Fundamental Aspects Of Al-ghazzalis Thought

Some Fundamental Aspects

Imam Ghazzali's

Thought 2^^H

1^^ AhleSunnah Library

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fSOME FUNDAMENTAL ASFECTS OF

IMAM GHAZZALI'S THOUCHT t

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--'Ear #

M Umaruddin M.A.

Phil. (Alfg),

M.A. Arab,

Senior Lecturer in

(ca!.),

M.A. Pert,

fed!

)

Muslim Philosophy

Muslim University, AHgarh

IRSHAD&OOK I. t

•>

"If

ALIGARH 1946

ikrf

ft**

*l

CONTENTS. Opinions.

...

Introduction. I.

..

...

...

Psychological Basis of Al-Ghazzali's Religious

The

...

Relation of

An

Exposition

Problem V.

VI.

...

....

Knowledge and Morality of

of the

of Will

Al-Ghazzali's Approach to the

with special

Reference

Thought and

Intuition in

...

..

systems....

Idea of Love in the Philosophy of Ai-Ghazzali Al-Ghazzali on the Vision of God.

/HI.

Appendix

IX.

Appendix

I— -Al-Ghazzali on Child Education

works

Maqtul's

position

phical

with

boration Spies,

of

Madhhib

107

....

125

...

133

....

Ij8

....

175

(In colla-

Dr.

Professor

"The Doctrines

(Kirab

Ahl

al-Taarruf

Abu Bakr

of

h

al-tasawwuf).

Translated from the

XI.

....

ProfM*t*£fTArabic,

Sufi's."

Arberry.

71

to the

Aligarh Muslim University)

Appendix III— -Review

32

Philoso-

According

His Youth.

of

.

delation of

His and Iqbal's

II— Suhrawardi

+1

ultimaie Reality the

10

..

Views on the

Al-Ghazz^li's

Freedom

18

in the .

VII.

X.

IX

1

...

Ethical svstem of Al-Ghazzali IV.

.

Til

Al-Ghazzali with Special Reference to His Inner

Philosophy. III.

...

...

Development. II.

....

Arabic of

al-Katabadhi by A.

J.

...

Appendix IV*— Muslim Philosophy ... and meaning :

Its

scope ....

178

Ajo-

9v°>-

RAK foooK

AW

.-* V 'V;'

Printed by

Bamashwar "*dMHb&

Ram

Lai Shaima, at the Printing Prats, Allgarh.

Pi.

The

book, though unostentatious in its presentatiot^ is the outcome of long thinking and laborious researches in Islamic Philosophy, extending over a period of twenty years. The author is singularly fortunate in combing in himself the rare distinction of being thoroughly able to explore the original sources, both in Islamic Philosophy and western thought; and he is positively successful in bringing out a book, which, 'though not very ambitious in its design and pretensions, certainly opens a new chapter in the presentation of Islamic thought to the modern world, in particular the fundamental aspects and speculations of Ghazzali, who has, perhaps more than any one else, deeply influenced the course of Muslim thinking during the last eight hundred years. Ghazzali happened to live in the most stormy days of religious and philosophical polemics and controversies which had rent as Muslim under the great commonwealth of the peoples in the world. This book is a vivid record of that age and of the endeavours uf Ghazzali in recreating the Islamic faith and redeeming the

day and posterity from folly and Moreover the book makes a bold attempt in removing the age long misunderstandings that he believed in the finitude of thought and worked out a system cf mysticism which was unnatural and foreign to Islam, etc. The author proves conclusively that these accusations do not stand anywhere ir. as much as Ghazzali firmly believed that the final good and happiness

Muslims

of his

ignorance.

of man consists in of the self, which is in

realisation the perfect its turn entirely dependent

on the most harmonious and equable inter-relation between intellect, self-assertion and appetition. He bases his arguments mainly e*» the Quran and the holy traditions and makes out bis case in the purest spirit of Islam. The book has been written in a clear and lucid style, embodying the __ latest scientific method & phraseology, and is equally addressed to the lay reader as well as the modern tcholar,

'^ ^^

^^ *000

Jji*

j

\

j

1

'.

" ;

f

*""

i

s

— 4

(

"Your

thesis is inspiring.

further research "

;

work

Papers on

in the

I

do hope yon will do

same

Ghazzali

field."

and

Shahabuddin

Maqtul. Both are interesting as chapters in the History of Muslim Thought," Professor R. A. Nicholson, Cambridge.

"

.You have given a char and well arranged analysis which shall be useful as an introduction to thesubject. I have read it with pleasure and interest.''" Professor Dr. Storey, Professor of Arabic, Cambridge.

an exposition of al-Ghazzali's views on the problem of the Freedom of the will and Suhrawardi Maqtui*s philosophical position according to the works of his youth. / am very glad to see studies of this kind emanating from Aligarh.' 9 "..

Dr. Zakir Husain,

M.

t»4*» rf»-

«-*>* »-*>*

«*~>

A.. Ph. D., Principal Jamia, Delhi

* u> Jia -

3

ti***

o

1

A

- J*)*> V^*-*

The Idea of Love

^

-juu

^^

ufr ,

:

V^

^l—

in the Philosophy of Al -Ghazzali:

uu^i juji jis-

Uji

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— uj* j'i* j** «* J* «^-! «* Wt~ *«**

ISOME

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF

j

IMAM GHAZZAL1 S THOUGHT

W^

OPINIONS Dr. aity,

De Lacy O'Leary,

England

my

for the copy of your essay on the of

Ira^tn Ghazzali's Religions

very sincere thanks

"Psychological Basis

Philosopy" whioh

read with the greatest interest and

I

have

whioh I regard as

serious contribution to the study of one of the greatest

Mus-

lim philosophers.

Your

subject

is

I can find no criticism

make.

farther studies

....

