Arranging For The: Small Jazz Ensemble

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Arranging for the Small Jazz Ensemble A Step-By-Step Guide with Practical Exercises and Recorded Examples

Robert Larson

Arranging for the Small Jazz Ensemble Arranging for the Small Jazz Ensemble presents an innovative approach to the challenging subject of jazz arranging. The author, Robert Larson, has narrowed down the choices of instrumentation and texture in such a way that anyone from a novice jazz enthusiast to a seasoned professional can learn how to arrange jazz standards and originals in a relatively short period of time. Four original jazz tunes are used throughout the book to demonstrate texture, instrumentation, introductions, endings, interludes, solo backgrounds, solis, and shout choruses. Each chapter contains exercises that give the reader a chance to practice the techniques learned in that chapter. By the end of the study, the reader will be equipped to create a complete jazz arrangement. With everything you need here in one book, why aren't you Arranging for the

Small Jazz Ensemble?

ROBERT LARSON is the director of jazz Studies at Shenandoah University in Winchester, Virginia where he has taught jazz arranging for over twenty years. He has conducted extensive research into jazz style, and has published articles on teaching improvisation and on the early piano style of Bill Evans.

ISBN 978-0-9795051-4-0 90000

WWW.SMALL)AZZENSEMBLE.COM 9 780979 505140

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Arranging For The Small Jazz Ensemble

Arranging For The Small Jazz Ensem le A Step-by-Step Guide with Practical Exercises and Recorded Examples

Robert Larson

©Robert Larson 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage or retrieval system without the written permission of the publisher. Published by Armfield Academic Press Editorial Consultants: Bryan Kidd, Graham Breedlove, Steve Fidyk, Craig Fraedrich, Joseph Henson, Matt Niess, Kenny Rittenhouse, Jim Roberts, Regan Brough, Tony Nalker ISBN: 978-0-9795051-4-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2010907907

To my many musician friends, whose advice and great playing continue to inspire me ... To my students, who have allowed me the opportunity to develop the materials that fill these pages . .. And to Karen, Rachel, and Sarah, who tolerated the long hours of writing, composing, and editing... I give my heartfelt thanks

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Contents

xi

PREFACE

xiii

How TO UsE THIS BooK

Part I: Form & Texture

1

1

CoMMON SoNG FoRMs

5

A Closer Look At Song Forms Chapter Summary . . . .

5 7

2

3

THE ExAMPLE TuNES

11

Swing Example Tune: "Why Not Now" Latin Example Tune: asabrosa" . . . . . Ballad Example Piece: "December Serenade" Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . .

12

23

BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

27

Instrumental Textures . . . Basic Arranging Structures . Chapter Summary . . . . .

28 29

20

33

Part II: The Instruments of the Small Group 4

15

39

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

43

Writing For Wind Instruments The Trumpet . The Trombone .. The Saxophone . . Chapter Summary

43 45 47

49 52

vii

viii

5

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

THE RHYTHM SECTION

57

Role in the Ensemble . . . . Notating Rhythm Section Parts . . . . . The Instruments of the Rhythm Section Drum Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reinforcement and Integration . . . . . Don't Be Intimidated by the Rhythm Section! Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57 58 60 62 63 64 64

Part III: Jazz Harmony & Voicings 6

8

76 79 81 103 107 115 117

.. ' ....

125

QuARTAL HARMONY

Quartal Harmony= Drop-2/4 Transposing Quartal Voicings Quartal Voicings as Four-Note Structures Quartal Voicings as Dominants . ((So Whatn Voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . Transposing ((So What" Voicings . . . . . ((So What" and Quartal Voicings in Context Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

126 127 127 128 129 130 130 131

SLASH CHORDS

137

Uses of Slash Chords Chord Over Chord Voicing Summary .. Chapter Summary

9

75

TERTIAN HARMONY

Close and Open Voicings Inversions and Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . The Value of the Piano for Arranging Students Circle of Fifths Progressions Choosing a Chord Position Open Voicings . . Chapter Summary . . .

7

71

NoNHARMONIC ToNES

What is a Nonharmonic Tone in a Jazz Context? . Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approach Techniques . . . . . . . Approach Techniques in Context . Chapter Summary . . . . . . . .

.....

138 139 142 142

147 148 149 149 154 159

CoNTENTS

Part IV: Writing An Arrangement 10

11

12

14

15

183

PLANNING AN/ ARRANGEMENT

187

Preliminary Steps: Listening and Analysis . Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transferring Words Into Notation: Three Steps from Sketch to Finished Score Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187 188 191 193

Two-PART WRITING

197

Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two-Horn Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Specific Intervals in Harmony Parts . Example Tunes Harmonized in Two Voices Conclusion . . . . Chapte,r Summary . . . .

198 202 204 219 245 245

FouR-PART WRITING

249

Example Pieces Harmonized in Four Voices Conclusion . . . . Chapter Summary . . . .

13

ix

THREE-PART WRITING

251 278 278

281

Three-Part Voicing Structures Example Tunes Voiced in Three Parts Conclusion . . . . Chapter Summary

281 284 286 286

INTRODUCTIONS

289

Common Introduction Types . . Improvised Introductions Last Section of Melody Vamp . . . . . . . . Melodic Fragment Unrelated Material Conclusion . . . . Chapter Summary

290 291 292 295 · 298 299 303 303

ENDINGS

307

Stock Endings . . . . . . . Common Ending Types . Tags . . . . . . . . . Vamp . . . . . . . . . . . Melodic Fragment . . . Unrelated Material: Vamp Unrelated Material: Newly Composed Section . . Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

308 309 309 315 317 318 320 322

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

X

16

17

18

CoMMON PROBLEMS

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Parallel Harmonies . . . . Awkward Lines . . . . . . Awkward Repeated Notes Overwriting . . . . . . . . Lack of Integration with the Rhythm Section The a correct" Version Chapter Summary .. ., .......

329 333 335 337 339 341 343

THE CoMPLETE ARRANGEMENT

345

Creating the Score and Parts ((Why Not Now" ... ''Sabrosa" ........ "December Serenade" "Finding the Groove" . . Chapter Summary

346 348 366 385 392 402

CoNCLUSION

Appendices A

325

SoLUTIONS

TuNES FOR ExERCISES

ABAC Swing Exercise Tune . AABA Latin Exercise Tune . AABA Ballad Exercise Tune

. ....

405

407 409 410 412 414

B

SAMPLE PART

417

c

STAFF PAPER

421

Plain staff paper for general use . . . . . . . . . Three-staff sketch paper (portrait orientation) .. Three-staff sketch paper (landscape orientation) . Score paper for two horns and rhythm . Score paper for three horns and rhythm Score paper for four horns and rhythm. INDEX

423 425 427 429 431 433

435

Preface In order to survive in today's music world, one must wear many hats-that of player, teacher, businessman, and a host of others. But for the jazz musician, the importance of having good arranging skills cannot be overstated. Improvisation, composition, and arranging are at times so intertwined that they become almost indistinguishable from one another. Therefore, every student of jazz needs to have at least some arranging chops. Like many musicians, I was a player before I was an arranger. While I enjoyed writing music early in my career, I was unsure of how best to express my intentions to other musicians. I recall feeling comfortable writing for rhythm section instruments (since I am a pianist) but intimidated when I needed to add horns into the mix. Through trial and error, I found that transferring my knowledge of elements such as voicings, style, and form from the piano keyboard to the small group or big band score was not as difficult as I had feared. Studying with successful arrangers further confirmed that I was on the right track. Thus began my journey of organizing in my own mind a step-by-step method which enabled me make the leap from player to arranger. The materials presented in this book are the product not only of my experiences as an arranger, but from over twenty years of teaching jazz arranging courses at the college level. I have used this method to help many students write successful arrangements, and I sincerely hope that you will find it useful as well. Regardless of where your musical career takes you, any time you spend studying arranging will offer a valuable return on your investment.

Robert Larson

Xl

How to Use This Book This book may be used as the textbook for the first unit of a jazz arranging sequence at a college or university or by a self-taught individual for personal study. It was designed with several built-in features to make it well-organized, user-friendly, and above all, educational. The following tips have been provided to help you obtain the maximum benefit from the book.

Use the Website Supporting materials for this book are located at www.SmallJazzEnsemble.com, which is the book's website. All of the audio examples, the assignments in PDF format, transposed scores, staff and score paper, and short instructional videos pertaining to various jazz arranging topics are located here.

Before You Get Started If you are reading this right now, you are probably already a jazz lover. But in addition to a love of jazz, you should also have some background in jazz theory. Aspiring arrangers should have (in addition to a good sense of jazz style) a basic familiarity with chords, scales, and lead sheets.

Example Tunes I composed three example tunes especially for this book. These tunes appear throughout the book in various incarnations-they are first introduced in chapter 2, then used throughout the book to demonstrate various techniques and concepts, and finally presented as complete small group arrangements in chapter 17. An additional tune is used to illustrate common arranging errors.

Audio Recordings There are audio recordings of many of the musical examples in this book. All of these recordings are offered free of charge at www.SmallJazzEnsemble.com. Be on the lookout for this symbol:

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xiv

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

Whenever you see that symbol next to a musical example, be sure to listen to the recording with the corresponding track number.

Assignments Throughout the book you will find various assignments that parallel the exercises that I give my own arranging students. At first, these assignments are very specific and detailed, covering such topics as instrumentation, voicings, countermelodies, etc. Later in the book, however, the assign1nents build upon the fundamental skills learned earlier as the student begins to create actual arrangements. I have composed three original tunes, found in appendix A, that will be used as the basis for the arrangements assigned to the reader. Some of you will be using this book for personal study, while others will be using it as the textbook for an arranging class. Therefore, I have provided several options for completing the assignments. Choose the method that is most appropriate for you. Download an assignment in PDF format from the book's website. Print it out. Write on that page. Turn it in to your teacher (if required). Photocopy an assignment from the book. Write on the photocopy. Turn it in to your teacher (if required). Carefully tear out an assignment from this book. Write on that page. Turn it in to your teacher if required. The reverse page of each assignment has been left blank.

Free Staff Paper In the back of the book (in appendix C) I have provided several useful varieties of staff paper that you may photocopy freely. There are blank staff paper templates for general use, sketching, and scoring for small group. These staff paper templates are also provided as PDF documents on the website for your convenience.

Get Your Music Played The goal of this book is to teach you how to write for a small jazz ensemble. For a budding arranger, however, the most educational experience you can have does not come from a book but rather from actual playing situations. Hearing your music played by real musicians is the most valuable learning laboratory there is because the players will give you valuable feedback on what you have written. After all the hard work of planning, sketching, and writing the chart, don't neglect to have your charts played by a real band. The first time you hear your own music performed is sure to be a thrilling experience.

Part I Form & Texture

1

What goes into the creation of a great jazz arrangement? Are there arrangers who just start writing and it comes out swingin'? Undoubtedly there are those who have the gift to hear in their ,minds how an arrangement should go and they then just write it out. If Mozart were Ia jazz musician, I'm sure he'd be one of these lucky few. For the rest of us, however, it's a different story. Most successful jazz arrangements are constructed through plenty of hard work and careful deliberation. Theynormally don't just happen by chance. Before a chef prepares a meal, he or she must first understand how each ingredient tastes and how they blend together. Likewise, a musician must also grasp the parts in order to create the whole. A chef uses his or her taste buds to evaluate and learn about the characteristics of each ingredient and the craft of cooking; musicians use their ears by practicing careful listening. In each of the first three chapters of this book, the reader is encouraged to listen and to become aware of the flow and direction of jazz tunes. Song form is explored in chapter 1. Chapter 2 introduces the tunes used throughout this book for study. Chapter 3 begins the exploration of texture and jazz arranging form.

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Common Song Forms An important early step to becoming a jazz arranger is to gain an understanding of the different types of song forms that are common in the jazz tradition. In music, form involves the organization of elements such as time, melody, and harmony into relationships. There are actually only a few forrns that dominate the jazz repertoire. Understanding these simple forms (and they are indeed simple compared to their classical counterparts) can help a novice arranger organize the melodic and harmonic materials in ways that work consistently. The four tunes composed especially for this book follow these basic forms. Also, these tunes represent the most common styles found in jazz: swing and Latin. The ternpos vary from ballad tempo to medium-up. In this book the term tune is synonymous with the classical term piece. Piece is just too formal a word for a book about jazz!

A Closer Look At Song Forms As I mentioned a moment ago, jazz standards tend to follow one of several common song forms. The most common forms for a jazz standard are AABA, ABAC and the 5

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

6

The Originsofj~z Standards Many oftoday'shest-kno'Nnjazz standardswerene\fer intended to become the enduring, iconic compositions we know today~ A large number of these songs startedout as $howtunes(i.e.,·part of some kindof~tagemusical), manyfrom Tin Pan Alley. In the days before the widespread popularity of recorded. music, a greatnumber of musicpublishers had offices in the .Tin Pan Alley districtof Manhattan. Aspiring composers would flocktothesepublishing houses·hoping to sell their songs and make a quick puck. Other times, staff writers W01Jid supply new songs for these publishers. These companies would then make a profitby selling the songs in the form of sheet music, arranged for piano and voice. When a publishing house f?und asongthat it liked, it would push toget the songusedinan upcomingBroadwayshow. The exposurefromthese shows would then cirive sheetmusic sales for the publisher; Sometimes acorn poser's song would appear in a musical revue with the songs of other cornposers,and othertirnesthe ehtire score for a Broadway show would be written by one composer. All of the composers of today'sgreatjazz standards (suchaslrving Berlin, Cole Porter, George Gershwin, jerome Kern an~ Richard Rodgers) wrote tunes for Broadway musicals and Hollywood movies.

blues. Since it is so crucial for an arranger to have a thorough understanding of song forms, let's take a moment to examine each of these three song forms individually.

AABAForm The AABA form is perhaps the most common song form in jazz music. The main theme (usually eight measures long) is stated twice and is followed by a contrasting bridge also eight measures in length. The form concludes with a final restatement of the A section. Some well-known tunes that have an AABA form are uTake the A Train/' ''Have You Met Miss Jones/' ((What Is This Thing Called Love/' and "Honeysuckle Rose." Typical arrangements present the entire melodic form (known as the head) once before the improvised solos or before any newly composed material such as a shout chorus. At the end of the piece, the entire melody of the song is usually restated. Sometimes, instead of finishing the tune by playing the entire melody, the arrangement returns to the bridge and then concludes with just the bridge and last A section of the tune.

ABAC Form Another extremely common song form is ABAC form. Although each section is normally eight measures in length, it is useful to think of this form as two sixteen measure sections. In the first half, the main theme (A) leads to an eight measure contrasting section (B). The second sixteen measure section also begins with A, but concludes with a section (C) that provides a contrast with B. Some well-known tunes that have an ABAC form are {(In A Mellow Tone," ((On Green Dolphin Street/' '(I Could Write A Book," ((I Left My Heart in San Francisco," and "Just Friends."

CHAPTER

1:

CoMMON SoNG FoRMs

7

Similar to the AABA form, a typical arrangement of an ABAC tune will state the entire head once before the improvised solos or other material. At the end of the piece, the entire melody of the song is usually restated. Sometimes instead of finishing the tune by playing the/entire melody, the arrangement will return to the second A section and finish by stating only the last A and C sections.

The Twelve-Bar Blues The twelve-bar blues (usually just called the blues) is perhaps the most important song form in jazz and popular music. The origin of the blues is rooted in the ''call and response" traditions of African-American folk music. Contemporary treatments of a blues often retain this ((call and response" relationship. The blues is probably also the form most familiar to the novice jazz listener. ((C Jam Blues," ((Tenor Madness," and "Now's the Time" are examples of well-known blues tunes. In the next chapter we will study these song forms further as we examine the example tunes.

Chapter Summary 1. The most important forms in jazz music are AABA, ABAC and the blues. 2. Arrangers must develop a thorough understanding of these common song forms.

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CoMMON SoNG FoRMs

------Assignment 1.1 Song Form Analysis 1. Analyze the form of several tunes from a fake book. Determine whether each tune is MBA, ABAC, blues, or some other form. 2. Listen to several jazz recordings. Without looking at a lead sheet, analyze and identify the form of each tune.

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The Example Tunes The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize you with the compositions written especially for this book. Each tune has an accompanying recording which is indicated by the special audio icon at the beginning of each tune. After each lead sheet, a harmonic analysis of the tune is given to stimulate further study. In each harmonic analysis, the chords are rendered only in root position. Of course, these root position chords are unsuitable for actual arranging; they are presented here only for the sake of study and analysis. Because of the harmonic complexity of some example tunes (such as "Sabrosa" and "December Serenade") several of the chords included in the analysis contain upper extensions. While working through the text, refer back to these analyses so that you keep the harmonic context in mind as you explore the various arranging techniques. The more familiar you are with the example tunes, the more you will get out of the examples and illustrations found in later chapters. While there are four tunes composed for this book, only three are presented in this chapter. The fourth, a blues, can be found in chapter 16 in which we explore common arranging mistakes.

11

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ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL }AZZ ENSEMBLE

Swing Example Tune: "Why Not Now" {(Why Not Now/' our first example tune, is an up-tempo swing tune with an AABA forn1. It employs a modified {(I Got Rhythm" chord progression (the chord progression of George Gershwin's famous song /(I Got Rhythm" often called simply {(rhythm changes"). This piece is a challenge to arrange because of the speed and motion of the melody. Choosing the appropriate instrument to play the melody will be particularly important.

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Analysis of "Why Not Now" "Why Not Now," while similar to the ur Got Rhythm" chord progression in some ways, also contains a unique series of ii-V movements beginning in measure 4. Also, notice the text boxes which identify chord substitutions. The key centers of the bridge move in minor thirds: Gb-A-C.

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Latin Example Tune: "Sabrosa" ((Sabrosa/' our Latin/ example tune, is a sixty-four bar AABA composition. Each section is sixteen bars long :{twice as long as what you would find in most jazz standards). The bridge offers an interesting opportunity for the arranger as it travels to a rather distant key.

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Analysis of "Sabrosa" As you will see refl~cted in the analysis on the following page, "Sabrosa" is a complicated tune. But the har~ony is functional, and while there is some modal interchange (i.e., borrowed chords)'occurring (see measure 4, the III+ ofF minor), there are also simple progressions as well. As a result, the voice leading will be relatively smooth.

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20

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

Ballad Example Piece: "December Serenade" "December Serenade," our ballad example tune, has a modified ABAC form in which the final section is only four measures long. The most attractive feature of this tune is its harmonic color. The opening descending melody includes long tones on rich dominant Hll chords. Later, we will discover that measures 2 and 4 are logical places for a countermelody.

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CHAPTER

2:

THE EXAMPLE TUNES

21

Analysis of "December Serenade" ((December Serenade" is comprised primarily of sequential falling fifth movements that shift the key center every two measures. It also features modal interchange in which the V of III (the E7 in measure 12) resolves to the III ofF minor. The tun.e concludes with a bluesy-sounding line that is supported by a dominant chord cycle culminating on a tritone substitution (the Bma7(b5)) of the tonic chord (F). 1

22

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

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CHAPTER

2:

THE ExAMPLE TuNEs

23

Chapter Summary 1. Much of this book revolves around the example tunes. 2. The example t1unes will be used to teach the nuts and bolts of arranging. 3. Study the example tunes carefully so you benefit fully from what comes later. 4. As you work through the book you will need to refer back to the lead sheets and analyses of the example tunes. I

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CHAPTER

2:

THE ExAMPLE TuNEs

------Assignment 2.1 The Example Tunes

Familiarize yourself thoroughly with the example tunes given in this chapter. Listen to the recording of each tune until you can sing the head from memory. Also study the lead sheet of each tune, playing the chords on the piano if possible.

25

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Basic Arranging Structures Creating an arrangement is similar to building any complex structure. The jazz arranger brings together disparate elements in order to create what is hopefully a unified whole. Since music exists in time, the order of events is critical for· an arrangement to make sense to the listener. Musical form is created by rhythm, melody, harmony, instrumentation, and texture. We have already seen the first three of these elements in the discussion of song forms in chapter 1, as well as in the analyses of the example tunes in chapter 2. Song forms such as AABA, ABAC, and blues may be created using only these three elements; when we add the last two elements (instrumentation and texture) more complex musical creations may result. In chapters 4 and 5 we will discuss issues of instrumentation in detail. Texture, the fifth element, provides one more way in which to build the structure of an arrangement.

27

28

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL }AZZ ENSEMBLE

Instrumental Textures The word texture is often used to describe how something feels to the touch-the roughness of sandpaper or how ice cream melts in your mouth. Musical texture obviously refers to how something sounds. There can be light musical textures (e.g., flute and harp) or heavy textures (e.g., bass trombone, euphonium, and tuba). What we're talking about here is how instruments are combined and how those combinations affect the structure of the arrangement. There are only a few ways to combine instruments. In its simplest form, the writing process for two or more horns can be organized into four possible textures: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Unisons (or octaves) Homophony Polyphony A combination of two or more of the above

Let's take a moment to examine each of these important textures in a bit more depth.

Unison Sometimes, when one of my students turns in an arranging project, he or she says smnething like this: "I couldn't think of anything else to do, so I just wrote unison horn parts." My response: "Bravo!" Simple does not mean inferior. Combining two or more horns in unison or octaves achieves one very important goal: A new instrumental timbre is formed from the combination of two or more instruments. Blending instruments will be discussed in chapter 11. For now, just keep in mind that simply having the horns play the same pitches, either in unison or at the octave, is an effective way to combine instruments.

Homophony By the late fifteenth century, two textures had come to dominate Western music: homophony and polyphony. Homophony occurs when a melody dominates other voices, and these accompanying voices generally follow the rhythm and contour of the melody. The melody is normally the top voice in this texture. This is a very common texture in all kinds of music-from the saxophone soli to gospel piano playing to the barbershop quartet.

Polyphony In polyphonic music, the individual parts are independent of one another. The best example of polyphony is the music of J.S. Bach. If you listen to a fugue from The WellTempered Clavier you will instantly understand what this texture sounds like. To write polyphonically is to view music in a horizontal fashion. A primary difference from homophony is in the realm of rhythm. The individual voices in a polyphonic texture do not normally follow the rhythm of a predominant melody as in homophony.

CHAPTER

3:

BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

29

Greek··· Roots I

The words h~mophony and polyphony are based on Greek root words. The word homodhony comes from two Greek roots: homos and phone (FO-nay). The word homos means"same" and the word phone means~' sound" or nvoice." Solit~raHy.the word homophony means"same.sound"or··"same yoice." .The word polyphony also comes from Greek roots: polloi ancJ phoQe. The Greek word polloi means "many." s() literally, ·the word polyphony means "many sounds" 11manyvoices." . . .

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A Combination of the Above Although it is perfectly acceptable to write an arrangement that is dominated by any of the textures described above, arrangers often use a combination of these textures. For example, a homophonic A section could lead to a polyphonic repeated A section which could then lead to a unison or solo bridge. The goal is to make these textures flow logically from one to another. This concept will be discussed at length throughout the remainder of the book.

A Further Simplification The four textures discussed above may be reduced even further. In fact, the sample charts discussed in this book are arranged for two and four horns using the following two simplified textures: 1. Unison, octave, and/ or homophonic texture (hereafter referred to as "homophonic/ unison texture") 2. A blend of polyphonic writing with elements of unison, octaves, and homophony (hereafter referred to as {(combination texture") In my experience, these two simplified textures work extremely well, and I have found it useful to consolidate my approach to arranging in this manner. As you listen to the example tunes scored in these two textures, you may have a hard time deciding which version works best. There is no one "correct" way to arrange a tune; our goal is to create an arrangement that has a logical and natural flow.

Basic Arranging Strudures There are many ways to structure an arrangement for small group, but there are certain a stock" road maps that have developed over the years. As a student of jazz arranging, you should strive to become intimately familiar with these very common road maps in the same manner that a student of classical music studies classical forms. As you gain more confidence in your skills, you will probably want to venture away from these stock arrangements. But in the meantime, they will prove very useful for students because these can be relied upon to work every time.

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

30

The diagrams presented on the next few pages illustrate these stock arrangements. Diagrams are given for AABA, ABAC, and blues song forms. As you study them, pay particular attention to the flow and direction represented by the arrows. Notice that in each case the arrangement develops as the result of changes in instrumental texture. However, there is also a certain amount of unity within each individual diagram. For example, in the AABA 32-measure song form illustrated below, the unison scoring suggested for the first A section is thickened in the second A section by harmony or by the presence of a countermelody. However, scoring the last A section in the same fashion as the second A section serves to unify the arrangement. Each type of stock arrangement illustrated in these diagrams demonstrates a balance of continuity and development.

- - - - - - AABA 32-Measure Song Form ------c (Medium or Up..Tempo) Bridge

First A Section Horns in unison

Second A Section Thickened with harmony or cou ntermelody

Solos Try background figures on the second and third A sections, or only on bridge; they can be played behind various solos, particularly the last

Contrasting treatment (for example, if you used a countermelody on the second A, use a homophonic approach here)

Soli or Shout Make the first two A sections into a horn soli or shout chorus

Last A Section

Melody Horns play bridge and last A as before, or entire form

Other Possible Sections: • lntro • Interlude before solos • Interlude between solos • Ending (could reuse material from the intro)

CHAPTER

3:

BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

31

1 -----

ABAC 32-Measure Song Form----(Medium or Up-Tempo)

A & B Sections Horns in unison

Solos Try background figures on the AB, AC, or B & C only; they can be played on var:ious solos, particularly the last

Second A & C Sections Thickened with harmony or cou ntermelody

Last A & C Sections Melody as played above or entire form

Soli or Shout Make the first A & B sections into a horn soli or shout chorus

Other Possible Sections: • lntro • Interlude before solos • Interlude between solos • Ending (could reuse material from the intro)

- - - - - AABA 32-Measure Song Form----(Ballad Tempo)

First A Section One horn

Second A Section Add second horn in harmony or countermelody .

