Anatomy_&_physiology Cheat Sheet

SKELETAL SYSTEM

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

INTERACTION OF SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS - Together allow movement - Ligament attach bone to bone - Tendon attach muscle to bone - Muscles contract to move skeleton FUNCTIONS Support & shape to body Protection of internal organs Movement in union with muscles Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) & lipids Blood cell production (red marrow storage) Storage of energy rich tissues (yellow marrow) SKELETON (206 Bones) Axial: (80 bones) skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, hyoid bone Appendicular: (126 bones) upper&lower extremities, two girdles

Muscle Functions Stabilizing joints Maintaining posture Producing movement Moving substances Stabilizing body position and regulating organ volume Producing heat

Characteristics of Muscle Tissue Excitability- receive and respond to stimuli Contractility- ability to shorten and thicken Extensibility- ability to stretch Elasticity- ability to return to original shape after contr./exten.

Muscle Types

- Cartilage

BONE CELLS Osteoblasts – bone forming cells, found in areas of high metabolism (bone surface), secrete extracellular bone substance Osteocytes – mature bone cells made from osteoblasts that have made bone tissue around themselves. Secrete enzymes and control mineral content; control calcium release. Bone lining cells - made from osteoblasts along the surface of most bones in an adult. Regulate movement of calcium and phosphate Osteogenic cells - respond to traumas, such as fractures, by giving rise to bone-forming cells and bone-destroying cells Osteoclasts – bone absorbing cell – large cells that break down bone tissue – important to growth, healing, remodeling

BONE MARROW BONE TYPES - Long bones: longer than they are wide; shaft & 2 ends (bones of arms & legs, except wrist, ankle & patella) - Short bones: roughly cube-shaped (ankle & wrist bones) - Sesamoid bones: short bones within tendons (patella) - Flat bones: thin, flat & often curved (sternum, scapulae, ribs & most skull bones) - Irregular bones: odd shapes; don't fit into other classes (hip bones & vertebrae)

VERTEBRAE - Cervical (7): C1 is Atlas supports head C2 is Axis pivots to turn head

Red Bone Marrow: form blood cells, red/white/platelets (hematopoiesis). In infants, found in bone cavities, by age it gets replaced by yellow marrow. In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, pelvis.

CARTILAGE Mostly water; no blood vessels or nerves, Tough, resilient, New cartilage forms from chondroblasts, Heal poorly - Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber matrix- most abundant type- found in articular (movable joint), costal (connect ribs tosternum), respiratory (in larynx & upper ) & nasal cartilages - Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline cartilage, more elastic fibers (very flexible) – found in external ear & epiglottis (larynx covering) - Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers; highly compressible with great tensile strength- found in menisci of knee, intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis

Skeletal Muscles 650 muscles, work in pairs: one muscle moves the bone in one direction and the other moves it back again. Extend from one bone across a joint to another bone Muscles are anchored to bone by tendons made of dense fibrous connective tissue shaped like heavy cords. Attachment to the more stationary bone by tendon closest to the body or muscle head or proximal is the ORIGIN and attachment to the more moveable bone by tendon at the distal end is the INSERTION. During movement, the origin remains stationary and the insertion moves. The force producing the bending is always a pull of contraction. Reversing the direction is produced by the contraction of a different set of muscles. As one group of muscles contracts, the other group stretches and then they reverse actions.

BONE FRACTURES Axis - Thoracic (12)

Atlas Lumbar (5)

JOINT TYPES Ball & Socket: complete range of motion, shoulder, hip Pivot: one bone pivots in the arch of other, Axis/Atlas, proximal radioulnar joint Saddle: 2 directional movement between thumb and trapez carpel Hinge: door hinge, bending & extending, elbow, knee, finger joints Ellipsoid, side to side, back & forth, radius end into carpal bones Plane/Gliding: side to side only, intercarpal & intertarsal joints, between vertebrae

BONE REPAIR PROCESS Injury – broken blood vessels, hematoma Invasion of blood vessels & generalized cells (2-3 days) Fibroblasts develop (1 week) Chondroblasts develop Callus forms (4 weeks) Remodeling with osteoclasts (8 weeks)

SKELETAL DISORDERS

LONG BONE CELLULAR STRUCTURE - Compact (dense, cortical) Bone (80% skeleton mass): hard outer layer, min gaps, and smooth, white, solid. - Spongy Bone (20% mass): bone interior, rod and plane like elements, lighter, room for blood vessels and marrow.