It will,

I shall be

you would be kind enough to put me touch with any other studies you may publish on tliin

deeply grateful in

to

very convincingly and lucidly set forth.

I hope, be followed by

*

D.D., Bristol Univer

"Please accept

:

*

if

or kindred topics.

1

'

Prof Dr. F. Krenkow, PhD, Cambridge, England : "Pray aeoept my sincere thanks for your .

article on the ''Psychological Basis of the

Religious Philoeophy" which I have interest

nnd

You have

delight

reafl

Imam GhazzaH't with the greatest

euoeeeded

in giving a

upon tbe utterances in pursue ynur researches

lucid exposition based principally bie

"Ihya" and I hope you

will

into other works and give us similar expositions

"I congratulate you upen the first work of yours I have seen and I should very much like if you could give a similar clear account of the Philosophy of Farabi, beoauee the texts and the translations (into German) by DietorieHsi

leave very

much

Hyderabad editions

to

be desired and T found the

to be textually

better."

IV

"W'lh from you

Prof.

Head

kindest

legardB and in the

Mohammad

M A.

Shafi,

(CantaM,

of the Arabic Department, University of

the Punjab

:

Thanks

reprint

for the

phy "

I

have read

with the greatest

views

the

st'itad

it

lm»m

of the

manner, putting them in Modern

b

article-

Philoso-

You

interest.

in a very successful

scientific

language easily

I congratulate

of Psychology.

student

intelligible to the

your

of

Imam Ghazzali

on the "Psychological Basis of

fawn

hope of hearing

again*'.

you on the performance.

Wah;d Mirza, M.A., PhD., Reader and Head of the Arabic Department and Oriental. Studies, LucUnow University "I was Dr.

:

"The Psychological Basis

of

Philosophy" a few days ago.

I

glad to net excellent tr»ct, Ghftzz-ili's

Religion?

raid through its

it

was

interest and

with keen

lucid style <'nd good arrangement.

I

am

pure you have

and

succeeded very well in interpreting correctly

rather baffling theories of

hope

this small

of

not only

Philosophy in general.

work and follow

the

My

many more

clearly the

great scholar.

that;

work would form

and deeper study

struck by

Let

the nucleus for a wider

Ghazzali but

of

Islamic

warmest wishes for that

us

I

am

oonfident

this will

it.'

Dr. Sir LL-D., «t> much

Mohammad

ffjar-at

Iqbal,

Law, Lahore

(or the booklet

Kt M. A., PH.D ,

(India)

:

you have sent me.

interesting account of Ghazzali's Ethical

,

"Thank you It

is

teaching.

a very It

is-

thao

ferae

thought and, Efchios

man

neede a discipline

well as colfectivoly— in his interests of the

grenp

owe

— individally

interest aa

well

in

as the

which he belongs he should not

to

question the authority cf this discipline. is

oi

Experience, however, shows

and of Metaphysics.

that the average

build systems

driven tc

therefore,

ie,

oohereut universe of

needs a

thinner

the

This I think

the secret of Islam &b a people-bnilding force

"Your

thesis

work

further reeearoh

"

Pavers en

Both nre

I

inspiring.

is

same

in the

Ghmznh end

do hope you will do field."

Shakabuddtn Maqtul.

chapters in the History of Muslim

interesting as

Thought."

Professor

R

A. Nicholson, Cambridge.

You have analysts which shall subject.

I

have read

be it

given « clear und well arranged useful

as

an introduction

to the

with pleasure and interest."

Professor Dr. 5to-ey,

Professor

Arabic

of

Cambridge. "

air

problem

of

exposition of aUGhazzali's views

the Freedom

'

f

tun

will

on the

and Buhrawardi

Maqtul's philosouhioai position acoording to the works nl his

youth.

[

am

very glad

'to

see

studies cf

this

kind

emanating from Aligarlu"

Dr.

Zakir Husain, Jamia, Delhi •

V».A,

PhD.,

Principal

— VI

^

**-J c*>! u*J

The Idea

of

Love

in

W oyUU

the

^3 ^

Philosophy

of

i.

v

»

Al-Gbazzali

:

CONTENTS*7'^' Opinieie

...

Ill

Introduction

...

IX

I.

AI-GhazzaH with Special Beferenoe to His Inner Deyclopment

II.

Payhologioal

BaBis

The Belatlon lity

of

svetem

of

An Exposition on

the

of

Approach

AI-Ghazzali'g

mate

43

Freedom

of Will

V.

...

AUGhazzali'a Views

ot

Problem

the

18

Al-

Ghaszali IV.

...

Knowledge and Mora* Ethical

the

in

I

ANGhazzali's

of

Religions Philosophy rif.

...

with

Beallty

to

the

ipeeial

...

53

...

78

ulti-

Befe-

rsnee to the Belatlon cf Thought 'and Intuition in Hit and Iqbal'i systems

VI.

Idea of Lore

in the

Philosophy of Al-

Gbazzeli VII.

VIII.

Al-Gheazeli on the Vlslor or God

io7

...

199

Appendix I—AI-GhazzaJi en Chi Id Education

IX.

...

Appendix

II

— Suhrawerdl

...

Maqtul'A

138

philo-

sophical position lAeeordlng to

(Tn

works of Sis Youth. collaboration with Prothe

fessor Dr. Spies, Professor of Arabio, Aligarfa

UniTersity)

Muslim ...

130

X.

Appendix III— fleview

"The Doc-

of

trines of Snfl'a."

(Kitab

fi

Madhhib Ahl

al-tasawwuf).

Translated

al-Taarruf

from the Arabio of Abu fiakr

al'EaUbadhi

by

A. J. Arberry.

XI. Appendix IV

—Muslim

Philosophy

scope and meaning

:

...

17ft

.*.