Bridge Contrasting with different horn or four-part harmony

Melody Same as above but with ending

Last A Section Same as second A section; perhaps end with fourpart harmony

32

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

- - - - - - ABAC 32-Measure Song Form------.. (Ballad Tempo) First A Section One horn

B Section Add second horn in harmony or countermelody

C Section Second A Section Same as·first A

Melody Same as above but with ending

----------The Blues---------Melody (First Time) Horns in unison

Solos With background figures last chorus of some of the solos,. particularly the last

Melody (Second Time) Melody thickened with harmony or a countermelody

Melody Solis or Shout One chorus only

Either once or twice. If once, use second time version above: if twice, use the same format as at the beginning

CHAPTER 3: BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

33

The diagrams on the previous pages are obviously not the only way to expand these song forms into full arrangements. I urge you to try them, however, so that your first arrangements havt:f an excellent chance of succeeding in terms of form. We will revisit the discussion of texture as we proceed through the book. A slight detour is needed at this point as we explore the instruments of the small jazz ensemble.

Chapter Summary 1. Musical form is created by rhythm, melody, harmony, instrumentation, and texture. 2. A homophonic texture occurs when a melody dominates the other voices, and they all move together. 3. A polyphonic texture occurs when individual parts are independent of one another. 4. Textures can be simplified into the following: (a) Homophonic/unison (b) Combination of unison, homophonic, and polyphonic 5. There are stock arrangements of the basic forms of AABA, ABAC, and blues that arrangers have developed.

CHAPTER

3:

BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

----Assignment 3.1 Schematic Diagrams

Locate several recordings of two-horn, three-horn, or four-horn arrangements. On a separate sheet of paper, make schematic diagrams of them. Choose tunes that represent the various song forms (i.e., MBA, ABAC, blues). Below is a list of suggested artists whose small group recordings would be well-suited for this assignment. Horace Silver Art Blakey Benny Golson Tom Harrell Woody Shaw joe Henderson Lee Morgan Clifford Brown/Max Roach In your schematic diagram, indicate the following elements: General information about the tune Instrumentation (e.g., tutti, in which all the horns are scored together; solo, in which one horn is featured; duet, for two horns, etc.) Rhythmic feel (e.g., in two, in four, rubato) General comments about instrumental texture Role of the rhythm section (level of integration with horn parts) Other items of interest To help you complete this assignment, examine the example on the next page.

35

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

CHAPTER

3:

BASIC ARRANGING STRUCTURES

37

Horace Silver's "Hawkin" - - - - - - - - I

From th~ album The Hardbop Grandpop (GRP B000003N8J) Medium swing. "I Got Rhythm" changes with descending ii-Vs by whole step in bridge.

AA • Tpt, bari melody in octaves and tenths • Ten, tbn accomp. with rhythm section • Time feel is in 2 • Stop time at end of phrase

B • Tpt, tenor melody • Bari, tbn on descending guide tones • Time feel is in 4

A (last time to coda)

AA • Tpt/tenor new melody, melodically stagnant • Bari, tbn 6th below on long tone

B • Bari solo

Choruses 3 & 4 • Bari solo • Tpt, tbn, tenor background line in octaves on A sections • Last A up an octave

Choruses 5 & 6 • Tenor solo • New background line: tpt, bari, tbn

Choruses 7 & 8 • Piano solo

Bridge • Tutti shout chorus in octaves

• Walking bass solo

Chorus 10 (then D.C. al coda) • Walking bass solo

Coda • Descending sequential melody through circle progression beginning on "iv • Fermata on tonic ma7 chord

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Part II The Instruments of the Small Group

39

Small instrumental jazz ensembles are typically comprised of several horn players plus a rhythm section. Part II will explore the instruments typically found in small jazz groups. It is important to understand the construction and sonic characteristics of the instruments you are writing for. Also, understanding how each instrument functions and behaves in various parts of the range is a must for arrangers. In chapter 4, we will explore the characteristics of the trumpet, the trombone and the saxophone focusing on their range, timbre, and transposition. These wind instruments are by far the most frequently used in jazz. Chapter 5 is devoted to the rhythm section. This special section is one of the important ways that jazz ensembles differ from other musical organizations. The presence of a section whose primary function is to supply the rhythmic and harmonic frmnework is reminiscent of music written hundreds of years ago during the Baroque period, when harpsichordists and cellists fulfilled the roles now held by pianists, bassists, guitarists, and drummers. The more you know about the instruments for which you are writing the better-so try to learn as much as you can about them. It is useful for arrangers and composers to have at least some experience actually playing these instruments even if at a very basic level.

41

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Brass and Saxophones Since I am. a pianist, writing for wind instruments was at first somewhat intimidating to me. But my comfort level increased considerably once I understood how each of the wind instruments functions. Listening was also a crucial learning tool-as I listened to many recordings and performances which featured wind instruments, I began to develop an understanding of the way these instruments are used in jazz. I also had many conversations with other musicians I knew who played these instruments and they gave me invaluable advice about writing for their instruments. The information in this chapter will help you understand the characteristics of the trumpet, the trombone, and the/saxophone family. In addition to reading about these instruments, you should also do plenty of listening-and don't forget to ask for advice from those who play these instruments.

Writing For Wind Instruments When writing for wind instruments, the arranger must keep in mind several important issues: the range of the instrument, the tessitura the instrument will be playing in, how 43

44

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

that instrument will perform when combined with other instruments, and the articulations you want for each note played.

Memorize the Ranges It is critical that the arranger memorize the ranges of all the instruments. Obviously, you must not write notes in your arrangements that your musicians won't be able to play. This is annoying to musicians and makes you look incompetent as an arranger.

Range and Region Considerations Some notes speak better than others on the various instruments. If you write in the transposed staff (especially in the top half of it) all of the instruments will function beautifully. When you start to use ledger lines, be careful! Perhaps another instrument would be more comfortable playing what you have in mind. There will be times when placing an instrument in an uncharacteristic situation (a baritone saxophone in the upper register, for instance) will result in a beautiful and unexpected timbre. As you gain more experience, you may want to experiment in this manner-but for now, be conservative with your range choices.

Instrument Combinations and Blend The tone quality of any given instrument depends on several factors. First, the material that the instrument is made of will have a big influence over how it sounds. Also, the shape of the bore (e.g., conical, cylindricaL or a mix of both) will affect the brightness or mellowness of the tone. Overtones are important-the presence or absence of overtones in a sound give a certain tone much of its uniqueness. And finally, the method of tone production (e.g., the buzzing of the lips, the plucking of a string, the vibrations of a cane reed) gives a tone much of its distinct sound. These factors are used to divide musical instruments into families such as the woodwind family, brass family, string family, and percussion family. As you think about combining instruments, be aware that you are creating a new sound by blending the tone qualities of each individual instrument. Scoring within an instrument family will create the most homogeneous sound. Combining instruments from different families but with a similar timbre and range (e.g., trombone and tenor sax) blend well but result in a more diverse tone color than two instruments from the same family. Combining instruments from different families with different timbre and range (e.g., flute and trombone) can create very unique and exotic sounds. By this time in the history of jazz, just about every instrument combination has been tried, but there are some that work better than others. For instance,~ if you choose a very standard instrumentation (e.g., trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, and :trombone) it is sure to work. This advice is not intended to stifle your creativity as yoUL begin to write your own arrangements, but to encourage you to build upon the experiments of the great jazz composers and arrangers who have come before you. As you gain more experience, you might want to write for more unique combinations of instruments. For now, however, enjoy the success you are sure to have by using a tried-and-true instrument combination.

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

45

Articulation Markings Although experienced jazz musicians are well-trained as jazz stylists, the arranger must include articulatio;h markings on notes that could be interpreted in several ways. While I all of the aspects of jazz style are beyond the scope of this book, you should be aware of the following articulation markings, and use them to convey exactly what you want to hear from the horn players and also the rhythm section players. Here are the four most commonly used articulation markings used in jazz notation:

II

Example 4.1

The first symbol, which indicates a short note, is called a staccato. The second marking, which indicates that a note should be held for its full value, is called a long mark. The classical term for this mark is tenuto. The third symbol is called an accent. It means that the note associated with it should be given extra emphasis. This marking is sometimes referred to as a regular accent or perhaps even a sideways accent to distinguish it from the fourth symbol, which points upward. This symbol, called a rooftop accent, indicates that the note associated with it should be short, yet accented. The classical term for this mark is marcato.

The Trumpet Trumpet players were among the earliest major innovators in jazz. Buddy Bolden, King Oliver, Louis Armstrong, and Bix Beiderbecke were crucial contributors in the development of jazz as either trumpet or cornet players. The trumpet's importance as a jazz instrument continues to the present day. The lead trumpet player in a big band is largely responsible for setting the style of the entire ensemble. Also, because of the trumpet's power and bright tone, it is a natural choice for the melody in small group writing. The arrangements in this book feature the trumpet prominently, scored as both the primary melodic instrument and in countermelodies. The trumpet sound is produced by buzzing the lips on a mouthpiece, which causes the air column within the instrument to vibrate. By tightening or loosening the lips, the player can play the various partials of the overtone series. Furthermore, pressing the valves reroutes the air through longer or shorter lengths of tubing, changing the length of the instrument. Therefore, changes in pitch are a result of either moving to a different partial, changing the length of the tubing, or both. Arrangers must fully understand these physical characteristics of the trumpet because they greatly affect the types of musical lines that are feasible for the player. For instance, arrangers should avoid writing uncomfortable leaps in trumpet parts-a wide leap might require the player to change from one partial to another in an awkward manner. The most important considerations to keep in mind when writing for trumpet are range and endurance. It is important to keep the music in a range that is comfortable for the player. Also, trumpet players must have opportunities to rest their chops, partie-

46

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

ularly when playing in the upper register. A common error made by student arrangers is to overwrite the trumpet part, so be sure to avoid writing parts that are too high, too busy, or too difficult. The trumpet's bright tone comes from the shape of its bore, which is primarily cylindrical. The cornet and flugelhorn, on the other hand, get their more mellow-sounding tones from their primarily conical bore. That's why a trumpet player will sometimes pull out a flugelhorn when called upon to play something lyrical such as a ballad. Thus the contour of the bore affects the tone quality of brass instruments-the same is true with woodwinds.

Trumpet Notation Music for the trumpet is written in the treble clef. Since the trumpet is pitched in the key of Bb, music written for trumpet must be transposed up a whole step from concert pitch as shown in the following example:

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Trumpet Range Arranging students need to memorize instrumental ranges. Understanding how the instrument behaves within its range is also criticaC but the arrang¢r must never write notes beyond the range of the instrument. The following example shows the range of the trumpet. The arrow indicates that the upper range depends upon the player-this will vary, of course, from player to player. It is appropriate, however, to write below the written high Din small group writing. The highest register is typically reserved for a big band setting. 1

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

47

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The Registers of the Trumpet The low range of the trumpet, including notes below the staff, is difficult to control. Intonation can be inconsistent, and the tone is quite muddy. Avoid writing leaps into this area. As the trumpet range moves into the staff, projection, endurance, and agility all improve significantly. The dynamic range is also increased. The tone becomes brighter and clearer as the trumpet range moves to the top of the staff, but it also becomes more difficult to play softly in this area. The range above the staff is a powerful part of the trumpet range. Remember that endurance can be a real challenge in this register-even accomplished players need occasional rests if they are asked to play in this range for extended periods.

Trumpet Mutes Although only two brass instruments are explored in this book (trumpet and trombone) they can both be fitted with mutes that generate unique and distinct tone qualities. The insertion of a mute needs to be indicated in both the score and parts at the end of the phrase prior to their use. Remember to give the player plenty of time to make any mute change by writing rests into the part. The three most common trumpet mutes are the Harmon mute, the cup mute, and the straight mute. The Harmon mute has an adjustable stem which is usually removed in a jazz setting. This mute alters the trumpet tone into a much more focused, buzzy sound. The best example of the Harmon mute can be heard in many of Miles Davis' recordings. This mute requires an abundance of breath support since the mute blocks all the air from the bell of the horn, forcing it through the mute. The cup mute, on the other hand, provides a rounder, more mellow sound than the Harmon mute. For a good example of cup mute playing, listen to Miles Davis' 1954 recording of "Solar" on the album Walkin'. The straight mute produces a brighter, more nasal sound and is associated with a more dated repertoire such as Glenn Miller's uString of Pearls."

The Trombone As with the trumpet, the arranger must understand the physical properties of the trombone in order to write for it successfully. The trombonist, like his trumpet-playing counterpart, manipulates his or her embouchure in order to sound the various partials of the overtone series. On a trumpet, the length of the tubing is changed by opening up extra segments of the instrument by pressing a valve. But on a trombone, the player changes

48

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

the length of the instrument's tubing in a much more direct fashion-by moving the slide in or out with the hand. The trombone, like the trumpet, gets its bright sound from the primarily cylindrical bore, although because of it's lower range and larger size, it is also capable of producing warm and romantic lines. The trombone is sometim.es referred to as a big, low-sounding trumpet because they share the same bore properties.

Slide Positions and Technical Facility It is important to be aware of the pitches associated with each slide position. Some lines that look simple to play on paper might be extremely awkward on the trotnbone. For instance, moving between seventh position (slide fully extended) and first position (slide fully retracted) is obviously going to be problematic for the player. On the other hand, in the high tessitura of the trombone, all the notes can be played with only the first three positions. As a result, playing in this region is technically easier because the movements of the slide cover less distance. The chart seen below shows the slide positions of each note on the trombone. The first three notes are known as pedal tones. After the pedal tones, the trombone moves through the slide positions beginning on a low E and continues up to the F above the staff. Notes above the F have been omitted because they are played with short slide positions that are easily negotiated by the player.

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Trombone Range Jazz trombone music is almost exclusively written in bass clef. Since the trombone is a nontransposing instrument, it is unnecessary to indicate a transposed range.

Example 4.5

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

49

The Registers of the Trombone The lower notes of; the trombone range are more difficult to control, as we saw with the trumpet. As the r1hnge moves into the middle and upper parts of the staff, the instrument's tone becomes more centered, and it will blend easily with other instruments. The dynamic range is wide in this part of the range. The notes above the staff result in a clear tone, and since the positions are closer together, they can be played more rapidly. One of the most common instrumentation errors I see is the writing of trombone parts that are too low. Writing on the top of the bass clef staff, and just above, works very well in small groups. Again, as with the trumpet, writing at the top of the range requires rest time for the player, as this is physically demanding. Playing soft passages is also difficult in the upper register.

Trombone Mutes Trombone mutes can provide new tone colors for the jazz ensemble. The three most common mutes used by the trombone are the straight mute, the cup mute, and the bucket mute. The straight mute and cup mute both produce a nasal tone (the straight mute more so than the cup mute) while the bucket mute mellows the sound considerably. As with the trumpet, the insertion of a trombone mute needs to be indicated in both score and parts at the end of the phrase prior to their use. Remember to give the player plenty of time to make any mute change by writing rests into the part.

The Saxophone The most commonly used saxophones are the alto, tenor and baritone saxes, although the soprano saxophone is also an important jazz instrument. Since every member of the saxophone family uses exactly the same fingerings, saxophone players often play more than one variety of saxophone. However, most players have a favorite type of saxophone on which they feel the most comfortable. The saxophone is an ideal instrument for melodies and countermelodies, and also background sustained parts.

Saxophone Transposition Saxophones are built as either Eb or Bb instruments. The alto and baritone saxophones are Eb instruments while the tenor and soprano saxophones are Bb instruments. Saxophone music is notated in the treble clef, although some textbooks (including this one) often display the concert pitch of tenor and baritone saxophone parts in bass clef to avoid ledger lines. Music written for the alto saxophone must be transposed up a major sixth from concert pitch. Transposing the key signature is accomplished by adding three sharps or subtracting three flats from the written key signature. The example below shows the transposition of pitches and keys necessary when writing for the alto saxophone.

50

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

Music written for the tenor saxophone must be transposed up a 1najor ninth from concert pitch. Transposing the key signature is accomplished by adding two sharps or subtracting two flats frmn the written key signature as seen below.

I.

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L

Music written for the baritone saxophone must be transposed up a major thirteenth (an octave and a sixth) from concert pitch. Transposing the key signature is accomplished by adding three sharps or subtracting three flats from the written key signature in the same way as is done for the alto saxophone.

Baritone Saxophone

Example 4.8

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

51

Although the baritone sax is a wonderful horn to include in small group writing, the suggested instrumentation for this text does not include this particular instrument. However, in a four-v;oice texture, it could certainly take the place of the trombone.

Saxophone Ranges The next example illustrates the practical ranges of the alto, tenor and baritone saxophones. Keep in mind that not all saxophones are created equal as far as range is concerned. Although every saxophone uses the same fingerings, not all instruments have the same keys to press. Many (but not all) baritone saxophones are equipped with a low A key which extends the range of the instrument downward by a half step. And most saxophones made today have a high F~ key that many older saxophones do not have. Here is a chart that shows the range of the saxophones.

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The Registers of the Saxophone The lowest notes of the saxophone (below a low transposed C~) can be quite difficult to control, especially by a less experienced player. In the staff, the saxophone's tone is rich and full, making this range a very often-used area for arrangers seeking to write sustained chords. The tone of the saxophone becomes more strident as it ascends to the top of the staff and above the staff, giving the saxophone tone a bit more projection in this tessitura. Above the staff, the tone of the saxophone can become very bright and loud-and also difficult to control. These notes of the saxophone, especially above a high C, can also go sharp, making intonation a challenge for players of all levels. As mentioned previously, the top note of the normal saxophone range is the written F~, or written F if the instrument does not have a high F~ key. The advanced saxophonist, however, is not limited to this range. With specialized fingerings and alterations to the airstream, the saxophonist may play upward into the altissimo register (the extremely high notes above the normal range of the saxophone). Because a player must be quite advanced to have adequate control over the altissimo register, even experienced

52

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

arrangers never write in this range of the saxophone.

Chapter Summary 1. An instrument's tone quality is the product of factors such as the material from

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

which it is constructed, the shape of its bore, the presence or absence of overtones, and its method of tone production. Arrangers must memorize the ranges of the instruments. Combining instruments within the same family, or with a similar timbre or range creates a homogeneous sound. Combining instruments from different families with a different timbre or range creates a contrasting sound. The power and bright tone of the trumpet make it a natural1nelodic instrument. Endurance and range are the two most important considerations when writing for trumpet. The trombone can produce a bright sound similar to the trumpet, but also can sound warm and mellow. The slide positions of the trombone affect the facility of the instrument; changing positions quickly works best with slide positions that are adjacent to one another. Trombone and trumpet mutes create new instrumental colors. The saxophone works well as a melodic instrument, but also in background sustained parts. All the members of the saxophone family use the same fingerings.

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

-----Assignment 4.1 Transposition

In the staff provided on the next page, transpose the given melody for trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, baritone sax, and trombone. Notate the trombone and baritone sax parts one octave down from concert pitch. Do not change the octave of the trumpet, alto sax, or tenor sax.

53

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1I

CHAPTER

4:

BRASS AND SAXOPHONES

55

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The Rhythm Section The instruments of the rhythm section are piano, guitar, bass, and dtums. Arrangers who play wind instruments often struggle with these instruments both in terms of notation and understanding their individual roles within the ensemble. Rhythm section players employ much more improvisation than other members of the ensemble. For this reason, this part of the ensemble demands a flexible and unique method of notation and also a certain level of detachment from the arranger. For instance, the pianist, guitarist, and bassist are usually only reading chord symbols, and the drummer may have long sections of just timekeeping with virtually no notation.

Role in the Ensemble Including the word "rhythm" in the name of the "rhythm section" emphasizes the element of time-keeping. This section, however, also provides the harmonic framework. Melodies can also be performed by pianists, guitarists, and even bassists. While these three elements can be specifically notated by the arranger, the section usually improvises and (( comps" their parts. 57

58

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

The Basso Continuo Thepracticeofusingagroup of rnusicianstosupply the rhythmic and harmonic foundationfor a larger ensemble. is not new.DuringtheBaroque period, the "rhythm section" was calledthebasso continuo. The1written mu~ic for the basso c:ontinuo consisted of anotatedbass line with special nufT1bers belowthebass notes.. The numbers.ineachmeasurewere special.chordsymbolscalledfi?l1red bass thatan1usician playing a chordal . instrument would use to improvise (or realize, to use the ~ppropriate term) a chordal accompaniment. These.chords would be played by a. harpsichord, lute, or some other instrument. The bass line itself wouldbe played by a bass instrument such as a bassoon or viola da gamba. The usage offigured bass allowed <musicians to improvise a chordal accompaniment within specific parameters. The jazz rhythm ?ection of. today provides the bass line and chords muchinthesame way asthe·bassocontinuo of the Baroque era.

The word camping is short for ((accompaniment." When camping, the rhythm section players exercise a large degree of freedom over what they play. The voicings in the piano and guitar, the bass lines, and drum timekeeping are all improvised, but within the organization of the arrangement. Often the players require only chord symbols with slashes representing the duration of each chord. When rhythm section players are required to add something specific, appropriate notation is blended into the part. The arranger must not overnotate rhythm section parts. Young arrangers must realize that the players themselves may be able to provide better solutions to specific voicings and styles than the arranger could. As tnentioned above, simple slashes are used to indicate camping. As long as the style and tempo are indicated, most players should be able to provide an appropriate accompaniment. Also, experienced rhythm section members play differently during the melody than during solo sections. In a swing tune, when playing the head, the rhythm section may want to play with a utwo" feel-that's when the drummer and bassist emphasize the first and third beats of a 4/4 measure with the bassist playing mainly roots and fifths. After the head the rhythm section will normally play in u four" and the bassist will begin to play a quarter note bass line. Rhythm section performance practice is beyond the focus of this text, but simply knowing the difference between a utwo" feel and a u four" feel will be enough for most beginning arrangers. The arranger can indicate which feel is appropriate for the rhythm section, but often the players themselves will make the decision if nothing is indicated.

Notating Rhythm Section Parts I've observed that while rhythm section musicians transition quite well to writing for horn players, wind players often struggle with the notation of rhythm section parts. In reality, these parts are actually very simple to write. Two important notation methods are described below.

CHAPTER

5:

59

THE RHYTHM SECTION

Com ping Below is an exampl~ of a score which indicates camping for piano, bass, and drums accompanying the q).elody of "Why Not Now." Notice that each member of the rhythm section has only the following in his or her part: the time-feel (where it says ((in two"), slashes, and chord symbols-the rest is left up to the player.

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Rhythmic Notation To notate a specific rhythm for the entire rhythm section, use large note heads with no identifiable pitch. This type of notation is called rhythmic notation. If you want the pianist to voice the chord with a specific note on the top, simply write the desired note on the staff with the chord symbol and include the instruction {{Voice with note on top." If you have something precise in mind for any of the instruments, provide the exact notation. It is very common to blend actual notes with slash notation and rhythmic notation. Keep in mind, however, that the players themselves might have a better idea of what to play in that particular spot than you do. The next example illustrates a score using the same instruments accompanying the identical section of "Why Not Now" as shown in example 5.1. Slashes, rhythmic notation, and exact notation are blended together. This uncharacteristic example is for educational purposes only since most charts will not include this much variety of notation in such a short span.

60

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

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The Instruments of the Rhythm Section The arranger must understand the dramatic differences among the instruments of the rhythm section. In the trumpet section, everybody is holding a trumpet. In the trombone section, everyone (hopefully) is holding a trombone. But in the rhythm section, there are four completely different instruments playing together. The following pages serve only as an introduction to the instruments of the rhythm section. Consult instrumentspecific method books for more detailed information or ask for input from rhythm section musicians.

Piano The pianist plays a crucial role in the small group. Duties such as voicing the various chords, comping behind soloists, and integrating with the bass and drums all fall to the pianist. The pianist should be able to choose an appropriate tessitura in which to play his or her chord voicings and should also be aware of the amount of rhythmic complexity injected into the fabric of the arrangement. A good adage for pianists in comping situations is ((less is more." Also, the pianist is responsible for dictating much of the style of the piece. The pianist could play heavy ((McCoy Tyner" voicings that use a lot of fourths or perhaps use a more sparse "Count Basie" approach to comping. This helps to set the tone of the entire arrangement. Piano parts are often notated on one staff rather than on the more space-consuming grand staff, particularly when only chord changes are indicated. However, sometimes both one and two staves are necessary in different sections of the arrangement. Fortunately, computer notation programs are able to score the piano part both ways, thereby saving valuable space. Using only one staff when possible will prevent you from handing your pianist a part that is ten pages long!

CHAPTER

5:

THE RHYTHM SECTION

61

Guitar While the guitar is not included in the musical examples in this text, it is frequently used in jazz rhyth~ sections. The following tips will help you write successfully for guitar:

1. The guitar sounds an octave lower than written. 2. The guitar serves as a wonderful companion timbre to wind instrumentsj it is often scored in unison (or octave) lines doubling other 1nembers of the ensemble. 3. Don't assume that something that works on piano will also work on the guitar. These two instruments function very differently. The pianist and guitarist should not comp chords at the same time. Chord symbols can be interpreted in a variety of ways, and the pianist and guitarist need to avoid playing conflicting voicings and rhythms. Experienced pianists and guitarists pay close attention to if and how they are blending-and without written or verbal instructions they will decide among themselves which player will comp chords while the other rests. For instance, during a horn solo, the pianist and guitarist will often take turns camping chords behind the soloist.

