1.energy Theory

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ENERGY THEORY 1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ENERGY: The word "energy" originates from Greek word "energeia" which means activity or operation. In physics it is defined as the capacity to perform work. It cannot be created or destroyed; but can only be converted from one form to another.

Forms of Energy : In classical physics, forms of energy are often classified into two main categories: kinetic and potential.

KINETIC ENERGY

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Kinetic energy is motion, for example the motion Potential energy is stored energy or the potential of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules substances energy of gravitation and objects Electrical Energy is the movements of electrical Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds charges. Everything is made of tiny particles of atoms and molecules. Examples include called atoms-made up of electrons, protons, and petroleum, biomass and neutral gas. neutrons. Electrical charges moving through a wire is called electricity Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in travels in waves like visible light, x-rays gamma objects through the application of a force like rays and radio waves and solar energy. compressed springs and stretched rubber bands. Thermal or heat Energy is the internal energy in substances the movement of atoms and molecules within substances, Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom together and is released when the nuclease are combined or split apart Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of Uranium atoms in a process called fusion. Fusion is a process where the sun combines the nuclei of hydrogen atoms.

Motion Energy is the movement of objects and Gravitational Energy is the energy of position substances from on place to another. Wind is an or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill example of motion energy. contains gravitational potential energy. A good example of gravitational energy is hydropower. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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1.1.1 Sources of Energy on The Earth •

The Sun emits Electro Magnetic radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum. But incoming Solar Radiation (Isolation) at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared, 42 to 43 percent visible and 3 to 5 percent.

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The sun is the primary energy source in our lives. We use it directly for its warm and through various natural processes that provide us with food, water, fuel and shelter, the sun's rays power the growth of plants, which form our food material, give off oxygen which we breathe in and take up carbon dioxide that we breathe out, Energy from the sun evaporates water from oceans, rivers and lakes to form clouds that turn into rains.

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Chemical energy contained in chemical compounds is released when they are broken down by animals in the presence of oxygens. In india, manual labour is still extensively used to get work done in agricultural systems, and domestic animals used to pull carts and ploughs.

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Electrical energy produced in several ways. powers transport artificial lighting agriculture and industry. Nuclear energy is held in the nucleus of an atom and is now harnessed to develop electrical energy.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES: Energy Resources

Based on usability

Primary Intermediate Secondary

Based on Traditional use

Based on Long term availability

Based on Commercial application

Conventional NonConventional

Nonrenewable Renewable

Commercial Noncommercial

Based on origin

Fossil Nuclear Hydro Solar Wind Biomass Geo-thermal Tidal Ocean thermal Ocean wave

1.2.1 Classification based on Usage It has 3 types

(a) Primary Resources These are resources embodied in nature prior to understanding any human made conversions or transformations. Examples: coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, running river (hydro), uranium, etc. These resources are generally available in raw forms and are located, explored, extracted, processed and are converted to a form as required by the consumer. (b) Intermediate Resources These are obtained from primary energy by one or more steps of transformation. Some forms of energy may by categorized both in intermediate as well as secondary resources, electricity and hydrogen. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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Secondary Resources The form of energy which is finally supplied to a consumer for utilization is known as secondary or usable energy. e.g, electrical energy, thermal energy (in the form of stream or hot water) chemical energy( in the form of hydrogen or fossil fuels), etc.

1.2.2 Classification based on traditional use It has 2 types. (a) Conventional Energy Resources: These are being used for ages without very modern technological intervention. Ex. Fire wood, Fossil Fuels, Hydro, Crude oil (b) Non-Conventional Energy Resources: These are being used in modern time with application of technology, Ex: Petroleum, Gas, Solar, Wind, biomass, ocean, thermal Energy etc.

1.2.3 Classification based on long term availability It has 2 types: (a) Non-Renewable Energy Resources: These are finite resources once used cannot be replenished again. Ex. Fossil fuels, Atomic fuels (b) Renewable Energy Resources: These are resources where perpetual harvesting is humanly possible. Ex. Solar, wind, Biotic and Hydro resources.

1.2.4 Classification based on Commerical Application It has 2 types (a) Non-commercial

Energy Resources:

These are directly derived from nature and used without processing. Ex Wood, Animal cow dung cake, crop residues. (b) Commercial Energy Resources: These derived energy resources that have undergone processing and commercial appliances. Ex: CNG, LPG, Shale Gas, Coal, Methane etc.

1.2.5 Classification based on origin There are many types. (a) Fossil fuels Energy (b) Hydro energy (c) Nuclear energy (d) Solar energy (e) Wind energy (f) Biomass energy (g) Geothermal energy (h) Tidal energy (i)

Ocean thermal energy

(j)

Ocean wave energy

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Generally energy sources are divided into two groups. 1.

Nonrenewable (an energy source that cannot be easily recreated)

2.

Renewable an energy source that can be easily replenished) •

Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy sources like electricity.

1.3 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES Non Renewable energy sources are those natural resources which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they are used these are available in limited amount and develop over a long period. Ex fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas), and nuclear power.

1.3.1 Fossil Fuels Fossils are remains of organism that lived in the fossil fuels are plants that got buried under earth that became rock over years. Fossil fuels have to be unearthed from mines. Most fossil fuels release energy as heat. The types of fossil fuels are:

COAL Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was formed from the remains of the trees and ferns grew in swamps around 500 billions year ago. The bacterial and chemical decomposition of such plant debris (which remained buried under water or clay) produced an intermediate product known as peat.

Rank (Lowest to High)

Properties

Peat

Peat is recently accumulated organic sediment. It has a carbon content of less than 40% or a dry ash free basis.

Lignite

Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It is a peat that has been transformed into a rock, and that rock is a brown-black coal. It has a carbon content up to 60% on a dry ash-free basic. It is known as "brown coal."

Bituminous

Bituminous coal is formed when a peat, Lignite coal is subjected to increased levels of organic metamorphism. It has a carbon content of between 77 and 87& on a dry ash-free basis and a heating value that is much higher than lignite, it is often referred to as "soft coal":

Anthracite

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal it has a carbon content of over 87 on a dry ash-free basis. Anthracite coal generally has the highest calorific value. It is often referred to as "hard coal":

CHARCOAL: Charcoal is artificially formed coal. Chunk obtained from incomplete burning of plant remains (mainly wood), on complete burning wood would turn into ash. COKING COAL: Coal is naturally-found fossil fuel, where as coking Coal is a derivative product from coal after removing impurities, such as coal-tar and coal-gas, at high temperatures in an oxygen-free furnace. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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COAL TO LIQUIDS Coal can also be converted into a liquid fuel like diesel or gasoline through direct or indirect liquefaction. Liquid coal can become a petroleum substitute and be used in the transportation industry. ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF COAL: •

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products.

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In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually including fly ash bottom ash and flue gas desulfurization sludge that contain mercury uranium, thorium arsenic sulfur and other heavy metals miners expose to these pollutants results in reduced life expectancy especially due to chronic and gas explosions.

OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS: •

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed from plants and animals that lived millions years ago. Crude oil is a fossil fuel and it exists in liquid form in underground pools or reservoirs, in tiny spaces within sedimentary rocks and near the surface in tar (or oil) sands.

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Products made from crude oil

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After crude oil is removed from the ground it is sent to a refinery where different parts of the crude oil are separated into usable petroleum products these petroleum products.

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Crude oil and other liquids produced from fossil fuels are refined into petroleum products that people use for many different purposes.

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Main petroleum products from crude oil includes Petrol/Gasoline, Diesel oil, Heating Oil/fuel oil, Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL) like propane, ethane, butane and jet fuel etc.,

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Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are also used as petroleum products by blending with petrol and diesel fuel.

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Hydrocarbon gas Hquids (HGL) are hydrocarbons that occur as gases at atmospheric pressure and as liquids under higher pressures.

Environmental Effects of petroleum Industry: 

Crude oil is a mixture of many different kinds of organic compounds, many of which are highly toxic.

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Incompletely burned compounds are created in addition to just water and carbon dioxide. The other compounds are often toxic to life. Examples are carbon monoxide and methanol.

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Oil spill is the release of hydrocarbons into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity or, negligence it has adverse impacts. Oil is "acutely lethal" to fish.

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Volatile organic compounds VOCs from petroleum are toxic and foul the air, and some like benzene are extremely toxic, and cause DNA damage, benzene often makes up about 1% of crude oil and gasoline. Benzene is present in automobile exhaust. Benzene is present in both crude oil and gasoline and is known to cause leukemia in humans.

Coal and its environmental impacts: 

Coal is the world's single largest contributor of green house gases and is one of the most important causes of global warming.

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Many coal based power generation plants are not fitted with devices such as electrostatic precipitators to reduce emissions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) which is a major contributor to air pollution.

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Burning coal also produces oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which, combined with water vapor, lead to 'acid rain' this kills forest vegetation and damages architectural heritage sites pollutes water and affects human health.

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Thermal power stations that use coal produce waste in the form of fly large dumps are required to dispose of this waste material while efforts have been made to use it for making bricks. The transport of large quantities of fly ash and its eventual dumping are costs that have to be included in calculating the cost-benefits of thermal power.

1.3.2 Natural Gas 

Natural gas is a new age fuel. Natural gas consisting of 87-92% of methane with a small percentage of other higher hydrocarbons like ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons small quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds and water may also be found in natural gas.

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With only one carbon and four hydrogen atoms per molecule, natural gas has the lowest carbon the hydrogen ratio, hence in burns completely, making it the clearest of fossil fuels.

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Natural Gas comes in four basic forms. (i)

Liquefied Natural Gas(LNG): Natural Gas which has been liquefied at (Minus) 160 degree Centigrade Natural Gas is liquefied to facilitate Transportation in large volumes to cryogenic tankers across sea as it reduces volumes to 1/600 parts.

(ii) Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (RLNG): LNG Re-gasified before transporting it to consumers through Pipelines. •

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Natural Gas compressed to a pressure of 200-250 kg/cm2 used as fuel for transportation. CNG decreases vehicular pollution on the virtue of being cleaner fuel than liquid fuels.