178

Its

Kr

t

INTRODUCTION The

book

hand

in

comprises

of

Dumber

a

researoh papers read before different seaaiona All India Philoeopbical

sooieties

and published

They

country.

have

conoeived eoheme, each

Congress and in

well

been

of

She

other learned

in

known jourcaiB written

of

of

the

under a we II-

paper forming ore n:&jcr

idea

constituting the whole; the apparent independence of the

chapterB

is

only superficial and arbitrary,

being occasioned by

necessity

duratiou of time taken to

the long

coyer the entire thesis

its

book and the acidemia

of the

engagements of the writer. This Email work, Vie ?

most

however, undertakes

and baaio problem

nrper.l

Tnblenc nf the plyeical, meutel and

and Iimitaticce licn of

human

spiritual

life,

the

capacities

man, on the r^gbt or wrots evalua-

which hangB the entire fabric

of atrial

organisa-

and on the proper understanding of whi&b depends

tion, ;.ne

of

of

to discuss

moral Health and happiness of humanity. This theme hae been the object of asriou* thinking

and deep

human

tucufchs,

ea&enttal lor by stem.

to

with

speculation for

a

the

believes

that

great ladders

.ieoiEtou

on

ii

is

of

but

work an attempt has been made

viewpoint of

Oha?ieali has examined intelligently

dear

the

any one who Hies to build a philosophical

In the present

present

all

and

man

Qazzali on the subject.

the whole field

readied

a

resolutely

definite conclusion.

hae been fully endowed with

all

and

He the

pswera and virtues necessary

him to tbe

to lead

But more

tion of tbe self and to the ultimate reality.

come

these powers

than not

-often

perfec-

Into conflict with

eaoh "other and a struggle ensues between the lower faoulty and the higher faoulty, that

and

the level of

i)r

world

oareer in

his

man

thia

By

hereafter.

of angels.

to the status of

to

the triumph of the higher

brute, while

the

raiseB

mars

man down

the lower faculty brings

of

him high doing and undoing

faculty *the

on one hand and reason on the other.

self-assertion

The success

between appetitlon

is.

whioh makes

himself

world as well as

nature he

It is

in

the

not handicapped

is

but helped and equipped to arrive at the goal for whioh

he

destined.

is

Another funotion

af this

little

contribution

is

to

remove some very important objections, often raised against

the

writings

philosophical

Ghazzali,

of

chiefly those

brought against him by the lake Dr. Sir

Mohammad

Iqbal.

He

has declared that Ghazzali was

thought and intuition are

ignorant of the fact that organ ioally related, that

imposed upon intuition

it

by

own

its

rejuvenate

tbe

each

finitude of

other,

that

Intuition

all;

Ghazzali, in

faet,

is

The following

will sufficiently reveal that these objections

hold at

is

nature, that thought and

only a higher form of intellect, etc.

pages

thought

do not

holds the very views of

the ignorance of whioh he has been

eharged.

Further,

Dr. Iqbal sere that Ghazzali was unaware of the dynamio nature and internal infinitude of thought. But the faet Is that Ghazzali was not unaware, he did say that thought is free and dynamic and It can

S

approach tht

m

I

be however differed

internally;

infinite

and escorted that

the conception of the approaoh

thought

ii

heart

tha

capable of raaohiog the

un.Qodly and

pnrgad

of

all

thai

ia

with tha longing for tha ultimate

ia filled

Moreover, ha said that thought ean vieueliee

reality,

only

oomplataly

is

provided

infinite,

the

eymbolio

repreaantation of

tha

infinite,

a

representation ia terms of aisoeiated ideaa; a physieal

lew,

in hie opinion, is impossible.

Also, with

due regard to tha seope and the pbysloal'

limitation of the book,

hart tried to eat forth the real

of Ghaaaali as a great

position

was the Mnjaddid shelter the hold

of

his

of alien

Greek, from

larly

I

Ialamie thinker.

He

Hit miasion waa to

ags.

thought and culture, pertiou-

the minds

of

tha

Muslims.

He

subjected to a severe test the existing stats and systems

and pointed out their ioooniiatencies and eontredicfiioas,

and presented Islam

and native

In its

real glory

SuGm

aa the only tolerable

"lam our. Id tha and ha accepted

form corresponding to real Islam. But he purged in

aufienii

theory end praotioe both, of the un-Islaroto elemente,

and

effeoted a

famous ooropromiee between the forma*

who adhered to the letter of the law, and the eaoterioa, who smphaflineo the meaning cf the (aw. Hate,

He

achieved a great triumph in freeing Islam from

the foreign encrustations

His own interpretation waa

bo impressive and logical, so spirit

of

muoh

In

keeping with the

Islam that be not only dominated his own

times as an overtowering personality , bot

left

a formi-

Xll

dable and moat shining mark on the succeeding generatioDB;

and

it

would be no exaggeration to lay that after

him there has not appeared another geniuB who has bo

muoh

and

influenced

shaped

thinking and the daily oode of

the course

life of

of

Islamic

a MuBlim.

worth while to point out that many of the miaunderBtandinge and fallaoiee about Ghazzali have been ooeaaioned by the fact that his philoBophieal system is not wholly laid down in cne In the end

single

work

will be

it

it

is

aoattered

thousands ol pages,

in

olothed in aneodotes, aayinga, stories, aphorism, aimiliee,

metaphors and- allegories. has been a perpetual source

This method of error

treatment

of

and wrong calcula-

tion with the studentB of Ghazzali-

Bran

in the preparation

nty

it

own

to

book I hate taken

and

collecting the necessary material

great pains in putting

of this

my

advantage.

precedent

created problems of

My

In doing so I have followed

proeedure

my own

ia

simple

t

I

have

and tried to disooTer their

Bojptipos in the apeonlalions and writings of Ghazzali.

P«W

for

me

It

haa been a searching and researching

from beginning to end* and the onus

of constructing the

phases of Ghazzall'a philoaopbioal system hea fallen on any

own bumble

afaouldtri.