Bass The bass sounds an octave lower than written. The bass range illustrated below is for a four-string instrument (some electric basses have a fifth string). The strings are tuned to E, A, D, and G. Typically, the acoustic upright bass is found in more traditional jazz settings with other acoustic instruments. The electric bass is most effective in the jazz/rock fusion idiom, paired with other electric instruments, such as electric piano and/or guitar.

written range

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The bass player should be viewed as both the timekeeper and provider of the underlying style and harmonic foundation. In a small group setting, the bassist sometimes reinforces the pianist's left hand during ostinato passages. During normal timekeeping sections, however, the pianist should not interfere with the bassist's camping pattern.

Drum Set The drummer's most important responsibility is timekeeping. Much of the success of your arrangement depends upon how it feels to the listener, and the drummer is responsible for this important aspect of small group playing. In fact, the manner in which the

62

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

members of the rhythm section interact with one another is critical to all jazz performances.

Drum Notation Notating drum parts for small jazz ensembles should fiot be overly complicated. Your job as arranger is to notate the parts as clearly as possible, creating an appropriate balance of both structure and freedom for the players. All of the players in small jazz groups need to listen intently to one another, and an elaborate drum part can distract the drummer from his or her primary goal-interacting with the band. Fortunately, there are simple ways to notate drum parts: 1. Slash notation 2. Background figures 3. Rhythmic notation

Slash Notation Slash notation (seen below) refers to diagonal slashes placed in the middle of the staff. This notation obviously gives the player the most freedom to interact with the other musicians and to provide his or her own interpretation.

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There is a lot of information contained in example 5.4. The tempo/style marking indicates that this will be a fast swing tune and the drummer should begin the chart rather aggressively because of the forte marking. He or she should also play the part with sticks rather than with brushes or mallets. There is also a two-bar repeat. This is a space-saving device that says to the player, ((repeat the previous two bars."

Background Figures The drummer is often asked to support parts being played by the horns while simultaneously keeping the time moving. These background figures are indicated with small note heads, with stems pointing up, placed above the staff containing slash notation. These rhythms are then played on either drums or cymbals at the drummer's discretion. It is often helpful to provide written instructions identifying the instruments to be supported along with articulations. This type of notation is illustrated on the following page.

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Rhythmic Notation Often the drummer is asked to reinforce the entire ensemble with kicks. Rhythmic notation is indicated by simply notating the rhythm on the middle line of the staff with large note heads. This type of notation is illustrated below. Along with the figures, the drummer would also provide the time, blending the kicks with the basic feel of the tune. This type of notation was also seen above in example 5.2, because all rhythm section members read this type of notation. ~Aftf il»lfll~

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Reinforcement and Integration Reinforcement of the horns is a role shared to varying degrees by all the members of the rhythm section, and balancing timekeeping with support of the horns is an important decision for arrangers. Too much integration (particularly during background sections of solos) can make the chart lose momentum. Conversely, if the rhythm section offers no support of the horns, the band will not be working together as a unit. You may want to take a moment and examine a few sections of the complete arrangements in chapter 17 focusing on the rhythm section. Observe how slash notation is blended with actual notation in the piano, bass, and drum parts.

64

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

Don't Be Intimidated by the Rhythm Section! If you are a wind player and are able to perform with a fine rhythm section, use the opportunity to observe what each player is doing. Also, seek the advice of rhythm section members. Finally, study scores that provide a balance between the arranger's wishes and the freedom of the rhythm section members to /add their own interpretation. If successful, the result will be a spontaneous and creative final product.

Chapter Summary 1. The rhythm section provides the harmonic and rhythmic foundation of the ensemble. 2. Rhythm section notation is quite different from wind instrument notation. 3. Slash notation, which indicates timekeeping, is the most common notational device. 4. Arrangements should provide a balance of improvised rhythm section parts and specific notation.

CHAPTER

5:

THE RHYTHM SECTION

------Assignment 5.1 Rhythm Section Parts

On the next two pages there is an incomplete score for a small group chart. Only the melody is given in the top staff. Your assignment is to notate appropriate piano, bass, and drum parts to accompany the melody. In the parts you create, include the following elements: PIANo: Notate slashes in measures 1-6 and in measure 9; rhythmic notation

based on the rhythm of the melody in measures 7-8 and 10-11. Notate the chord symbols. Write the same notation in both clefs, but put the chord symbols above the treble clef staff. BASs: Same as piano, but write the roots of the chords where rhythmic notation occurs. Remember to notate the chord symbols. DRuMs: Notate slashes in the measures 1-9. Use background figure notation in measures 8-9. Use rhythmic notation in measures 1 0.·--11 based on the rhythm of the melody. Don't forget to include time signatures for all parts and key signatures for piano and bass. Indicate "medium swing" as the tempo/style.

65

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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CHAPTER

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Part Ill Jazz Harmony & Voicings

71

Successful jazz musicians are usually excellent music theorists. While improvisers and arrangers may have different approaches and labels for various concepts, most of them have an understanding of jazz harmony and chord voicings. Also, since not every melodic note is a chord member, an understanding of nonharmonic tone treatment is vital for jazz musicians. We will find in part III that these concepts are interwoven, and therefore the various voicing types and nonharmonic tone treatments will be presented as a unit. The term voicing refers to the distribution of chord tones. A chord can be voiced with as few as two notes (e.g the third and seventh) or can contain all of the possible chord tones including the upper extensions. Part III is divided into the following four chapters: Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

6: 7: 8: 9:

Tertian harmony Quartal harmony Slash chords Nonharmonic Tones

Whether you are arranging for two horns or for the thirteen horns of the typical big band, keeping these three types of voicings in mind as well as the approach techniques covered in chapter 9 will help to organize your thinking about jazz harmony.

73

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I

Tertian Harmony Tertian (pronounced TURR-shin) harmony will be familiar to anyone who has studied harmony in a basic music theory course. Tertian harmony is built by stacking notes in thirds. The simplest tertian structure is the triad. The word triad comes from the Greek word that means ((three." The three notes in a triad are the root, the third and the fifth of the chord. If you continue to stack notes in thirds beyond the triad, the chord becomes more complex and additional information is needed to indicate the quality of that chord. The number next to the chord symbol identifies the top note. Observe what happens when we stack a chord higher and higher in thirds:

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75

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ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

The tones above the seventh are called the upper extensions. Keep in mind that you may not extend a chord beyond the thirteenth. If you continued to stack notes in thirds above the thirteenth, the chord tones would begin to repeat themselves. Most jazz chords are labeled as some kind of seventh chord (e.g., Cma7). The tones of a seventh chord are the root, third, fifth, and seventh. Here are a few examples of typical seventh chords:

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Close and Open Voicings As we distribute chord tones (or "voice" them) we can either stack them consecutively, as is illustrated above, or we can create gaps between some of the chord tones. Chords that are stacked consecutively within the range of one octave are said to be in a close voicing. If the chord has four different tones, it is commonly referred to as four-way close. Chords that are not consecutively stacked and exceed the interval of one octave are said to be in open voicing. Tackling close voicings first will make the open voicing section of the chapter much simpler to understand.

Four-Way Close Voicings As mentioned above, a chord containing four separate notes that reside within the range of an octave is called four-way close. This voicing is the most common structure used by jazz arrangers and pianists because it works well in harmonizing fast-moving lines but can also provide the harmonic foundation for lush ballads.

Chord Tone Substitutions Most chords in the jazz idiom are expressed simply by indicating three things: the root, the quality of the chord, and the number seven. A seasoned jazz performer can embellish that basic chord symbol by adding and/ or changing chord tones to express a richer, more colorful sound. These musicians understand that the seventh chord designation is merely a point of departure and that upper extensions, as well as the fourth and sixth, play a vital role in jazz harmony. Simple root position seventh chords that have only the fundamental tones (i.e., the root, third, fifth, and seventh) are ~ctually the exception rather than the rule. , The richness of jazz harmony involves a hierarchy of substitution possibilities for these four tones. For this reason, it is best to think of each of these chord tones not as required tones, as you may be led to believe from the chord symbol, but rather as chord tones that are almost always replaced, or substituted, according to rather specific

CHAPTER 6: TERTIAN HARMONY

77

rules. Let's first pair each of these fundamental chord tones with possible substitutions, illustrated below: The root can ;be replaced by the ninth. The third can be replaced by the fourth. The fifth can be replaced by the thirteenth or eleventh. The seventh can be replaced by the sixth. I mentioned above that there are rules regarding these substitution possibilities, and these rules are dependent upon three important considerations: the chord quality, the key that you're in, and the tone color you want. We'll discuss how keys affect the substitution rules in a moment. First let's explore chord tone substitutions in the context of chord quality and tone color. The upper extensions, along with the fourth and sixth, are all major intervals above the root (in the case of the ninth, sixth, and thirteenth) or perfect intervals (in the case of the fourth and eleventh). However, the chord symbol can indicate alterations of these tones (i.e., ~11 ). Ninths can be lowered or raised, elevenths can be raised, but not lowered (a flatted eleventh is the equivalent of a major third), and thirteenths can be lowered but not raised (a raised thirteenth is the equivalent of a minor seventh). Also, the thirteenth and sixth are the same note an octave apart, as are the eleventh and fourth. With this background knowledge, examine the chart on the next page listing chord tone substitutions for ma7, dom7, mi7, mi7(b5), and diminished 7 chords. You'll notice that even though the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth are considered upper extensions (i.e., above the seventh) they are notated in the same octave as the fundamental chord tones.

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The chart seen above lists three possible substitution types: 1. ninths

2. thirteenths/ sixths 3. elevenths/fourths By reading the chart from left to right, the following points can be summarized: Ninths can replace the root in all chord qualities. Raised and lowered ninths can replace the root only in a dom7. Thirteenths can replace the fifth in a ma7 and a dom7. Flatted thirteenths can replace the fifth only in a dom7. Sixths can replace the seventh in a ma7 and a min7. Elevenths can replace the fifth only in a mi7. Raised elevenths can replace the fifth in a ma7 and a dom7 and are sometimes labeled as flatted fifths, e.g., Cma7(b5). The suspended fourth can replace the third only in a dom7. Dim 7ths are unique, since they are symmetrical; a note placed a whole step above any of the chord tones functions as a ninth. All of this begs the question: Why use these particular substitutions? When should I use a thirteenth? Should I use it in conjunction with a ninth? An altered ninth? As was

CHAPTER

6:

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79

mentioned above, chord tone substitutions provide a richer, more colorful sound. They also provide more dissonance, and dissonant chords tend to drive the music forward toward a resolution. For exafllple, the dominant seventh chord, when functioning as a V chord (which is its usual r6le) requires-yes that's a strong word-substitute chord tones, because the chord needs a degree of instability as it leads to a resolution. The thirteenth provides that dissonance, as it clashes (in a good way) with the seventh, because the thirteenth and seventh are only a half step from one another. Later in this chapter we'll be revisiting chord tone substitution when jazz chord positions are discussed, and we'll see how these various substitutions are combined. For now, however, we need to briefly discuss how keys and functional harmony affect substitution choices.

An Important Consideration: What I(ey Are You In? The substitution chart above is quite concise in summarizing the substitution options. However, it does contain one unavoidable flaw-the tonality of both the overall key or the ((key of the moment" (involving secondary function) is not taken into consideration. For example, the thirteenth of a V chord (with a chord root of G) in the key of C minor will be a flat thirteenth (an Eb) to match the key. So the tonality will govern what you utilize as substitutes. This, however, actually makes things easier. The key provides a structure that guides the arranger toward particular decisions. This will become clear as you read and study the section on the ii-V-I progression below.

----------------Important!---------------Keep in mind that in a jazz standard, chord symbols are merely points of departure-while a symbol may call for only a seventh, the arranger has the freedom to choose appropriate substitutions. This is, in fact, a big part of the arranger's job description.

Inversions and Positions We learn in music theory classes that chords may be inverted so that a note other than the root serves as the lowest tone. Therefore a triad may be arranged with any of its three notes as the lowest note for a total of three possible positions. Since a seventh chord has four notes, it may be arranged with any of its four notes as the lowest note, for a total of four possible positions, as demonstrated on the following page:

80

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Example 6.4

Notice what's happening here: the chord is simply rearranged or inverted, but the order of the chord tones always stays the same. The bottom note is simply shifted to the top of the chord as the positions move from left to right. The chart below illustrates yet another way to view this phenomenon:

Seventh Chord Positions Position

Chord Tones, Listed From Bottom to Top

Root Position

Root, 3, 5, 7

First Inversion

3, 5, 7, Root

Second Inversion

5, 7, Root, 3

Third Inversion

7, Root, 3, 5

One good way to familiarize yourself with chord positions is to play them on the piano. As you play these chords you will be able to see, hear and feel them all at once.

Jazz Chord Positions Our next step toward understanding voicing techniques is to make the connection between chord position and possible chord tone substitutions. Jazz theorists apply letter name labels to denote positions (unfortunately with a certain degree of inconsistency and ambiguity). As mentioned above, there are four positions of a four-note chord. Many jazz piano method books refer to only two positions: the aX' position (in which the third is the bottom note) and the "B" position (in which the seventh is the bottom note). Why do these method books identify only two rather than four possibilities? These positions place the most active tones (the third and seventh) on the bottom of the chord structure leading to very smooth movement of chord tones from one chord to the next, otherwise known as voice leading. There are two other possible positions, however, and I have chosen to label them "C" and "D" as seen in the chart on the following page. Notice that I've included some of the substitution possibilities discussed earlier, namely the ninth and thirteenth.

CHAPTER

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TERTIAN HARMONY

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The chart seen above reveals small differences among the chord positions. Recall that the thirteenth may replace the fifth in dominant seventh chords in order to increase the dissonance of this ilnportant chord. This is seen in the A and B positions. The dissonance between the thirteenth and seventh is very characteristic of jazz harmony. However, the B position offers the option of using the thirteenth or the fifth because there is enough dissonance between the third and ninth (theE and D) in the middle of the chord to give it a jazz flavor. Finally, notice the use of the root instead of the ninth in the D position of the minor seventh. The ninth would create a half step interval with the minor third (a D with an Eb) on top of the chord, which is something to avoid under normal circumstances. There are two important points that I would like to reemphasize: 1. Do not place a minor second immediately below the melody note as this will obscure it. A major second will work (see the major and dominant chords in the D position), but it still results in a dissonance next to the melody. Use with care. 2. Inner-chord clusters are desirable in certain circumstances, especially on chords with a dominant function. However, avoid two groups of clusters. For this reason, the fifth is used rather than the thirteenth in the D position of the dominant seventh in example 6.5.

The Value of the Piano for Arranging Students Most jazz arrangers spend time at the piano keyboard trying out voicings and exploring the ways in which tones move in and out of the prevailing harmony. While viewing music notation on the staff has certain advantages over playing the same notation on the keyboard (for example, a Gb and F~ look the same on a keyboard but are separate notes on the staff), the keyboard allows us to see and hear voicings, scales, melodies, and voice-leading with a level of clarity not possible by looking merely at music notation.

Shell Vo.icings Shell voicings are three-note structures that contain the third, seventh, and one additional tone, usually the fifth or ninth. If you've not played piano voicings before taking up this book, these simple structures are a good place to start. Example 6.6 illustrates major, minor, and dominant chords voiced in A and B positions. :Play them in your

82

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

right hand with the chord roots in your left and practice them in all keys. Use the circle of fifths to move through every chord (i.e., C-F-Bb-Eb-Ab-Db-Gb-B-E-A-D-G). Play one chord quality and position at a time-for example, all major sevenths in A position around the circle. (!,Mi9

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After you feel comfortable with these shell voicings, try playing them in four-way close by adding the missing tone. For example, the A position Cma7 above is missing the fifth. Refer to the voicings illustrated in example 6.5 to guide you. Again, play one chord quality at a time (i.e., all major sevenths in A position, etc.).

CHAPTER

6:

TERTIAN HARMONY

,.-----Assignment 6.1 Four-Way Close Voicings

In the staves provided on the next two pages, notate the chords with four-way close voicings. The top note is given; you must add the lower three tones. Though these chords are not actually in a key, use chord tone substitutions at your discretion. The first one is completed for you.

83

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CHAPTER

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89

,-----Assignment 6.2 _.______ Four-Way Close Voicings II

In the staves on the following pages, notate each chord with four-way close voicings under the given melody note; then distribute the notes on the grand staff using SATB format. "SATB" refers to voices and the stem directions differentiating each voice. From top down on the treble clef staff: soprano, stems up; alto, stems down. From top down on the bass clef staff: tenor, stems up; bass, stems down. Though these chords are not actually in a key, use chord tone substitutions at your discretion. The first voicing is done for you.

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------Assignment 6.3 ~--------. Four-Way Close Voicings Ill

Voice the following chords with four-way close voicings. Use the ir1dicated key for each chord as you determine which chord tone substitutions to use. Some substitutions are suggested by the chord symbol. Notate them in SATB format on the condensed score grand staff. The top note is given. Transfer the voicing from the 11 Condensed voicing" grand staff to the instruments below. Write a transposed score. The first one is completed for you.

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Circle of Fifths Progressions The A and B positim;ts are the most commonly used inversions when voicing chords for camping. These parficular positions work especially well in circle of fifths progressions because the active tones (the third and seventh) are on the bottom of the harmony. The two positions alternate as the progression moves around the circle, thereby creating the smoothest possible voice leading. Example 6.7 contains another keyboard exercise and also serves as a useful visual illustration of circle of fifths motion. The example shows major seventh shell voicings moving between the A and B positions, illustrating smooth voice leading. While only the first four chords of the circle of fifths are notated, play them all the way around the circle. Note how the voices move: thirds and sevenths move in the same voice and alternate with one another. The fifths and ninths also alternate with one another. Practice minor seventh and dominant seventh chords in the same manner.

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As in the previous keyboard exercise, try these in four-way close position. Example 6.8 illustrates this motion. The chord tone motion described above holds true here as well-thirds and sevenths alternate, as do fifths and ninths. Note that these are all notated as ma7 chords; recall that the ninth is a substitute for the root and is often not indicated in the symbol.

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ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAzz ENsEMBLE

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The ii-V-I Progression The extremely common ii-V-I progression provides an excellent opportunity to study the various voice leading procedures used by the jazz arranger and how tonality can affect chord tone substitutions. As we saw demonstrated in the example above, the positions of the chords alternate between A and B because the ii-V-I is a circle of fifths progression. The example below contains the ii-V-I progression in both C major (first two measures) and C minor (last two measures). As you listen to the audio track of this example, notice the smoothness of the voice leading (the audio track has a bass line which is not notated in the example).

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ii-V-I Voice Leading The chart on the following page expands upon example 6.9 by illustrating the movement of each chord tone in a ii-V-I chord progression using alternating A and B chord positions.

CHAPTER

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Notice that the sevenths and thirds move in the same voice and alternate with one another, as was described above in the circle of fifths discussion. Roots (or ninths) and fifths (or thirteenths) also alternate with each other. So it's actually rather simple. The motion in each voice is identical if the progression were to begin with a B position ii chord. Also, the chart works for both major and minor keys, but there are some specific details about minor discussed below.

Minor Chord Progressions While the voices in the minor progression move in a similar fashion to the major version, there are some complicating factors to consider. If you have studied traditional music theory and practiced minor scales on your instrument, you know that there are three minor scales: natural, harmonic, and melodic. Furthermore, there are modes derived from the ascending melodic minor scale that play an important role in jazz harmony. This provides a myriad of chord tone choices for jazz performers and arrangers when working in minor keys, and these choices are revealed in the ii¢-V~i progression in example 6.9. For example, the tonic minor is often harmonized with a sixth rather than a seventh. The sixth is derived from the melodic minor scale since it's a major sixth above the bass (e.g., in a Cmi6/9, the sixth is an A natural, even if you're in a key signature of C minor, which includes an Ab ). The ii and V chords in minor progressions are associated with particular modes of melodic minor. The ii¢ can include a Inajor ninth above the bass note (theE voiced in the middle of the D¢ in the B position of example 6.9) which is a tone that is taken from Locrian ~2-the sixth mode of melodic minor. The V chord contains tones that are part of the super Locrian mode-the seventh mode of melodic minor (e.g., the raised ninth and flatted thirteenth). Performing and arranging in minor keys can be confusingbut because this material is so important, arranging students must strive to thoroughly understand minor harmony and the modes of the melodic minor scale. I recall that after presenting these modes to a piano student, he stated, ((That's what jazz sounds like."

106

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

More About the Sixth As mentioned previously in the discussionofchord tone substitutions, the sixth is acommonsubstitutionforthe seventh.. Thishappens quitefrequentlyatthe end ofmanyjazzstandards in whichthefinal. chord calls fora major seventh yet the root of the chord is the melody note. Sinck the major seventh is only a half step below the melody, using a major seventh in that case would be too dissonant, particularly fort he. conclusion of atune. ··The sixth •is also used in conjunction with the ninth in the 6/9 quartal construction of major and minor chords(rnoreaboutthis in the next chapter). Finally, the sixthisalwaysa111ajor Sixth above the root regardless of the keysignature.

Piano Exercises for the ii-V-I Progression Learning to play the ii-V-I progression on the piano in major and minor keys will help you both see and hear the voice leading. As you play them, notice how thirds alternate with sevenths, and fifths (or the substituted thirteenths) alternate with roots (or the substituted ninths). Understanding this motion is critical for arrangers. Play them in the same manner that you practiced the individual voicings above: right hand plays the chords, left hand plays the roots. The progression is notated with shell voicings in both major and minor in the example shown below. Practice them in all keys.

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CHAPTER

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Like the previous piano exercises, try these progressions in four-way close voicings. Think about the chart presented in example 6.10 as you observe how the tones move in each voice. These form the basis of the voice motion for much of what we'll be discussing as we move along. The ii-V-I progression is the final keyboard exercise presented in this text. Obviously, these exercises only scratch the surface of jazz keyboard skills. The more facility you have as a pianist (even if it's not your primary instrument) the better you will understand the voice leading principles outlined throughout the text. Use the piano keyboard as much as possible as you examine the examples in subsequent chapters; it is a wonderful tool for arrangers.

Choosing a Chord Position Choosing a four-way close chord position (either A, B, C, or D) to use at any particular point in an arrangement depends upon two factors: range and context. A simple rule of thumb regarding range is this: On the piano keyboard, close position chords sound best if notated between the D below middle C and the G above middle C, as shown below:

1

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Since chord tones often move in stepwise fashion (in circle progressions), each chord position will be determined by the previous one until range becomes a problem. The following example illustrates tertian voicings in one of the example pieces, ((Why Not Now." Chord positions are labeled throughout. The tonic chord is a Bb6, rather than the more familiar Bbma7. The sixth, G, is present to prevent an unwanted dissonance with the first melody note (the Bb) especially for a tune with standard chord changes.

108

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL }AZZ ENSEMBLE

Position:

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Notice the flow of the voicing positions in example 6.13. When the chords move by step, the position stays the same, as between the Gb7 and Fmi7. When the chords move in a circle of fifths progression, as in the Cmi7 to F7 to Bbma7, the positions alternate. The chord movement of a third, between Bbma7 and Dbmi7, involves a change of position, although when moving in thirds either position causes virtually the same intervallic leap for all voices. In these cases, range is the most important factor in deciding on a position. This next example, taken from the bridge of uSabrosa/' illustrates similar tendencies in chord movement. Notice that the melody dives down into the chord voicing in the fourth measure. This was done to keep the voicing in a satisfactory range.

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Once again the chords alternate positions when moving around the circle and remain in the same position when moving by step.

CHAPTER

6:

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109

-----Assignment 6 . 4 - - - The ii-V-1 Progression

In the staves provided on the next two pages, notate the ii-V-1 progression in major and minor for the requested keys. Use the A and B positions of fourway close voicings. The keys of F major and F minor are demonstrated first. Notice that the chord symbols are complete (i.e., every substitution is accounted for by the chord symbol); this is not always the case in "real" music. For this assignment, make the chord symbol reflect all chord tone substitutions present in the voicing.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1

CHAPTER

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Open Voicings The term open, wh~n referring to a voicing, simply means that the voicing spans an interval greater thq:n an octave. Open voicings are identified as drop-2, drop-3 and drop-2/4.

Drop-2 A drop-2 voicing is created by simply dropping the second highest voice of a four-way close tertian structure down an octave to the bottom of the chord. It is by far the most frequently used open position. This type of voicing allows the listener to hear the individual voices move much 1nore clearly than in a close voicing. It also is used when the melody is pitched relatively high because it supplies the lower instruments with more comfortable notes to play. When harmonizing a melody with substantial leaps, it is a good idea to alternate between open and close voicings. This next example illustrates the simple process of converting a four way close voicing into drop-2:

Example 6.15

Notice that the outer voices form a tenth. Because the outer voices are so prevalent in an open voicing, they should form a consonant interval. This can affect chord tone substitution choices, as is seen in the next example.

