dry

by piercing the

skull rather

than

way

by breaking the neck or strangulation the other cats normally do.

f

swimmer and climber |

Breeding

Litters of

1-4 cubs born

at

any time of year

tropics after gestation period of

(seasonal

in

north and south).

93-105 days

Weaned

months; sexually mature at 2-4 years. live

up to 22 years

in captivity,

24

in

at

From Hunter to Hunted

in

5-6

May

|

The

|

livestock in the region probably provided

f

unexpected boost to the jaguar population

arrival of

European

Grunts and

Mostly peccaries and capybaras; also tapirs

and other mammals; crocodiles and

There

an in

Forests, scrub, grasslands,

prefers habitats with

is

new

species of potential

new

evidence that the

feeding

opportunities actually increased jaguar numbers

fish

for a time.

Habitat

their

mews prey.

Diet

settlers

the wild

the form of several Voice

and

I

and semidesert;

However,

this period of

growth was

t

short-lived, since

water nearby f

for skins

people began to hunt jaguars

and to protect themselves and

their

Distribution Central and South America south to I

northern Argentina and Paraguay

animals from attack. The trade

in

jaguar skins

® Jaguars survived extinction 2 million years

I.

Status

Population:

unknown, probably

thousand; lUCN Lower CITES

I.

Declining

in

Risk:

peaked during the 1960s, when tens of

near threatened;

range and population

thousands of

pelts

were exported to Europe and

the United States each year. Jaguars rarely attack people, but they will follow intruders, giving frightened

unwanted

humans the

impression they are being stalked.

The range of the jaguar used to extend well into the southern United States,

and the animal

was once the dominant predator from Arizona. The States

last

jaguars resident

in

Florida to

the United

were probably eliminated quite

early in

the 20th century. However, wandering animals still

36

SEE ALSO

ago by preying on

fish

several

occasionally cross the border from Mexico,

Tiger 2:20; Leopard 2:30; Tapir, Brazilian 5:64; Peccary, Collared 5:90

and

reptiles.

catch

on

Today they

most of their prey

land,

but

still

prefer

waterside habitats.

and

in

1996 there were two confirmed

sightings

population

out

Arizona. But the Mexican

in

is

declining, too,

and may number

fewer than 500 animals. Elsewhere, the jaguar is

doing better, especially

law prohibits trade

now

his range,

boundaries

that international

its

will

be

respected by other

males

in

the area.

Both sexes occasionally leave their

in its skins.

range and wander Territorial Jaguars are

widely, in territorial,

but part of their

home

range can overlap with that of another individual.

Male home ranges are

at least twice

as large as those occupied by females

160 square miles (about 400 tigers,

right,

land.

male jaguars hold

— up to

sq. km). Like

territories

by prior

many

cases settling

somewhere new.

©

Entirely black jaguars

Such journeys may be associated with the

are relatively

movements

They are not a different

usually

of prey. Females that

do so when they

may mate with may be

wander

are ready to breed

several males along the way.

the only

way

a

female can influence

and It

common.

species, but simply a

genetically determined

color variant.

which male fathers her offspring, since an

thereby avoiding the need to fight over

adult male can occupy the

As long as the male continues to mark

throughout

his

same range

reproductive

life.

37

LARGE CARNIVORES

Bobcat and

Territorial

confused with

Fdis rufus

its

Common name Scientific

name

Bobcat

t

sometimes

taiis,

but the bobcat tends

be the more aggressive of the two.

The bobcat

so called because of

is

its

short

tail,

which resembles the docked bobtails of some

rufus

Felis

is

ciose cousin, the iynx. Both cats

have tufted ears and short to

bobcat

soiitary, the

I

Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

domestic mammals.

It

North American

the lynx, but there are few

places Length head/body: 25.5-41

Size

%

tail

length: 4-7.5

in

shoulder: 17.5-23

Weight 9-33

Key features

at

(45-58 cm)

lynx

from buff to brown with

tufts; ruff of fur

small feet that sink limit of

Breeding

Litters of

1-6 kittens born after gestation

period of

60-70

at

1

than

Voice

1

3

in

I

days, usually

year,

spring.

males at 2 years.

in captivity,

i

May

Small prey,

'f

So the northern

determined

is

average snowfall.

almost any habitat; hence their wide

live in

most of North

natural distribution throughout

t

America, They are only absent where large and shrieks

in

areas are intensively cultivated or given over to

and during courtship

mammals and

birds;

sometimes

larger

places

development. They are scarce

in

where they have been overhunted.

Their

such as small deer; domestic animals

varied diet

Habitat

better

Bobcats are true generalists, which means they

industrial

Diet

much

Adaptable Cats

can

live

probably no more

the wild

Usually silent, but hisses distress

in

months; females sexually

up to 32 years

in easily.

the bobcat's distribution

largely by the

mature

is

day or night

Solitary; territorial; active

at 2

drive the latter out of habitats

around jowls

Habits

Weaned

alongside

adapted to snow than the bobcat, which has

darker spots and streaks; ears pointed, often

with

and usually

that suit both. However, the lynx

Small, slender-limbed, short-tailed cat; fur

thick, varies in color

live

another

each other. Bobcats are more aggressive than

(4-15 kg)

lb

where the two species

lot like

(65-105 cm);

in

(11-19 cm); height

in

cat,

looks a

Varied; includes forests, scrub,

is

a

major factor

in their adaptability.

swamp, Their preferred prey appears to be rabbits

mountains, and the edges of deserts

hares, but they will eat other small

and

mammals

Distribution North America

Status

Population: 700,000-1 million; CITES

Declined

in

the past due to persecution;

harvested for fur under license

in

and many

larger

peccaries,

and

ones too, including beavers,

II.

some

deer.

Hoofed mammals are the

still

states

main winter prey of bobcats their range,

the north of

in

and Canadian bobcats are usually

larger than those living in the south. This helps

them cope with bigger

prey.

The bobcat's hunting technigue almost always

relies

on

surprise.

With

its

mottled coat

providing admirable camouflage, a bobcat can

sneak up on the most

alert of victims, using a

combination of stealth and endless patience.

The

kill

is

made

bite to the

with a sudden leap and a guick

back of the neck, separating the

backbones and severing the

38

SEE ALSO

lynx 2:40; Ocelot 2:44, Beaver, American 7:30; Hare,

spinal cord.

Snowshoe 8:74

JfMy

CATS BOBCAT

Of course, the need to breed means that

Bobcats can be active at any time of day,

males and females must meet at some point,

but most animals adjust their activity to match that of their preferred prey.

9 miles

(1

5

km)

a

day

in

and mating occurs any time between

They wander up to

November and August. Most

search of food,

stopping often to mark and re-mark the

boundaries of their

home

range. Females have

smaller ranges than males miles

(1

to

20

sq.

km)

with any others. Male

in

in

—0.4 to 8 square

comes

©

can be

anything from 2 to 16 square miles

40

the year.

the year

— but they do not overlap territories

spring, but

Bobcats are solitary

some a

If

when

into

births

female

kittens are

born

happen much

later

loses her

the kittens are very young, she

season again and

replacement

litter in late

may produce

summer. The

mother

are able to follow their

km), and they can overlap the ranges of other

breeding season they

four months, and they learn hunting

males and several females.

will

Respecter of Boundaries

seem

Outside the breeding season bobcats go out of

other's territories.

sq.

go out of

to avoid

their

way

to avoid meeting,

intensive scent

which leads to

marking to warn others away.

Marks are made with urine and

feces,

secretions from the cat's anal glands.

marking

is

very effective,

and with

The

and bobcats appear to

respect each other's territorial boundaries.

Aggressive encounters seem very

rare,

and the

ownership of a particular range area only

changes when the resident -animal

dies.

their

way

meeting and

to respect each

watching

her.

a

kittens

after three or

animals. Outside the

(5 to

of

first litter

They stay with her

skills

until

she

by is

ready to breed again, then head off to find a place of their own.

There are probably about living in

some has

1

million

bobcats

North America. They are protected

states, notably

become

rare.

in

those where the species

Elsewhere, they are hunted r

pelts

LARGE CARNIVORES

€ Felis lynx

A

medium-sized

stocky,

the lynx

cat,

is

Common name name

Felis (Lynx) lynx

Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

length:

members

ail

Canadian

4-10

in

Weight 18-84

Key features Stocky

in

(80-130 cm);

(10-25 cm); height

shoulder; 23.5-29.5

mr

an ongoing

remarkably

The

and Eurasian

lynx

lynx) look

(F.

be advantageous for the its

spread

its

and stop

weight evenly

it

from sinking

into fresh snow. Lynx will

their

life in

different parts of the world.

and

often hunt deer that get

bogged down

large, furry

from pale gray through

Distinctive Tail

snow and so

Lynx are close cousins of bobcats, but can be

relatively

Solitary; nocturnal;

wanders widely told apart by

Breeding

1-4 kittens born April-June after

Litters of

gestation period of

67-74

days.

Weaned

have short

Voice Diet

Habitat

and mews,

Hisses

17

bobcat's

the wild

in

tail

tip

is

but usually silent

live

on

contrast, the

tip. In

on

black just

is

lynx are Eurasian

Arctic hares

The

top.

specimens from

largest

Siberia.

and other mammals

They

several

Mostly eats small- and medium-sized

times bigger than themselves, such as reindeer

mammals,

including hares

(caribou).

Mixed and

taiga forest, scrub, steppe, rocky

and small deer

hunting

alpine slopes

Distribution Eurasian Turkey,

much

lynx’

Snow

northeastern Europe, Balkans,

can be an advantage to a

lynx, since

down and

become bogged

deer can

are then easier to catch.

feet are large

and

furry,

so

over a larger area, allowing of former U.S.S.R., Mongolia,

Canadian

lynx:

Population;

Canada, Alaska, northern

unknown, but

certainly

Vulnerable (Canadian); CITES

snow without

(Canadian and Eurasian).

All

U.S.

many

(Iberian), I

(Iberian),

spread

to run across

it

lynx are I

and Canadian

sinking. Iberian

about

and

half the size of Eurasian lynx

generally hunt smaller prey.

| II

have declined,

mainly as a result of hunting for fur

is

lynx's

and

lynx: Spain, Portugal.

thousands; lUCN Endangered

The

weight

its

and the Middle East excluding Arabia,

northern China. Iberian

Status

Both species

but that of the lynx

tails,

completely black at the

months, males at 21-31 months. Lives up to in captivity,

tail.

at

3 months; females sexually mature at 9-21

24 years

examining the

| I

Feeding Habits The Canadian

lynx feeds almost exclusively

on

|

snowshoe

hares,

and

its

numbers

fluctuate from

year to year according to the availability of the hares. Iberian lynx mainly feed

on mammals

such as rabbits, although they are also able to catch birds and air

fish,

hooking them out of the

or water with a swipe of their sharp claws.

For the smaller lynx a rabbit a day

is

sufficient

food, but larger lynx eat rather more. Having killed a big it

40

SEE ALSO Bobcat

animal such as a deer, they

to safety, eat

what they

can,

2:38; Reindeer/Caribou 6:20; Rabbit, European 8:68; Hare,

will

and cache

drag

(store)

Snowshoe 8:74

to catch.

easy

i

in the

^

are

yellow to reddish-brown; ears tufted

Habits

i

large, furry feet help

but they have different

similar,

conditions can

hunting lynx, since

canadensis), Iberian lynx

(F.

behavioral adaptations to suit

cat with longish legs

feet; color varies

lynx are

species or not.

Snowy

(60-75 cm)

in

(8-38 kg)

lb

lynx

pardinus),

(F.

tail

at

same

of the

©

debate about

scientific

whether the three recognized types of

Length head/body: 31-51

Size

is

It is

be three separate species.

to

Lynx (Eurasian lynx)

There Scientific

:

widely

distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

sometimes considered

1

It

^

j

jM -

'the rest for

almost always a

Hunting

later.

is

solitary activity,

although mothers have sometimes

been seen helping

grown

their fully

young to hunt. Newly independent sometimes team up with the

first

few months

lynx

a sibling for

after leaving their

mother's care.

Endangered Species Female lynx mature faster than males

and can be capable of breeding within their first year.

However, few do so

because breeding availability.

found

regulated by habitat

is

Lynx do not breed

home range

a suitable

possible to rear young.

where habitat

may

is

In

they have

until

which

in

places

like

it

will

be

Spain,

greatly restricted, adult lynx

never get the opportunity to breed. Of the

few hundred

Iberian lynx left

in

the wild fewer

than a third are thought to be breeding females, making this one of the world's most

endangered

cats.

Canadian and Eurasian

lynx

are faring better, although both have been extensively hunted

in

and

several

are

luxurious, still

legally

and

the past. Lynx fur

is

dense

thousand animals

shot or trapped every year for

their fur. In

Central Europe lynx have been

reintroduced to parts of Germany, Slovenia,

and Switzerland; and while for these cats, there are

it

is still

early days

encouraging

signs.

The

Swiss animals have bred successfully for several seasons, and

some have now spread

Alps into northern

Italy

of their

own

over the accord.

a

LARGE CARNIVORES

Puma

Fdis concolor

Common name

puma

The

Puma

the second largest cat in the Americas

is

(cougar,

and by far

panther,

mountain

most widespread, with a natural range

the

extending from Canada

to Patagonia.

lion,

catamount) Scientific

name

Felis

Puma, cougar, panther, and mountain

concolor

lion are

widely used names for the same animal Family

Order Size

^

Felidae

Carnivora

21-32

in

(96-196 cm);

female 80-132

are

lb

(67-120

lb

are

large,

rounded

and

and bobcats than to

closely related to

first

cousins to the domestic cat. They are

warm

any time of day; climbs

weak

but often use trees to

lie in

wait for passing

Weaned

at 3

2.5-3 years.

captivity, rarely

months; sexually mature

May

live

up

to 21 years

more than 14

in

in

the wild

and screams

Voice

Hisses, growls, whistles,

Diet

Carnivorous; mostly deer; also other hoofed

may chase

a prey

a short distance before leaping on

animal for

its

back.

In

A

two weeks.

lone adult

safe place

is

killed

with a bite to the

puma may

It

will

and hide

it

only need to

kill

drag the carcass to a

under a heap of

debris, returning to feed on

dirt

and

again and again.

it

mother puma with cubs

life is

demanding, and she may have to

rather

kill

more

a deer

Very varied; lowland and mountain forests,

Solitary Existence

Distribution Most of North and South America Population:

lUCN CITES

many thousands

panther

Florida

Critically II

{F.

coryi)

in total,

Pumas but

fewer than 50;

range although

now still

cats

are generally solitary, although

may

stay with their

mother

and then remain together

a

young

for over a year

few more months

(2 subspecies);

2 subspecies). Persecuted as

a pest in the past; its

c.

Endangered

(at least

kill

deer

individuals. In so

may be

helping maintain a

every three or four days to sustain her family.

swamps, grassland, and scrub

Status

neck.

every

For a

animals, rodents, and hares

Habitat

they

to select old or

doing they

them from above.

animals, dropping on

1-6 (usually 3 or 4) kittens born

January-June after gestation period of 90-96

at

more frequently

They prey mostly on ground-dwelling animals,

either case the prey

days.

sheep

cattle. In fact,

and tend

extremely well Litters of

and

extremely agile and can climb with great ease.

Alternatively, they

Breeding

livestock such as ’

tawny

buffy tones to dark Solitary; active at

and jaguars, and

lions

tail;

ears; coat

color varies from silvery gray through

Habits

more

reputation for killing

kg);

(36-60 kg)

Large, muscular cat with long legs

head with

pumas

larger size, lynx

(60-70 cm)

in

Weight Male 148-264

small

tail

deer. Despite their

(53-82 cm); height at

in

shoulder: 24-27.5

Key features

a

'r'--

medium-sized prey such as

Length head/body: 38-77 length:

_-xr,

0 Pumas have

on

highly adaptable, agile predator that feeds

;

^

—

,

protected

hunted

in

in

parts of

other areas

after she has left

disperses,

while,

them. After the family

young pumas

live

as

nomads

for a

wandering through the ranges of

resident

pumas

until

they find a place to

settle.

While they may be capable of breeding by the

age of two

years, they will not

have established themselves Females occupy large

may

overlap

of other

more

in

do so

until

a suitable

home

they

home.

ranges, which

or less completely with those

pumas, but they avoid meeting by the

use of scent marks and various vocalizations. Except

when

they have young kittens, females

wander widely over Lynx 2:40

their entire range, using

healthy deer population.

CATS PUMA

various patches of dense vegetation or small

caves to rest

Males operate ranges are

rather than a regular den.

in,

in

much

a similar way, except their larger

—

sometimes over 400

sguare miles (1,000 sq. km)

—and they overlap

Gradual Comeback Intensive eradication attempts

exterminated pumas from

all

much

but of North

America, leaving only small populations

in

western mountains, southern Texas, and

only with female pumas, not other males. They

Florida.

The animals appear to be making

use scent marking more frequently than

gradual

comeback

females, especially around the borders of their

eastern states, but they are

range. They

do not generally

and new residents only move

fight over territory,

when

in

the

previous occupant dies.

Pumas have

livestock such as horses, cattle,

that

but

is

in

relatively infrequent.

so doing

may

and sheep, but

They

kill

actually help

deer, too,

keep the deer

population healthy, since they tend to select old or

weak

individuals.

It

also prevents the deer

from getting too numerous. Pumas have

been implicated attacks on

in

a

number

humans, but

they avoid people.

The

in

of fatal

general

in

more than 50

a

some Midwestern and

Florida population

is

still

hunted

in

Texas.

thought to number no

individuals, despite millions of

dollars being spent

a reputation for killing

the

on

their conservation.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Ocelot

Felis pardalis

Ocelot numbers are

now recovering from

heavy losses

caused by hunting and trapping. The animal's

was highly prized

beautiful, lustrous fur

at a time

when wearing fur was considered fashionable. Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

In

1960s and 1970s the exquisitely patterned

the

•i

Length head/body: 22-39

in

(55-100 cm);

12-18

in

(30-45 cm); height

shoulder: up to 20

Weight 25-35 Key features

in

t

rings

fashionable streets of

cat,

England, and

New

were

was

so sought after that over 200,000 wild animals

color; usually

were

killed

every year to supply the demand,

stripes

can climb and swim well

Solitary; nocturnal;

around racecourses

York. Unfortunately, the coats

more than any other Habits

Paris,

the chic restaurants of Berlin

in

being worn by people, not cats. Ocelot fur

with

and streaks

and 2 cheek

in

and

around blotches of intermediate tail

on the

sight

5

tawny

Pale gray to reddish or

variable pattern of dark spots

has dark

at

(50 cm)

(11.5-16 kg)

lb

common

a

tail i

length:

was

coat of the ocelot

Most

cat.

of the

dead

animals were exported from South and Central

but spends most of time on the ground

America to Europe, where by the 1980s an Breeding

Litters of

1-3 kittens born at any time of year

79-85

after gestation period of

Weaned at

at 6

weeks; females sexually mature

18-22 months, males

live

ocelot fur coat could fetch

days.

up to 21 years

meows

at

30 months. May

in captivity,

15

Voice

Yowls and

Diet

Mainly rodents and rabbits, but

like

in

the wild

domestic cat

known

amphibians, and

excess of

I

$800,000. Ocelots are not small animals, but

|

can take a

|

because the

:

whose

lot

of

them

furrier

to

make

just

it

one coat

has to find pieces of fur

patterns match along the seams.

to

catch small deer, monkeys, and wild pigs; also birds, reptiles,

in

New

Problems

fish

Hunting almost drove the ocelot to extinction Habitat

Varied; includes tropical forest,

mountainous

areas,

in

swamp,

many

and dry scrub

places, but the species

protected.

In

some

parts of

is

its

now

widely

former range

it

Distribution Southwestern Texas, Central and South

America Status

down

to northern Argentina

(Texas subspecies): CITES

ocelots are facing

lUCN Endangered

Population: 1.5-3 million;

in

appears to be on the increase.

I.

may number

fewer than 100 animals, with only 150

problems, mostly

involving loss of habitat. Ocelots are highly

Possibly recovering

places, but Texas subspecies

new

other areas

In

adaptable

cats.

They eat almost any small- to

in

medium-sized animal and

Mexico

live in

habitats as

and

varied as tropical forest, thorny scrub,

mountains. Their only consistent requirement that the habitat includes in

some dense vegetation

which to hide during the

day. In the states of

Texas and Louisiana such thickets have very rare.

Most have been grubbed out

agriculture or lost ;

due

It

is

become for

to grazing by cattle.

ocelots that once lived there have

disappeared.

is

all

believed that there

only be about 100 wild Texas ocelots

The

but

may now left in

the

United States, restricted to the extreme

southwest of Texas.

m 44

SEE ALSO Leopard

2:30; Bobcat 2:38; Lynx 2:40

y

CATS OCELOT

which overlap with those of several females.

Intensive Research The

plight of the ocelot has

prompted

program of intensive research As

a result,

it

is

now

better

into the species.

known than many

other small cats. Studies of ocelots

the wild

in

have shown that while most animals solitary lives, ties

they

manage

Males and females meet to breed, but apart

a

live

to maintain social

with their neighbors.

range of up to 4.5 square miles

(1

1

home sq. km).

Males have ranges of up to twice the

size.

rarely

seen together. Raising the

very

much

the female's responsibility.

family

©

The ocelot's striking

In

is

the tropics seasonal changes

food are

coat provides effective

camouflage among the

can breed at any time of year.

rain forest— but at

time

made

it

one

a target for

fur hunters and trappers.

the

in

insignificant, so ocelots

availability of

dense vegetation of the

Female ocelots occupy a private

from that are

the north of

In

the species' range, however, they mate

in

winter, so the kittens are born

when

there

is

in

spring

plenty of prey to support them.

There are usually just one or two rarely three,

extremely

but they are lively

demanding.

much

kittens,

It

and often as

is

mother

as their

can do to keep her smal family out of danger as

they

try to investigate

their world. Infant

mortality can be high,

adolescents are

more prone

and

much

to

misadventure than experienced adults.

means

All this

that the overall rate

of population increase frustratingly slow,

where the ocelot

is

even receives

special protection.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Serval

Felis serval

Resembling a small, slender leopard, the serval occurs I

over most of Africa, except in deserts and dense forest. The serval has been described as the "cat of spare

Common name Scientific

Family

Order

name

Serval

parts,"

Felis serval

elongated legs

and with

I

Carnivora

Length head/body: 26-39 length:

9-18

Weight 20-40

in

(67-100 cm);

this unlikely animal's

lb

in

presumably nature and

(9-18 kg)

Most

rounded

large,

ears; coat

light

is

beige to dark gold, pale on underside, and

marked with

and

variable black spots

behavior as well as

—the name

its

from the

serval derives

refers to the serval's predatory

and bounds.

deerlike leaps

its

servals are

marked

all

over with large

black spots, but

some have much

markings, more

like freckles.

finer

Animals

like this

streaks;

are

black rings on

sometimes

were once

called servalines; they

tail

thought to be a different species. Now, Active by day or night; solitary and

performs leaps as a

Breeding

and

Portuguese words for "wolf-deer" and

(54-62 cm)

Slender, long-limbed cat with longish neck

and very

Habits

ears, small face,

easy to see why. Early

tail

(24-45 cm); height at

in

shoulder: 21-24.5

Key features

is

European explorers were obviously puzzled by

Felidae

appearance Size

huge

its

it

One

means or 2

when

territorial;

of seeing over long grass

litters

I

of 1-4 kittens born each year

we know

however,

hunting, displaying, and

I

that speckle-coated

individuals are just a genetic variation

and that

both spotted and speckly kittens can occur

in

I.

after gestation period of

74 days. Weaned

6 months; sexually mature at 2 years. live

up to 20 years

at

the

same

litter.

May f.

in captivity,

13

in

the wild

Graceful Hunters Voice

Growls, purrs, and

Diet

Mostly mice; also small

Habitat

Riverside grasslands

shrill,

far-carrying calls

f

Despite

gawky appearance, the

its

serval

is

far

ii

regions,

mammals and

birds

from awkward.

and reed beds; savanna

long legs and neck are an

among

life

stems, and

enormous

tall

grass and reed

mountain grasslands

Distribution Most of sub-Saharan Africa, excluding |

Congo

Its

adaptation to

Basin

and

large deserts such as the

Namib, Karroo, and Kalahari. Small outlying population

in

Morocco

|

its

ears act as highly

sensitive dish antennae, rotating this

way and

that to pinpoint the tiniest sound.

| |

Servals are efficient hunters

and succeed

in

I

Status

Population: abundant;

making a

lUCN Endangered

kill

in

about

half of their attempts.

j

(Morroccan subspecies); CITES

II.

Common,

but declining due to hunting and habitat loss

f

|

f I

This success rate

is

even higher at night, but

servals adjust their daily activity to the behavior

of their preferred prey. For example,

the rats

in

if

most of

an area are active by day, then the

servals will

be too. Ground-dwelling prey are

located mainly by sound, then attacked with a typical catlike

pounce. Servals can also catch

birds, leaping

up to 10 feet

grass to swat

them

front paws.

The

(3

m) out of the

to the ground with their

serval's

long legs can also be

used for scooping small animals out of burrows,

and the claws to

46

SEE ALSO Cheetah

serval has flexible wrists assist this action.

If

and hooked

there

is

shallow

2:26; Leopard 2:30; Dog, African Wild 2:78; Hyena, Spotted 2:108

CATS SERVAL

water nearby, the serval may

wade

in

to hunt

for fish or frogs.

Leaping Displays Servals

occupy

fairly

small

home

ranges, which

overlap considerably. However, each animal has a core area of personal territory, servals usually avoid.

than females and urine over

may mark

500 times

which other

Males are more

a day. Intruding

ears, but

The youngsters

learn to hunt by

mother. She

will

away almost

as

with

males are

watching

drive the males of her

their

bit longer.

soon as they can feed

set

When

up home not

they do leave, they far

often

will

females are only receptive for a day at a time.

The

kittens are

moved adults

born

regularly

in

the long grass and

from place to

place. Both

and young are vulnerable to predation by

hyenas, dogs, and leopards. Baby servals are

its

is

efficient

huge ears can pinpoint the faintest sound.

away.

Saharan Africa and remain

common

in

many

parts of their range. Even so, they have

still

been eradicated from populated areas,

rarely

brief, since

appearance

Servals are widespread throughout sub-

bouncing and leaping, but disputes is

atter)tive

alert,

hunting techniques. The

suffered their share of persecution and have

aggressive. Courtship

The serval's

indicative of

litter

treated to a highly conspicuous display of

become

©

rapidly.

themselves, but young females stick around a

territorial

their core area

they grow

born with small

including

most of South

especially valuable in

Africa. Serval fur

in itself,

traditional African

skins.

Some

not

but pelts are used

costumes and sometimes

sold to gullible tourists as

cheetah

is

baby leopard or

tribes regard serval

meat

as a delicacy.

47

LARGE CARNIVORES

Wildcat

Felis silvestris

Wildcats are savage predators, yet one form has been

domesticated for thousands ofyears and

is

loved as a family pet the world over.

Common name Wildcat Scientific

name

Felis silvestris

The wildcat Family

Felidae

Order

Carnivora

members

is

one of the most widespread

of the cat family, with a range

extending from western Europe south to South Length head/body: 20-30

Size

length:

8-14

(50-76 cm);

tail

shoulder: 15-22 lb

tail

fur,

because of

week

Litters of

1-8 kittens born after gestation

61-68

to

days; births occur late spring

north, during rainy season

year-round

1

in tropics.

mature

at

mewing,

at

in

live

up

the wild

Diet

Mainly small mammals, especially rabbits and

Habitat

Forests, scrub,

crevices

and amphibians

and open country with rocky

and patchy vegetation

rain forests);

Status

and

Vulnerable (Scottish population); CITES

some

local

populations

now

5 sq. km).

In

themselves

in

to

one

range of (1

and

cooler climates they need to keep

warm

in

order to save energy. They

often spend time basking

regular

common; lUCN

(Scottish population). Globally

home

between 0.4 and 2 square miles

on

a tree or

outcrop. By night they

and north-central China

Population: widespread and

few people. They tend

are

do

in

the sun, either

a secure rocky

move around

using

tropical

Middle East and central and India,

where there

on the branch of

including several Mediterranean islands;

southern Asia,

best

will

Distribution Scotland and southwestern Europe,

Africa (except for large deserts

about a

a variety of habitats, but they

live in

of several dens within a

and screeching

Catlike

rodents; also birds, reptiles,

is

their African cousins.

be nocturnal and spend the day hiding

Voice

hissing,

in

Nocturnal Predators Wildcats

30 days;

9-12 months. May fewer

longer than

in

south, and

in

Weaned

5 years in captivity,

Fi-r.

and gestation

their thicker coats,

European and central Asian cats

mainly active between dusk and

period of

sexually

appearance, physiology, and behavior.

European cats appear bigger than African cats

noticeably bushy with

dawn; excellent climber

in

many

local variations

very similar to a

blunt end

Breeding

its

(3-8 kg)

Smallish cat with thick

Solitary;

split into

is

some

isolated populations, with

domestic tabby;

Habits

and China. Within

India

range, however, the species

(38-56 cm)

in

in

Key features

and east to

Africa

(21-35 cm); height at

in

Weight 6.6-17.6

in

They catch prey using

spots.

pounce" technique. the

II

abundant, but

pathways between favored hunting

same

all

In

year round;

wildcats favor rabbits

a "stalk-and-

Africa the diet

in

is

much

parts of Europe

in

when

spring

there are

very small lots of viral

babies to catch, and

disease myxomatosis

attack.

often

in

the

makes

They also catch mice and

ambush

birds feeding

fall

when

adults easy to voles,

part in

in

a female, but then play

raising their family.

right to

no further

The young are born

a tree hollow or rock crevice

depend on

and

on the ground.

Males compete aggressively for the

mate with

the

where they

their mother's milk for the first

month. After that they emerge from the den to play

wm 48

SEE ALSO Leopard

2:30; Lynx 2:40;

Puma

and follow

their mother,

who

supplies

2:42; Vole, Field 7:92; Rabbit, European 8:68

much

CATS WILDCAT

them with meat

own

until

they can catch their

They disperse

prey.

the winter before

in

the start of the breeding season, and

females

may be mothers themselves

their first birthday. Males,

some before

however, rarely

breed before they are two or three years old because of competition for females

from

older,

more experienced

cats.

Well-known Relative The wildcat

is

the ancestor and

closest relative of the domestic cat.

The

latter

appeared

is

thought to have

in

Africa

between 4 and 8

thousand years ago,

a

mere

instant

in

evolutionary time. Sometimes the African wildcat

regarded as a

is

separate species to other wildcats (yet still

the origin of the domestic form).

Other

and

scientists consider wild

domestic cats to be the same species. is

certainly true that the

interbreed successfully.

the wildcat's range so taking place that there

purebred wildcats

One

of the

two can

some

much

parts of

hybridization

is

may soon be no

left.

most important differences

between wildcats and

their

temperament. True wildcats elusive,

In

It

domestic

relatives

is

really are wild,

and extremely ferocious.

It

is

claimed

they are impossible to tame. Indeed, they have every reason to detest humans. Studies of

European wildcat populations show that up to 92 percent of

all

deaths are due to

human

interference, through hunting or persecution,

accidental killing such as on roads, or

in

snares

set for other animals. Wildcats are protected by

law throughout Europe, but the expansion of

human

populations into previously unpopulated

areas of wildcat habitat to

become common

means they

there ever again.

Wildcats are generally nocturnal

and spend the day

hiding in dens. In cooler climates they

themselves

warm and

are unlikely

will often

need

to

keep

spend time basking

in

the sun on a tree branch or rock.

49

LARGE CARNIVORES

The Dog Family he

T same ago,

now

is

doglike animals probably appeared

first

time, but

was not

it

mammals

from

evolved at the

about 20

until

million years

became

the Miocene period, that dogs

distinct

what

North America about 38 million years ago.

Several other groups of

in

in

Antarctica and Australasia.

over the world except

all

More

dogs have

recently

reached almost everywhere, assisted by the unstoppable

advance of a single species

—our own.

and four on the back. The claws of the

front toes are separated from their pads

higher up the leg bears,

fox,

dogs walk on

weighing

fifth

and positioned

—they are known as dewclaws. Unlike their toes, not the

Wild dogs range

fully

their closest relatives, the bears. By that

time they had spread naturally

front feet

little

in

whole

foot.

from the diminutive fennec

size

more than 3 pounds

kg), to

(1 .4

the

great gray wolf, a large specimen that can weigh

170 pounds (77

kg).

The head of .a dog

is

typically long,

with well-developed jaws, forward-facing eyes, and

prominent

ears.

Dogs are smart animals and have a keen

sense of hearing, good eyesight, and a highly developed

What

a

Is

Members

Dog?

of the

sense of smell. Hearing

dog family (domestic dogs and

relatives, including

foxes and wolves) are "cursorial"

meaning they

animals,

and

accommodate

slender, with

Most species

are built for running.

have a lightweight body, a long, bushy chest to

their

efficient lungs.

most species having

tail,

The

and

a

five digits

bat-eared fox, which uses

movements

on the

its

(C lupus): coyote (C.

Nyctereutes

Speothos Chrysocyon

species, raccoon

1

species,

1

(C. latrans):

mesomelas): dingo

bush dog

species,

1

(C.

dog

maned wolf

(C.

sharp, biting incisors.

species, dhole (C. alpinus)

Lycaon

1

species, African wild

dog

(C.

{V.

(1/

{V.

simensis)

Most take

diet with fruit

The molar teeth are sharp, too,

few feed

a variety of prey

all

dogs belong

entirely

on other

and supplement

their

and other plant matter. The teeth of the

This unusual species also

has extra muscles to allow the fast chewing movements required to eat very small, active prey such as insects.

(L.

pictus)

{V. ruppelli):

bengalensis): corsac fox

Blanford's fox {V.

lagopus):

{V.

{V. velox):

cape fox {V.

cana):

Where Dogs

Live

Different kinds of wild

dogs have exploited

corsac)

of habitats from hot deserts (dingo

Urocyon

for

specialize in eating flesh, but they

more numerous.

smaller and

(Fennecus) zerda): swift fox

chama): Ruppell's fox

Indian fox

80

bat-eared fox differ from those of other dogs, being

12 species, including red fox (K vulpes): Arctic fox

fennec fox

to

chopping up meat. Dogs have 42 teeth, 10 more than

animals.

black-backed jackal

brachyurus)

1

Up

gray wolf

procyonoides)

Cuon

Vulpes

(C. familiarisy,

venaticus)

(S.

soil:

can also cope with other foods. Although

dingo): Ethiopian wolf

(N.

ears to listen for the

The dog's teeth include long, stabbing canines and

to the order Carnivora, very 8 species, including domestic dog

Canis

huge

of tiny creatures under the

humans. Most species Family Canidae: 10 genera, 36 species

especially acute in the African

percent of the bat-eared fox's diet consists of termites.

deep

legs are long

is

a

huge range

and fennec

fox) to

2 species, gray fox {U. dnereoargenteus): island gray fox

the high open grasslands of the arctic tundra and

ice

{U. littoralis)

Dusicyon

8 species, excluding the recently extinct Falkland Island wolf (D. australis)

Otocyon

1

fields (gray

wolf and Arctic

creatures of

fox).

open spaces such

Dogs are

usually

as grassland, prairies, or

species, bat-eared fox (O. megalotis)

0

Dholes are Asian wild dogs.

In

many

respects their lifestyle resembles

that of the African wild dog, with group living, cooperative hunting,

shared care of the young forming the basis of the

50

SEE ALSO

Wolf, Gray 2:54; Fox, Arctic 2:70; Fox, Fennec 2:74; Fox, Bat-Eared 2:76

society.

and

Eight species of fox depicted in a dash-and-swipe attack on a bird,

shown

left fo right to reflect their

gray fox

(1);

swift fox

(2):

Blanford's fox

west to east order of

cape fox

(6);

(3);

Indian fox

been characterized as

fennec fox (7);

(4);

Ruppell's fox

and

foxes are

distribution:

and corsac fox

solitary hunters

radio tracking has

(8).

Foxes have

foragers, but

that fox societies can be quite complex.

monogamous; others

adult male

(5);

shown

live in

and two vixens (female

groups generally made up of an

foxes). There

indicating that vixens join other groups, so

members of a group

are

Some

it is

is

no evidence

likely that the

female

all related.

4

52

SEE ALSO

Fox, Swi

:78;

Dingo 2:80; Thylacine 10:36

— THE

©

Ethiopian wolf pups with their mother. The pups have a close

with their mother, but other pack

members

will usually help

bond

feed them

once they have been weaned.

light

woodland. However, a few species, such as the bush

dog of South America, have adapted to

among dense

life

"Man's Best Friend" or Bad Wolf?

D

Dogs were taken to

about 4,000 years ago,

Australia

and they have accompanied humans to many other islands since then.

omestic dogs are classed as a single

many

Dogs have even been sent

diversity of

forms

in

over

400

recognized breeds. They are

They have reached Antarctica, where

they were used to pull the sleds of

generally regarded as

descendants of the gray wolf,

of the early

whose

into space!

naturally social

and

The

cooperative behavior

Lifestyle actually the

mammals

first

to be domesticated.

Perhaps the pups were originally taken

Soon

it

became

in

and reared as

dogs were useful and

clear that

sense of smell to use and helping

developed tracking and sniffing can carry small loads and food. There are

in

now many

all

abilities

some

were found

of humans.

domestic dogs

dog has become one

mammal

Island

and

virtually helpless.

Some dogs

live

of the

wolf

while others are more gregarious and called packs. faithful pairs,

years old.

in Iraq

Initially

mainly for use

in

The

earliest

remains that can be

Canis familiaris, the domestic dog,

and appear to be about 12,000

tamed and kept hunting

as working animals

—dogs have probably been

valued as companion animals for several thousand years. Ironically,

some

of the

hunting

skills)

give

many

same

qualities that

(their intelligence

make

and

wild dogs a bad name. Foxes,

dingoes, and wolves of almost every kind are

The young require

alone except

leader."

dogs so useful and popular

in

species.

prolonged period of parental care to learn

skills

when

a

such as

breeding,

live in social

The maned wolf of South America

persecuted

in at least

part of their range. Several

species are threatened with extinction, and at least one,

the Falkland Island wolf, has already been

exterminated

—

in

that case by sheep farmers.

groups

lives in

while gray wolves and African wild dogs are

highly social, living

whose

Dogs

are generally long-lived (10 years or more), but

are born small

hunting.

for the poorly

places are even used as

millions of

the world. With our help the

most successful of

make up

human "pack

reliably classified as

could help with hunting and tracking, putting their keen

Dogs

now extinct Falkland

transferred easily to a

Dogs were

pets.

Big,

species despite the extreme

vegetation.

explorers.

DOG FAMILY

in

packs dominated by a breeding pair

offspring are cared for by the entire group.

communicate using body postures and

facial expressions,

as well as a variety of barks, yelps, growls, whines,

howls. They also leave messages

in

Dogs

and

the form of special

Most dogs are nocturnal or crepuscular

dawn and

dusk). However, nearly

active during the day in places

all

some

species can be

where they have

no need to fear attack from humans, responsible for

(active at

who

are

large-scale losses.

scent deposited with urine or feces.

53

a

LARGE CARNIVORES

Gray Wolf

Canis lupus

Wolves are intelligent and adaptable creatures, often

Human

living in close-knit family groups.

wolves range from deep respect

attitudes to

to outright hostility,

fueled by chilling folk tales of their wickedness. Common name Scientific

name

Gray wolf (timber wolf)

The gray wolf

Can/s lupus

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

length:

12-20

shoulder:

t

in

(89-142 cm);

in

tail

but the most extreme tropical and desert

Weight 22-175

(10-80

lb

kg).

humans

Male

dog with

Large, long-legged

bushy

tail;

and

thick fur

nocturnal; hunts

less

down

the species has

solitary;

more

or

communally to bring

One

prey up to 10 times

to

1

1

its

1

in

3

to 16 years in captivity, rarely in

a

May

much

of

its

associated only with

more than

200

Growls, barks, whines, and howls

Diet

Mainly large

the 18th century and in

the

years.

Eradication Program In

North America the gray wolf was the chief

campaign of predator

target of a prolonged

Voice

in

eradication that

prey, including deer,

moose, muskox, mountain sheep, bison,

European trapped

began soon

in

after the arrival of

Wolves were shot and

settlers.

such numbers that by 1940 there

beavers, and hares

were none Habitat

Almost anywhere from tundra to scrub, grassland, mountains,

and

left in

the western United States,

and numbers elsewhere were

in

serious decline.

forest

More

recent

methods

of control include

Distribution Northern Hemisphere

poisoning and sport hunting from Status

Population:

many thousands; lUCN

Vulnerable; CITES

I

(India, Pakistan,

Bhutan); elsewhere CITES

II.

Similar eradication

programs

in

aircraft.

the former

Nepal,

Now more

stable

following centuries of persecution

Soviet Union reduced wolf numbers there by

about 70 percent. wolf

is

listed

now

rare.

In

other parts of Asia the

The Mexican wolf

by the lUCN as Extinct

only about 140 remaining

More

recently,

in

is

officially

the Wild, with

in captivity.

however, studies of wolf

populations have convinced biologists that far

from being a scourge of the land, wolves are fact

an important

stabilizing influence

in

on

wilderness ecosystems. Such discoveries, along

with a growing sense of responsibility toward wildlife in general,

54

SEE ALSO Coyote

2:58, Deer and Relatives 6:10;

Muskox 6:104

vary

in size

and appearance. Those and

much

larger than their relatives in the hot, dry

scrublands of Arabia.

at

live

the wild

mammal

and

den

63 days. Weaned

weeks; sexually mature at 2 years.

up

extinct over

may

for example, are

years,

from Japan and much of western Europe

own weight

(average 6) pups born

after gestation period of 5

now

altogether from Britain

following

Breeding

become

It is

wolf

300

areas

geographical

mountainous regions,

species. Persecution by

last

Gray wolves from

differer)t

living in arctic

areas of wilderness. Wolves disappeared

although sometimes

Social,

has a greater

wider variety of

a

led to a dramatic decline in

former range.

fur usually gray, although color

varies with distribution

Habits

—our own

in

numbers worldwide over the

larger than female

Key features

mammal

Only one other

natural range or lives

habitats

(58-77 cm)

in

0

It

in all

(30-51 cm); height at

23-28

the largest species of dog.

lived

habitats.