M. Muslim UalTjWiity, Aligwh.

UMABUDDIM

<jM»#e 'ttffi&c ALGHAZZALI WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO HIS INNER DEVELOPMENT I

Education and Oarear

Al-GhazZALI

ia

one of the greatest personalities in

Islam, and ranks with the greatest thinkers of the world.

Ha was phers.

the most original

mind amongst Muslim philosoHe was, according to MaeDonald, "the greatest,

certain ly the

moat sympathetic figure

in the

history of

Islam," and '^bhe equal of Augustine in philosophical and theolpgioal importance."

There have been many

cob scholars io Islam and

other

pecnliarity of Ghazzali is that his inti mately

oonnected t hat

it is

life

teligi-

religions; but

and work are bo

difficu l t

to ecparajta Jdbg;

''Everytbipg^that he thought and wrote,

two.

the

ejajna

with the weight and reality of personal experience."

study of his inner development

and value

to thinkers

this brief sketch

davetopment

it is

is,

therefore*

c*f

A

interest

and religious devotees alike.

In

propqaed to describe bis internal

in his pursnifc,«f troth.

Fortunately, ANGhAazali has himself feveeJed bit

mind •

*

in

a book

"Bettversr

h qm

wiled al>J£unq*ih

Error"

aososart of bis ipitltual

— which

nin ad.Dalal~-

an Mtottogff»E&iflsV* development It is a book of is

—

philosophical confessions and an account of hiB voyage

through the different philosophical systems of his time. It

has been oompared with the Confessions of

Augus-

St,

and with Newman's Qrammer of Assent in intellectual subtleties ; and with Banyan's Grace Abounding in tine

its

This

puritanical Ben Be.

greatest genuine

of the

bock, in short,

little

ooufessioDa of

a'

one

is

Becker after

truth.

Abu Hamid Muhammad Hujjat»ul-Islam,

i.e.,

Tub

1058 A.D. at

"the Proof

in

tome time with a pious

of

Islam," waB born in

Having studied

Khurasan. Sufi,

Burnamed

Al-Ghazzali,

and at a sohool

for

in his native

town, he went to Jurjan to study with Abu Nasr alIamaili.

Ue

then went to Naishabur to study with the

well-known divine lmam*ul-Haramain, whc taught at the Nizamlyyah Academy there- He soon became the most distinguished of his. pupils and was called by him

ocean of learning,"

1

and was chosen ab assistant to tbe

Imam, with whom he remained 1085 AiD.

"an

HIb studies were

till

vast;

the latter's death in

and wide, comprising

theology, fiqh, soiencea, philosophy, dialectics, logic and

Even during the

the doctrines of the Sufis.

life-

time of

Zmam-uUHaramain, Al
after the death of his

Naishabur at tbe age

among '

When

of

teacher, he

28 years, he had no equal

the learned In the Muslim

He went

world.

to

the court of !he great patron of learning, the famous

IHzamul-Mulk Tusi, who appointed him (be president ..,.'-.

—

T

s

Ml^tH*"*

*v

for

J***

*'*•

"A

plenteous ocean."'

f

'

"

»

——

ifr

-,*'

i

i

,-

of X

3 the Nlsamiyyah Academy, the most coveted of all honours learned

is the

world and an honour which had not

before been conferred on any one else at so early an

At this point when AI-Ghazzali

age.

that a scholar could aspire to in the

had attained

all

matter of worldly

BUooesB— when he had beoome famous as a scholar and wielded an influence equal to that of the highest

oflioial of

the Government, his advice being sought on both religious

and

and his position thoroughly estab-

political matters*

lished—a great change took plaoe

in him.

He became

a

prey to spiritual unrest so much so that his health failed

:

he lost

word.

appetite,

all

and oould hardly utter a

HiB physicians despaired, deolaring that his trou-

ble

was mental. At

up

all his fortune.

he

last

left

Baghdad

for Syria, giving

While at Damascus he performed

religious exercises

for days and

days

continuously!

though not altogether giving up his literary

One day

activities.

Al-Ghazzali, hearing a professor at an aoademy

eaylng in the course of hit lecture, "Al-Gbazzali says so

and so," and fearing

lest

his vanity be flattered, fled

from Damascus, and reaohed Jerusalem, where be shut himself up in the Dome of the Book, and underwent mbtit rigorous religious exercises.

From Damascus he

west on pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, where he stayed for a long time. During these travels he took three vows •f a king

;

first,

;

that

lecerid, that

from a king

;

he would «ever viBit the court

he would never accept any help

third, that he

would never take part in

dfiputaiiona {munat ara). After wandering in

search of truth for about ten

"

to

years, Al-Ghazzali returned

his

home and devoted

himself to leaching and religions exercises.' But, looking around, when he found that philosophy had taken hold of

men's minds, and that the spread of -irreligious doc-

trines and the

increasing religious

indifference of the

masses had shaken the very foundations of religion, he was filled with profound grief and immediately made up whole his mind to stem the tide of this evtf with the

and learning.

foroe of his personality

When

he was

thinking of coming out of his retreat, he was requested

Nizamiyjah Academy teaching at the Academy for

io aocept the presidentship at Naiihabur.

some time

After

of the

he, however, retired

to

Hub.

A

request by

the people the Caliph at the instance of the learned and implering him to of Baghdad was sent to AI-Ghazzali,

Academy at take over the charge of the Nizamiyyab Baghdad once more, but he ohope to remain at Tus, both wheie he founded a madrasah at which he taught fiqh and mystio lore

lill

his death in

UU

A.D.