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Example 6.16

In the first measure, a ninth has been substituted for the root, and it is the second voice from the top. When that voice is dropped, a ninth interval is formed between the outer voices, which sounds awkward. The second measure corrects the problem by using the root of the chord, thereby creating a tenth in the outer voices when it is

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ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL ]AZZ ENSEMBLE

dropped down the octave. Play this example on the piano to hear the difference. When moving from chord to chord with drop-2 voicings, the voices move as they would in four-way close. The only difference is that the individual voices are in different places. Example 6.17 below illustrates the ii-V-I progression in both major and minor keys using drop-2 voicings. The notes are identical to those used in example 6.9, where four-way close ii-V-Is are presented. Notice that you can hear the individual lines more clearly when the progression is in drop-2. Unlike with tonic chords, the outer voices may form dissonant intervals, as unstable chords move from one to another. The ninth interval (D and C) between the outer voices in the D half-diminished chord resolves nicely to an augmented second in the G7, which sounds like a major third (Eb to B). Play these on the piano and transpose them to all keys as you did with the four-way close progressions.

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The following example offers an interesting contrast to example 6.14 in which the bridge chords of "Sabrosa" are rendered using four-way close voicings. In the following example, the same chords are voiced in drop-2 with the same melody notes (minus the passing tones) on top of each chord. Listen to the audio tracks for each example and you should notice now much more easily you hear the lines move. The examples are played on piano and bass; it would be even clearer with individual horns playing these parts.

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Drop-3 and Drop-2/4 Drop-3 voicings are also possible. Although used less frequently than drop-2, they can be useful because/they also spread out a tertian structure. As the name implies, the third note from tb.e top is dropped an octave. Drop-2/ 4 involves dropping the second and fourth voices down an octave. In the next two chapters we will see that it makes more sense to think of drop- 2/4 voicings as quartal and slash chords. For most arrangers, and especially for those just learning the craft, four-way close and drop-2 will make up the bulk of your voicings. However, there are other methods that can provide colorful alternatives to your arrangements. These are described in the next two chapters.

Chapter Summary 1. In a four-way close voicing, the four chord tones do not exceed the interval of an octave. 2. In an open position voicing, the chord spans an interval greater than an octave. 3. The root, third, fifth, and seventh can be replaced by chord tones that provide additional tonal colors. These substitutions are dependent upon the chord quality, the key of the moment, and the level of dissonance or consonance desired. 4. A and B chord positions provide the best voice leading and alternate in circle progressions. 5. Only the seventh resolves in major ii-V movement. 6. To convert a close position voicing to a drop-2 voicing, move the second-highest note down to the bottom of the chord. 7. Open voicings also include drop-3 and drop- 2/4.

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1,

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----Assignment 6.5----Drop-2 Voicings

Using four-way close voicings, add the three lower notes to the melody line found on the next page according to each chord symbol and chord function. Next, convert the voicing to drop-2 in the grand staff. Use SATB stem directions so that each voice may be easily distinguished. The first chord of each example is provided.

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ctuartal Harmony Tertian harmony, as we saw in the preceding chapter, refers to building chords by stacking in thirds. While this is the most common method of building chords, it is not the only way. Arrangers, composers, and theorists have conceived of other systems such as secunda! harmony (based upon seconds), quartal harmony (built upon fourths), and quintal harmony (based upon fifths). The use of fourths in jazz became prevalent during the 1960s in the music of artists such as McCoy Tyner, Miles Davis, Joe Henderson and many others. You'll find that if you apply quartal harmony properly, your music will take on a more spacious, hip sound. As we explore quartal harmony in this chapter, we'll build on the concepts introduced in the previous chapter-especially the concept of open voicing structures. Quartal voicings are constructed with perfect fourths, except in the case of the dominant seventh in which the bottom interval is a tritone. A pianist will usually play this structure with five notes, but in the case of a four-horn ensemble either the top or bottom notes can be eliminated to form a four-note voicing. There are a couple of interesting points about quartal harmony which we will discuss shortly: 1. Quartal voicings can be thought of as drop-2/ 4 open voicings derived from a ter-

125

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ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

tian structure. 2. Depending on what the root is, the same stack of fourths can form several different chords.

ctuartal Harmony = Drop-2/ 4 As mentioned above, drop-2/ 4 voicings can be viewed as quartal voicings. This way of thinking about a drop-2/ 4 voicing is actually simpler than thinking about lowering the second and fourth notes from the top of a chord. This conversion from close position to drop-2/ 4 is shown in the example below. The first chord in example 7.1 is a five-note C major chord structure that contains the root, sixth, fifth, third, and ninth. It is in close position (i.e., it does not exceed an interval of an octave). The second chord has the same notes as the first but is voiced with a drop-2/ 4 voicing. The second and fourth notes from the top (the A and the E) have been dropped an octave resulting in a chord built entirely of stacked perfect fourths.

Example 7.1

Latin Roots Many.of theterms related to ·musical··i[ltervals .come . fromLatin .. root words. Let's take them in order: the word unison comesJrom two latin roots. Uniis·a prefix that· means·.·."one,u and sonus mea~s "sound." .·So literally, unison means "one sound/' The word secunda! comes from the Latin word secundus whichmeans''second"{as in first,secorid, third)~ So secunda/means '1secondoriented. '' The word tertian comes froni the Latin word tertius which means "third." So tertian means "third--oriented." The Word quartalcomes from the Latin word quartus which .means 11fourth.'' ·soquartalmeans''foutth-oriented." And lastly, the word quintal comes from the Latiri wdrd>quintus which means "fifth." .So quintal means "fifth-oriented/'

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Transposing (luartal Voicings The same quartal vqicing can be used to express several different chords, as is demonstrated in the next e,xample. The chord labeled as a C6/9 contains the root, fifth, ninth, sixth, and third of the chord. These same notes can form several other chords, such as an Fma13 and an Amill. Since these are five-note structures, the substitution chart discussed in the previous chapter doesn't apply quite the same way. With five-note chords, is it possible to have thirteenths with fifths, elevenths with fifths, and roots with ninths in the same chord. Understanding what chord tone you want for the top of the voicing (especially when voicing the melody) is critical here. As shown below in example 7.2, the top chord tone of the voicing when interpreted as a C6/9 is the root; the top note is the fifth of the Fma13; it is the third of the Amin11. In each case the notes are identical. The chord tones are listed in the boxes to the right of each chord. Quartal voicings are very versatile and flexible, adding another dimension to your voicing choices.

Example 7.2

The arrangements used in this text are scored for four horns, and you'll see that quartal voicings are used for scoring the four parts in various places. As we will see below, adapting these five-note quartal voicings to work as four-note structures is a simple process.

(luartal Voicings as Four-Note Structures As we observed in example 7.1, quartal voicings are considered ((open" because they exceed the distance of an octave. By omitting either the top or bottom note, the remaining stack of fourths still exceeds an octave; there is just one less fourth interval than was illustrated in the examples 7.1 and 7.2. The next example (7.3) revisits the second measure of the open voicing ii-V-I 'seen in example 6.17, but in this case the tonic chord (i.e., the I) is voiced as a quartal voicing. You will see and hear that these structures can be used effectively in a four-voice context. The arrows in example 7.3 illustrate the additional voice motion resulting from the quartal tonic chord (the C6/9). The B (the third of the G7) moves down to the A (the sixth of the C6/9) in the second measure, however in the first measure of the example, the B of the G7 remains as the seventh of the Cma7. Inner voice motion helps define the progression and leads the listener's ear through the chords. As you hear the audio track

128

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(which also includes chord roots not pictured here) observe the difference between the warmth of the Cma7 in the first measure and the more spacious sound of the C6/9.

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Q..uartal Voicings as Dominants So far we have only discussed major and minor quartal voicings. It is possible to use quartal voicings for dominant chords as well, but in order to do so the bottom interval of the voicing must be altered. By changing the bottom interval into a tritone (diminished fifth or augmented fourth) the chord becomes a bright-sounding dominant seventh. The following example illustrates the conversion of major quartal structures into dominant quartal structures.

Example 7.4

We have seen in example 7.2 that a single quartal voicing can support a variety of roots. In example 7.4 the first and third chords contain the same tones above two different roots, forming a C6/9 and an Fmal3. Converting the C6/9 chord into a C9 chord is accomplished by raising the sixth (the A) to a Bb-the seventh of the dominant chord. Converting the Fmal3 chord into a dominant quality chord-an Fl3-is accomplished

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by lowering the seventh (the E) to an Eb, which is the seventh of the dominant chord. Seeing and hearing these specialized voicings in context reveals the hip, open sound that they provide £or an arrangement. Let's take a look at a chord progression that uses quartal harmony. J

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Example 7.5

Notice how this example demonstrates several chord structures: a major thirteenth with the fifth as the top note of the voicing (the Cma13), two major 6/9s with the root as the top note of the voicing (the F6/9 and C6/9), and a dominant quartal chord (the G9). Quartal voicings offer additional options for arrangers beyond tertian harmony, providing a different way to use open voicing structures. 11

So What" Voicings

This voicing, named for Miles Davis' famous modal composition, is similar to the quartal voicings discussed above, but this structure is brightened by the presence of a major third interval on top of the chord. This voicing has the same properties as the quartal chords-it is a drop-2/ 4 voicing and is transposable. This next example illustrates the conversion from close to drop- 2/4 open position. It is the same process illustrated in example 7.1, but in this case the first chord is a Cma13 rather than a C6/9. The first chord is a five-note chord structure that contains the seventh, the thirteenth, the fifth, the third, and the ninth. Notice that in this chord, the seventh, thirteenth, and fifth are adjacent to one another, forming a colorful, dissonant cluster. This chord, unlike the C6/9 shown in example 7.1, has a major seventh. Therefore, when you drop the thirteenth (the A) down an octave, that leaves the G and Bas a bright-sounding major third on top of the voicing. Also, as we saw with quartal chords, this same group of notes could also form other chords if you simply changed the bass note.

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Example 7.6

Transposing "So What" Voicings "So What" voicings have two important characteristics: they have a bright, modern sound, and they are easily transposable. As is the case with quartal voicings, aso What" voicings can also have several possible roots, creating different major and minor chords. The most common uses of this structure are to create major thirteenth chords and minor eleventh chords, but composers also use them for major ~11 and suspended chords as well. The next example contains a single aso What" structure notated four times, each with a different bass note.

Example 7.7

"So What" and Q..uartal Voicings in Context · Quartal and ((So What" structures provide new color choices for the arranger. On the following page is a progression in which these voicings are combined:

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131

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Notice the smooth voicing leading between chords in the above example. Although these hip, edgy voicings may be just what you are looking for in some situations, they should probably not be your primary choice. Tertian harmony is still the ((meat and potatoes" of the arranger's voicing choices.

Chapter Summary Quartal chords are built entirely of fourths. Quartal chords can be viewed as drop- 2/4 tertian voicings. Quartal chords are transposable. Dominants can be formed by changing the bottom interval of a quartal chord to a tritone. 5. "So What" chords are quartal chords brightened by a major third on top. 6. "So What" chords are transposable.

1. 2. 3. 4.

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I

CHAPTER

7:

QuARTAL HARMONY

,.------Assignment 7.1 (tuartal Chords

In the staff provided on the next page, notate the five-note quartal voicings under the given notes. The voicing type is listed for each chord. Put three notes in the treble clef staff and two notes in the bass clef staff. The first chord is provided.

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Slash Chords A slash chord is a symbol that indicates a bass note other than the normal root of the chord. For instance, in the example shown below, the Cma7 chord should be played over aD bass note. This chord symbol would be pronounced "C major seven over D."

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If you page through a fake book, you'll see plenty of examples of slash chord notation. Gaining an understanding of how the notation functions adds a useful tool to your collection of voicing possibilities.

Uses of Slash Chords There are three primary reasons why jazz musicians use slash chords: to improve bass lines, to notate an exact sound, and to simplify complex structures.

Smoothing Out Bass Lines Bass players are trained to play roots of chords when reading a lead sheet, along with the various passing tones heard in walking bass lines. As a result of playing chord roots, a bass line can include rather wide leaps. Slash chord symbols smooth out a bass line by indicating chord inversions. For instance, the example shown below is a C triad in first inversion.

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With this simple method at the writer's disposal, it's easy to smooth out the bass line as chords progress from one to the next. The last eight bars of the famous Duke Ellington standard ((In A Mellow Tone" will serve to illustrate this point. It starts on the Dbma7 which functions as the IV chord.

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In this progression, the Ab chord was given an Eb as the bass note (second inversion) to create a smooth line for the bass player to play. Notice how the bass line moves up in a stepwise fashion from Db to D to Eb and then to F.

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139

Notating An Exact Sound Another reason why slash chords are so useful for composers and arrangers is that they communicate a high degree of specificity. By using slash chords, composers and arrangers can dictat~ to the rhythm section an exact chord sound that includes certain notes while omitting others. Let's say, for instance, that you want the rhythm section to play a Cma7(~5) chord but without playing the ninth. Many pianists would consider playing the ninth of the chord since it's such a common substitution. But with a slash chord, E/C (pronounced "E over C"), you could quickly and easily show exactly what notes you want played. When the rhythm section members react to that chord symbol, they would play C in the bass, and E, G~ and B-the notes of an E triad-above it. This leaves out the unwanted D.

Simplifying Complex Structures One of the most important reasons for using slash chords is that they can express complex chord structures in a simplified manner. Suspended chords offer a useful and common example. While this chord is often indicated with the "sus" designation, as in C7sus, slash chord notation is often used instead, as in Bb/C. The Bb triad includes a Bb, D, and F. With a C bass note, these tones form the seventh (the Bb), 9th (the D), and the suspended 4th (the F) of a C7sus. Therefore, colorful tones (especially the ninth) are added to the chord and the arranger need only think of the notes of a Bb triad. The following illustrates this extremely common chord with the chord tones indicated in the boxes.

Example 8.4

Chord Over Chord Most of the time when you see a slash chord it indicates a chord over a bass note like the ones shown above. But sometimes the part of the chord below the slash is not just a bass note, but a full chord. This u chord over chord" type of symbol is called a polychord. When a slash chord indicates a polychord, the part of the symbol below the slash will have a chord quality written next to it such as ((triad," u7," or "ma7." Having the ability to notate one chord stacked on top of another chord can be a very useful tool for an arranger to have in his or her toolbox. This is especially true

140

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when dealing with dominant chords. Dominant seventh chords can be quite elaborate, but utilizing a slash chord symbol can make it much easier to notate a complex chord. When using this type of chord notation, the bottom symbol will normally indicate a letter followed by the numeral "7." This serves as the foundation of the chord. The upper symbol is a triad that provides interesting and useful chord tone substitutions. Providing harmonic color for dominant seventh chord structures is a very important part of jazz theory. As with the suspended chords we examined above, it is helpful to have a simple way to express a complex structure.

----------------Important!--------------~

In a "chord over bass note" slash chord, the bottom letter will not have a chord quality next to it- it will just be a letter. But if the letter below the slash has a chord quality written next to it, you can be sure that the chord symbol is a "chord over chord" or polychord.

For example, a C7(~9)(b13) chord looks like a complicated symbol, and it is. Fortunately, that same chord can also be notated as an Ab/C7. Not only will the proper notes be played, it will also be properly voiced as well. Other common examples are A/C7 which is a slash chord version of C13(b9) and D/C7 which is a C13(~11). The following example demonstrates these chord constructions.

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The example above shows the slash chord symbol between the staves and the more complicated single symbol above the treble staff. The chord tones supplied by the upper triad symbol are listed in the boxes to the right of the chord sympol. Like the quartal and "So What" voicings, the Ab/C7 and D/C7 slash chords are five-note structures (not including the root). The A/C7 is a four-note chord also (not including the root). Notice that the enharmonic spelling is flexible when using these voicings. In the Ab/C7, the Eb in the treble staff appears to be a minor third, but since there is a major third in the chord (in the bass clef), it is an enharmonically misspelled raised ninth (D~). The

CHAPTER

8:

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reason for the Eb rather than aD~ is that the upper triad is an Ab chord, which of course contains an Eb. It would look pretty odd with a D~, and it would not serve the purpose of simplifying the 1chord. Notice also that the upper triad is in second inversion. By using this particular inversion, the resulting structure is in drop-2/ 4 for the Ab/C7 and D/C7 and in drop-2 for the A/C7. The next example illustrates this with the sa1ne process as seen with quartal and uso What" voicings.

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The close position voicing in example 8.6 is notated correctly as far as note names are concerned. The slash chord version, in open position, contains the u incorrect" but more easily read enharmonic alterations. We will discuss slash chords in context in subsequent chapters when we examine the example tunes. Before we get to those later chapters, let's look at a short example from one of the example tunes.

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The major seventh chords are voiced with "So What" voicings in which the seventh is in the melody. The dominant thirteenth chords are bright ~11 slash chords. It is interesting to see how smoothly the voice leading works. The upper part of the "So What" chords are all common to the subsequent upper part of the slash chord. We'll be revisiting slash chords in chapter 13, ((Three-Part Writing." In that chapter we'll see that the upper triad can be voiced by a three-horn section (as was done, for

142

ARRANGING FOR THE SMALL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

example, by Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers). The upper triad of a slash chord can also be scored for a single section in a big band or by a pianist who often will play the top chord in the right hand and the bottom one in the left hand.

Voicing Summary This unit contains information about tertian, quartal, ((So What/' and slash chord voicings. You should base most of your thinking on tertian harmony because building chords in thirds is the foundation of our harmonic system. Furthermore, we found that the more specialized voicings presented above (i.e., quartaL "So What" and slash chords) may all be viewed as tertian drop- 2 and drop-2/4 voicings. Although we've discussed several voicing techniques, arrangers normally use the same voicing type throughout a phrase or section so that the voices move smoothly. This is particularly true when harmonizing a stepwise melody. However, moving from one technique to another is very common and effective-particularly when the range of the melody changes or unwanted repeated notes are found in the lower voices. Remember that you are writing individual melodies for each horn or voice as the harmony progresses. Thus far we have discussed the harmonization of chord tones. Not every tone is a chord tone, of course. Learning how these non-chord tones are harmonized is an important part of the journey toward becoming a successful jazz arranger. This process is explained in the next chapter.

Chapter Summary 1. Slash chords are used in jazz standards to notate inversions that create smoother 2.

3. 4.

5.

bass lines. Slash chords allow you to notate an exact chord sound. Slash chords allow you to simplify complex chord symbols. If the bottom chord does not have a quality next to it, it means chord over bass note. If the bottom chord has a quality next to it, it means chord over chord.

CHAPTER

8:

SLASH CHORDS

-----Assignment 8.1 Slash Chords

On the next page, notate slash chords according to the directions listed below. The first chord has been completed for you. If the chord is a dominant 7(~9)(b13), put the upper triad in second inversion and add the seventh and third in the bass clef (seventh on top). If the chord is a dominant 13(~11 ), put the upper triad in second inversion, and add the third and seventh in the bass clef (third on top). If the chord is a dominant 13(b9), put the upper triad in second inversion and the seventh in the bass clef. If the chord is a dominant 7sus, put the upper triad in root position and the root of the chord name in the bass clef.

143

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I

Non harmonic Tones Traditional music theory books invariably contain a chapter devoted to tones that fall between the harmonic cracks-the "nonharmonic" tones. These important notes often provide the color and spice that make a piece of music unique. Fortunately, these tones are not difficult to understand. In this chapter we will be focusing on the following: Passing tones: Tones that pass by step between two different chord tones. Neighboring tones: Tones that move away from and back to the same pitch in a step-

wise fashion. Double Neighboring Tones: Two tones that move as their name implies, surrounding

a harmonic tone, either diatonically or chromatically. Often the upper neighboring tone is diatonic and the lower is chromatic. This is a very common melodic technique used by jazz composers and improvisers. Double neighboring tones are also referred to as enclosures.

147

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The Bach-like example below illustrates these three nonharmonic tones.

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In the example shown above, the soprano voice contains three nonharmonic tones. The B is a passing tone moving between C and A. The G is a neighboring tone moving from the A and then back up to the same A. The D and B sixteenth notes are double neighboring tones surrounding the subsequent C. There are other types of nonharmonic tones, but in this book we will be focusing mainly on passing tones and neighboring tones. However, to gain a more thorough understanding of nonharmonic tones, I would suggest that you consult a traditional music theory book on this subject.

What is a Non harmonic Tone in a Jazz Context? Before we begin our discussion of nonharmonic tones, we must ask an important question: How can you identify which notes are chord tones and which are not, particularly in the rich harmonic environment of jazz? In the jazz idiom, many tones can be considered chord tones. For example, an F can be the root of an F chord but also the thirteenth of an Ab chord and the flat fifth of a B chord. So under what circumstances will that same F be considered a nonharmonic tone? The answer lies in the harmonic context of the music at that particular time. As long as you know how each chord is functioning, and if you understand the available substitutions for the various chord tones (see example 6.3) you will be able to identify a tone as either a chord tone or as a nonharmonic tone. Often they are the second, fourth, or sixth above a chord root; in other words, the notes in between the fundamental tones of root, third, fifth, and seventh. But harmonic context is the gov~rning factor most of the time.

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149

Texture The discussion that follows will involve working in a homophonic texture (i.e., a texture in which the melqdy is on top and the accompanying parts move in the same direction and with the same rhythm as the melody). As the lines that are scored under a melody follow its contour, the nonharmonic tones in the melody must be treated in some way if the texture is to remain homophonic. When hannonizing any melody the arranger must take into account multiple considerations. The arranger must think in a horizontal fashion in order to make the lower parts natural-sounding and easy to play. Simultaneously, the arranger must think in a vertical fashion, taking into account the harmonic context.

Approach Techniques The term approach is often used to describe how the individual parts lead toward a harmonic goal. There are four types of approaches described below: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Diatonic Diminished Dominant and secondary dominant (with or without the related ii chord) Parallel (both chromatic and nonchromatic)

The following examples illustrate these techniques in detail. Most of the examples involve a stepwise melody. In each case, the melody must be analyzed to see which tones are harmonic and which are nonharmonic. Observe (and play if you want) the lower voices and how they move; they are easy to follow because the stem directions, written in SATB format, help to identify each line. The goal is to write lower parts that have a musical flow. In these examples, each approach technique is labeled. Accidentals carry through the entirety of each example.

Diatonic Approach The melody in the following example is simply a C major scale, and the chord used to harmonize this passage is, naturally, a C major chord. So the chord tones are C, E, and G. When using the diatonic approach technique labeled with a D) the nonharmonic tones are scored using the notes of the governing key. This is also referred to as diatonic planing as each voice moves in parallel motion with the melody.

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Notice that each voice simply moves up and down the scale and the chord tones take turns being the root, third, and fifth of the fundamental C chord. When the root is the melody tone, the chord is a C6; when the third is the melody, the chord contains a seventh; and when the fifth is the melodic tone, the chord contains a ninth. These chord tones come about because of the lines created by the inner voices.

Diminished Seventh Approach The diminished seventh approach technique (abbreviated ((Dim") tonicizes different harmonic tones. These tones are temporarily heard as brief ((tonics" as the unstable diminished seventh chords resolve. In this example, the voice leading of each line creates a C6 for each harmonic tone. Also note that the diminished chords are constructed with the same four notes-B, D, F, and Ab (or G~ depending on the direction of the line).

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The next example illustrates the same diminished seventh approach technique, but this time in a minor key. The diminished chord used for the nonharmonic tones is the same. The C chord is the same too, except that it has a minor third.

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151

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------Diminished Seventh Chords-----Diminished seventh chords are symmetrical chords built entirely with minor thirds. Therefore, a C diminished seventh chord, Eb diminished seventh chord, F~ diminished seventh chord, and A diminished seventh chord are all formed using these same four notes. The same thing is true for C~, E, G, and Bb, and also forD, F, Ab, and B. Therefore, there are really only three unique diminished seventh chords.

Dominant and Secondary Dominant Approach (with Preceding ii) Secondary dominants with or without a preceding ii chord can also be used with nonharmonic tones. In this method, secondary dominants are constructed under nonharmonic tones prior to chord tones in the melody. This is somewhat similar to the diminished seventh approach method discussed above. The example on the following page illustrates this method.

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As you listen to the audio recording of the above example) you may notice a particularly disjunct line. The alto part has two awkward intervals: the minor third between the Bb and Db) and the augmented second between the F and G~. Therefore this technique may not be the best solution for this particular melody. Composers) arrangers) and jazz performers frequently utilize double neighboring tone motion to surround "target)) notes. Using the dominant of the key as well as secondary dominant approaches (often including the related ii chord as seen in the previous example) can provide a good solution when harmonizing double neighboring tones. Our next example illustrates this process in two locations.

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The melody in example 9.6 is in C major) but it includes two double neighboring motions: the D and B surround the target note C) and the G and E surround the target note F) harmonized with an Fmin6 chord. Both sets of double neighboring tones are harmonized with ii-V motion and these chord symbols are indicated below the staff

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in parentheses. This works well because the melodic line and inner voices are driven forward by the harmonic motion provided by the ii-Vs.

Parallel Approaches The previous examples illustrate techniques that utilize harmonic context. Parallel approach techniques, however, are essentially nonfunctional. The first type of parallel approach we will examine is the chromatic parallel approach. Chromatic melodies are relatively simple to harmonize. After determining which tones of a melody are the harmonic tones, harmonize these first. The lower parts supporting these target tones are then simply approached chromatically in the same direction as the melody. This is also known as chromatic planing. The abbreviation for this technique is CP.

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Another type of parallel approach is the nonchromatic parallel approach. This is another nonfunctional technique in which the lower tones move parallel to the melody, as in the chromatic approach. Each voice moves the same exact distance as the melody, as well as in the same direction. The abbreviation is NCP as in unonchromatic parallel."

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These techniques look relatively simple when harmonizing basic melodies. By examining excerpts from the example tunes, however, we can view these techniques in more realistic situations. The examples will illustrate that choosing one technique over another is an important decision, especially when trying to write lower parts that are natural-sounding. One of the most common problems that arrangers face is the writing of awkward repeated notes in accompanying voices. While this is sometimes unavoidable, arrangers should do their best to limit them, especially in eighth or sixteenth note lines.