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Piped Natural Gas (PNG) Natural Gas distributed through a pipeline network that has safety valves to maintain the pressure assuring safe, uninterrupted supply to the domestic sector for cooking and heating cooling applications.

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LNG is different from LPG LPG is Liquefied petroleum Gas, LPG Production happens during the refining of crude oil.In addition, extraction of LPG takes place directly from some of the oil wells. Because of its potential to vaporize immediately any leaks can be hazardous basic knowledge of safety is necessary for using LPG.

CNG

•

LPG

Constituent is methane

Constituents are propane and butane

Release of greenhouse gas is very less

Release of green house gas is greater but relatively clean to gasoline.

It is lighter than air and disperses quickly in the event of spillage. Hence, risk of ignition is minimal

It is heavier than air and on leakage settles to ground and gets accumulated in lower layers. Hence, risk of fire is more.

Uses of Natural Gas: Natural gas is used as a fuel in power, Transport, Fertilizer Natural gas is also used as a raw material for many products including paints, Fertilizer, plastics, photographic film, medicines, and explosives.

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Unconventional Gases: •

Unconventional natural gas is trapped in deep underground rocks that are hard to reach, such as shale rock or coal beds. Recent technological advances have made it possible to get these new sources of energy out of the ground.

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Shale Gas is defined as a natural gas produced from shale. Shale has low permeability. So gas production in commercial quantities requires fractures to provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for years from shale with natural fractures: the shale gas boom seen in the USA in recent years has been due to new technology in hydraulic fracturing (especially directional drilling and frack fluids) to create extensive artificial fractures around well bores.

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Shale oil: Fracking can be used not only to get gas out of the rock, but also oil known as shale oil.

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Tight gas is natural gas held in rocks with pores up to 20,000 times narrower than a human hair, such that the gas will not flow freely into a well without fracturing.

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Coal Bed Methane(CBM), also sometimes known as sweet gas coal bed gas, or coal mine methane (CMM), is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds, unlike shale, coal is frequently very porous and permeable, and therefore often has high water content. It is often contaminated with all manner of dissolved ingredients from the total beds and associated rocks.

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All the above types of gas extraction fall under the category of Unconventional Gas one way of defining unconventional gas it that can only be produced economically to using hydraulic fracturing horizontal drilling.

Atomic Energy: •

Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases liquids and solids atoms themselves are made up of three particles called protons neutrons and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core) containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. The bonds can be broken through nuclear fission and this energy can be used produce electricity. 

In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms during nuclear fission a neutron hits it uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation.

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Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, in which atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is the source of energy in the sun and stars. Nuclear fusion is the subject of ongoing research as a source of energy for heat and electricity generation.

Nuclear fuel-uranium •

Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission, Uranium is considered to be a non-renewable energy source even through it is a common metal found in rocks worldwide. Nuclear power plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred to as U-235 for fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Although uranium is about 100 times more common then silver, U-235 is relatively rare.

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Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as fuel.

Environment and Nuclear Energy: •

Nuclear power plants routinely emit low level radioactively with disposal of nuclear waste and hazardous material.

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Mining of uranium contributes to water pollution and land degradation. The mining process results in both the deliberate routine release and accidental spill of contaminated water, leading to the potential poisoning of nearby waterways and threatening the local environment and human residents.

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The solid high-level waste from nuclear power stations is hot and very radioactive, so must be isolated from people and the environment indefinitely.

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The presence of some random around a uranium mining operation and some dust bearing radioactive decay products as well as the hazards of inhaled coal dust in a coal mine are well understood in both cases, using the best current practice, the health hazards to miners are very small and certainly less than the risks of industrial accidents.

1.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES Renewable energy resources are those natural resources which are inexhaustible (i.e., which can be replaced as we use them) and can be used to produce energy again and again. These are available in unlimited amount in nature and develop in a relatively short period of time. These include solar, wind water geothermal, ocean energy. There are six main renewable energy sources: 1.

Hydro energy

2.

Wind energy

3.

Geothermal energy

4.

Ocean, wave and Tidal Energy

5.

Solar energy

6.

Biomass energy

1.4.1 Hydropower Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source for electricity generation.

(i)

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This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to generate electricity known as 'hydroelectric power' by constructing dams across rivers.

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Hydroelectricity or hydropower is the fourth largest source of commercial energy production and consumption globally.

Merits: 1.

Hydropower plants have a higher economic lifetime as the maintenance cost is small.

2.

It can be considered as "clean" as no greenhouse gas is emitted directly and is also considered as "regenerative" energy source as water can be used again and again.

(ii)

Demerits:

1.

Hydropower does not directly pollute the water or the air. However, hydropower facilities can have large environment impacts by changing the environment and affecting land use, homes and natural habitats in the dam area. It disturbs the natural ecological flow of the river.

2.

Water accumulation can lead to thermal and chemical changes, in the depth of the reservoirs, Deposits, sediment, reached bottom may encourage the development accumulation of aquatic flora (plankton, algae) which under certain conditions can cause atrophy accumulation reducing the amount of oxygen and death of wildlife.

1.4.2 Wind power •

About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is converted into the kinetic energy of moving air called wind. The uneven absorption of the soil radiation by the earth's surface causes differences of temperature density and pressure which produce air movements at local, regional and global levers powered by wind energy.

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The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed by converting it into mechanical energy or electrical energy using suitable devices.

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Wind speed typically increases with altitude and increases over open areas without windbreaks. Good sites for wind turbines include the tops of smooth, rounded hills open plains or shorelines, and mountain gaps that funnel and intensity wind. Wind is concentrated in certain regions and is variable with time at any given location.

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Five nations - USA, Germany, Denmark, Spain and India - account for 80% of the world's installed wind energy capacity.

(i)

Merits:

(ii)

1.

Free and readily available energy supply on a windy day

2.

Technology fairly well developed

3.

Very low environmental impact

4.

Moderate net useful energy yield

Demerits: 1.

Insufficient wind in many places.

2.

Requires conventional backup electrical system or fairly expensive a storage system.

3.

Production and installation costs are high (but should decrees with mass production)

4.

Cannot be used to power vehicles unless electricity is used to produce hydrogen gas or to recharge batteries.

1.4.3 Geothermal power: •

Geothermal energy produced by natural processes occurring within the earth. The major source of this energy (in the form of heat) is molten underground rock or magma.

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Geothermal energy is extracted for heating and power generation from natural stream, hot water or dry rocks in the Earth's crust. Water is pumped down through an injection well where it passes through joints in the hot rocks and then water rises to the surface through a recovery well.

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Geothermal reservoirs are naturally occurring areas of hydrothermal resources. They are deep underground and are largely undetectable above ground. Geothermal energy finds its way to the earth's surface in three ways.

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Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)

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Hot springs.

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Geysers.

There are three main types of geothermal energy systems: 

Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs located near the surface of the earth.

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Electricity generation power plants require water or stream at high temperatures (300° to 700°F). Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located within a mile or two of the surface of the earth.

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Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperature near the earth's surface to control building temperatures above ground.

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Merits of Geothermal Energy 1.

Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable energy resource.

2.

Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.

3.

It is not subject to the same safety political price and operating cost uncertainties as imported oil, natural gas or nuclear fuel use.

4.

Geothermal power plants could be brought on line more quickly than most other energy sources in case of an extended national emergency.

Demerits of Geothermal Energy 1.

Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed and usually some distance away from the area needling energy. Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.

2.

The minimum temperature of steam required for the efficient production of electricity is about 100*c. as a result, many reservoirs of hot water can be used only for direct heating (as in Iceland), because thermal energy cannot be efficiently transported very far from the source.

3.

Through geothermal energy as a whole can be treated as an inexhaustible resource, a single bore will have a limited life of 10 years or so in economic terms.

4.

Withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a geothermal source may result in surface subsidence.

Positive environmental effects of geothermal energy: 1.

The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how geothermal energy is used or on how it is converted to useful energy. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps have almost no negative impact on the environment. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps can actually have a positive effect because they may reduce the use of other types of energy that may have grater negative impacts on the environment.

2.

Geothermal power plants release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions released by a fossil fuel power plant. Geothermal power plants further limit air pollution through the use of scrubber systems that remove hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is naturally found in the steam and in the hot water used to generate geothermal power.

3.

Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are emitted by fossil fuel power plants. After the steam and water from a geothermal reservoir are used, they are injected back into the earth.

1.4.4 Ocean Energy Oceans are large water bodies covering 70.8% of the earth's total surface are and hold about 1445 million cubic km of saline water. Energy from ocean or sea can be obtained in many ways. These include: (i)

Ocean thermal energy Conversion (OTEC)

(ii) Tidal Energy (iii)

Wave Energy

(iv) Current Energy (v) Salinity Gradient Energy (vi) Ocean Wind Energy (vii) Ocean Geothermal Energy (viii) Bio Conversion Energy # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): The sun warms the oceans at the surface and wave motion mixes the warmed water downward to depths about 100m. this mixed layer is separated from the deep cold water formed at high latitudes by a thermo cline. This boundary is sometimes marked by an abrupt change in temperature but more often the change the change is gradual. The vertical temperature distribution consisting of two layers with thermal gradient ranging 10-30 c with higher values found in equatorial waters. The engine using this energy is referred as OTEC. OTEC makes use of the difference in temperature between the two layers of the sea to extract energy. This energy is used to drive the turbines for generating electricity.

Merits of OTEC (a)

Power from OTEC is continues renewable and pollution free.

(b)

OTEC offers one of the most benign power production technologies since the handling of hazardous substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g. ammonia) and no noxious by products are generated.

(c)

Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the thermo cline, could be accomplished with minimal environmental impact.

(d)

An unexpected bonus of OTEC systems might be the enrichment of fishing grounds due to the transfer of nutrients from the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface waters.

Limitation of OTEC (a)

One principal difficulty with OTEC is not of technological order. OTEC is capital intensive and the very first plants will most likely be small requiring a substantial capital investment.