Length head/body: 35-56

Size

is

throughout the Northern Hemisphere

once

have prompted several wolf

— DOGS GRAY WOLF

Folklore:

the Big,

W

Who's Afraid of Bad Wolf?

olves have long

been the subject of myths and

legends. Stories such as

and The Three cold-blooded

Little

killers

domestic animals.

of

On

men and the other hand,

the legend of Romulus and

Remus

—the babies

raised by

and

Jungle Book stories

Kipling's

Red Riding Hood

Little

Pigs cast wolves as

wolves

portray wolves as wise and

devoted parents. is all

In reality

the wolf

these things and more.

conservation projects around the world. Several

European populations have

now been

saved

from extinction, and the range of the wolf North America places

there

is

increasing slowly.

where man and wolf

is

now

still

live

in

most

In

side by side

an uneasy truce enforced by laws

protecting the wolf from direct persecution, but giving livestock

owners some

their property. Nevertheless,

rights to protect

many country

people are not happy to share their land with

wolves and want them shot or trapped.

Efforts

to reintroduce wolves to Yellowstone National

Park have also run into difficulties with hostile residents

in

surrounding areas.

Geographical Differences Not surprisingly for such a widespread species, wolves from different geographical areas vary considerably

in size,

The biggest wolves

appearance, and behavior. live in

large packs

in

the

tundra regions of Canada, Alaska, and Russia. Their relatives

in

the hot, dry scrublands of

Arabia are smaller and more or

in

likely

to

live

alone

small groups.

The

size of a

by the size of

its

wolf pack

is

most regular

controlled largely prey.

Lone wolves

55

— LARGE CARNIVORES

do well where most of

food comes from

their

human

small prey, carrion, or raiding

Where deer

refuse.

are the main prey, packs of five to

days. During the time they are not actively

defend

may be

sizes

where wolves feed on very Royale National Park

larger

big prey. In the

Isle

from scavengers.

it

documented cases

of

and do attack

on moose, packs may include more

after

livestock.

Sheep and

close relatives of

all,

Selective Predation

virtually

generations of domestication have

disabled prey and soon give up an attack

animal

is

able to defend

getaway.

a

in

kill,

which

is

why

to prey populations as large wolf

pounds

it

a quick

was once

meat every

when

a

kill

made,

is

day, but will

it

makes up

for

any such lean periods by "wolfing" up to 20

pounds

may keep

animal •

(9 kg) in a single meal.

large prey

a pack well fed for several

it

would

human

sight of a

in

and prone to

and

panic,

with no hope of escape.

rarely

take more than the

to cause the wolves to

A

wolf pack

pair

and

two

years.

is

made up

of a single breeding

their offspring of the previous

one or

The nonbreeding members of the

pack are usually young animals. They are prevented from breeding by the dominant but help care for their young siblings.

where good wolf

habitat

is

plentiful,

In

pair,

areas

young

©

The size of a wolf

pack

mi—n—

~

irir

A

penned

Sibling Care

feared.

often go for several days without food.

However,

so,

made them

harm

real

needs to eat an average of 5.5

(2.5 kg) of

large, meaty,

are often

Even

because

abandon the hunt and run away.

highly

is

does any

unlikely that wolf predation

A

make

or

only about 8 percent of wolf

In fact,

hunts end

itself

the

if

kill

incapable of defending themselves.

They are

young, weak, or

cattle are,

the wolf's natural

prey and yet far easier to catch and

old,

fully

unprovoked attacks on

than 20 animals.

Wolves normally hunt

North

rare. In

people by healthy wolves. However, wolves can

example, where the animals feed almost exclusively

near the carcass to

America, for example, there are no

still

Lake Superior, for

in

rest

Wolf attacks on humans are

seven animals are usual.

However, pack

may

feeding, the wolves

is

usually

determined by the size

Reintroduction

of available prey. For

example,

n

1

995, after years of careful planning and

project has

encouraged conservationists to consider

wolves were released into Yellowstone

reintroducing the wolf elsewhere.

National Park. The park contains over 17 million acres (7 million ha) of

habitat

and

also supports large herds of elk.

introduction, as have those released

locations

in

Montana and

compensated

in

for wolf attacks

livestock. In addition,

the

first

other

farmers are

that they

on

their

now

permitted to shoot wolves on their In

in

their

Idaho. The interests

of local ranchers are protected

are

controversial plan

wolves

prime wolf

The relocated wolves have thrived since

own

legally.

SEE ALSO Moose

in

is

One

highly

to release captive-bred

Scotland, a country that has not

seen wild wolves for 300 years. The problem with the idea

is

that islands

could be out of the

way

of

where wolves

humans

are too

small to support a viable population.

Yet on the mainland there are too

many people and sheep to

live

for the

wolves

without causing trouble.

land.

four years of the program nine

wolves were shot

56

The success of the Yellowstone

I much controversy, 31 Canadian-born gray

A gray wolf pup

at the er)trance to

average, a

contains about six pups.

6:14; Elk 6:26; Thylacine 10:36

litter

its

den.

On

when deer are

the main food source,

packs of five to seven are

common. Wolves

preying on larger animals, such as moose,

often belong to packs of

20 or more.

wolves

may

leave their parents' pack as early as

12 months of age.

Some

stay with the family

for a further season; but by the time they are fully

mature

22 months, they

at

Dispersing animals

may

search of a

young wolves

mate and

on.

on the edge of

live

parents' territory until a suitable

along. Other

move

will

their

mate comes

scatter widely

territory of their

in

own.

encounters often lead to serious fights

one or more animals may be fatally

the

wounded. To minimize

risk

of such incidents,

the wolves usually leave a kind of buffer zone of

seldom-visited land around

the edge of their

territory.

Such areas

also serve as a kind of reservoir for prey,

Territorial

Howling

The pack occupies

is

8 to 5,200 square miles (20 to

only exploited

from

a territory of anything

All

in

times of food shortage.

3,000

sq. km),

social structure of a

number

many

of wolves

and

members

help defend the

territory,

will travel

to every part of

it

month, moving routes.

in

They mark

scratches,

single

file

and they once

km) away, even by human

or

is

to 10

When

wolves from neighboring packs do meet, the

is

responsible for

hunts or other movements.

in.

until a

Subordinate wolves

dominance almost dies,

If

he dies

absent for long periods, the alpha female

takes on the leadership role

male moves

In

ears.

male leads the pack and initiating

along regular

open country wolf howls can be heard up miles (16

a

their territory with scents,

and long sessions of howling.

pack may stay the same for

years, individuals are able to switch roles

with surprising ease. The dominant (or alpha)

quality of habitat. All pack

at least

which

wolves are highly adaptable. While the

the exact size varying according to the

1

which

in

new rise

if

their

mate

and

facial expressions.

Above, a defensive

to

threatening posture

as soon as an alpha wolf

own

Wolves communicate

alpha

and both sexes are capable of rearing

older cubs on their

®

using body language

dies.

(1);

a submissive greeting (2);

and an offensive

threatening pose

(3).

57

LARGE CARNIVORES

Coyote Opportunistic and is

Canis latrans

resilient, the

North American coyote

the archetypal predator. The species continues to

thrive

throughout

range, despite centuries of

its

persecution by humans. Common name Scientific

name

Coyote Canis latrans

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

Size

Length head/body; 30-39

is

carnivores.

The species occupies

and

local

wide length:

12-19

(76-100 cm);

24

Weight 15.5-44

their diet,

lb

in

Typical

and

The

(7-20

all

make

the most of different

Coyotes continue to do well despite centuries

wolf but smaller and slighter

darkening to black on

of

tip

of intensive persecution by

in

humans.

belly,

Coyote Persecution

repertoire of

but Millions of coyotes have

been

killed for their fur

tail

and to protect game and some migrate

summer;

less social

Litters of

2-12 (average

6)

livestock, especially

born

up to 21 years

fewer than

1

at

1

sheep.

Young coyotes

are killed

marksmen on foot

spring

in

at

or 2 years.

in captivity,

to be a major

outlawed

in

or

in aircraft.

method

Poisoning used

of coyote control.

1972, partly because

it

It

was

was

usually

considered cruel, but also

5 in the wild

and howls

Voice

Wide

Diet

Carnivorous; mostly mammals. Including

repertoire of barks, whines,

dens,

in their

and the adults are trapped or shot by

63 days. Weaned

5-6 weeks; sexually mature live

in

than gray wolf

after gestation period of

May

mountains

into

species

were harmed

because many

other

accidentally by eating

poison meant for coyotes. Coyote predation rabbits,

woodchucks, rodents, and deer;

Habitat

Grasslands and

prairie, scrub,

and

forest

Status

Population: abundant.

is

no evidence that the population

seriously threatened by the

Common

is

ongoing

persecution, the control of coyotes has

Distribution North America

still

costs farmers millions of dollars a year. While

there

also carrion

become

highly controversial. Recent investigations

and

widespread; hunted for fur and as a pest

suggest that livestock

is

in

most

states coyote predation

on

not as

common

as people thought.

the

arrival of

European

Ironically,

settlers in

North America has done more to extend the coyote's range than to control

Before

human

its

numbers.

settlement coyotes were

restricted to the plains of central

North America

by the lack of suitable habitat elsewhere

and

the presence of wolves, which were bigger and better adapted to forest

life.

As the human

population expanded westward, landscapes

changed. The forests were

58

SEE ALSO

Wolf, Gray 2:54; Fox, Red 2:64;

Yellowstone National

howl

is

only one of a varied

Mostly nocturnal, but can be active at any time of day;

in

in

Park. Its long

and pointed;

shade of beige or gray; paler on

© A coyote howls snowstorm

live.

slightly

muzzle narrow; fur shaggy and usually a

Breeding

the animals,

environmental conditions wherever they

Male

kg).

build than gray wolf; ears large

Habits

size of

their social structures are

flexible in order to

(60 cm)

larger than female

Key features

populations seem able to adapt to a

variety of habitats.

tail

a vast range,

(30-48 cm); height at

in

shoulder; about

in

one of the world's most successful

The coyote

Woodchuck 7:50

felled

and replaced

calls.

a

DOGS COYOTE

with pasture and arable land.

Human

fear of

wolves meant that the coyote's main competitor

was eradicated from many

states

in

a short

space of time. The coyote was presented with an unprecedented opportunity for expansion,

and today the species occupies

but the

all

extreme northeast of the continent.

Hybridization In

places

where advancing coyotes encountered

remaining populations of gray and red wolves, the species interbred. The resulting hybridization almost proved disastrous for the red wolf, purebred examples of

so rare that

in

which became

1975 the remaining population

had to be taken

into captivity for

protection. Unfortunately, after

its

own

25 years of

captive breeding and subsequent release onto

coyote-free reserves, there are

300

red wolves

left in

still

fewer than

the world.

By contrast, coyotes are so numerous that

done

interbreeding has

gene

dilute their

pool.

little

to

In fact,

evidence suggests that an injection of

wolf genes has larger coyotes

resulted

in

Canada

better adapted to

in life

on the tundra. Even where there are no wolves, coyotes

have gotten bigger, partly as a

The Coyotes

C

Come

to

Town

oyotes are adaptable animals. They are capable of habitats, including

suburban areas. As

being unable to adjust to the

new

often seen

cities like

in

the outskirts of

particularly familiar in Los Angeles.

expand,

It

variety of die out,

The species

Denver, Houston, and Boise, and

is

is

appears that coyotes did not invade Los city

spread around them. Los Angeles

is

because there are many scrub-filled ravines, large gardens, and

other relatively undisturbed areas where they can

live,

food scraps, and other urban animals. The red fox has urban

wide

many animals

conditions. Not so the coyote!

Angeles, but merely stayed put as the especially suitable

cities

living in a

living in parts

emerging to feed on

made

trash,

a similar success of

of Britain.

59

LARGE CARNIVORES

pounds (13

Those that have colonized

kg).

Alaska regularly exceed 42 pounds (20

The coyote

is

ears,

identifying features.

It

like

However,

the

tail.

is

large proportion of the animals caught are old,

long and

domestic dogs. Other

less

are clues to the coyote's

may be chased

its

wolf or

like a

is

some

A

which allows

when

attachment of powerful

until

The coyote has crushing molar teeth and

long, pointed canines, designed for tearing

chewing chunks

off large prey. Foxes,

other hand, have more pointed

and

carcass

Three pack members

dominant male

(2)

(1)

their

own

turns leading the chase

Coyotes tend to

live in

packs only where large prey animals, such as deer, are concentrated in

an area. Packs usually

consist of three to seven closely related animals.

In less

or alone

live in pairs

a

wide

area.

on the edge of its

threatens an intruder

(3),

looks on while other coyotes

territory for the

tires.

productive habitats coyotes

Hunting Partnerships

who (4)

c

backs up his leader, but shows less aggression. Another (5)

members take

the quarry

and hunt small animals over

feed while the

assumes a defensive threat posture. Another male

trespasser

40

a definite advantage

is

but are not assembled for long.

providing at least 90

© A coyote pack defends a territory.

the Americas,

temporary food source, such as a large carcass,

teeth, less

Coyotes are out-and-out carnivores, with

mammals

in

prey at speeds of up to

Larger groups sometimes gather around a

on the

muscular jaws, and feed on smaller animals.

the flesh of

down

chasing large prey over a distance, since

different

jaw muscles that are much bigger than those of a fox.

of the fastest predators

Hunting as a pack

coyote's

(called a sagittal crest),

for the

large animals

over long distances. The coyote

miles per hour (64 km/h).

has a pronounced central ridge running

from front to back

one

able to run

obvious differences

lifestyle.

immature. Small prey are stalked and

sick, or

pounced on from above, while

running, the coyote carries

low sweep, not high

season. Hunting

in

techniques vary depending on the prey, but a

that of most other wild dogs.

when

straight out like a fox, nor curled like

skull

and vegetables are eaten

clue,

It

coyotes have

others occasionally catch and eat birds. Fruit

and small feet are

is

Some

the forests of Minnesota,

learned rudimentary fishing techniques, while

can be

Another useful

especially at a distance,

a

in

to distinguish from a wolf, but the

narrow snout, long

tail in

kg).

and season, from

and rodents on grassland to mostly deer

rabbits

smaller than a wolf, but

substantially bigger than a fox.

brushy

their diet varies with habitat

the Mexican desert average about 28

living in

difficult

percent of their food. The exact composition of

improved food resources. Coyotes

result of

(6)

wait

ooperative hunting

not unusual

and so do some species of

hunt

in

is

in

packs, but by

far their

otters

among

carnivores

lions

do

and dogs. Coyotes sometimes

most remarkable teamwork

animals form an alliance and use their combined

would otherwise escape them. The coyote

that

burrowing mammals under the -

badger uses

them

out.

its

is

digging

is

a

soil

skills

sniffs

and waits

to catch prey

out small

patiently while

powerful forelimbs and huge claws to dig

The badger's sense of smell

detect buried prey, and

is

not good enough to

the coyote's small feet

mean

that

slow and laborious exercise. Once caught, the prey

shared amicably between the partners. Cooperation between the

FT

two animals has evolved over generations and works because both benefit equally.

w 60

SEE ALSO

it,

performed with an unlikely partner: the American badger. The two

pack to leave.

’T\(

—

Badger, American 1:76; Lion 2:14; Deer and Relatives 6:10; Rodents 7:8

is

Male coyotes have large home ranges of up to 32 square miles (80

sq. km),

which can

often overlap with those of other males. Female territories rarely

exceed 6.5 square miles

own

territory.

Coyotes seem

to choose obvious landmarks such as streams

and

tree lines to define their territories,

they mark them with scent

in

urine

and

good

may be courted by

several

to be her mate, the relationship

pups but

it

sometimes

is

for

a year, but

(litters

is

no

/ts

a form of

greeting, coyotes will

often rear up on their

hind legs and nuzzle

shortage of large prey, and so their presence

each other's

may be more important

Aggressive encounters

and the den than

meat

fully in

However, once she has chosen one male

litter

Helpers only tend

where there

in

in

defending the young

obtaining food.

at just three six

weeks

weeks

old,

face.

begin in a similar way,

Coyote pups begin to eat regurgitated

feces.

males over a period of two or three months

one

sisters.

©

but

and by the time

old they no longer need their

may develop

into a

wrestling match, with rolling

and

biting.

mother's milk. They put on weight fast and are

single female

years,

In

habitat pups are tended by both parents

they are

spring.

contains five to seven pups.

and one or more elder

and

Courtship

A

litter

to stay with their parents

(17 sq. km), but are generally exclusive, each

female having her

The average

of 19

life.

it

may

last several

The female bears

just

can include 10 or more

pups have been recorded,

highly unlikely that

all

could survive).

grown by the age

of nine months.

Male

offspring disperse at this time, while females

may

stay behind for a further

two

years. Dispersing coyotes travel

or three

an average of

18 miles (30 km) from the den where they were born, but tagging studies

show

hundreds of miles before

settling

a family of their

that

some

down

travel

to raise

own. 61

LARGE CARNIVORES

Black-Backed Canis mesomelas

The black-backed jackal, with is found in

saddle patch, Common name Scientific

Black-backed jackal

name

Africa, divided

Canis mesomelas

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

Of the four

tail

12-19

length:

shoulder: 10-16

in

in

(30-48 cm); height

at

running

Weight 13-29 Key features

(6-13.5 kg)

and

large triangular ears; coat

rough

and reddish-gray, except

for dark patch

back extending to

tail

tip

of

Active at any time of day;

lives

One

to 8 (usually 4)

mature

at

1

in captivity,

1

at

alone or

usually

live

Diet

Varied:

in

other respects very

Distribution

Two

distinct

($)

shade. Jackals are small

Rift Valley.

Both populations occupy similar

in

the wild

areas of

in

dogs to cope with.

In

such harsh

to small

conditions prey animals are generally smaller

and open woodland

black-backed jackal has to cover a wide area to find

and

Ethiopia;

parts of South Africa,

Namibia, Botswana, Angola, and

enough

find than in wetter areas,

A

to eat.

jackal inhabits a

typical

home range

black-backed of

between 4 and

12 square miles (10 and 30 sq. km), with the

Zimbabwe

common;

and the

largest ranges belonging to

young adults who

go the

hope

extra distance in the

of finding a

persecuted as vermin, especially by sheep suitable mate.

farmers

Once they have

successfully paired, jackals

remain with the same mate for often until one of

them

dies.

females defend their joint its

many

years,

Both males and

territory,

marking out

borders with urine. Within a territory there

will

be several dens, usually converted from

aardvark burrows or dug into termite mounds.

Burrows have several entrances precaution, since victim to a

young

number

SEE ALSO

Lion 2:14; Wolf, Gray 2:54;

(a

useful safety

jackals can easily

fall

of larger predators,

including lions, domestic dogs,

62

African wolves

and are

not as large as most

grassland and scrub that are generally too dry

and harder to

Population: abundant and

A black-backed

jackal resting in the

and worms; plant material

of Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia,

Status

two

land at the southern end of the Great African

kinds of country and do best

dead meat; invertebrates such

falls in

in

populations separated by a belt of inhospitable

distinct ranges; the first includes parts

the other

similar.

Divided Populations

at the start

mammalian prey (from mice

Tropical grassland

body. Jackals are

its

than most other wild members of the genus

for other wild

Habitat

the

has a

up to 14 years

fewer than 8

Eerie-sounding barks and howls

as beetles, grubs,

It

in

8-9 weeks; sexually

Voice

antelope); also

the length of

Black-backed jackals occur

young born

months. May

down

Canis, but

of the rainy season after gestation period of

60 days. Weaned

the most distinctive.

on

small family groups; territorial

Breeding

Valley.

small African wolves. They are slightly smaller

Small and foxlike with slender legs, pointed

face,

Habits

lb

is

in

well-defined black or dark-gray saddle patch

(26-40 cm)

in

two separate populations

species of jackal living in Africa

black-backed

(45-90 cm);

dark

by the desert at the southern end of the

Great African Rift

Length head/body; 18-35.5

its distinctive

Coyote 2:58; Dog, African Wild 2:78

and

birds of

other wild

members of

the genus Canis.

DOGS BLACK-BACKED

prey).

The young are born

where they spend the

in

a secure

the latter include spring lambs, and

den

three or four

first

weeks

of their lives under the watchful eyes of both parents.

As soon as they are able to see and

walk any distance, they are hurried

new

away

to a

den. Switching dens happens repeatedly,

making

it

more

difficult for

them. Young jackals than a few days old

enough

are

first

in

may

the

predators to find

never spend more

same

place until they are

are able to

consume whole

for attacking

them

usually killed

on

that they are

sight

around sheep

farms. The jackal's reputation it

probably gets the blame for

made by

means kills

other animals too,

Some

farmers put special collars on their

sheep that

deliver a lethal

dose of

poison to a jackal that attempts an

partially digested,

attack on a flock.

regurgitated meat, but by the age of three

months they

bad reputation

jackals have such a

including domestic dogs.

to defend themselves. The young

weaned onto

JACKAL

prey.

Jackals are also

hunted

for fur

and meat. Outside reserves and Jackal Helpers

wildlife parks they receive

The young of other

jackal species tend to leave

their parents' territory by the

time they are one

no protection from

©

Black-backed jackal

persecution. Not surprisingly, they are wary of

pups are born

humans and quick

underground den where

to run

away

if

they are

in

an

year old. By contrast, the offspring of black-

disturbed. However, they can adapt well to

backed

the females, often

on the edges of towns, where they become

from predators such as

remain with their parents for a year or two,

almost completely nocturnal, coming out at

lions

jackals, especially

helping rear the next

litter

of pups. Larger

night

family groups are another adaptation to harsher, drier environments

where

it

can take

three or four adults to care for the pups and

enough food

find

Jackals are

to rear

them

successfully.

omnivorous They

eat a wide variety of wild prey

will

and

catch and

will also

take

advantage of seasonally available food such as fruit,

eggs, and

young animals. Unfortunately

in

order to avoid encounters

life

they are relatively safe

and

birds of prey.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Red Fox The red fox

Vulpes vulpes

one of the most widespread, and

is

one of the most adaptable, members of the

certainly

dog family.

even rivals the gray wolf in terms of

It

global distribution.

Common name Scientific

Family

Order Size

name

Red fox Vulpes vulpes

RED FOXES

Canidae

Asia,

Carnivora

in

Length head/body: 18-35.5 tail

length: 12-21,5

shoulder: up to 14

Weight 7-31 Key features

lb

in

brushy

(45-90 cm);

variation

at

and have become widespread

Africa,

and on many

size

in

is

deep

a

and

neat legs and feet; fur typically red, but varies

and black on the

tail tip,

legs. In

many

America, however, there are

redbelly,

North

white on muzzle, chest, and

belly;

often

known

darker on legs; black and pale variants

distinct color

Habits

Mostly nocturnal; sometimes

being black or

family

lives in

groups, but usually hunts alone; nonbreeding

males are

with up to 20 percent of red foxes

Litters of

1-12 (usually 3-7) cubs born

spring after gestation period of

Weaned

8-10 weeks;

at

10 months.

May

captivity, rarely

Voice

varieties include so-

which are

live

51-53

sexually

"Samson foxes" have coats

when

mammals;

somewhat

at

5 in the wild

worms, and

than usual.

fluffier

in

Misrepresented Throughout

playing

also insects,

that lack

the normal long guard hairs and therefore look

days.

mature

up to 12 years

more than

in

their

huge geographical range

foxes are loved and loathed

Omnivorous; rodents and other small

measure.

is

It

difficult

almost equal

in

not to admire an animal

fruit

so smart and adaptable that

Habitat

basically red

with a cross-shaped mark of darker fur on the

Barks, whines, yelps, screams, excited

"gekkering" Diet

Other

solitary

shoulders.

Breeding

silver.

called "cross foxes,"

Diverse; includes farmland, forest, grassland,

is

it

able to

live

almost anywhere that people can. The fox

moorland, tundra, and urban areas

features frequently Distribution Europe and North America; also parts of Africa

and

and

its

in folk tales

glorious pelt

is

and

fairy stories,

valued as an expensive

Asia; introduced to Australia

fashion accessory. However, the animal Status

is

Population: abundant. Persecuted as vermin; also

traditionally detested by farmers

hunted for sport

persecuted throughout

because of

its

much

of

and its

is

range

predatory habits and the

risk

of

transmitting rabies. Foxes are trapped, shot, and

hunted almost everywhere they occur, and yet they

still

manage

Foxes' diets

to thrive.

and

techniques vary as

temperate climates exist

J 64

SEE ALSO Raccoon, Common

their hunting

much

summer many

almost entirely on sugary

blackberries

and foraging

as their habitat.

in late

fruits,

In

foxes

such as

and apples. On warm, humid

1:22; Dog, African Wild 2:78; Rabbit, European 8:68

its

jaws. The

sharp features and

smart nature contribute its

reputation as a

wanton

predator. But

contrary to popular opinion, foxes rarely

from deep gold to dark brown, fading to varieties,

•

to

in

brown, with white on the muzzle, chest,

narrow body ending

fox's

and appearance throughout the

ground squirrel

firmly in

considerable

is

Europe. The typical red fox coat

pointed muzzle and ears;

Arctic

which they

islands to

range, with the largest foxes occurring

(3-14 kg)

tail;

and

Australia

© A red fox holds an

NORTH America, Europe,

IN

have been introduced. There

(36 cm)

Typical fox with long,

in thick,

in

(30-55 cm); height

in

WILD

LIVE

kill

more than they need.

DOGS

evenings

in

summer when earthworms come

to

the surface on open grassland and pasture, a fox can eat for the

more

whole

day.

in

an hour to keep

it

going

At other times hunting

and foxes

intensive,

pounce on and

enough

will stalk,

is

chase, and

prey, including voles, rabbits, frogs,

birds. Ever

the opportunist, a fox

will also

take advantage of roadkills and refuse. Excess

food

is

usually stored

are buried

eaten

in

later,

— bones and

bits of

meat

the ground to be dug up and

maggots and

all.

Rotten meat does

not appear to do foxes any harm.

Chicken Runs

often scattered widely, but

little is

actually

wasted. Contrary to popular opinion, foxes are not wanton

killers

more than they need. Stories of foxes running

amok

in

killing

dozens of

and

will rarely

kill

chicken runs and birds at a

time have more to do with the unnatural conditions

in

which chickens are kept than the fox's live at

a run

killer instincts. In

high density and have no

escaping, a fox cannot simply slink

away

to eat

in

peace.

A

where chickens

©

way

many

make

a

of kill

and

flock of panicking

birds causing

mayhem

into a frenzy.

As long as the chicken farmer

ensures

Foxes are messy eaters, and food remains are

RED FOX

his

all

around sends the fox

enclosures are fox-proof, the

problem does not

arise.

The red fox occurs

in

distinct color

forms. Above, the vivid,

flame-red coloring of

most high-latitude red foxes (2);

(1);

the silver form

the "cross fox," with

a cross shape on

shoulders

(3).

its

DOGS

Communal

A young

Lifestyle

were thought to be

Until recently foxes

and tend

animals. They are certainly territorial to hunt alone. However,

in

solitary

the privacy of their

breeding dens the story can be quite different.

A

communal

single

many

and up

either a

others.

two

the vixens, occasionally productive

mates with

usually

enough

if

just

the habitat

to support an extra

Breeding vixens are dominant over

group

others. Status within a

established

when

one of

is

all

reinforced continually.

mood

reassuring, but her instant.

can change

in

and

remind them

seem

when

who

to take great pride

dominant

vixen's litter

in

caring for the

and compete

hour on hour of boisterous play with its

siblings.

Adult foxes retain a

Habitat Requirements

to leave the safety of the

Young females may

breeding den at about

their

own

territory.

on the

types: Areas of

fend for themselves at

size of a fox's territory

six

and

quality of the habitat

months and breed at

10 months.

availability of food. Ideal fox

to 12, the

woodland and pasture hedgerows and the odd

garden are

Sometimes

in a

ideal.

a fox can find

about 25 acres (10

territory of

all it

ha). In

hospitable habitats, such as the Canadian

much space one

The

one month. They can

farther, to establish

crisscrossed with

tundra, a fox

Red Fox Cubs of

stay with the family group,

km) or sometimes

especially

less

in litters

© A female red fox with a cub. The cubs are ready

needs

for the

privilege of baby-sitting.

Baby foxes are born

and games can involve the whole

a noisy rough-and-tumble.

in

habitat has a selection of different habitat

she chooses to

boss. Subordinate females

is

are developed by

skills

depends on the

an

adopt cowering, submissive postures and to scarce

and hunting

miles (48

is

Her subordinates are always ready to

make themselves

and other

but males always disperse, traveling about 30

is

The dominant vixen friendly

sticks,

and the cub's coordination

the

often

sometimes aggressive, sometimes

replaced by the adult dentition. The

family

the vixens are very young,

long before they reach breeding age, and

digested

mother. Later

its

jaws and teeth are strengthened by

playful streak,

is

litter.

partially

is

the cub's milk teeth drop out and are

objects,

each

related,

form of

coughed up by

chewing on bones,

mother, or daughter to the

sister,

The male

to as

to five vixens (females).

The vixens are apparently always

one

home

one dominant male

as six adult foxes:

(the dog-fox)

can be

territory

usually in the

scraps

meat

fox's first taste of

RED FOX

diligently

may

require a hundred times as

to supply

its

marked with

needs. Territories are

urine

and droppings.

average number varying according to the quality of habitat. furry,

The cubs are born

blind but

and each weighs between 2 and 6 ounces

(57 and 170

g).

To begin with, their fur

is

chocolate brown, and their eyes, which open after

two weeks,

Deadly Virus

dark

are blue. By the time the

youngsters are one month old and ready to

O much

ne of the most serious and widespread threats to foxes other than

human

persecution

is

the rabies

of the world's fox population, except

virus.

Rabies

in Britain,

is

found

whose

in

strict

leave the safety of the breeding den for the

first

quarantine laws have kept the disease from becoming established.

begun to look more

like

continental Europe rabies has been largely eliminated from the fox

time, they have already

foxes. Their fur lightens, their eyes turn

and

their

brown,

muzzles are longer and more pointed.

population baits,

in

several countries by using special vaccines distributed

which the wild foxes

eat. Vaccination

and bird-feeder

leftovers,

and other town-dwelling so rich that foxes

in

living feeding

and by

densities than they ever

killing rats,

wildlife.

towns and

pigeons,

Often the pickings are

cities live

manage

on refuse

in

at

foxes

in

the population that are

expensive but

immune

humane and can be

to

in

programs reduce the

threat of rabies because the disease dies out

© Urban foxes make a good

In

when

it.

there are

The method

very effective as long as

enough

is

enough

baits are distributed.

much higher

the countryside.

67

LARGE CARNIVORES

Swift Fox The attractive swift fox mainly

and

small in stature and active

Unusually for a fox,

at night.

curious,

is

Vulpes velox

it

is

also bold

and

therefore easy to snare. In the past swift

foxes were ruthlessly hunted for their highly prized fur. Common name (kit

Scientific

Swift fox

fox)

name

The smallest of North America's nine species of wild dog, the swift fox

Vulpes velox

domestic

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora in

(38-52 cm);

burrows, which they either dig for

9-14

in

(22-35 cm); height at

themselves or modify from the excavations of

in

(30 cm)

other prairie mammals. The burrows are

Weight 4-7

Key features

the spring and

Similar to red fox; winter coat grayish-beige

on

legs, tail,

and

slightly shorter

tail

than

rich

orange-brown

summer

flanks;

and darker; bushy

and may have

large

(2-3 kg)

lb

with pale undersides and

as

coat shorter

many

in

Breeding

Three to 6 young born

in

50-60

up to 14 years in

Quiet yelps and barks

Diet

Small

mammals,

Weaned

days. at

two

in captivity,

also be

takes the efforts of at

It

adults to rear a

three to

does not necessarily

six,

of pups, which

litter

but the pair bond

from year to

last

year.

Specialized Diet

A

especially rabbits, pikas,

and

occupy

typical family will

about 12 square miles

a

home

(31 sq. km),

range of

which

is

unusually large for a fox and reflects the

and occasionally plant material

more

specialized food requirements.

and grassland

While most other foxes Distribution Scattered populations across central plains of the U.S.

will

eat almost

anything, swift foxes are rather choosy about

and Canada

what they consume. Status

may

usually

species' Prairie

burrow may contain

at

10 months.

rodents; also birds, lizards, amphibians, insects,

the burrow.

may number

the wild

Voice

in

spring after

6-7 weeks; sexually mature

fewer than 6

a

tame least

live

summer

as nine or 10 foxes, including a

Occasionally a second adult female

present

May

several entrances. During

breeding pair and their offspring of the year.

other foxes

Active at night; social, bold, and

gestation period of

fairly

tipped with black and

Habits

Habitat

in

tail

shoulder: 12

length:

^^

foxes are generally

cat. Swift

holed up

7

size of a

nocturnal (active at night) and spend the day

Length head/body: 15-21

Size

about the

is

Population: low thousands;

Their preferred prey

lUCN Endangered consists of gophers, pikas,

and

rabbits,

(northern subspecies), elsewhere Lower Risk:

conservation dependent; CITES

I

although they

(northern

subspecies)

grass

and

will

berries

eat other animals and even

if

there

foxes do particularly well

is

in

no

alternative. Swift

places

where prey

animals are plentiful, and their impressive acceleration

is

invaluable

in

catching the fleet-

footed creatures they pursue. Over even terrain swift foxes can easily reach speeds of i

i

-

68

30 miles

per hour (48 km/h). Swift foxes once

roamed

ail

over the central

i

plains of North America,

from Texas

in

the

j,

south to Saskatchewan and Alberta

in

the

north. Today, however, the animals occupy a '

SEE ALSO Coyote

2:58; Fox, Fennec 2:74; Gopher, Northern Pocket 7:26; Pika, American 8:98

DOGS

mere 10 percent of that

area, living

scattered populations with larger

SWIFT FOX

small,

in

numbers

the center of their distributional range

Colorado and Wyoming. The

at

in

relentless spread

much

of agriculture across the prairies ruined

of

the habitat of the swift fox. Plowing destroyed their

burrows and those of

their prey,

and the

changed the nature of the

planting of crops has prairies forever.

Mistaken Identity During the mid- to a vigorous effort,

19th century there

late

was

supported by the United

States government, to eradicate wolves

and

coyotes from the entire continent. Although swift foxes

were not considered to be vermin,

they could not be prevented from eating the

poisoned baits put out to

kill

coyotes. Another

problem was that they were (and mistaken for young coyotes, and

been shot as

still

many have

a result of misidentification.

Unusually for foxes, the swift fox

and curious and therefore snare, shoot,

are) often

reason for the

good

killing

States the foxes

price,

swift fox

so there

to continue.

In

were wiped out of

bold

easy to

relatively

and poison. Moreover,

fur could fetch a

is

was every

the United all

but the

southern part of their range by 1920. However, in

the mid-20th century the species began to

recover, spreading north

once more

into

Wyoming, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Montana, and the Dakotas. But north of the border there

no such

recovery,

swift foxes It

left in

was

and by 1978 there were no Canada.

has taken an expensive and long-running

program of reintroduction to

restore a small

population of swift foxes to southern Alberta

and Saskatchewan. The northern populations

enough from those

are different

in

the south to

be considered a separate subspecies, known as Vulpes velox hebes. They are darker than the

southern foxes and have a broader muzzle.

© For nearly

a century the diminutive swift fox suffered

persecution through mistaken identity and trapping for its

valuable

fur.

69

1

LARGE CARNIVORES

Fox

Arctic Common name Scientific

name

The Arctic fox has a number of adaptations

Arctic fox

SLimve

'

Vulpes

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

Size

Length head/body: 18-27

—

in

(46-68 cm);

in

tail

(30 cm); height at shoulder:

in

Weight 3-20

lb (1

ITS

NAME

IMPLIES,

THE RANGE of the hardy Arctic

farther north than any other

.4-9 kg)

fox with short legs, long,

Key features Stout-looking tail,

As

fox extends well beyond the Arctic Circle and

(28 cm)

bushy

difficult,

deprivations to endure.

length: 12

small,

rounded

arctic animals; fur

and

ears,

woolly coat; fur pure white

a thick,

winter

in

in

high

dog

family. Arctic foxes

member

of the

have been recorded at

latitudes as high as 88°N, only

(240 km) from the North Pole

150 miles But the

itself.

extends to soles of feet

foxes are only visitors to these frozen Habits

Social;

sometimes migratory;

active at

any

wastelands, and normally

live

farther south,

time of day; does not hibernate especially in areas of coastal tundra

Breeding

Litters of

6-12 (occasionally as many

and

Barks, whines, screams,

Diet

Mainly carnivorous; prey includes

hisses seals,

invertebrates such as crabs, mollusks,

made

carrion;

by other

Arctic

The southern edge of the Arctic

scavenges from

geographical range seems to be where the

northern range of the red fox ends. Red foxes

almost anywhere there

living

enough food

and

kills

arctic predators; occasionally

and even sea

is

to support them, but they are

defeated by extreme cold. The Arctic fox here

comes

into

its

own, being able to

tolerate

temperatures that sometimes plummet to -58°F (-50°C). Captive individuals have

and northern alpine tundra, boreal

forest, ice cap,

fox's

fish,

plant material

Habitat

Greenland, Iceland, and northern Europe.

can make a

rodents (especially lemmings), seabirds,

and

Canada,

early

in

Voice

insects,

in

as 25)

summer after gestation period of 49-57 days. Weaned at 2-4 weeks; sexually mature at 10 months. May live up to 16 years in captivity, many fewer in the wild pups born

been able to

12°F (-80°C) under experimental

-1

survive at

ice

conditions. Distribution Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska,

extreme

Few other animals can

tolerate such

cold.

Greenland, Iceland, Finland, Sweden,

Norway, and Russia

Status

Population: abundant. Generally

although range and population declined recently. Protected

Sweden, and

Finland;

in

hunted

common, size

have

Norway, for fur

Cold Weather Design Both red and Arctic foxes have basically the

same body shape, but the

and as relatively shorter legs

Arctic fox has

and ears and

a smaller

muzzle. The Arctic fox's more compact shape

designed to lose

less

agility.

long,

Only the

which allows

it

blanket to cover the

tail

is

built for

speed

of the Arctic fox

very

is

to be used as a kind of fox's face

while

it

sleeps.

The most important adaptation to the cold the Arctic fox's luxuriant

warmest long, in

70

SEE ALSO

fur.

fur in the animal

and

winter

fluffy. it

It

is

is

heat than the red fox's

long and lean frame, which

and

is

Said to be the

kingdom,

it

is

fine,

also incredibly dense,

and

grows to be three times as deep as

Stoat 1:40; Fox, Red 2:64; Seals and Sea Lions 3:8

in order to

extremely cold conditions. Nevertheless,

in

for the species can be very

(Alopex) lagopus

1 1

Vulpes (Alopex) lagopus

with

many

life

DOGS

ARCTIC FOX

There are two color varieties of Arctic fox,

known

as white

variety

is

and

only white

October through

However, the white

blue. in

April.

months

the winter

of

Over the summer the

fur usually turns a grayish-brown. White-furred

foxes dominate the populations

in

Canada.

Greenland about half the foxes are white winter, but in Iceland almost

of

all

them

In

in

are

blue. Blue foxes are actually a steely gray color,

which

is

darker

in

summer than

in

winter.

addition to fur and body shape the

In

made

Arctic fox has

a

number

of physiological

adaptations to the cold. The fleshy parts of

paws

its

are well supplied with blood vessels.

Here, an extensive network of fine capillaries

brings

warm

blood to the feet and toes,

helping prevent frostbite. After passing

through the

the cooled blood travels

feet,

back up the leg past numerous other vessels carrying

warm

blood from the

The returning blood

heart.

way rewarmed rest of

before

is

enters the

it

the body to avoid

causing a drop

in this

it

the fox's core

in

body temperature.

Conserving Energy times of abundant food fat

In

accumulated under the

is

skin,

providing both insulation against

the cold

and food

hard times,

in

®

An

summer.

Like the hairs

in

a polar bear's coat,

is

scarce.

displaying pure white

individual hair therefore contains

air,

which

winter coloration. The

helps provide extra insulation. Fur even grows

fur of the Arctic fox

on the soles of the

said to be the

is

warmest

from the

chill

fox's feet, protecting

them

of ice and snow. They also help

of all animals: The hairs

the fox get a better grip

of the coat are hollow to

conditions. These furry feet are the reason for

provide extra insulation

the animal's scientific

in

subzero temperatures.

literally

means

in slippery, icy

name

of lagopus, which

"rabbit-footed."

it

is

is

than normal:

It

for a while, but It

it

wandering

down

its

half the usual rate to save

lay

much

up

in

a

less active

snow

hole

does not actually hibernate.

and can spring

soon as a feeding opportunity

Snow

especially

Arctic fox has not eaten

may even

stays fully alert

fat. In

able to slow

metabolism to about

when

energy for

winter almost half the

body weight

when an

days,

In

energy. The fox then has to be

those of the Arctic fox are hollow. Each

Arctic fox

many

the blubber on a seal)

a reserve of

Arctic fox's

for

(like

into

life

as

arises.

holes provide temporary shelter for foxes, but for breeding purposes

the animals require something more substantial. Arctic foxes build extensive dens.

71

LARGE CARNIVORES

some

During the winter

the breeding den (especially

but others undertake

some

if

kingdom. Sometimes they

food

of the

known

extraordinary journeys

©

foxes remain near

in

travel

plentiful),

is

a ride

on an

ice floe. In

food for foxes

from the

is

many

the animal

pups),

hundreds of

often assisted in baby-

the base of a

in

cliff

earth

and stones. Some

been

in

more

or

in

mound

a

A

typically has several entrances, usually

between four and

a dozen, but

sometimes up

become

their

birds, berries,

hundreds of years by generations of foxes.

den

summer

of these dens have

or less continuous use for

sitting duties

by

are

a

female helper. Even

miles by hitching

so,

the chances of a pup's

the winter the only

survival are low.

of polar bears. Beggars cannot be

kills

from rotten meat to

of

and parents

whatever they can scavenge

choosers, and Arctic foxes

often

up to 25

large (anything

swimming where

necessary and can travel

pups at

their den. Litters are

most

miles from land, far out over the frozen sea.