II

His Times In

order to fully

significance of the of Al.Ghft«saIi, .

it

appreciate and

work and iB

understand the

the internal

desirable

to have

ievelopmtnfc

a rapid glance

eondltions of the age over the intellectual and religious much as the teachings of the In which he lived. In as the imporQuran and the Prophet laid a special etwee on

from the earliest tieftee tance of knowledge, the Muslims knowledge wMjjftf regarded it as their duty to seek '

5

they went in course of bbeir oonquests. ^i«»^ **"

«iUj<3

who

of you

IjU

JUJja? j( yiJJlj ^5jU

and those

believe

given ,' says

^

Quran

the

to

''Qod elevates those

whom knowledge is ***y ^M wJls

j J*»* cP "To seek knowledge every Muelim, male and female"; j**} v\*l"»«

ie

^

Jlx

s»y

than the So'

"The loss

loss of a a

of

when the Muslims,

out from

Arabia

into

which were seats

•

made

whole tribe

scholar,''

of

the study of the

said

(TJ^

is

the

a duty fee

vl^jj tf^y*J

easier

bear

to

Holy Prophet.

iirbued with these ideas,

came

Syria, Egypt, Traq, and Persia,

culture

from ancient times, they

sciences and arts of the peoples

of those countries their special concern.

In Persia the Muslims oame in contact with ZoroasIrian dualism of

Ormuzd and Ahriman,

».«.,

Light and

Darkness, and with the Greek Philosophy as interpreted settlers in Persia; in Syria with toy the Christian Christian and Jewish religions and mysticisms and Greek

Philosophy as

interpreted

and the Jews

in

e*r> Platan ism

number

;

;

by the Syrian Christians

Egypt wltb Egyptian lore and with

while in Iraq they found the

of creeds

home

of a

and religions*

The influence of those cultures, however, was nol afgpteoiabiy felt by Islam till the slse of the Abbasides. It Was especially In the reign ©I Al-Mamun and under fit*

patronage thai the Syriao versions of Greek phllote-

thy were

.

translated into Arable.

The Muslims

applied

themselves, whole-heartedly to the study of Greek pbile*

eophy

whieh by

tM Jar dominated

their

outloek

;

tod

6 ultimately

they looked upon the dootrines of Aristotle-

and Plato as unquestionable.

Hence they believed that this philosophy and the Quran, whose truth was also unquestionable, must be compatible with one another. They argued like this : The Qaran is truth, and Philosophy the of .

is

but truth can

truth,

only be one

;

therefore,

Quran and Philosophy must agree. As a result the a&empi to solve religious problem! by reason,

various rationalistic

schools

thought came into

of

existence, in almost all of which the influence

philosophy can dearly be traced.

was

to

disintegrate

The

Greek

of

result of all this

the solidarity of Islamic culture.

Naturally the theologians of Islam viewed, this .state of affairs selves

with

great oonoern, and bethought

them-

of defending religion— thus arose the school

of

made no organized effort to do. so till the time of Al-'Ashari who founded a new school of IJm-ul-Kalam (Theology). The attempts which were made to defend religion did not, however, prove the

Mu'tasilites, but they

very effective

;

and philsosophy

over people's minds,

till

still

held a great

sway

the advent of Ghazzali III

Inner Development In

this

inside of the

conneettoa I wish to point out

man was

how

th*

influenced by the outward dreams*

I» other words, how the yearnings of the soul of Ghaseati, strengthened or modified by the inflttenoe at

tattoos.

other meet and tb*- requirements of hit age, tended

approach the goal whieb we find realised da

hiui.

«e»

Bete**

ijhp the

put,

point

unquenchable thiret for tnigbt

Ghazzalr »Ir

this:

ig

knowledge.

-'-'to

Mo WW

innate. an innate,

Left

alone,

he

have become only a gieat philosopher or a great

But he became a great divine and a mystic

scientist.

beoauqe of the early influences of the surroundings in

which be was brought up, and the crying spiritual need of

humanity

which he

in

lived. •

Now

Ghftzzali's

own

father was, to quote the

who did not eat He very often

a" Arab historian, 'a pious dervish but what he earned with his own hand. of

Uw

visited thoBfl verged in religious

was found

their BermoDS, he

a foqih."

same historian, "she prayer became the most learned (he people of his age." i*f

hie father

mind his

father

whom waB

example mast

and

1

of his father

and AKGhazzali

and the imam of Naturally the life and teeete of all faqihs,

influence

on

Then, as mentioned above, the LI-

Sufi,'

1

whose

have impressed his

the first

was entrusted by

early eduoatlon

pious

'a

uneonbiously.

believe, that

to-

"God granted," adds the

must have exerted an

?f the ohild.

teacher to

listened

wept and prayed to God to grant him

who would be

a sod

(mutafaqqihun) and

Whenever he

oompany.

id their

words

teaohings and

mind consciously

These early influence*

it

was, I

brought Ghazzali round to Sufism, when h»

failed tc find truth

anywhere

else.

Again,

we

find

that-

Abu Nacr XeutaiH Jnrjen, and Imam-uUHaramato, were not oatjr

other teachers of AI-GbazzaU, such as of

men !

1

of learning but also

I

A|^Sit1>kf.

S.

men

of .great piety.

Ibid.

W*

muev*

8 also particularly mention here the

whom

with

was a great ments

Qhazzali oame in eloae

From him

Sufi.

now

"The

earnestness for truth.

nature

with an intense

knowledge," he

thirst for

early age

second nature implanted by God.''

a

^£ju*had I emerged from boyhood than

;

it

was

"No sooner

I had already broken

the fetters, of tradition and freed myself from hereditary beliefs

,

ele-

and

inquisitive

filled

me from an

'was innate in

writes,

*'

and who

contact

follow the inner development of Ghazzali

from the very beginning, and

restleBG

t^ux)'

Al-Farmadi,

Ghazzali learned the

ANGhazzali was by

closely.

1

of

of Sufism.

Let us

like

name

''

That

very early he broke away from Taqlid

is,

or simple acceptance of religious truths en hearsay; and

he began to investigate theological problems before he

was twenty. From tho very first "the diversity in beliefs and religions, and the variety of dootrines and Boots which divide men" attraoted his attention, "wnioh," he adds, "are like a deep .

each

.