(b)

Due to small temperature difference between the surface water, the conversion efficiency is as low as 3-4%. This value is low as compared to the efficiencies obtained for conventional power plants.

(c)

The low efficiency coupled with high capital costs. Large sized floating vessels and water pipes, maintenance of pumps and pipes, operational snags, etc make the OTEC power uneconomical for small at the present state of the technology.

(d)

A sustained flow of cold, nutrient-rich, bacteria,-free deep ocean water could cause sea surface temperature anomatics and biostimulation if resident times in the mixed layer and the euphoric zone (upper layer in which there is sufficient light for photo-synthesis) respectively are long enough (i.e., Marine Upwelling)

(ii)

Tidal and wave Energy:

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The gravitational force exerted by moon causes tides and movement of winds over sea surface due to differential heating causes waves in the sea.

1.4.4.1 Tidal Energy: 

Tidal Power projects attempt to harness the energy of tides as they flow in and out. The main criteria for a tidal power generation site are that the mean tidal range must be greater than 5 meters.

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The tidal power is harnessed by building a dam across the entrance to a bay or estuary creating a reservoir. As the tide rises, water is initially prevented from entering the bay then when tides are high and water is sufficient to run the turbines, the dam is opened and water flows through it into the reservoir (the bay), turning the blades of turbines and generating electricity.

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Again when the reservoir (the bay) is filed. The dam is closed, stopping the flow and holding the water in reservoir when the tide falls (ebb tide) the water level in the reservoir is higher than that in the ocean. The dam is then opened to run the turbines (which are reversible), electricity is produced as the water is let out of the reservoir.

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The dams build to harness the tidal power adversely affect the vegetation and wildlife.

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1.4.4.2 Wave Energy: Wave energy is produced when electrics generators are placed on the surface of the ocean the energy provided is most often used to desalination plants, power plants and water pumps, energy output is determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density to date there are only a handful experimental wave generator plants in operations around the world. Merit of tidal energy (i)

It is inexhaustible and renewable source of energy.

(ii)

Besides being inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the uncertainly of precipitation (rainfall, etc.) even if there is a continuous dry spell for many years, there will be no effect whatever on tidal power generation.

(iii)

It is pollution-free source of energy, as it does not use any fuel and also does not produce any unhealthy waste.

Limitations of Tidal Energy (i)

Variability in output caused by the variations in the tidal range.

(ii)

Generation is intermittent. However this intermittent pattern could be improved to certain extent by using two (or more) basined to double cycle system.

(iii)

Tidal power schemes require low-head turbines which are larger and more expensive than high-head turbines of similar power.

Merits of wave Energy (i)

It is free renewable and pollution-free energy resource.

(ii)

Unlike tidal energy (which is very site-specific), some potential for the extraction of wave energy exists on almost any coastline.

(iii)

Energy has been naturally concentrated in waves therefore the energy density of ocean waves is greater than that of wind as well as solar (the natural processes that generate them).

Limitations of Wave Energy (i)

Wave energy extraction equipment must be capable of operating in a marine environment and withstand very severe peak stresses in storms.

(ii)

A variety of working fluids and prime movers are required to convert the slow-acting, reversing wave forces into high speed, unidirectional rotation of a generator shaft. That is, the wave energy conversion devices are relatively complicated.

(iii)

With present state of technologies wave power is expensive.

1.4.5 Solar Power •

Sun is a source of enormous amounts of energy in the form of radiation energy travelling in small wave packet called photons. It is believed that with just 0.1 percent of the 75000 trillion kwh of solar energy that reaches earth. The planet's energy requirements can be fulfilled.

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Solar energy use can be classified as: (i)

Direct use of solar energy through the capture of sunlight and it can be used for heating generating electricity and cooling.

(ii) Indirect use of solar energy derived from natural processes driven by the sun for example wind biomass waves, hydroelectric power. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY Energy & Environment •

A. • • •

• •

• •

•

•

•

B. • •

Energy

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Under Direct use, sunlight can be converted into A. Heat as solar Thermal Energy B. Electricity as solar Electric Energy C. Chemical Energy as Solar Fuels Solar Thermal Energy: Solar Thermal energy can be used to heat water or air. It is most often used for heating water in buildings and in swimming pools. Solar Thermal energy is also used to heat the insides of buildings. Solar heating systems can be classified as passive or active. Passive solar space heating happen in a car on a hot summer day. The sun's rays power though the windows and heat up the inside of the car, in passive solar heated buildings aire is circulated past a solar heat-absorbing surface and through the building by natural convection No mechanical equipment is used for passive solar heating. Solar Thermal energy devices include solar cookers, solar water heating systems. Solar air heating, crop drying, refrigeration, water pumping, timber seasoning and water desalination Active solar heating systems use collector and a fluid to collect and absorb solar radiation, farms or pumps circulate air or heat absorbing liquids through collectors ad then transfer the heated fluids directly to a room or to a heat storage system. Active water heating systems usually include a tank for storing water heated by the system. Solar collectors are either non concentrating or concentrating. Nonconcentrating collectors the collector area (the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area (the area absorbing the radiation.) flat plate collectors are the most common type of non concentrating collectors and are used when temperature lower than 200 F are sufficient. Non concentrating collectors are often used for heating wear or air for space heating in buildings and in swimming pools. Concentrating collectors the intercepting areas of the solar radiations is greater sometimes hundreds of times greater than the absorber area. The collector focuses or concentrates solar energy onto an absorber. The collector usually moves so that it maintains a high degree of concentration on the absorber. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems: Most solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. The super heated liquid is used to make steam to produce electricity in the same way that coal plants do. Solar Energy for cooling: A solar collector can also be used for cooling. In the system, energy from the sunlight powers a small heat engine similar to an electric motor of a refrigerator. The heat engine drives a piston that compresses a special vapor into a liquid: the liquid then revalorizes and draws heat out of the surrounding air. Solar Electric Energy: Sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy. These photons contain varying amounts of energy that correspond to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. A photovoltaic (PV) cell is made of a semi conductor material. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed by the semiconductor material. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (solar energy) is absorbed by the material, atoms special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to the dislodged or free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface of the cell electrical conductors are placed on the cell to absorb the electrons. When the conductors are connected in an electrical circuit to an external load, such as an appliance, electricity flows in the circuit.

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•

General Studies

Photovoltaic cells generate direct current (DC) electricity. This DC electricity can be used to charge batteries that, in turn, power devices that use direct current electricity nearly all electricity is supplied as alternating current in electricity transmission and distribution systems.

Solar radiation

Photovoltaics (PV) Solar cells, photovolatic arrays

Solar Thermal Heat exchanges

Solar Hot Water Concentrating Solar Thermal Parabolic through, power tower, parabolic dish, fresnel reflector

Bulb

Electricity

Process Heat Space heating, food processing and cooking,. distillation, desallination, industrial hot water

C.

Solar Chemical Energy (Solar Fuel):

•

The biggest obstacle to renewable energy is not the generation of sustainable energy sources but the storage of renewable energy.

•

Solar fuels refer to the process where energy from the sun is captured and stored in the chemical bonds of material. Photosynthesis is the blueprint for this procedure.

•

There are three main approaches for producing solar fuels.

A.

A.

Artificial photosynthesis

B.

Natural photosynthesis

C.

Thermo chemical approaches.

Artificial photosynthesis Artificial photosynthesis is a term that has emerged to describe processes that like natural photosynthesis, harvests sunlight and uses this energy to chemically convert water and carbon dioxide into fuels. •

Artificial photosynthesis refers to the constructions of a bio-inspired device that directly converts energy from the sun into fuel. Such a device will almost certainly use the same basic steps as used in photosynthesis light harvesting charge separations water splitting (solar Hydrolysis and fuel production such a device can potentially, yield a much higher efficiency compared to other methods of solar to duel conversion in theory up to 42%.

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Sunlight is absorbed by plants, algae and certain bacteria.

15

This solar energy drives a complex process in which water and carbon dioxide are converted to oxygen and carbohydrates or other ‘fuels’.

Plants Algae

Sunlight Water

Carbon dioxide

Oxygen

Fuel

Cyanobacteria •

Solar Hydrolysis involves usage of solar energy to split water into its component allowing the solar energy to be stored as hydrogen fuel.

parts, thereby

Producing hydrogen by splitting water using sunlight

Water Sunlight Solar fuel production system

Sunlight is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen Sunlight Oxygen Water

Water

Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be used a transport fuel and is already widely used as a raw material for making products like fertilser and plastics B.

Natural photosynthesis

•

An obvious route to the production of fuel from sunlight is to use photosynthesis itself here, there are two main directions cellular systems and plants Single celled photosynthetic organisms such as algae and photosynthetic bacteria can be utilized to produced fuels such an approach is attractive for a number of reasons.

•

Firstly natural photosynthesis recycles CO2 from air and the potential efficiency is relatively high.

•

Second, many of these microorganisms can be grown in dirty or brackish water.

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•

Fuel can also be made from plants (this is the way most of the current biofuels are produced). However, solar to fuel conversion efficiencies are low (generally significantly less than 1 percent) fuel production from plants is generally considered not to be a good long term solution.

C.

Thermochemical production Thermo chemical production of fuel uses heat from the sun to heat reactanta to very high temperature to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These two substances can then be used to produce fuel.

Advantages of Solar energy: 1.

Solar Energy is free although there is a cost in the building of collectors and other equipment required to convert solar energy into electricity or hot water.

2.

Solar energy does not cause pollution. However, solar collectors and other associated equipment machines are manufactured in factors that in turn cause some pollution.

3.

Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the electricity power grid.

Disadvantages of solar energy: 1.

Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.

2.

Solar collectors panels and cells are relatively expensive to manufacture although prices are falling rapidly.

3.

Solar power stations can be built but they do not match the power output of similar sized conventional power stations. They are also very expensive.

1.4.6 Biomass Energy •

Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source of energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis.