Foxes are not averse to

Arctic fox

menu

will

eat anything

feces. Farther south is

more

varied

and

© A barking

in

and includes

and small mammals. For many

displays

its

summer

coat.

Arctic fox

short

Over the

fox populations lemmings form the main diet

summer months of May

and

through September the

at times are staggeringly

abundant.

However, every few years the lemming

fur usually turns a

population crashes, and the foxes starve or are

grayish-brown

feature of the landscape, with taller vegetation

forced to search for alternative food, sometimes

coat can be up to three

growing around the entrances compared with

venturing hundreds of miles outside their

times as dense in winter

elsewhere on the tundra. That

normal range and

to 100. Long-established dens

extra nutrients

is

quite a

because of the

far

south of the

snow

color.

The

as in summer.

line.

from fox droppings and waste

food that encourage the plants to grow.

The Fox Fur Trade Slim Chance of Survival Arctic foxes are social animals, but

quite small: typically

young

one breeding

groups are pair

and

Arctic foxes have been hunted for

their

of the year, plus a helper female (one of

the previous year's offspring). Adult foxes mate for

life

and

litter in

it

takes

all

what can be

summer.

even

in

sometimes over 20 pups, but

The

assistance of the

young helper

Scandinavia,

in

snares or shot almost everywhere except

where the population

is

very small

extinction. At the height of the fur trade foxes in

places

like

years.

Alaska. Blue fox fur

by the fur trade, and the blue foxes

is

and threatened with

were

extensively

considered more valuable

living in

Alaska and on the all

descendants of animals that

escaped from fur farms.

A good

blue pelt can fetch about $300;

female means that two adults

but fashions change, and the

can hunt while a third stays at

demand

the den to baby-sit. Even so,

was. White foxes are hunted, too,

the chances of any one

but their fur

youngster

fact,

living

few months

longer than a

are low

die long before their birthday.

the

fall,

If

and many

make

until

is

not as great as

is

less

it

valuable

once

—

in

sometimes dyed blue-gray

in

order to fetch a better price.

An

Arctic fox caught in a trap. Foxes

their

been hunted for hundreds of years.

own

in life.

SEE ALSO

it

is

first

they survive

the young foxes

disperse to

way 11

are trapped

hundreds of

Aleutian Islands are almost

Litters are large,

usually six to 12.

\ They

farmed

their efforts to raise a

difficult conditions,

w

their fur for

Bear, Polar 2:84;

Lemming, Norway 7:90

have

LARGE CARNIVORES

Fennec Fox The diminutive fennec fox desert home.

It is

Scientific

pursue

Fennec fox

The world's largest desert, the Sahara,

Vulpes (Fennecus) zerda

to the smallest

name

fennec

Canidae

Family

Order

fox.

member

Fennecs are

of up to about a

Carnivora

dozen

(35-41 cm);

in

7-12

in

(18-30.5 cm); height at

shoulder: 10

in

(25 cm)

Weight Key features

2. 2-3.3 lb

tail

(1-1.5 kg)

Small, dainty fox with huge, triangular ears

and

a long,

bushy

tipped with black;

tail

white

thick, pale, reddish-beige to

fur; soles

of feet are also fur covered

Habits

Social

and

territorial;

nocturnal; lives

pups born

is

established by

commonplace, and

I

over food.

1 f §

share interconnected burrows, but nursing

is

fights frequently break out

Members

of the

same group may

females are highly protective of their young and will

not permit other foxes to

Fennecs form

I

in

spring after gestation

in

period of 50-52 days.

Weaned

weeks; sexually mature

up to 14 years in

groups

dominated

loyal

breeding

come

pairs,

near.

and the male

guards the area around the breeding

|.

to 5

8-10

live in

rj

burrow even though he

live

home

sometimes to the death. Aggression

fighting,

diligently

Two

at

1

1

at

9-10

months.

in captivity,

is

not allowed inside.

s

He

also hunts for the family

and brings food to

\

the burrow entrance for the female to collect.

May

probably about

the wild

Fennec burrows are surprisingly long for

j-

(

such a small animal and often extend more Voice

Barks and whines; screams

Diet

Small

mammals,

when

fighting |

than 10 feet

(3

m)

into a

sand dune. The foxes

L birds, reptiles, eggs, insects,

and plant material Habitat

i;

\

Desert and semidesert

;

make the most surface,

of the scarce shade at the

and burrow entrances are usually found

under rocks or

at the

base of sandy

cliffs

or

I

Distribution Sahara Desert and North Africa, including parts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Niger, Libya,

Status

Chad, Egypt, and the Sudan

Population: widespread but

CITES

II,

A

species

in

uncommon;

decline

i

dunes. The burrows stay relatively cool during

|

the day and offer refuge from the sun.

|

I

|

Heat Resistant

|

Fennec foxes have a range of physical adaptations to the heat, including soles that insulate their

fully

furred

paws from the hot

ground. The fennec's tongue also turns up at the end to prevent drops of saliva dripping from the

tip

fox's

when

it

pants. Apart from enhancing the

sense of hearing,

its

huge ears

act as heat

conductors, radiating body heat into the

air

to

help keep the animal cool. The fox's small size

is

another adaptation to the heat. Small animals

have

a relatively large surface area for their size,

which means they

lose excess

body heat

than large animals of a similar shape.

74

its

3

|

burrows

Breeding

and

social

for

family, the

individuals,

by a single male. Dominance length:

dog

of the

is

it

L

Length head/body: 14-16

Size

well adapted to

is

SEE ALSO

Fox,

Red 2:64; Fox, Swift 2:68

life in its

rarely seen, being active mainly at

night, but hunters still

Common name

Vulpes (Fennecus) zerda

faster

<

luxurious fur

DOGS

FENiMEC:-OX.

and pouncing

Prey

killed

is

to the neck

wasted.

If

it

a

with a quick bite

and often swallowed

whole. Any surplus food

with others,

in

manner.

typically foxlike

is

rarely

a fox can avoid sharing

may cache

its

meal

the leftovers by

(store)

burying them. The fennec's teeth are sharp but rather

weak and not adapted

for slashing or

tearing larger prey. Plant material forms a large part of the diet,

may be

Fennec foxes

The

©

The fennec fox's

huge ears radiate heat into the air

cool.

Even the soles of

its

feet

are covered in fur to

protect

fennec fox grip the

individuals this

will

drink from water holes

if

they

have the opportunity, but they can get by without water for weeks at a time and may

allowing the animal to run fast over loose sand.

wander many

tools,

and the fox can burrow so

fast that

it

miles from oases.

The unobtrusive, nocturnal

effective digging

fennec fox means that

it

rarely

lifestyle

comes

appears to sink steadily into the sand before the

contact with humans; and unlike

observer's very eyes.

foxes.

It

is

of the

into

many

other

not considered a pest. However,

fennecs are hunted widely for their luxurious fur

them against the

bakingly hot ground.

some

for

sand better than the naked pads of other dogs,

The feet also make highly

and help

keep the animal

furry feet of the

and

their only reliable source of water.

Nothing Wasted In

accordance with

find

much

and

their digging habits,

of their food by scrabbling

in

in

some

parts of Africa they are kept as

The species

common anywhere and

fennecs

pets.

the

appears to be declining throughout

sand. They also catch small animats by stalking

has

now been

is

not

placed on Appendix

its

II

range.

It

of CITES.

75

LARGE CARNIVORES

Bat-Eared Fox

Otocyon megalotis

;

The large ears and extra teeth of the bat-eared fox distinguish

it

from other members of the dog family

and are adaptations which name Otocyon

Scientific

Family

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

may

to its

also include small lizards

me^atotis

The bat-eared fox

is

unique

in

several ways. In

terms of outward appearance Length head/body: 18-26 length: 9-13.5

in

shoulder: 12-16

Weight

6.6-1 1.6

lb

in

(46-66 cm);

(23-34 cm); height in

tail

mark

it

out from other dogs.

huge

its

It

teeth than any other carnivore, usually 48,

compared with the 42

(3-5.3 kg)

dog

looking coat; fur

on

is

of

most other dogs. The and teeth are

v^lth thick, fuzzy-

yellowish-brown but black

legs, feet, tail tip,

and

ears; small face

with short muzzle; huge ears

Habits

Breeding

period of

60-70

November the east.

mature

Weaned

at 10

months.

May

at 9

in captivity,

many fewer

in

in

insectivorous diet. These unique features are

in

some

in its

year round

weeks; sexually

up to 14 years

Termite Eaters Bat-eared fox habitat availability of

Diet

Mostly termites; also other invertebrates

dung

sun. They

beetles);

main

its

some

small

grass,

dry,

dictated by the

prey, the harvester

soils

warmed by

emerge above ground

mammals,

and plant material

sandy

the

to collect

which they take back to the colony. They

are easy to catch

—the fox simply

off the grass with

Habitat

is

termite. Harvester termites live in grazed

grasslands with Soft whistling calls

birds, eggs,

the bat-

subfamily.

the wild

Voice

(such as

scientists to classify

own

September to

all

live

for

eared fox

winter

after gestation

days; births

southern Africa,

in

day

active during the

2-6 pups born

Litters of

in

is

adaptations to the bat-eared fox's largely

enough but southern

Social; generally active at night,

population

more

at

(30-40 cm)

Small, short-legged

ears

also has

extra teeth are molars. Both ears

Key features

mainly insectivorous

its

collects

them

tongue. The other

Dry tropical grassland and scrub

important insect prey Distribution East Africa: southern parts of Ethiopia and

which can be the

is

dung

beetles,

size of a golf ball.

some

of

The foxes

the Sudan; Somalia and Tanzania. Southern Africa:

southern Angola, Zimbabwe,

Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and western Mozambique

Status

Population: abundant. Secure, even

expanding

76

its

SEE ALSO

range

in

places

Zebra, Plains 5:46;

Numbat 10:34

catch adult beetles on the surface and dig the

grubs out of the ground. Dung beetle grubs

and mice.

diet,

DOGS

hatch

in balls

of

dung

that are collected

catch rabies from them. Rabies

and

cause of death

buried by their parents. The bat-eared fox uses Its

enormous

munch

their

in

many

is

the main

populations, with mini

epidemics often wiping out more than a

ears to pinpoint the precise

position of the grubs as they

BAT-EARED FOX

way

quarter of the foxes

through the buried dung.

reserves such as the

in

Serengeti National Park

northern Tanzania.

in

Both termites and beetles depend on the nibblings of large

Behavioral Variations

hooved animals to keep grass

short and to produce large

amounts

The behavior of bat-eared foxes

of dung.

varies in

Animals such as antelope, zebra, and domestic

different parts of their range. In areas

cattle help maintain the ideal conditions for the

termites are concentrated

insects.

grows

If

long, the insects decline,

cannot find enough to

move

on.

Desert to

in

In

is

eat, so

many

and the foxes

they have to

largely

foxes overlap, and the animals ignore

members

of the

same

sex.

The breeding season

for the lack of drinking water.

thanks to grazing livestock that

varies

©

fox lives

Elsewhere, however, the species has declined,

by

often as a consequence of increased areas of

of harvester termites.

its

is

determined

main food source

with the rainy season, its

when

in

young

families

been able

are not generally considered pests, they are

range into Botswana

offspring.

sometimes hunted

and Mozambique.

den with many entrances, but

occasionally harassed by Oomestic dogs and can

how

to find

food. Family groups are generally small,

has even

expand

at

which the

in

cubs follow their parents to learn

Recently

to

is

most abundant. Bat-eared foxes forage

alone, except

land being taken up by farm crops. Although

it

food

insect

the foxes do not threaten sheep and cattle and

They are also

different

in

parts of Africa, but almost always coincides

Where the bat-eared

range into Botswana and Mozambique.

for their fur.

ranges of

are aggressively intolerant, especially to other

fruit

bat-eared foxes have recently expanded their

home

each other or interact amicably. Elsewhere they

very dry areas, such as the Karroo

South Africa, the foxes eat more

compensate It

nevertheless abundant, the

grazing stops, however, the grass

where

clumps, but

in

its

consisting of a breeding pair

and

their

The young foxes are born will

in

a large

be moved

regularly to other

dens

in

the parents' range to

reduce the predation.

risk

The

youngsters are

independent

months

old

at

fully

10

and leave

their parents at this age.

of

about

LARGE CARNIVORES

African Wild Lycaon pictus

among

African wild dogs are

animals. Their packs are

member is

every

Common name

dog

African wild

most

the

model

societies in

taken care offrom birth.

(African hunting dog,

painted hunting dog) Scientific

name

Family

Order

No

Lycaon pictus

OTHER WILD DOG HAS SUCH a colorful and varied

coat as the African wild dog, and

Canidae

animals appear to

Carnivora

Size

»

X

Length head/body: 30-44

12-16

length:

in

shoulder: 24-31

(76-1 12 cm);

in

Lean, long-legged

dog with

feet); fur

is

before going out hunting. They mingle

large ears

short, thin,

meeting ceremonies

in daily

excitedly, nuzzling

(17-36 kg)

4 toes on each foot (other dogs have on front

pack indulge

(61-78 cm)

lb

such close harmony as

tail

(30-41 cm); height at

Weight 37.5-80

Key features

in

live in

few other

unmistakable species. The members of a

this

and

5 digits

each other and making

squeaky, twittering sounds. Prey for it

may be chased

up to an hour, but usually much

and

pulled

is

down and

before

less,

The dogs always

killed.

patterned with variable blotches and speckles of black,

often

Habits

brown, yellow, and white; dark skin

shows through coat

when

Breeding

Litters of

up to 20 pups

(usually 4-8)

born

at

mature

days. at 2

captivity,

Voice

1

1

Weaned at weeks; sexually years. May live up to 17 years in 1

in

and

played no part

in

the hunt.

traveling widely within a range that

may be

large as 1,500 square miles (4,000 sq. km).

as

The

twitters; also

Carnivorous, mostly taking hoofed

ranges of neighboring packs overlap extensively, but there

hoots and

is

no marking of boundaries or other

territorial behavior.

Dogs from

may meet from time

wails that carry long distances Diet:

even though

a share,

1

the wild

Excited squeaks

amicably, and any elderly or

most of the year the dogs are nomadic,

For

any time of year after gestation period of

79-80

may have

they

wander

breeding

kills

dogs are given

injured

Highly social; active by day; packs

widely except

share their

mammals

there

is

different packs

to time, especially

a lot of prey, but aggression

is

where

rare.

such as antelope

Habitat

Savanna grassland and open woodland

Status

Population: probably fewer than 5,000 and declining; in

most of

lUCN Endangered. Protected by law its

range

Pups Cared for by Whole Pack During the breeding season the pack's range

Distribution Africa south of the Sahara

much (200

smaller, often

sq. km).

is

under 80 square miles

Even the nonbreeding animals

stay close to the breeding den, usually an old

aardvark hole. The pups are cared for by

members sitting

weeks,

of the pack,

while the

when

rest

who

all

take turns baby-

go hunting. At three

the pups are ready to begin

weaning, the adults regurgitate meat for them.

When

they are old enough to follow the hunt,

they are given priority at the

kill,

the dominant male and female.

dogs are able to fend four months), females

78

SEE ALSO Mongoose, Dwarf

1:106; Lion 2:14; Aardvark 9:78

social of

even ahead of

Once the young

for themselves (at will

about

begin to leave

in

which

DOGS

search of another pack or to start their own. African wild dogs are unique carnivores, since

that disperse

whole

is

likely

lives in

rarely survive.

teamwork and

and may spend

©

Hierarchy

African wild dogs are

Wild dog packs contain more males than

unique

females, and they are usually related to each

carnivores, since

their

own

hierarchy,

and

the dominant pair (the "top dogs") are often

the only ones to breed. Females can aggressive

in

the dominant female the pups, claiming

will

them

in

having a

sometimes as her

own.

if

among

is

a

is

model of

unselfish behavior.

young females

it is

rights.

a

litter,

the

that

try to steal

They are also the

ones that leave their birth

pack when they

reach maturity.

Egypt. Today their distribution

is

no more than about 5,000 animals

whole of

social

compete for breeding

become

the fight for dominance; and

second female should succeed

not the norm,

throughout Africa south of the Sahara and also

one pack.

have

is

At one time hunting dogs could be found

in

other. Both sexes

brutality

unchallenged, the pack

for breeding rights.

to stay

Such

however, and as long as the lead female

social

the females, not the males,

and compete

Males are more their

it

among

AFRICAN WILD DOG

Africa.

The decline

loss of suitable habitats,

is

patchy, with left in

largely

the

due to

which have been

taken over for agricultural use. Once these large areas start to

potential killed

danger to

be farmed, the dogs are a livestock

and are often

by farmers. Farm animals also bring

disease,

and hunting-dog populations have

suffered badly from rabies and canine

distemper transmitted by

LARGE CARNIVORES

Canis dingo

Although thought of as an Australian animal, the dingo

not in fact a native, but an intelligent and

is

adaptable immigrant, which soon became the country's top predator

Common name Scientific

name

Dingo Canis dingo

(C.

Some zoologists

lupus dingo)

Canidae

Order

Carnivora

its

ancestor

dog. There Length head/body: 34-48

10-15

length:

Weight 22-53

in

(86-122 cm);

Habits

lb

in

little

(44-63 cm)

One

on

feet, chest,

muzzle, and

territory;

hunts alone or

to 10 (average 5) pups born

underground den during winter gestation period of 63 days.

months; sexually mature a

little

domestic dogs were«

first

more than tame wolves. What

certain,

(10-24 kg)

however,

Australia

is

that the

is

almost

dogs to

first

arrive

about 4,000 years ago had some

help getting there. This suggests that they were

tail

at least partially domesticated. Aboriginal

tail

people used dingoes to hunt large animals and

packs of up to 12, defending

common Breeding

both

in

at

long muzzle and pricked ears; bushy

Lives in

probably truth

robust-looking dog; sandy fur with

pale markings tip;

is

an early form of the domestic

tail

in

Key features Large

is

suggestions, since the

(26-38 cm); height

in

shoulder: 17-25

"rr

is

descended from a kind of Asian wolf; others say

Family

Size

that the dingo

believe

over 14 years

packs

in

perhaps for companionship, but these animals

were doubtless

in

Weaned at 3 May live

Clever

at 2 years.

in captivity,

still

a

little

wild at heart.

after

up to 14

Newcomer

Dingoes are smart, hardy, and adaptable

in

the wild

animals, and

in

a very short time they spread

Voice

Typical doglike bark, whines, yelps,

Diet

Varies according to prey available; anything

large distances in search of food, but they are

from kangaroos and rabbits to insects and

not fussy about what they eat and can survive

and howls

throughout Australia. They can

travel guite

carrion

happily

Habitat

Diverse; hot deserts, tropical forests,

and temperate

in

a

wide

short time they

variety of environments. In a

became the top predator

Australia. Their only native competitor

Distribution Australia,

New

Guinea, Indochina,

Indonesia, Borneo,

and

In

as the

Philippines

Population: abundant. Declining

but not included

was the

known

marsupial wolf, or thylacine (also

Tasmanian Status

in

mountains, scrub, and ranch land

in

tiger),

which sadly proved no match

numbers, for the fast, intelligent

any conservation

newcomer. The thylacine

programs because most countries do not

disappeared from mainland Australia within

protect introduced or alien species

2,000 years of the dingo's

arrival.

From then on

the only remaining thylacine population

was on

the island of Tasmania. There are no dingoes

in

Tasmania, so dingoes cannot be blamed for the thylacine's eventual extinction

Dingoes are sociable and

in

the 1930s.

live in

packs,

although individuals often wander alone for days at a time. Each animal

is

hunting small prey by

but large prey

itself,

capable of

animals require teamwork to catch and

kill.

i!

When 80

SEE ALSO Mongoose,

natural prey are

in

short supply, dingoes

Indian Gray 1:108; Thylacine 10:36; Kangaroo, Gray 10:60

DOGS DINGO

often resort to hunting livestock. The size of a

dingo pack's

territory

depends

largely

on the

quality of the habitat, especially the availability

of water

and

The

prey.

territory

maintained by

is

scent marking and howling sessions.

Breeding happens just once a year, and

young

caring for the

is

a

team

effort. In stable

packs young adults help the more dominant animals rear

litters

of pups by bringing

and by

baby-sitting. Quite often only

female

will

in

food

one

be allowed to breed, thus ensuring

that her

litter

survival.

The other females,

has the best possible chance of usually the elder

daughters of the dominant female, tend to remain faithful to the pack

which they were

in

born, waiting for the chance to breed one day

themselves. Young males are more

move on and may wander

for

likely

to

many months

before finding a mate and a place to

settle.

Threats for the Future Dingoes were regarded as vermin that posed a

danger to sheep and lambs. As a

were poisoned and shot However,

killing

in

they

result,

large numbers.

the dominant female

a

in

pack

allows several subdominant animals to breed instead,

and more dingoes than usual are born!

Dingoes are not exclusively Australian. Dingolike dogs have colonized of the world survive

in

virtually

in

the past, and

many

some populations

parts of Southeast Asia. However,

all

dingo populations are facing an

uncertain future owing to changes habitats, persecution by

there

Australia

may

be dogs

still

and other

their

in

humans, and

hybridization with domestic dogs.

come

other parts

In

living

years to

wild

places, but they will

in

no

longer be purebred dingoes. The nonnative status of dingoes throughout their range

means

they do not receive protection, despite having

been an established part of the environment

for

thousands of years.

© A male dingo

digs out a rabbit from

its

warren. Once

regarded as useful hunting animals, dingoes are

now

often treated as vermin.

81

LARGE CARNIVORES

The Bear Family same ancestors

ears share the

B

as dogs, but they

are also distantly related to cats, otters,

members

have evolved

in

and other

weighing well under 44 pounds

small, probably

(20 kg).

It

had

a long

tail

and

known

is

a relatively small skull with

years old. Fossils

only from fossils about 20 million

from more recent times

the story of

tell

All

home and

water and on land.

its

toes are partially webbed.

Its

bears are large animals, and even the smallest of the smallest species (the Malaysian sun bear)

60 pounds (27

kg).

The

length and weigh at

in

largest species

is

the polar

males of which reach nearly 9 feet (2.7 m)

bear, adult

long and weigh This

paws

in

exceed 40 inches (100 cm)

still

least

sharp teeth designed for shearing meat. This so-called

"dawn bear"

equally at

members

soon colonized the

Asia, but they

is

are paddle shaped,

of the order Carnivora. Bears appear to

Americas, Europe, and Africa. The earliest bearlike animal

was

bear,

at a massive

in

makes them the world's

1,750 pounds (800

kg).

largest land-dwelling

predators. Male grizzly bears can

grow

to a similar size.

the bear family's evolution from small meat-eaters to the

much typical

larger

omnivorous animals

today. As the

bear body got bigger and heavier, the

disappeared, and the head skull

we know

was necessary

in

became

order to

larger.

tail all

but

The enlarged

accommodate the huge

Lifestyle

As

a general rule, bears are

Only the polar bear

is

forming the bulk of

its

jaw muscles needed to grind up tough vegetable food.

may

The teeth changed too. The pointed and shearing teeth

ice

became squarer and

species eat

flatter,

adapted

for

chewing and

carnivorous, with seals

diet.

However, even

eat plant material during the

melts and

eggs, and

grinding rather than cutting.

fully

omnivorous or vegetarian.

is

it

fruit,

fish.

forced to

summer when

come onto

land.

Is

a Bear?

the sea

The other

and shoots, honey, small animals,

leaves

Bears have a reputation for being greedy,

and indeed, many seem to spend most of

What

this species

waking

their

hours eating. But because they have evolved from meat-

Bears are large, heavy-bodied

shaggy fur and a very short

mammals

tail.

with thick,

They have

a large

eating ancestors, bears

head

do not have

for digesting plant material.

Much

a fully efficient gut

of

what they

eat

with small, round ears, small eyes, and powerful jaws

passes straight through their bodies without being

with big teeth. They generally walk on four

properly digested. As a result, they have to eat a great

legs,

although most can walk a short distance on two. Bears are surprisingly agile for their size,

deal to sustain themselves.

and the majority can

climb well. Most bears can swim, and one, the polar

Bear courtship offspring

is

is

usually brief,

and rearing the

the sole responsibility of the mother.

Pregnancies are often surprisingly long owing to a

Family Ursidae; 5 genera, 8 species

Tremarctos

1

AUuropoda Ursus

1

species,

Andean

species, giant

panda

(A.

(U. arctos)' polar

bear

in

melanoleuca)

{U.

{U.

which the

newly formed embryos do not develop, but simply wait

or spectacled bear (I ornatus)

4 species, American black bear bear

variable period of delayed implantation, during

americanus): brown/grizzly

maritimusy, Asian black bear

the uterus

until

the mother bear has reached peak

The pregnancy

condition.

the female

is fit

enough

is

only allowed to proceed

to develop

and care

if

for the

(U. thibetanus)

young. Bear cubs are born very small and need an Melursus

1

species, sloth bear {M. ursinus)

Helarctos

1

species, sun bear {H.

extended period of care, sometimes several years. malayanus)

Apart from mothers with cubs and courting bears

82

SEE ALSO

Bear, Polar 2:84; Bear, Brown/Grizzly

2:94

live

pairs,

alone. However, they are not necessarily

THE BEAR FAMILY

©A

snarling Alaskan

brown

(or grizzly) bear.

Bears look

fierce,

attacks on

humans

rare

and

involve

but are

usually

some kind

of provocation.

® The four smaller,

species of

lesser-known

bears: an Asian black

bear feeds on carrion

(1);

an Andean (spectacled) bear climbs a tree

in

search of fruit

a sun

(2);

bear catches termites on its

tongue

(3);

and

a

sloth bear forages for insects

territorial,

and

their

home

(4).

ranges (which can be huge)

usually overlap with those of other individuals. Scent

marks and other signs keep the bears informed of neighbors'

movements and

their

help avoid unexpected

meetings. Bears are aggressive, especially mothers with

cubs and males competing for dominance. Young males are particularly vulnerable to attack by older males, since their seniors try to rid the area of rivals. In places

the bear population density

dominance

hierarchy,

is

very high, there

is

where usually a

which helps keep the peace when

several individuals gather together, for example,

around a

shared food source.

Most bears spend

tropics). Bears living in

such

climates are a considerable

amount

of time

dens, which can be caves, hollow trees, or chambers in

(away from the

in

dug

the earth or snow. Alternatively, they can simply be

sheltered spaces amid dense vegetation.

important for those species that

live in

Dens are most

seasonal zones

suffer

known

to

from serious food shortages

year. In order to get

much weight then sleep for

at certain times of

around the problem, they put on as

as they can during the

much

of the winter

in

summer and

fall,

a secure den, living

off their fat reserves.

83

;*4

LARGE CARNIVORES

Polar Bear The polar bear

and

is

Ursus maritimus

the world's largest land carnivore

is

superbly adapted to

one of the harshest

in

life

regions on earth.

Scientific

name

Polar bears and brown bears are more closely

Ursus maritimus

related than their

Family

Ursidae

Order

Carnivora

Size

Length head/body:

lifestyles

length: iciiy

A

suggest. Until about 100,000 years

ago they were the same

3-5

in

up to 5.2

6. 6-8. 2 ft

(2-2.5 m);

tail

today individuals

m)

ft (1 .6

The

interbreed.

(300-800

captivity are able to

in

female 330-660

kg):

lb

thick, off-white coat;

and

relatively small; feet large

head

furry

providing a

recent adaptations,

fairly

all

good example

pregnant females hibernate excellent

swimmer

Litters of

1-4

in

winter;

cubs born

tiny

in

implantation).

Weaned from

mature

sexually

45 years

at

30

But there

color.

in

live

deep

long, trapping a

up to

Diet

Carnivorous: mainly seals but occasionally

layer of

other animals such as reindeer; also

and plant material

make

the coat extra

inside the hairs

in

IS

cap, and tundra; equally at

home

water and on land

lUCN Lower II.

which help

warm because

air

trapped

improves the insulation

pigment that makes the is

look rather yellow, Risk:

Main threat

effect.

accumulated sunlight.

Zoo

fur

It

appear white. The

also surprisingly light. Late

season, before the fur

and Greenland

conservation dependent; CITES

length,

its

air

the hollowness of the hairs and the lack of

dense coat Canada, Alaska,

Population: 20,000-30,000;

is

against

air

fish,

summer

Russia, Scandinavia,

warm

can be seen to be hollow. Each has

spaces running along

Circle; parts of

to the coat

the skin, but (under a microscope) the individual hairs

Grunts and growls

ice, ice

more

the wild

Voice

seabirds, carrion,

is

of

than meets the eye. Not only are the hairs very

6 months;

5-6 years. May

in captivity,

its

is,,

195-265 days

(includes variable period of delayed

Status

evolution can

striking polar bear characteristic

midwinter

course, after gestation period of

Distribution Arctic

how

Cold Weather Protection The most

in

of

proceed quickly under extreme conditions.

migratory and partially nomadic;

Solitary;

Sea

in

one of the bleakest, most inhospitable parts of the world are

Key features Huge bear with

and out of the water

life in

lb

(50-300 kg)

Habitat

and even

special features that allow polar

bears to survive

Breeding

species,

(7-13 cm); height at shoulder:

Weight Male 660-1,760

Habits

appearance and different

dirt

is

molted,

owing to

a

it

the

combination of

and the oxidizing

polar bears

in

begins to

effect of

sometimes get algae

from human exploitation of Arctic habitats

from

their pool into the coat hairs, turning

them temporarily green, but happen

in

this

does not

the wild!

The other obvious feature of polar bears their size. Fully

grown males

largest terrestrial predators,

8 feet (2.5 m) long on

much

as 10 large

half this size,

but

all

are the world's

measuring about

fours and weighing as

men. Females are still

is

less

than

number among the

world's most powerful animals. Large body size

84

SEE ALSO

Bear,

American Black 2:90, Walrus 3:24; Beluga 3:80; Reindeer/Caribou 6:20

BEARS POLAR BEAR

is

another adaptation to the cold, because

larger animals are loss of

body

more

efficient at preventing

—

for

much

of the year

seals are the only other animals around,

and

just a single

Another

is

special adaptation

paw.

the huge furry

feet, which help spread the polar bear's weight

heat. Being big also allows polar

bears to tackle large prey

one out of the water using

a

polar bear can scoop

so effectively that a bear weighing half a ton

(508 kg) can walk carefully across to support a

human. The

ice

too thin

soles are also furry,

protecting the pads from frostbite and giving the bear extra grip

the

ice;

on

They also help reduce

the tendency to sink into soft

snow. The bears are

© Polar bears

test their

strength in bouts of play wrestling. Fully

grown

males are the world's largest terrestrial

predators and can weigh as

much

as 10 large men.

85

LARGE CARNIVORES

nimble for their size and can gallop at speeds of

up to 30 miles per hour (50 km/h)

for relatively

short periods.

Long-Distance Traveler Polar bears have never actually at the

North Pole. Here the sea

been recorded ice

is

thick

and

continuous, with no access to open water for

the bears or for the seals on which they feed.

However, they do occur almost everywhere else within the Arctic Circle, concentrating their activity

pack

around the

where

ice

thin,

the sea ice reaches bears venture

cracked edges of the

when

seals haul out. In winter,

maximum

its

extent, the

south as Newfoundland,

as far

southern Greenland, and the Bering Sea.

true

Polar bears

wander

nomads

was once

studies

show

as

widely, but they are not

believed. Recent

that bears from different parts of

the Arctic form distinct populations, with individual bears using ranges of

square miles (500,000 of a

few

years. There

sq.

is

up to 200,000

km) over the course population of

a resident

Hudson and James

polar bears around the

Bays,

© A female polar bear with her

Delayed Implantation

only leaving

M

ost polar bears are solitary

and females

rarely

and wander over vast

areas.

when she

ready to breed again.

is

Males

meet, so they are ready to mate whenever

members

which do not need to

of

summers on

the opportunity occurs between March and June. Whatever the time

They spend

of mating, the cubs are nearly always born

up to 120 miles (200 km)

time of year for births because

growth and development bear's

it

midwinter.

maximum

have

left

pregnancy can therefore be anything from

almost nine months. Soon after tiny

in

allows the

after the babies

embryos go

into a state of

that the embryos

do not begin

fertilization of

It

is

period for

the den.

and

six

the best

A

polar

It

freeze over

is

the fact

to develop immediately that

makes

species,

not

is

until

in

good

health. Delaying the

the female has put on

development of the

enough weight

to survive the

pregnancy and provide milk for the cubs through the winter guards against starvation of the entire family.

condition by the late

fall,

If

the female

is

the bays

winter.

and polar bears show considerable

In late

she

when

Ringed seals are the most important prey

flexibility in

if

and move out

Smash and Grab

over the winter put a huge strain on the female's body and can be

embryos

in

land, venturing

inland, ice

travel so far.

a half to

the mother's eggs the

suspended animation.

their

onto the vast expanse of

the variable gestation period possible. Pregnancy and rearing cubs

fatal

cubs. Polar bear cubs

stay with their mother for about two and a half years,

not

in

top

the embryos are spontaneously aborted.

their

the techniques used to hunt them.

spring female ringed seals give birth to

young

in

well-hidden dens. The dens have

openings to the sea below but are

invisible

from above, being roofed over with snow. However, polar bears have an acute sense of smell

and can detect the pups

lying quietly

below. They break into the den using brute force, rearing

86

SEE ALSO

Fox, Arctic 2:70

up on

their hind legs

and

BEARS POLAR BEAR

pounding the roof with

their front feet.

then seize the seal pup

inside.

seals,

on the other hand,

and patience. Bears wait

Hunting adult

about

is all

hole for a seal to emerge, then grab

and

it

Sometimes the

ice.

bears sneak up on a seal resting on the using

snow

and

ridges

creep forward

ice

T

he polar bear could (indeed,

blocks as cover. They

Ocean

just as correctly

name means

scientific

its

swimmer and

ice,

low crouch, keeping

a

in

The Sea Bear

stealth

by a breathing

silently

heave the animal onto the

They

is

comfortable

just as

on land or pack

as

when

coat are

hunt

greasy and repels water. After a

successful, but the bears often

enough

kill

entourage of scavenging Arctic foxes as

well.

danger of

ice

forming

Varied Diet

swimming. The

for

have

Individual bears

hunting

distinctly different

own

experience. Other items that

menu

appear on the polar bear's

and bearded

the

in

hours, using a steady

Include harp

material. Bears arriving

summer may spend hours

browsing on leaves and

summer sea ice

is

many

(2

Hudson Bay bears may go eating, living only

on

for

seals.

lack of

The

it

and

it

swims with

its

effective

head

has a good view over the waves.

to

40

km)

miles (65

and climb out through

m) onto

ice cliffs.

on a passing

way

Hitching a

ice floe

is

a

of getting around,

plunge

in

and out of the cold

water dozens of times a day.

0

and

staying as inactive as possible to save energy in

enormous

months without

their fat reserves

and to avoid overheating

bear's

is little

and the bears seem quite happy to

bears

hunger because the

a time of

means they cannot hunt

coat, so there

dog paddle.

open water. They can dive

favorite

diet. For

its

for

ice

ride

the bear's

long,

is

under

vitamins and minerals otherwise completely in

also slightly

webbed, making them more

across

although not especially nutrrtious, contain some

lacking

is

seal breathing holes or leap 7 feet

which,

berries,

fur

They have even been known to

swim up

dead animals,

fish, seabirds,

and occasionally plant on land

may

swim

The

The toes of the

fur.

slightly

bear's neck

Polar bears can

young beluga whales,

seals,

walrus, reindeer,

fur.

in

in their

swim the bear only needs one quick

held high above the water so that

techniques, which they develop according to their

the

in

paddle-shaped feet are

water of the Arctic

icy

shake to remove most of the moisture from

to feed not only themselves but an

a superb

dead. The hollow hairs

much more buoyant than normal

every time the seal looks arpund. Not every is

the

in

It is

Polar bears can float effortlessly

ice.

seawater and do not sink even

still

be called the sea bear

precisely that).

the

weak

Polar bears are excellent

and can paddle

swimmers

for hours at a time.

sunshine.

Breeding Dens Most polar bears remain

throughout the

during which time the cubs are born. They are

temporary snow

very small and need protecting from the harsh

active

winter, only seeking shelter

in

holes during the worst storms. They

do not

normally need to hibernate because there

shortage of food at

this

is

climate for the

no

time of year. Pregnant

females, however, build substantial dens

in

which to spend the winter. The dens, which are

dug

into a

bank of snow, usually consist of a

tunnel up to 10 feet (3 m) long and a large oval

chamber.

Some

may have

several interconnected rooms.

female sleeps

in

are rather

more elaborate and The

the den throughout the winter.

first

few months

newborn young make

their

of

life.

own way

mother's teats, and she suckles

The

to their

them without

appearing to wake up. This long sleep

is

not

true hibernation because although the female's

heart rate

and breathing slow down, her body

temperature only drops by a few degrees. As a result,

the den remains cozy, and she can

up quickly

if

wake

need be. By the time spring

comes, the cubs have increased

in

weight from

87

CARNIVORLi

l.A/iGr

over

](.r^;

oounds

-?i'

IS

lo

;

pound (500 (1

g) to

Malt-starved, having used

pnsduce

Her

milk.

rood, bui that

up most of her

first priority

fat

to find

is

not easy with up to three

is

romping by her

'M.Ps

between 25 and

and 14 kg) apiece. The mother

1

lively

side.

Bear Attacks Polar bears are aggressive.

humans; but since populated, the

who

People

comes

how

and

is

visitors are

Churchill,

been attacked

in

The bears pass by the town on

regular migrations

municipal waste

anyone

attack

Polar bears

when

given plenty

the Hudson Bay area,

in

around the town of

several people have years.

low.

to avoid danger. Bear attacks

most frequent

especially

@

of fatalities

where

the

last

dumps where they

who

wander

are liable to

disturbs them.

widely, with individuals using sq.

km)

over the course of a few years.

polar I

and Humans

bears have been

the time they settled

known in

to the Inuit people from

the North American Arctic

about 4,000 years ago. The bears figure prominently native folklore

hunted

and

spirituality.

for meat, fur,

They were

and other body

recently polar bears

were

the practice ceased

in

also

1976

In

traditionally

parts.

More

hunted commercially, but

as the result of an

agreement between the

five "Polar Bear Nations"— the United States, Canada, Norway, Russia, and Denmark.

Conservation laws

now

include controls on commercial

hunting: Most of the bears hunted today are killed as part of the traditional Inuit hunt. However, hunting not the only threat, and polar bears currently face

is

problems associated with pollution and the exploitation of the Arctic for mining

88

and

oil

40

their

and are attracted to the

ranges of up to 200,000 square miles (500,000

Polar Bears

kill

is

and work within the polar

live

to bears,

of advice on are

number

of their range

range are generally well informed

bear's It

little

They can and do

extraction.

SEE ALSO Narwhal 3:84

LARGE CARNIVORES

American Black Bear

Ursus americanus

Think of the American biack bear, and the image of the cartoon character "Yogi Bear" In fact, the black

Common name

bear

may weii come

-

name

Ursidae

Order

Carnivora 4. 9-5. 9 ft

(1

fm

36

TV show.

;.f—'

up

female 200-310

Key features Large bear with

its

huge geographical range.

and

Weight Male 250-600 lb

lb (1

13-272

kg);

(91-141 kg)

thick,

has

its

enterprising

made

it

much

of

but not shaggy coat;

brown

a typical bear,

is

and cartoons. Even

stories, films,

so, the details of

become

It

and opportunistic behavior

the inspiration for myths, folk tales

and modern

fur can be variety of colors, but usually

over

tail

cm)

in (91

common

widespread and remains

.5-1 .8 m);

length: 4.5 in (12 cm); height at shoulder: to

in the

The American black bear has always been

head/body: L( Length

A

^

veiy similar to the adaptable

is

Ursus americanus

Family

Size

mind.

American black bear

and opportunistic forager portrayed Scientific

to

its

biology have only recently

and

well understood. Before the 1960s

or black; muzzle less furry than rest of face

1970s zoologists lacked the necessary Habits

Solitary;

most

active at night;

skills

and

swims and

technology to make safe, nondisruptive, long-

climbs well; hibernates over winter

term observations of these shy but powerful Breeding

Litters of

1-5 (usually 2 or 3) cubs born after

gestation period of

220 days

(including about

150 days delayed implantation). Weaned

6-8 months; females sexually mature years, males at

years

Voice

5-6

in captivity,

years.

26

in

May

live

at

at

4-5

in

the wild. Since that time

live

and other up-to-date

trapping, radio tracking,

techniques have provided

much

about the bear's

and behavior

information

up to 31

the wild

daily

life

patterns.

Various grunts, rumbling growls, and woofing

Color Variations

sounds; cubs give high-pitched howls

Diet

animals

Mostly plant material, including grass, bark,

and

fruit,

nuts,

roots; fish; invertebrates

as insects and their larvae and

worms;

such

also

American black bears can be

a variety of colors

ranging from white to black and including reddish and chocolate brown, bluish-black,

and

honey, other mammals, and carrion

dark blond. However, dark-brown or black Habitat

Forest

and scrub; occasionally open spaces

individuals are by far the

most common. There

Distribution Canada, Alaska, and U.S. south to Mexico

are geographical trends

Status

most nonblack bears occurring

Population: 400,000-500,000; CITES

common,

but population

now

II.

Still

reduced due to

in

California

in

color variation, with in

the southwest

and Mexico. The white form (not

© An adult rests

on a

black bear

fallen log.

hunting, persecution, and habitat loss

to be confused with the polar bear,

another species bears

entirely)

come from

is

rare,

which

is

but most white

the Pacific coast of

animals, they

can be unpredictable and dangerous, especially if

they are injured, frightened, or provoked.

Black bears generally avoid confrontations with

humans, but

their opportunistic foraging habits

can bring them very close to areas of

90

SEE ALSO

Bear, Polar 2:84, Bear, Brown/Grizzly

2:94

usually forest or

occasionally venture into

Black bears are not particularly aggressive like all large

is

scrubland, but bears will

southwestern Canada.

toward people; but

Black bear habitat

human

open spaces and even the fringes of towns.

activity

and thus

females, and the overlaps

into potentially tragic

situations. Fatal black bear attacks are rare, but

between

they always receive high-profile publicity.

small or nonexistent.