Approach Techniques in Context Now that we have covered the basics, let's see how these concepts work in the context of actual arrange1nents. The examples below are scored with four-note chords in the traditional SATB format using four-way close voicings. The principles outlined here are equally valid when scoring with open voicings. Additionally, these solutions may or may not be seen again in the specifically arranged versions of the example tunes in upcoming chapters. These arrangements will be presented in a variety of ways that include unison writing, countermelodies, and harmonized sections. Because we are currently exploring the scoring of nonharmonic tones, homophonic textures predominate in these examples.

"Why Not Now" The bridge of the example tune ((Why Not Now" offers us a good opportunity to view various techniques because of its stepwise nature, its simple harmonic function, and the variety of half step and whole step motion. The example shown below contains the final four measures of the melody with the nonharmonic tones labeled. The abbreviation PT stands for ((passing tone" and NT stands for ((neighboring tone."

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The next example illustrates both diatonic and chromatic parallel approaches. Notice that the half step motion in the melody is harmonized with a chromatically parallel solution in the lower voices. This version works well, but it is very consonant or ((inside" harmonically. The abbreviation D stands for u diatonic" and CP stands for {(chromatic parallel."

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The next example adds the diminished seventh chord approach technique to the same excerpt but retains some of the chromatic approaches. Here the diminished chords serve to tonicize the chord tones, giving the line more emphasis as it moves forward. The abbreviation Dim stands for ((diminished."

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Example 9.11

The version illustrated in the above example would work just fine except for the repeated notes (C and A) in the bottom voices in the last two notes of the first measure. It would therefore be best to use the chromatic parallel harmonization in that location as shown in exmnple 9.10. However, as you listen to the example, notice that the resolution of the diminished sevenths seems to drive the melody forward with a sense of urgency. This next example demonstrates dominant ii-V function. This version begins with smooth diatonic motion in the first measure in which the Dmi7 (the ii) and G7 (the V) occur, and includes another ii-V in the key of C harmonized under the second and third melodic tones in the second measure.

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Irepeated notes I Example 9.12

The excerpt in the example shown above would certainly work, but once again there are repeated notes (F)-this time only in the bottom voice. The arranger should find

CHAPTER

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NoNHARMONic ToNEs

157

another solution in order to avoid the uncomfortable repeated notes.

"Sabrosa" In the next few examples we will discuss various approach techniques using a fragment of the bridge from "Sabrosa." This short fragment contains only two nonharmonic tones: the passing tone G and the neighboring tone E.

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In the example shown below, diminished sevenths are used to harn1onize both of the nonharmonic tones. Notice it's the same diminished chord for both tones.

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The E on beat one of the second bar may be better hannonized with a chromatic approach because the tenor line (the Bb to C) is a whole step while all the other voices move by half step. In the next example, the E in the second bar is hannonized with a chromatic approach instead of the diminished seventh approach shown in the last example. The difference is slight, but it is smoother because all the voices are moving chromatically.

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"December Serenade" The opening melody in "December Serenade" offers the opportunity to employ several techniques. The line includes passing tones that move through the melody both by whole and half step. The melody is sequential, so it makes sense to duplicate the technique as each two-measure motive is restated down in whole steps.

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There is a simple way to handle this excerpt. The first passing tone in each sequential statement (i.e., measures 1, 3, and 5) is best harmonized diatonically using the "key of the moment" which is F major in measure 1, Eb major in measure 3, and Db major in measure 5. The other passing tone moves chromatically, so chromatic approaches are used for each sequence. In measure 5, there is a whole step motion (the F to Eb) leading to the Ema7(b5). A parallel approach is used here (the nonchromatic variety) and the voicing is reduced to three notes from here to the end because of the low range of the melody. The final nonharmonic tone (in the last measure) moves chromatically, from Db to C, so a chromatic parallel approach is used. Listen for the dffference among the diatonic and parallel approaches, both chromatic and nonchromatic. Let's see how that would look:

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Chapter Summary 1. Passing tones, neighboring tones, and double neighboring tones are the most com-

mon nonharmonic tones. 2. You can identify nonharmonic tones by examining the harmonic context of the passage. 3. Approach techniques: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Diatonic Diminished seventh Dominant and secondary dominants (with related ii chord) Parallel (both chromatic and nonchromatic)

4. These are used in a homophonic texture in which every note of a melody is harmonized.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1I

CHAPTER

9:

NoNHARMONIC ToNEs

------Assignment 9.1 Approach Methods

Complete the approach exercises located on the next several pages. Use the appropriate approach technique indicated for each exercise. Non harmonic tones are indicated with an "X" note head. Use SATB stem directions in four-way close or drop-2 positions as suggested. Read the instructions carefully. Each exercise is started for you.

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Diatonic Approach Use four-way close throughout. Hint: there should be no accidentals in this solution until the Bb7(b9).

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Diminished Seventh Approach In this exercise, which of the three diminished sevenths will you choose? Use the one that contains the non harmonic tone that you are voicing. Use four-way close for measures 1, 3, and 4, and drop-2 in measure 2.

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Chromatic Parallel Approach Use four-way close and drop-2 at your discretion, but consider alternating voicing types as the melody leaps. Hint: Voice the target note first, then move backwards and voice the approaching non harmonic tone.

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CHAPTER

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------Assignment 9 . 2 - - - Voicing and Approach Summary Project

Arrange the melody on the next page for four voices in a homophonic texture. Pay careful attention to the instructions underneath the grand staff-these instructions identify the voicing methods and approach methods that you must use as you complete the assignment. The instructions given correspond to the symbol key given below:

Symbol Key Abbreviation

Meaning of Abbreviation

FWC

Four Way Close

02

Drop-2

Dim

Diminished Seventh Approach

D

Diatonic Approach

CP

Chromatic Parallel Approach

ii-V

ii-V Approach

YO

You Decide!

As you work, be careful of the following issues: Use SATB stem directions so that each voice may be easily identified. Anticipations: When you see a tied melodic tone on the "and" of four, use the harmony of the chord in the following measure. Chord symbols: Some contain the alterations needed while others do not. Consider using sixths rather than sevenths on the i and iv chords. Enharmonic spelling: For example, a Bb melody note may be the raised ninth of a G7 chord. Harmonize every note of the melody. And finally, be sure to listen to the audio track of the music in this assignment:

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CHAPTER

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Thus far we have discussed important aspects of form-from the simple song forms that dominate the jazz idiom to common ways in which arrangers manipulate these song forms to crea,te cmnplete arrangements. We have also explored instrumentation and voicing techniques. Now it's time to put that knowledge to use as you begin writing your own arrangements. Your first task will be to sketch out your first arrangement using a format similar to the schematic diagram assignment in chapter 3. For this arrangement you can use the exercise tunes supplied in appendix A, jazz standards, or an original composition. Initially, we'll only be scoring the melody for two and four horns plus rhythm section. Once you are comfortable with writing the melody portion (also known as the head) of your arrangement, we'll move forward into the additional sections that make an arrangement your own creation. We will explore introductions, endings, solis, shout choruses, interludes, and solo sections with backgrounds. We will then add them to our arrangement. There is a special chapter devoted to problems and potential solutions. If you're having a problem, you may find the solution there.

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Planning An Arrangement When traveling to an unfamiliar destination, you would probably not drive off in your car without a map or at least some idea of where you were going. Likewise, most arrangers shouldn't write an arrangement from beginning to end without first having some concept of the direction and focus of the chart. Previously I have used the term road map, a word that implies that a route and final destination were planned from the very beginning. That's what we'll be doing in this chapter-determining where our arrangement will go and the route it will take.

Preliminary Steps: Listening and Analysis Before any actual writing begins, you will need a foundation upon which to build the plan of the arrangement. It is crucial to understand the tune from every angle and to have a familiarity with other arrangers' work on the same tune. Therefore, analysis and listening are important tasks to undertake when starting an arrangement. 187

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Analyze the Tune As you make a thorough study of the tune, strive to understand the form, melody, harmony, and the basic rhythmic feel. Play the tune on your instrument and camp the chords on the piano. When I'm familiarizing myself with a tune that I want to arrange, I like to play it on the piano in other keys-this generates ideas that may not have occurred to me in the original key.

Listen to Recordings Another way to get ideas for your arrangement is to listen to recordings of the tune you wish to arrange. There may be a famous, classic recording of the tune. If this is the case, you at least should be familiar with this recording even if you don't particularly like it. On the other hand, there may be some new version that inspires you. Either way, listening to the ways that other writers have treated the tune will give you some good ideas. While you cannot copy an arrangement note for note, you can emulate the general characteristics. Throughout the history of jazz, composers and arrangers have constantly influenced one another and borrowed each other's material. In this way the genre has been able to develop and move forward. Of course, the advice given above assumes that you are arranging an already-existing jazz standard and not your own original composition.

Brainstorming Now that you've analyzed the tune thoroughly and listened to other versions, you should begin brainstorming by writing verbal descriptions in the two formats detailed below.

Annotate the Lead Sheet Indicating ideas on the lead sheet is a great way to get started. Just a few words regarding instrumentation, texture, or voicing types can help get the ideas to germinate. As an example, look at the lead sheet in example 10.1 and observe the simple written notes that I've provided. This tune has a medium swing tempo with an AABA form. The written notes deal mostly with the treatment of the melody, but you'll see that I do have an idea about the overall structure of the chart below the lead sheet.

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Create A Schematic Diagram This is the fun part-where you actually start to create your own arrangement by expanding your thoughts initially developed on the lead sheet. Using your knowledge of song forms, textures, and schematic diagrams (see chapter 3), start the creative process by building a schematic diagram. At this point anything is possible, so let your creative juices flow and enjoy this process. Compromise, which can be frustrating, will come later. Make every effort to get away from your instrument, your computer, and your MP3 player and just hear the arrangement unfold in your mind. Let me reiterate: You should be writing words, not notes, at this stage. In your schematic diagram indicate the form, ideas for orchestration and texture, and the overall scope and contour of the chart. Just brainstorm with pencil in hand, imagining in your mind how the chart will sound and feel. Example 10.2 contains a schematic diagram of the lead sheet seen above. Notice that the notes from the lead sheet have been transferred to the diagram but with more detail. Also, the entire form is sketched out, again by referring to and expanding upon the preliminary notes from the lead sheet.

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In the diagram shown above, I have decided to begin with a thin texture of only bass and piano. Also, I intend to reuse the introductory material as an interlude. I'll score the melody for the brass players, with the saxes providing a countermelody during the second A section. At the bridge, I would like for the horns to play in a homophonic manner, and I have even written down the type of chord voicings. The melody concludes with a new countermelody played by the saxes. Furthermore, I have indicated the feel (in four, or in two), and I have also made a note about how I want the chart to integrate the interlude with the solo section. I also intend to include a shout chorus for the first half of the form (the AA sectionpart) with the melody returning for the bridge an octave higher. I am also planning on a tag for the ending. In short, I have made a fairly complete verbal description of the arrangement. This schematic diagram will not only help me envision the whole arrangement, but it will also serve as a guide as I begin the actual writing. Keep in mind that a schematic diagram is not set in stone. It's just a part of the process that takes place before the arranger starts to make tough decisions concerning instrumentation, tempo, style, blend, etc. Right now as you sketch things out in a general way, there are no limits on what you can do. But later you might hear yourself saying something like this: "Well, that melody note won't work for alto sax like I had planned-I'll give it to the tenor sax instead." Altering your sketch does not mean that your original idea was a: bad one; it simply means that you needed to compromise in some way. Regardless of what happens during the actual writing process, having a schematic diagram is still very helpful because it provides the arranger with an overall picture of the entire arrangement.

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Transferring Words Into Notation: Three Steps from Sketch to Finished Score In this section of the chapter, we will explore a three-step process for writing a small group arrangement. We will discuss writing at various levels of detail such as sketching basic ideas, developing your ideas, and creating a full score for a small jazz ensemble. Of course, you could do all of your music notation on a computer, but there are several creative advantages to using old-fashioned pencil and paper. First of all, it can be difficult to see the arrangement unfold when viewing only a small portion of the arrangement on your computer screen. Also, if you are entering notes on a computer using a piano keyboard, you may be limited by your piano technique. It is important to get away from the keyboard (or any musical instrument) and hear your ideas internallyespecially at the beginning stages of the arrangement. Therefore, I strongly urge you to write the old-fashioned way-with pencil and paper. Later, finish the arrangement on the computer. Let's examine each of three steps that will take us from sketch to finished score.

Step 1: Basic Sketch/Spontaneous Idea Stage This type of sketching occurs in the earliest stages of writing, although ideas that come along later in the process can be notated quickly in this way as well. Exercise as much spontaneity as you can at this point. You may want to write in an abbreviated mannerthe goal is to capture any ideas that come to mind so that they are preserved for possible use later. Basic sketching can be done on a simple piece of staff paper or with whatever kind of paper is nearby when inspiration hits-even a restaurant napkin! Here is an example of what a handwritten sketch might look like:

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Notice that I did not write a complete score-just raw ideas with labels written next to them. It's a very abbreviated style of getting the ideas on paper. It also includes

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elements that I first conceived while creating the schematic diagram.

Step 2: Developmental Sketching Developmental sketching is the next level, where instruments are specified and voicing types are labeled and perhaps scored. Use three-staff sketch paper at this point (available in appendix C), in which the horns are placed in the upper two staves and the rhythm section is consolidated on the bottom staff. You should begin the actual process of voicing the horns and assigning instruments to the various melodies, backgrounds, etc. You may want to write only lead lines (the top voices) with verbal instructions regarding voicing choices (e.g., drop-2, four-way close).

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Chapter Summary 1. 2. 3. 4.

Thoroughly analyze the tune you wish to arrange and listen to other versions of it. Take notes on the lead sheet as you brainstorm. Create a schematic diagram of your arrangement. Refer to the annotated lead sheet and schematic diagram as you: (a) Sketch your ideas on staff paper. (b) Transfer those ideas to three-staff sketch paper. (c) Transfer the three-staff ideas to the finished transposed score.

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-----Assignment 10.1 Annotated Lead Sheets

Create an annotated lead sheet for each of the three exercise tunes located in appendix A. Concentrate on the treatment of the melody- although if you have ideas about an introduction, ending, solo section, etc., include them as well. We'll be learning about those sections in the chapters to come.

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Two-Part Writing In the jazz idiom there is much more collaboration between performer and arranger than in other musical genres. As a result, the jazz performer is crucial to the success of an arrangement. This is especially true for the rhythm section players who are given a certain amount of latitude in interpreting their parts. Horn players, while charged with the duty of blending with one another, understand that jazz interpretation is also an important part of their jobs. Improvised solo sections present perhaps the clearest example of the important role played by the jazz performer. While the arranger provides the chord changes, the rhythmic feel, and possible background parts, the performer is in charge during a solo. So what does a jazz arranger control? It boils down to the following: Instrumentation (including ensemble size and choice of instruments) Register Dynamics Articulations Tempo 197

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Texture Form With this chapter, we begin deciding how these seven items will be handled. The first step is to choose the wind instruments for the arrangement. You will be learning how to write for two horns and a rhythm section of piano, bass, and drums. Before moving further, let's explore that particular instrumentation in the context of other possibilities.

Instrumentation This book is called Arranging for the Small Jazz Ensemble. What exactly is a small jazz ensemble? The word ensemble actually is a French word that means (as a noun) "set" or "group." Or, as an adverb, it means "together." So one would have to assume that the title refers to a musical setting with more than one player. A duo of piano and bass is certainly an ensemble as is two flutes. Another obvious conclusion is that a small jazz ensemble is certainly smaller than a big band. Typically we think of a small jazz ensemble as a rhythm section of piano (and perhaps guitar), bass, drums, or a rhythm section with one or more horn players-but not quite the size of a big band. By horn players I am not referring to French horn players; the term horn in a jazz setting is synonymous with wind instru1nents. The number of horns used in small groups has varied throughout jazz history. New Orleans "Dixieland" bands normally used three wind instruments-cornet, clarinet, and trombone. The classic bebop ensemble used two horns-often trumpet and alto saxophone (think Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker). Hard bop groups of the 1950s and 1960s such as Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers normally used three horns. Four or more horns, although seen less frequently, are used with great success on albums such as Horace Silver's album Hardbop Grand pop. Miles Davis' Birth of the Cool band had nine horns, while Rob McConnell's Tentet used seven horns. Several of these ensemble types are discussed below-all with a rhythm section of piano, bass, and drums .

. The Quartet: One Horn and Rhythm Section The simplest ensemble for beginning jazz arrangers to tackle is one horn plus rhythm section. This instrumentation provides the musicians with the most freedom of expression because the single horn player has no other wind players to blend with. However, even this limited instrumentation calls for decisions to be made. First, what wind instrument will be chosen to join the rhythm section? The type of melodic line (whether rapidi slow moving, wide-ranging, etc.) will affect your choice. This type of writing also requires more decisions about form, rhythm section integration, introductions, endings, how much improvisation, substitute chord changes, etc. In other words, writing for one horn is 1nore complicated than you may have thought.

CHAPTER

11:

Two-PART WRITING

----Assignment 11.1 Writing For One Horn & Rhythm

Arrange one of the exercise tunes located in appendix A for one horn and rhythm section. Write for the horn of your choice (e.g., trumpet, saxophone, or tram~ bone) with piano, bass, and drums as your rhythm section. Your arrangement should consist of only one statement of the melody. Write a transposed score and include rehearsal letters. Refer to the musical suggestions and layout suggestions found at the beginning of chapter 17. Use the score paper provided, your own paper, or notation software.

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The Quintet: Two Horns and Rhythm Writing for two hqrns demands even more decisions from the arranger~mostly regarding instrumentati6n (what instrument to add) and texture (how to add it). In chapter 4 we learned that instrumental timbre and family are the prime considerations in choosing horns-deciding whether you want the instruments to contrast with one another or to blend in a homogeneous manner. To help you make this critical decision, the following list of two-horn combinations includes audio examples of the ABAC swing exercise tune located in appendix A. Listen carefully to the blend or contrast created by the various combinations. Instrument combinations that blend well are as follows: 1. Trumpet/ soprano sax

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Two-horn ensembles still provide opportunities to interpret lines with a great deal of flexibility, especially in a polyphonic texture. In fact, when the two instruments are playing independent lines, it is appropriate for the players to perform their parts in a very individual, almost improvised manner-something that is not possible in large groups.

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The Sextet: Three Horns and Rhythm Three-horn writing is complicated by the fact that one note of a four-note chord structure cannot be played (the pianist can play it, but one note of the chord would need to be left out of the horn voicings ). Deciding which chord tone to omit is tricky-this problem is explored further in chapter 13. Three-horn gro:ups certainly can offer the wind players opportunities for individual interpretation of their lines (picture a New Orleans traditional jazz band in which the horns are improvising at the same time). But in more contemporary styles, the increase in horn parts from two to three typically diminishes that freedom. As ensembles increase in size, the importance of the arranger grows as well.

The Septet: Four Horns and Rhythm Writing for four horns is relatively simple because you can use every note of a four-note chord structure. All the notes of four-way close and drop-2 voicings will be complete with nothing doubled or eliminated. Of course, the accompanying lines should still be scored so that they are tuneful and easy to play. But the reason why this text emphasizes two-horn and four-horn combinations throughout is because these two combinations are the easiest to grasp. In fact, there is a big band arranging technique in which overlapping four-way close voicings are used for the saxophone, trumpet, and trombone sections. Because the saxophone section typically has five saxes, the bari sax part usually doubles the melody an octave below. With this in mind, you can see why understanding fourway close voicing is so important. We will discuss four-horn writing in the next chapter; for now, let's get back to the topic of two-horn arranging.

Two-Horn Writing As explained in chapter 3, the number of possible textures can be reduced to only two when writing for more than one voice (or horn): 1. Homophonic/Unison 2. Combination The following melody over a simple ii-V-I progression is scored in unison for two horns (trumpet and alto sax) using the first texture listed above. The melody is on top, with the stems going up. The accompanying voice is scored with the stems going down. In the following example, the melody is scored in unison.

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The example shown above simply changes the color of the instruments by combining them. I had only one decision to make: which instruments to use. In the next example, the melody is harmonized in a homophonic texture.

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Notice that in the example shown above the melody is harmonized by the alto sax using the first available chord tone below the melody (a third below) until the last two notes where the harmonization lies a sixth below. Employing thirds throughout would have worked fine, but I decided to use a more stepwise melody for the harmony part as you can see from the last three notes of the alto line: G-F-E.

Writing a Countermelody Texture two, as described above, indicates that polyphonic writing can be combined with homophony. As a result, sometimes the parts are relatively independent from one another. This means that you will need to develop an important skill: the ability to write an effective countermelody. Composing tuneful countermelodies is among the most challenging skills for beginning;arrangers. The countermelody line must complement but not overwhelm the melody, and must also correspond to the harmony of the tune. Keep the following suggestions in mind as you write countermelodies: 1. When the melody is active, write longer accompanying tones or include rests in

the countermelody. 2. When the melody is less active, use more rhythmically active lines (write uin the holes").

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3. Bring the melody and countermelody together at phrase endings in either unison (or octaves) or in harmony. 4. Search for guide tones (tones that clearly lead the ear through the harmony, such as thirds and sevenths) and incorporate them into your countermelody. 5. Write with simplicity. 6. Contrary motion works well to distinguish the voices. 7. Blues-flavored melodies often work well. Of the list above, I think that the first three are the most valuable. Writing more active lines in the areas where a melody is less active works very well. As the examples unfold you'll see that my arrangements take advantage of this simple technique in numerous places. Phrase endings are important structural points-bringing the parts together there is very effective. This next example demonstrates a countermelody accompanying the same simple melody seen in examples 11.9 and 11.1 0. Notice that when the melodic rhythm slows (the dotted quarter notes), the countermelody moves in eighth notes. Conversely, when the melody moves in eighth notes, the countermelody pauses or rests. The lines converge at the end of the phrase providing a sense of conclusion to the passage. Finally, notice that the countermelody emphasizes guide tones, such as the third and seventh of the Gini7 chord in the first measure and the sevenths of the C7 and Fma7 in the second and third measures.

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Characteristics of Specific Intervals in Harmony Parts The study of counterpoint is centered on the relationship between two or more voices. Among the rules of counterpoint are the definitions of consonant and dissonant intervals. While these rules evolved over time, generally speaking, th~ unison, octave, and fifth are considered perfect consonances. Imperfect consonances i~clude major and minor thirds and sixths. Dissonances include major and minor seconds and sevenths, the perfect fourth, and the tritone. The following examples illustrate the aural qualities of particular intervals. The perfect consonance of the unison has already been illustrated (see example 11.9). The fifth is another perfect interval. Jazz arrangers, like their classical counterparts, usually

CHAPTER

11: Two- PART WRITING

205

avoid writing in parallel fifths, although the part-writing rules are less strict in this regard. The examples below, however, focus on imperfect consonances (thirds and sixths) and on the dissona,nt intervals (i.e., the perfect fourth, second, and seventh). These examples are meant to provide insight into how these intervals can be used. However, the intervals chosen for a harmonization normally follow the governing chord progression. You cannot decide arbitrarily to use a certain interval unless you are specifically looking for a particular effect. The harmonization should support and make clear the voice leading of the melody and chords. Also, note that the harmonization is most often placed below the melody. The following examples illustrate different intervallic harmonizations for a simplified version of the melody used in chapter 3. Listen carefully to the audio tracks as you view the examples.

Thirds and Sixths Harmonizing in thirds and sixths will provide the most consonant solution. The two intervals often alternate, particularly if a melody rises and falls.

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Notice the resolution of the sevenths in the Fmi7 and Emi7(b5) as they move to their respective dominant chords. In the latter resolution (Emi7b5 to A7 in measure 5), the third and seventh form a tritone on the A7, making the chord movement very clear to the listener.

Sevenths and Seconds Dissonant intervals, if handled carefully, can assist the listener's ear in following the chord progression. Recall that chord tones that clearly outline the harmony are known as guide tones. Usually, guide tones are either thirds or sevenths-but as the next example illustrates, other more dissonant chord tones can be guide tones, too. Notice that this accompanying line is the most independent of the three examples.

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----Assignment 11.2---Writing a Countermelody I

Analyze the melody found on the next page which is scored over a ii-V-1-V/ii chord progression in the key of F major. Two countermelody rhythms have been composed in the lower staff with a few notes filled in. Fill in the note heads corresponding to each stem, connecting the given notes. Think about the key and harmonic function- but most of all, compose a line that is tuneful and melodic.

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----Assignment 11.3---Writing a Countermelody II

On the next page, compose a countermelody that complements the given melody using the suggested rhythms provided on the one-line staff. Provide a harmony part below the melody where the voices match rhythmically. Be sure to listen to the audio recording of the melody. Hint: The harmony of the example is quite simple-it begins in Eb major, moves to the relative minor through a ii-V-i in C minor, and then modulates to Ab major again through a ii-V-1 progression.

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------Assignment 11.4---Writing a Countermelody Ill

On the next page, compose a countermelody that complements the given melody using the suggested rhythms provided on the one-line staff. Provide a harmony part below the melody where the voices match rhythmically. Be sure to listen to the audio recording of the melody. Hint: The chord progression moves from two statements of a ii-V of D to a ii-V of G in measure 5, then to a ii-V-1 in C. It concludes with an F7(~11) chord implying the Lydian b7 mode.