•

Sources of biomass: These are obtained from the following four broad categories of biomass sources: (i) Plantations specially raised for producing energy or energy and food such as energy plantations petro crops, agro forestry etc; (ii) Agricultural residues and wastes including manure straw bagasse and forest wastes; (iii) Uncultivated biomass such as weeds: and (iv) Organic urban or industrial wastes.

•

Biomass energy can be derived in many ways. (i)

By direct burning as Solid Biofuels

(ii) By converting into liquids Biofuels (iii) By converting into Biogas (1)

Solid Biomass Burning (Solid Biofuels):

•

When biomass is burning, the chemical energy biomass is released as heat. It is an age old practice to harness bio-energy. Examples of biomass and their uses for energy.

•

Examples of Solidbiomass sources influxe Wood logs and pellet, Charcoal, Agricultural waste (stalks and other plant debris), Timbering waste (branches, treetops and wood chips), Animal waste (dung), Aquatic plants (kelp and water hyacinths), Urban waste (paper cared board and other combustible materials)

•

Biomass can be burnt directly as a source for cooking, heating, lighting , generating steam, for industrial use for producing electricity.

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(2)

Liquid Biofuels:

•

Liquid biofuels being considered world over fall into the following categories:

•

1.

Alcohols;

2.

Plant seed oils; and

3.

Biocrude and synthetic oils.

Alcohols produced by the action of micro organisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (more difficult). 

Bio-ethanol, most commonly used is produced by fermentation of sugar and starchy crops.



Bio-methanol can be obtained by thermo chemical degradation of lignocelluloses material.

 Bionutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement of gasoline/ petrol, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine the sources of sugars to produce ethanol include. •

Sugar containing materials, like sugar cane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum etc.

•

Starch containing materials such as corn, potato skins cassava, wheat, rice algae etc; and,

•

Cellulosic materials such as bagasse, wood waste, agricultural and forestry residues

(3)

Bio fuel gas:

•

Biogas is a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

•

Biogas primarily consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) moisture and siloxanes.

•

Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste landfills plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste.

•

Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen carbon monoxide and very often some carbon dioxide. It s produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water, syngas can be produced from many sources, including natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually any hydrocarbon feedstock.

•

Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal, as opposed to natural gas. 

In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria decompose organic matter as follows: Organic matter + Anaerobic bacteria  CH4 + CO2 + H2S + NH3 + Other end products + energy.



The conditions for bio gasification need to anaerobic, for which a totally enclosed process vessel is required. Although this necessitates a higher level of technology than compared to composting, it allows a greater control over the process itself and the emission of noxious odours.

1.4.6.1 Classification of Biofuels: The international Energy Agency (IEA) adopts a simplified classification of biofuels based on the maturity of the technology deployed. This taxonomy uses terms like "conventional" and "advanced" to distinguish between different types of biofuels. 1.

Conventional biofuels (1st generation biofuels) include sugar and starch-based ethanol, oil-crop based biodiesel and straight vegetable oil, as well as biogas derived through anaerobic digestion. The technology for conventional biofuel is well-established and is being deployed for producing biofuels on a commercial scale.

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The most common conventional biofuels that are largely used as transport fuels are ethanol and biodiesel. Both ethanol and biodiesel are used in internal combustion engines either in its pure form or more often as an additive. 2.

Advanced biofuel (2nd and 3rd generation biofuels) include biofuels based on feedstock lie lignocelluloses biomass, which include cellulosic ethanol, biomass-to-liquids diesel, an bio synthetic gas. The category also includes novel conversion technologies, such as algae-based biofuels and the conversion of sugar into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts, and biofuel produced from conversion of agriculture residues. The technologies deployed for producing advanced biofuels are still in the research and development (R&D) or demonstration stage.

Merits of Bio-energy: 1.

Plants ensure a continuous supply of energy due to their continuous growth.

2.

The cost of obtaining bio-energy through energy-plantations is less than the cost or obtaining energy from fossil fuels.

3.

The production of biogas (particularly from human or animal waters) has additional value in intensive agricultural systems as a method of avoiding pollution.

4.

Growth of biomass consumes more carbon dioxide than is released during combustion of biomass beside producing the atmosphere purifying oxygen as a by-product of the photosynthetic process.

Demerits of Biomass energy: 1.

Expensive: Firstly, its expensive, living thing are expensive to care for, feed, and house, and all of that has to be considered when trying to use waste products from animals for fuel.

2.

Inefficient as compared to fossil fuels: Secondly, the relative inefficiency of biomass energy, ethanol as a biodiesel is terribly inefficient when compared to gasoline, and it often has to be mixed with some gasoline to make it work properly. On top of that, ethanol is harmful to combustion engines over ling term use.

3.

Harmful to environment: Thirdly, using animal and human waste to power engines may save on carbon dioxide emissions, but it increases methane gases, which are also harmful to the earth's ozone layer. So really, we are no better off environmentally for using one or the other. And speaking of using waste products, there is the smell to consider. While it is not physically harmful, it is definitely unpleasant, and it can attract unwanted pests (rats, files) and spread bacteria and infection.

Environmental impacts of Biomass Energy: 1.

Greater Deforestation and soil degradation

2.

Destruction of natural habitat for wild life

3.

Water scarcity and alters ground water table

4.

Over consumption of fertilizers and pesticides

Ranking 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ranking of renewable energies By sustainability By cleanliness Wind Wind Hydro CSP Geothermal Tidal PV Wave hydro

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Energy

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Recent developments and key conditions for faster deployment of low-carbon energy technologies

Technology

Renewable power

Recent developments  Installation of renewable-based power generation technologies hit a record high in 2014 helped by the continuing decline in technology costs.  Onshore wind capacity increased by 45GW with China alone adding 20 GW. Solar PV grew by around 40 GW

Key conditions for faster deployment  Ensure a predictable and reliable lond term market to mitigate investment risks.  Promote a regulatory framework the supports cost-effective remuneration avoiding high cost incentives and the possibility of retroactive change.

Nuclear power

 In 2014, 72 GW of nuclear capacity were under construction  Three projects began construction in 2014, down from ten in 2013.  Almost 40 countries are considering developing first nuclear plants. Three counters have committed to phasing out nuclear power

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

 The first large-scale power plant CO2 capture was demonstrated in 2014.  Thirteen large-scale CCS projects were online capturing a total of 26 Mt CO2 per year by the end of 2014  Two large-scale CCS power projects are under constructions in the united States.

Biofuels

 Impacted by the price declines in crude oil there is ongoing uncertainly over future biofuel demand and investment.  Investment in new biofuels capacity has focused on hydro-treated vegetable oil in Europe and cellulosic plants in the United States.

 Develop long term policies, demonstration scale and pilot plants to advance technology development.  Formulate and implement sustainability criteria and standards.

Hybrid and electric vehicles.

 Global sales of light-duty passenger electric vehicles grew by 50% in 2014, compared with 2013

 Continue and enhance research and development infrastructure roll-out and government incentives to support development of EVs.

Energy efficiency

 The share of the world's energy consumption covered by efficiency regulation



 Promote incentives for all types of low carbon solutions to provide financing certainly for investment.  Recognize the security of supply, reliability and predictability that nuclear power offers.  Demonstrate financial and policy commitment to CCS demonstration and deployment. Help to mitigate investment riks.  Carbon pricing that expands the commercial value of CO2, beyond its use in enhanced recovery.

Storage demonstration by pumped by, which accounts for 99% of global energy storage. •

Some technologies provide short term energy storage while others can endure for much longer.

•

A wind up stored potential energy (in this case mechanical in the spring tension),a rechargeable battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store energy derived from sunlight by organism that lader died, became buried and over same were them converted into these fodd which is made by the same process is fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

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1.5 BATTERIES Batteries are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. We can distinguish between primary on secondary batteries primary batteries convert chemical energy to electrical energy irreversibly. For example zinc carbon and alkaline batteries are primary batteries, secondary batteries or rechargeable batteries as they are more commonly called convert chemical energy to electrical energy reversibly. This means that they can be recharged when an over potential is used in other words, excess electrical energy is stored in these secondary batteries in the form of chemical energy typical examples for rechargeable batteries are lead acid or lithium ion batteries.

1.5.1 Types of Batteries •

The lead acid battery is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy to weight ratio and a low energy to volume ratio its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power to weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost make it attractive for being economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. The lead acid battery is the preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs, emergency lighting and UPS systems automobiles.

•

The nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element and was banned for most uses by many countries. The NiCd is used where long life, high discharge rate and economical price aer important. Main applications are two way radios biomedical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools the NiCd contains toxic metals and is environmentally unfriendly.

•

The nickel metal hydride battery (NIMH) has a hydrogen -absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium . it has a higher energy density compared to the NiCd at the expense of reduced cycle life, NiMH contains no toxic metal applications include mobile phones and laptop computers. These are now a common use for consumer and industrial type goods.

•

The lithium ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991. Li-ion in used where high energy density, lightweight and a very slow loss of charge when not in use the technology is fragile and a protection circuit is required to assure safety. Applications include consumer electronics like notebook computers and cellular phones.

•

Lithium ion polymer batteries are light in weight offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in may shape they are available but have not displaced Li-ion in the market.

Fuel cell Technology: •

Fuel cells generate electricity by an electrochemical reaction in which oxygen and a hydrogen rich fuel combine to form water.

•

Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells in the they generate electricity with very little pollution much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water

Hydrogen + oxygen  Electricity + Water vapor •

Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical potential energy into electrical energy and also, as a byproduct of this process into heat energy however a battery holds a closed store of energy when it and once this is depleted the battery must be discarded on recharged by using an internal supply of electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction in the reverse direction. A fuel cell on the other hand uses an external supply of chemical energy and can run indefinitely as long as it is supplied with a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen (usually air).

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Fuel cells are generally classified according to the nature of the electrolyte (except for direct methanol fuel cells which are named for their ability to use methanol as a fuel) each type requiring particular materials and fuel each fuel cell type also has its own operational characteristics offering advantages to particular applications the his makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.