Black bears normally

alone, except for

live

their ranges are

However, the

courting pairs, mothers with cubs, and

of a male's

occasional gatherings around a plentiful food

usually

resource, such as a

waste dump. Each has a

separate territory; but so that

in

home

ranges can overlap,

areas of prime habitat, such as

Washington

State's

Long

Island

three bears per square mile (about sq. km). Male bears are

more

two

or

one per

territorial

than

and shape

home range

are

determined by the

ranges of the

local

a space that gives

potential

and parts of

California, they can live at densities of

size

mates as

females

color rar)ges

from black to white,

possible.

depending on

in

much

a local area usually

as possible, there

keep

is

often a loosely structured social hierarchy,

which comes

© Coat

him access to as many

While the bears to themselves as

—the male occupies

into play

when

the bears meet.

geographical location. Bears from southeastern

Alaska (above) have a bluish-gray coloration.

91

XR^iF

CARNIVORES

For example, males competing for a female will

each other up with aggressive posturing,

size

"Smarter than the Average Bear"

rearing

up on two

another.

two

o goes the catchphrase of the famous cartoon character Yogi Bear,

and

Tne species like

it

is

a true description of the cleverness of black bears.

eat just about anything

will

it

can

lay

its

paws

sidekick

a high fat

Booboo

unguarded

and protein content. Yogi Bear and

for

picnic

hampers

is

not far short of

strict rules

bears

have learned where to get an easy meal.

campgrounds

usually provide lockable metal boxes

to use hanging larders, since even smart bears find

cars,

break

into.

Park bears have

and roads, and are

soft drink cans

probably retain

dominance

his

two meet, so avoiding the need

violence.

in

intelligent

black bear country

hamper

is

rugged, with plenty

which

range by the presence of brown/grizzly

;

bears. Grizzlies not only present

competition for food and

to people,

will

occasionally

kill

stiff

shelter,

but they

small black bears.

However, where the tundra

to recognize sealed

grizzlies

have

declined (due to hunting and

never safe with Yogi and Booboo around!

KlUiA

were

the Canadian tundra at the north of their

and other unnatural-looking objects as food.

picnic

is

of tree cover. Historically black bears

them

become used

enough

In

persecution),

A

back down, while

probably discouraged from venturing far onto

Official

food can be kept out of reach. Wilderness campers are advised

difficult to

more

Good

on the safe

their tents to reduce the risk of nighttime raids by clever

who

will

Moving

National parks

reality.

storage and disposal of food. Backpackers are advised never to keep in

will

matched bears may come to serious

next time the

his

bear

are fictional of course, but their endless quest for

throughout the black bear's range have

food

closely

inferior

and wrestling with one

blows. The bear that emerges victorious from

the bout

on; but

people, black bears are especially partial to high-energy foods

and those with

An

legs,

rJtir

is

it

seems that the black bear

only too happy to

move

into the vacated

territory to forage.

One

most

of the

BEARS AMERICAN BLACK BEAR

© A cinnamon-colored mother (sow) with her cubs.

born

Up in

to five cubs are

January or

February. They stay in their

underground den,

suckling from their

mother, until quite late in

the spring.

© The opportunistic foraging habits of bears

Important requirements of bear country

can often bring them

enough

into close contact with

hibernate because there

humans, sometimes with

available during the winter to sustain

suitable hibernation sites. Black bears

Many

is

not enough food

normal

Here, an American black

sources are highly seasonal, with

bear scavenges at a

and nuts

in

Canada.

activity.

all

During

.

peaking

them

in late

fruit, berries,

summer.

when most

of the food

is

gone, they stop

eating and seek out a secure den

spend the winter. hollowed-out

same

which to

order to regain the weight

may

give birth while they hibernate. Like

the space under a fallen

are used every year by the

soon

a period of

suspended development

after they are conceived.

is

Winter Slumber

to be able to support herself

again

until quite late in will

be two or three months

virtually

from

between 93.2 and 87.8°F (34 and 3rC).

weight and becoming

Its

metabolism

minimum

is

just ticking

of energy.

but

will

Its

down

until

over using the bare

The bear

will stay in

torpid state as long as the cold

weather

rouse during short periods of

in

that lasts,

warm

the

old.

January or February

naked when they

temperature drops four to seven degrees to

breathing and heart rate slow right

when

the spring

They weigh only 8 ounces (230

body

The

winter.

mother bear may not get the chance to eat

and are

asleep, the black bear's core

her body

until

prime condition and she has put on

in

enough weight

The cubs are born

Once

They do not

implant into the mother's uterus

cubs

or different individuals.

many

other carnivores, American black bear embryos

and her developing cubs during the

might be a cave, a

log, or

Some dens

tree.

It

in

in

over the winter months of hibernation.

Females that mated the previous summer

undergo

themselves, becoming fat and lethargic. By midfall,

lost

in

time of plenty the bears gorge

this

the richest food

they

of the bear's natural food

tragic consequences.

waste dump

their den, the bears will selectively forage for

is

g).

first

appear.

They suckle

their sleeping mother's teats, putting livelier

on

almost by the day.

By the time spring arrives and the family

emerges from the den, the cubs are

fully

furred

bundles of energy. They continue to suckle for a further four to six

weaned onto

months and

solid food,

which

are gradually their

mother

weather, sometimes even emerging from the

teaches them to find. The young bears

den

spend the whole summer and the following

for a

day or two. Bears that

live in

north hibernate for longer than those south, and the winter sleep can

from 75 to 130 days.

When

last

the in

the

anything

they emerge from

winter with their mother. They disperse at about 18

months

will

will usually

of age, leaving her

free to have another family.

93

W

.m

LARGE CARNIVORES

Brown/Grizzly

Bear

Ursus arctos

and widespread bear ranges

This highly successful

widely across the Northern Hemisphere. The largest brown Scientific

name

brown bears occur

bear)

United States and are often

in the

referred to as grizzly bears.

Ursus arctos 1^

Family

Ursidae

Order

Carnivora

|

Among Length head/body:

Size

A

length:
2.5-8

shoulder:

in

.7-2.8 m);

as the

at

(90-1 50 cm).

in

and admired

brown bear (known

carnivores, the

(6-20 cm); height

35-60

the world's most feared

tail

grizzly

bear

in

parts of North America)

Male bigger than female

one of the

Weight 132-1,750

most widespread

lb

its

It still

to large bear with shaggy, light-

widely

its

often grizzled (grayish) on

fur,

is

three continents; but

in all

now more

patchy,

its

range covered most of

North America, Europe, and Asia.

to black

also

is

and most prevalent. At

largest

(60-800 kg)

Key features Medium brown

5. 5-9. 3 ft (1

occurs

distribution

and some smaller

back and shoulders; narrow snout; broad face

populations are seriously threatened with Habits

Solitary; nonterritorial;

Breeding

Litters of

hibernates over winter

extinction.

1-4

(usually 2)

January-March

180-266 mature

at

Diet

the wild

Brown bears from

Mostly plant material, including grass, roots,

insects

also invertebrates such as

and

Varied; tundra, forests,

their larvae; fish

open

worms

and carrion

plains, alpine grassland,

are

centuries.

in

different geographical areas

appearance and behavior. Most

some shade

of brown, but off-white

and

almost black individuals are known. The largest bears are found on the Pacific coast of Alaska, specifically

northern Asia south of Arctic

in

Population: 220,000; CITES II

I

(several Eurasian

now more

brown bears

away

in size.

dramatic contrast to the Kodiak giants,

In

(North American

subspecies). Declining, but

Islands.

weight, rivaling the largest polar bears

Pyrenees, Alps, and Abruzzi Mountains

subspecies); CITES

on Kodiak and Admiralty

Males here reach almost 1,750 pounds (800 kg)

Circle;

Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and Middle East;

Status

many

and wooded areas

Distribution Western Canada, Alaska, and northwestern U.S.;

and strength the

Regional Variations

vary greatly

and Habitat

in

country people over

Various grunts and growls

and fungi;

size

its

a feared neighbor for

after gestation period of

Weaned at 5 months; sexually 4-6 years. May live up to 40 years 25

Because of

brown bear has been

days.

in captivity,

Voice

cubs born

in

living just a

few hundred

miles

the Yukon rarely exceed 330 pounds

stable (1

50

kg),

and those

in

southern Europe are

often under 150 pounds (70 kg). Such huge variation

in size

might suggest that there

more than one species

of

brown

fact the difference probably has

is

bear, but in

more

to

do

with diet than genetics. Bears keep on growing well into adult highly

that

life,

and the

dependent on the

manage

to

consume

rate of

growth

a high-protein diet

grow much bigger than those forced

94

SEE ALSO

Bear, Polar 2:84, Bear,

is

quality of food. Bears

American Black 2:90; Bison, American 6:64

to survive

— BEARS BROWN/GRIZZLY BEAR

on

and

berries

living

Kodiak bears and those

grass.

on the other side of the Bering

Strait in

Kamchatka benefit from the annual run of salmon, which swim upriver

Pacific

millions to

summer

in

the bears can gorge themselves on

highly nutritious fish, loafing around

riverbanks energy.

In

to survive

may

their

spawn. For several weeks every

on the

between meals and expending

little

other parts of the world bears have

on much more

also take a

good

limited rations,

which

deal of energy to find.

Seasonal Produce Most brown bears eat more plant material than anything

the most

else, carefully selecting

succulent and nutritious of the season's grasses, fruit,

nuts,

and fungi. They tend to avoid

growth vegetation because

it

is

digest, especially since their gut

of a meat-eater.

animals as

Brown bears

most parts of

their

basically that

and eat other

planned

in

arises.

However,

range predatory behavior

in

is

advance.

Whether hunting or important bear sense

is

foraging, the

smell.

ears are small, reflecting

most

Compared with

huge black nose, the brown

its

is

kill

to

—from mice to bison and other bears

and when the opportunity

rarely

old-

much harder

its

bear's eyes relatively

and

poor

eyesight and hearing. Large prey

animals are usually chased over a short distance at speeds of up to

30 miles per hour (50 km/h), then with a mighty blow from

killed

the front paws. Large grizzlies

immensely strong and can

are

animals as big as horses and

kill

cattle,

dragging them 100 yards (90 m) or

more

humans and

will

to feed

a safe place. Attacks

on

are rare, but always well publicized,

probably

© A brown or

become more frequent

grizzly bear

Brown bears vary weighing up

in

in size,

to 1,750

somewhat lumbering

from the Rocky Mountains.

with the biggest males

pounds (800 in

as the

kg).

Although

appearance, even the largest

bears can run with surprising speed and

agility.

95

-r'l

96

BEARS BROWN/GRIZZLY BEAR

recreational use of wilderness areas increases.

Most attacks others

some

involve

may be

kind of provocation;

accidental, for example,

dominant male mistakes

a

human

when

a

for a

subordinate bear. Mothers with cubs are especially aggressive, but

where

human

rather than confront a

even

possible,

away

they prefer to usher their family

to safety

being. The

human

B

zoo animals. Some

ears are popular

so-called "dancing bears" used to be

taken from one town to another to give public performances. However, the decline

motivation for an attack appears not to be food, since bears rarely eat their

The Bear Trade

of

victims.

brown and

black bears

was due almost

North America the

entirely to hunting. In

bears were hunted for their fur and to

Light Sleeper

brown bears

All

most do so

months

for

protect livestock. Today hunting are capable of hibernating,

and

between three and seven

of the year. Hibernation

is

a response to

Trading

by

some southern brown bears

varies

enough

worthwhile. Even

do not hibernate

conditions never

make such

to in

warmer weather

a winter retreat

northern areas brown bears

American black

as deeply as

and they rouse quickly

bears,

or disturbance of the den. Like

bear body parts

in

treaty.

is

also restricted

The threat to bear populations

from place to place, which

some animals

is

why

are officially registered as

needing urgent protection, while others are considered to be less at

risk.

The most serious threat to bears

response to

in

game

animals rather than a commercial resource.

poor weather and lack of food. However, for

get bad

strictly

is

regulated, and bears are treated as

comes from the Asian medicine

trade.

American black and polar bears, pregnant

Paws, bones, and internal organs are

female brown bears usually give

highly valued, especially the gallbladder,

miplwinter.

The development of the cubs

only proceed that far

the mother

if

in

A

female

is

will

in a fit

Brown bears reproduce

condition to rear them. slowly:

birth in

breeds more than once

rarely

disperse up to

60 miles

few years waiting

one of the few Asian medicines

bear

bile

that

may have

science,

is

some

at least

for the opportunity to

so that the

bile

used without

controversial activity

home, often continuing

to associate

with each other and their mother long after the next batch of cubs

make brown

is

born. Such close family

bears almost sociable.

In

parts

of the western United States large groups of

bears

may gather

at a

food source. Although

they interact peacefully most of the time, there is

a

strict hierarchy,

which may be maintained

with aggressive displays and fighting.

© A brown bear Every

summer

fishing for

salmon

in

an Alaskan

the bears gorge themselves on the

nutritious fish as they

swim

in

upriver to spawn.

river.

tubes

plastic

can be drained off and

with a receptive female. Young females stay

ties

basis

surgically implanted into their gallbladders

replace a resident male or to steal a mating

closer to

some

countries permit the

Farmed animals have

(100 km) from their birthplace. They spend the next

which can fetch over $1,000. Because

farming of Asiatic black and brown bears.

every three or four years.

Young males

all

the bear. This highly

killing

is

argued by some to

reduce the pressure on wild populations, but

It

also helps perpetuate the use of

bear products

in

the

treatment of conditions for

which there are

number

a

of effective

man-made

drugs.

.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Giant

F^nda One of the Common name

panda

name

most

world's

easily

Gi^nt

recognizable animals, the

panda (panda,

Scientific

Ailuropoda melanoleuca

bear)

has rarely been seen

Ailuropoda

China and

alive outside

now in

is

panda

serious

melanoleuca Ursidae

Order

Carnivora

has become the symbol for

Length head/body: 47-59

Size

tail

(120-150 cm);

in

in

animals threatened with extinction.

(70-80 cm)

Weight 165-350

lb

legs,

large, furry

body

is

off-white

between dusk

and dawn; climbs well or 2 cubs born

gestation period of

one of the world's most widely known

is

and best-loved animals. Chinese writings from as long as 3,000 years

Solitary; nonterritorial; active

One

elusive, the giant

bear with black

shoulder band, eye patches, and ears;

rest of

and

Despite being naturally rare

(75-160 kg)

panda Key features Unmistakable

Breeding

all

length: 5 in (13 cm); height at shoulder:

up to 27.5-31

Habits

appearance

decline. Its distinctive

Family

world

August-September

97-163 days

after

(includes

1869,

until

Museum

ago

refer to the

was unknown

but the species

when

a skin

of Natural History

missionary.

panda,

to the outside

was

in Paris

sent to the

by a French

The species was then formally

variable period of delayed implantation).

Weaned 6-7

years.

fewer

in

8-9 months; sexually mature

at

May

live

up to 34

at

years in captivity,

the wild

barks, squeaks,

and

seen

bleats

Omnivorous, but mostly

Diet

it

was

scientists

a long time before

were able to see

a live one.

Even today fewer than 100 pandas have been

Varied sounds, including growls, moans,

Voice

described, but

western

alive in

panda

bamboo and some

is

zoos outside China. The

Nepalese, while

its

name

former species

name, Ursus melanoleuca. meant simply "black-

other plant material; occasionally small

and-white bear." Ailuropoda,

its

more recent

animals scientific

Habitat

bamboo

Mountainside forests with altitudes of

3,300-13,000

ft

name,

refers to the

claws and feet.

thickets at

(1,000-3,900 m)

Vegetarian Diet Distribution Small remaining range

in

central

China

Pandas are almost exclusively vegetarian. Status

Population: about 1,000;

CITES

I.

lUCN Endangered;

Has declined greatly

in

range and

population due to hunting, habitat specialized lifestyle

loss,

and

However, they evolved from carnivorous ancestors and a meat-eater. IS

still

have the digestive system of

includes a short intestine, which

It

not the best arrangement for digesting the

plant material on which pandas mainly feed.

Much

of the

goodness

in

the panda's diet

is

never absorbed because meals simply do not

spend enough time properly digested.

nourishment to 10 to 12 of

its

In

in

the short gut to be

order to obtain enough

survive, the 1

5

panda has to spend

waking hours feeding and eat

between 22 and 40 pounds (10 and 18

bamboo 98

SEE ALSO Raccoon, Common

1:22; Panda, Red 1:30; Old

kg) of

every day. During the bamboo's

World Monkey

Family,

The 4:40

new

BEARS GIANT PANDA

growth phase, when the stems are more succulent, such a requirement can almost

much

double, since

consume

at that time

is

water

just

plant stems. However, the

panda

completely unsuited to

diet,

some

evolved

%

what the pandas

of

feeding a

its

in

is

and

the juicy

not it

has

make

physical characteristics that

little

easier. For

example,

its

cheek

teeth are unlike those of other bears, being ,,

bigger and flatter and well adapted for grinding

and crushing rather than •"

S'i^*-

•.

^

,>

>

•'.

'

--'

-'-"

’ '

extra molar,

-6

-

efficient.

slicing.

There

is

an

which helps make chewing more

Not surprisingly for an animal that

^

,^hews almost

all

day long, the panda has well-

developed jaw muscles. They are attached to enlarged cheekbones, which

make

the panda's

face appear very wide and round. The jaws are

powerful enough to crunch to

1

inches (4 cm)

.5

panda

diameter, although the

prefers thinner shoots. Dry

tends to splinter

©

in

bamboo stems up

when

it

bamboo

breaks, so the panda's

Pandas once inhabited the subtropical lowlands of

China, but

now

can be found only in high-altitude areas

where farming and logging have not yet encroached.

A

Bear or Not a Bear?

T

he panda's relationship to other bears running puzzles

in

is

in

classifying

it

like a

first

sight the animal

and 19th-century zoologists had no in

the bear family, Ursidae. However, there

another species of panda, the red or

which looks rather

one of the longest-

animal classification. At

certainly looks like a bear,

hesitation

is

lesser

panda

(Ailurus fulgens),

raccoon. Certain aspects of giant panda

physiology are also raccoonlike, and for a while both pandas were

placed

in

the raccoon family, Procyonidae.

Other experts placed them Ailuridae,

Modern

like

a family by themselves, the

science has clarified the situation a

revealed that the giant panda's

more

in

DNA

little.

It

has

(genetic molecular structure)

is

that of a bear than a raccoon. As a result, the merry-go-

round has turned the giant panda

is

full circle,

with most zoologists

now

agreeing that

a rather special kind of bear, or at least

offshoot of the bear family.

an

Thumbs Up

will starve.

They are unable to hibernate as

some other 'he panda's

most extraordinary feeding adaptation has nothing to

do with

jaws, teeth, or gut.

its

the panda so appealing

bamboo stem browsing

One it

as a

of the reasons people find

up to

sits

human would,

do

meal to pieces

like

on each

down and

or lying

using

most carnivores. Bears and

its

mouth

way

shoots the is

does, the panda has developed a

it

actually an extension of a

which grows

thumb

bone from

like a

its

is

to

able to

it

move

press

two

its first

bamboo

are

to a

new

area

where there

is

bamboo

human

settlement and agriculture makes doing

so very

difficult. In

the 1970s hundreds of

pandas are thought to have starved to death

It

when

bamboos

their

died

off,

and encroaching

farmland meant they had nowhere else to go.

Another serious problem the panda faced

provides a support

against which the panda can

and thereby

bamboo

younger bamboo. But the development of

clamp

new "thumb."

cycles of

not a problem for pandas as long as they are

have

wrist (the radial sesamoid),

thumb, but

true

The unpredictable growth

to pull

main pad on each forefoot. This new

into a lobe off the

not mobile

is

order to clasp

In

of inactivity.

Disappearing Habitats

way humans and

apes do. The only way most carnivores can hold objects

them awkwardly between two paws.

fat reserves to sustain

rather than

their relatives

so they cannot be used to grasp objects the

digits,

up the necessary

build

thumbs do not oppose the other

foot, but the

times of food shortage

in

them over long periods

eat, clasping a

ground or the growing plant as other herbivores

(plant-eating animals) its

way

much

paws,

in its

off the

five digits

the

is

bears do

because their poor diet does not allow them to

in

the past

was hunting. Panda

were highly prized

fingers

skins

for their unusual

markings, and various body parts were

grip the

stems.

have special medicinal

said to

properties. By the late 20th century

there were fewer than 1,000 wild

pandas

Today the remaining

populations are restricted to three

have an extra

small areas

lining to

home good

thick, leathery

prevent

Pandas

live

the strictest conservation laws

They leave scent marks and other

pains not to meet.

It

may be

that the panda's

markings actually help

striking black-and-white

them spot each other

at a distance

and so

do not compete

same

for the

food supplies. The average panda uses a

®The panda's extra

world:

"thumb" helps

government sentenced 16 people to

bamboo more when

feeding.

grasp

it

Its

paws endears

habit its

the animal

it

than 650 yards (600 m)

in

Larger

movements tend

rarely

enforced by the cycles of regrowth.

A

stand of

and

it

for

suddenly flowers,

dies back completely.

When

that

happens, the pandas have to move on, or they

SEE ALSO Ape

Family,

The 4:12

all.

the majority is

in

one cub

is

China.

low, partly because (usually

successfully reared at a time).

find

new sources,

that

is

zoos and are reluctant to breed at

does not help matters that outside China

Pandas are such popular attractions that zoos

bamboo. When plants back, the animals

It

in

few countries have more than two pandas.

Giant pandas feed

almost entirely on

and

bamboo might grow

as long as 100 years before sets seed,

die-off

living in captivity,

Captive-breeding success

problems

©

winter) or

bamboo

pandas

Pandas also seem prone to psychological

moves more

to be seasonal in

pandas. There are currently just over 100

just

the course of a day.

(descending to lower altitudes

the

life

pandas naturally reproduce very slowly

to people.

home

range of between 1.5 and 2 square miles (4-6 sq. km) a year, but

in

the late 1980s the Chinese

In

imprisonment and three to death for hunting

easily

of picking up food in

avoid getting too close. Keeping spaced out helps ensure they

the central Chinese

Gansu. They are protected by some of

alone, but their

ranges often overlap a deal.

in

provinces of Shaanxi, Sichuan, and

injury.

signs to indicate their presence, but they take

100

left alive.

mouth, esophagus, and stomach

die

are often unwilling to loan out their animals for

must

breeding purposes. Captive-breeding experts

but

are

becoming

increasingly difficult.

now

future

way

turning to technology to help.

artificial

to-

insemination

may be

breed healthy pandas

in

In

the

the best

zoos.

LARGE CARNIVORES

The Hyena Family yenas are dog-sized animals that are found

H

throughout most of

Africa.

One

species (the

striped hyena) extends into Arabia

and eastward

to India. Typical hyenas get most of their food by

scavenging and feed mainly on the large carnivores.

The animals have

kills

of lions

and other

a reputation for being

their hips,

and the head

is

carried low, giving the animals

a distinctive

hunchbacked appearance. The

and there

a large hairy

is

sandy brown with dark

tail.

Typically,

digest

left

by large predators.

Is

a

Hyena?

Hyenas are doglike

in

The shoulders are consequently higher than

Family Hyaenidae: 3 genera,

(typical

hyena feeds on insects and has

hyenas have

1

Hyaena

2 species,

species, spotted

4 species

hyena

Origins Since

few

fossils are

known

to scientists, the origins of

the hyena family are

somewhat

obscure. Hyenas

have evolved from a

relative of

the civets (family

(C.

(H.

Proteles

1

{H.

mongoose

(family

may have had

evolutionary development, quite independent of the

other families of carnivores.

species, aardwolf (P crlstata)

© A pack of spotted hyenas gather around an elephant Family,

a separate

brunnea): striped hyena

hyaena)

SEE ALSO

may

crocuta)

Herpestidae). Alternatively, they

brown hyena

These teeth are

and reduced to simple, widely spaced pointed pegs.

Viverridae) or an ancient type of

Crocuta

34).

appearance. They have weak

hindquarters and back legs that are shorter than their forelegs.

24 teeth

small

so acidic they can

bone fragments better than any other mammal. By

contrast, the aardwolf just

What

The jaws are

shearing molar teeth for crunching up bones and tough

with complex social behavior, and they play a

up the carcasses

is

powerful, and typical hyenas have massive crushing and

bits of skin. Their digestive juices are

clearing

the coat color

stripes or spots.

nasty, in fact, they are highly intelligent creatures, often vital role in

legs are long,

Civet and Genet Family, The 1:88;

The 1:98; Zebra,

Plains 5:46

Mongoose

carcass.

The

animals gorge rapidly, consuming 25 to 30 pounds (11 to 14 kg) of flesh at a sitting.

Group feeding

is

noisy,

but rarely involves serious fighting.

THE HYENA FAMILY

Hyenas are mainly nocturnal animals and prefer to rest

during the day. However,

hyena for instance

— may

The animals often

shelter in

some

species

also be active

dens

vegetation, sometimes using the

in

among

—the spotted

the daytime. rocks and dense

abandoned burrows

of

warthogs or aardvarks.

and some pups may be interactions. Spotted

killed as a result of

aggressive

hyenas are born with their teeth

well developed. However, they are not fed

on meat

until

they are nearly nine months old. Brown hyenas take

meat to

their

cubs at a much

earlier age,

sometimes

dragging large carcasses back to the den. To some, the hyena's cringing appearance and weird

Cooperative Hunting

calls

Most hyenas

livestock

and

on

Today people are

Brown and

live in

clans of closely related individuals.

striped hyenas tend to hunt alone, but

are a sign of

sight.

in

evil.

Hyenas are often blamed

the past were

for killing

killed

^

spotted hyenas often cooperate to they might otherwise manage.

In

kill

larger prey than

some

places about

90

percent of the spotted hyena's food consists of animals that

kills itself;

it

elsewhere

it

is

only

half.

Spotted hyenas can chase their prey for over 2 miles (3 km),

more

tolerant,

hyena species

and no is

,

seriously

threatened. Hyenas are particularly

common

in

national parks.

reaching speeds of more than

35 miles per hour (60 km/h). They can bring

down

animals as large as zebras,

and soon a noisy pack gathers to grab at the victim, tearing off

swallowing as

chunks and

fast as possible before

going off to digest their hasty meals.

Cubs are born which

is

in

base for up to

18 months. Spotted hyena cubs (usually

communal den

shared with other pups of varying ages.

Often there

is

juveniles (above)

as an adult approaches with

its kill.

a secure den,

their operational

twins) are born into a

© Brown hyena

squabbling

among them.

©

The aardwolf

hyenas:

It

(left) differs

from other

feeds on insects, lives in pairs

rather than clans,

and defends

its

territory against others of its species.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Hyena

Striped Smaller

in build

than

its

Hyaena hyaena

close relative the spotted

hyena, the striped hyena's behavior seems to be influenced by

Common name Scientific

The behavior of the striped hyena tends to vary

Striped hyena

according to whether or not spotted hyenas are

name Hyaena hyaena

also present.

Family

Hyaenidae

Order

Carnivora

Where do

together, as they

Africa, the striped

Length head/body: 39-47 tail

10-14

length;

in

in

(100-120 cm);

the in

two

species occur

parts of northeastern

hyena tends to behave

manner and keeps

quiet and retiring

in

a

low

a

(25-35 cm); height at

26-30

in

(66-75 cm)

Weight 55-119

lb

(25-54 kg)

shoulder:

more gregarious

its larger,

may be more

Elsewhere the species

profile.

prominent, sometimes

living in large

groups.

In

the northern parts of their geographical range

Key features A

tall,

eyes,

slender hyena with thick neck, large

and bold

stripes; fur

is

long and shaggy

with a high hairy crest extending

down

the

striped hyenas just as

may even hunt

in

small packs,

the spotted hyena does farther south.

middle of the neck and back; face and throat often black;

tail

white

Clan Boundaries Habits

Solitary or lives in small clans of closely

hyena

Like other typical hyenas, the striped related individuals

sometimes Breeding

One

to 5 (usually 3) cubs born at any time of

year after gestation period of 90 days.

Weaned at

2-3

at 10 to 12 months; sexually mature

years.

captivity,

May

live

up to 24 years

probably up to about 15

in

in

groups called

lives in social

which are made up of

a

number

clans,

of closely

related individuals. Each clan has a territory that is

carefully

marked out with scent produced

the wild

from an anal pouch under the base of the Voice Diet

Habitat

Generally quiet; occasionally growls or whines

An omnivorous scavenger; takes small prey, but may kill larger animals; fruit and bones Dry grassland and semidesert; also rocky

hills

Distribution North and northeastern Africa; Middle East

and Turkey east to (3,000 m)

in

India;

up to 10,000

some mountainous

ft

To deposit a scent marker pasting), a

process

tail.

known

hyena stands astride some

stiff

as

grass

stems and wipes a patch of creamy-white paste

onto the vegetation from the

The process may

lips

also be used to

shrubs, or pieces of dead

of

wood. The

pouch.

its

mark

rocks,

clan will

areas

mark Status

(a

its

territorial

boundary with many

Population: relatively abundant. Has declined in

numbers and

widespread and

distribution, but fairly

thousands of pastings so that any intruding is still

numerous

animals from a

rival

clan will

trespassing. But the scent

know

that they are

mark soon

loses

its

and needs to be renewed, so members of

smell

the clan spend a territory

lot

of time patrolling their

and pasting the grasses and shrubs.

When

Striped hyenas are sociable animals.

they meet, they erect the crest of long hair that runs

down

other.

their

back and

They make

sniff busily at

a particularly

thorough

inspection of the anal pouch, which

turned inside out to

assist

each

may be

the process. Close

checking of each other's scent credentials not

^nr 104

SEE ALSO Hyena, Spotted 2:108

cousin.

HYENAS

HYENA

STRIPED

only helps hyenas ensure they

belong to the same

but

clan,

probably allows them to recognize

each other as individuals. The smell will also

convey Information about

and breeding condition.

sex, status,

Sometimes the greeting ceremony

becomes especially

may

and

violent,

strangers.

Initially

rather lengthy

between

involve gentle bites

fighting. But subordinate

and mock

hyenas may be

bitten quite hard, held by the throat,

shaken about. An angry hyena

and

raise

lifted,

its

hairs

making

it

will

look

much

live in

areas, a generally harsher

and

arch

on end, often with

Striped hyenas

it

its

back

its tail

larger than normal.

desert and rocky

environment than

that enjoyed by the spotted hyena. Such habitat

© Striped hyenas are mainly scavengers and,

unlike the

spotted hyena, tend to forage alone. Since food can often be scarce in their desertlike habitat, the animals try to avoid

competing with each other for food sources.

Hair of

the Hyena

T

he hairs on a striped hyena's

down

mane and

the middle of

its

back are about 8 inches (20 cm) long, three times the length of the hairs on the rest of

An angry its tail.

or excited hyena can

Standing high on

its

make

legs with

all its

its

hair stand

its

body.

on end and bush out

back arched, the animal may

appear nearly 40 percent larger than usual. Often such an appearance

is

an effective form of intimidation and enables dominance to be established over subordinate animals without fighting or wasting extra energy.

105

LARGE CARNIVORES

1 when

extends across northern Africa and includes

also

much

during

of the Sahara Desert south to Tanzania,

Although

India.

striped hyenas inhabit dry areas, they tend to

make

avoid true desert and

water

is

their

become

excited, especially

The nursery den

play.

home

is

to the

cubs for up to a year before they become

the Middle East as far north as Turkey, and

eastward throughout most of

they

homes where

available for at least part of the year.

independent from

their mother.

takes a long

It

how

around and learn leave their clan

another

when

to obtain food. Males

become mature and

they

group.

may

take a while

Nevertheless, they can cope with very hot, dry

join

conditions and avoid the heat of the day by

for the

new male

and to

establish sufficient status to gain

being active mainly

Midday

is

the evening or at night.

in

usually passed

Some

live in

temperatures

may

in

mountains

abruptly after dark.

fall

areas, provided they are also dry.

habitats often have

little

food

very cold

in

They can be found

shallow burrows, or

up

lying

among

into

and eventually

take on the status of their mother.

in

so the

caves or

boulders.

Threatening Behavior

® Striped hyena cubs

As the young hyenas get

live in

become

Such bleak

to offer,

hyenas are forced to range over extremely large areas.

Some

offspring

older, their parents

increasingly intolerant of them.

food brought to the den,

younger animals to avoid being attacked by

often by nonbreeding

their eyes,

Subordinate animals

and sometimes

lying

gestures are seen

Striped hyenas are capable of breeding from

confronted by dominant animals.

as

many

1.5

or three years

Newborn

as five.

pounds (700

born

and

and

blind,

about a week.

g).

weigh about

do not open

accompanied by

bristling

hyena's neck

can occur at any time of

Similar

is

the mane, extending

the neck, and sometimes delivering a few sharp nips. Bites are usually

for

their

rolling

among domestic dogs

Aggression by dominant hyenas

usually give

Striped hyena cubs are

their eyes

Births

infants

show

down.

Year-Round Breeding

two

aimed

where the

at the side of a

skin

kind of biting rarely results

in

is

thick, so this

serious

wounds.

the year and follow a pregnancy period lasting

Often minor fights occur, with the animals

90 days. The young are fed on nutritious milk

kneeling down. Fighting

mother

from

their

after

which they

for the first

will

come

month

of

life,

to rely increasingly

on food brought to the den. Nonbreeding subadult animals from previous help feed the

new members

litters will

of the clan until

they are able to fend for themselves, and not

uncommon

accumulate

for large quantities of

of tunnels

is

and chambers dug

for a

bones to

home. The cubs make

into the ground,

will

use rock crevices

a bleating call

they want attention or more food and

SEE ALSO

Lion 2:14

such a

way

avoids

the danger of getting the slender legs broken

by an opponent's powerful jaws. Hyenas also

may

rise

and be followed by snapping

to barks

lunges at the opponent's neck.

is

usually a small collection

but sometimes the animals

when

it

at the entrance to the den.

The nursery den

in

threaten each other with growling noises that often

independent from their

appeasement behavior on the part of the

submissiveness by lowering the head,

about three or four young, occasionally

year— until they are

mother. They survive on

their parents.

birth to

display

dens for about a

needs to include ever more extended

dens are used for long periods, especially when raised.

When

and parents meet, the greeting

young are being

the age of

mating

where

feet (3,000 m),

Striped hyenas can also survive

It

to be accepted by the group

were born

clan that they

cool boulders.

rocky areas, others

up to nearly 10,000

social

opportunities. Females normally stay with the

the shade of

in

among

overhanging rocks or

106

way

time for the young hyenas to find their

Cleaning

Up

Striped hyenas feed mainly

Food sources may be that have died

in

sheep

the harsh, dry conditions.

Alternatively, they killed

on dead mammals.

cattle, horses, or

may be

the remains of prey

by larger predators such as

lions.

Unlike

spotted hyenas, striped hyenas do not benefit

older brothers sisters.

and

from hunting

in

large clans. Even so, individual

been known to

striped hyenas have

kill

prey up

to the size of an adult donkey. However, large

mammals

wary to be

are usually too

approached

closely

and

also too strong to be

easily killed. Hares, foxes,

more common

prey.

and large rodents are

The hyena's powerful jaws

can easily cope with crunching up tortoises, grasshoppers, and occasionally smaller insects,

such as termites.

Scavengers more omnivorous

Striped hyenas are

than other species of their family

night. Their long legs enable striped

and often eat wild and cultivated

trot tirelessly at 5 miles per

soft fruit

and dates

across them. They

and

lizards.

often

come

outskirts of

may be

if

they

come

will also

several hours,

to scavenge

stored

in

attacking and even

garbage dumps on the

settlements. Surplus food

patches of dense vegetation.

However, most of the time food tends to be scarce

in

the striped hyena's semidesert habitat,

so the animals often forage alone to avoid

competing with each

other.

They freguently

range over areas of more than 20 square miles (50 sq. km), traveling 19 miles (30 km)

all

(8

hyenas to km/h) for

night.

There are reports of striped hyenas

eat birds

Under cover of darkness they

human

sometimes

hour

in

one

children. Yet

©

Striped hyer)as check

each other's scent

A

is

people

—especially

also reported that striped

hyenas can become tame and affectionate In

credentials in elaborate

greeting ceremonies.

it

killing

some

countries parts of the hyena's body are

believed to have medicinal value, but general,

human

attitudes

in

toward hyenas tend North Africa and

meeting between

to be rather negative.

strangers can involve

Arabia, for example, the striped hyena

bites

and mock

fighting

In

or a throat hold in which

suspected of being a grave robber.

unpopular

roughly shaken.

is

regarded as a disgusting animal and widely

a subordinate animal

is

pets.

in Israel

It

is

also

because of the damage

it

does to crops of melons, grapes, cucumbers,

and other succulent plants that provide moisture as well as food during dry weather.

The animals are but nevertheless

and

fairly

shot, poisoned,

manage

abundant.

and trapped,

to remain widespread

s

LARGE CARNIVORES

1

Spotted Hyena The spotted hyena has few friends.

It is

Crocuta crocuta

rapidiy

disappearing from iarge parts of Africa as a resuit of its

Common name Scientific

Spotted hyena

t

Spotted hyenas

name

live in

Size

Carnivora

large

Length head/body: 39-71 tail

clans,

a shared territory against rival

Hyaenidae

groups. The clan territory

Order

groups called

social

Crocuta crocuta

which defend Family

and undesirabie neighbor

reputation as a kiiier

10-14

length:

shoulder:

28-35

in

in

(100-180 cm);

(25-36 cm); height

—

—which may be very

staked out with scent marks on logs

is

and boulders. Clans may divide

at

subgroups and

live in

into smaller

a series of

(70-90 cm)

in

burrows that

.

they dig for themselves. Bigger groups occupy a

Weight 88-200 generally about

Key features

12%

kg);

large

heavier than male

among

den, often

Some

rocks.

over hundreds of years. Although a clan

and sloping back; pale sandy gray coat

may

number over 40

Usually nocturnal, but will venture out during

able to recognize each other, mainly by smell.

fewer

in

sexually

40 years

to over

Weaned

at

Hyenas are active mainly

mature at 2 years. May

in captivity,

early part of the night.

probably

together to

the wild

Voice

Loud whooping

Diet

Meat from

noises; crazy-sounding giggle

known

slow animals

like

fairly

common, but

mammals such

as a

manage speeds

of 35 miles per hour

up

and

tire

after less than a mile or so.

Only

hyena greedily swallowing as much as possible

lUCN Lower

in

conservation dependent. Widespread

many

may gang

Large victims are torn apart, with each

from most of South Africa

Population: several thousand;

large

the evening and

clan

about one-third of such hunts are successful.

Distribution Africa south of Sahara, except for areas of

and

to

usually give

Acacia savannas; urban fringes

Risk:

kill

in

A

(60 km/h) or more, but they soon

waterbuck; also tortoises,

and garbage

thick forest; absent

members seem

wildebeest or zebra. During a chase hyenas are

carcasses killed by other predators;

fish, insects,

its

Big-Game Hunt

Usually 2, but up to 4 cubs born after

live

animals,

clans

lives in

8-18 months;

Status

communal

with dark, irregular blotches

gestation period of 4 months.

Habitat

female

Doglike, powerfully built animal with short

the daytime;

Breeding

(40-91

dens have been used by generations of hyenas

tail

Habits

lb

a short time, often as

(14 kg) of meat. Hyenas

much

as

30 pounds

will

take advantage of

and

also pick at

disappearing from sick

places being unpopular with farmers

and

carcasses

injured animals left

by lions and other predators.

Occasionally, larger groups of hyenas

force lions to

abandon

their fresh

manage

kills.

to

Spotted

hyenas are also known to exploit the large

numbers of young wild antelope and zebra available during the calving season.

They may

even follow wildebeest herds to pester the females while they are giving

birth.

However, most spotted hyenas

live in

small

groups and prefer to forage alone. They may cover up to 50 miles (80 km) '

-^iiiJillHL^^

108

SEE ALSO Hyena,

Ill

I

|^Wlll.|

^

in

a night,

searching for whatever can be picked up with

Striped 2:104; Zebra, Plains 5:46; Wildebeest, Blue 6:82;

Waterbuck 6:92

HYENAS

the least effort.

Nowadays

that often

means

villages,

but hyenas

will also

eat

Breeding can occur at any time of the year,

communal den one female the

is

in

breed.

Young spotted hyenas

and

helpless, but

develop

In

a

dominant, but

same den may be allowed

others

to

are born blind

fast.

Only their

mother feeds them, providing milk

for

up to 18

months. She does not normally carry food back to the den,

females family.

in

and unlike some hyenas, other

the clan do not assist

The dominant female

individual,

and others

in

is

in

rearing the

an overbearing

the clan

will

her aggressive

will signal

although only some females have offspring.

members

centers

around appeasing the dominant female. She

eggs, and even large beetles.

reptiles,

wants unchallenged. The

as she

general behavior of clan

garbage scavenged from around the edges of

towns and

much

to eat as

SPOTTED HYENA

allow her

and sometimes

tail

©

Spotted hyenas are

especially

mammals, her

using their massive jaws teeth.

The shearing

and can

slice

snarling. Unlike

other

all

sexual organs look almost

Young hyenas

are independent at about

12 to 16 months, and they are sexually mature at

two

years old. The females generally stay

with the clan into which they were born, while

teeth are extremely effective

by raising her

exactly like those of a male.

good at

crunching up fresh bones

and

mood

up

the males disperse and join another clan,

tough sinews and thick

remaining there for a few years before moving

mammal skin

on again.

better

than most knives.

become

This ensures that the clans

inbred. There

is

do not

no permanent bond

between males and females.

Refuse Collectors Formerly a successful and

widespread species, the spotted hyena

is still

one of

the most abundant large African carnivores.

However,

it

has an uneasy

relationship with people.

Many

believe that

giggles and manic

with

evil spirits. Its

its

weird laughing

whoops

cringing behavior and habit

of scavenging around latrines

dumps make also

known

are associated

and garbage

the animal seem unclean.

to attack

and eat domestic

It

is

stock.

The spotted hyena has been shot and poisoned wherever land

become range.

It

is

taken for farming and has

quite rare over large parts of is

now

only really abundant

its

former

in

protected areas such as national parks. Yet

has an important role to

play,

it

cleaning up after

other animals. By scavenging, ripping apart carcasses,

and crunching up bones, the hyena

actually helps

speed up decomposition.