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Example Tunes Harmonized in Two Voices In keeping with the/discussions of previous chapters, ((Why Not Now," uSabrosa," and ((December Serenad;~" will be arranged in the following two textures: 1. Homophonic/ unison 2. Combination Each example is notated in concert pitch and is accompanied with notes of explanation. Articulations and dynamic markings have not been included, but they will be inserted into the final versions in chapter 17. You should probably reacquaint yourself with the lead sheet and analysis of each tune (and the audio recordings) located in chapter 2. The instruments chosen for these two-horn arrangements vary among the three tunes. I have selected from among the following horns: trumpet, alto sax, and tenor sax. The rhythm section consists of piano, bass and drums. In order to save space, the examples in this chapter do not contain full rhythm section parts; those are notated in the final version of the example tunes in chapter 17.

"Why Not Now" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) Recall that in chapter 10, ((Planning An Arrangement," I suggested a four-step process: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Making notes on a lead sheet Creating a schematic diagram of the flow of the entire chart Developmental sketching Final arrangement

As we begin looking at the example tunes, let's examine an annotated lead sheet for a homophonic version of {{Why Not Now."

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At this point, I would normally create a schematic diagram of the overall arrangement based on the annotated lead sheet. I would then begin scoring the melody. Since we're only exami:J;:ting the treatment of the melody in this chapter, we won't need to see a diagram of the ,entire chart. You will see that there are written notes in the score that match the suggestions from the annotated lead sheet. It was suggested in chapter 2 that "Why Not Now" presents a challenge because of the speed and motion of the melody. For this reason, I have chosen trumpet and alto sax-instruments that can easily negotiate this active melody. Since this is a homophonic texture, the two parts will be in unison or harmony throughout with no independence in the alto line.

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This bebop-style melody works well in a classic trumpet/alto sax duet. The A, B, and D sections are all treated in a very simple manner. The melody is scored in unison for letter A and harmonized in thirds and sixths for sections B and D. The horns revert back to unison beginning with the arpeggio of the Dbmi7 in measure 12, but harmony returns at the cadence (measure 16). The harmony part of the bridge provides a good ~example of a guide tone line. In the first four measures (17-20) there are two ii-V-I progressions-one in Gb major and the other in A major. In measure 17, the seventh of the Abmi7 (the Gb) resolves to the third of the Db7 (the F) on the third beat. In measure 19, the seventh of the Bmi7 (the A) resolves to the third of the E7 (the G~) which in turn remains as the seventh of the Ama7, although the resolution is delayed by the appearance of the F~ on the {(and" of three. Each progression concludes in unison when the tonic chord appears-the Db in measure 18 (anticipated from the previous bar on the "and" of four), and the line in measure 20 (beginning on the ({and" of one with the C~). As in the Band D sections, the harmony is primarily in thirds and sixths.

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The bridge concludes with the parts again harmonized in thirds in measures 21-23. In the annotated lead sheet, I've included the suggestion ((add scale figure." This Bb major scale leads nicely to the main theme, tying the bridge to the D section. As you listen to the recording, notice that this arrangement works very well because of its simplicity. Harmonizing in consonant intervals like thirds and sixths is perhaps the most common approach to take when writing for two horns. The next example is more complex because there is a countermelody scored for the trumpet.

CHAPTER

11: Two- PART WRITING

225

"Why Not Now" (Combination Texture) The combination texture of "Why Not Now" for two horns offers the horn players more flexibility in their interpretation as the audio track makes clear. The alto sax is the primary melody Instrument-the trumpet does not enter until letter B so that the arrangement builds momentum as it progresses. Notice that there are substitute chords in the Band D sections that correspond to the accompanying trumpet line. These changes will be discussed below.

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The alto sax plays the melody in this version which includes a countermelody played by a muted trumpet. The trumpet line guides the listener's ear through the substituted harmony mentioned earlier. Arrangers and performers often use a I-ii-~ii 0 -iii progression for the first two measures of the A section in tunes based on "I Got Rhythmn changes. Notice that the subsequent trumpet lines in the B section merely fill in the gaps in the alto melody, thus keeping clear of the melodic statement. The lines do converge in unison in measure 16, ending the first half of the melody. In the bridge (letter C), the instruments switch roles. This is a very common device used by arrangers at major structural points in a piece. As the trumpet takes the melody, the alto assumes the accompaniment role. The bridge contains a variety of textures: the horns complement each other contrapuntally in the first phrase (measures 17-18), end the second phrase in unison (measure 20), and finally are voiced homophonically for the last phrase (measures 21-23) where the alto is a third below. The final section (D) is identical to letter B, as was the case in the homophonic version.

"Sabrosa" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) Like (/Why Not Now/' "Sabrosan is in AABA song form-but each section is sixteen bars instead of eight. The homophonic arrangement in the example shown below features the alto saxophone, although the trumpet does take the lead when the instruments are in harmony. Notice the blend of rhythmic notation and slash notation in the condensed rhythm section part.

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"December Serenade" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) The final tune discussed in this chapter is the ballad ((December Serenade.n The piece is in modified ABA<;: form in which the final section is only four bars long. In arranging a ballad for a small ensemble, it is appropriate to score the melody as a featured solo for one horn in order to individualize the interpretation of the melodic line, particularly during the initial melodic statement. This melody would lend itself to many instrumental possibilitiesj I have chosen trumpet for this version. Note also the choice of the darker timbre of the tenor sax instead of the alto. Example 11.26 contains the homophonic/ unison version.

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The homophonic version above excludes the accompanying horn until the repeat of the melody at letter C. At that point, the tenor sax harmonizes the melody in thirds and sixths. Since the melody is sequential, the harmonization is identical in measures 17-18 and 19-20; it just moves down a step. Notice that the colorful ~11 is included in the tenor part for the Bb and Ab dominant sevenths. The blues line that concludes the melody is scored in octaves. A chromatic descending guide tone line would also have been effective. The choice of tenor sax for the accompanying voice was one I really pondered. I knew there would be sections of this arrangement that would be in the upper register of the horn, but that's what I wanted-the strident sound of the tenor sax high register. You can really hear it on the concert Bb in measure 22. It adds a poignant quality to the passage.

"December Serenade" (Combination Texture) Arranging ((December Serenade" in a combination texture was relatively simple-the whole notes in the melody were the perfect places to write countermelodies.

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Conclusion Writing for two horns and rhythm section is a great way to start learning the craft of jazz arranging. The issues dealt with in this section of the book (primarily textures, composing tuneful countermelodies, and instrumental blend) are relevant regardless of the size of the group you are writing for. The next chapter is devoted to four-horn writing. There, you'll see that the arrangements in this chapter are simply expanded to accommodate the larger ensemble resulting in new instrumental colors.

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Select one of the exercise tunes located in appendix A. Create two two-horn arrangements of this tune: one using the homophonic/unison texture and the other using the combination texture. Use staff paper with three staves. Put the horns on the top two staves and the rhythm section on the bottom staff. Refer to the annotated lead sheet you completed in assignment 10.1. Helpful hints for each tune are included in appendix A.

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Four-Part Writing With this chapter, our band has grown by two players. You'll notice two things about the examples in this chapter: First, the instrumentation is always trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, trombone, piano, bass, and drums. Second, the arrangements are basically the same as they were in the last chapter, but thickened with two additional horns. We learned in the last chapter that writing for four horns is relatively simple because four-part chords are always complete (no chord tones need to be eliminated) and no chord tones have to be doubled. So writing with four-way close and the related drop-2 voicings involves merely notating the voicings in the proper ranges fot each instrument. However, it is also important to realize that the more advanced voicing techniques (e.g., quartat "So What," and slash chords) are available as well with a larger group of horns. As we work with our expanded group there will be a variety of voicing and approach options. Therefore, this might be a good time for you to review the chapters in the book that deal with those subjects. Pay close attention to chapter 9 in particular as you review the various approach techniques. Having the voicings and approach methods fresh in your mind will benefit you greatly as we make our way through this chapter. Some of the same material introduced in the last chapter will be revisited here. Ex249

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ample 12.1 contains the same simple melody over an F major ii-V-I progression that was used previously to illustrate textures. Here it is thickened with additional voices in a four-horn instrumentation. It is written in SATB format so you can easily see the motion of each voice. In the previous chapter, the melody of this tune was scored in unison. Here, however, it is scored in octaves with the trumpet and alto sax in unison and the trombone and tenor sax in unison an octave below.

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In the next example, this same 1nelody is scored homophonically (i.e., every tone of the melody is harmonized). For this reason, we must be careful as we choose and apply the right approach techniques, even in an example as simple as this one. As you view and listen to the example, notice the smooth voice leading. Pay close attention to the shift from four-way close voicings to open position chords occurring in the second measure under the melody notes Bb and D.

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chromatic parallel. For the scale passage, the approach type is diatonic. Notice that after the Cij melody note, there are no accidentals in any voice-this indicates that this passage is diatonic a;nd all in the key ofF major. The second mea~ure continues the same voicings and diatonic approach technique, but as the melody leaps to the Don the ((and" of four the voicing type changes to drop-2. At this same location in chapter 11, the two horns switched from harmonizing in thirds to sixths to improve the voice leading of the accompanying line (see example 11.2). In example 12.2, the whole note is scored with a quartal voicing. Notice that the chord symbol indicates Fma7. The voicing, however, forms an F6/9. Remember that the sixth is a possible substitution choice for the seventh-and if you use the sixth and ninth it forms a quartal chord. If you need to review this, refer to the chord tone substitution chart in chapter 6. The next example resembles example 11.3 in which there is a combination of a countermelody (or polyphony) and homophony at the end of the phrase. The difference here is that the melody and countermelody are thickened with an additional horn on each line, and the end of the phrase is scored with four-part chords, identical to example 12.2.

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As these examples demonstrate, writing for four or more voices is often simply an expansion of the two-voice process. Often the primary ideas develop with two voices in mind. The addition of more voices is achieved by applying the appropriate voicings (e.g., tertian, drop-2, quartal, etc.) and approach methods. Naturally, with more voices may come new and different compositional ideas. The example tunes illustrated in this chapter, however, primarily involve an expansion of the two-voice versions seen in chapter 11.

Example Pieces Harmonized in Four Voices The melodies of the example tunes are presented below in condensed scores in the same two textures as in chapter 11: homophonic/unison and combination. The instrumentation for all the versions consists of a horn section of trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, and

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trombone. For most of the examples, the trumpet and alto sax share the top horn staff, and the tenor sax and trombone share the bottom staff. SATB stem directions are used, so that each horn part can be followed easily. The rhyth1n section parts are again condensed into one staff.

"Why Not Now" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) You'll immediately hear and see some similarities with the two-horn homophonic track since the featured instruments are trumpet and alto sax. Unison and harmony in thirds and sixths predominate. As you listen, notice the change in texture as the lower horns enter on the bridge (letter C).

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Like its two-horn counterpart, the melody in this example is scored in unison during the first melodic statement and is harmonized a third below beginning at letter B. However, the rapid ~ighth note line in measures 12-15 is scored in unison and the coneluding line (measu!re 16) is harmonized, again exactly like the two-horn version. The lower horns enter at letter C, as the ensemble is scored in four-part harmony, mostly with drop-2 voicings. Example 12.5 illustrates the passage as it moves from drop-2 to four-way close on the uand" of four in measure 17. The most common reason for switching between open and close positions is the presence of a leap in the melody. Also notice the b9 over the Db7 chord, the chromatic approaches in measure 19, and the diatonic approaches in measure 20. If you have some basic keyboard ability, you should play this passage slowly, observing how each voice moves. This short passage reveals how much thought must go into every musical decision.

----------------Important!---------------The most common reason for switching between open and close voicings is the presence of a leap in the melody.

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The bridge ends with the rapid line in measures 21-22 written in unison as it sits in a good range for all instruments. Four-part harmony is used for the half cadence in measure 23. The D.S. sends the form back to B (labeled D) like the two-horn version. Remember that as you progress through this chapter you'll begin to see that much of the creative process can be thought of in just two parts. The arrangements in this chapter simply expand upon the decisions made when thinking of a two-part texture.

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"Why Not Now" (Combination Texture) In order to help you see the independent lines in this version of ((Why Not Now," I have provided a more complete score (the rhythm section parts are still condensed). There is also a horn reduction provided for the last phrase of the bridge in order to examine a variety of approach techniques. You'll see that for this arrange1nent, I've separated the brass and saxes into two distinct ((sections" of the band. The sax ((section" performs the melody at letters A, B, and D; the brass ((section" takes the bridge melody.

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Notice that the countermelodies are identical to those written for the two-horn combination arrangement. However, there are some interesting areas in the bridge (letter C) to examine where the versions diverge. First, notice in example 12.6 that when the brass instruments take over the melody from the saxes in measure 17, they are in two-part harmony. This was written for a single instrument in the two-horn version. The final phrase of the bridge (measures 21-23) is scored in parallel thirds in the two-horn version. In the four-horn version above, it is scored in four-part harmony. Refer to the horn reduction staff on the third page of example 12.6. The passing tones are harmonized with diminished and chromatic approaches. This same passage was used in chapter 9, "Nonharmonic Tones," to demonstrate various approach methods. Compare the version in the example shown above with those in chapter 9 (examples 9.1 0, 9.11, and 9.12). You'll see that they are all slightly different, but I think that the solution demonstrated above works best.

((Sabrosa" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) As we examine the four-horn version of "Sabrosa" we will see the same process as before-the two-horn versions have merely been thickened with the additional two voices. In this version, you'll see that changes in instrumentation provide momentum as unison horns shift into two-part harmony and culminate in four-part scoring. Listen for those texture changes as you examine the arrangement.

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As the piece approaches the bridge, the variety of instrumental textures helps to propel the arrangement. In measure 28, the horns divide into four-way close voicings leading to the bridge (letter C), scored only for alto sax. The final eight bars of the bridge areharmonized first in two parts, then thickened to four. Letter D, the return of the primary theme, is orchestrated with even more rapid changes in texture. The melody is first harmonized in four-way close (measures 49-56), then in two parts using the original melody instruments (measures 57-60), and finally in four-way close voicings to conclude the melody.

"Sabrosa" (Combination Texture) The four-horn combination texture version is similar to the two-horn version and also has sections in common with the four-horn homophonic version just described. The instruments are utilized much as they are in the homophonic version, with trumpet and alto sax taking the melody at letters A and B. When the lower instruments enter at B, however, they perform the same countermelody as seen in the two-horn combination version.

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The version presented above provides another excellent example of using instrumentation to build intensity. The countermelody introduced at letter B (measure 17) merges with the melody in measure 22, remaining in two parts in order to strengthen the melody. As in the homophonic version, a four-part section follows in measure 28 leading to the bridge which is written for the alto sax. The identical countermelody that was used in the two-voice combination version (example 11.23) is also scored here, this time for tenor sax and trombone. The simplicity of the line (a Db major scale in quarter notes) provides an appealing rhythmic contrast to the syncopated melody. The example ends in the smne manner as the homophonic version with the textural contrast of letter D.

"December Serenade" (Homophonic/Unison Texture) When performing jazz ballads, solo horn players typically interpret their melodic lines in an individual fashion. Therefore, you may find that the ballad example, "December Serenade," works best in either of the two-part textures demonstrated in the previous chapter. As an ensemble increases in size, the role of the horn players expands. They must still play with the appropriate style, but must compromise their individual concepts of how the line should be played for the sake of blending with the players around them-playing lines in a personal manner is no longer possible. However, on the positive side, voicing the rich harmony of this piece in four parts provides more harmonic possibilities expressed by the horns-voicings that were not available with only two horns. Listen for the expanded harmonic role played by the horns in the following fourhorn versions.

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I originally conceived of this version of "December Serenade" as a trumpet feature. The trumpet solo expands into four-part writing in the ninth measure. In the example below, examine the chromatic harmonization of the descending line in measure 11. The approach method used here is slightly different from the normal procedure when harmonizing a chromatic line in which a target tone is identified and approached chromatically in all parts. In this case, the chromatic lines in each part a,re derived from the initial chord rather than the target chord (the Eb7sus4) so that the richness of consecutive suspended chord harmony results.

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"December Serenade" (Combination Texture) The combination texture version of {(December Serenade" is very similar to the homophonic version. The countermelody used in the two-part version is added to letter C and is scored for the two lower instruments.

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This more interesting contrapuntal version begins identically to the homophonic version. However, it includes the beautiful countermelody seen earlier in the two-horn combination version (example 11.27) beginning at letter C scored for the lower instruments. The trumpet and alto sax play the melody in octaves at this point rather than in two-part harmony as in the homophonic example. After the countermelody is introduced, this version concludes in the same manner as the; previous four-horn homophonic version.

Conclusion Writing for four horns and rhythm section is a great way to explore the possibilities of voicings and approach techniques. Even though these examples simply expand the two-horn versions in most cases, they contain correct voicing and approaches that take careful thought and planning. Even one misplaced note can ruin an arrangement. Often, this is the result of an incorrect voicing, an awkward approach technique, or misuse of open or close voicing options. Next we'll examine the challenge of three-horn writing. Although we once again will use the basic structure of the two-horn versions, the chapter will focus on adapting the four-horn arrangements into three horns.

Chapter Summary 1. Four-part writing is often just the expansion of a two-part concept. 2. You should clearly understand voicing and approach procedures in order to write for four horns. 3. Writing with more voices means less freedom for the players, but it does offer more possibilities for the arranger in terms of texture and timbre.

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12:

FouR-PART WRITING

-----Assignment 12.1 Four-Horn Arranging

Expand one of your two-horn arrangements into a four-horn version. Use trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, trombone, and a rhythm section of piano, bass, and drums.

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Three-Part Writing While I was writing this book, I thought it was important to include detailed chapters on two-part writing (in which the arranger thinks in terms of interweaving dual lines) and four-part writing (in which complete chords can be scored). However, three-horn jazz ensembles are very common, and arrangers must be ready to deal with the unique challenge of three-part writing. Writing for three voices is more difficult than writing for either two or four voices. In a style in which four-part chords ate the norm (root, third, fifth, and seventh, along with their possible substitutions) one chord tone must be omitted when writing for three horns. There are several considerations to keep in mind when writing for three voices: which chord tone will be eliminated, the type of chord structure, and most importantly, the flow of each individual line.

Three-Part Voicing Structures There are three structures that I use when writing for three horns: shell voicings, simple triads, and quartal voicings. Like any voicing, these can be inverted. An inverted quartal voicing in particular produces interesting whole step clusters that will be discussed

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below. So while writing in three parts can feel a little constricting (as you decide which tone to omit), these voicings offer simple solutions to the arranging challenges you'll face. Remember that the flow of each line is the most critical element, especially since the effect will be more transparent than in a four-voice texture.

Shell Voicings Shell voicings were introduced in chapter 6 through a series of keyboard exercises. ·rhere we learned that the third and seventh are fundamental tones, and that one extra ''color tone" -often the fifth or ninth-is included. Obviously, when compared with a four-way close voicing, there is a note missing-so these work well when writing in three parts. The root is the most expendable chord tone since the bass supplies it.

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Triads While a simple triad is somewhat unusual in a jazz setting, it is sometimes the best choice if you are looking for a clean and simple sonority. Obviously, a C triad will perfectly express a C chord but will add no additional color or tension. Three-note chords can also be opened up by using drop-2, as we observed in our discussion of fourvoice structures.

Close Voicing

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Triad structures are often utilized as the top three notes of a slash chord, supplying the tones of the upper symbol. For example, a Bb13(b9) chord can be voiced as a G/Bb7 slash chord. The three horns would play the G triad while the rhytl}m section plays the entire chord. There are 1nore of these structures illustrated in chapter 8, ((Slash Chords."

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Quartal Voicings and Clusters Often, two fourths are stacked one on top of the other, thereby forming a quartal structure. These chords can be inverted just like any other chord. Doing so creates interesting whole steps, either on top of the chord (x) or on the bottom (y). The inverted structures (x and y) can be thought of as "cluster" voicings because of the close proximity of two of the voices.

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Three-voice dominant seventh chords are often scored with a perfect fourth over a triton e. This is a very common left hand piano shell voicing (and another good voicing to practice on a keyboard).

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Example Tunes Voiced in Three Parts I have chosen a couple of interesting locations in uwhy Not Now" and "December Serenade" to illustrate how to arrange using three voices. I've chosen places in those tunes that were scored in four voices in the previous chapter, so you'll be referred back to chapter 12 from time to time.

"Why Not Now" In reviewing the four-voice versions of ((Why Not Now," you'll recall that there are parts that are simply thickened versions of the two-horn examples-places where the two lines are doubled. These sections are easy to convert to a three-horn arrangement because one horn can be removed from the accompanying line. Let's assume that our instrumentation is trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, and rhythm section. With this instrumentation, letter B of the combination texture would like this:

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If you compare this example with example 12.6 (from the chapter on four-voice writing), you'll see that the trombone part which was doubling the trumpet line is eliminated. The melod1y, being the most important line, is still voiced with two instruments. The next exatnple provides a three-note variation of letter C from example 12.6, which is the bridge of "Why Not Now." Again, a review of 12.6 shows that this section begins in three parts-the brass are in harmony and the saxes are in unison. By shifting parts around, the music remains basically unchanged. The trombone part from the four-part version has been moved to the alto. There are drop- 2 tertian voicings in the third and fourth measures of the example. The third measure in particular illustrates an effective flow in each of the lower two parts.

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"December Serenade" The three-horn example of "December Serenade" illustrates a combination of tertian and quartal approaches. The horns in the first and third measures of example 13.8 below are scored with second inversion triads. Note that the first voicing (the Fma7) is voiced with a C major triad in the horns-E,C, G, from the top down. The voices move diatonically parallel toward a dominant quartal voicing in measures 2 and 4 of the example (and approached chromatically on the last quarter note of the preceding quarter note triplet). The second phrase (measures 5-8) begins with cluster voicings, moves to quartal, then to octaves, and finally to a tertian structure. These voicings are indicated in the example.

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There will be additional three-voice examples in chapter 17 in which the background parts of "Sabrosa" are scored for three horns while supporting an alto solo.

Conclusion We have now explored the treatment of the melody in two-horn, three-horn, and fourhorn combinations. The next step is to explore the other sections that constitute a complete arrangement. This.means that we will be adding the sections that require some actual composition on your part (i.e., introductions, endings, interludes, solo sections, solo backgrounds, and shout/soli sections). Fortunately there are standard ways of dealing with these important components. In the next chapter we will use the example pieces to study the art of the introduction.

Chapter Summary 1. Three-part writing is more difficult than either two-horn or four-horn writing. 2. There are three considerations when writing for three parts: which chord tone to omit from a four-part voicing, the structure (shell voicing, triad, or quartal voicingt and the flow of each line.

CHAPTER

13:

THREE-PART WRITING

..-------Assignment 13.1 Three-Horn Arranging

Alter the four-horn versions of the exercise tunes by eliminating either the alto sax, tenor sax, or trombone part. Continue to write a condensed rhythm section part.

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Introductions It takes creativity to arrange an existing melody because you must determine voicing

types, approach methods, and countermelodies. But the introduction and ending involve an even higher level of creativity because these two often related sections are usually comprised of material that is newly composed. For this reason, these next two chapters of the book were perhaps the most enjoyable for me to write because they really tapped into my creative side. As you go through the material, you'll see that I have taken three of the example tunes and composed a variety of introductions and endings. It was fun to see how many ways I could begin and end the same three tunes. I also remember the smiles on the musicians' faces as they recorded these particular examples-perhaps predicting what intro or ending technique would be coming next. The introduction is vital to an arrangement; obviously it is the first musical event that occurs. The introduction needs to match the style, tempo, rhythmic feeL and overall essence of the tune to which it is attached. Not only does the introduction begin the piece, it is also likely that the material you choose for the intro will come back somewhere else in the arrangement. Often, the arranger can construct endings, introductions, and interludes from the same material. Not all pieces require a formal introductionsometimes an improvised section leading to the melody will do the job. The introduc-

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tion is frequently the last section composed because it can be constructed with material from the arrangement. You'll see examples of this technique in some of the upcoming examples.

Common Introduction Types Introductions can be categorized and labeled. Each technique will be explained throughout this chapter. Common introduction types are: Improvised introductions Last section of the melody (often the last four bars) Vamp (a repeating series of a few chords) Melodic fragment used to construct introduction Unrelated material (a completely new section)

Style Considerations The five introduction types listed above can be further categorized by the style of the tune. The following chart combines introductions and styles/tempos in order to help narrow the choice of introduction. Obviously this list does not contain every possibility, but it does provide some initial ideas about how to begin an arrangement.

Common Introductions Style

Types of Introduction Common to That Style

Up-Tempo Swing

Improvised introduction Melodic fragment Unrelated material

Medium Swing

Last section of melody Melodic fragment Unrelated material

Ballad

Last section of melody Vamp Improvised introduction (piano or guitar, rubato)

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Vamp (by far the most common) Last section of melody Melodic fragment Unrelated material

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INTRODUCTIONS

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Improvised Introductions Beginning with an il;nprovised solo is an effective way to make the listener comfortable with the feel and g~oove of the piece. The soloist will usually play the entire form of the tune, sometimes even playing several choruses. It is very common in tunes with authentic or modified ((I Got Rhythm" changes such as ((Why Not Now," and it is also common at fast tempos.

Improvised Solo by a Horn, Piano, or Guitar Using a rhythm section instrument such as piano or guitar often works best to provide a contrast with the melody if that melody is scored for the horns, although a horn could also fulfill this role. In this particular example, the pianist introduces the song by playing one entire chorus as a solo.