1.6 ENERGY SCENARIO AT WORLD •

Top ten countries in Energy Consumption (mtoe) (1) China 3101 (2) USA 2196 (3) India 882 (4) Russia 718 (5) Japan 435 (6) Germany 305 (7) Brazil 299 (8) South Korea 280 (9) Canada 251 (10) France 246 (11) Iran 244 (12) Indonesia 227 1.6.1 ENERGY TRILEMMA INDEX The energy Trilemma index ranks countries in term of their likely ability to provide sustainable. Energy policies through the 3 dimensions of the energy trilemma: • Energy security: the effective management of primary energy supply from domestic and external sources, the reliability of energy infrastructure, and the ability of participating energy companies to meet current and future demand. • Energy equity: the accessibility and affordability of energy supply across the population. • Environmental sustainability: the achievement of supply and demand side energy efficiencies and the development of energy supply from renewable and the others low- carbon sources.

1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA 1.7.1 Coal •

•

•

India has the third-largest hard coal reserves in the world (roughly 12% of the world total), as well as significant deposits of lignite. The estimated reserves of coal were 301.05 billion tons, 98% of India's coal reserves belong to Gondwana coal. Yet the deposits are generally of low quality and India faces major obstacles to the development of its coal resources in a way that keeps pace with burgeoning domestic needs. Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the country. The states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra account for more than 99% of the total coal reserves in the country. The State of Jharkhand had the maximum share (26.81%) in the overall reserves of coal in the country as on 2014 followed by the State of Odisha(24.94%). In 2015, India produced almost 650 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce), but it also imported some 140 Mtce - roughly 12% of world coal imports (61% from Indonesia, 21% from Australia, 13% from South Africa). With a view to limiting reliance on imports, the government intended to double the country's coal production by 2020.

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•

General Studies

At present, more than 90% of coal in India is produced by open cast mining. This method has relatively low production costs and is less dangerous than deep mining, but has a large, adverse environmental footprint in the form of land degradation, deforestation, erosion and acid water runoff.

Oil and oil products •

India is one the few countries in the world (alongside the United states and Korea) that rely on imports of crude oild while also being significant net exporters of refined products. Domestic crude oil production of just over 900 thousand barrels per day (kb/d) is far from enough to satisfy the needs of 4.4 mb/d of refinery capacity. The output from the refinery sector, in turn, is more than enough to meet India's current consumption of oil products, at around 3.8 mb/d (with the exception of LPG, for which imports about half of domestic consumption).

•

The estimated reserves of crude oil in India as in 2014 stood at 762.74 million tons(MT).

•

India has relatively modest oil resources and most of the proven reserves (around 5.7 billion barrels) are located in the western part of the country, notably in Rajasthan and in offshore areas near Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Assam-Arakan basin in the northeast is also an oil-producing basin and contains nearly a quarter of total reserves.

•

The upstream of oil supply in india is still dominated by a few state-owned companies: about two-thirds of crude oil is produced by the Oil Natural Gas Corporations Limited (ONGC) and Oil India Limited (OIL) under a pre-liberalization nomination regime. Most of the remaining production comes from joint ventures with the national oil and gas companies and from blocks awarded under successive licensing rounds held under the New Exploration Licensing Policy introduced in 1999.

1.7.2 Refineries in India •

Visakhapatnam, Tatipaka in A.P;

•

Digboi, Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Numaligarh in Assam;

•

Barauni in Bihar;

•

Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar in Gujarath;

•

Panipat in Harayan;

•

Mangalore in Karnataka;

•

Kochi in Kerala;

•

Bina in M.P;

•

Mumbai in M.H;

•

Paradip in Orissa;

•

Bathinda in Punjab;

•

Chennai, Cauvery Basin in T.N;

•

Mathura in U.P;

•

Haldia in W.B. Natural Gas has a relatively small share (6%) of the domestic energy mix. The main onshore producing fields are in the states of Assam in the northeast, Gujarat in the west and Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in the south. Some of the most promising areas are offshore, including the Krishna Godavari basin off the east coast. Production of conventional gas reached 34 bcm in 2013 and was supplemented by LNG imports via four regasification terminals. The majority state-owned gas company, GAIL is the largest player in the midstream and downstream gas market. In addition to conventional potential, both from coalbed methane (CBM) and shale gas.

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1.8 MAJOR PIPELINES IN INDIA Crude oil from oil-wells and finished products from refineries are generally transported through pipelines. Transportation of oil and petroleum through pipelines is cheap, effective and considered to be safe. Looking at these advantages, a network of pipelines has been developed in India. Some of the important pipelines are as under:

1.8.1 Pipelines of North-East India (i)

Noonmati-Siliguri-Pipeline to transport petroleum products from Noonmati to Siliguri.

(ii) Lakwa-Rudrasagar-Barauni Pipeline, completed in 1968 to transport crude-oil from Lakwa and Rudrasagar (Sibsagar District, Assam) to Barauni Oil Refinery (Bihar). (iii) Barauni-Haldia Pipeline: This pipeline was laid down in 1966 to carry refined petroleum products to Haldia port and bring back imported crude-oil to Barauni refinery. (iv) Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline: This pipeline was completed in 1966 to transport refined petro-leum products to Kanpur city. (v) Noonmati-Bngaigaon Pipeline: This pipeline was constructed to transport crude-oil Bongaigaon petro-chemical complex. (vi) Haldia-Maurigram-Rajbandh Pipeline: This pipeline was comleted in 1998.

1.8.2 Pipeline of Western India (i)

Bombay-High Mumbai-Ankleshwer-Koyali Pipeline: This pipe-line connects the oilfields of Bombay High and Gujarat with the Koyali refinery of Gujarat. The city of Mumbai has been connected with a pipe line of 210 km length double pipeline to Bombay High to transport crude oil and natural gas. The Ankleshwar-Koyali pipeline was completed in 1965 to transport crude oil to Koyali refinery.

(ii)

The Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipline: This pipeline, 1075 km m length was laid down from Salaya (Gulf of Kachchh) to koyali and Mathura refinery. From Mathura, it has been extended to the oil-refinery at Panipat (Harayana) and Jalandhar in Punjab. It has and offshore terminal and the Sayala-Koyali sector of the pipeline was completed in 1978, while the Viramgram-Mathura sector was completed in 1981.

1.8.3 The Matura-Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar Pipeline: This 513 km long pipeline was constructed to transport refinery products of Mathura to the main cities of north and north-west India.

1.8.4 Pipelines of Gujarat: In Gujarat, there are a number of short distance pipelines to transport crude-oil and natural gas to the refineries and the refined products to the market. These include the Kalol-Sabarmati market. These include the Kalol-Sabarmati Crude Pipeline, the Nwagam-Kalol-Koyali Pipeline, the Nwagam-KalolKoyali Pipeline, the Cambay-Dhuravan Gas Pipeline, the Ankleshwar-Uttran Gas Pipeline, the AnkleshwarVadodara Gas Pipeline, and the Koyali-Ahamadabad products Pipeline.

1.8.5 Mumbai Pipeline: From Mumbai, pipeline have been laid up to Pune and Manmad to distribute petroleum products.

1.8.6 The Haldia-Kolkata Pipeline: Through this pipeline, the Haldia products are sent to Kolkata and neighbouring urban places. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

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General Studies

1.8.7 The Hajira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline: Having a length of 1750 km, this is the longest pipeline of India. It crosses 75 big and small rivers and 29 railway crossings. This pipeline was laid down by the Gas Authority of India. This gas pipeline connects Kawas (Gujarat), Anta (Rajasthan), Bijaipur (M.P.) and Jagdishpur (U.P.) and Auraiya (U.P.). It provides gas to the fertilizer plants at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla and Babrola. Each one of these fertiliser plants has the capacity to produce about 1400 tonnes of ammonia per day.

1.8.8 The Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline: This Pipeline transports imported crude-oil from the Kandla seaport to the Bhatinda refinery. Shale Gas/Shale Oil Resources: It is estimated that a number of onland sedimentary areas in Gangetic plain, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh & Assam in India, including the hydrocarbons bearing basins - Cambay, Cauvery, Krishna Godavari, Assam-Arakan & Damodar (Gondawana) have large shale deposits. There have been few efforts by the Government to conduct surveys and estimate the full potential reserves of shale oil and shale gas in the country. Coal Bed Methane (CBM): CBM is Natural Gas produced from Coal Beds in Coal bearing areas. In order to harness CBM potential in the country, CBM Policy was formulated in 1997. The Government of India has so far awarded 33 CBM blocks under 4 rounds of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Assam.

1.9 NUCLEAR POWER India has twenty-one operating nuclear reactor at seven sites, with a total installed capacity close to 6 GW. Another six nuclear power plants are under construction, which will add around 4GW to the total. The operation of the existing nuclear fleet has been constrained in the past by chronic fuel shortages. •

This constraint was eased after India became a party to the Nuclear Supplier Group agreement in 2008, allowing access not only to technology and expertise but also reactor parts and uranium.

1.9.1 Nuclear program of India Though the current share of nuclear power in the generation mix is relatively small at 3%, India has ambitious plans to expand its future role, including a long-term plan to develop more complex reactors that utilize thorium - a potential alternative source of fuel for nuclear reactors. India has limited low-grade uranium reserves, but it has the world's largest reserve of thorium: developing a thorium fuel cycle will though require a range of tough economic, technical and regulatory challenges to be overcome.

1.9.2 Nuclear Policy of India Though the National Security Board of India has submitted a Draft Nuclear Policy to the government in 1998, it has not yet been accepted and approved by the government. However the Draft Policy has not been rejected too and the government has included some of the key aspects of the Draft Policy in nuclear doctrine. The main tenets mentioned in the Draft Policy have been described below: 1.

The prime objective of India is to achieve economic, political, social, scientific and technology development within a peaceful and democratic network.

2.

In order to fulfill the objective, India will strive for peace and insurance against possible potential risks to stability.

3.