LARGE CARNIVORES

Aardwolf The odd one out

Proteles cristata

among hyenas,

the aardwolf

feeds on insects, has weak jaws and

and normally

Common name

The aardwolf

is

a

name

specialized feeder,

Aardwoff Proteles cristata

|

Family

Hyaenidae

I

Order

Carnivora

I

Length head/body: 22-31

Size

(55-80 cm);

tail

length:

(20-30 cm); height

16-20

t

or alone.

lives in pairs

concentrating on termites. Scientific

in

|

8-12

in

|

at shoulder:

L

It

seems to have

evolved from an ancestral form of hyena,

becoming 20

different

from the

typical types

about

million years ago. Unlike other termite-

eating

mammals, the aardwolf does not have

•

powerful forelimbs or big claws with which to rip

(40-50 cm)

in

Weight 18-26

open or

dig

up termite

nests. Instead,

it

takes harvester termites that normally forage on lb

(8-12 kg)

0

the surface rather than underground.

Key features

creamy-brown animal with

Slender,

a

few

muzzle, and

Habits

Breeding

Termite Diet

coat often discolored by

from den; molar teeth small and peglike

Nocturnal;

Two

tail tip;

territorial;

normally forages alone

young born

to 5

of about 2-3 months.

after gestation period

Weaned

months; sexually mature

up to 20 years

at

in captivity,

1

2-3

at

year.

fewer

|

termite,

Generally

silent,

which tend to be active

beetles

Habitat

are

dry,

other species of hyena. Yet despite such

In

is

therefore active only

winter or during the wet season

activities,

may be hard

to find, so the aardwolf

relatively stable.

insects, including

grazed grassland where termites

that tends to be

The

more

active during the day.

availability of harvester termites

is

the

main factor that governs where aardwolves

abundant in

East

Africa north to Eritrea

and the

active by night

Population: widespread, but generally scarce,

day respectively) dictate the

although not seriously threatened

the aardwolves themselves.

grass,

and aardwolves

crisscrossing the

and

activity patterns of

swarm among dead find

them by

ground and

rustling of dry grass

insect hordes

live,

proportions of the nocturnal

relative

and diurnal termites (those

Harvester termites

constantly

listening for the

stems being invaded by the

and nibbled by thousands of jaws.

The termites are lapped up with masses of sticky saliva. Since termites are only small insects,

they do not need to be chewed much,

and aardwolves have than any other

small, simple teeth (fewer

member

of the hyena family).

An aardwolf may consume

nearly a quarter of a

million termites in a single night. W

110

SEE ALSO

aardwolf

populations remain

switches to another type of harvester termite

Distribution Southern Africa; separate subspecies

Status

the snouted

when

and grasshoppers; occasionally mice

Areas of

been

persecuted along with

at different is

humans or

livestock but has

the wild

but growls and barks

some other

of

live

they

Mainly termites;

two types

harvester termite, which cannot tolerate

May

angry Diet

is

times of day. The preferred food

after dark.

Voice

threat to

The main food of the aardwolf

exposure to the sun and in

The termite-eating

aardwolf poses no

widely spaced black stripes; black feet,

soil

teeth,

Jackal, Black-Backed 2:62; Fox, Bat-Eared 2:76;

Numbat

10:34; Echidna, Short-Beaked 10:110

Boundary Marking Where

termites are abundant,

aardwolves can manage with smallish territories,

mile

(1

sometimes

to 2 sq. km).

less

than

square

1

Where food

is

scarce,

on

the other hand, territories are considerably larger.

One

territory

may

termite nests containing

include over 3,000

more than 150

million

family

ready to

is

termites. Since the nests are vital to the

appear above ground,

aardwolves, the animals guard their territories

the cubs

jealously.

They mark the boundaries every 50

yards (40-50 m) or so, smearing grass stems

with a smelly paste from glands under the

They chase

make themselves Aardwolves

alone or

have up to 10 dens within

two and

five cubs.

pairs

and may

home

birth to

Newborn cubs

territory.

between

are helpless,

but soon have their eyes open. They stay

underground den guarded by

for

in

the

up to two months,

their father, while the

forages. By the age of three are feeding outside the

own. Aardwolves are

danger to people or

I

Nevertheless, they have been in

their

They breed seasonally, giving

their

harmless and pose nc

along their back to

look fiercer.

live

off to

find a feeding area of

tail.

aardwolves and also

off other

jackals, raising the stiff hairs

move

months the cubs

parents. They begin to disperse

when

hyenas and also skins (used rugs). In risk

their

they can

fend for themselves. Before the parents' next

killed for their

in tribal

some

ceremonial

areas they are

from insecticides used to

locusts;

female

den with one of

persecuted along with other

and where termites are

eradicated to allow farming,

aardwolves cannot survive. Despite such problems, the

aardwolf population remains relatively secure.

LARGE CARNIVORES

of Species

List

The following

species of large

lists all

P (Uncia) uncia Snow leopard;

nigripes Black-footed cat;

F.

carnivores, including their distribution:

C. Asia from the Himalayas to

Botswana, Namibia

Africa,

S.

F (Leopardus) pardalis Ocelot; Arizona

Order Carnivora

(Lynx) pardinus Iberian lynx; Spain

F.

and

cat;

Acinonyx

60 percent of

its

total

FAMILY CANIDAE

Borneo, Sumatra, Malaya

F (Prionailurus) rubiginosus Rusty-

A. jubatus Cheetah; Africa, Middle East

constituting

(Prionailurus) planiceps Flat-headed

F.

Cat Family

Russia.

S.

12 countries, with China

in

range

Portugal

FAMILY FELIDAE

and W. Mongolia and

Occurs

to N. Argentina

(Part)

S.

spotted cat;

India

S.

and

Sri

Dog

Family

Lanka

Can is Felis F.

aurata African golden cat;

(Profelis)

Senegal to Democratic Republic of

Bobcat (red

(Lynx) rufus

F.

Canada

S.

to

lynx); C.

Mexico

S.

adustus Side-striped jackal;

throughout C. Africa extending parts of

Congo and Kenya

W. Europe

Wildcat;

sllvestris

F.

to India; C.

F.

(Catopuma) badia Bay cat (Bornean

Africa

{F. s.

and W. Africa

E.

aureus Golden jackal (common

catus worldwide, jackal);

from

and

N.

E.

introduced by man)

red cat); Borneo

into

(Leptallurus) serval Serval; Africa

F.

Africa through

and

to the Middle East, S.E. Europe, F.

(Prionailurus) bengalensis

(Bengal

Leopard cat

Asiatic

golden

on C.

Japan, Philippines,

into Asia

cat (Temminck's golden cat); Nepal to

Sumatra, Java, Borneo,

cat);

(Catopuma) temmincki

F.

Taiwan

dingo Dingo; Australasia, including

China and Sumatra

S,

Indonesia F.

bieti

Chinese desert

W. China, F.

cat; C. Asia,

Mongolia

S.

(Lynx) canadensis

spotted cat, ocelot cat,

Canadian

lynx); Africa

oricilla);

Costa

(Prionailurus) viverrinus Fishing cat;

F.

Sumatra, Java, to

and Asia from Turkestan

S.

China and India

C C

F (Leopardus) wiedli Margay cat (tigrillo);

N.

Mexico to

N.

and F.

Sri

Egypt to Indochina

mountain

Canada

mesomelas Black-backed

(silver-backed jackal);

populations,

Neofelis N.

nebulosa Clouded leopard;

India, S.

China, Nepal, Myanmar, Indochina to

Sumatra and Borneo, possibly also

to Patagonia

Taiwan (where

F (Oncifelis) geoffroyi Geoffrey's cat

it

may be

Africa.

P leo

Lion; S.

Sahara to

S.

(Oncifelis)

guigna Kodkod (Chilean

cat, huiiia); C.

and

S.

excluding

Chile,

Congo

Gujarat, India (a

W. Argentina

in

cat;

rufus Red wolf; S.E. U.S.

or Simien jackal);

mountains of central

Ethiopia

extinct)

Chrysocyon brachyurus

Africa,

Maned

wolf; C.

and

Paraguay, N. Argentina,

rainforest belt; E. Bolivia, S.E.

remnant population

Peru

Cuon

Gir Forest Sanctuary)

P onca Jaguar; S.W.

alpinus Dhole (Asian wild

dog or red

U.S. to

dog);

Iriomote and Ryukyu Islands

in

C. Africa

simensis Ethiopian wolf (Simien fox

C.

F (Prionailurus) iriomotensis Iriomote

in

C

S. Brazil,

F

one

in E. Africa,

C.

C.

Patagonia

one

jackal

two separate

Does not occur

Panthera

(Geoffrey's ocelot); Bolivia to

Costa Rica

Middle East

S.

panther);

lion,

brush wolf);

(prairie or

N. Alaska to

lupus Gray wolf (timber or white

to N. Argentina

cat;

(Puma) concolor Puma (cougar,

S.

yaguarondo Jaguarundi

(jaguarondi, eyra, otter-cat); Arizona

Pampas

Ecuador to Patagonia F.

(Herpallurus)

F.

Lanka

(Oncifelis) colocolo

Coyote

Argentina C.

cat;

latrans

wolf); N. America; Europe; Asia;

India to Arabia

F chaus Jungle

Malaysia, Thailand,

(part);

and Myanmar

America from

(Caracal) caracal Caracal (lynx, African

and N.W.

(little

Rica to N. Argentina

lynx;

Alaska, Canada, N. U.S. F.

(Leopardus) tigrinus Tiger cat

F.

W. Asia

to China, India,

C. Patagonia

Indochina to Java. Rare outside F.

(Oreailurus) jabobita

(Andean F.

cat

P pardus Leopard; Africa south of the

Peru to N. Chile

(Lynx) lynx Lynx (Eurasian or northern lynx);

F.

cat); S.

Mountain

W. Europe to

S.

populations

in

P

Pallas's cat

protected areas

Asia; scattered

Dusicyon South American foxes D. (Pseudalopex)

culpaeus Colpeo zorro;

Andes from Ecuador and Peru tigris Tiger; India, S.E.

to

Asia; China; Tierra del

(manul); Iran to

(zorros)

N. Africa, Arabia, Far

East

Siberia

(Otocolobus) manul

Sahara, and

Fuego

S.E. Russia

W. China

D. (Pseudalopex) fulvipes Darwin's zorro;

F margarita Sand

cat; N. Africa

and

S.W. Asia (Sahara to Baluchistan) F.

(Pardofelis)

marmorata Marbled

Chiloe Island and Nahuel Huapi National Park, Chile

cat;

Sumatra, Borneo; Malaya to Nepal

D. (Pseudalopex) griseus

zorro (gray or

pampas

Argentine gray fox);

distribution as colpeo, but at

112

LIST

lower altitudes

in

V

Ecuador and

D. (Pseudalopex)

S.E. Brazil

south through

E.

Argentina

fox); Tibet

Amazon and Orinoco

sechurae Sechuran

and

S.

common

zorro);

macrotis

D. (Pseddalopex) vetulus

pictus African wild

dog

from the Sahara to

S.

V

in

Ear East,

E.

y.

venaticus Bush to

dog (vinegar

(silver

from

in

Taiwan

N. China,

E.

in

C.

China

and

Siberia,

and

C.

Hyena Family

Circle to

American deserts

Asiatic steppes, (natural southern

Crocuta

hyena); Sub-Saharan Africa, except

Congo

(Fennecus) zerda Fennec fox; N. Africa

throughout Sahara east to

and Arabia

crocuta Spotted hyena (laughing

C.

Sudan); introduced to Australia

rain forests

and

far

south

Hyaena H. (Parahyaena)

brunnea Brown hyena

(beach or strand wolf); widespread

FAMILY URSIDAE

S.

Bear Family

into S.

Angola

Africa, Syria, Asia Minor,

A. melanoleuca Giant

bamboo

panda (panda

bear, or panda);

Sichuan, Shaanxi, and

Gansu

India,

N.E.

Caucasus,

Arabia

Proteles

P

cristata

provinces of C. and W. China

Venezuela north to Ontario

in

Africa, particularly in the west; also

hyaena Striped hyena; N.W. and

H.

Ailuropoda

(tree fox);

bear, white-breasted

Japan

Brazil

C. U.S. to the prairies south to

moon

FAMILY HYAENIDAE

or cross fox);

Hemisphere from Arctic

bear,

dnereoargenteus Gray fox

C. U.S.

fox);

Guyana and through

Urocyon Gray foxes U.

(kit fox);

from

Ethiopia to Tanzania

thibetanus Asian black bear (Asiatic

black bear,

Sinai,

Canada and Montana

vulpes Red fox

Sinai

Africa, the other

Cameroon, Chad,

velox Swift fox

limit in

Speothos

Panama

Arctic U.

continuing

N. Indochinese Peninsula; introduced

to Europe

S.

between

Mexico

maritimus Polar bear; circumpolar

U.

(formosan black bear), gap

N. African

Zambia to

throughout Canada, U.S. except

Congo, Somalia, Sudan, Egypt,

and

two populations, one from

americanus American black bear;

U.

bear); Iran to S.E. Asia,

Manchuria, China, Korea, Japan, and

O. megalotis Bat-eared fox (Delandi's

in

Europe, Middle East,

Central African Republic, Gabon,

N.

Siberia,

Otocyon

E.

central Plains states, N.

ruppelli Ruppell's fox (sand fox);

into V.

procyonoides Raccoon dog;

and

Texas to South Dakota; reintroduced

Africa

Nyctereutes

Asia,

from Red

Arabia

(wild dog,

painted dog, or African hunting dog);

S.

S.

Himalayas, China, and Mongolia

N.E. Nigeria, N.

Lycaon

S.

N.W. Mexico and

Morocco and Afghanistan,

(small-toothed dog); S.C. Brazil

kodiak

(grizzly or

through Russia to Japan; scattered

Kit fox;

scattered populations

Hoary fox

Brown bear

N.W. N. America, Scandinavia

bear);

Somalia 1/

Argentina and Paraguay

fox);

U. arctos

in

Sea to Atlantic, Senegal to Sudan and

Colombia and Venezuela to

E.

circumpolar

pallida Pale fox; N. Africa

\Z

Ecuador

(Cerdocyon) thous Crab-eating zorro

(crab-eating fox or

N.

fox);

border

tundra latitudes

V

Andes from

Ursus

S.W. U.S.

zorro; N. Peru

Africa

and Nepal

white

blue, or

Brazil

D. (Pseudalopex)

L.

bear, ucumari);

W. Venezuela to Bolivia-Argentina

(Alopex) lagopus Arctic fox (polar,

V.

Basins, parts of

Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela,

T ornatus Andean bear (spectacled

and

Tibetan fox (Tibetan sand

ferrilata

V.

zorro (small-eared dog, zorro negro);

N.

Tremarctos

Russian

N. Afghanistan

Negro

D. (Atelocynus) microtis Small-eared

D.

S.E.

Transbaikalia to N. Manchuria

gymnocercus Azara's

zorro (pampas fox); Paraguay, Chile,

to Rio

corsac Corsac fox;

Federation, Turkestan, Mongolia,

N. Chile

OF SPECIES

E.

Aardwolf;

S.

Africa

and

Africa

Helarctos U. littoralis Island

W.

gray fox; islands of H. (Ursus)

malayanus Sun bear (Malayan

U.S.

sun bear, Malay bear, honey bear, dog

Vulpes Vulpine foxes

bear); S.E. Asia, IZ

bengalensis Indian fox (Bengal India, Pakistan,

V cana fox);

fox);

and Nepal

Blanford's fox (hoary or

isolated patches S.

Afghan

Afghanistan, S.W. Russian

Sumatra, Borneo; in E.

India

and

China

Melursus M. (Ursus) ursinus Sloth bear (honey

Federation, Turkmenistan, N.E. Iran, bear,

Baluchistan; isolated population

lip

or labiated bear, aswail);

in

India, Nepal,

Bhutan,

Sri

Lanka, and

Israel

possibly Bangladesh 1/

chama Cape

fox (silverbacked fox);

Africa south of

Zimbabwe and Angola

113

LARGE CARNIVORES

Glossary Words

in

small capitals refer to

other entries

Carnassial (teeth) opposing pair

Crepuscular

that conveys specific information

active in twilight

Cursorial adapted for running

adapted to

of teeth especially

the glossary.

in

to others, usually to

Adaptation features of an

edge;

animal that adjust

arrangement

to

its

may be produced

environment;

by evolution

it

—

e.g.,

camouflage

coloration

group of (e.g.,

is

a

closely related animals

members

of a family) have

evolved differences from each other so that they can survive

in

by trees that lose their leaves

displays

Diurnal active during the day

first

lower molar

trees for timber or to create

Carrion dead animal matter

open space

used as a food source by

growing crops and grazing

of

scavengers

animals

genetic code that

the

Delayed implantation when

down from

opening out from

the development of a fertilized

generation

Cecum

a blind sac

in

for activities such as

suspended

period before

Anal gland

herbivorous

opening by a short duct either anus or on either

just inside the

side of

Antler branched prongs on the

head of male

deer,

made

of

bone

solid

large intestines.

very large;

the

is

it

bacterial action

Arboreal

living

among

the

branches of trees

Arthropod animals with

a

appendix;

Births are thus delayed until a

which male was the father of particular offspring

and

DEN to give birth and raise young

Dorsal relating to the back or

forms the

or for winter shelter

spinal part of the body; usually

Dental formula a convention

the upper surface

walls of plants

cell

is

laid

that,

hard material that

some

In

down

in

mammalian

for

cementum

species

arrangement,

numbers of

annual layers

each

under a microscope, can

Droppings see

summarizing the dental

all

types of tooth

in

the canines

mammals,

in

the order: incisor PREMOLAr

and

figure

is

MOLAR (M). The

(P),

number

the total

cycle of reproductive activity

molars

teeth to be found

from courtship,

CITES Convention on

typical

International Trade

13/3,

(and often establishment of

through nesting to

independence of young

agreement between nations that

Browsing feeding on

restricts international

trees

leaves of

and shrubs

Cache

a hidden supply of food;

food for

also (verb) to hide

final

skull.

are assigned to categories; (for

and

in

their

toothless, but

name

anteaters, sloths,

A is

M3/3 = 44

is

also

for

and armadillos in

one

small geographical area

and

nowhere

only

else

Estrus the period

when eggs

are released from the female's

Desert area of low

ovaries,

Diastema

and plants

Edentate

Endemic found

of

for Carnivora

Cl/1, P4/4,

whole system

used as group

rainfall

specially

adapted

a space

between the

teeth, usually the incisors

CHEEK TEETH.

It

iS

and she becomes

available for successful mating.

Estrous females are often

plants such as cacti

and administrative

controls. Rare animals

the

in

a

plants, animals,

Dentition animal's set of teeth

dominated by

trade to

permitted levels through licensing

and

typical of

referred to as "in heat" or as

males

"receptive" to

Eutherian mammals that give not eggs, and

future use

example Appendix

Callosities hardened, thickened

Volume

areas on the skin

Cloven hoof foot that

is

Digit a finger or toe

pouch on the mother's

formed from two

each

Digitigrade method of walking

Extinction process of dying out

callosities in

Canine

(e.g., ischial

some

primates)

(tooth) a sharp stabbing

1

1, 2).

See

page 17

toes,

within a horny covering

tooth usually longer than rest

Congenital condition animal

Canopy continuous

born with

broken (open)

114

in

Endangered Species. An

example

and Scats

environment interact in

canine (C),

(I),

Ecosystem which

upper and

half of the

two

consisting of premolars

Feces

which the

in

teeth lying behind

territory),

humans

Cellulose the material that

Cheek teeth

pair formation

provide help and useful products for

Biped any animal that walks on

entire

of

also (verb) the act of retiring to a

numbers are always presented

See Quadruped

is

for example,

taming and breeding animals to

young;

raising

whom,

Domestication process

a shelter, natural or

lower jaw are given. The

legs.

who

favorable time of year

be counted to estimate the age

Breeding season the

technique that

related to

of individuals

weight of

total

analysis "genetic

completes normal pregnancy.

living material

Biomass the

generation to

allows scientists to see

giving birth,

an antibacterial

handed

is

firigerprinting," a

may

retain

contains the

living things;

the wall of the uterus and

Den

with a

all

function

teeth. species

The

the

implants into

it

main part of the chromosomes

DNA

for a variable

constructed, used for sleeping,

coats the roots of

them

of

is

reduced cecum the appendix

crabs and insects

variation within

often

cellulose. is

in species

Cementum

Biodiversity a variety of

is

it

site

on

jointed outer skeleton, e.g.,

and the

In

mammals

end of the cecum

it

(deoxyribonucleic acid) the

substance that makes up the

Carnivore meat-eating animal

and

(anal sac) a gland

DNA

down and removing

cutting

has reached breeding age

that

threat, courtship, or greeting

Deforestation the process of

egg

grown animal

a fully

visual or vocal elements, as in in

involved are the fourth upper

the junction between the small

Adult

of

winter (or the dry season)

digestive tract

different niches

Deciduous forest dominated

the

unique to

members

can involve

species;

Carnivora, and the teeth

PREMOLAR and

Adaptive radiation when

mammals

in living

same

the

shear with a cutting (scissorlike)

(closed) or

layer in forests

is

Coniferous forest evergreen

rodents and lagomorphs,

birth to babies,

although also found

rear

in

ungulates

them without

which every

on the toes without the heel

in

touching the ground. See

dies,

Plantigrade

forever

and the

belly

last individual

species

is

lost

Dispersal the scattering of

Eyeshine where the eyes

young animals going to

animals (especially carnivores)

produced by the intermingling

forests of northern regions

of branches of trees

mountainous areas dominated

away from where they were

reflect a

Capillaries tiny blood vessels

by pines, spruces, and cedars

born and brought up

them. This

and

using a

live

that convey blood through

Corm underground food

Display any

organs from arteries to vbins

storage bulb of certain plants

conspicuous pattern of behavior

relatively

beam is

of light

of

shone

at

caused by a special

reflective layer (the

the back of the eye

tapetum) at

GLOSSARY

many nocturnal

characteristic of

increased abilities to see

Harem

Family technical term for a

group of

closely related species

end

"idae." See

in

page

names always

1

1

Volume

Also used as the

.

cousins) leading to

group of females

living

milk

weakened

in

MAMMARY GLANDS

for

offspring

genetic composition and

Larynx voice box where sounds

reduced

are created

survival rates

Incisor (teeth) simple pointed

Latrine place where feces are

teeth at the front of the jaws

left regularly,

Herbivore an animal that eats

used for nipping and snipping

added

same

the

territory

plants (grazers

1

word

group within a

for a social

a

Lactation process of producing

closely related animals (e.g.,

in

consorting with a single male

in

that often also look quite similar.

Zoological family

together

living

loose groups or herds

dark

in

Inbreeding breeding among

Grazing feeding on grass Gregarious

and associated with

species

and

and browsers are

Indigenous

thus herbivores)

region; native

Heterodont

introduced

dentition specialized

and

Leptospirosis disease caused by

living naturally in a

not an

(i.e.,

often with scent

leptospiral bacteria

and transmitted

species)

kidneys

in

via urine

Insectivore animals that feed

species consisting of parents and

into CANINES, INCISORS,

their offspring

PREMOLARS, each type of tooth

on

Feces remains of digested food

having a different function. See

Also used as a group

expelled from the body as

Homodont

animals such as hedgehogs,

production of milk

shrews, and moles

Marine

Interbreeding breeding

Matriarch senior female

member

Hibernation becoming

Often accompanied by

pellets.

SCENT secretions

in

inactive

body

winter, with lowered

insects

and

Feral domestic animals that

temperature to save energy.

between animals of

have gone wild and

Hibernation takes place

species or varieties

live

independently of people Flystrike

have

flies

where CARRiON-feeding laid their

a

in

name

of

for

different

glands

characteristic

mammals, glands

living in

for

the sea

of a social group

Metabolic rate the

within a single

rate at

special nest or den called a

FAMILY or strain; interbreeding

which chemical

hibernaculum

can cause dilution of the gene

within animals, including the

pool

exchange of gasses

Homeothermy maintenance

eggs on an

of

and constant body

a high

animal

Mammary

similar small prey.

between

Interspecific

and the

species

activities

in

liberation of

Fossorial adapted for digging

temperature by means of

Intraspecific between

internal processes; also called

individuals of the

underground tunnels

"warm-blooded"

Invertebrates animals that have

activities

Frugivore an animal that eats

Home

no backbone

turn food into energy

fruit

mam

as

burrows or

range the area that an

animal uses

part of the diet

the course of

in

normal periods of

Fur mass of hairs forming a

Territory

mammals

Homodont

Fused joined together

its

See

from food

same

Metabolism the chemical

species

other true

bones) inside their body, mollusks, insects,

which

dentition in

lUCN

within animals that

Migration movement from one

e.g.,

jellyfish,

and

place to another and back

crabs

continuous coat characteristic of '

activity.

(or

again, usually seasonal

Molars

International Union for the

large crushing teeth at

mouth

Conservation of Nature,

the back of the

appearance and function

responsible for assigning animals

Molt the process

Gape wide-open mouth Gene the basic unit of heredity

Horns

and plants to internationally

mammals shed

unbranched prongs projecting

agreed categories of

enabling one generation to pass

from the head of cloven-hoofed

table

on

animals. Horns have a

characteristics to

the teeth are

offspring

its

Generalist an animal that

all

similar in

a pair of sharp,

made

capable of a wide range of

of keratin like our

not specialized

fingernails

Genus

a

group of

Hybrid offspring of two

SPECIES.

The

genera. See

plural of

Volume

genus 1

Gestation the period of pregnancy between of the

egg and

sterile

is

and cannot produce

offspring of

fertilization

birth of the

Monogamous

below

its

Juvenile a young animal that

Montane

has not yet reached breeding

environment

usually

in

at a

time

mountain

a

Mustelid small carnivore

(e.g.,

weasel) belonging to the family

that forms hairs, feathers,

Mustelidae

Mutation random changes

and

protective plates on the skin of

own

which

animals that

have only one mate

Keratin tough, fibrous material

interbreed, but the hybrid

1

in

hair,

seasonal

closely

related species that can

is

page

See

age

activities,

closely related

rarity.

bony core

with a tough outer covering

is

respiration

energy

and

living in

occur

in

genetic material

vertebrate animals

baby

lUCN CATEGORIES EX

Extinct,

when

there

is

no reasonable doubt that the

last

VU

individual of a species has died.

EW

Extinct in the Wild,

when

the wild

a species

is

known

only to

LR

survive in captivity or as a naturalized population well

outside the past range.

CR

Critically

Endangered, when

extremely high

risk

of extinction

in

is

facing an

the wild

in

the

Endangered, when

risk

when

risk

of extinction

in

a species has been evaluated and does

criteria for

CR, EN, or VU.

Data Deficient, when there

is

about a species to assess the

risk

lUCN a species faces a very high

Risk,

NE Not Evaluated,

immediate future.

EN

Lower

in

not satisfy the

DD a species

when a species faces a high the medium-term future.

Vulnerable,

not enough information of extinction.

species that have not been assessed by the

criteria.

of

extinction in the wild in the near future.

115

1

LARGE CARNIVORES

which can be folded

Symbiosis when two or more

Native belonging to that area

Physiology the processes and

typical cats,

or country, not introduced by

workings within plants and

back into the paws to protect

SPECIES live

human

animal bodies,

them from damage when

mutual benefit more successfully

walking

than either could

assistance

Maintaining a warm-blooded

when

Natural selection

e.g., digestion.

mammal

a part of

Riparian

animals and plants are

state

challenged by natural processes

physiology

(including predation and bad

Placenta the structure that

weather) to ensure survival of

an embryo to

the

pregnancy, allowing exchange of

fittest

New World

is

mother during

its

on

live

its

Taxonomy

Roadkill animals

by road

killed

the branch of

biology concerned with

groups

classifying organisms into

traffic

Rumen

complex stomach found

according to

similarities in their

chemicals between them

in

World refers to the non-

Plantigrade walking on the sole

digesting plant material

The categories,

American continents (not usually

with the heels touching the

Ruminant animals

increasing broadness, are:

Australia)

ground. See Digitigrade

vegetation and later bring

Niche part of a habitat occupied

Polygamous when

back from the stomach to chew

and phylum. See Volume

again ("chewing the cud" or

11

"rumination") to

Terrestrial living

the Americas; Old

by an organism, defined of

all

aspects of

Nomadic

have more than one mate single

its lifestyle

Nocturnal active

fixed

terms

in

animals

mating season.

Monogamous animals have

at night

animals that have no

continents. See

Omnivore an

Population

New World

in

animal that eats

assist

digestion by microbes

it

its

the

in

same

group of

species or

all

tropical grasslands

usually

rainfall,

Scats fecal

warm

in

areas

pellets, especially of

the animals of that species

CARNIVORES. SCENT

iS

almost anything, meat or

Posterior the hind end or

deposited with the pellets as

behind another structure

territorial

Opportunistic taking advantage

Predator an animal that

of every varied opportunity that

prey for food

arises; flexible

Opposable

Prehensile grasping

behavior

fingers or toes that

can be brought to bear against others on the in

same hand

or foot

order to grip objects

Order

a subdivision of a class of

in

front

either by adjustments to

METABOLISM or by moving

between sunshine and shade

members

covered lands of the far north

and

which the male

testicles are

Underfur

and underneath the outer

located

skin

Scrub vegetation dominated by

coat of

Pride social group of lions

shrubs

—woody plants usually

as pigs, deer, cattle,

Secondary forest

mostly herbivores

Volume

and ourselves

have been planted or grown up

Uterus

Promiscuous mating often with

on cleared ground

of

animal or plant kingdom; a body

many

Siblings brothers and sisters

that has

Protein chemicals

1

of the

life

Ovulation

release of

egg from

the female's ovary prior to

mates, not just one

amino

made up

of

acids. Essential in the diet

Quadruped an Pair

bond

behavior that keeps a

on two

male and a female together

beyond the time mate; marriage

is

it

animal that

fours (a biped walks

a "pair

bond"

Range

the total geographical

area over which a species

Receptive when

Parturition process of giving

ready to mate

birth

Reproduction the process of

mammal

Pelt furry coat; often refers to skin

removed from animal as

Pheromone

fur

courtship

species, e.g.,

female

a

is

(in estrus)

breeding, creating

new

offspring

backbone

look similar and can breed to

reptiles), usually

produce

made

fertile

offspring

see above) of certain carnivores,

is

too harsh for trees to grow

Sub-Saharan lying

all

parts of Africa

south of the Sahara Desert

Subspecies a

locally distinct

group of animals that

Retina

slightly

appearance of the

Retractile capable of being

called a race

and recognize them

withdrawn, as

the claws of

differ

a

mammals,

with skeleton

softer cartilage

Vibrissae sensory whiskers,

on snout, but can be on

areas such as elbows,

tail,

or

eyebrows Viviparous animals that give birth to active

laying

young

rather than

eggs

Vocalization making of sounds such as barking and croaking

from the normal

the back of the eye

in

parts

where the climate

animals to enable others to find

scent produced by

in

(e.g., fish,

of bones, but sometimes

usually

especially otters

for the next generation light-sensitive layer at

Vertebrate animal with

Species a group of animals that

of the world

distributed

another

furry coat of a

Ventral the belly or underneath

Steppe open grassland

is

which embryos

of an animal (opposite of dorsal)

individuals within the

Spraint hunting term for scats

legs)

in

mammals develop

between

(

on or within the body of

Pelage

116

all

takes to

Parasite an animal or plant that lives

walks on

womb

and horses;

Social behavior interactions

same

of animals

its

fertilization

mammals

hairs in

with more than one stem

Primate

page

stiff

Ungulate hoofed animals such

that includes monkeys, apes,

trees that

forming a

fine hairs

dense, woolly mass close to the

related animal families. See 1

or shrub-

interpret

of skin within

animals consisting of a series of

Organism any member

one

Tundra open grassy

CANINES

group of mammals

of a species from

Scent chemicals produced by

of the MOLARS, but behind the

a

relatively

constant body temperature

animals to leave smell messages

Scrotum bag

Premolars teeth found

on land

Territory defended space

location to another

markers

for others to find

or

tail

fingers

page

1

Translocation transferring

often

vegetable

kills live

SPECIES, genus, family, ORDER, ClaSS,

maintenance of a

Savanna

one

order of

in

Thermoregulation the

with scattered trees and low

a distinct

animals of the

that eat

stomach

breeding season

Old World non-American

structure, origins, or behavior.

RUMINANTS Specifically for

male mates

a

with several females

continuously

only

mate

a single

Polygynous when

home, but wander

a

in

own

beside rivers and

living

lakes links

together for their

species;

often

Zoologist person

who

studies

animals

Zoology the study

of animals

FURTHER READING AND WEBSITES

Further Reading General

Wilson, D.

E.,

and Reeder, D.M,,

Species of the World. Cranbrook, G., The Mammals of Southeast Asia, Oxford University

New

Mammal

A Taxonomic and

Geographic Reference, Smithsonian Press,

NY, 1991

Kruuk,

York, NY, 1991

Eisenberg,

Chicago

and Redford,

R,

J.

Mammals

K. H.,

of the Neotropics, Chicago,

Press,

Estes, R.

D

African

Mammals,

,

The

Life

of Mammals: Their

University of California

MacDonald,

1975

Specific to this

York, NY,

New

2000

Alderton, D., Foxes, Wolves,

Dogs of the World,

Collins Field

University

1972

D.,

The Velvet Claw,

B.B.C.

Mech, L. D., The Wolf: Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species,

volume

Alderton, D., Cats, Dorling Kindersley,

Diego, CA, 1997

,

IL,

Books, London, U.K., 1992

CA, 1991

MacDonald, D

The Spotted Hyena,

H.,

of Chicago Press, Chicago,

Physiology, Oxford

University Press, Oxford, U.K.,

1999

IL,

J., The Kingdon Field Guide to Mammals, Academic Press, San

Guide to the

Mammals of Britain and Europe, Collins, New York, NY, 1993

Harper

D.,

Chicago University

and

S.,

Minnesota University

Chicago,

N

,

R.,

Press, Stillwater,

Schaller, G. B.,

2002

De

La Rosa, C.,

the Wolf,

MN, 1995

The Serengeti Lion, Chicago

The African Wild

University Press, Chicago, Schaller, G. B

Wolong,

,

IL,

1976

The Giant Pandas of

University of

Chicago

Press,

University Press, Princeton,

Chicago,

NJ,

War Against

McIntyre,

Voyageur

Plains,

1994

IL,

MN,

Press, Minneapolis,

1981

Blandford, U.K., 1998

Press,

Creel,

Dog, Princeton NY,

and Wild

Cheetahs of the Serengeti

Caro, I,

Creel,

The Encyclopedia of Mammals, Barnes and Noble, New York, MacDonald,

The

Anatomy and

University of

Kingdon,

African

Z.,

J.

The Behavioral Guide to

Press, Berkley,

Wildcats, Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

Washington, DC, 1999

Institution Press,

Young,

The Natural History of

Kitchener, A.,

IL,

1985

2001

Nowak,

M., Walker's

R.

Mammals

of the

World, The John Hopkins University

and Nocke,

C.,

A Guide

Press,

University of Texas Press, Austin, TX,

Baltimore, MD.,

Whitaker, Field

J.

0

1999 National

,

Audubon

Gittelman,

Society

Alfred A. Knopf,

New

,

2000

Evolution, Cornell University 1

Survey and

Conservation Action Plan, lUCN, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K., 1999 Sunquist, M., and Sunquist, R, Wildcats

Carnivore Behavior,

Press, Ithaca, NY,

the World, Chicago University Chicago,

996

IL,

of

Press,

2002

York, NY,

1996

Gittelman,

J

Cambridge

The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals, Sfnithsonian Wilson, D.

L

J

and

Ecology,

Guide to North American

Mammals,

Servheen, C., Bears: Status to

the Carnivores of Central America,

L

,

Carnivore Conservation,

University Press, U.K.,

Turner, D. C.,

Cambridge

2001

The Domestic

Cat,

University Press, U.K.,

2000

E.,

Washington, DC, 1999

Institution Press,

Jones, K

,

Wolf Mountains, Calgary

University Press, Calgary,

Canada, 2002

Useful Websites General

http://www.nccnsw.org.au

Specific to this

volume

Website for threatened Australian species

http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/

Museum

University of Michigan

of Zoology

animal diversity websites. Search for pictures

and information about animals by class, family, and common name. Includes glossary

by

scientific

species, or

listings.

name,

Search for animals

order, family, genus,

common name.

Location by

country; explanation of reasons for listings

http://endangered.fws.gov Information about threatened animals and plants from the U.S. Fish

and

Service, the organization in

Wildlife

charge of 94

million acres (38 million ha) of

News,

Website for threatened South African

wildlife

http://www.panda.org World Wide Fund

newsroom, press

http://www.cites.org/

lUCN and CITES

http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/

http://www.ewt.org.za

reports,

(WWF),

Active conservation of carnivores, including

government

wolves and

http://www.wwfcanada.org/en/res_links http://www.aza.org

/pdf/projdesc.pdf

American Zoo and Aquarium Association

Carnivore conservation

http://www.5tigers.org

Comprehensive information about

http://www.wildlifetrustofindia.org

Website of the Wildlife Conservation Society

Information about Indian wildlife, including tigers

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/ their status; listings by

of Nature, also

lists

lUCN publications

tigers

http://www.wcs.org

http://www.iucn.org and

Rocky Mountains

Guide to world's hoofed mammals

http://www.nwf.org

Details of species

in

http://www.ultimateungulate.com

Website of the National Wildlife Federation

the International Union for the Conservation

grizzly bears

campaigns

American

wildlife refuges

recent books, etc., on carnivore

http://www.defenders.org/

for Nature releases,

links,

ecology and conservation

www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/ Mammals list on Smithsonian Museum

http://www.liberalmafia.org/hyenas/ hyena.html

An

information website on hyenas, with

facts site

and photos

for spotted hyenas,

brown

hyenas, and aardwolves

117

55

55

1

0

,

2

1

Set Index A bold number shows the volume and is followed by the page numbers (e g., 1: 52, 74).

relevant

bold

in

(e

,

animals

in

Page numbers information

(e.g., 2:

—

1: (24)

parentheses e.g., At-a-Glance boxes. in

in

bandicoot

06

1

16-17

Arctogalidia trivirgata

88

98 Shan Lop Nur Nature

3:

Reserve 5: (102) 9:

common

9;

64-67 65

armadillo

giant 9: 65

A aardvark

10, 5; (10), (12);

1:

78-79

9; 64, 65, (66), 67,

African 9: 65 aardwolf 2: 102, 103, 110-111

Abrocoma

8: 31

A. jubatus 2:

1

0,

26-29

Aconaemys fuscus 8: acouchi 7; 12

30

Acrobates pygmaeus

84-85

10; 74, 6:

62

Addax nasomaculatus 6: 62 Aepyceros melampus 6: 62, 86-87 Aepyprymnus rufescens 10: 48 Aeromys tephromelas 7: 36

65, 66 Antechinomys laniger 10: 27

2: 16, 31, 5:

Afrotheres

34,

brown

34

5: (10)

10, 12, 14, 8: 28 8-9 Central American 8; 30 common 8: 42-43 spotted (common) 8: 42-43 7: 8,

black 8:

Agouti A. paca

Agoutidae

7:

,

28,

Ailurinae

1:

2: 82,

:

:

2: (99) calls 4:

46, 57,89, 100;

6: 79; 7: 53,

111; 8: 51,

55, 99 see also communication

albino 8: (84)

Alcelaphus A. buselaphus

62

A. congicus 1:

A. alces americanus 6:

40

Allocebus trichotis 4: 96 Alopex lagopus see Vulpes lagopus Alouatta A. fusca 4: 72,

118

32

74-75

A. axis 6:

ape ape family

6:10

A, porcinus

4: 96, 97,

74, 75,

5:

Aplodontidae 7:

12-13

7: 12, 28,

sylvaticus

78-79

Appaloosa

5:

archaeocetes

59 3:

4: 40, 43,

mangabey

funnel-eared 9: 87, 87 greater false vampire (false vampire) 9; 82,

98-99

86

85

94

86

vampire)

98-99

hog-nosed 1:77, 86 108

lesser bulldog 9:

horseshoe 106-107

lesser 9:

32,

82-83

Indian ferret 1: 32

Palawan stink 1; 32 Balaena mysticetus 3: 55, 110-111 Balaenoptera acutorostrata 3: 55,

106-107

Canadian (American) 29, 30-33 Eurasian 7: 28,

lesser 9:

brown

104-105 long-eared

9: 83,

9:

1 1

0-1

swamp

see coypu

dung

2:

76-77

62

3; 55,

80-83

bettong burrowing 10: 48, 57 Tasmanian 10: 8 Bettongia lesueur 10: 48 bilby 10: 44^5

45

binturong 1: 88, 89, 90, 91 biomedical research see medical research bipedalism 4: 10

bison

American

6: 60, 62,

European 6: 62, wood 6; 68

B.

1

9: 86 Mexican free-tailed 9; 82, (83), 84-85, 86, 100-103

long-tongued

7: 12, 14, 28, (29)

(66),

64-69 67

Bison B. bison 6: 62, 64-69 B. bison athabascae 6: 68

long-nosed

84-85

little

7: 28,

29

greater 10; 27, 44, lesser 10: 27, 44

84-85, 86, 100-103 Indian greater false

32, 34, 35,

beaver 7: 8, 9, 70, 11, 12, 13 American 7: 28, 29, 30-33 beaver family 7: 28-29

beluga

(false

83

spectacled 2: 82, 83 sun 2: 82, 83 Beatragus hunteri 6: 62

84-85, 86, 100-103

9: 80,

3:

83

sloth 2: 82,

beetles,

free-

hairy big-eyed 9:

giant

polar 2: 9, 82, 84-89. skunk see wolverine

beira 6: 60,

Kitti's

82

2:

native Australian see koala

tailed) 9; 82, (83),

tailed) 9: 82, (83),

:

Malaysian sun

mountain beaver family 7: 28-29

(11), 9: 38, 80, 1:

94-97 koala see koala

mountain

horseshoe 9: 80, 87 house (Mexican free-

2: (6C:

9

2: 9. 5:

panda see panda, 87

9:

vampire 9: 82, 98-99 fisherman 9: 108-109 free-tailed 9: 87 fruit 9: 58, 80, 81, 86

9: 82,

98

1:

98

grizzly 2: 82, 83, 92,

.