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Drum Solo Drum solo introductions can either be in time or out of time. Those played in time are often performed only on the hi-hat, especially on fast swing tunes. It also sets up the tempo and feel for the listener while revealing nothing else about the piece. As a result, it provides the most anticipation for the listeners as they wait for the melody to appear. Is it in major or minor? Is the melody lyrical or angular? An introduction by the drummer cannot provide any of this information. As you listen to this next example, imagine that you're hearing "Why Not Now" for the first time.

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Rubato Piano/Guitar Solo The next example could actually fit into two categories. It is an improvised solo introduction but it is derived from the last section of the tune. In this example, you'll hear the last portion of the first half of the ballad {(December Serenade" played as a rubato piano solo. Refer to the lead sheet to get your bearings; this is section B where the suspended chords ascend. Often the pianist or guitarist plays the entire tune in a rubato manner, but just as often he or she will only play a specific section of the tune. This part of the tune works well for a rubato introduction because of the richness of the suspended chord harmony. The pianist is instructed to set up the time as the introduction concludes-listen to the way he interprets those instructions.

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Last Section of Melody This approach, in which the last four or eight bars of the piece are played as an introduction, is extremely common. This method sets the mood of the piece without giving away the opening melody. On a ((club date" job (a setting in which the performers are essentially background to a larger event) it is almost always played by the pianist alone. In an arrangement, this approach provides more opportunities to involve the other instruments. The previous example illustrates two introduction techniques: it is an improvised solo, but also is constructed of material from the melody. There, the pianist introduced the tune by playing the entire B section of the tune as a rubato solo-but ((December Serenade" has yet another useful segment that can be used as introductory material: this time, it's the actual last line of the tune where the blues scale occurs. The next example demonstrates this technique but this time with the pianist playing in tempo.

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The next two examples illustrate how effective a simplified version of the last four measures can work. First, here are the last four measures of ((Why Not Now" concluding with a half cadence (the F7 chord).

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In using this material for the introduction, I decided to eliminate the fast-moving eighth note lines (I didn't want to give that away to the listener so eatly in the arrangement) and instead used the harmony voiced for the entire horn section. The example shown below illustrates this technique. Notice the guide tone line in the melody (sevenths resolving to thirds). As you listen to the audio track, observe how dynamic and exciting it is to begin with the entire band playing stop-time (that's when the entire group plays identical rhythms and the drummer and bassist cease their normal time-keeping roles). If this were an actual arrangement (instead of just an exampleL I would want to use this introductory material again later-perhaps as an interlude or an ending.

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Another good technique to use when extracting an introduction from the last section of the melody is instrument layering. In the next example, the introduction of ((Sabrosa" begins with piano, and the other instruments of the rhythm section enter in layers. Since it has a sixty-four bar form, the introduction shown below is constructed of the last eight bars of the form rather than the last four. Listen as the drums and bass enter on beat 4 of the measure-this adds rhythmic interest to the introduction.

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Vamp A vamp is a repeating series of a few chords often utilizing the harmony that begins the piece. It is commonly found in Latin styles such as bossa novas and sambas. It sets the stage for the feel of the tune and hints at the tonality without revealing the melody. The most common examples of this technique, again heard often in u club date" settings, are either a repeating sequence of I-bii7 chords with each chord lasting one measure, or a ii-V repeating pattern, again with each chord lasting one measure.

I-bii7 Vamp The bii7 chord, as you should recall from your jazz theory study, functions as a tritone substitution for the V7 chord. As a result, a I-bii7 vamp is essentially a I-V7 repeating pattern but with smoother motion in the bass. In this next example, the I-bii7 progression scored for piano and bass serves an introduction for the tune uSabrosa." It is effective to have the drums enter with the horns as the melody arrives, solidifying the time and feel.

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ii-VVamp The term ii- V vamp refers to the ii and V chords of the home key. This common vamp can actually be thought of in two ways, either diatonically or modally. For example, a repeating Dmi7-G7 pattern establishes the key of C because both chords are part of the C major diatonic tonality. However, some jazz theorists prefer to think of D as the home tonality-in other words, if you were going to play Dmi7-G7 on the piano, you'll probably hearD as the tonic because the progression never resolves to C. In that case, a i-IV progression results, establishing the D Dorian mode as the home tonality. Both analyses are valid. I'll be using the ii-V vamp label as I describe the next example. In example 14.9, a ii-V vamp serves as the introduction to asabrosa." Layering is used here, similar to example 14.8 in which the rest of the rhythm section joins the pianist halfway through the introduction.

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This exciting introduction is yet another example of introductory material that could . be reused somewhere else in the arrangement. You may find other sections of the piece that provide harmonic material for a vamp. The chord sequence that concludes the first half of "December Serenade" is a colorful alternative to the more conventional I-bii and ii-V sequences described above. In this next example, the introduction is made up of a vamp using the last two chords of the first half of the tune. It also layers the entrance of the rhythm section instruments seen in several earlier examples.

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Melodic Fragment Thus far we have observed introduction examples in which a specific element is emphasized. For example, the ({last section" technique provides a hint of the melody but disguises how the tune begins. The ((vamp" technique offers a small glimpse of the harmonic flavor of the piece but without revealing the melody. Improvising over the chord changes provides the harmony, form, and style of the tune, but again omits the melody. Another option is to use the beginning of the melody as an introductory device. This technique takes more thought and creativity, but it can be an effective way to introduce more than just the harmony and feel of the piece. Look for distinctive elements in the melody and take advantage of those elements as you construct the introduction. This type of introduction is demonstrated in the next example using the piece ((Why Not Now.'' In this case, a melodic fragment from the melody is scored for the entire ense1nble in octaves and four-part harmony.

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The example shown above is reminiscent of example 14.6, the only other example in which the entire band enters at the beginning of the introduction. Both examples are the most exciting and dynamic of all the introductions shown thus far.

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rather than compose a new melody, but you can also add a new melody as well.

Harmony/Rhythm This example illustrates a vamp that is not derived from the opening chord changesthis is new material. The harmony consists of an F pedal tone under suspended and altered dominants.

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Harmony/Rhythm + New Melody The next example includes a melody over the harmonic/rhythmic foundation shown in the example seen immediately above. Notice that the melody en1ters the second time through, building intensity as the introduction is layered. ·

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The next example is the most ambitious introduction seen thus far. The Latin tune uSabrosa" is the vehicle used for this interesting and exciting unrelated material. Here, ((So What" voicings move through the keys of D minor and Eb minor and the introduction concludes with a half cadence in G minor. Since ((Sabrosa" begins with the ii ofF major (Gmi7L this sets up the tune perfectly.

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An arrangement is in some ways comparable to a novel. The beginning of a novel may introduce the setting, tone, and characters of the story-and if done well, it will entice the reader to turn the page to see what happens next. A similar process occurs in 1nusic. If you write an introduction (and remember, not every arrangement needs · one) the goal is to attract the listener's interest, compelling him or her to keep listening. Hopefully, as the arrangement unfolds, your work will cause the listener to think, uoh, now I see how it all fits together."

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Conclusion The next chapter de~ls with the opposite end of the arrangement: the ending. Since the ending of an arr(jingement often uses material from the introduction, we will revisit many of the techniques from this chapter.

Chapter Summary Common introduction types are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Improvised introductions Last section of the melody (often the last four bars) Vamp (a repeating series of a few chords) Melodic fragment used to construct introduction Unrelated material (a completely new section)

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----Assignment 14.1 - - - - Introductions

Add an introduction to one of your already-existing four-horn arrangements.

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Endings Of all the elements required for a successful jazz arrangement, continuity is perhaps the most vital. Instead of just sewing together unrelated musical parts, arrangers should incorporate elements into their arrangements that create a sense of unity and connectedness. Endings and introductions play a role in this since they are often similar and constructed with the same material. In this chapter, some of the endings will resemble introductions from the last chapter and some won't. But they all share the same goal and purpose: to provide a natural-sounding way to conclude the chart. Introductions are important, obviously, because they are heard first by the listener. But endings are equally important-after all, you don't want a successful arrangement spoiled by an ending that does not fit the flavor and style of the work you've created. In planning the ending of your arrangement, you first need to decide whether or not a specific ending is even necessary. Often the piece can conclude with an ending as simple as a short note played by the entire group or perhaps a long held note with a fermata. Jazz musicians have developed a repertoire of stock endings that have served the needs of performers for decades. Musicians learn these ({tricks of the trade" by simply performing with a variety of other players. These stock endings can also be used by 307

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arrangers.

Stock Endings A stock ending is a well-known ending that has, over a long period of time, become a common means by which to end a tune. These antiquated but effective endings are often performed on club date jobs. A thorough discussion of stock endings is beyond the scope of this book. However, four generalizations will help guide the discussion that follows: 1. On a swing tune, a band will often play a short concluding melody at the end of the tune. The two most common of these are: (a) The original ending of the Billy Strayhorn standard, ((Take the A Train." (b) The so-called ({Basie" ending which, although usually played by the pianist, may also be voiced for horns. These two endings are provided in the example below.

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2. On Latin tunes, the vamp placed at the end is usually the same material that was used for the introduction. A sustained tonic chord concludes the tune. 3. On a ballad, the tune will often end with a cadenza played by the primary melodic instrument. This cadenza is usually played over a sustained V chord leading to a sustained tonic chord. 4. Often the last four bars of a tune are repeated to form a tag epding. Usually no discussion or planning is required to play these stotk endings-jazz musicians know from experience when and how to use them. Arrangers also use these endings since they are such an integral part of the sound of jazz. So while jazz performers are able to fake these endings, arrangers can notate them in interesting and innovative ways. Therefore, we will integrate stock endings in our upcoming discussion.

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Of course, there are many ways to end a chart that are more interesting and useful than a well-worn stock ending. The list below outlines some of the most common and useful endings used by arrangers. This is not meant to be a comprehensive list-instead, it is a resource to Help you end your chart in a logical, musical way.

Common Ending Types Endings can be categorized as follows: Tag Vamp borrowed from introduction Melodic fragment borrowed from introduction Unrelated material borrowed from introduction This list reveals that the relationship between the introduction and the ending is a very close one indeed.

Style Considerations Sometimes a given ending will work better in one style of tune than in another. The following chart indicates which endings are useful in each of the most common jazz styles. These are not hard and fast rules-just suggestions and observations of the way jazz musicians tend to do things.

Common Endings Style

Types of Endings Common to That Style

Up-Tempo Swing

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Medium Swing

Tag ending Melodic fragment Unrelated material

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Tags The material that is repeated in a tag ending can vary according to the harmonic rhythm of the chord progression. In songs like "Take the A Train," ((Satin Doll/' and a All of Me," the last four bars would be a simple ii-V-I progression, like this:

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This simple formula requires a secondary dominant, the A7, to ((turn around" the progression (thus the name turnaround). The four-bar unit is played three times in this example. While three times is the norm, it sometimes is played only twice. Often a iii chord (an Emi7 in this case) substitutes for the I in the second statement of the progression. Also, the A7 usually contains chord tone substitutions such as a flatted ninth and flatted thirteenth, since it is functioning as the dominant of D minor (review the section on tninor key progressions in chapter 6 if necessary). This tag can be used as a final improvised section and therefore repeated many times. An excellent e;Xample of this type of ending is Miles Davis' recording of ((All of You" on the album 'Ro~nd About Midnight. Notice also that I used the ((Take the A Train" line depicted in example 15.1 to drive toward the fermata, though the uBasie" ending described above would have worked just as well. A similar process occurs when the harmonic rhythm is twice as fast, as in tunes like

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((Have You Met Miss Jones" and ((Like Someone in Love.n Here is what the last four bars of those tunes would look like:

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turns for the final statement. I felt that I could add some variety to the structure of the ending by layering the instruments. The next two ~xamples display a common ending technique involving modulation. In example 15.7, the first of the two, the middle statement of the tag is placed up a half step and the brass countermelody is again removed.

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These examples demonstrate just how effective a tag ending can be. As the listener hears the characteristic repeat of the last section of the tune, there will be no doubt in his or her mind that the ending is on its way. For that reason, adding variety either through texture change (by omitting the brass) or harmonic variation (by putting the middle statement in another key) helps make this time-tested technique work even more effectively.

Vamp As mentioned above, Latin tunes played on a club date gig often end with the same vamp that started the tune. This technique also works well for arrangers, as the following example of uSabrosa" illustrates. This ii-V vamp was used as an introduction in chapter 14 (example 14.9). Take the tiine to revisit that example. For the ending, I added a melodic line to the vamp played by the horns, shown in the next example.

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Remember that not all arrangements require a specific ending. Use discretion as you decide on this important part of your project; it is the last thing the listener hears. But the point of an ending is to tie up the musical statement you've made. It's very important that the ending flows naturally and logically from the rest of the arrangement.

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Chapter Summary Ending Types: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Tag Vamp borrowed from introduction Melodic fragment borrowed from introduction Unrelated material borrowed from introduction

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------Assignment 15.1 Endings

Add an ending to one of your already-existing four-horn arrangements.

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Common Problems a Solutions Jazz improvisers make mistakes. A solo may be satisfying to the listener but disappointing to the performer, or vice versa. Either way, a jazz musician performing live music cannot go back and repair whatever mistakes were made. The discipline of jazz improvisation is so demanding that the perfect solo is elusive if not impossible to achieve. Jazz arranging is equally demanding, but with one big difference: the arranger has time on his or her side. After all, reflection and deliberation are part of the process. That being said, in a task as challenging as jazz arranging, mistakes still do occur. Avoiding them is the purpose of this chapter. While some errors are the result of sloppy work or incorrect application of jazz theory concepts, other problems arise out of good intentions. Often the arranger attempts certain effects that simply don't work. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the most common mistakes that arranging students make while at the same time offering suggestions on how to avoid these mistakes in the first place. The discussion below does not include obvious typographical errors such as missing accidentals, incorrect repeat

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signs, or transposition mistakes. The problems demonstrated below are harder to pinpoint and are not so obvious. We will deal here with common mistakes that may look good on paper (or even sound good on a computer) but don't work when played by real musicians. This is a very important chapter because while the improviser performing live puts his mistake behind him immediately, the arranger's 1nistakes never go away. Here are the most common mistakes I have seen throughout many years of teaching jazz arranging: Incorrect parallel harmonies Awkward lines, especially countermelodies Awkward repeated notes Overwriting Horns out of sync with the rhythm section The following examples contain all of these common errors. By studying these examples, you can train yourself to avoid duplicating these mistakes in your own work. Hopefully, through experience, score study, and extensive listening, your arranging skills will mature and you will outgrow these types of errors. In this chapter we will use the blues tune {(Finding the Groove" as a vehicle for demonstrating these subtle yet important arranging mistakes. Example 16.1 contains the lead sheet for {(Finding the Groove/' and the harmonic analysis is in example 16.2. It would be useful to compare this blues tune to other blues tunes you may know. ((Finding the Groove" has a very simple melody and is accompanied by resolving suspended chords. There are interesting rhythmic kicks in the last phrase that integrate melody and harmony with a series of substitute chords.

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In our previous discussion of form, I mentioned that blues melodies are usually played twice before the arrangement moves forward, usually into a solo section. Often the melody is played by a single horn (or unison horns) the first time with a thickened texture applied fdr the repetition of the melody. This is the case here; the melody is performed first by the trumpet and is joined by one or more horns as the melody is repeated. Only the second time through the melody is illustrated in the following examples. Most examples are written for trumpet, alto sax, and rhythm section. There is one example written for three horns (in which a trombone is added to the ensemble) and the final u correct" version is scored for four horns. Get ready to experience some bad writing!

Parallel Harmonies Arranging students often write parallel harmony parts without any regard for their function. Ignoring the harmonic structure by simply adding a lower part that follows the melodic contour almost always leads to problems.

Parallel Thirds Harmonizing the melody of uFinding the Groove" in thirds seems like it would be effective, but in the next example we see a serious problem: the harmonizing note is too unstable. Examine the two-horn version in example 16.3 and listen to the audio recording.

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In the initial six measures, the melody is harmonized a minor third below. Choosing a minor third as the harmonizing interval below the melody provides notes available in the key of c which would perhaps be a tempting choice for the arranger.

Problem: Unstable Harmonization The whole notes in measures 1, 3 and 5 sound odd. Why? The harmonizing note (the A in measures 1 and 3 and the D in measure 5) is the thirteenth of each dominant chord. On dominant chords like these, the thirteenth needs to be supported by 1nore fundamental chord tones under it. Try playing the horn parts on the piano while holding down the roots in your left hand. You'll find that the horn parts make the chord roots sound incorrect. Also, measure 6 contains a wrong note-theE natural is a major seventh above an F, and would therefore conflict with the seventh of the F7 chord. Although the harmonization in minor thirds provides very rich harmonic choices in the last four measures, they may be too colorful for the context of this tune. The lower note is the raised eleventh of each of the dominant chords as the progression moves around the circle of fifths. Try playing this on the piano, too-l think you'll hear that the raised elevenths also give the impression of instability.

Solution: Try Unison Instead If there were more voices (i.e., horns), the chords could be scored in either four-way close or drop-2, which would give more support to the melody. Since there are only two horns in this example, however, that option is not available. Therefore, in a two-horn arrangement, the solution may be to elhninate harmony notes altogether. Recall that all of the examples in this chapter are based on the second statement of the melody. If you simply add the alto sax in unison with the trumpet, you'll be thickening the texture. Incidentally, there is one positive aspect to this example that I will expand upon in the next chapter: the alto sax is integrated with the rhythm section in measure 7. This works well here, and we will see this again in each of the upcoming examples.

Parallel Fourths The next example illustrates a harmonization in parallel fourths. Arranging students often use these more strident harmonic choices in the belief they will make their arrangements sound more modern and hip.

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Problem: Harmony In Fourths Too Strident Parallel fourths in ~his setting are too ((edgy" for the flavor of this piece as the recording makes very clear. 1Quartal harmony should be used with caution. As I pointed out in chapter 6, ((Tertian Harmony," most of what we do is based on tertian harmonic principles. Using parallel fourths is more of an effect rather than a voicing method.

Solution: Try Unison or Guide Tone Harmony Instead The solution suggested above is valid here as well. Unison would be the better choice. However, adding guide tones (thirds and/or sevenths) at certain locations helps to stabilize the harmony. For example, using an A in measure 6-perhaps resolving from a suspended tone Bb-would provide a harmonic foundation in the middle of the melody.

Awkward Lines Writing melodic and tuneful harmony parts (and countermelodies) is one of our most daunting challenges as jazz arrangers, and example 16.5 illustrates a particularly awkward accompanying line in the alto sax.

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Problem: Awkward Lines In The Pick-Up Measure In the example shown above, the attempt to emphasize the suspended tones of the C and F chords is a gqbd idea and will be used in the "correct" version in example 16 .11. But the opening accompaniment line G-Bb-F is too disjunct. As the figure is repeated, the problem is compounded. Take the time to play it on the piano or on your own instrument. The leap of the descending fourth feels and sounds odd. In addition to the full ensemble version shown above, I have also provided a recording that omits the trumpet part in order to expose the awkward alto sax line. Listen to them both carefully.

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The Solution: Integrate the Alto Line with the Rhythm Section Since the alto sax has the same rhythm as the rhythm section in measure 7, this concept could be expanded for the entire melody. The alto line could simply play the suspended tones (the F in the C7sus4 and the Bb in the F7sus4) and resolve them, which is what the piano part calls for. You could also try a G-Gb-F line in the pick-up notes in measure 2, and a C-B-Bb line in measure 4. This solution provides a better countermelody while still emphasizing the suspended fourths. Notice the last phrase is in unison-this works well here.

Awkward Repeated Notes Repeated notes can be a problem if they are uncomfortable to play. This occurs most often in note values of eighth notes or shorter. "Upbeat to downbeat" repeated notes are normally not a problem to play comfortably, but "downbeat to upbeat" repeated notes are almost always awkward as we will see in the next example.

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The Problem: Repeated Notes In "Finding the Groove," the C7sus4 and F7sus4 chords are sounded on the "and" of four in the first six/measures. It might be tempting to harmonize the melody by putting the alto sax on the seventh of the chord, creating a major second dissonance with the melody note. Doing so, however, creates awkward repeated notes (two B flats in a row in the pickup measure and in measure 2, and two E flats in a row in measures 4 and 6). These repeated note figures would be difficult to swing and would feel unnatural to the performer. In addition to the full ensemble version shown above, I have also provided a recording that omits the trumpet part (see below).

(See example 16.7)

Solution: Unison Trumpet and Alto In chapter 11, ((Two-Part Writing," example 11.14 demonstrates harmonizing with unusual intervals such as sevenths and seconds. While it worked very well in that case, it would be difficult to avoid the repeated notes in example 16.7 above. Also, harmonizing whole notes with dissonant intervals (as is the case here) tends to obscure the melody. Major seconds can be very effective with shorter note values, adding a ((pop" to an important note at just the right time. The fact that this choice results in awkward repeated notes would suggest that you should avoid this option altogether and write the two horns in unison. Remember that writing in unison is not a "cop-out"-it's a wonderful way to create a whole new timbre by combining instruments. Also, harmonizing the root of a chord is inherently difficult with only two horns. This is why unison has been suggested several times throughout this chapter.

Overwriting This next example highlights a very common problem for beginning arrangers: writing lines that are too busy or active.

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Problem: Too Much Complexity Both perforn1er and listener want the music to sound good-and feel good, too. Excessive complexity in any rpusical element (e.g., melody, harmony, rhythm, instrumentation) can detract from the enjoyment of the music. In the example seen above, the alto line is busy from the start and gets even more complicated as it progresses. It also covers up the melody in measure 2, violating the simple rule of ((writing in the holes" of the melody. I have heard students justify this type of writing to me by saying, ((It sounded good on the computer." While that may be true (from the student's perspective anyway), this line is too complex for this simple blues tune. This is one of the dangers of writing directly onto the computer rather than with pencil and paper. It would take quite an effort to write out this alto line by hand, yet on the computer it would take relatively little time. Writing with pencil and paper can contribute to silnpler arrangements.

The Solution: Write "In The Holes" Of The Melody The melody is all-important; obscuring it is almost never a good idea. Write your countermelody when the primary melody pauses. Composers have been doing that for centuries in all forms of music. The countermelody seen above, however, is too busy even when the melody pauses. Remember: strive to write with simplicity.

Lack of Integration with the Rhythm Section This next example comes closer to an effective solution but still has a serious problem. This three-horn version contains a problem that is more common than you may think.

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Problem: Horns Not In Sync With Rhythm Section In example 16.10, the alto sax and trombone add simple chord tones to the C and F suspended chords/ with the trombone resolving the suspensions (F toE in measures 1 and 3 and Bb to A in measure 5). Notice that the accompanying horns are integrated with the rhythm section in measures 7 and 8. These are all positive qualities of this example. The problem in this version occurs in the final three measures where the rhythmic kicks for the accompanying horns are not synchronized with the rhythm section. As you listen to this recording, you may be surprised that students actually make an error this glaring. Neglecting to integrate horns with the rhythm section actually occurs quite frequently.

Solution: Sync Horns with Rhythm Section The alto sax and trombone parts must be written on the "and" of beat 4 in measure 8 and on the ''and" of beats 2 and 4 in measures 9-1 0; in this example the horns are written incorrectly on beats 1 and 3.

The "Correct" Version Finally, example 16.11 illustrates a version that works well. Notice that the alto sax doubles the trumpet melody in the first seven measures as was suggested in several of the solutions above. Also, observe that although the accompanying line in the lower horns is very simple, it highlights the resolution of the suspended tone in the C and F chords. The horns are correctly integrated with the rhythm section in measures 7 and 8, and the example ends with the sequential melody supported by four-way close harmonization with all four horns aligned properly with the rhythm section.

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Chapter Summary 1. Parallel harmo:pizations: accompanying parts must match the harmonic structure. 2. Awkward line~: use the rules outlined for writing effective countermelodies. 3. Repeated notes: avoid repeated eighth notes in most cases, particularly'' downbeat to upbeat" eighth notes. 4. Overwriting: writing with simplicity is almost always preferable to complexity. 5. Lack of integration of horns and rhythm section: align the melodic element with the harmonic element, especially on anticipated figures like the "and" of four.

The Complete Arrangement Throughout this book I have used the tunes {(Why Not Now/' l(Sabrosa/' and ((December Serenade" to demonstrate various melodic treatments, introductions; and endings. An arranger could consider each of these tunes complete and ready to perform by simply choosing one of the texture options presented thus far, adding an introduction, an ending, and notating the chord changes in the horn parts for solos. However, much of the enjoyment of writing an arrangement comes from composing new sections which can really make a project your own unique creation. Also, learning how to add new material to the basic form of a tune is excellent training for any big band writing you may do in the future. This is a wonderful chance to gain experience doing some real composing. This chapter will focus on the following sections: Solo backgrounds Soli section Interlude Shout chorus Send-off

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In order to examine these additional sections, full transposed scores of "Why Not Now," "Sabrosa," "December Serenade," and ((Finding the Groove" are presented in their entirety in this chapter. Each is written for trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, trombone, piano, bass, and drums. These scores contain various labels and annotations that point out the arranging techniques being employed at a given spot. Also, the text that follows each example will further analyze the examples with a special emphasis given to the most recent additions. You'll recognize many of the melodic treatments in these arrangements because they are derived from the methods described in chapter 12. There will also be introductions and endings that you've heard before. You may recall that all of the melodic treatments, . introductions, and endings seemed to work quite well. For these final arrangements however, I chose the versions that I felt worked the best. But keep in mind that there is an infinite number of ways to arrange these tunes-that's what makes jazz arranging so enjoyable. In chapter 3, I provided some schematic diagrams in order to demonstrate the various ways in which tunes in different forms can flow. As I arranged these example tunes, I used these diagrams to help provide a structure. As was pointed out in chapter 10, having a plan from the beginning will allow you to write with more continuity and unity. Therefore I have provided a formal sketch for each tune with much more detail than was included in the schematic diagrams in chapter 3.