India strongly feels that unless the disarmament is followed globally, the target to sustain nuclear deterrence cannot be achieved.

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4.

Indian nuclear weapon programme aims to deter the possible use of such weapons by any other country.

5.

Indian is ready to invoke measures to counter any threat to her peace and stability.

6.

India will maintain effective surveillance and early warning capabilities.

7.

India will not take any step to use nuclear weapon against any country except in case of any nuclear attack on Indian by other countries. This tenet has popularly been known as the concept of 'no first use'.

8.

India will follow the policy of credible minimum deterrence.

9.

India's principles of nuclear deterrence are creditability, effectiveness and survivability.

10.

Special focus is to be given to ensure nuclear safety.

11.

With a view to improving communication network to develop effective surveillance and early warning system, space science and other communication techniques will be strengthened.

12.

India will strengthen her computing and intelligence system.

13.

India will assure the dual capable delivery system.

14.

India will assure improved research and development program to sustain technological advancements.

15.

Arms control measure will be made a part of the national security policy.

1.9.3 INDIA'S NUCLEAR ENERGY PROGRAMME •

The importance of nuclear energy, as a sustainable energy resource for India was recognized at the very inception of its atomic energy programme more than four decades ago. A three-stage nuclear power porgramme, based on a closed nuclear fuel cycle, was then chalked out. The three stage are:

First Stage Reactor

Pressured Heavy Water Rector (PHWR)

Capacity

250MW

Fuel By-product Coolant

Natural Uranium Plutonium Heavy Water Second Stage

Rector Capacity Fuel

Fast Breeder Rector 500 MW Plutonium obtained from the first stage

Along with the fuel, some Thorium will be kept inside the reactor and it will be converted into U02333. Third Stage Rector Capacity Fuel •

Fast Breeder Reactor 1000MW U-233 obtained from the second stage

India stared the indigenous development of nuclear power plants based on uranium cycle in PHWRs, in the First Stage. At present India has twelve such reactors under operation, four are under construction, and several others have been planned.

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India has become self sufficient in all aspects of the PHWR technology. The capacity factors of operating PHWRs have been close to eighty percent during recent years, and excellent performance even with respect to international standards. •

A large volume of R & D has been done in the past to provide support to PHWR programme. Such support has encompassed construction, commissioning, operation and maintenance of these power plants. Considering the limited size of India's nuclear power programme based on PHWRs, there does not seem to be any necessity for seeking major changes in the already matured and standardized designs of its 220 and 500 MWe PHWRs. The required R & D support for currently operating and future PHWRs will, however, continue although the range and volume of these activities to be carried out at BARC is likely to progressively reduce.

•

As a part of the Second Stage, India started the FBR programme with the Fast Breeder Test Rector (FBTR), at IGCAR, Kalpakkam. This rector, operating with indigenously developed mixed (U+Pu) carbide fuel, has already yielded a large volume of operating experience and a better understanding of the technologies involved. This has enabled the country to design 500 MWe (Prototype) FBR that will utilize plutonium and the depleted uranium from its PHWRs Construction of this reactor is due to begin soon.

•

With the experience gained from the first prototype, improvement and up-gradation in the technology will of course, be an important part of the programme in the coming years. Implementation of further evolutionary and innovative improvements in the reactor design and associated fuel cycle technologies will follow next.

•

India is now designing and developing advanced nuclear system, which will utilize the precious plutonium resources in an optimum way to maximize conversion of thorium to 233U, extract power in-situ from the thorium fuel, and recycle the bred 233U in future reactors.

•

The Advanced heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) project provides a focal point for a time bound high intensity development in the efficient utilizations of thorium. The work on AHWR will also help in conserving and further enhancing the R & D expertise related to Heavy Water Reactors. Reprocessing and re-fabrication of the fuel plays a major par in the utilization of resources to the full extent. R & D work on the reprocessing and re-fabrication in the context of AHWR is an important step forward towards large-scale thorium utilization.

•

A very important and upcoming technology is accelerator Driven System (ADS), which is attracting worldwide attention due to its superior safety characteristics and is potential for burning actinide and fission product waste and energy production. A number of countries around the world have drawn up roadmaps/programs for development of ADS.

•

Indian interest in ADS has an additional dimension, which is related to the planned utilization of its large thorium reserves for future nuclear energy generation. Thorium has the added advantage that is produces much less quantities of long-lived radioactive actinide wastes as compared to uranium. However, as discussed earlier thorium by itself is not fissile and must be first converted to fissile U-232 by neutron irradiation. In ADS, the accelerator delivers additional neutrons over and above those coming from fission.

1.10 HYDROPOWER •

India has significant scope to expand its use of hydropower: Its current 45 GW of installed capacity (of which over 90% is large hydro) represent a little under a third of the assessed resource. Much of the remaining potential is in the north and northeast. A further 14 GW are under construction. If developed prudently, hydropower can bring multiple benefits as a flexible source of clean electricity, and also as a means of water management for flood control, irrigation and domestic uses, its can also enable variable renewable to make greater contribution to the grid.

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However, its development has lagged well behind thermal generation capacity, leading to a consistent decline in its share of total electricity output. High upfront costs, the need for long-term debt (Which is quite limited in India's capital markets) and consequent difficulties with financing have been major impediment to realizing India's hydropower potential. •

Some hydropower projects have faced very long environmental clearance and approval procedures, as well as significant public opposition arising largely from resettlement issues and concern over the impact on other water users. Some of these concerns can be reduced by undertaking small-scale project: India has an estimated potential 20 GW of small hydro projects (up to 25 MW capacities). As of 2014, 2.8 GW of small hydro (less than 10MW) had been developed. Such projects are particularly well-suited to meet power requirements in remote areas.

Other Renewable resources in India: The total potential for renewable power generation in the country in 2014 is estimated at 147615 MW. This includes wind power potential of 102772 MW (69.6%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential of 19749 MW (13.38%) Biomass power potential of 17,538 MW (11.88%) and 5000 MW (3.39%) from bagassebased cogeneration in sugar mills.

Sourcewise Estimated Potential of Renewable Power in India as on 31.03.14

Biomass power 12%

Small Hydro power 13%

Cogeneration bagasse Waste to Energy 3% 2%

Wind Power 70%

Total Reserves = 147615 Mega Watt •

Wind and Solar From a low base, modern renewable energy (excluding hydropower) is rapidly gaining ground in India's energy mix as the government has put increasing emphasis on renewable energy, including grid-connected and off-grid systems.

•

Wind Power has made the fastest progress and provides the largest share of modern non-hydro renewable energy in power generation to date. India has the fifth-largest amount of installed wind power capacity in the world, with 23 GW in 2014, although investment has fluctuated with changes in subsidy policies at national and state level.

•

Solar power has played only a limited role in power generation thus far, with installed capacity reaching 3.7 GW in 2014, much of this added in the last five years. However, Indian began to put a much stronger emphasis on solar development with the launch in 2010 of the Jawaharlal Nehru Nation Solar Mission, the target of which was dramatically upgraded as national solar Mission in 2014 to 100 GW of solar

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installations by 2022, 40 GW of rooftop solar photovoltaic's (PV) and 60 GW of large and medium-scale grid-connected PV projects (as part of broader 175 GW target of installed renewable power capacity by 2022, excluding large hydropower). •

The dependence of national targets on supportive actions taken at state level is underlined by the fact that four states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) account for over three-quarters of today's installed capacity.

•

The larges wind power generating state is Tamil Nadu accounting for nearly 30% of installed capacity, followed in decreasing order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka.

1.11 BIO-ENERGY Bio-energy accounts for roughly a quarter of India's energy consumption, by far the largest share of which is the traditional use of biomass for cooking in households. This reliance gives rise to a number of problems, notably the adverse health effects of indoor air pollution. India is also deploying a range of more modern bio-energy applications, relying mainly on residues from its large agricultural sector. 

There was around 7 GW of power generation capacity fuelled by biomass in 2014, the largest share is based on bagasse (a by- product of sugarcane processing) and a smaller share is cogeneration based on other agricultural residues. The remainder produces electricity via a range of gasification technologies that use biomass to produce syngas, including small-scale thermal gasifiers that often support rural small businesses. Although modern bio-energy constitutes only a small share of energy use at present, Indian policy has recognized - with the launch of a National Bio-energy Mission the potential for modern bio-energy to become a much larger part of the energy picture especially in rural areas, where it can provide a valuable additional source of income to farmers, as well as power and process heat for consumers.



Bio fuels are another areas of bio-energy development in India, supported by an ambitious mandatory blending of 5% in petrol has started in 2009, that anticipates a progressive increase to a 20% share for bio ethanol and biodiesel by 2017. Implementation has thus far been slower than planned: the present share of bio ethanol mostly derived from sugarcane- remains well under 5% and progress with bio diesel has been even more constrained. The main concern over bio fuels - and some other forms of bio energy - is the adequacy of supply: land for bio fuels cultivation can compete with other uses, as well as requiring water and fertilizers that may limited and is required in other sectors.

1.12 GEO THERMAL ENERGY According to some ambitious estimated, Indian has 10,600 MW of potential in the geothermal provinces but it still needs to be exploited. India has potential resources to harvest geo thermal energy. India has six geo thermal provinces: •

Himalayan Province (Tertiary Organic belt)

•

Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast regions and Son-Narmada (Areas of Faulted blocks).

•

Andaman and Nicobar arc. (Volcanic are)

•

Cambay basin in Gujarat (Deep sedimentary basin)

•

Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand, (Radioactive Province)

•

Cratonic province (Peninsular India) India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. India identified six most promising geo thermal sites for the development of geo thermal energy.

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These are, in decreasing order of potential: •

Tattapani in Chhattisgarh

•

Puga in Jammu & Kashmir

•

Cambay Graben in Gujarat

•

Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh

•

Surajkund in Jharkhand

•

Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir

India plans to set up its first geo thermal power plant, with 2-5 MW capacity at puga in Jammu & Kashmir.