.

truth and

sect, believing

of

twentieth

have *

plunged lessly

year,

my

passed

its

jHI*3*

have penetrated

,vy*(3r

ajuuuea*,

i

thai; is to

to

fiftieth,

myself into

soundei

strewn with shipwrecks possession of the

in

itself

salvation." SayB Ghazzali,

period of adolescence,

my

ocean

its

time

present

have

this vast

depths, and,

the

say, previous to reaching

the I

"From

like

I

ard again

again

ocean;

when

I have

fear-

a resolute diver I

darkness and dared

its

dangers and

I have interrogated the beliefs of each seat and

scrutinised the mysteries of each doctrine, in

order to

disentangle truth from error."

"Struck with contradictions which I enoountffref

—

in endeavouring

hood

disentangle the truth and the false*

to

of these opinions,

reflection

The search

:

was

I

led So

trnth

after

make the

I

oil r

wing

being the aim which

I propcse to myself, I ought in the Bret plaee to ascertain

what are the foundations J

recognised that certitude

knowledge

nf things,

ur

of ce rtitude. In the next place,'

the clear and

is

complete

such knowledge as leaves no room

for doubt, nor possibility of error."

Tbt diversity plexed

of seotB

M-Ghazzali

wanted to

and doctrines therefore pei«

he wanted

;

to

find

certitude,

he

He

knowledge-

examined the Eum-total of obe kuowledge that he possessed and fouad that none find

and rational

of it oouid s-ftiiJ the test. Sense-perceptiona

principles find trnsh,"

are all that

says be,"

their evidence

in

is

" We cannot hope to

certain.

except

matters, which carry

in

themselves

i.e.,

in sense-perceptions

"We

must,''

he proceeds, "therefore establish these on a firm

basis,"

and iuialhble and neoessary

He

principles.''

then sets himself earnestly

sense.

The result

to

of a careful

was," says GhiKzali, "that

my

u^^^.

esemine the data of

examination, however. confidence in them

was

shaken." These data "are subsequently contradicted and oonvioted of falsity in verdict

of

reason."

an irrefrag ahte manner by the <-*-*-™

He

then

turns to what he called *** '**?

'*Beeessary principles-" "81noeT cannot trust," he argues,

u the evidence

of

my

senses, I

must rely on

intellectual

notions based on fundamental principles, such as *ten Is more than three/ 'affirmation and negation cannot oj>e*ist/ etc' But hip doubt of sense-neroentions puts to doubt as to the Infallibility of reason loo.

him

Who oouid

'*

.

10 guarantiee

that)

more than

to

he

could trust to the evidence of reason

testimony of the senses verdiob of reason. "Well.

would oonviot reason arbiter

not yet apparent,

is

does not

says Ghazzali,

of false

exist.'

in the

believed

was oontradioied by the

it

another judge who,

above reason

is

till 1

He

senses ?

the

that of

And

hood.

does

it

'perhaps there

be appeared,

if

if

suoh a third

not follow

that)

he

1

Al-Ghizz&li could not find a

and hid experience it

the more.

of the

"While

asleep,

be indisputably real. for

what they are

way out of this doubt, phenomenon of dream deepened you assume your dreams to

Once awake, you recognise them

— baseless chimeras.

Who

can

aqeure

you, then, of the reliability of the notions, which, when

awake, you derive from the senses and from reason ? relation to

your present state they may appear

not possible that you

is it

whieh

will bear the

may

enter upon

that

new Bphere you

of reason

that state

but

real

another state

same relation to your present

as the latter does to your condition

when

may be death

itself;

the Sufis call ecstasy (Jl»)

,

or

it

In

conclusion*

Al-Ghaztsali

may

state

asleep ?

will recognise that the

are only chimeras."

In

suggest*

be the state whiob

when "absorbad

ia

them-

selves witb sense-perception suspended, they have vision*,

beyond the reaoh of

intellect."

These were not mere

^earnest and

$

fell

idle

serious mjfgivings^

reflections,

Doting

this period,

were

A I Gh»znaK aotually

into a state of utter doubt, whioh

1*0 month*.

fchev

lasted

for

about

he was, to quote hit

11

own words, "a thoroughgoing It

deemed as

the ground

if

name.

sceptic" in all bub

had been out from under

his feet.

Now when

AUGhazzali seems

abyss, with uo reflection or

certitude,

argument, or

at

no knowledge,

it

U

concatenation

60 a

his his

aa he bays, "to the light which

heart"

God

exp-3rieuoe and stops at

of proofs

caused to enter

Descartes started with doubt,

disbelieving

the knowledge gained

senses, distrusting

not to

He owed

and arguments that he owed his deliverance. it,

an

the edge of

through

Thought, finding certainty in the

proposition "Cogito, ergo sum,"

which proposition he

makes

system of philosophy.

She

basis

of

hie

whole

Al-Qhazzali, too, passed through

all

the stages of doubt,

doubting everything, a iscarding

all

authority, disbelie-

But he went further than

ving his senses.

and seriously doubted also knowledge.

He

Thought as an organ of

finds oertainty only in the will-to-believe»

inspired by Divine Will,

ergo sum.''

Descartes-,

i.e.,

in

the proposition

Another Interesting

between these two great thinkers

is

point

'

Volo,

of differacoo*

that while Dencarte»\

holds that philosophy ought to explain religion, prove existence of God,

reason

etc.,

and finds

fcha

Al-Ghaezali, like Kant, disbelieve*-

incompetent to explain religious,

it

truth*.

Al-Qhazzali

tells

us that when he emerged from

state of doubt through the Divine light

hiart, and as the result of which his

fchia

which entered

mind recovered

"is*

itt

•amity and equilibrium, he resumed the primary aesump* tiotta of

reason with

all bhelr

stringency and force and?