84-85,

diadem roundleaf 9: 86 disk-winged 9: 87 Egyptian fruit 9: 86 Egyptian rousette 9: 92-93

vampire

:

American black 2: 82, 90-93 Andean 2: 82, 83 Asian black 2: 82, 83 bear family 2: 82-83 big brown (brown) 2. 82, 83, 92, 94-97 brown 2: 82, 83, 92. 94-97

Brazilian (Mexican) free-

9:

1

dancing 2: (97) "dawn bear" 2: 82

pallid 9:

hammerheaded

42-43, 54-57 Babyrousa babyrussa

1:

87

9:

little

hairy-legged vampire

78-81 hog 1; 32

29

86

guano (Mexican

sacred (hamadryas) 4; 40,

honey

84

vampire

greater horseshoe 9:

10-77

olive 4:

B.

56

86-87

58-59

84-85

Barbary see macaque, Barbary red see orangutan Aplodontia ru fa 7:28

Apodemus

102-103

5: 74, 86-87 badger 1: 34 American 1: 32, 76-77

32

false

false

1

European 4:

96

yellow (savanna) 4: 40,

Amblonyx

A. trivirgatus 4: 72,

A. alces andersoni 6; 1 A. alces gigas 6:15 A. alces shirasi 6; 1 Allenopithecus nigroviridis

A. occidentalis 4: Axis

58-59 savanna 4; 40, 42-43, 54-57

A. nigriceps 4: 72 1

72

96

43,

Aotus

A. alces 6: 10, 14-19 A. alces alces 6: 1

introduced

into 2: 80; 5: (97), 8:

A. laniger 4:

long-tailed see

Aonyx

10, 14, 7: 12, (37);

80-87

108-109

98

Avahi

6: 62, 110-111 Antilocapridae 6: 63, 110 Antilope cervicapra 6: 62

cinereus

Alces

mammals

hamadryas

1:

:

gelada 4: 40, 42, 43, 62-63

76

:

Daubenton's

Antilocapra americana

34, 38, 40, 60 ants 9: 64, 66, 69,

1

63

baboon 4; 8, 40, 42, 42-43 Chacma 4: 56-57

24-25,

bear

astutus 1 20 sumichrasti 1: 20

86, 100-103 bulldog (fisherman) 9: 87,

1

macrourus 8:12

B

antlers 6: 9, 12, (15),

jacksoni

tailed 9: 82, (83),

babirusa

A, cinereus see 6:

A. lichtensteinii 6: 62

4;

62

96-97

A, capensis

76-77

56

Bdeogale

brown 84 bat families 9: 86-87 Bechstein's 9: 80-81

72

A. belzebuth A:

Janetta 8: 56

8.

9;

94

9

7: 12, 8;

B,

American American

Ateles

aye-aye

6: 60,

6: 62,

98-101

Ailurops ursinus 10: 74 Ailurus fulgens 1 20, 30-31

alarm

6; 60, 62, (63),

1

Tibetan 6: 62 Antidorcas marsupialis

20

Ailuropoda melanoleuca

20-21

2,

1

A. frontalis 9:21

Australia,

B.

African slit-faced 9: 82,

A. algirus 9: 12, 13

6:

Bathyergidae Bathyergus

crassicauda

1: 8,

9:

pipistrelle

20 gabbii 1: 20

9:

94-97

see also flying fox;

8. suillus 8:

American

A. albiventris 9:

87

9:

9: 84, (85),

B.

bat

Atelerix

thumbless

B. alleni 1:

6.

Asian wild 5: 56-57 Asiatic 5: 42 domestic 5; 57

aurochs

27

Bassaricyon

B.

87

9: 84, spectacled 9: 87

9: 110-111 white-winged vampire

27

Island 10:

Bassariscus

42, (44) African 5: 42 5:

Atilax paludinosus

royal 6: 60, 62 sable 6: 62

44, 69, 77, 79 Ailuridae 2: (99)

98-99

Arvicoia terrestris 7:

87

spear-nosed

whispering (long-eared)

108

52

66, 6:

27

western barred 10: 27 banteng 6: 62

02

1

Artiodactyla 1: 10, 5; (10), 12,

A,

roan 6: 62

agriculture 1: 46, 2: 21

64

9:

A, africanus 8:

40-41 A. swainsonii 10: 27 antelope 5: 10, 1 1 12, 13; 6: 60-63 American pronghorn 2: 26, 6: 63 four-horned 6: 60, 62

pygmy

12

40-41

stuartii 10: 27,

110-1

30

three-banded

artiodactyl 1: S; 8;

A. geoffroyi 4: 72,

10: 27,

pronghorn 30

8:

A. taczanowskii 8:

vampire

bark stripping 8: 24 barnacles 3: 57, 92, 102,

Atherurus

dusky 10: 27 sandstone 10: 27 Antechinus

A

Afrotheria 9: 10

agouti

10: 11, 25, 20,

agile 10: 41

Africa, national parks/resen/es

9: 65,

66

ass

silky 9:

antechinus (25), 27

southern naked-tailed

Aspilia 4: (29)

marsupial see numbat short-nosed spiny see echidna, short-beaked

Acrobatidae 10: (76)

addax

32,

Anomaluridae 7: 12, (19) anteater 1: 9, 14, 9: 64-67 banded see numbat giant 9: 64, 65, 68-71

30

red 8;

rabbit-eared see bilby

striped 10;

1:

86

slit-faced 9:

Seram

animal farming 2: (97) anoa, lowland 6: 62

29

A. rex 2:

sheath-tailed 9: 87

74-77 nine-banded 9: 65, 74-77

ambergris 3: 89 Amblonyx cinereus

87

9:

northern 10: 46-47 northern brown (northern) 10; 27, 46-A7 pig-footed 10: 27

long-nosed (nine-banded)

92, 93, 105, (106)

46-47

27

lesser fairy 9:

5:

Old World leaf-nosed 9: 87 Old World sucker-footed

rufous spiny 10: 27

65

87

9: 82,

Raffray's 10:

9: 65,

86-87

9:

mouse

10:

87

Old World false vampire

rousette 9:

A. seniculus 4: 72

alpaca

S-9

9:

Zealand short-tailed

long-nosed 10: 27

A. palliata 4: 72

70-71 American Sign Language 4: 13, (16), 27 Ammodorcas clarkei 6: 62 Ammotragus lervia 6: 62 angwantibo 4; 106, 106

bennetti 8: 30

Abrocomidae acacia 6: 87 Acinonyx

10: (10),

(northern) 10: :

Arjin

97 24, 25,27 4:

golden 10: 27 large short-nosed

Arctonyx collaris 1 32 Argentinosaurus huinculensis

Animals that get main entries in the set are indexed under their common names, alternative common names, and scientific names.

mustached 9: 87 World leaf-nosed

New New

giant 10: 27

A. pusillus 3; 9, 1:

— locate

mouse-tailed 9: 86

1

eastern barred 10:

A. gazella 3: 9

103) point to illustrations of parts of the set other than the main entry.

page numbers

1

A. calabarensis 4:

bonaerensis

6.

Arctocephalus

,

Italic

6.

06 1 06

Arctocebus 4: A. aureus 4:

g aardwolf) mean that the animal has an illustrated main entry in the set. Underlined page numbers (e.g 9: 78-79) refer to the main entry for that animal.

Common names

3: 07 musculus 3: 55, 98-101 bamboo 2; 98-99, 100,

Archaeonycteris 1: S binturong 1: 88

Arctictis

bonasus

6: 62,

66

blackbuck 6: 67, 62 Blarina brevicauda 9: 28,

30-33 Blastocerus dichotomus

6

:

10

SET INDEX

blubber

72, 84, 85,

3; 34, 58,

89, 91, (101)

bluebuck 6: 63 boar, wild 5: 74, 76-79 boat traffic 3: 50, 51, 65, 79, 103 bobcat 2: 10. 38-39. 40 body temperature 1; 9-12 control of 5: (17): 9; 24, 67, 72, 82, (90), 10: 69

desert animals 5:

4: 12,

bontebok

moloch

C C

personatus 4: 72 torquatus 4: 72

Bradypus torquatus

65

9:

B. varlegatus 9: 65, 72-73 branding, freeze branding

8: (84)

90-91 96, 96-97, 103,

forestation

breaching

3:

C.

in 4:

86 Mico

humilis see humilis

14-15

36

7:

Asiatic

48

C C

derbianus 10: 14 philander 10: 14 Caluromysiops irrupta 10: 14 camel 5: 8, 9, 12 Arabian (dromedary) 5: 92, 93, 94-99. 102 Bactrian 5: 92, 93,

(98),

100-103 camel family

5:

domestication

5: (98)

dromedary

5:

92-93

63

20-21;

3:

5:

(Bactrian)

5:

C.

92-93

reproduction; inbreeding;

C,

92,

5:

cattle

5: 92,

94-99

interbreeding

18

7:

brocket, red 6: 10,

1 1,


ferus (bactrianus) 5: 92,

100-103 1: 20

13

bromeliads 4: (90) browsing 5: 12, 13, 38, brumby see mustang Bubalus

9

dingo

2:

50, 80-81

depressicornis 6: 62

C. latrans 2: 50,

B.

mindorensis

C.

Bubastis 2: (12) bubble netting 3:

62

C.

104

bubonic plague 7: 14, 76-77 Bubulcus ibis 6: (73) Budorcas taxicolor 6: 62, 108 buffalo 1: 15 African 6: 60, 62, 70-73 see also bison, American Bunolagus monticularis 8: 64

Buphagus africanus

6: (73)

Burramys parvus 10: 74 burrows 7: 26-27, 9: 44-45, 67, 10: 99 ground destabilization 7: 49, 50, 59; 8: 29, 57,

66-67, 9: 77; 10: 99 see also tunnels

bush baby

4: 106-107 Demidoff's 4: 106, 110-111 bushbuck 6: 62 bushmeat trade 4: 27, 32, 40,

53, 61, 85, 5: 87, 6: 59, 66, 72

75

C.

mesomelas

2: 50,

C. simensis 2: 50 Caperea marginata 3: 55 Capra C. aegagrus 6: 62 C.

ibex 6: 62, 106-107 caucasica 6: 1 06 ibex cylindricornis

C.

Capreolus capreolus

6:

1

southern mountain 8: 10-11, 30 cavylike rodents 8: 8-1

C. crispus 6:

4:

apella 4:

62

C. sumatraensis 6: 62, 108 Caprolagus hispidus 8: 64

72

olivaceus 4: 72

4:

4:41, 75; 6: 62,

C. monticola Ceratotherium

5:

26, 65;

captivity 1: 22, 29, 65, 3: 59,

65, 71, 74, 4: 27, 78; 6:

42-43, 58, 66, 91;

9: 21, 10:

83

capuchin 4: 10, 72, 83 brown 4: 72, 73

49

80

6:

62

simum

5:

28,

concinnus 10: 74

C

nanus

10:

74

40 C. torquatus 40 Cercopithecidae 4: 40 cercopithecines 4: 40, 40-41, 42, 43

Cercopithecus C. aethiops 4: 44-47 C. C.

40 neglectus 4: 40 Cephas

Cervidae

7:

34,

48-49

40

4:

6: 9, 10,

12

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

98

African

mexicanus

1:

8: 12,

prehensilis 8:

1

colobines 4: 40, 41-42 colobus 4: 10, 40, 40-42,

68-69, 69, 75 Angola (black-and-white) 4: 40, 68-69 black 4: 42 4: 40,

red 4: 41-42,

68 Satanic black 4: 40

C.

40

4:

angolensis 4: 40, 68-69 satanus 4: 40

colugo

10, 7: (37);

1:

108-1 Malayan 8: 109, 109, 8:

1

110, 110-111 Philippine 8:

88

108-109,

109, 110 commensal animals

communication 99-100,

7:

14

1: (23),

3: (83), 4: (56),

74, 79, 85,

5: 13, 15, 19,

(24), 44, (49), 79; 7: 53,

101, 8: 16, 42, 51, 9: 61; 10:

80

alarm

calls 4: 46, 57, 89, 100, 6: 79; 7: 53, 111;

8: 51, 55, 99 American Sign Language 4: 13, (16), 27 see also songs

cristata 9: 40,

48-51 Conepatus 1: 32 mesoleucus 1 32 coney see pika, American Connochaetes C. gnou 6: 62, 82

chinga

C.

C.

:

taurinus 6: 62,

conservation

African palm

tree

26-27 C.

C.

CITES see Convention on International Trade in

1:

coati,

Coelodonta 5: 28 coendou see porcupine, Coendou 8: 1

Condylura

109

Citellus tridecemlineatus see

civet

:

1:

ringtailed

C

48

Chrysospalax trevelyani 5:

1

68-69

tridecemlineatus 4:

19, 20, 21

20 28-29 white-nosed 1: 20, 29

Colobus

Spermophilus

C. galeritus 4:

1:

30

8:

28

(black-and-white) 4: 40,

18

45 Chlamydia psittaa 10: 95 Chlamyphorus truncatus 9: 65 Chlorocebus aethiops 4: 40 Choloepus C. didactylus 9: 65 C. hoffmanni 9: 65 chozchon 8: 29 Chrotogale owstoni 1 88 Chrysochloridae 9: 9 Chrysocyon brachyurus 2: 50 9:

94-95

ringtailed

30

62

chulengo

C.

7:

western red 4: 40 white-epauleted black

:

30-35

Cercocebus

(23), (29),

11-12,

62

dorsalis 6:

captive breeding

71,2:

5:

70, 6: 8; 7: 103, 8:

Cercartetus 10: 74

45, 47, 54,

86

88

:

68-69

chital 6: 10, 13,

72

capucinus

C,

Capromyidae 7: 12, 8: 31 Capromys pilorides 8: 30, 52-53 1:

4:

(91)

1:

oil

clompers 5: 58 Clyomis laticeps

37

7: 15,

88, 91

1:

:

C.

Chlronectes minimus 10: 14 Chiroptera 1: 70, 9: (86) Chiroptes C. albinasus 4: 72 C. satanas 4: 72 chiru 6:

84

C.

C

eastern

1:

88 small-toothed palm 1 88 Sulawesi palm 1: 88 small Indian

black-and-white

8:

Siberian 7:

Peruvian 8: 39 rock 8: 30

Cephalophus

90-91, 98, 101; 6: 91, 7: 15

fuliginosus 10: 14

30

8: 28,

0,

38-39

common

Owston's banded palm 1: 90, 91

12, 13,

chinchilla rat 8: 31

chipmunk

yellow-toothed

:

otter 1: 88, 91

Chinchillidae 7: 72

domestic see guinea pig Patagonian see mara

cellulose

Capricornis

Cabassous unidnctus 9: 65 Cacajao 4: 72 C. calvus 4: 72, 80-81 C. melanocephalus 4: 72

C

common

C.

1 06 06 06

8

Chilean 8: 30, 31

47

72

1

31

relatives

pygmaea

59, 100, 4: (17), 87,

caniventer 10: 14

and

Cebus

ibex sibirica 6: ibex walie 6: 1

6: 7 7,

short-tailed 8:

28-31

Cebuella

106

C. ibex ibex 6:106 C. ibex nubiana 6:

4:

5:

Chinchilla lanigera 8: 30, 8: 28,

1

:

coatimundi see

36-37

C.

C.

38^1

72

7:

4: 72,

6:

10

5: 8; 6:

greater Malay see deer, greater mouse

fur 8: (10)

39

C. tschudii 8:

Cebidae

(55), (59),

C.

porcellus 8: 30,

8:

C. ibex

c cacomistle 1: 20, 21 Caenolestes 10: 14

C.

8:

62-63

chevrotain

36-37

39

aperaea

Brazilian 8: 39,

80-81

pollution

Park 6: 44, 45 chinchilla 7: 12. 8: 10, 28,

6:

C.

58-61

lupus 2: 50, 54-57 lupus dingo (C dingo) 2: 50,

6:

63 rearing 4: 79

cavies

C. familiaris 2: 50, (53)

B.

6:

62 63

8:

Caviomorpha 7: (8), cavy 7: 11, 72, (14)

Canis

C

60-63;

Caviidae

Canidae 6:

6:

large spotted

mountain

9 common 4: 12 pygmy see bonobo China, Imperial Hunting

12;

88 88 88 Lowe's otter 1 88 Malayan 1: 88, 90 masked palm 1 88 Oriental 1: 88, 90 1:

large Indian 1:

coati

chemical poisoning see

28-33.

Cavia

dromedarius

major 4: 96 medius 4: 96

chimpanzee 7 7,

1:

90 Jerdon's palm

88 88

Indian 1:

coalitions 2:

catarrhines 4:

1

Hose's palm

:

Cladonia rangiferina 6: 23 Clethrionomys gapped

79 26-29

10,

water 6: 1 chewing the cud

catatonia 10: (20) cattle 1: 15, 5: 9,

1

Civettictis civetta 1

Cheirogaleus C.

golden palm

8: 67, 9:

Catagonus wagnen 5: 88 catamount see puma

humpless

bactrianus

charms 3: 61; cheetah 2: 9, king 2: 29 C.

88, 90,

1:

94-95

90,

civet

Indian spotted 6: 10

humped zebu

100-103

see also captive breeding;

domestic 2: 9, 10, (12), 49 European wildcat 2: 72 jungle 2: 10, 73 leopard 2: 10, 73 miner's see raccoon, ringtail saber-toothed 2: 1 sand 2: 10, 73 tiger 2: 10, 72 wildcat 2: 1 0, 1 3,

100-103

92, 93, (98),

Camelus

83, 88; 7: 57, 8: 79; 10: 41

mound

92, 93, 94-99. 102

camelids

13

2: 10,

48-49

92, 93,

22-23 Chaetomys subspinosus 8: 30 Chaga's disease 8: 27 chain chorusing 5: 71 chamois 6: 62 European 6: 108 Pyrenean 6: 62

7: (31)

blackfooted 2: 10, 73 cat family 2: 10-13

Caluromys

two-humped

14

7:

30-33

7: 28,

golden

common palm

:

7:

Castorldae 7: 12, 28 cat 2: 9 African wildcat 2: 12

36 36

prevosti 7:

30

8:

27

C. elaphus6: 10, 26. 30-33 Cetacea 1: 70, 5: (10) cetaceans 3: 54-59 Chaeropus ecaudatus 10: 27 Chaetodipus penicillatus

28

C. fiber 7:

Caloprymnus campestrls

5:

teeth 1: 75 Carterodon sulcidens

castoreum

C. notatusisi 7:

10:

1:

27

canadensis nelsoni 6: 26 canadensis roosevelti 6:

8=9 18-19

2:

Castor 7: 28 C canadensis

Callosdurus

21

6:

5: 74,

large small

8

2:

,

C.

27

canadensis nannodes 6:

C.

20-25

10 18; 10

1:

carnivores

Callorhinus ursinus 3: 9,

'C nigrovittatus

C.

39

9:

6: 10, 12,

Carnivora

94-99. 102

synchronized

bushpig

caribou

one-humped (dromedary) 7: 14, 8:

selective 5: (43), 74, 6:

breeding

caravaning

geoffroyi 4:

6:

8: (50)

caracal 2: 10, 11

argentata see Mico argentata

pygmaea

C

48-51

10, 28,

Callithrix C.

Cervus C. canadensis 6: 0, 26-29 C canadensis manitobensis 1

12, 28; 8: 8, 9,

7: 8,

capybara farms

86

Callimico goeldii 4:

104, 109

breeding K strategists R strategists

72

4:

72

4:

capybara

C.

6:

8: 64, (93) Brachyteles arachnoides 4: 72

Brazil,

white-faced 4: 72

C jacchus 4: 86, 92-93 C pygmaea see Cebuella

34-35

62 Borhyaenidae 10: 26, 36 Bos B. frontalis 6: 62 B. grunniens 6: 74-75 B. javanicus 6: 62 Boselaphus tragocamelus 6: 62 boto see dolphin, Amazon Bovidae 6: 9, 60-63 bovine tuberculosis 1:81 brachiation 4: 38, 72 Brachylagus idahoensis

B.

weeper

Callicebus

C

95-96

see also hibernation; torpor

bonobo

Caenolestidae 10: 16

1:

82-85

47, (59), 75;

2: 33, 55, (88), 100, 3: 15, 1:

banded palm

1:

91 civet family

1:

88 88, 90, 90,

88-91

19, 4: 35; 5: 26, 39, 63; 6: 25, 64; 7: 45, 77; 9: 85;

10: (77), (95), (101) see also protection

119

1

0

5

;

SET INDEX

on

C- nventlon

International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1: 17 convergent evolution 9: 1 0,

:oppi>.Mig 7:

106

coprophagy

8: 51,

coruro 8: 29, 30 cotton bollworms cottontail 8: 62

D. D.

62

10:

27

Dasyprocta punctata 8: 30, 9:

42^3

103

Dasyproctidae

eastern 8: 64, 90-93 Mexican Guerrero 8: (93) New England 8: (93) Omilteneor 8: (93)

dasyure

swamp

short-furred 10; 25, Dasyuridae 10: 24, 36

8: (93)

cougar see puma

coyote

1:

77; 2: 50, 58-61

coypu 7: 72; 44-47

8: 9, 11, 31,

South American

8: (46)

Craseonycteridae 9: 86 Craseonycteris thonglongyai 9: cria 5:

broad-striped 10: 27

narrow-striped 10: 25, 27

Crocuta crocuta 2: 102,

108-109 5:

23-24, 41, 72,

91; 6: 13, 78, 81; 7: 100,

32-33

Daubentonia madagascariensis 9:

102-103

103 12

5: 8, 9, 10,

barking see muntjac black musk 6: 10 black-tailed (mule) 6: 10,

34-37

63

27

DIcerorhinus sumatrensis 5; 28 Diceros bicornis 5: 28, 36-39

dicoumarol 7: 75 Didelphidae 10: 14, 16 common see opossum, Didelphis

C C mechowi

8:

56 8; 56 56

8:

Cryptoprocta ferox

1:

48-49 Himalayan musk

96-97 Cryptotis parva 9: 28 Ctenodactylidae 7: 12, 108 Ctenodactylus

C C

110-111 08 Ctenomyidae 7; 72; 8: 9 Ctenomys C frater 8: 30 C validus 8: 30 gundi

1: 108,

vah 7:

6: 10,

1

lesser

mouse

marsh

6: 10,

6: 10,

mouse mule 6:

African wild

bush

pampas

dog family

72

6: 10,

Pere David's

6; 10, 13,

44-45 red roe

30-33 38-39. 60

6: 10, 12, Siberian musk 6: 10

cursorial animals 2:

sika 6:

50

cuscus 10; 76, (77)

ground 10: 74 mountain 10: 74 peleng 10; 74 74 spotted 10: 72-73, 82-83 waigeou 10; 74 cuy see guinea pig

C

1:

dusky

6; 49, 51, 9: 23,

,

91

8:

3: 55,

30

D. tatei 10;

74

69

D. trivirgata 10: 6:

1

74

0,

40-43

8:

1

D. bennettianus 10:

D. lunatus 6: 62,

desman

88-89

1:

70, 8:

40-43 40, 52-53 40, 42, 43, 53

Russian 9:

9:

7 7,

forest 6:

76-77

dunnart

common

69

.

6:

common Kangaroo little

E.

52-53

elk 6: 10, 26-29 eastern 6: 26

10 Manitoba 6; 27 Merriman 6: 26 North American 6: 12 Rocky Mountain 6: 26-27 Roosevelt's 6: 27 Irish 6:

27

Dusicyon australis

3: 55,

76-77

spotted 3: 56-57, 77

38 38

3: 71

white-sided 3: 71 river 3: 55, (61)

2:

85 :

9:

64

42, 57

E.

asinus

E.

burchelli 5: 42,

£

caballus 5: 42, 58-61 caballus przewalskii

E.

(f.

5:

46-51

przewalskii) 5: 42,

54-55 50

E echidna

12- 13, 57, 63, 69,

Enhydra lutris 1 32, 72-75 Eohippus 5: 42

red-cheeked 10: 27

rollover (spinner) 3: 55,

1

see also moose El Niho 3; 22 Emballonuridae 9: 87 embryonic diapause

Eomanis waldi Equidae 5: 42 Equus

38

Duplicidentata 8: 61

short-beaked common 3; 69 short-snouted spinner 3: 76

melanurus 7: 102 querdnus 7: 102

Tule 6; 27

38-39

river 3: (61)

white-beaked

E.

10:

Island 10:

5: 14,

22-27

71, 73,

long-tailed 10:

9: 59,

Ellomys

Siberian 6:

3: 47,

15

elephant shrew 1: 70, 9: 10, 58-59 black and rufous 9: 59, 59 checkered 9; 58-59, 59 four-toed 9: 59, 59

Elephas maximus

27

Gilbert's 10;

14-15

North African 9: 59, 59 short-eared 9: 59, 59 Elephantulus rozeti 9: 59

6: 62, 80-81 62, 80-81

10:

5:

62-63

80

10:

16-21.

74-75

5: 14,

golden-rumped

102 46-47,

70; 3:

fat-tailed 10: 25,

white-sided 3: 55, 70-71 pink (Amazon) 3: 55, 60-61

Yangtze

.

duiker bay 6: 62 blue 6: 62 bush (common)

long-beaked (spinner)

76-77

108

savanna

5: (12)

common

Risso's 3: 7

48

forest 5: 14,

97 drill 4: 40, 42 dromedary see camel, dromedary Dromidops gliroides 10: 14 drought 4: 63, 5: 34, 94 drug testing 4: 13, 93 Dryomys D laniger 7: 102

La Plata 3; 55, (61) 3: 55,

elephant family

Dugong dugon

3: 55, (61)

5: 14, 15,

5: 14, 15, 16, 22-27 circus elephants 5; 24, (24)

Draculin 9:

52-53.

70, 5: 8, (10),

family units 5: 75

Japanese 7: 102, 102 masked mouse-tailed 7: 102 Oriental 7: 103 Roach's mouse-tailed 7: 102 Setzer's mouse-tailed 7: 102 spectacled 7: 102 spiny 7: 103 woolly 7: 102 douroucouli see monkey. Northern night

1:

1: 10,

26 Asian

garden 7: 102, 102-103 hazel 7: 102, 103,

.

hourglass 3: 71 Indus 3: 55, (61)

spinner

9: 9, 11,

Pyrenean

Damaliscus

Ganges

African 102,

02

1

1

11 ,( 12 )

102-103 7; (14),

6:

44^5 elephant

104-105

68-69 71

Pacific

68-69

02 D. arboreus 8: 1 03 D. dorsalis 8; 1 03 D. validus 8: 1 03 Dendrolagus

66-67 Dermoptera

3: 55,

76

electrocution 4: 67

D. nitedula 7: 102

71

32

Elaphurus davidianus 6: 10,

(hazel) 7: 102,

dormouse family

dugong

76

Fraser's 3: 71

3:

D. goodfellowi 10: 48,

Dactylopsila

3:

60-61

3: 55, 66,

:

76-77

D. sichuanensis 7: 3:

long-beaked

Dendrohyrax

D Dactylomys dactyllnus

Dama dama

common

73, 75, 81, 90, 5: 20,

1

80-83

7: 34,

3: 55,

bottlenose

4: (17), 27, 32, 37, 61, 69,

,

Delphinus

56-59

Amazon clymene

1

3

Delphinapterus leucas

;

8: 30,

Dologale dybowskn 1 98 dolphin 1: 70; 3: 54-59;

51, 71; 2: 58-59, 3: 61,

2

D. delphis 3: 55,

lowei 1 88 Cynomys ludovicianus

patagonum

72-75

:

30 mountain 8: 30 dehydration 5: 95-96

88

78-79

raccoon 2: 50 see also prairie dog

48,

1

D. capensis 3:

bennettii

wild) 2: 9, 50, 53,

5: (10)

Bridge's 8:

Cynogale C.

(36)

degu

65 Cynictis penidllata 1: 98 Cynocephalidae 8: 108 Cynocephalus C variegatus 8: 1 09 C volans 8: 1 09 9:

50-53

:

see also habitat destruction 8: 29, 37

86

Cyclopes didactylus

2:

domestic 2: 9, 50, (53) painted hunting (African

32-35

see also brocket deer parks 6; 13, 42-43, 47 deforestation

small Sulawesi 10;

53

2: 50,

Dolichotis

white-tailed 6; 10, 73, 18,

spotted (spotted) 10; 72-73, 82-83

9:

12

tufted 6: 10

common

Cyanophenus

6; 10, 12, 13,

spotted 6: 10, 13

admiralty 10: 74 bear 10: 74

78-79

2; 9, 50, 53,

78-79

1

6: 60, 62,

Elaphodus cephalophus

106-107

rodent-borne 7: 14 distemper 3; 41 canine 2: 79 Distoechurus pennatus 10: 74 dog 1: 15, 5: 9 African hunting (African

common

6: 62, lEs-11 Lord Derby's (giant) 6: 62,

103, 106-107 desert 7: 102, 103 7:

barbara 5: 13

eland

7: 11, 12, 13, 15,

giant

common

edible

104-105

Elmer's organs 9: 45, (50) Eira

garden 7: 102 Chinese 7: 102 Chinese pygmy 7: 103

26, 87

1;

rufescens 10: 27

10:

19

forest 7:

24-25

Clara 10;

E.

egret 6: (73) Eidolon 9: 86

104-105

wild) 2: 9, 50, 53,

34-37

10,

diseases

ordii 7:

muntjac see muntjac musk 6: 10

43, 45, 67, 6: 32, 66; 8: 81; 10: (95) Cuon alpinus 2: 50

culls 3: 15,

48

72 see chevrotain

17,

27

f.

ecotones 6: 86 Edentates 9: 64, 64 egg-laying mammals

48

fat (edible) 7: (14), 102,

Dipodomys

50-51 hog 6: 10

88,

28

62

Dorcopsis D. hageni 10: 48 D. luctuosa 10: 48 Dorcopsulus D. macleayi 10: 48 D. vanheurni 10: 48

Asiatic

:

6:

48

white-striped 10:

60, 62 62 dimorphism, sexual 3: 87 dingo 2: 50, 80-81 10: (30), 37 Dinomyidae 7: 12 Dinomys branickii 8: 30 dinosaur 3: 98 Diplogale hosei 1 88 Diplomesodon pulchellum Kirk's 6:

Salt's 6;

Diprotodontia 10; 25, 75, (94)

hottentotus

dorcopsis gray 10:

African 7: 103

9:

22-23

Echymipera

5: (45)

44-45

Dorcatragus megalotis

18-23

D. virginiana 10: 14,

fallow 6: 10, 12, 13, 40-43 greater mouse 6: 10,

:

wild 5:

dik-dik

Cryptomys C damarensis

:

donkey

dormouse

14

DIplomys labilis 8: 30 Dipodidae 7: 72

10

Echinoprocta rufescens 8: 12 Echinops telfain 9: 24 Echinosorex gymnura 9: 1 2, echolocation 9: 8, 28, 32, 37, 80-81, 92-93, 99, 106, 109, 110-111 echymipera, Clara's 10: 27

see also cat, domestic;

domestic

diastema 7: 10, 7 7, 8: 60 see also reproduction dibatag 6: 67, 62

deer and relatives 6: 10-13 dwarf musk 6: 10

6;

105-106, 107; 38-39, 40,

(45), (98),

dog, domestic

85

73,

2; 53, 5: (43),

(72) 3:

105; 8: 18-19, 9: 85, 91 Crossarchus C. alexandn 1 98 C ansorgei 1 98

Chinese water

domestication

6: 25, 63; 8:

10; 12-13, 57, 63, 69, 71,

D. alblventris 10:

0, hallucatus 10: 27,

4: 96,

28-31 dhole 2; 50, 57 dialects of whale pods diapause, embryonic

dolphinaria 3; 71, 74

27,

Virginia

27

Dasyuromorphia 10: 24 Dasyurus D. albopunctatus 10: 27

deer

107

27

red-bellied 10:

DDT

38

crop raiding

9: 65,

lA-11

Dice's 8: (93)

Desmana moschata 9: 40 Desmodus rotundus 9: 94-97 devil, Tasmanian 10: (24),

dibbler 10:

72

7:

Dasypus novemdnctus

desert 8: 64, 67, (93)

120

D.

6:

dassie, rock

(23)

1:

88 lunatus lunatus 6: 88 lunatus tiang 6: 88 lunatus topi 6: 88 korrigum

0. lunatus

D. pygargus 6; 62 see hyrax, rock Dasycercus cristicauda 10; 27 Dasykaluta rosamondae

40, 10; 36, (52) liunting 1: 26

coon

coonskins

88

D. lunatus jimela 6:

1: 14, 8: 12,

10;

long-nosed 10: 105,

1

short-beaked 10: 105, 110-111 Echimyidae 7: 12. 8: 31 Echimys pictus 8: 30

105 10

52-53 56-57 E. przewalskii 5; 42, 54-55 E. quagga 5: 48 £ zebra 5; 42 Eremitalpa grand 9: 40, 56-57 Erethizon dorsatum 8: 12, 20-25 £.

grevyi 5: 42,

£.

hemionus

5:

42,

SET INDEX

Erethizontidae 7; 12, 8: 12 Erinaceidae 9; 9, 1

Erinaceus E.

concolor

9;

1

£ europaeus 9; ermine 1:112 see also stoat

2,

1

14-19

gazelle

5:

47

in Brazil 4:

dama

6:

61

gallery forests 4: 101

goitered 6: 6/, 62 slender-horned 6: 6?, 62

forests

90-91 elephants in 5: 22

Thomson's

26

gorillas in 4:

see also deforestation fossa 1: 88, 90, 97, 96-97

Erythrocebus patas 4: 40 Eschrichtidae 3: 92 Eschrichtius robustus 3: 55,

92-97 estivation 7; 19, 9: 13, 21

Ethiopia, geladas in 4:

63

1

07

108-109

E.

australis 3:

£

gladalis 3: 55

7: (14)

bat-eared

2: 50,

eucalyptus 10: 95-96, 96

Blanford's 2: 50,

96

|)lue Arctic 2: 71

4:

Cape

coronatus 4: 96

£.

£ macaco 4: 96 £ mongoz 4: 96

Euoticus E. elegantulus 4: pallidas 4:

£.

3: 9,

1

1

06 88

30

Eutheria 10: (10)

evolution

convergent

9: 10, 40;

10: 36, (52)

of

mammals

of rodents 7: 12 extermination 6: 64-66

red

£ £ £ £ £ £ £ £

£ £ £ £

caracal 2:

catus 2:

1

1

Chaus 2:10 concolor 2:

10,

42-43

40^1

/ynx2: 10,

53

Ruppell's 2: 50,

46-47

2: (72), 8:

1

44-45 rufus 2: 10, 38-39 F. serval2: 10. 46-47 £ silvestris 2 0, 48-49 pardalis 2:

1

£ temmincki 2: 10 £ tigrinus 2: £ yaguarondi 2:10 Felovia vae 7: 108 Fennecus zerda see Vulpes zerda 1

fermentation ferret 1: 45

5:

black-footed

1

1:

32, 34, 35,

46-47 see implantation/ fertilization; reproduction fisher 1: 50-51: 8: 20 fish farms 3: 65 fertilization

fishing 3: 12, 15, 19, 37, 43,

105 cooperative, by dolphins 3: (74)

fishing nets 3: 22, 30, 50, 59,

69, 71, 77, 79, 105

88,

1:

1:

:

88,

92-93

Georychus capensis :

8:

(lar)

36

gibbon family

4:

white-handed

(lar)

4: 36,

38-39

107

Zanzibar 4:

106 106

Galago G, gabonensis

1

06

1

06

G. senegalensis 4:

06

demidoff 4: 106, 110-111 G. thomasi 4: 1 06 G.

G. zanzibaricus 4:

06 30

1

Galea musteloides 8: Galemys pyrenaicus 9: 40,

52-53 108

8:

Galictis

G. cuja

1:

G. vittata

32 1: 32

Galidia elegans

1

98

:

G. fasciata

1

98

:

G. grandidieri

1

:

98

fleas 9: (18)

gallery forests 4: 101

flehmen 5: (11), 62, 65 flood water 4: 80 flying fox 9: 80, 86 Indian 9: 88-91 food poisoning 7: 74 food sharing 9: (96) forestry operations 5: 26

Garamba 6:

National Park 5: 34

62

Gazella 6.

dama

62

6. subguttarosa 6:

thomsoni

6:

62

94-95

8: 64 mouse see

giraffe family 6: 52-53

kordofan 6: 52 Masai 6: 52, 54 nubian 6: 52

1

2, (2

1 ),

26

sustainable 3:

:

102

30, 31;

Protected

Strictly

hedgehog

56

52 Thornicroft's 6: 52, 53 West African 6: 52 giraffe-gazelle see gerenuk 6:

African 9: 12, 13

34

52-53

:

:

38-39, 39, 40

8:

1:

12,

desert 7 felou 7

39^0 56-57

32,

collared 9: 12

Daurian

13

108, 109 108, 109, 109

gundi family 7 108-109 Lataste's 7

:

109

mzab 7

North African 7 108, 110-111 Saharan 7 108

:

108, 109, 109 :

(pygmy) 10: 74,

9: 12,

20-21

eastern European 9: 12 four-toed (African pygmy)

20-21 22 hedgehog family 9: 12,

hairy 9: 12,

12-13

9:

Hugh's 9: 12, 13 long-eared 9: 12, 12-13

Madagascan

9:

North African

25

9: 12,

9: 12,

13

14-19

white-bellied (African

pygmy)

9: 12,

20-21

Helarctos malayanus 2: 82 Fleliophoblus 7 9 :

H. argenteocinereus 8: 56 Helogaie parvula 1: 98,

106-107

:

108, 109, 109 Gymnobelldeus leadbeateri

Speke's 7 10: 74,

:

88-89

gymnure

9: 12,

Hainan

9: 12,

13 13

mahogany

short-tailed 9: 12, 12

pygmy

shrew

10: 74, (77) 10: 74, 77, 84-85

12

:

Glaucomys G. volans 7: 34, 60-61 gleaning 9: 84 glider

9:

desert 9: 12, 13 dwarf (African pygmy)

western European

Gir Forest Reserve 2: (15)

G. sabrinus 7: 61

9: 12,

20-21

wild 8: 28,

:

pygmy

Asian 9: 12

groundhog see woodchuck 5: 92, 108-109 wild 5: 93 guenon 4: 8, 10, 40, 42, 43, 44 guiara 8: 30 guinea pig 8: 10, 30, 38-41

gundi 7

1

African

32,

Gulo gulo

70, 14; 8: 12;

1: 9,

03

32

1:

1

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge 3: 31 hawks, bat 9: 84 9: 8, 9,

1

62

Lichtenstein's 6:

89

Great Gobi Area 5:

8: 62, 64,

74-79

harvesting 3: 28, 6: 18 controlled 3: 12, 16

5: 12, 13,

6: 67,

domestic

54

American

pika,

snowshoe

4:12,

black 8: 41

reticulated 6: 52, 53,

64-67 66

8:

hare hunting 8: (89) hartebeest 6: 62

guanaco 54 54-57.

77, 84-85 greater 10: 74

62

6. leptoceros 6:

6.

5: 11, 12, 6:

hare family

hispid 8: 63, 64,

polar (Arctic) 8: 74, 82-85 Smith's red rockhare 8: 64

7: 49, 50, 59, 8: 29, 57, 66-67; 9: 77, 10: 99

60

feathertail 6:

4: 8, 12,

26-27

little 1:

54

(Arctic) 8: 74,

Jameson's red rockhare

ground destabilization

tippelskirchi 6: 52,

Giraffidae 6:

Galidictis

gaur

54

thornicrofti 6: 52

southern African

grazing

grison

Rothschild's 6: 52, 54,

Galeopithecidae

G. gorilla diehli 4:

Graphlurus ocularis 7

52

64

8:

82-85

G. beringei 4: 12, (21)

grass see sea grass

.

80

64

4: 12, (21)

Camelopardalis 6: 52 G. Camelopardalis capensis 6: 52 6 Camelopardalis peralta

giraffe

Galagoides

86-89

8: 62,

see pika, American

8:

Greenland

20-25 22-23

4: 12,

G. Camelopardalis

G. Camelopardalis 1

26

G. dryas 10: 14

G, Camelopardalis

4:

brown

European

G. agilis 10: 14

G. Camelopardalis

G. gallarum 4:

haplorhines see primates, higher hare 8: 61 Arctic 8: 74, 82-85

Cape

Gracillnanus

rothschildi 6: 52,

96 96 96

4:

4:

Patagonian see mara

(21),

52

reticulata 6: 52,

simus

greater red rockhare 8: 63,

silverback 4: 13, 22,

G. gorilla gorilla

.

6:

aureus

calling

G. gorilla 4: 12, (21)

G. Camelopardalis

4:

,

84-85

H. griseus 4:

G. beringei diehli 4: 12, (21)

GIraffa

antiguorum

thick-tailed 4: 106,

:

20-25

apes in 4: 50 Gigantopithecus 4: 1

galago Demidoff's dwarf see bush baby, Demidoff’s

Thomas's

18

17,

:

horned 7 12 northern pocket 7 26-27 pocket 7 12 18 western pocket (northern

G. beringei beringei 4: 12,

Gibraltar,

6:

(1 1),

Gorilla

6 Camelopardalis angolensis 6: 52 G. Camelopardalis

106

gopher 7

western lowland (21), 26-27

54-57

4:

9: 10, 10:

:

Hapalemur

FI,

western

lar 4: 36,

G

106

108-109

H.