Spinal Stenosis-narrowing of the spinal column Achondroplasia-Defect in the formation of cartilate at the epiphysis of long bones (dwarfing) Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis-chronic inflammatory diseases involving the joints or other organs in children under 16 Ankylosing spondylitis-immobility of a joint in the spine Osteosarcoma-malignant sarcoma of bone Osteoarthritis-A type of arthritis marked by progressive cartilage deterioration in synovial joints and vertebrae Osteoporosis-Loss of bone mass that occurs throughout the skeleton. Predisposes people to fractures Disc Herniation-Rupture of the soft tissue that separates two vertebral bones into the spinal canal Scoliosis-a lateral curvature of the spine. ACL & MCL-knee joint injuries *******************************************************

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

- Muscle composed of: - Muscle tissue (1000’s of fibers) Each muscle fiber contains nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum or sarcoplasmic reticulum, thick and thin myofibrils, and mitochondria for energy. - Artery (deliver oxygen & nutrients) - Veins (remove waste) - Nerve fibers (controls contraction) - Connective tissue (3 types) 1- Epimysium –dense regular tissue surrounds entire muscle 2- Perimysium – fibrous tissue surrounds groups of muscle fibers called fascicles 3- Endomysium – fine tissue fibers surrounding each muscle

• Line body cavities that have no opening to the outside • Secrete a watery fluid called serous fluid that lubricates surfaces. Mucous Membranes • Line cavities and tubes that open to the outside Synovial Membranes • Form the inner lining of joint cavities • Secrete a thick fluid called synovial fluid Cutaneous Membrane – also known as skin

Types of Skin Thin - 1-2 mm on most of the body and 0.5 mm in eyelids, hairy, covers all parts except palms and soles, Thin epidermis and lacks stratum lucidum & dermal papillae, has more sebaceous glands, fewer sweat glands, sensory receptors Thick - up to 6 mm thick on palms of hands and soles of feet Hairless, Thick epidermis, distinct stratum lucidum, Epidermal ridges, Lacks sebaceous glands, has more sweat glands

Layers of Skin

- We have same number of melanocytes - Melanin productions is affected primarily by genetic factors and secondarily by sun exposure (increase it) and blood volume. - Freckles & Liver Spots caused by melanin accumulation in patches - Melanocytes synthesize melanin from tyrosine amino acid & tyrosinase enzyme inside the melanosome. - Melanin types: eumelanin (brownish black/dark skin/protect from UV) & pheomelanin (reddish yellow/fair skin/break down with UV). - Carotine (yellow) helps make vitamin A, found in stratum corneum and fatty areas of dermis and hypodermis. - Hemoglobin (Oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells)

Skin Appearance - Albinism, inherited, can’t make tyrosinase thus no melanin - Cyanotic bluish skin, no breathing due to less oxygen - Jaundice:Buildup of bilirubin (yellow) in blood due to liver disease - Erythema (red), Pallor, Bronzing, Bruising (hematoma), leathery… Skin Markings(Friction ridges (fingerprints), Flexion lines, freckles, Moles

Skin Aging SACROMERE - Basic functional unit of the muscle fiber - consists of thick filaments with myosin (protein) molecules and thin filaments with actin (protein) molecules between two Z disks. - Striations of dark A bands and light I bands. - Muscle Contraction: I band & H band decreases, Z disks come closer, A band stays the same (thick filaments do not move) - Muscle Relaxation: thin filaments move apart, I bands separate

Skin Receptors Light Touch (Meissner's corpuscles) in palms, soles, lips, eyelids Heavy pressure (Paccinian corpuscules), 1 sq cm has 14 Pain 1 sq cm has 200 pain receptors Temperature: 1 sq cm has 6 cold and 1 hot receptor

Hair Epidermis Epidermis Cells

Motor Unit (Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit) -A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies -Number of muscle fibers per motor unit can vary from 4 to 100’s -Fine movement muscles (fingers, eyes) have small motor units -Large weight-bearing muscles (thighs, hips) have large motor units Contraction Events Myosin bridge attach to Actin filament -> Myosin head pulls Actin to M-line -> ATP attach to myosin head -> ATP puts myosin into high energy state.

Muscle and Tendon Injuries Strains – injuries from overexertion or trauma which involve stretching or tearing of muscle fibers. Sprain: muscle injury is near a joint and involves a ligament Cramps – painful muscle spasms or involuntary twitches. Stress-induced muscle tension: cause back pain and headaches.