1.13 TIDAL WAVE ENERGY •

Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas. The potential of tidal wave energy become higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and resonance.

•

India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is significant.

•

Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass though turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 meters and also favourable topographical conditions to keep installation costs low.

•

One report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the barrage technology, are the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively.

•

The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, west Bengal is another possibility, although with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in India, mostly in Gujarat.

•

The barrage approach has several disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engineered barrage on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can be expensive to build.

•

In 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy Development Agency of Govt. of Bengal jointly approved and agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an alternative solution to meet the local energy demands of this remote delta region.

•

The annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per meter, suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from India's 7500 kilometer coast line may be about 40 GW. However, the realistic economical potential, the report claims, is likely to be considerably less. Installed Electricity Generation in India: Installed Capacity - 303 GW (Non-Renewable - 72% & Renewable - 28%) Conventional & Non-Renewable: •

Thermal - 210 GW (From Coal-185GW, Gas-24 & Diesel-1GW)

•

Nuclear - 5.78GW

Conventional & Renewable: •

Hydro - 42GW

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Non-Conventional & Renewable Source (43GW) •

Wind - 27GW

•

Solar - 7GW

•

Biomass - 5GW

•

Small Hydro - 4GW

•

Geothermal - Very Less

•

Ocean - Very Less

Percapita Generation of

electricity-1010 kwh

Sector wise Electricity Consumption in India: •

Industrial - 42%

•

Domestic - 24%

•

Agriculture - 20%

•

Commercial - 9%

•

Miscellaneous - 5%

Problem with India's power sector: 

Inadequate last mile connectivity



A system of cross-subsidization



Intraday load and demand Variations



Unreliable Coal supplies



Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure



Environmental Clearance



Lack of clean and reliable energy sources

Recommendations of Ashok Chawla Committee on Natural Resources •

Creation of national database of natural resources

•

Allocation of natural resources, if possible through e-auction

•

Measures for benefit of stakeholders in mineral rich areas

Need for Conserving Energy Resources •

Are limited in supply and cannot be renewed easily.

•

Due to populations explosion, modernization and industrialization the demand for energy resources is increasing day by day

•

To control energy crisis there is need to conserve conventional energy resources.

•

There is also an eminent need to explore alternative sources of energy

Energy Crisis •

A solution in which resources are less than the demand

•

In the past few decades due to high demand, there is shortage of energy resources, which has created energy crisis

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Major cause for Energy Crisis: 

Rapid industrialization



Over population



Transfer losses



Rise in oil prices



Problems in Middle east



Wastage of energy resources

1.14 ENERGY SECURITY OF INDIA •

Energy is the prime mover of a country's economic growth. Availability of energy with required quality of supply is not only key to sustainable development, but the commercial energy also have a parallel impact and influence on the quality of service in the field of education, health and, In fact, even food security.

•

With the growing GDP of 8%, India is moving parallel to China in terms of development, but the energy consumption is catching up as well. But the country is finding it increasingly difficult to source all the oil, natural gas, and electricity it needs to run its booming factories, fuel its care, and light up its homes.

•

According to a report by IEA (international Energy Agency), India needs to invest a total of 800 billion dollars in various stages by 2030 to meet its energy demand. India accounts to around 2.4% of the annual world energy production, but on the other hand consumes 3.3% of the annual world energy supply. And this imbalance is estimated to surpass Japan and Russia by 2030 placing India into the third position in terms of annual energy consumption. Therefore, after summing up all the energy issues, energy security has been identified as the only tool to overcome the energy concerns.

•

Even though domestic production of energy resources is projected o increase, the import dependence is expected to maintain high levels. Import of crude oil is currently about 80% percent of total crude demand in the country.

1.14.1 Issue of Energy Security 1.

Import of Fossil Fuels The energy requirements of Indian economy are estimated to increase substantially in the next two decades. According to Integrated Energy Policy, for a 9% growth over a sustained period, imports of crude oil in 2031-32 may be between 362-520 million tones with import dependence of 91%-94% for natural gas, it may be 25-135 (Mtoe), which means an import dependence of 20%-57% of supply, Coal imports may be between 300-736 (Mtoe), which may be an import dependence may be 34%-67%. Total import dependence may be 58%-67%, as against the current level of 25%, with imports estimated at the higher end at 1,382 (Mtoe). Clearly, the two major fuels- oil and coal may require large imports in the next two decades.

2.

Lack of Exploration and Production In India, there was hardly any investments in the activities of exploration and production in past two decades. There are small oil fields that are been explored which can barely fulfill our oil demand. The KG-Basin case is the only significant achievement.

3.

Shortage in the Storage Facilities The Threat of energy security not only arises from the lack of supply, but also due to the uncertainty of availability of imported energy. Domestic production may also harm energy security. As the major sources of energy are imported, there is a threat due to lack of storage facilities in India.

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4.

General Studies

Rural Electrification India is suffering from a deficit of around 12% on an average in terms of electricity and major share of this deficit is due to the lack of electricity in rural areas. The per capita energy consumption in India is around 1000 KW which is far more less than China which is our competitor. Due to lack of capability to pay high tariffs, private player in the power sector have ignored setting up a power plant near the rural areas. REC Ltd. (Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd.), the only PSU in India, was set up for rural electrification. Village electrification level India as on 2008 was 85.2%

5.

Transmission and Distribution Losses Our country is already suffering from electricity deficit and fuelling this concern is the hurdle of T & D losses up to 30% of generation. This has also laid to higher tariffs that are to be faced by the local consumers.

6.

Unutilized renewable resources India has a potential of around 45000 MW from Wind Power, close to 15000 MW from small Hydro, 16000 MW from Biomass and can produce 20 MW/sq km of Solar Power. But out of the above numbers, only 30% of the renewable potential have been utilized. The electricity generation mix India comprise of around 10% of the renewable.

7.

Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation The concept of efficiency can be applied in energy extraction, transportation, conversion, as well as in consumption. The major areas where it can be make a substantial impact are mining, electricity generation, electricity transmission, electricity distribution, transport equipment pumping water industrial production and process, mass transport, building design, construction, lighting and household appliances, heating ventilation and air conditioning.

1.14.2 Strategies for Energy Security in India: 1. •

Acquiring Energy Resource Assets: Oil and Gas Sector: The important policy for assure availability of energy is investing in energy assets abroad and developing domestic infrastructure for receiving LNG. OVL has been leading this initiative. As part of the investment policy, a joint venture has been set up in Oman for producing fertilizers. It will be useful to set up similar projects in Qatar, Australia, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Vietnam, Venezula, Turkmenistan and Mozambique of other countries, if gas available.

•

Coal Sector: The import requirement of coal at this juncture are limited but are slated to expand rapidly. Both US and China have large domestic coal reserves. India, however, will have to import in the coming years large quantities of coal as mentioned earlier. Though Coal Videsh under the Ministry of Coal has been formed, it has done very little business so far. A number of private players have invested in mines in Indonesia and Australia. There is a need to give a very strong push to the mining investments abroad.

•

Nuclear Energy: Similar arrangements for investments can be worked out for uranium mining. France and Japan had 60%70% of their power from uranium. They have development mining source from different countries like Kazakhstan, South Africa, Australia and Niger. The investment in these provides security for uninterrupted operations. In the view of environmental and security issues, nuclear energy option must be carefully promoted.

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2.

Diversifying Sources:

•

In respect of oil, for example, we can tap markets in Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil, Africa, countries of the Middle East and South America. This will enable flexibility in acquisition. Similarly, sourcing of natural gas and LNG needs to be from a host of source. This may include Qatar, Australia, Middle East, Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Some of the pipeline from Iran and Turkmenistan may pass via Afghanistan and Pakistan. We will have to find innovative ways to meet our security concerns.

•

The exploration and production of shale gas in the United States (US) has been a game changer, making the country self-sufficient in natural gas over the last few years. This has created considerable excitement globally, particularly in Europe, India is also looking at exploring shale gas domestically to fill in the supplydemand gap.

•

The solar energy potential in India is immense due to its convenient location near the Equator. India receives nearly 3000 hours of sunshine every year, which is equivalent to 5000 trillion kWh of energy Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) has set the target of 100 GW by 2022. The target will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale Grid Connected Solar Power Project. As the nation is facing an increasing demand - supply gap in energy, it is important to tap the solar potential to meet the energy needs.

3.

Improving Storage Facilities

•

Crude Oil: The third policy initiative is the development of crude oil/gas storage capacities for meeting exigencies. Also given the different nature of products and nature of government control on pricing of various oil products, the possibility of cess and its realization in the overall costs may raise problems, Cess of this magnitude should be adequate to meet the inventory costs of the oil for 90 days.

•

Nuclear Fuel: There is clearly a need for such reserves of nuclear fuel at atomic power plants. It may be possible to develop extra stocks of uranium in the power plants to meet the eventuality of disruption in supplies. This will add very marginally to the cost but will ensure continuity and uninterrupted power in generation. While setting up new atomic power plants, this must be strategic part of our operation.

4. •

Maximizing domestic reserves : Oil & Gas Sector: In the oil sector, India has adopted an aggressive policy to expand domestic production by developing a transparent regime for award of oil blocks. Exploration of oil and gas are long term investments.

•

Coal Sector: To augment coal production, more coal blocks were awarded to private players. There have also been problems with environment clearances. These issues will need to be addressed. Most countries of the word exploit their coal reserves and the coal fields are thereafter developed and re-forested. We have taken a very restrictive policy in the recent time. No country can afford to let its mineral resources go unused and hope to grow economically. A policy permitting exploration and re-forestation of the areas already mined would be necessary. This is an area of very serious concern.

•

Nuclear Energy: The domestic exploration of uranium mines has been confined, so far, primarily to Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. The quality of uranium has been poor and the domestic production has not picked up significantly. Exploration on this so far has not led to discovery of any major deposits. While deposits were discovered in Meghalaya, there have been other issues which have clouded the development of mines.