Gondwanaland

mountain 36-37

G. Camelopardalis 6: 52,

4:

6: 62,

eastern 4: 12, (21) eastern lowland 4: 12, 13, ( 21 )

37

(72), 75, 3: 12, 16, 4: 40,

06 Garnett's 4: 1 06

Syrian (golden) 7

63

6:

mountain

:

goral 6: 62, 108 gorilla 4: S, 10, 12, 13 Cross River 4: 12, (21),

37

crested black 4:

1

domestic

19

18,

:

60-63

6:

:

4: 36,

37

4:

hamster 7 11, 15, golden 7 84-85

pocket) 7 26-27

38-39

Muller's 4: 36,

Gabon

goat

31-32, (31)

4:

82

:

56

13 7 88-89

12-13, 35, 41, 44, 69,

36, 37, 46, 61, 90, 9: 43; 10: 22, 65, (80) see also skin trade

habituation 4: (23) Halichoerus grypus 3: 42-43 hammer stones 1: (74);

16-17, 64

10,

:

:

Mongolian gerenuk 6: 62, 98-99 gibbon 4: S, 10, 12

85, 7: 33, 41, 97, 8: (10),

gnawing 7 gnu

64

108

30

8:

13, 15

crested 4:

3: 55,

wild 6: 62 1

G, tigrina 1: 88 Geocapromys brownii Geogale aurita 9: 24 Geomyidae 7 12

common

:

see also wildebeest, blue

88 small-spotted (common) 1: 88, 92-93 large-spotted

:

59, (66); 7 25, 63, 107; 9: 33, 62, 63, 85, 91; 10: 27, (77), (95) see also deforestation

habitat presen/ation 4: 51 9:

white-tailed 6:

88-91

1:

64, 68-69, 87, 93, 2:

0,

1

:

92-93 genet family

38-39 moloch 4: 36, 37

Senegal 4: 106 Somali 4: 106 southern needle-clawed

1

European (common)

gerbil 7

Globicephala melas

Glyptodon 9: 66 G. panochthus

88, 91 1: 88, 92-93

Genetta G. genetta

:

65, 91; 6: 20, 47, 49, 51,

glutton see wolverine

98

kloss 4: 36, 37,

/ynx pardinus 2: 40, 41 2:

62

Furipteridae 9: 87

northern needle-clawed

nigripes 2:

1:

18,

35, 87, 96, 101; 5 26, 63,

02

1

see dormouse, edible

66-67

fur trade 1: 22, (23), 51, 54,

lynx canadensis 2: 40, 41 /ynx /ynx 2: 40, 41

marganta

6:

aquatic

4: 40, 42, 43,

:

64

2:

swift 2: 50, 52, 68-69 white Arctic 2: 71, 72 freeze branding 8: (84) Funambulus pennantii 7: 34 fur farming 1: 22, 35, 54, 55;

:

:

gemsbok genet 1:

bushveld 7

Samson

Glirulus japonicus 7:

62, 64;

1:

2: 35, 44, 79, 3: 83; 4: 24,

GHsgUsl: 102. 104-105

Tibetan 6: 67, 62

gelada baboon 62-63

:

50, 52, 68-69 50, (59), 64-67.

1: 9; 2:

70

F facial expression 4: (56), 100 falanouc 1 88, 91 fanaloka 1: 88 Madagascan 1 91, 91 farmland, expanding 1: 15-16 Felis 2: 10 £ bengalensis 2:10

50

island gray 2:

10

1:

52 50, 53

kit (swift) 2: :

74-75

2: 50, 52,

2: 50,

Indian 2:

Euroscaptor parvidens 9: 40 Eurotamandua 1: 9 Euryzygomatomys spinosus 8:

fennec gray

06

1

(72)

53 50, 53

2: 50,

corsac 2: "cross fox" 2: 64, 65

Eumetopias jubatus 18-19

Eupleres goudotii

76-77 53

,

97,

.

habitat destruction

gliding marsupials 10: (76) Glironia venusta 10: 14

glis

common

fox Arctic 2: 50, 70-73. 87;

Eubalaena

Eulemur

:

Fossa fossa 1: 88 fossorial animals 7: 18, 65 Fouchia 5: 28

fovea 4:

94-95

6:

H

10: 74, 76, (76),

86-87. 88

no

100

4:

sugar 62

9: 12,

12

Hemibelideus lemuroides 10: 74 Flemicentetes semispinosus 9:

24

Fiemiechinus FI. aethiopicus

9:

H. auritus 9: 12, FI.

collaris 9:

1

12-13

1

121

0

0 2

2

0

4

0

1

SET INDEX

Hemigalus derbyanus 1 88 Hemitragus jemlahicus 6: 62 herding, predator avoidance 5: 10

Hyaena H. brunnea 2: 102 H. hyaena 2: 102, 104-107 hybridization 2: 59

Herpestes H edwardsii

Hydrochaeridae 7: 12 Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris

:

108-109 H ichneumon 1 98 H naso 1 98 Herpestidae 1 88 1

:

;

:

:

58-59

8; 56,

Heterohyrax 8: 1 02 H. antineae 8; 1 03

8: 30, 48-51 3: 47 Hydromys chrysogaster 7: 9

Hippocamelus

common 68-73 5:

Hippotragus H, equinus 6: 62 H. leucophaeus 6: 63 H. niger 6: 62 hirola 6: 62

hog giant forest

74, 75,

5:

84-85 74 red river 5: 74 see also warthog

Homo sapiens

1:

83

hoofed mammals 5: 8-13 Hoplomys gymnurus 8: 30 107

hornbill 1:

36-37,

5: 29, 31,

(37),

40, 41, 6: 9, 56, 60, 111 1: 15, 5: 8, 9, 10, 11,

11, 12,

62

8 Camargue 5: 60-61 dawn 5: 42

ancestral 1:

domestic

10: 48, 72 Hypsiprymnodontidae 10: 48 Hyracoidea 1: 10, 5: (12), 14 Hyracotherium 5: 42 hyrax 1: 10, 5: (10), (12), 14;

102-105

104-105

8: 103,

Cape rock

(rock) 8: 103,

104-105, 105, 106-107 eastern tree 8: 1 03 Matadi 8: 103 rock 8: 105, 106-107 southern tree 8: 102-103, 103 1

04 8:

1

03

yellow-spotted 8: 105 Hystricidae 7: 12. 8: 12 Hystricognathi 7: (8), 12,

brachyura

racehorses 5: (43) wild (Mongolian wild)

5:

42, 45, 54-55 wild (mustang) see mustang

hot springs 4: 48

H. cristata 8: 12,

hutia 7: 12. 8: 11, 31, 31 Brown's 8: 30

Cuban

8: 30,

Desmarest's 8: 30,

52-53

Cuban (Cuban)

52-53

prehensile-tailed 8:

.

tree (Goodfellow's tree)

10: 48, 51, 52,

Indian 8:

1

1

66-67

western gray 10: 60, (62)

kangaroo

rat 7: 13, 17

18-19 24-25 Kannabateomys amblyonyx 8: 30 Karroo desert 2: 77 bannertail 7: 7:

keratin 5: 10, 29, (37), 6: 60; rupestris 8:

32,

30

5: 26, 6: (68);

93

khur see ass, Asian wild kiang see ass, Asian wild 1: 20, 27 klipspringer 5: 8, 6: 60,

alpine 6: 106, 107

nubian

koala 10:

106

6:

Ichneumia albicauda Ictonyz striatus 1: 32 6: 62,

delayed

1:

1

:

98

kob K.

.

42, 49, 57, 81;

39, 8: 109, 9: 61, 77, 83,

105, 107 see also reproduction imprinting 6: 83 29, 33,

97

Indri indri 4:

96

5: 8,

28

L flavicauda 4: 72 L lagotricha 4: 72, 82-83 Lama L glama 5: 92, 04-1 07 L. guanicoe 5: 92, 108-109

K

62

92-93

ellipsiprymnus defassa

92-93

ellipsiprymnus

ellipsyprymnus 6: 92-93 K.

kob

K.

leche 6: 92 vardonii 6: 62

K.

K.

92, (106)

5:

Langorchestes

L L

langur

Hanuman

12-13, 4: 40,

1:

L

14

Norway

65

'

90-91 lemmus lemmus 7: 90-91 7: 66,

96-97 97 96, 96

96, 4:

1:

bamboo

4: 96,

black 4:

black-and-white ruffed 4: 104, 105

brown 4: 97 brown mouse

96

4:

Coquerel's dwarf 4: 96

crowned

4:

96

4: 97, 97 eastern woolly 4: 96

dwarf

fat-tailed flying 8:

dwarf 108

fork-marked

4:

96

96 96

bamboo

mouse

4:

4:

96

6:

62

4:

Milne-Edwards's sportive 4: 96, 97 mongoose 4: 96, 96 mouse 4: 97, 97 pygmy mouse 4: 8, 96, 97

red ruffed 4: 104, 105 96, 97,

9,

breviceps 3: 55

K. simus 3: 55 korrigum 6: 88 Kruger National Park 2: 31 kudu, greater 6: 78-79 kulan see ass, Asian wild

kultarr 10: 25,

ruffed 4: 96, 104-105

27

97 96 96 96, 98-101

weasel sportive western woolly catta 4:

4:

4:

Leontopithecus

88

L.

calssara 4:

L.

chrysomelas

L chrysopygus L.

4:

2: 9, 10,

black 2:

30,37

clouded

2: 9,

88

88-91 13. 30-33

55, (61)

1

98-99 Caribbean ground 109 5: 12,

92, 93, 93,

2: 10, 13,

9: 8,

68

12, 22,

logging 1: 51, 77, 2: 21, 6: 20 Lonchothrix emiliae 8: 30 Lontra L canadensis 1: 32, 64-67

L felina 1: 32 Lophiomys imhausi 7: 66 Lophocebus L. albigena 4: 40 L aterrimus 4: 40 loris 4: 106-107 pygmy 4: 1 06 slender 4: 106, 106 slow 4: 106, 108-109 Loris tardigradus 4: 1 06 love charms 3: 61 Loxodonta L.

africana 5: 14, 16-21

L.

cyclotis 5:

charms

14

8: 67, 9:

79

58-63 32

L

lutra 1: 32,

L

maculicollis 1:

sumatrana

L.

1:

32

Lutreolina crassicaudata 10: 14

Lutrogale perspicillata 1: 32 Lycaon pictus 2: 50, 78-79 Lyncodon patagonicus 1 32 lynx 2: 10, 12, 38, 40-41: :

8:

76-77

Canadian 2: 40, 41 Eurasian 2.40 2: 41 Iberian 2: 40, 41

M Macaca M. fuscata 4: 40, 48-49 M. nigra 4: 40, 52-53 M. silenus 4: 40

macaque Barbary

4: 40,

50-51

4: 8, 40, 42, 43, 4: 40, 42,

66

50-51

black 4: 40, 52-53 Celebes (black) 4: 40, 52-53 4: 40, 42, 48-49 lion-tailed 4: 40, 41 Sulawesi crested (black)

Japanese

10

melanistic 2: 30, 31

snow

vexillifer 3:

M. sylvanus

88

4: 86,

rosalia 4: 86,

leopard

18-19

Lutra

96 96 hairy-eared dwarf 4: 96 indri 4: 96, 97

Lemur

8:

Litocranius walleri 6: 62,

lucky

96

bamboo

sportive 4:

88 88

14-19: 6: 82; Asian 2: (15) Barbary 2: 17

4:

giant sloth 4:

greater

:

locomotion, plantigrade

2: 72, 7: 13, 17,

collared 7: 9

gray

1: 1

92

6:

golden

banded spotted

lion 1: 15; 2: 8-9, 9, 10, 13,

104-107 Lobodon carcinophagus 3: 9, 36-37 lobtailing 3: 96, 109

Laurasia 9: 10

lemur

linsang 1: 89, 90, 91 African 1: 88, 90

llama

10: 74, (101) latifrons 10: 74, (101)

lemming

:

lice,

1:

36

krefftii

lassa fever 7:

88 kuhni 1 98 whale 3: 57, 92, 102, 108 LImnogale mergulus 9: 24 Liberilctis

lizard,

Lasiorhinus

L

1

leverets 8;

Lipotyphia 9:

42

4:

86-89

8: 64,

Lestodelphys halli 1 0: Lestoros Inca 10: 14

Lipotes

48

hirsutus 10:

80-81

californicus 8: 64,

L europaeus

mountain see puma

48

conspicillatus 10:

98-101

ellipsiprymnus 5: 75;

6: K.

pacos

ringtailed 4:

Kogia

1: (59), 2:

109, 4: 22, 81, 90, 93, 7:

indri 4: 96,

6:

6: 62,

86-87 97

Indricotherium

(10), 77, (77),

Kobus

2: 82, (86), 93; 3: 34, 6:

inbreeding

62

92-97

Siberian 6: 106, 107 walia 6: 106, 106-107

48

Lagothrix

greater dwarf 4:

kinkajou

10: 101

30

27

60-63 Goodfellow's tree 10: 48, 6-67 gray 10: 48, 53. 60-63 red 10: 11, 48, 54-59 60, 63

7:

16-19

13, 66, 70, 8: 57, 59;

eared 8: 30 Hispanolan 8: 30

red 10: 25,

8: 62, 10: 8, (10),

Bennett's tree 10: 48 eastern gray (gray) 10: 48,

implantation/fertilization,

Chilean 6: 10 Peruvian 6: 10, 12-13 human 4: 10-11, 12 hunting partnerships 2: (60)

little

kangaroo 48-53

1

106-107

6: 62,

impala

huemul

kaluta,

keystone species

1

Lagostrophus fasclatus

lechwe

Kerodon

afncaeaustralis 8:

I ibex

K

:

H

L

L obliquidens 3: 55, 70-71 L obscurus 3: 71 Lagidium peruanum 8: 30 lagomorphs 1: 10, 8: 61-63 Lagostomus maximus 8: 30

Lariscus insignis 7:

8 20

H

8:

36-37

jaguarundi 2: 10, 12 javelina see peccary, collared jerboa 7: 12, 17 jird see gerbil

8-11, 28, 55

Hystrix

see mustang horse family 5: 42-45 Mongolian wild 5: 42, 45, 54-55 Przewalski's (Mongolian wild) 5: 42, 45, 54-55

2: 10,

Ord's

western tree

cruciger 3: 71

14

L 64 L americanus 8: 64, 74-79 L araicus 8: 82-85

3: 71

64-67 Malabar 4: 40

53,

103

8:

albirostris 3: 71

8

alleni 8:

41,

black 2: 37

36

58

feral

122

H. lepidus 7:

5: (43)

draft 5: (43),

West

H. suillus 9:

8:

80-81

65

5: (11),

jaguar

Hylopetes

tree 8:

antelope 8: 62, 64, 66, 66

13

Bruce's yellow-spotted

honeybees 7: 13 honey guide, African

83;

1:

Jacobson's organ 2: 12;

Ahaggar

12

black-backed 62-63

black-tailed 8: 64,

12 12, 12

L.

L

L.

jackrabbit

H. hainanensis 8: 12,

8: 68,

1: 14, 4:

72

2: 50,

84-85

5: 74,

5:

homeothermy 1: 9-10, 14 Hommidae 4: 10

horse

H.

acutus

leprosy 9: (76) Lepticidium 1:

Lepus

1

jackal,

H. spadiceus 7: 34, 36 Hyperoodon ampullatus 3: 55. 90-91 Hypsiprymnodon moschatus

hippotigres 5: 52

horns

jaca see guinea pig

H. sinensis 9: 12,

pygmy 5: 66, 66-67, 67 Hippopotamus amphibius 5: 66, 68-73

pygmy

J

H. lai 4: 36,

36 38-39 moloch 4: 36 muelleri 4: 36 syndactylus 4: 36

L.

(leporids) 8: 60, 64,

leptospirosis 1: 87, 7:

Lagenorhynchus

10:

H. klossii 4:

66, (75), 83, 86;

5,

1

see also medical research Lagenodelphis hosei 3: 71

Nature

see also tusks poaching 5: 20

Hylomys

66-67

for the Conservation of

ivory

Hylochoerus meinertzhageni

hippopotamus family

/.

104-107

66, 66, 67,

5:

auratus 10: 27

ivory 3: 26, 5: 14, 20, 26,

Hylobates H. concolor4: 36

H. 8, 9, 10;

2: 102, 103,

43

22,

36

macrourus 10: 27, 46-47 Isothrix pagurus 8: 30 lUCN see International Union

spotted 2: 102, 102-103, 103, 108-109

H.

1

6:10 hippopotamus 5: 8: 48 H. bisculus

I.

7:

7:

8: (41)

for the

1: 18,

lomys horsfieldi Isoodon

laboratory animals 4: 40, 87;

8-1

Conservation of Nature (lUCN) 1: 16 introductions

38-39 Hyemoschus aquaticus 6: hyena brown 2: 102, 103, 103 hyena family 2: 102-103

107, 9: 13, 18, 27, 82,

104, 105, 111, 10: 111 Himalaya Mountains 1: 30 hippo see hippopotamus

Union

International

Hydrodamalis gigas

striped

60-61

10; 9:

1: 8,

107, 10:41

1

H. brucei 8: 103 H. chapini 8: 103 Heteromyidae 7: 12 Hexaprotodon liberiensis 5: 66 hibernation 2: 87-88, 93, 97, 100, 7: 19, 51, 54-55,

H. antisensis 6:

insectivores

interbreeding 2: 59, 6: 75,

Hydropotes inermis 6: 1 Hydrurga leptonyx 3: 9,

Heterocephalus glaber

4: (10) Inia geoffrensis 3: 55,

Lepondae 67

L

infanticide 1: (13); 2: 24;

34-35

Lepilemur L. edwardsi 4: 96 L. mustelinus 4: 96

4: 40,

52-53

Macrogalidia musschenbroekii 1

:

88

SET INDEX

Macropodidae Macropus

10: 48,

50

M. martes 1: 32 M. pennant! 1: 50-51

60-63 M. parryi 10: 48 M, robustus 10: 48 M. rufoghseus 10: 48,

trade medical research 4: 13, 32, 63,

64-65 M. rufus 10: 48, 54-59 Macroscelldea 1: 10, 9: 58 Macroscelides proboscideus 59 9:

86

medicine

body

M. lagotis 10: 27, 44-45 M. leucura 10: 27 Madagascar, carnivores in

96-97

90,

M, kirkii 6: 62 M. saltiana 6: 62 Makalata armata 8: 30

mammals

1:

(1 1),

15-16 14-15

1: ?0 major groups 1:11 origin 1: 8

reproduction 8

manatee

1:

12-14

1:

5: 8 10 3 46-47 :

,

Amazonian

3:

47

Caribbean (West Indian) 47, 48-51 African 3: 47

3: 46,

West Indian mandrill

3:

46, 47,

4: 40, 42,

60-61

Mandrillus

M. leucophaeus 4: 40 M. sphinx 4: 40, 60-61 mangabey 4: 40, 42, 43 agile 4: 40, 42 black 4: 40, 42 gray-cheeked 4: 40, 40, 42 white 4: 40, 42

mangrove swamps Manis

4: 71

30,

32-35

M. mexicana 10: 14 M. murina 10: 14

marmoset

common dwarf

4:

4: 86,

92-93

86

87 marmoset family 4: 86-87 Geoffroy's 4: 86,

pygmy

4:

silvery 4:

86 86

Marmosops M. dorothea 10: 14 M. fuscatus 10: 14 7: 76, 35, 36

marmot

alpine (European) 7: 34,

52-53

European 7: 34, 52-53 Marmota 7: 34 M. marmota 7: 34, 52-53 M. monax 7: 34, 50-51 marsupials 1: 10, 10: 8-13 Australian carnivorous 10: 24-27 other plant-eating 10: 74-77 marten 7: 36

American

1:

48-49

American pine (American) 1:

48-49

pine 1: 32, 35 yellow-throated

Martes M. americana

M.

flavigula 1:

1

7: 88-89 mermaids 3: 53 Mesechinus M. dauricus 9: 1 M. hughi 9: 1 Mesocapromys auritus

:

32

48-49

32

monkey

40, 42, 44-47 golden 9: 40

golden

5: (10), 9: 9,

10-11,

40-43

9:

27

star-nosed 9: 40, 42, 48-51 see also shrew mole

56 Messelobunodon 1: 8 Metachlrus nudicaudatus 10: 14

100-101

8:

M. coquereli see Mirza

57

M. murinus 4: 96 M. myoxinus 4: 96 M. rufus 4: 96

40

44-47

18

7:

langur 6: 13

4:

4: 72,

8: 10, 56, 57,

Namaqua dune

58-59 8:

56

56

silvery 7: 9; 8:

southern dune 8: 56 mollusks 3: 25

Molossidae

9:

87

Monachus schauinslandl 3: 9,

30-31 1:

98

savanna

98 18-19, 98,

bushy-tailed

1:

98,

99

Bengal (Indian

108-109 gray (Indian gray)

108-109

common 1:

1:

Indian (Indian gray)

98, 99, 99,

Egyptian

Gambian

1: 1:

98,

swingers 4: 72 thumbless 4: 40

western harvest 7: 80-81 West Indian key 8: 1 7: 64,

82-83

wood

7: 13,

78-79

mouse-hare see pika mouselike rodents muktuk 3: 85 mulgara 10: 27

7:

vervet

44-47

4: 40, 42,

72

muntjac

domestica 10: 14 0:

3: 55,

Dinagat

9: 9, 11, 12, 9:

12

13

46-47 46-47

6: 12,

Chinese

1

:

moonrat

1: 98 Muntiacus M. crinifrons 6: M, muntjak 6: 1 M. reevesi 6: 46^7 1

yellow-tailed woolly 4:

1

16-19

Mungotictis decemlineata

84-85 Monotremata 1: 10 10: 104 monotremes, spiny 8: 12

108-109 Indian gray 1: 108-109

10: 25, 27 waltzing 7: (69)

M. gambianus 1: 98 M. mungo 1: 18-19, 98, 110-111

75 78-79

Monodon monoceros

106-107

1:

spider 4: 8, 72, squirrel 4: 72,

98

Indian (Indian gray)

7: (69)

singing 7: (69) spiny 7: 65, 8: 11, 12 three-striped marsupial

multituberculates 7: 10

99

9: (83), 102, (103),

shaker

18

64

Mungos

kunsi

98

giant-striped 1:

7: 12, 7:

Japanese southern night 4: 72

Monodelphls

106-107. Ill

65

snow see macaque,

woolly 4: 72

108-109 1:

(vervet) 4: 40, 42,

44-47

1: 1:

103-104, 110-111 broad-striped 1: 98 brown 1: 98

pocket

pygmy

white-footed (deer)

patas 4: 40, 41, 42, 43 proboscis 4: 40, 41, 70-71 rhesus 4: 42

banded

gray) 1:

4: 72,

84-85

red howler 4: 72

Angolan

common

84-85

northern night 4: 72, 73, 84-85 Old World monkey family 4: 40-43. 72 73,

Nicaraguan harvest 7: 80 Old World 7: 14, 65, 65

mouse 8: 38 plains 7: 65

72-73

owl (northern night)

65

7:

pig

northern (northern night)

73,

mole

pencil-tailed tree 7:

84-85

4: 72, 73,

(wood)

78-79

mouse family 7: 64-67 New World 7: 14, 64, 65

Mechow's

57

27

long-tailed field

marsupial 10: (25), 27, 40 meadow jumping 7: 76

83

4: 10, 72,

Humboldt's woolly 82-83 leaf 4: 40, 40-42

family

7: 17 long-clawed marsupial

7: 13,

night (northern night) 4: 72,

8: 56,

7: 80 Cozumel Island harvest 7: 80 deer 7: 64, 82-83 desert 7: 65 desert pocket 7: 22-23 field (wood) 7: 13, 78-79 hairy harvest 7: 80 harvest 7: 64 house 7: 13, 14-15, 65-66, 68-71 jumping 7: 17, 19

10: 4: 40, 42,

Angolan 8: 56, 57 lesser blind 7: 100-101

mole rat family 8: 56-57 naked 1: (11), 14; 7: 13;

64

kangaroo

grivet (vervet) 4: 40, 42,

New World monkey

dwarf

milu see deer, P^re David's

42^3

4: 40,

golden leaf 4: 40 golden snub-nosed 4: 40 green (vervet) 4: 40, 42,

Ehrenberg's

Microtus agrestis 7: 92-93 migration 3: 82, 85, 87, 93-94, 103, (105), 109; 7: 91;

82-83 De Brazza's

mantled howler 4: 72 mustached 4: 40, 41

common

109; 6: 17, 23, 37,

78

(Humboldt's woolly) 4: 72,

long-haired spider 4: 72

57

12

Costa Rican harvest

squirrel 4: 72,

Damara 8: 56, 57 dune 8: 57

M. murina 10: 27 Micropotamogale M. lamottei 9: 24 M. ruwenzorii 9: 24

84-85, 96, 101,

common

0,

coarse-haired pocket (desertpocket) 7: 22-23

76-77

leapers 4: 72

Alexander's

Microchiroptera 9: 80, 86 Microgale M. melanorrachis 9: 24 M. parvula 9: 24 Microperoryctes M. longicauda 10: 27

(black-handed spider) 4: 72,

1

1

birch 7: 17

cheek-pouch 4: 40, 42 cloaked see colugo

Cape 7: 10. 8: 56 Cape dune 8: 56 8: 56,

7: 10,

African climbing 7:

common

mongoose

coguereli

mouse

4: 72,

74-75

howler

giant

Mico M. argentata 4: 86 M. humilis 4: 86 Micoureus M. alstoni 10: 14 M, constantiae 10: 14 Microcavia australis 8: 30 Microcebus

72

Bolivian squirrel 4:

Hanuman

giant 8: 57

Metatheria 10: (10) miacid 1: 9 Miacoidea 1: 88, 98 mice see mouse

swamp 4: 40, 41 black-handed spider 4: 72, 76-77

Balkan blind (lesser blind) 7:

3:

10: 11, 16,

Allen's

rat 7: 15, 18, 65; 8: 9 African 7: 12. 8: 56

43

6:

M. berezovskii 6: 1 M. chrysogaster 6: 50-51 M, fuse us 6:10 M. moschiferus 6: 1 mosquitoes 6: (22) mouflon 6: 62, 63

44-47 guenon (vervet) 44-47

molehills 9:

moose disease 6: 18 Mormoopidae 9: 87

monte

(16)

dusky-leaf 4:

43

1

Moschus

common woolly

blind 7: 12-13, 15, 18;

30

hispidus 8:

golden 9: 40, 43 marsupial 10: (10), 26, 27,

6:

1

98, 101

Central American spider

Juliana's

shiras 6:

Moschidae 6: 10 Moschiola meminna

99

98,

40 Grant's golden 9: 56-57 hairy-tailed 9: 40, 42 Japanese 9: 54 Grant's desert golden 9:

1

morrillo 8: 51

98

brown howler

small-toothed 9: 40, 43

86-87

del

14-19.

14-15, 17

6:

eastern 6:

golden mole family 9: 40-43

Persian 9: 40,

Mesocricetus auratus

5: 18, 1:

9: 56-57 European 9:

10:

30

1:

monito

mole

8:

yellow

coast 9: 40, 41 desert (Grant's) golden

northern marsupial 10: 43 northwestern marsupial

M. macroura 1: 32 M. mephitis 1: 32, 84-87 Meriones unguiculatus

7:

10: 9: 9, (10), 11

13

9: 12,

northwestern

1:

22-23

6: 10, 12,

Alaskan

family

white-tailed

mole family

82-83

Mesomys

1:

12

21-22

98-99

1:

9: 12,

lesser 9:

Mindanao

narrow-striped 1: 98, 99 Pousargues' 1: 98

slender

greater

moose

ringtailed 1: 98, 99 Selous' 1: 98, 99

Mirza coquereli 4: 96 moldewarp see mole,

mole

1:

mongoose 1:

3: 9,

42-43

1:

Melogale personata 1: 32 Melursus ursinus 2: 82 Menotyphia 9: 10, 58 Mephitidae 1: 32, 84

mesonychids

M. gigantea 9: 65 M, temrninckii 9: 65 M. tricuspis 9: 65

mara 8: 8, Marmosa

100-105 Megachiroptera 9: 80, 86 Megaderma lyra 9: 98-99 Megadermatidae 9: 87, 98 Megaptera novaeangliae 3: 55, 102-105 Megatherium 9: 64 98, 99,

Mephitis

48-51

Mirounga M. angustirostris 32-35 M. leonina 3: 32

11, 40, 41, 42, (42)

32, 78-81 Mellivora capensis 1: 32, :

32, 35, 35,

1:

52-55. 62, 7: 99, 9: 53 European 1: 54, (55) Miopithecus talapoin 4: 40

giant

100-105

Meles meles

(12)

5: (10),

98, 99,

slender-tailed (meerkat)

evolution

mammoth 5: Mammuthus

(97), 100, 6: 107; 7: 63, 8:

41; 9: 91 .Chinese 5: 37

99,

mink 1: 35 American

European

7: (31)

parts for 2: 21, 33,

1: 19,

changing species diversity of 1:

,

gray (meerkat) 1:19, 98,

8-1

1:

6: 51

meerkat 1:19, 100-105

Madogua

West

97

see also laboratory animals: surgery

Macrostylus Macrotis

1:

78, 93, 7: 15, (75); 8: (41); 9: 77,

98 98 long-nosed 1: 98 Madagascan 1: 98 marsh 1: 98, 99 Meller's 1: 98

Jackson's

Liberian 1:

ringtail

masseter muscles 7: 16-17, 64, 8: 12, 12 Massoutiera mzabi 7: 1 08 Mazama americana 6: 1 meat trade see bushmeat

M. fuliginosus 10: (62) M. giganteus 10: 48,

9:

miner's cat see raccoon,

6:

hairy-fronted 6: 10 Indian 6: 10

Reeves's 6:

46-47

Murexia M. longicaudata 10: 27 M. rothschildi 10: 27

123

44

,

SET INDEX

Muridae Murinae

Central American woolly

Neotragus

65

7: t2.

pygmaeus

N.

Mas

10: 14, 17

62

N. bates! 6:

14 muriqui 4: 72 7:

common

Nesolagus

68-71

N. netscheri 8:

brevirostris

N, timminsi 8:

M. musculus M. musculus

7:

:

musculus domesticus

M

9:

71

nictitating

71 M. porcellus 8; 38

nilgai 6:

7:

Muscardinus avellanarius 1:

85, 6: 51

104-105 13, 65, 96-97 7: 96-97

membrane

ningaui 10: (24) Pilbara 10: 25, 27

N. timealeyi 10:

muskrat

7:

N.

common 5:

42, 58-61 32, 36,

1:

40-43 M. frenata 1: 32, 36 M. lutreola 1: 54, (55) M. nigripes 1: 32, 46-47 M. nivalis 1: 32, 36-39 M. putorius 1: 32, 44-45 M. vison 1: 32, 52-55 mustelids 1: 32-35 Mydaus M. javanensis 1: 32 M. marchei 1: 32 Myocastor coypus 8: 30,

44^7 Myocastoridae 7: 12, 8: 31 myoglobin 3: 1 1, 87 Myoictis melas 10: 27

Myomimus

Myomorpha Myoprocta

30

exilis 8:

Myosciurus pumilio

Myosorex

28 104-105

varius 9:

Myotis luafugus Myoxidae 7: 12

9:

Myrmecobiidae 10: 24 Myrmecobius fasciatus 10: 27, 34-35

Myrmecophaga 9: 65,

tridactyla

68-71

Mysateles prehensilis Mystacinidae 9: 87

8:

30

Mysticeti 3: 54 myxomatosis 8: 72, 93 Myzopodidae 9: 87

N Nandinia binotata 1 88 Nannosciuris exilis 7: 36 Nannospalax leucodon :

7:

narwhal

3: 55,

84-85

Notoryctes N. caurinus 10: 27, 43 0, N. typhlops 10: 27, 42-43 Notoryctidae 10: 24, 26

numbat

concolor 4: 40

34-35 coypu mountain 6: 62 Nyctereutes procyonoides 2: 50 Nycteridae 9: 87 nyala,

1

:

20

N. nasua 1: 20, Nasuella olivacea

28-29 20

1:

Natalidae 9: 87 national parks/nature reserves 2: (15), 16, 31, 5: 34,

(102),

pygmaeus

1

06,

4:

103

17, 2: 10,

1:

nectar 4: 105

Nectogale elegans

12,

44-45

98 O, himalayana 8: 94 0. 0, princeps 8: 94, 98-101 0, pusilla 8: 94 Ochotonidae 8: 60 Octodon bridges/ 8: 30 Octodontidae (octodonts) 7: 12, 8: 29-31

Octodontomys 8: 30

gliroides

7: 12, 8: 29-31 Octomys mimax 8: 30 Odobenidae 3: 8 Odobenus rosmarus 3: 9, 24-29

Odocoileus

hemionus

6:

1

0,

34-37

Odontoceti

3:

54

Orycteropus afer

onager see ass, Asian wild Ondatra zibethicus 7: 96-97 Onychogaiea

48 unguifera 1 0: 48

opossum

1:

mouse 10: 14 woolly mouse

14

American

10:

14-17

2:10 Neomys fodiens 9: 28

bare-tailed woolly 10: 14

Neophascogale lorentzi 10: 27

black-shouldered 10: 14,

Neophoca cinerea 3: 9 Neotoma lepida 7: 84-85

brown four-eyed

black four-eyed 10: 14

O.

dammah

10: 14

bushy-tailed 10: 14

P mountain

30

8:

Petauroides volans 10: 74 Petaurus P breviceps 10: 74, 86-87

44-45 tarvata

1

4:

2,

1

4:

1

34-35 2, 28-33

lesser (red)

1

20, 2

:

90-91

Oryzoriaes tetradactylus 9:

24

Osbornictis piscivora

8 Otocyon megalotis 76-77 Otolemur

1

Petromuridae

Otariidae 3:

.

.

black 2: 30, 31

see also leopard; puma Panthera P leo2: 10. 14-19 2: (1 5)

otter

06

35, 54, 8: clawless 1: 32

1: 19,

48

Congo clawless 1: 32 European 1: 58-63 European river 1: 60 1: 18,

32

68-69

1:

32 Indian smooth-coated 1: 35 marine 1: 32 North American river hairy-nosed

1:

1:

32, 64-67 river

American

(North

river) 1:

1

Paradoxurus P. hermaphroditus

:

1

:

P P

32,

64-67 sea 1: 19, 32, 72-75 short-clawed 1: 32, 70-71 smooth-coated 1: 32 spot-necked 1: 32, 35 otter shrew 9: 1 1 24, 25 ,

25

Ruwenzori 9: 24, 25 ounce see leopard, snow

83, 85, 87, 88, 101: 7: 15. (72); 9: 13, 21

see also cat, domestic; dog, domestic

Phacochoerus P aethiopicus 5: 74 P africanus 5: 74, 80-83 Phalanger 1 0: 82 Pcarmelitae 10: 74 Pgymnotis 10: 74 Phalangeridae 10: 76 Phaner furcifer 4: 96 phascogale 10: (25) brush-tailed 10: 26, 27 red-tailed 10: 25, 27 Phascogale P. calura 10: 27 P tapoatafa 10: 27 Phascoloraraos cinereus

92-97

Phascolosorex P. doriae 10: 27 dorsalis 10:

pheromones

7:

27 66,

70

P anderson/ 1 0: 1 P opossum 1 0: 1 Phoca P groenlandica 3: 9, 44-45 P sibirica see Pusa sibirica P vitulina 3: 9, 40-41

:

:

88

27 27

aplicalis 10:

bllarn/ 10:

virus 7:

44

Phocarctos hooker/ Phocidae 3: 8

Parascalops brewer/ 9: 40

84

parasites 9:

Paroodectes

1:

9

Pasteurella tularense 8: 81 8: 108, 10: (76), 84,

5: 108 Pecan 5: 88 R tajacu see Tayassu

Patagonia

5: 8,

Chacoan

5:

collared

5:

88, 89, 89 88, 89, 90-91

peccary family

5:

88-89

white-lipped 5: 88, 89, Pectinator spekei 7: 108

S9

Pedetes capensis 7: 20-21 Pedetidae 7: 12 Pelea capreolus 6: 62 penguin 3: 38-39 Pentalagus furness/ 8: 64

Peramelemorphia 10: 24 Perameles

9

12

5: 8, 10,

bearded bushpig

12

3:

Phocoena phocoena 3: 55, 78-79 Pholidocercus 1: 9 Pholidota 1: 10, 9: 64 Phyllostomidae 9: 87 Physeter catodon 3: 55, 86-89 pig

tajacu

peccary

1: 22, 29, 35, 45, 95, 109, 2: 75, 4: 53, 78, 81,

Philander

jerdon/ 1 88 zeylonensis 1

patagium 86

54-55

(69), 83, 86, 8: 39, 42,

P.

88,

94-95

parapox

pets

10: 74,

58-59 98

4: 40,

Parantechinus

106

O. crassicaudatus 4: 1

2: 10,

Paracynictis selous/

P.

8: 30,

Petropseudes dab!/ 10: 74

panther

P.

2: 50,

31

7: 12, 8:

Petromus typicus

panda bear see panda, giant pangolin 1: 10, 9: 64-67 African 9: 66 armored 9: 64 Aslan 9: 66 giant 9: 65, 66 ground 9: 64-65, 65 tree 9: 65

88

:

34 Petrodomus tetradactylus 9: 59 P persephone 10: 48 P xanthopus 10: 48, 70-71

1

2: (99)

Ponca

74

crinitus 7:

Petrogale

82, 98-101

2:

gracilis 10:

Petinomys

P troglodytes panda giant

P

88

:

27

24

P elegans 7: 36 P petaurista 7: 36

red-legged 10: 48, 51 red-necked 10: 48 Pagophilus groenlandica

Pan P paniscus

10:

raffrayana 10: 27

Peroryctidae 10: Petaurista

pademelon

3:

06

Petauridae 10: (76)

31

7: 12, 8: 28,

54-57 P hamadryas

62 62

6:

O, gazella 6:

giant 9: 24,

17

P broadbent/

30

7: 12, 8: 11, 28, 30,

pacarana

1

Peroryctes

P

90-91 Oryx

6: 62, 90-91 scimitar-horned 6: 62 white (Arabian) 6: 62,

northern

87

oxpeckers 5: 38, 6: (73) Ozotocerus bezoarticus 6: 10

Pantholops hodgsoni 6: 62 pantotheres 7: 10, 11 Papio P. cynocephalus 4: 40,

8: 64,

43 Peromyscus P leucopus 7: 83 P maniculatus 7: 82-83

7: (14)

36-37 Ppardus2: 10. 30-33 P tigris 2: 10, 20-25 P uncia 2: 10, 34-35

giant river

16,

65,

9:

7: (31) Perissodactyla 1: 10, 5: 10, 12,

Perodicticus potto 4:

68-73 oryx Arabian

Cape

20, 21

33

9:

i,

P leo persica

giant

10:

6: 62,

106-109

olingo

Alston's

108

orca 3: 55, (57), 62-65 Orcinus orca 3: 55, 62-65

okapi 6: 52, 52-53, 58-59 Okapia johnstom 6: 52, 58-59 Olallamys edax 8: 30

28

Neofelis nebulosa

14-19 Bornean 4: 12, 14-15, 18, 18-19 Sumatran 4: 12, 14-15, 18

O. garnett// 4:

3: 22, 34, 52, 58, 85, 89,

7: (37

snowy

4: 8, 10, 12, 13,

O. leucoryx 6: 62,

octodonts

owl

6:

30-31: 2: (99) red 1: 20, 21, 30-31:

Oryctolagus cuniculus

94

collaris 8: 94,

1:

mouse

78-79

O. alpina 8:

6: 62,

9:

orangutan

Ochotona

agile gracile

Nemorhaedus goral

spirit gracile

10: 14 woolly 10: 16

10:

0, fraenata 10:

Neamblysomus julianae 9: 40

16, 17, 18-23 water 10: 13, 14, 16, 17 white-eared 10: 14

Oreotragus oreotragus 6: 62 oribi 5: 11, 6: 61, 62 Ornithorhynchus anatinus

06

1

Virginia 10: 8, 13, 14, 15,

wood

musimon

Paguma

shrew 10: 16 silky shrew 10: 14

100-103 62

O. canadensis 6:

short-tailed 10: 14

Oreamnos americanus 108-109

Nycticebus

91, 101

70-71

N. larvatus 4: 40,

N. narica

10: 13, 24, 25, 26,

nutria see

oil

Nasua

124

noolbenger see possum, honey Notoryctemorphia 10: 24

virginianus 6: 10, (36)

Nasalis N.

Patagonian 10: 14

pygmy

1 08 108-109 Noctilionidae 9: 87 noise pollution 3: 88, 95

100-101

14

pallid fat-tailed 10:

N. leporinus 9:

ocelot

34

7:

10: 14

N. albiventris 9:

N,

mouse

62

O. aries 6:

paca

pale-bellied woolly

o

7: (8)

14

Mexican mouse 10: 14, 17 murine mouse 10: 14

Noctilio

N. 0. coucang 4: 0. 108-109

M. personatus 7: 102 M. roachi 7: 102 M. setzen 7: 1 02

gray four-eyed 10: 14, 17 gray short-tailed 10: 14 Incan shrew 10: 14 lutrine 10:

27 yvonneae 10: 27

6: 62,

mustang

28

7:

62

muskox

Mustela M. erminea

mouse

gray-bellied slender 10: 14, 15

southern 10: 27 Ningaui

106-107

7: 102,

musk

shrew 10: 14

gray-bellied

10: (80)

Ovis

O.

elegant fat-tailed 10: 14

54-55

M. musculus wagneri

mouse

10: 14

Zealand, mammals introduced into 1: 43;

musculus musculus

7:

18-23

13, 14, 15, 16, 17,

New

71

(Virginia) 10: S,

Dorothy's slender

Neurotrichus gibbsii

7 71 7:

64 64

P bougainville 10: 27 P nasuta 10: 27 Peramelidae 10: 24 perfume industry 1: (91);

104-105

Chilean shrew 10: 14

62

6:

Ourebia ourebi 6: 62 Ovibos moschatus 6: 62,

5: 74, 5: 74,

75 75

lard pig 5: (78)

pig family pig fish 3: pig

mouse

pika

5:

74-75

78

38

8:

8: 60,

62

Alpine 8: 94

American

8: 67, 94, 96,

98-101 Asian

8:

97

collared 8: 94, 97,

common 96,

98

(American) 8: 94,

98-101

SET INDEX

Eurasian 8: 98, 100 Himalayan 8: 94, 96

North American

pika family 8: 94-97 Rocky Mountain (American)

Old World 12-15

P lotor 1: 20, 22-27 P pygmaeus 1: 26 Procyonidae 1: 20-21

7: (8);

20-25

8: 10, 12, 13, 14, 7: 12, 8:

Proechimys semispinosus

8: 94, 96, 98-101 Russian steppe 8: 94, 97 Sardinian 8: (96) pingers 3 79 Pinnipedia 1: 10: 3 8-13

upper Amazon 8: 12 porcupinelike rodents 8 8-1

pinto 5: 59

Porcus piscus 3 78

110-111 American 2: 26, pronking 6: 97

porpoise

Pronolagus

:

:

87

Pitheda P albicans 4 72 P irrorata 4 72 P monachus 4 72 P pitheda 4 72 :

:

10: 8,

aedium 14, 76-77

Plagiodontia

Papuan

30

8:

74, 76, 78-81

copper

27

P maculata 10: 27 P. novaeguineae 10: 27

green

protection, legal

:

74 75-76,

10; 8, 74,

88-89

marsupial gliding 7: (37) 1

Plecotus auritus 9:

1

0-1

1

5: 42 poaching 4 24, 27, 102 ) (

1

Pliohippus

mountain brushtail 10: 74 mountain pygmy 10: 74, 76, 77, (77)

5: 39,

:

ringtail 10: (77)

rock ringtail 10; 74

Podogymnura P aureospinula 9: 1 P truei 9: 12, 13 Poedlictis libyca 1:32

74 76

scaly-tailed 10:

striped 10: 74,

Weyland

see also opossum,

9:

pollution 1: 61, 62, 64, 69,

Potamogalidae

1

71, 75, 2 (88), 3 :

12, 41,

:

59, 61, 65, 67, 74, 79„-

83 :

:

1

:

,

blainvillei 3: 55,

(61)

pony Falabella 5: (43)

5:

:

7: 8,

,

8: 10, 12,

12-13,

16-19

14,

American American

10

8;

brown

tree 8:

9

dwarf

hairy

8:

1

15

8: 12,

crested (African) 8: 10, 12,

16-19

in

12-13, 14, Europe 8: (19)

hairy

dwarf

8:

13, 14,

8: 12,

14

26-27 7: 12.