Creating the Score and Parts When producing the score and parts for a performance of your music, set the highest standards for yourself and give yourself ample time to meet those standards. There is nothing more frustrating as an arranger than hearing mistakes made by the musicians that are the result of sloppy work on your part. Think of it this way: when a band plays your chart, it should sound just the way you intended it to sound-with or without your presence. In order to help you avoid notation errors, I have listed some tried-and-true suggestions below. This list is not exhaustive, but if you follow this advice it will take you a long way toward removing obstacles--and letting your music speak for itself.

Notation Suggestions Try to avoid odd spellings (e.g., Ert, Brt) unless there is a really good reason to use them, such as a chromatic passage. Don't be afraid to use enharmonic spellings that don't match the prevailing key if using them makes the music easier to read. Use courtesy accidentals when appropriate (and you may need them more often than you think). Don't beam three eighth notes together if they are not a triplet. Don't beam eighth notes over rests. Don't beam notes across the middle of a measure. Articulations are meant to convey your stylistic intent exactly. This is particularly important in groups with more than one horn, as they must match stylistically. Pay close attention to quarter notes, as they are usually (but not always) played

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short. If the chart is notated correctly, no discussion should be necessary among the players. Place articulat~ons above the staff, not below. Tempo and stfle must be in both the score and the parts. Don't write an entire measure for pick-up notes. Indicate instrument changes (e.g., mute changes for brass or doubles for woodwinds) at the end of the phrase before the change occurs) and allow sufficient time to make the change.

Layout Suggestions Score and staff must be identical. A sample part of '(Finding the Groove" is located in appendix B. Rehearsal letters normally occur every eight bars, or every twelve bars in a blues. Put double bars at each rehearsal letter and at the beginning of each first ending. Staff spacing, measure spacing, and note spacing should be consistent. Parts usually have four measures per line, although there are exceptions to this rule. First and second endings sometimes change this. Multimeasure rests are normally no more than eight measures to facilitate placement of rehearsal letters. Tape your parts accordion-style using masking tape. If you're writing by hand, use a ruler for all bar lines and stems. Begin each part with a dynamic marking. Play through every part on your own instrument-this may not reveal exactly what it will feel like for the specific instrument the part is written for, but it is a great way to find awkward lines, repeated notes, etc. Use standard written signs to communicate the road map to the band (e.g., repeat signs, the D.S., the D.C., the coda sign). Taking the time to give verbal road map directions to the band can eat up precious rehearsal time. However, if these signs result in a confusing road map, it may be wise to write out the repeated music. Eliminate unneeded staves: optimize staff systems (e.g., the bass clef staff of a piano part). Be aware of page turns in the parts. Put rests on the bottom of the page for this purpose. Finish your parts at least a day before distributing them so that you can thoroughly proofread them.

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''Why Not Now" If needed, refer back to the lead sheet and analysis in chapter 2 (although by now you've heard so many versions of this tune that the melody, harmony, and form should be very familiar). Before you examine the score and listen to the audio track, look over the diagram below. Notice that there is an introduction that also serves as both ending and interlude. The interlude is also used for the solo section, providing the soloists different material on which to improvise. This melodic treatment is identical to the combination texture described in chapter 12 (see example 12.6). Also, the introduction/ending is the "unrelated material: vamp" variety discussed in chapters 14 and 15.

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Score Layout Before we discuss the details of the actual music, look carefully at the layout of the score. While it is beyond the scope of this book to discuss every aspect of notation and score layout, it will be beneficial to point out a few specifics. The score order is trumpet, alto sax, tenor sax, trombone, piano, bass, and drums. The horns are grouped together; notice that the bar lines pass through them and there is a bracket on the left side. The score is minimized occasionally to save space, most often by eliminating the bass clef of the piano part. Notice the score directions especially as they guide the musicians through the solo section. When inserting instructions in your score, it is important to be concise, yet clear and accurate. There is a lot to know about score and part layout-take the time to study this important subject along with the topic of arranging.

The Arrangement In this treatment of "Why Not Now," a recurring interlude brings unity to the arrangement. This same interlude serves as the introduction, ending, and background figures. Juxtaposing dissonant harmonies in a traditional bebop setting can be very effectiveboth enjoyable to listen to and especially fun to improvise over. As mentioned above, I chose the combination texture for the melody. I added the simple ascending scale figure in measures 40 and 128, first seen in the two-horn versions in chapter 11. This line serves as connective tissue between sections. The introduction/ending is the ({unrelated vamp" type. While you will recognize some of this arrangement from previous examples, there are five sections that will be discussed below in more detail: Solo backgrounds Interlude Soli Ending Send off As you read the following you will need to refer back to the full score, especially to the horn reductions that are included at various points.

Solo Backgrounds Adding background lines to the solo section gives the soloist a more exciting and intense setting in which to improvise. An arranger must take care to write these accompanying lines in a manner that adds to the excitement of the solo section but does not interfere with the soloists. Simple ((guide tone" lines work well, as well as blues scale melodies that add to the intensity of the solo section. Take care when choosing the rhythms for your background figures-keep them simple! Half notes and wHole notes (along with an occasional syncopated figure) keep the lines where they belong-in the background. Example 17.2 illustrates background lines for ((Why Not Now," placed in the bridge of the form. They are extremely simple for two reasons. First, they are in unison. This makes the1n very flexible in case you want to have an open section for improvised solos. The unison background parts, which are in every part, are played on cue. Second, they

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follow the sequential pattern of the harmony. Each statement begins on the third of the ii chord in each progression, culminating in an extended version in the third statement.

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Interlude An interlude is a section of new or related material added to the form of the piece that serves to bridge sections together. It can connect the first complete melodic statement with the solo section-the place where the soloist can begin to improvise. The simplest method of creating an interlude is to recycle the introduction as the interlude. This unifies the arrangement. ((Why Not Now" utilizes the introduction as an interlude to begin the solo (measure 49) and soli sections (measure 97), as well as for the ending.

Soli A soli is a written group solo. It normally is scored in either unison or in a homophonic texture, but it can also contain several overlapping lines. It is often located after the solo section and frequently follows a rhythm section soloist. This gives the horn players the rest needed to play what may be a technically demanding passage. It is often the length of only one or two sections of the form, or it could be composed over the entire form. Its melodic material often comes from a transcribed solo. Some of the best examples of this type of writing are from the group Supersax, whose repertoire included transcribed Charlie Parker solos arranged for five saxophones. The AABA model (described in chapter 3) suggests that soli or a shout" sections often last for only the first two A sections. This is the technique used here. The soli in ((Why Not Now" follows the piano solo. It begins with the interlude at measure 97 using syncopated suspended chords voiced with the root on top. Two A sections make up the remainder of the soli. The next example offers a com paris on between the original A section melody and the melody written for the soli. Pay close attention to the rhythm of

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the lines; they are most similar at the end of each eight-bar phrase. An effective way to provide continuity is to tie sections together using similar rhythmic shapes.

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Interlude Within the Soli (Measures 97-1 04) The horn reduction from the score is reprinted below with more detail in example 17.4. Note the stark voi~ing of the suspended chord in measures 97-98. It is constructed of (from the top-down) the root, fifth, fourth, and root. Suspended chords often include the ninth and sometimes the thirteenth-but these tones are omitted here, providing more power to the voicing. Measures 99-100 include a good example of a slash chord (Dover F7) resulting in an Fl3(b9) chord. A more colorful suspended chord voicing is placed in measures 101-102, which works to decrease the tension as the soli drives toward the more harmonically traditional A sections. Finally, notice the secondary dominant approach to the F7(~9)(b13) in measure 103 .

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First A Section Within the Soli (Measures 105-112) The first four bars of this section are in four-part harmony. The melody is constructed of a two-note sequence that becomes progressively more rhythmically syncopated. The voicings are in four-way close with diatonic approaches used in measure 108. The second four bars, written in unison, are reminiscent of the melody, especially the last phrase.

Second A Section Within the Soli (Measures 113-120) I recall writing this section backward, first thinking about how it would end. This is generally a good idea because it encourages continuity in your writing. A novelist should

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probably know how a book will end in order for the plot to lead there-the same can be said for composers and arrangers. Therefore, to provide stability to the arrangement, the soli ends with the same material as the concluding scale passage found in the "Why Not Now" melody. This section begins in measure 113 with a rhythmic figure supported by the drummer. While solis are much more common in big band writing, they can be a wonderful addition to small group arrangements. Composing a soli provides the opportunity for you to actually compose rather than just arrange. The bridge follows the soli and is scored only for the rhythm section with the pianist playing the melody. This instrumentation choice cools down the arrangement and gives the horns a needed break before playing the last A section of the form leading to the ending in the coda.

Ending After the bridge is stated by the pianist, there is a D.S. to the last A section of the melody in measure 41. After a jump to the coda, the arrangement ends with an abbreviated version of the introduction/interlude concluding with a sustained Bmaj7(b5) chord. The arrangement, therefore, adheres to the form suggested for AABA tunes in chapter 3. Ending with just the BA part of the form is very effective, rather than restating the entire form as the arrangement concludes.

Send-Off A send-off is a brief musical thought placed at the beginning of the solo section which is voiced in all horns except the soloing instrument. I didn't use one in the final completed version of {(Why Not Now" because I preferred the intensity of a solo section that begins with the interlude. Therefore, an additional example has been provided demonstrating this technique. Send-offs often last for four measures, after which the soloist begins to improvise. Send-offs usually have an infectious rhythm. They can also be repeated at the beginning of the next formal section, as is the case in example 17.5 below. The example is notated in concert pitch.

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''Sabrosa" The next piece we will examine as a full arrangement is the Latin tune uSabrosa." Again, there are sections you've heard before. There are two important sections we will be looking at: the three-horn background parts during the alto sax solo, and also the shout chorus. The formal diagram below illustrates the flow qf the arrangement.

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Score Layout "Sabrosa" has a sixty-four bar form which presented a challenge for me as far as score layout is concerned. Fortunately, I was able to reduce the score in several locations. Notice that the arrangement begins with only a piano part in grand staff. Bass and drums are added for the second system and then the two melody instruments. Because this score was produced in Finale with optimized staff systems, all the parts are not displayed until the second page. The directions for the solo section are simple since the alto sax is specified as the only soloist. Also, the solo only lasts for one chorus, so the solo backgrounds are played as written (no need to write in the indication "play backgrounds on cue").

The Arrangement This version of "Sabrosa" is similar to ((Why Not Now" in the use of the interlude, as it is constructed of borrowed material from the introduction. However, the interlude is

not used as a solo device in this piece. Also, while "Why Not Now" concludes with only the second half of the melody following the soli, uSabrosa" states the melody (and the introduction) in its entirety. You'll also notice that this is an alto sax feature. The bridge is played by only the alto sax, and the only solo is for the alto player. The combination texture is used, as was illustrated in chapter 12 (example 12. 9). The solo section contains an interesting alteration from the original tune: it features a chord progression simplified from those found in the A sections of the melody. By replacing an unusual chord progression with something more conventional (in this case, simple ii-V progressions moving chromatically) you add something new to the arrangement while also providing a better solo vehicle for the musicians. There are two additional aspects of this chart that will be discussed in detail: Solo backgrounds are in three-part harmony Shout chorus

Solo Backgrounds The backgrounds composed for the alto sax solo are a little more complicated and plentiful than what was scored in ((Why Not Now," although the soloist still has plenty of room to play with only the rhythm section. They enter at measure 117, and offer a good example of writing for three rather than four horns.

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Example 17.7

The challenge of writing for three horns is evident in this passage. These backgrounds highlight the compromise required as four-part chords are scored for three horns. The first chord in example 17.7 is voiced with the ninth on top, and the fifth is omitted from the structure. Each line moves naturally to the C7 chord tones: A moving to G and F moving to E. The following chord, the B13(b5), includes richer chord tones (the b9, 13, and 3) which lead to a quartal stack over the E7(~9)(b13) (from the top down, C, G, and D). There is no third in this chord, but the strong voice leading from the previous structure leads the ear through the progression. The last two bars of example 17.7 include a more conventional treatment of three-voice writing where the third and seventh are included in each chord. The last two chords in particular omit the ninth from the harmony, which works well, but results in a less colorful voicing. The most active lines occur as we get closer to the bridge and shout choruses. Example 17.8 illustrates the background lines that lead to the bridge.

Example 17.8

The background parts are in unison as we approach the bridge,but the passage ends in three-part harmony. The contrary motion leading to the Dbma7 (the first chord of the bridge and the last measure of the example) works well in the outer voices. Contrast this material that drives toward the bridge with similar material leading to the shout chorus, illustrated below in example 17. 9. Both sections begin in unison. The material in example 17.9 moves into harmony sooner, however, and offers an excellent exa1nple

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of open voicings beginning with the Emi7. Recall that one of the primary reasons to use open voicings is range. As the melody line (played by the trumpet) ascends, the trombone part is scor~d with the dropped second voice, making it much more playable.

Example 17.9

Three-part writing takes more time and deliberation, as was emphasized in chapter 13. Listen to (and transcribe, if possible) some recordings of Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers. These recordings are great examples of three-horn writing.

Shout Chorus A shout chorus is the high point of an arrangement. It normally occurs after the solos have been played and before the return of the melody, normally about two thirds of the way through the arrangement. It can be constructed of new material, but is probably more often based on the melody. The shout chorus is an exciting event with horns usually voiced in harmony and with the drummer really driving the band. The shout chorus from "Sabrosa," based on a melodic fragment, is voiced initially in drop-2. This continues the voicing types used in the last background figure illustrated in example 17.9. Notice the difference in the effect created by the shout chorus in "Sabrosa" depicted below in exam-ple 17.10 as compared with the soli section in "Why Not Now" seen in example 17.3. This shout section is more aggressive and exciting-the horns are scored higher, and it features the drummer more prominently. From a harmonic standpoint it is based on a simple cadence figure in D minor which is stated four times.

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Example 17.10

The voicings in example 17.10 provide a good example of the movement from open to close voicings as the melody descends on beat 3 to the ''and" of 4 in the second measure of the example. Notice also the "So What" voicing in the second measure of the example. Recall that this is normally a five-voice structure, and there would normally be a Bb on the bottom of this chord. The listener does not miss this note, however, because it is the root and is present in the bass part.

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"December Serenade" The ballad examplt1, "December Serenade," is by far the simplest arrangement. It generally follows the fq>rm diagram for ballads in ABAC form laid out in chapter 3.

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Score Layout The primary differenqe between this score and the other example tunes is that this chart has a separate section with just the solo changes. Since there are no other sections added to this piece (except the introduction), there is no need for a solo section integrated into the score. An alternative would be to notate the chord symbols for all the parts throughout the arrangement. I chose not to do that because I didn't want to clutter the score.

The Arrangement {(December Serenade" is the simplest of the four arrangements. For this complete version I chose the combination texture as depicted in chapter 12 (example 12.12). There have been no additional parts added because the melody, along with the improvisations over the rich harmonies, provides all the momentum that is needed for a successful performance. You should strive to avoid overwriting a piece like this.

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"Finding the Groove" In chapter 16 I used the blues tune "Finding the Groove" to illustrate problems and solutions. Therefore, we haven't seen various options of textures, introductions, and endings. As with the other example tunes, I chose a combination texture for the treatment of the melody. Integration of the horns and rhythm section occurs at two locations: in the introduction and in the second statement of the blues melody. I like to combine horns with the rhythm section; it adds an interesting color to the traditional rhythm section instruments.

"Finding the Groove" Form Breakdown Measure

Section of Form

Description

Introduction

Rhythm section vamp Add horns to vamp

13 25

Melody Melody

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37 49 61

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Score Layout This arrangement is very easy to follow because it reads down from start to finish with no D.S., D.C., or coda signs to worry about. There is a repeat sign for the solo section. The solo section also includes the direction uopen for solosj BG (backgrounds) on cue." Unlike uDecember Serenade,'' I decided to notate the chord symbols for the entire horn section during the solo section since it is such a short form-only twelve bars. Notice also that the background parts are written for everyone so that any group of horns can play them at any time. This is why writing backgrounds in unison or octaves can make a performance very flexible.

The Arrangement The arrangement of ({Finding the Groove" is simple in just about every possible way. A basic vamp serves as the introduction and ending, and the melody is voiced in unison for the trumpet and alto sax. The lower horns add a simple and understated countermelody at letter B. Note that this countermelody adheres to the suggestions made earlier in the text. It does not overwhelm the main theme-instead it ({fills in the holes" in the melody and it joins the melody at the end of the phrase. This countermelody, scored for the tenor sax and trombone, includes an additional feature mentioned above-it is integrated with the rhyth1n section. Beginning in measure 31 these lower horns join the rhythm section's syncopated figures. Often, jazz ensembles present the appearance of two separate groups of musicians-wind players and rhythm section players. Combining horns with the rhythm section in various locations helps to unify the ensemble. The arrangement of ({Finding the Groove" includes two interesting sections that will be emphasized below: Background parts Shout chorus

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Following the horn solos, a bass solo is scored as a contrasting two-chorus section. The horns enter in the second chorus with a dissonant version of the melody. The inner voice motion is highlighted in the horn reduction (measures 61-66). Notice that as the shout chorus approaches the harmonization becomes less dissonant.

Shout Chorus The shout chorus of ((Finding the Groove/' illustrated in example 17.14, is the type of shout chorus that is based on the melody. This exciting moment of the chart is scored with the fifth of the C7 as the top note (the original chord is suspended quality; the C7 is a stronger harmonic choice). The reason for the choice of the G in the trumpet rather than simply rewriting the actual melody an octave higher has to do with the ensemble we're writing for here. A high concert C would work well in a big band setting, but in a small group setting it would be too high. In the example below, compare the original melody with the shout melody, particularly the rhythms. In the fifth measure of the example the pickup figure begins on beat 3, which is a refreshing and exciting change from the syncopated melody. Take note also of the voicing types utilized and the nonharmonic approaches.

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Finally, because of the theme-based shout chorus, the arrangement does not restate the actual melody with a D.S. Instead, the arrangement concludes with a tagged ending, repeating the last phrase three times. Notice, however, that the pianist plays the middle statement as a solo (measures 82-83), and the harmony moves around the circle of fifths. The horne key is reestablished when the horns return (measure 84-86). The ending, as with ({Why Not Now" and "Sabrosa," is a restatement of the introduction, tying the arrangement together.

Chapter Summary These four arrangements include all of the elements that form successful jazz arrangements: melodies that are presented clearly, accompanying lines that cmnplirnent but do not overwhelm, background figures that energize the soloists, a variety of ensernble sections, and introductions and endings that unify the arrangement. It is my hope that these arrangements provide a musical summary of the concepts we have studied throughout the book.

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,-----Assignment 17.1 The Complete Arrangement

Complete a full arrangement for three or four horns and rhythm section. Arrange either a tune of your choice or one of the exercise tunes. In your arrangement, include the following elements: Introduction Melody Solo section, with backgrounds Soli or shout section A complete restatement of the melody or perhaps only half the form Ending Also could include an interlude or send-off before solo section

403

Conclusion At various points along the way, I have made comparisons between jazz performers and arrangers. I did that because many of us are players first and arrangers second. While this is not true for everyone, most of us have attempted to master an instrument to some degree and we understand the triumphs and frustrations of that endeavor. The journey toward becoming a successful arranger or composer is much the same. You may remember a time when you were playing effortlessly-when the music was literally flowing out of you. Those treasured moments can also happen to arrangers. But for both performers and arrangers, these moments can only happen when the fundamentals are in place. Playing a great solo over a chord progression in the key of Eb will be difficult if an Eb scale, as well as a vocabulary of jazz patterns, is not second nature. Similarly, the construction of voicings and approaches, the acoustic properties of instrument families, the understanding of form and function-these uarrowsn must be in the arranger's quiver before creativity can flow. Working through this book and the exercises has hopefully added to your working knowledge of the arranging process so that you can start developing your own voice as an arranger. But this textbook is just the beginning. You must not neglect to listen continuously to jazz arrangements of all kinds. As you listen, pay close attention to what you're 405

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hearing, and to what works and what does not. Take that knowledge to your sketchpad and borrow from the great minds that have formed this inspired music. Jazz music is a big tent-there are many styles and trends within the jazz idiom. Fortunately what you've learned here can be applied to all types of music. In fact, you may one day find yourself using the techniques in this book to write in other genres such as pop, funk, or even country. If that is the case, remember this famous saying about musical style: "There are only two kinds of music: good and bad." Be aware that your first attempts at writing may not be as successful as you would like. This is inevitable. The only way to improve is to keep writing. Success follows hard work. The most difficult aspect of this process is writing arrangements that are unified works and not individual sections that lack relationships. This takes a great amount of trial and error. But remember that the arranger has time to think things through, unlike the improviser who is creating music in the moment. While having the luxury of time is certainly helpful, it can also lead to ((paralysis by analysis." Use your knowledge, but don't forget to be creative and natural. In the competitive world of the music business, the all-around musician is the one who will succeed. Talent is important and wonderful to have in abundance-but the hard worker who can perform, compose, arrange, and is comfortable with technology will be the most prepared for a career in jazz. Having some business sense does not hurt either. I hope you're able to use what you have learned here for your own ensembles (or in the case of educators, for your students). There is nothing more gratifying than hearing your own music performed by others and realizing that you've contributed a great chart to the jazz repertoire. Good luck as you explore this exciting field.

Appendices

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Exercise Tunes I composed three tunes especially for this book that are intended to be used as exercises. They are typical of most jazz standards. The three most common feels are represented here: swing, Latin, and ballad. Two forms are represented: AABA and ABAC.

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ABAC Swing Exercise Tune This medium swing tune in F minor is enjoyable to play (and to arrange) because of the contrasting rhythms among the sections. The A and C section melody is simple and would work well harmonized with diminished seventh approaches as the melody ascends in the first three measures. The tune moves between two keys in the A and C sections: F minor and Db major. There is also ample room for a countermelody to be inserted during melodic long tones. The B section consists of chromatically descending ii-Vs with a very active melody. Try not to overwrite a section like this. Section D is similar to section B, but has a slower harmonic rhythm. This tune was used in chapter 11 to demonstrate instrumental blend and contrast. Please refer to those audio tracks to hear a recording of this tune.

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Index

AABA form, 6, 30, 31 ABAC form, 6, 31, 32 altissimo register, 51 alto saxophone, 49 approach, 149 articulation markings, 45 awkward lines, 333 awkward repeated notes, 335

drop- 2 voicing, 115, 116 drop- 2/4 voicing, 117 drop-3 voicing, 117 drum notation, 62 drum set, 61 enclosures, 147 endings, 307 four-way close, 76

background figures, 62 ballad,20,31,32 bartlonesaxophone,50 bass, 61 blend, 44, 201 blues, 7, 32 bucket mute, 49

guidetones,204,206 guitar, 61 Harmon mute, 47 homophony, 28

chord over chord, 139 chord positions, 79 chord tone substitutions, 78 chromatic parallel approach, 153, 155, 156 chro1natic planing, 153 circle of fifths, 82, 103 close voicing, 76 cluster voicing, 283, 285 camping, 58, 59 countermelody, 203 counterpoint, 204 cup mute, 47, 49 diatonic approach, 149, 155 diatonic planing, 149 diminished seventh approach, 149, 150, 155,157 dominant approach, 149, 151, 156 dominant quartal structures, 128 double neighboring tones, 147, 152

ii-V va1np, 296 ii-V-I progression, 104, 116 interlude, 361 introduction, 289 inversions, 79

lack of integration with rhythm section, 339 last section of melody as introduction, 292 layout suggestions, 347 melodic fragment as ending, 317 1nelodic fragment as introduction, 298 modal interchange, 17, 21 mute, 47,49 neighboring tones, 147, 152 nonchromatic parallel approach, 153 nonharmonic tones, 147 notation suggestions, 346 open voicing, 7 6, 115

435

overwriting, 337 parallel approach, 149, 153, 158 parallel fourths, 331 parallel harmonies, 329 parallel thirds, 329 passing tones, 147 pedal tones, 48 piano, 60 polychord, 139 polyphony, 28 quartal harmony, 125, 283, 285 quartal voicing, 126, 127 quartet, 198 quintet, 201 rhythm changes, 12 rhythm section, 57 rhythmic notation, 59, 62, 63 saxophone, 49 saxophone ranges, 51 send-off, 364 septet, 202 sextet, 202 shell voicing, 81, 282 shoutchorus,383,401 slash chord, 137, 138, 282 slash notation, 58, 59, 62 "So What" voicing, 129 soli,361 solo backgrounds, 360, 381, 400 song forms, 5 stock arrangements, 29 stock ending, 308 stop time, 293 straight mute, 47, 49 suspended chords, 139 tag ending, 308, 309 tenor saxophone, 50 tertian harmony, 75 texture, 28 three-part writing, 281 triad, 75, 282 tritone substitution, 21 trombone, 47 trombone slide positions, 48

trumpet, 45 trumpet range, 46 turnaround, 31 0 two-bar repeat, 62 two-part writing, 202 unison, 28 upper extensions, 7 6 vamp,295,315,318 voice leading, 80 voicing, 73