Keratinocytes (90% of cells) Contains keratin, protects and waterproofs the skin Melanocytes (8% of cells) Produces melanin, contributes to skin color and absorbs UV light Langerhans cells (small portion) Arise from red bone marrow, Participate in immune responses Merkel cells (least numerous) Found in the deepest layer, function in sensation of touch

Epidermis Growth Newly formed cells in the stratum basale undergo keratinazation as they are pushed to the surface. Then undergo apoptosis Eventually are replaced The process takes about 4 weeks Rate of cell division in the stratum basale increases during injury

Epidermis Layers Glands Sweat Glands (Sudoriferous): 3-4 million, 2 types Eccrine sweat glands: cooling, into skin, soon after birth, regulate temperature, aid waste removal, made of 98% water & 2% salt Appocrine sweat glands: emotional stress/excitement, into hair follicle, at puberty, made of water, salt, and lipids & proteins. Oil Glands (Sebaceous): connected to hair follicles, in the dermis, all body except palms and soles, secrete oily sebum, soften skin, prevent bacteria growth, inflammation causes Acne. Ceruminous Gland: produce ear wax to protect ear.

Muscle Disorders Poliomyelitis – viral infection of skeletal muscle nerves Muscular Dystrophies –mutation of gene for the protein dystrophin which helps attaching the filaments Duchenne and Becker are the two most common types. Myasthenia gravis – autoimmune disease affecting the neuromuscular junction. It affects the ability of the impulse to cause the muscle contraction. Tetanus(lockjaw) serious bacterial disease that affect nervous sys. Homeostatic Imbalance: Age Related With age, connective tissue increases and muscle fibers decrease Muscles become stringier, By age 80, 50% of muscle mass is lost (sarcopenia), Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia, Aging of the cardiovascular system affects every organ in the body Effects of Exercise on Muscular System Exercise helps muscles become more effective and efficient. Tendons will become thicker and able to withstand force High intensity exercise produces strength, size and power gains Low intensity exercise for long durations give endurance Trained muscles have better tone or readiness to respond Exercise promotes good posture and prevent enjury During exercise muscle cells use more oxygen *******************************************************

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Consists of skin, hair, nails, subcutaneous tissue, & assorted glands.

Functions Protection (injury/infection) Regulates body temperature Sensory perception Regulate water los Chemical synthesis

Types of Membranes Serous Membranes

Anatomy :From the top: shaft, root (medulla, cortex, cuticle), Base (Bulb, Matrix), Arrector pili: smooth muscle, Hair root plexus Growth: repeated cycles, 3 phases (Anagen growth, Catagen transition, Telogen resting) Functions: head, nose, & eye protection, sensing light touch Color: melanin synthesized in the bub matrix, dark hair (true melanin), blond & red hair (iron/sulfur), Gray hair (less tyrosinase enzyme), White hair (air bubbles in the medullary shaft) Nail (grasping, manipulating, scratching, protection)

Skin Imbalances

Dermis Blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles are embedded here Composed mainly of connective tissues (collagen 70% for strength and elastic fibers 30% for elasticity) Two layers – Papillary Layer and Epidermal layer. Papillary layer Superficial, Consist of elastic fiber tissue, contains capillaries or tactile receptors Reticular layer, Deep, Consist of collagen/elastic fiber tissue, Provides strength and elasticity, Contains hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous and sudoriferous glands Hypodermis (subcutaneous) Attaches the skin to underlying organs and tissues, Not part of the skin,Contains connective tissue and adipose (fat) tissues for insulation, Infants and elderly have less of this than adults and are therefore more sensitive to cold.

Skin Colors - Melanin quantity (in epidermis) determines skin color. Carotene, hemoglobin are two other pigments affect skin color.

Skin Lesions: elevated, flat, depressed Infections: viral, warts (HPV), fungal (athletes foot), bacterial (boils and carbuncles) Contact Dermatitis: skin inflammation due to contact, 2 types Irritant Dermatitis (contact with acids or chimical) Allergies Dermatitis (latex, poisen ivy, metal, chemical, etc.) Treatment with washing, avoid, anti-itch, Corticosteroid Skin Burns: 1st degree: Epidermis only, red & inflammed skin 2nd degree: Epidermis & dermis, blisters form. 3rd degree: all layers, catastrophic loss of fluids 4th degree: all layers + deeper tissue (musles or bones) Skin Cancer: (most forms progress slowly and treated, few deadly) - Healthy cells stop growing when contact one another. In skin cancer, cells continue to grow and lump up. - Excessive UV exposure UV, x-rays or radiation’ chemicals. Basal Cell Carcinoma: least malignant,78% of all, stratum basale can’t form keratin, lose boundary layer between epidermis and dermis, tissue erosion and ulceration, 99% cured Squamous Cell Carcinoma, 20%, stratum spinosum, by sun, grow rapidly, hardened small red growth, recovery if detected early Malignant Melanoma, cancer of melanocytes, 1%, deadly, begins with moles, spreads rapidly