12

who were

started a study of the beliefs of those

ged

in the

search for tiuth.

enga-

Tbeee be divides into three

main groups: — (1).

Soholastio theologians,

(2).

Philoeophers, and

(3).

Sufis.

"The truth," be "three

classes ifc.

one by one.

"must be found within these

men who devote

of

:

search for

sayg,

themselves to the

He, therefore, thoroughly studies them

'

First he devotes

himself to the Btudy of

the doctrines of Boholaetic theologians, satisfy

him

could argue

Now to

it,

he takes up philosophy and devotes three years

and the third •oonolusicns.

in

The

first

two

in

studying different systems,

thinking them

out and arriving at

results of this study

and

reflection

a remarkable book which he named

ul'Falasifa,

i.e.,

"Befutation

Philosophers."

of

him

to write

it.

It

was

to

whioh Greek philosophy had over

In its

which

shatter the hold

the

minds

of

people aud to bring them back to the fold of Islam. there had arisen thinkers

who had discarded

observances for the simple reason

he

Tdhafut*

preface, Al-Ghazzali himself describes the motive

actuated

to

deny them, and they are nowhere.

;

spending the

gives in

fail

grant them tbeir premises and they

for,

;

but they

all

the

For

religious

that the wise

Greek

philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle did not

follow them.

In the Tahafvi ANGhazzali summarises

Greek philosophy, reducing epd refutes them one by one.

it

to

twenty propositions,

He demonstrates

that tht

13

Greek philosophers cannot prove any as that

Qod

exists or that

world has any creator says MacDonald, thigh

;

ha has turned, as

is

the

snob

theses

even that the

one, or

In

all.

"smitten

own weapons

their

at

He

of the

Al-Ghazzali has,

it

philosophers

in earlier times

and

hip

did Al-Aehari,

against them' and had shown

that

with their premises and methods no certainty oould be In that book he goes to the extreme of intel-

reached.

lectual soepticism, and seven

hundred years before

Home

he oats the bond of oausality with the edge of his dialectic and proclaims that we can know nothing of cause or but simply that one thing follows another''.

effect

know,"

says

AI-Ghazzali,

''only

never the causally connected. the will of God, which

ordains

nothing but

ia

that two things thould

Laws

of nature

never

they are only the expressions of a habitual fact/'

exist,

"Home," writes Benau, 1

than

"We

simultaneous,

Oausality

ordinarly follow one another.

..

the

that.

arguments anticipates

In pointing

'

of

"never said

anything more

ont the contradiction* in the

the philosophers, al*Ghazzali

Kant and shows

definitely

that reason cannot find the

ultimate solution of metaphysical problems.

Than wo

see

that

philosophers

fail

tc

lead

him

was

to fcrush.

both

satisfy

scholastic

theologians and

nl-Ghazzali.

He, therefore, turns

characteristic of al*Ghazzali

They cannot to

that

subject he directed his attention, he studied

o as

to master

it

fully.

Sufis,

to it

Accordingly, be

with a thorough study of the works of

Suusxn.

It

whatever thoroughly

now

began-

the omineak and soon acquired a thorough mattery of the all

14 His conclusion was that the

subject.

seekers after truth.

But since the basis

experience and not knowledge, truth, life

must himself be

yoke

of passion b

was

and purge

and

inclinations in order that

from

God

get

to

their

live

Al-Gazzali oonoluded the

to free

it

Suflsm was

of

initiated as a Sufi

Sjifi

were the true

order to

in

he,

and perform their practices,

that the aim of the

Sufis

all

soul

from the

animal and wrong

himself might live

In

his

purified soul.

He must

therefore saorifioe honours and

riches and

sever all worldly relations- This was the result of his en-

quiry into Sufi em. But what about initiation into that life?

Eor a long while he was torn asunder by the opposite forces of earthly, passions and religious yearnings. He searched his heart. of

my work

"I probed," he says, "tbe motives

as teacher, and found that, in place of being

sinoerely conseorated to God,

ain

desire for

was only actuated by a

it

Honour and fame.

I perceived that I

am immediateeternal fire." "And

on the edge of an abyss, and that unless ly converted I should be

doomed

to

yet undecided, one day I decided to

I

leave

Baghdad and

to give

up everything, the next day I gave up

tion. I

advanoed one step, and no sooner I had taken

I relapsed.

In the morninp

1

this resolu-

life

;

in the

evening

a crowd of earthly thoughts absailed and dispersed

me

bound

to

On the my post

one- Bide tbe in the

nearibg

its

my

worldly desires kept

chains of oovetousneBs, on

the other, the voice of religion cried to me, life is

it,

was sinoerely resolved

only to occupy .myself with the future

resolutions.

was

'Up, up, thy

end and thou hast a long journey to

15

Now my

make.' all

and

to flee

attack, said,

don't give it, if

wag

resolve

firm, I wished to

'You are suffering from to

you give "up

for

it,

wilt

it

this fine position, this

from attack, you

able to recover

at the

will regret

my

of

family

ties

Baghdad.

honourable post, seat of authority

this

later

it

without being

my weakness

soul, I took refuge in

God

end 0/ himself and without resources.

when they cry

hearts the forlorn

bear me.'

the

you obey

If

Finally, conscious cf

it,'

and the prostration

man who

to

a transitory feeling,

soon pass.

exempt from trouble and rivalry, safe

up

and then the Tempter, returning

;

way

give

He made He

'He

for help deigned to

the sacrifice of honours, wealth

easy to spent

me." ten

At

as a

last

al-Ghazzali

and left

years roaming in Syria, the

Hedjaz and Egypt, visiting" "holy shrines and mosques, wandering into deserts, undergoing religious discipline

and performing

religious ezerolsep."

of meditation there

were shown

abstains from mentioning.