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A more aggressive policy for discovering more uranium and mining it will be necessary to augment our resources. India has the largest reverses of thorium in the world. Part of the requirements of energy may be met by developing thorium based atomic plants. 5.

Domestic Demand and its Management:

•

Energy Intensity: The primary concern of management of domestic demand is to develop and energy efficient economy so that the energy intensity of the GDP goes down. In the context of climate change, so far this has assumed major importance.

•

A National Mission on Enhance Energy Efficiency has been a component of National Action Plan on Climate Change. It envisages setting up to specific energy consumption goals for specific plants and performance, achievement and trade (PAT) mechanism so that those who fail to achieve the target can compensate their failure by buying the permits from those who do so.

•

Energy efficiency in domestic lighting, municipal, agricultural and commercial building sectors. It is also proposed to make energy efficiency standards mandatory for equipment and appliances used in domestic sector, hotel equipment, office equipment, transport equipment, industrial products etc.

•

It also mandates technology improvement programme. Energy conservation building code and disseminating measures for generally creating a climate of energy efficiency. This is clearly a step in the right direction.

•

One of the major component of the programmes is introduction of super critical boilers in power plants and promoting energy efficiency in existing plants. The average energy efficiency of coal in the Indian power plants is around 30%-33%. With the introduction of super critical technology, it is possible to increase this to 40% or more.

•

Around 80% of the coal is consumed in the power sector. If energy efficiency in this sector can be improved substantially, the requirement of coal imports can be reduced drastically, thereby reducing domestic demand.

•

Similarly, IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) technology and promoting energy efficiency in existing plants, many of which are quite old, is important. Introduction of advanced super critical boilers, which have energy efficiency higher than above, is another important step.

6.

Reducing Transmission and Distribution Losses: A Major initiative for improving energy efficiency can come from reduction in Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses. Efforts are being made to reduce losses through Accelerated Power Development and Reforms Programme (APDRP) and activities by National Electricity Fund. Several states are also undertaking privatization of distribution utilities or giving these utilities to a franchisee. Privatization has helped in reducing losses to some extent but it needs more encouragement and incentives.

7.

R&D in Hybrid Vehicles: The major consumers of transport fuel are the cars, trucks and railway engines. There have been some R&D initiatives like the use of hydrogen and electric cars. Unless energy efficiency in this sector, which consumes about 30% of the total requirement, is improved, it will be difficult to manage the domestic demand. This must be supplemented by a strong Public Transport System and fewer private cars per thousand of population. This is another area where a strong policy intervention is required.

8.

Social Equity:

Today, we have nearly 40% of the population below the poverty line based on estimates of the World Bank. Large numbers of them do not have access to minimum energy. One of the guidelines in this regard has been the government policy to provide minimum of 30 KWH of energy to every citizen. In addition, a certain minimum facility for cooking of 6 kg LPG has also been suggested. # 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Email: [email protected] Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33 Website: www.engineersacademy.org Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777

ENGINEERS ACADEMY Energy & Environment

Energy

35

1.15 ENERGY POLICIES AND ACTS IN INDIA An act to provide for efficient use of energy and its conservation and for matters connected there with. The bureau (government department) established for the purpose of this act is called BEE (bureau of Energy Efficiency) Features: The Act empowers the Central Government and in some instances, State Government to: •

Specify energy consumption standard for notified equipment and appliances;

•

Direct mandatory display of label on notified equipment and appliances;

•

Prohibit manufacture, sale, purchase and import of notified equipment and appliances not conforming to energy consumption standard;

•

Notify energy intensive industries, other establishments, and commercial buildings as designated consumers;

•

Establishment and prescribe energy consumption norms and standards for designated consumers;

•

Prescribe energy conservation building codes for efficient use of energy and its conservation in new commercial building (having connected load ?500kW)

1.15.1 New & Renewable Energy Schemes 1.

Wind Power Programme

•

The broad based Wind Power Programme of the Ministry aims to catalyze commercialization of grid interactive wind power.

•

The present wind power installed capacity in the country is nearly 26.7 GW sharing around 9% of total installed capacity.

•

Globally India is at 4th position in terms of wind power installed capacity after China, USA, and Germany.

•

The Government of India has set an ambitious target of achieving 175 GW power capacity from renewable energy resources by 2022 and out of this 60 GW to come from wind power.

•

The wind power potential in the country is assessed by the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) at 100 meter above ground level, which is estimated to be over 302 GW.

•

Most of this potential exists in 8 windy States namely Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Telangana. Scheme for Setting up of 1000 MW CTU (Central Transmission Utility)- connected Wind Power Projects through Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI). •

The Scheme will be implemented for setting up 1000 MW capacity of CTU connected Wind Power Project Developers on build, own operate basis.

1.16 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICES 1.

Cost

•

Coal is the mainstay of India's energy and 59% of primary energy supply and 70% of power generation is the countries are coal based India ranks third in coal production globally after china and USA.

•

Coal the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India, accounts for more than half of the country energy need. It is apparent that coal will retain its predominant role in India's future energy mix scenario. India, like other emerging economies, looks set to remain dependent on coal in the short to medium term for its economic growth.

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General Studies

Coal mining policy •

The parliament passed the coal mines (Special Provisions) bill 2015 on 20th March Under the provisions of the coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act 2015 the central Government has so far successfully auctioned in three branches 31 coal mines and allotted 42 coal mines/blocks to central or state Government Companies.

•

The objective of this act is to empower the government to allocate the coal mines on the basis of competitive bidding to ensure continuity in coal mining operations and promote optimum utilization of coal resources.

Go-zone/no-go zone •

The environment ministry had in 2009 classified the country heavily forested regions into Go and No-Go regions and a ban was imposed on mining in No-Go zones through an indicative categorization on environmental grounds.

•

A no go zone is a densely forested area where mining will not be allowed at any cost.

•

Nine major coalfields have been taken up for identification of prima facie "go/no go" area for coal mining from the point of view of forestry clearnance. They are North Karanpura (Jharkhand), IB Vallay (Orissa, Chattisgarh), Sirgaurali (MP,UP), Talcher (Orissa) West Bokaro(Jharkhand) Wardha (Maharashtra), Mandraigarh (chattisgarh), Hasdio (Chhatisgarh) and Shoagpur (Chhatitsgarh,Mp)

•

Thirty five percent of coal mining areas fall in "no go areas" where mining will not be allowed but even in the go areas, projects will have to go through the due environmental and forest clearance process before being approved "Go does not mean green signal. Go area prima facie means that the ministry will only consider the proposal for approval or rejection. It is possible that a mine in a go area after inspection turns out to be a no go mine.

Coal cess •

In a move to reduce its carbon footprint it has been decided that India will pay more to consume energy produced from coal, petrol and diesel. Raw coal and lignite miners have to shell out Rs400 per tone of coal and lignite mined in India for the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) The cess on coal production increased from Rs 200 per tone to Rs 400 per tone and the Clean Energy cess could be renamed as Clean Environment cess.

•

This was the third time the cess was doubled, since being introduced as Rs 50 per tone in the 2010 budget the NCEF fund was created to use the carbon tax and clean energy cess for funding research and innovative projects in clean energy technologies, in both and private sector.

Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill,2016 •

The Bill amends the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 the regulates the mining sector in India and specifies the requirement for obtaining and granting mining leases for mining operations.

•

The bill adds a new Fourth Schedule to the Act. It includes bauxite, iron ore, limestone and manganese ore and are defined as notified minerals. The central government may notification amend this schedule.

•

The bill creates a new category of mining license i.e. the prospecting license cum mining lease, which is a two stage concession for the purpose of undertaking prospecting operations (exploring or proving mineral deposits) followed by mining operations.

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY Energy

Energy & Environment

37

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1.

Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy why?

6.

1. They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity from certain substrates.

1. Lowers India's dependence on the fossil oil

2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates. 3. They can be installed in waste water treatments plants to cleanse water and produce electricity. Which of the following statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (c) 1 and 3 only 2.

3.

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 2 both

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

With reference to two non conventional energy sources called coal bed methane and shale gas consider the following statement: 1. Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine grained sedimentary rocks.

(b) Rice

(c) Sugarcane (d) wheat Considered the following statements:

2. In the India abundant coal bed methane sources exist but so far no shale gas sources have been found

1. Maize can be used for the production of starch

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

2. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock for biodiesel.

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 2 both

(d) neither 1 nor 2

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (c) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2, and 3

Which one of the following is not a constituent of biogas? (a) Methane (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Hydrogen

5.

7.

(b) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by using maize.

4.

2. Reduce fuel import bill

In the context of alternative sources of energy, ethanol as a viable bio fuel cab ne obtained from (a) Potato

The government of India has recently made it mandatory for oil marketing companies to blend 5% ethanol with petrol. Which of the following is/are the likely consequence of the policy?

(d) Nitrogen dioxide

What does water gas comprise of ? (a) Carbon monoxide and hydrogen (b) Carbon dioxide and hydrogen (c) Carbon monoxide and methane (d) Carbon dioxide and methane

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8.

With reference to the usefulness of the byproducts of sugar industry which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for the generation of energy. 2. Molasses can be used as one of the feedstock for the production of synthetics chemical fertilizers. 3. Molasses can be used for the production of ethanol. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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ENGINEERS ACADEMY Energy

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9.

10.

Given below are the names of four energy crops, which one of them can be cultivated for ethanol?

11.

General Studies Which one of the following is a non renewable resource?

(a) Jatropha

(b) Maize

(a) Solar energy

(b) Coal

(c) Pongania

(d) sunflower

(c) Water

(d) Wind

Among the sources of energy listed below which one is non-conventional in present day rural India? (a) Fuel wood

(b) cow dung cake

(c) Biogas

(d) Hydel



ANSWER SHEET 1.

Ans. (d)

7.

Ans. (d)

2.

Ans. (c)

8.

Ans. (c)

3.

Ans. (d)

9.

Ans. (b)

4.

Ans. (d)

10.

Ans. (c)

5.

Ans. (a)

11.

Ans. (b)

6.

Ans. (c)

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