12-15

North African (African) 8; 10, 12, 12-13, 14,

6-19

72-73

56-59 7:

58

4 41 P comata 4 40 P femoralis 4 40 primates 1: 70, 4 8-1 higher 4 1 lower 4 1 1 106-107 Priodontes maximus 9: 65

Presbytis

:

:

:

:

,

Prionodon 1

:

88

P pardicolor 1 88 Proboscidea 1: 10: 5: 14 Procapra picticaudata 6: 62 Procavia capensis 8: 103,

106-107 Procaviidae 8: 102

Procolobus 4 41-42 P badius 4 40 Procyon P cancrivorus 1: 20 P gloverellani 1; 26 :

:

6:

6:

1

26

1:

20, 21,

2: 10, 13,

42-43

punare 8: 30 Pusa sibirica 3: 9 Pygathrix roxellana 4

:

40

Q quagga quillpig

5:

45,

48

see porcupine. North

American quills 8: 12, (14),

16-17, (21)

see also spines

quokka

10: 48, 52, quoll 10: (25), 27

68-69

New

Guinea 10: 25, 27 northern 10: 27, 32-33

1:

ringtail 1:

1:

Amami

20

43, 8; 61, 62 8: 62,

64

American swamp 8: 66 annamite 8; 64 brush 8: 64 bunyoro 8: 63, 64 bush see hare, snowshoe chocolate Dutch 8: 72-73 cottontail 1: 87 desert 8; 66

musky

10: 48, 72 rufous 10: 48, 57

Rattus R. norvegicus 7: 72-75 R.

20-21

1;

giant

1

R. affinisi 7:

0,

R.

62

6:

8:

33 red ape see orangutan Red Lists of Threatened Species (lUCN) 1: 16 Redunca R- arundinum 6: 62 R, fulvorufula 6: 62 R- redunca 6: 62 reedbuck bohor 6; 62 mountain 6: 62 southern 6: 62 reestablishment 3 31, 93

30

8;

7:

bamboo

8:

Australian water 7; 9, 17,

65 8: 31

black (ship) 7: 11

13,

,

14-15, 72, 75. 76-77

30

:

broad-headed spiny 8: 30 brown 7: 14-15, 72-75.

reforestation

4 91 :

regeneration, of land 10: 89

65

reindeer reindeer

7: 12, 8: 31

5:

64

72-75. 77, 8: 10, 10: 11 dassie 7; 72, 8: 31. 54-55 desert wood 7: 84-85 golden-backed tree 7: 67 greater cane 8; 30 greedy olalla 8: 30 house (ship) 7: 7 7, 13, 14-15, 72, 75, 76-77 Indonesian key-footed

7:

64

Kenyan crested 7: 66 cane 8: 30

lesser

multimammate

7:

Norway (brown)

14-15,

8: 10, 10:

1

1:

46; 2: 41,

:

7: 29, 107 Reithrodontomys R.

hirsutus 7: 81

R.

megalotis

R.

paradoxus

7: 7;

80-81 81 81

R.

rodriguez

R.

spectabilis 7: 81

religious

7:

ceremonies

5:

relocation 5:

34

repopulation reproduction

1:

61, 75

1:

12-14

25

see also embryonic diapause; implantation/fertilization;

breeding rhebok, gray 6: 62 Rhelthrosciurus macrotls 7;

7:

Old World 7: 14, 65 Owl's spiny 8: 30 pack (desert wood)

36

rhinoceros 5: 8, S, 9, 11, 12 black 5: 28, 33, (34), 36-39 giraffe 5: 8

grass (white) 5: 28, 29,

30-35

84-85

greater Indian (Indian) 5: 28,

painted tree 8: 30 Panama spiny 8; 30, 31 plague (ship) 7: 7 7, 13, 14-15, 72, 75, 76-77 plain brush-tailed 8:

plains viscacha 8: 7:

65

64

20-25 22-23

4 87, 88, 90-91; 34, 6; 45, (66), 91;

(56), 69,

Chilean rock 8: 30 chinchilla 7: 72 common (brown) 7: 14-15,

6:

6: 10, 12.

moss

reintroduction

64

7:

29

refection 9: 29,

77, 8: 10, 10: 11

New World

36 36

indica 7: 34, 62-63 recolonization 3 14, 35; 7;

30 64 30 Australasian water 7: 65

pouched

bicolor 7:

R.

:

65

Amazon bamboo armored 8: 30 armored spiny

76-77

rattus 7:

Ratufa

20-25 Raphicerus campestrls

7:

48

desert 10:

ratufa see squirrel, Indian

Rangifer tarandus 6:

Natal

74 see badger, honey

rat-kangaroo 10: 51, 52

20, 20, 21, 27

72-75. 77,

R rabbit

ratel

22-27 26

Island 1:

raccoon family

7:

rat;

viscacha

Central American vesper

1

rat;

mole

rat;

rat-bite fever 7:

Central American climbing

62

6:

puma

:

:

pudu

water

see also potoroo 1:

common

7:

vole,

kangaroo

103

Barbados

Atlantic

30

30

65

water see

rabies 1: 26, 87, 2: (67), 77,

cane

northern 6: 10 southern 6: 10, 12

puku

viei 7:

volcano 8: 63, 64 see also cottontail rabbit hemorrhagic disease 8: 72 rabbit warrens 8: 70-71

brush-furred 7:

12

Pudu P mephistophiles P.

7;

tuft-tailed spiny tree 8:

62

bristle-spined 8:

6: 10,

wood)

84-85

see also chinchilla

8;

bamboo

pudu

64

swamp

Pseudoryx nghetinhensis 6: 62 Pteronura brasiliensis 1: 32,

59

13, 14-15, 72,

7 7,

76-77

75,

viscacha rat 8: 29,

Asian climbing

Pteropodidae 9: 86 Pteropus 9: 86 P giganteus 9: 88-91

13, 14-15,

smooth-tailed giant 7: 65 South American climbing

trade (desert

P caroli 10; 74 P cinereus 10: 74 Pseudois nayaur 6: 62 Pseudopotto martini 4 1 06 pseudoruminants 5; 70

P longipes 1 0; 48 P tridactylus 10: 48, 72-73 Potos flavus 1: 20 potto 4 106, 106-107 golden 4 106 Martin’s false 4 106 pouches 10: (10) prairie dog 1: 46-47, 7: 13, 15, 18, 36 black-tailed 7; 34, 56-59

:

tree (tree) 8: 12,

New World 8:

12.

P archeri 10: 74 P cupreus 10: 74, 90-91

Ptilocercus lowii 9:

P linsang

12

long-tailed 8: 12, 14, 16

Malayan Mexican

10: 48, 50, 51.

64

rat 1: 15, 7: 12 African marsh 7:

Potorous

white-tailed 7: 58

brush-tailed 8; 14, 16

Cape

long-footed 10: 48 long-nosed (potoroo)

Utah

Asian brush-tailed 8: 12 bahia hairy dwarf 8: 12 bicolored tree 8: 27 Brazilian tree 8: 12, 13

74

ship 7:

7:

rock see pika

Cozumel

Pseudantechinus P macdonnellensis 10: 27 P woolleyae 10: 27 Pseudocheiridae 10: (76) Pseudocheirus peregrinus

7 7,

72, 75, 76-77 rufous tree 8: 30

snowshoe see hare, snowshoe Sumatran 8: 63, 64 Sumatran short-eared 8: 64-66

crab-eating

68-69

plains (black-tailed) 7: 34,

African brush-tailed 8: 12

fat-tailed 10: 25, 27 Woolley's 10: 27

rock 8: 29 roof (ship) 7:

spiny 7: 72, 8: 31 spiny tree 8: 30

raccoon

pseudantechinus

73

:

porcupine 1; 50-51, 8 10 12-15 African

50, 51,

:

42-43 see mustang

wild

24

:

see mustang

Welsh

02,

104

:

9:

potoroo 10; 48, 72-73

1

110-111

Pseudochirulus

Virginia

Gilbert's 10:

noise pollution 3 88, 95 Pongo P abelii 4 12, 14-19 P pygmaeus 4 2 14-19

74

riverine 8: 62,

64-67

rat family 7:

8: 64, (93)

79, 7: 14, 74, 9: 84, 97,

Proteles cristata 2:

10:

ringtail 10:

Potamochoerus P larvatus 5: 74 P porcus 5: 74 Pptamogale velox

:

:

107, 5: 41, 60; 9: 85; 10: 28, 32, 37, 43, 71,

Pseudochirops

western pygmy 10: 74

Poedlogale albinucha 1 32 Poelagus marjorita 8: 64 Poiana richardsoni 1 88 polecat 1: 44-45 European 1: 32, 34, 35, 35 marbled 1: 32, 34, 34

feral

35, 39, 44, 49, 55, (97), 100, 3: 12, 19, 59, 74,

Prototheria 10:

Leadbeater's 10: 74, 76, 77,

35, 47, 51,

1:

62, 69, 74, 2: 21, 28, 33,

(95)

102-103

duck-billed 10: 105,

Pontoporia

76

74

ringtail 10:

honey

P gangetica 3 55, (61) P minors: 55, (61) platypus 1:14

:

;

ringtail 10: 74,

feathertail 10:

Platanista

106-109 platyrrhines 4

:

Daintree River ringtail 10: 74 eastern pygmy 10: 74

Planigale

8

1:

P diadema 4 96 P tattersalli 4 96 P verreauxi 4 96

90-91

27

10:

,

ringtail 10: 74,

pygmy

:

brush-tipped ringtail 10; 74 'common brushtail 10: 10

66 marsh 8: 65 Mexican volcano 8: 64 Old World (European) 8: 60-61, 62, 64, 68-73 rabbit family 8: 64-67

Propaleotherium Propithecus

10: (10), 75-77 Arnhemland 10; 80

common

planigale 10; (24) common 10: 25,

55,

63

6:

P crassicaudatus 8: 64 P randensis 8; 64 P rupestris 8: 64

55,

:

78-79

possum

9-11, 13 7:

:

:

:

mammals

(harbor) 3

78-79 harbor 3

68-73 forest 8:

Prolagus 8: (96) pronghorn 6: 60, 62, (63),

:

common

30

8:

26-27

porpoising 3 69

:

plague

19

8:

8: 12, 13, 14,

:

pipistrelle 9:

placental

South African tree

domestic (European) 8; 60-61, 62, 64, 68-73 European 8: 60-61, 62, 64,

18

30

30

40-41 Indian 5; 28, 40-41 Javan 5: 28 northern white 5: 34 rhinoceros family 5:

28-29

southern white

5:

34,

35

125

1

1

1

SET INDEX

square-lipped (white) 29,

S;

28,

30-35

Sumatran

white

5: 28,

28, 29,

5:

29 30-35

Sciuromorpha

28

vvooli\ 5:

R sondaii.us

28

5:

40-41

unicornis 5: 28,

Rhinocerotidae 5: 28 Rhinolophidae 9: 87 Rhinolophus hipposideros

Rhinopithecus roxellana see P^athrix roxellana

Rhinopomatidae Rhynchocyon R.

chrysopygus

S.

niger

S.

vulgaris 7: 34,

46-47 42-45

7: 34,

sea

9: 59,

59 R. petersi 9: 59 Rhynchogale melleri 1 98 Rhyncholestes raphanurus :

Cape fur

3: 8, 9,

Caribbean

monk

common

16-17 9

gray 3: 42-43 harbor 3: 8, 9, 40-41 harp 3: 9, 12, 44-45

8-15

?0; 7:

1:

8-1

8:

7:

1

1

extinct 7: 11-12 mouselike 7: 16-19 porcupinelike 8: 8-1 squirrel-like 7: 16-19 Romerolagus diazi 8: 64 rorquals 3: 55, 106, 107

Rupicapra R. pyrenaica

9

9,

12, 6:

1 1,

5:

8^9

70

1:

7:

86

S.

94

imperator subgrisescens 4:

94

oedipus 4: 86

Zealand

111,3:

Saimiri

S.

sciureus 4: 72,

4:

geei see Trachypithecus geei

hypoleucos 4: 40 S. obscurus see Trachypithecus obscurus sengi 9: 58 1

08 6:

6:

78-79

servalines 2:

46

Setifer setosus 9:

4:

68-69

72

buffy 4: 72

Guianan

monk

73

4: 72,

saliva 9: 17, 21

poisonous 9: 8, 11, sand puppy see mole

(32), rat,

naked

10: 27, 28-31 laniarius {harrisii)

S. harrisii

28-31 1:

10 9 58

Scapanus orarius

:

,

9:

40

S.

pygmaea

1:

"sulfur

32

Suncus etruscus

6:

springhare

8: 12 8-9, 61, 62,

20-21 71, 96, 107

7: 72, 18, 3:

pygmy

66 )

brown-throated three-toed (three-toed) 9: 65, giant ground 9: 64

72-73

100-105 Sus

S barbatus

36

7:

squirrel, thirteen-lined

ground

(37), 10: (76)

38-41.

47 flying 7:

36

7:

36

Indian giant 7: 34, 62-63 Javanese flying 7: 36 Low's 7: 36 Malabar (Indian giant) 7: 34,

62-63 Mindanao

flying 7:

36 36 36 36

pygmy

7:

shrew

1:

9:

8: (78) 9: 8, 9, (10), 11

9

Hispaniola 9: 9

10, 9: 8, 9,(10), 11

African forest 9: 28 American short-tailed 9: 30-33 American water

Cuban

9:

36-37

Solenodon S. cubanus 9: 9 S. paradoxus 9: 9 Solenodontidae 9: 9 sonar 3: 83

hefnen

64

8:

(93)

symbiosis 6: (73) 6: 62, 70-73 syndactyly 10: 75, (94)

Syncerus caffer

10:

110-111

100-103

Himalayan

62

36

36

36

talapoin 4: 40, Talpa

t europaea T.

7: 10,

36-37 southern flying 60-61

street 9: I

54-55 three-striped ground 7: 36 tree 7: 17, 34, 35, 36 tufted ground 7: 36 squirrel-like rodents 7: 16-19 stances 5: 9-10

9:

40,

44-47

40

Talpidae 9: 9

tamandua 7: 34,

spotted giant flying 7: 36 squirrel family 7: 34-37 thirteen-lined ground 7: 34,

108 4 7, 43

takin 6: 62, flying 7: 34,

red giant flying 7:

6:

wild

South African ground

solenodon

palustris

S. transitionalis 8:

9:

38 murina 10: 38 -39 virginiae 10: 27

63

5.

90-93

takh see horse, Mongolian

gllberti 10:

6:

insonus 8: (93)

tahr,

S.

Soay

5.

Prevost's 7:

slender 7:

Island

64

8:

(93) floridanus 8: 64,

plantain 7:

scaly-tailed 7: 12, 17, (19)

109, 9: 16

bachmani

5.

pale giant 7:

dolichura 10: 38

1: (102),

5.

Tadarida brasiliensis

crassicaudata 10: 27

snowshoes

aquaticus 8: (93) audubonii 8: 64, (93)

Tachyglossus aculeatus

aitkeni 10:

snares 4: 24, 53

5.

7: 34,

35

red-cheeked

snakes

80-81

T

34

northern flying 7: 61 northern striped palm

6: 62,

S. dicei 8:

36 8-9

7: 18, 19, 34,

antelope

74

3:

grimmia

Sylvicapra

S.

7: 34, 36,

see

suslik, thirteen-lined

60-61

5,

barbary 6: 62 blue 6: 62 desert bighorn 6: 100 domestic 6: 62, 63

74 76-79

5:

scrota 5: 74,

5.

Sylvilagus

gray

98,

1:

meerkat

suricate see

flying 7: 8, 13, 17, 34, 37,

red 7: 41

S.

13

4:

swimming therapy

Sminthopsis

S.

testing surgical techniques

Suricata suricatta

36

human

eastern fox 7: 34, 46-47 Eurasian red 7: 42-45 European red 7: 34

three-toed 9: 65, 72-73 Smilodon fatalis 2: 10

38

40 40

4:

65

ground

horse-tailed 7:

:

banded

70

42

flying) 7: 34,

Harris'

striped 1: 32, 84-87 western hog-nosed 1: 32 western spotted 1 32 sloth 9: 64-65, 65-66, 66,

1:

eastern flying (southern

gray-cheeked

32

tenuis 7: 36

2:

36 Cape ground 7: 36-37

ground

1:

S.

7:

36

Supercohort sureli 4: 41

47

black-striped 7:

43^,

91

see also fur trade

lowii 7:

7:

black flying 7: 34, black giant 7: 36

colonial

hippurus

5.

grizzled 4:

(gray) 7: 34,

43^,

38^1.

36

S.

surgery animal parts for surgery 5: 79

34

7:

38-39

9: 28,

Sundasciuris

mammals

springbok 96-97

5: (12)

bottom" see whale,

blue

spines 9: 13, 15, 76-77 see also quills

5,

15, 5: 11, 77;

wild 6: 63

Sarcophilus

32

5.

1:

Orkney

saola 6: 62

Scandentia

39

styloglossus 5: (12)

sheep 6:

:

47, 100,

12, 15; 5: 91;

skunk 1: 34 Andes 1: 32 hooded 1: 32 pygmy spotted

(

gracilis 1:

74

1 0:

pelengensis 10: 74

5.

sewellel 7: (29)

60-63 American bighorn 6: 100-103

72 white-nosed 4: 72 Salanoia concolor 1 98 4:

10: 27,

24

Setonix brachyurus 10: 48,

bald-faced 4: 72

58

Hoffmann's two-toed 9: 65 maned three-toed 9: 65 southern two-toed 9: 65

62 62

serval 2: 10, 46-47

72

saki

bearded

40 64-67

S.

6:

4: 39, 52,

6: 66, 10: 56,

18-19

102

Japanese mainland

Saiga tartarica 6: 62 boliviensis 4:

12

3: 9,

entellus 4: 40,

serow

patches

skin trade 1: (23), 69, 72, 74;

9

Serengeti Plains 6: 84, (85)

saiga 6: 62

S

8,

2: 33, 36, 37, 39, 3:

Semnopithecus

5 imperator 4: 86, 94-95 S. imperator imperator 4:

sitting 1

,

Selvinia betpakdalaensis

48, 50

S.

fusdollis 4:

concolor

27

Strigocuscus S. celebensis

subungulates

S

American red Arctic ground

Sirenia 1: 10, 3: 47, 5: (12)

96

lower

Spilogale

American gray

96

(27), 91

slotting 6: 35, 97, 8: 32 strandings, on shore 3: (59),

stridulation 9:

maculatus 10: 82-83 papuensis 10: 74

African

Sigmoceros lichtensteinii see Alcelaphus lichtensteinii Sign Language, American 4: 13, (16), 27 simakobu 4: 40

20-23 Galapagos

Saguinus

S.

.

California 3: 9, 13

sacred animals 4: 59, (66); 9: 91

S.

8-13 64

70, 3 :

Steller's 3: 9, 12,

American

4:

1: (74);

31-32, (31) the stomach 3:

66, 67,

squid 3: 87, (88), 91 squirrel 7: 1 1, 72, 13, 15 African ground 1: 101

Simias concolor see Nasalis

Australian 3: 9, 11

62

6:

New

5.

32

fur) 3: 8,

vestitus

36,

hammers

in

91

8:12 8:12

insidiosus

spy-hopping

diademed 4: 96 golden-crowned Verreaux's 4: 96

3: 9, 12,

3:

40

shrew mouse 8: 102 branch 8: 102 variable 8: 102 siamang 4: 8, 36, 37 Siebenschlafer 7: 104

sea leopard see seal, leopard 1:

54-55

91

3: (27),

strepsirhines see primates,

S.

spiny

stomach stones

4:

springhaas see springhare

sifaka

16-17

sea lion

s sable,

9,

ringed 2: 86-87

44-45 southern elephant

54-55

9:

42

inquisitive 9:

38-39

3: 86, 87, 89,

S.

S.

9: 8,

32, 34, 36,

1: 19,

40-43

as

Spilocuscus S kraemeri 10: 74 S.

28-29

9:

Gibb's (American) 9:

1

saddleback (harp)

R rupicapra 6: 62, 108 Rupicapnni 6: 108

S.

9-10,

southern fur (Cape

pseudoruminants

Asiatic 9:

3: 9,

3: 9, 11, 37,

3:

30-33

Tibetan water 9: 28 see also elephant shrew; otter shrew; tree shrew shrew mole 9: 40, 41

American

monk

3:

28

northern (American) short-

shrew family .

?3

9, 9, 10, 11,

30-31 leopard

phocid

Rousettus aegyptiacus 9: 92-93 rumen 6: 8 ruminants 5:

36-37

3: 9, 11,

northern elephant 3: 12, 32-35 northern fur 3: 9, 12, 14-15

evolution 7: 12

expansion

least 9:

28 pygmy white-toothed

(harbor) 3: 8, 9,

Hawaiian monk

28

28

raccoon rockhare see hare, greater red rockhare Rocky Mountain tick fever 7: 14 cavylike

8-9

76-77 stoat

54-55

7: 34,

Indian house 9:

steenbok 6: 67, 62 Stenella longirostris 3: 55,

stones

Sphiggurus

piebald 9:

3:

40-41 crabeater 38

rodents

28

tailed 9: 28,

Rhynchomeles prattorum 10: 27 rinderpest 6: 73, 77, 85 ringing of trees 7: 37 ringtail see under possum;

eared 3: 8, furl: (11)

spermaceti

greater white-toothed

10-11

36-37

Spermophilus tridecemlineatus

forest 9:

9:

palustris 9:

Soricidae 9: 9, 58 Spalacopus cyanus 8: 30 Speothos venaticus 2: 50

9: 28,

29

circus tricks 3: (23)

10: 14

34-35 pygmy

songs gibbons 4: 36, 39 whale songs 3: 99-100, 105 Sorex S. araneus 9: 34-35 S. minutus 9: 28 S.

29

46, 47, 47, 53

Baikal 3: 9,

common

Eurasian water 9: 28,

:

R. cirnei 9:

10

9:

1: (1 1); 9:

Eurasian 9:

cow

Steller's 3:

29

Eurasian

sea grass 3: 46, 52 seal 1: 10, 3 8-13. 64, 7: 12 Antarctic fur 3: 9, 12

62-63

126

38-41

see also dugong

86

9:

carolinensis 7: 34,

29

28 Etruscan white-toothed 9: 28, 38-39

scorpion 1: (102) Scutisorex somereni 9: 28 sea canary see beluga

106-107

9:

S.

9: 28,

desert 9:

Etruscan

8

7:

armored elephant

Sciurus

Rhinoceros

R

Scelidotherium 9: 64 Sciuridae 7: 12 Sciurognathi (sciurognaths) 7: (8), 12, 16-19, 8: 8

9:

southern

9:

68 65

Tamandua tetradactyla tamaraw 6: 62 tamarin 4: 8 bearded emperor

4:

9:

65

94

black-chinned emperor 4:

94

black-faced lion 4: 88 black lion 4: 86, 88 cotton-top 4: 86, 87

emperor

4: 86,

golden-headed

94-95 88

lion 4:

SET INDEX

golden

thylacine

lion 4: 86, 87,

88-91 lion 4: 86 saddleback 4: 86, 95 tamarin family 4: 86-87 Tamias 48 T. sibiricus 7 T. striatus 7 34, 48-49 tapetum lucidum 2: 10-12; 4: 85, 106, 107 :

:

tapir 5 8, 11, 12 Baird's 5 62, 62, 63 Brazilian 5 62, 63,

64-65

:

Malayan 5 62, 63, 63 mountain 5 62, 63 South American (Brazilian) 5 62, 63, 64-65 tapir family 5 62-63 :

:

:

:

Taptrus

T bairdii

5:

62

indicus 5; 62

T.

pinchaque

7"

Indochinese Javan 2: 21

62

5:

terrestris 5: 62, 1

1

1

,

06,

1

:

102-103 06 06 1 06 1

pumilus 4: 1 T spectrum 4: T.

Tasmanian devil

white 2: 23, (23) tiger-horses 5: 52

palm

10: (24), 27,

tommie see

28-31

76

T derbianus gigas

:

:

89

teeth

aardvark 9: 65, (66), 78-79

32

Telicomys 7: 11-12

tenrec

8: 12, 9: 8, 9,

T.

1

aquatic 9: 24, 25, 25 common 9: 24, 26-27 four-toed rice 9: 24 greater (common) 9: 24, 9:

24, 25

large-eared 9: 24, 25

hedgehog

25

25 24

spiny 9:

9:

25

24-25 (common) 9: 24, 26-27 tenrec family 9: 24-25

streaked 9: 24, tailless

9 ecaudatus

Tenrec T.

9:

26-27 24

9: 24,

6: 87, 9: 64, 66, 69;

60-61 58, 58, 59

58

9: 58,

59

T.

manatus

3:

82

2:

48-51

Trichys fasciculata 8:

62

62-63 talpoides

:

:

Thryonomys T gregorianus 8: 30 T. swinderianus 8: 30

:

americanus

79 Trypanosoma cruzi tsessebe 6: 88

8:

27

1:

1:

81;

10, 5: (12);

65

tuco-tuco 7: 72, 28-29, 37

9-10, 11,

30 strong 8: 30

maned

53

2: 50,

marsupial see thylacine

Mexican

60

54

2:

red 2: 59

50

Tasmanian see thylacine timber (gray) 54-57. 59

2: 50, 53,

U. U.

thibetanus 2: 82

wapiti see elk warfarin 7: 75

wombat 10: (10), 77, 93 common 10: 74, 75,

warthog

Vampyrum spectrum

86

9:

variegata 4: 96, variegata rubra 4:

V.

variegata variegata

1

04

5:

92,

28

88

88 Viverridae 1:18, 88, 98 vole 7: 13, 17, 65 bank 7: 74-75 field 7: 92-93

wetlands

whale 3:

32,

34

1:

blue

92-93 southern red-backed 7: 94-95 54, 7: 9,

74

70, (11), 14,

1:

3:

5: (10), 66;

54-55, 56, 58

1: (1 1), 3:

(57), 58,

bowhead

54, 55,

98-101 3: 55, 108,

110-111 dwarf sperm 3: 55 gray 3: 55, 57, (57), 59,

92-97

humpback

10: 74,

3: 55, (57), 58,

102-105 5:

62,

1:

32

65

yak

killer 3: 37, 39, 55,

62-65. 83, 94, 96

64-66

74-75

6:

wild 6: 75

yapok see opossum, water Yellowstone National Park

32-35

24

1:

54-59.

7: 12 baleen

north European water (water) 7: 9, 98-99

vomeronasal organ Vormela peregusna

1:

fingers 4: 71

Weil's disease 7: 14,

:

Vombatus ursinus 98-101

32,

10. 9:

1:

Y

32,

weasel family

webbed 1

1:

X Xenarthra

short-tailed see stoat

:

:

36-39

32, 34, 35,

1:

Patagonian

1

34

(least)

36 North African banded 34 long-tailed

megaspila 1: 88 tangalunga 1 88

water 1: 98-99

1: 19,

9: (46)

Wyulda squamicaudata 10: 74

36-39

30

Viverricula indica

32,

19, 32, 34, 35,

1:

least

8:

1:

104, 105,

5:

Consen/ation of Nature

worms

96

5:

common

European

87, 7: 34,

World Conservation Union see International Union for the

weasel African striped

1:

(106), 108, 111

62,

5: 75, 6:

defassa 6: 93 water reabsorption

110-111 vicuna 5: 92, 93, 110-111 viscacha 7: 72, 8:

10: 74, 707, (101)

woodchuck

50-51 wool production

in

Endangered Species of

waterbuck 92-93

87

56

Vicugna vicugna

northern hairy-nosed 10: 74, (101) southern hairy-nosed

Wild Fauna and Flora

104

Vespertilionidae 9:

zibetha

desert 5: 74 washing bears 1: (24) Washington Convention see Convention on International Trade

V.

V.

74

5:

18, 32, 35,

1:

98-101

80-83

75,

5:

common

Varecia

Vombatiformes 10: 75

100-101

54-57.

wolverine 56-57

U.

3: 69, 77 tunnels, foraging 7: 15,

see also burrows

2: 50, 53,

walrus 3: 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 24-29 want see mole, European

U.

95

59

arctos 2: 82, 92, 94-97 maritimus 2: 82, 84-89 melanoleuca 2: 98

tularemia 8: 81, 93

tuna

6:

(53)

wallowing 5: 38, 69, 71, 77, 76-77, 83

2: 82,

whiteness in mammals 8: (84) wildcat 2: 10, 13, 48-49 African 2: 12 European 2: 72

Falkland Island 2: 50, 53,

10: 48, 50,

10: 48,

3: 58, 89, 91,

93, 101, 105, 107, 108 whistlepig see woodchuck

gray

yellow-footed rock 10: 48, 70-71 wallaroo 10: 60-61 hill

short-tailed (field) 7: 8:

49

whiptail 10: 48, 57

common

90-93

V.

forest 8:

7 26-27 Thrichomys apereoides 8: 30 Thryonomyidae 7 12, 8 31

40

Urotrichus 9: 54 Ursus

V.

truffles 5:

9: 4: 40,

50

2:

Viverra

triok, Tate's 10: 74, (77)

rock 10: 51

10: 48,

whale meat 3: 59, 67 whale songs 3: 99-100, 105 whale watching 3: (57), 71, 95, 104

wildebeest 5: 12, 47, black 6: 62 blue 6: 62, 82-85 wolf 2: 9 Ethiopean 2: 50, 52

70-71

swamp

cinereoargenteus 50 Urogale everetti 9: 59

plains 8:

1

ringtailed rock (yellow-

toolache 10: 53

viscacha rat 8: 29, 30

vulpecula 10: 74, 78-81

Tubulidentata

7 7,

28 northern 8: 30 plains 8: 28, 30

senegalensis 3: 47 Trichosurus T caninus 10: 74

50 64-65

European Urocyon

mountain

T.

48

rufous hare 10: 48, 57 spectacled hare 10: 48

vibrissae 8:

9: 59,

pen-tailed 9:

pygmy

70, 5: 10,

88

3: 55, 57, 58,

whaling industry

urchin see hedgehog,

4:

10, 5: (10);

10: (80)

Theropithecus gelada

Thomomys

1:

58-59

tuberculosis, bovine

34

Tetracerus quadricornis 6:

9: 10,

T.

Tenrecidae 9: 9, 1 1, termite mounds, as vantage points 6: 88, 88-89 termites 2: 50, 76, 110-111; 10:

1

Tremarctos ornatus tribal warfare 4: 30 Trichechus T. inunguis 3: 47

25

rice 9: 24,

shrew

tree

70; 5: 10,

43

U.

50

footed rock) 10: 48,

even-toed 1: odd-toed 1:

V.

0, 48 48-49

0,

1

Philippine 9:

9: 24,

long-tailed 9: 24,

pygmy shrew

6:

8-13

66

white see beluga

48

forest 10:

3:

3: 55,

86-89

red-necked 10: 48,

tree dwelling 2: 31

common

26-27 greater hedgehog lesser

napu

sperm

prettyface 10: 48, 57 Proserpine rock 10: 48,

104-105

javanicus 6:

T.

southern right 108-109

Uncia uncia 2: 34-35 ungulates (hoofed mammals)

48

Tragulus 6:

zerda 2: 50,

Papuan

2: (67)

Tragulidae 6: 10

55 short-finned pilot right 3:

74-75

northern nail-tailed 10: 48

vaccination, against rabies

T.

9

vulpes 2: 50, 64-67

lesser forest 10:

V

J. obscurus 4: 40 Tragelaphus T buxtoni 6: 62

scriptus 6: 62 T strepsiceros 6: 78-79

bats 9: (85), (95) 1:

3: (57),

Trachypithecus T. geei 4: 40

:

6:

3: 51, 71, (94), 95; 39, 9: 53, 101

whale watching 71, 95, 104

tajacu 5 88, 90-91 Tayassuidae 5 88

selenodont

5:

17

Bennett's (red-necked) 10: 48, 64-65

Uropsilus investigator 9:

82, 102, 10: 40, 85, 103

V.

bridled nail-tailed 10: 48,

tourism

T pecan 5 88

tayra 1: 32, 4:

31-32, (31)

pygmy right 3: 54, 55 pygmy sperm 3: 55

velox 2: 50, 68-69 velox herbes 2: 69

wallaby 10: 48-53 banded hare 10: 48, 51

U. littoralis 2:

topi 6: 62, (85), 88-89 torpor 7: 80, 9: 20-21, 29, 38,

76-77

Tayassu T.

(16),

70-73

50

bald (red) 4: 72, 80-81 black 4: 9, 72 black-headed 4: 80 red 4: 72, 80-81 white (red) 4: 72, 80-81 Umfolozi park 5: 34

U.

tool users 1: (74), 4: 10-11,

76

6:

T. oryx 6: 62, 76 Taxidea taxus 1: 32,

teledu

gazelle,

Thomson's

Taurotragus T derbianus 6: 62, 76-77 T derbianus derbianus 6:

4:

2: 50,

ruppelli 2:

Wallabia bicolor 10: 48

uakari

5:

3: 55, 106-107 northern bottlenose 3: 55, 90-91 northern right 3: 109

minke

2:

w

u

titi

72 masked 4: 72 yellow-handed 4: 72 toddy 1: 95 toddy cat see civet, common

Tarsius 4:

22-23

Sumatran 2: 21 Tasmanian see thylacine

dusky

Tarsipes rostratus 10: 74,

T bancanus

21

2:

2:

lagopus

17

Tympanoctomys barrerae 8: 30 typhus 7: 14, 74

Siberian 2: 20, 21,

64-65

07 pygmy 4 106, 107 spectral 4: 106, 107 western 4: 106, 107, 107

tarsier 4:

87 see also ivory

Bengal 2: 21, 27, 22, 23 Caspian 2: 21 Chinese 2: 20, 21

corsac 2: 50

17

26, 66, 72, 74, 80-81, 86,

20-25

chama

V.

tusks 3: 26, 84-85, 5: 14, 17,

14

cana

V.

3: 55,

66-67

50 50

V.

V

107

6: 106,

72-75

21

Ball 2:

9:

Tursiops truncatus 3: 55,

88

ticks 6: 18, 7:

tiger 2: 10.

T minor tur

48

thetis 1 0:

60-61 59

glis 9: 59,

west Caucasian

Thylamis T elegans 10: 14 T pallidior 10: 14 Thylogale T. stigmatica 10: 48

tiang 6:

T

long-finned pilot

Vulpes V. bengalensis 2: 50

Tupaia

east Caucasian 6: 106, 107

Thyropteridae 9: 87

:

T.

36-37

10: 27,

T.

:

2: 80, 10: 24, 26,

28, 36-37 Thylacinidae 10: 24, 26 Thylacinus cynocephalus

6: 66,

67

Yersinia pestis

7:76

z Zalophus californianus

20-23 zebra 2: 8-9,

5: 12,

3: 9,

72-73;

95

6: (85),

Burchell's (plains) 5: 42,

46-51

common 46-51 Grevy's

(plains) 5: 42,

5:

52-53 mountain

42, (44),

42 46-51 zebra family 5: 42-45 plains

zokor

7:

zorilla 1:

5:

5:

42,

1

32, 34,

34

127

LARGE CARNIVORES

Picture Credits Abbreviations

NHPA

Natural History Photographic

NPL

Agency

naturepl.com

OSF

Oxford

Scientific Films

Michael Sewell/OSF, 46-47 Martyn

Chillmaid/OSF;

F.

48-49 Konrad Wothe/OSF; 51 Glen & Rebecca Grambo; 52

t

= top; b = bottom;

c

= center;

I

=

left;

r

=

56-57 Konrad Wothe/OSF; 58-59

right

Cox/OSF;

T.

Kitchen

&

V.

HursVNHPA; 60-61 Richard Day/OSF; 62-63 Stan

Jacket caracal, Pete Oxford/naturepl.com; tr

Osolinski/OSF; 63 Richard Packwood/OSF;

group of

dolphins, Robert Harding Picture Library; gorilla,

J.

Victoria

McCormick/Animals Animals/OSF; 59

tl

54-55 Alan

Charlie Hamilton-James/NPL;

& Sandy Carey/OSF; 55 Corbis; 56 Daniel

bl

lowland

64-65

Dragesco/Ardea; 66 Mark Hamblin/OSF, 67 Alan

Eric

&

Sandy Carey/OSF; 68-69 Erwin & Peggy Bauer/Bruce

Martin Rugner/Naturphotographie; br

Coleman

Rothchild's giraffe, Gerard Lacz/FLPA

Collection;

70-71 Norbert Rosing/OSF;

72t,

72b Owen Newman/OSF; 73 Konrad Wothe/OSF; 8-9 Norbert Rosing/OSF; 11 Pete Oxford/NPL; 12 Roger

74-75

Wood/Corbis; 13 Mark & Victoria Deeble/OSF; 14-15

Stone/OSF, 78-79 Adrian Bailey/OSF; 80-81 Simon

Jonathan Scott; 15 David Tipling/OSF; 16 Frank

King/NPL; 83, 84-85 Daniel

&

Schneidermeyer/OSF; 17 Purdy

Matthews/Survival

Anglia/OSF; 18-19 Kevin Schafer/NHPA; 20-21 Daniel J.

Cox/OSF; 21 Mike Hill/OSF; 22 Alan

Carey/OSF; 23 Daniel

J.

& Sandy

Eyal Bartov/OSF;

Cox/OSF, 86 Claude

Animals/OSF; 88-89 Norbert Rosing/OSF, 90-91, 91 J.

Wendy

Schneidermeyer/OSF; 26-27 Mike Hill/OSF; 27 John

J.

Victoria

Steelman/Survival Anglia/OSF; 87 Jon A. Green/Animals

Daniel

Cox/OSF; 24-25 Frank

76-77 Mark Deeble &

Daniel

Cox/OSF, 92 Lynda Richardson/Corbis, 92-93

Shattil J.

& Bob

Cox/OSF; 97

Rozinski/OSF; 93, 94-95, Dju'ro

96-97

Huber/OSF, 98-99, 100,

Downer/OSF; 28t A. & M. Shah/Animals Animals/OSF;

101 Keren Su/OSF; 102-103 Clem Haagner/Ardea, 103

28b David W. Breed/OSF; 28-29 Anthony

Terry Whittaker/Frank

Bannister/ABPtyOSF; 30-31 Michael Fogden/OSF, 31

Anup Shah/NPL; 105 Mark Deeble &

John Chellman/Animals Animals/OSF; 32 Stan

Stone/OSF; 106-107 Peter Steyn/Ardea; 107 Terry

Osolinski/OSF;

33 Norbert Rosing/OSF; 34-35 Gerard

Lacz/NHPA; 36-37 Ken Cole/Animals Animals/OSF; 37 Nick Gordon/OSF;

38-39 Judd Cooney/OSF; 40-41

Konrad Wothe/OSF; 42-43 Daniel

J.

Lane Picture Agency; 104-105 Victoria

Whittaker/Frank Lane Picture Agency; 108-109 Rafi

Ben-Shahar/OSF, 110-111 Alan Root/Survival Anglia/OSF

Cox/OSF; 44-45

/Artists Denys Ovenden,

While every effort has been

made

Priscilla

Barrett with Michael Long,

to trace the copyright holders of illustrations rectify

128

any omissions or

Graham

Allen,

reproduced

inaccuracies.

in this

Malcolm McGregor

book, the publishers

will

be pleased

to

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

11 r \.

Ml

mil

II

9999 0439C 232 7

mammalsworldofan02patm ,-nammalsworldofan02patm

SMALL CARNIVORES Raccoons, Weasels, Otters, Skunks

LARGE CARNIVORES Big Cats, Dogs, Bears,

SEA

Hyenas

...

MAMMALS

Seals, Sea Lions, Whales, Dolphins,

Manatees

PRIMATES Apes, Monkeys, Marmosets, Lemurs

LARGE HERBIVORES Elephants, Rhinos, Horses, Pigs

.

RUMINANT (HORNED) HERBIVORES Deer, Cattle, Antelope, Goats,

RODENTS Squirrels, Rats,

RODENTS

2

Sheep

...

1

Mice

AND LAGOMORPHS

Porcupines, Cavies, Rabbits

...

INSECTIVORES AND BATS Hedgehogs, Moles, Anteaters, Bats

...

MARSUPIALS Kangaroos, Possums, Koala

90 Sherman Turnpike Danbury, CT 06816

SET ISBN 0 - 7172 - 5742-8

VOLUME

ISBN

0 - 7172 - 5744-4