mined with the

light

this period

him things which he

However he came

for oortarn that the Sufie alone

in the path of God.

to

During

to

know

wore the trne pilgrims

They were the illumined,

—

illu-

which proceeds from the oentral

radiance of Divine inspiration. It

was

magnum

also during

this

period

opus, the Ihya-ul-Ulum, the

that he wrote his

"Revival of Hell,

gtous Sciences," about whiou |he verdict of

world was

thai) if all

the

Muslim

the books on iBlnm were destroyed,

would be but a slight loss provided a! Ghszaali's Ay* was preserved. About it a Europe m writer makes the"* following remarks: "This work, probably* owing to It

— 16 originality,

was never translated

during

into Latin

the-

Middle Agea and remained a closed book to all but Arabian scholars. It bears so remarkable a resemblance to the Discourse on

translation of

it

Method

Descartes that, had any

of

existed in the days of Descartes,

every-

one would have cried out against the plagiar ism." After these wanderings al-Gbazzali

returned to hie

native town Tub, having at last succeeded

that inner

He

long.

"There

is

satisfaction

in

obtaining

which he had been seeking so

himself describes his search after truth thus

no philosopher

whose

By stem

I

i

have not

fathomed, nor a theologian, the intricacies of whose

8u6sm has no Beorets Tbe devout worship-

dootrine 1 have tot disentangled. into whioh 1 have not penetrated.

per of the Deity has revealed to tiee

me

me the aim

of his auBteri-

and ihe atheist has not been able

to

And

the

;

the grounds of bis unbelief.''

search he sums up in

whioh sed in

I

words

conceal

trom

result of this

"The searches 'to had devoted myself, the path which I had traverthese

studying religiouB and

knowledge, had given

me

:

speculative branohes

a firm faith

in

three things

God, Bevelation, and the Last Judgment. fundamental articles of

of

These three

were confirmed in me, not

belief

merely by definite arguments, but by a chain of causes, circumstances,

and proofs

which

if" is

impossible to '

recount."

The death'ficone of al-Ghazssali, as described by his brother Ahmad, is worth recording in this brief sketch (or

Its

calm serenity whioh

is

in

great contrast to

the

—

17

lumulba oi the soul through which he had pissed.

Monday

"On

dawn," gays Liia brother, "my brother performed the ablations and said his prayers. Then he at

said unto me,

'Bring

me my

ahem and kissed them and said,

'I

Master.'

gone to

laid

grave-clothee.'

He took

them on his eyes and

command to go unto the And he ttretohed out his feet and was gone meet Him, being taken op by the graoe of the hear and obey the

Most High.

'

Speaking of Al'Ghazzali a German

"This man was

if

poholar write?,

»ny one baa ever deserved the name,

truly a divine, and he

may

be justly

on a

placed

level

With Origen. 'So remarkable was he and gifted with aaoh a rare faculty for the skilful and worthy exposition

From every a on roe be sought

of the revealed dootirine.

the

means

of

shedding light and hjoohr upon religion

;

while his sincere piety and lofty conscientiousness imparted to

all

bis writings

a sacred majesty:

1

'

1

"Mam,"

writes MaoDonald in his book on Muslim Theology, "has

never outgrown him. has never fully understood him. Tn the renaissance which will

oome and the new

Study of bia work." 1.

Tholuok.

is

life

now

rising to view, his time

will proceed'

from a renewed

-

g

PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF AL-GHAZZALl'S RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY No

sound ethical system

is

without firm

possible

psychological foundations. Thales and Sncrates amongst the ancients realised that a knowledge of man's complete

nature should precede the formulation

any rules

of

of

conduct for him, but they did not work out an ethioal

Systems of morality

system.

the Epicureans failsd beCaiiEO

human psychology

tive

.

essentially a rational being

nature

in

him

;

like those of the Stoios

and

they were based on defec-

Stoics

assumed that man was

and had nobhiug

animal

ol the

while the Epicureacs failed because they

took only his animal nature into consideration and ignored that he was also a rational being. cal

Hedonism wanted

.but

to base its system of

analysis

the cjmplete

of

morality on

the aotual nature

man

of

7

mistook hie animal niture for his actuil self, igno-

it

ring that both facts ami idoals go to

took

Psychologi-

facts into

constitute

oonsHe ration, bui regarded thn

which distinguish him from animata as mere

It

it.

ideals

illusions.

Hedonism recognised both facts and ideals, but That is failed because its psychology was wrong.

Ethical it

why,

'

know

thyself, has been the ory of

pher amODgst the ancients as

well

many a

ae

philoso-

amongst the

The Holy Prophet tco enunciated the lama truth when he said, *tj vi*^c J*$ **Ji> vjj& ^j e

moderns

—

l

who knows One apnorality

of

his Self,

the

knows

his Lord.'

greatest attempts ever

made

to

bat*

on a complete understanding of the Self^ 00 a

—

19 thoroughgoing analysis

We

Gbazzali.

human nature, was that how he baa? a the knowledge

cf

shall see

of

of

the Ultimate Reality on the knowledge pf the Self, and,

how

after a

Self,

he bases his eithioal system

What

is

thorough investigation of the nature

the nature of the Self ?

purpose ? and wherein

nvi

What

knowledge.

rhis

its

is

the

of

ultimate

misery and Happiness ?

lie its

are the problems that he sets before himB?lf to solve.

According to Ghazsali the exception of the Self expressed in

J&\

\t

in

Arabio by fcur different terme. namely

JiWl 1

j**»M, and

-jjlt

i(

defined them

Ghaz/ali has himself

and has also given the

different,

w.l*M

whioh they are generally used.

things

is

meanings

dffn^lnf-

two

* the physical heart, and (2) a 'divine entity'.

(I)

.jjlf means the same spiritual entity as Jerote* oy the

word uJ5Jl

m

the verse nf th«

'say, the spirit proceedath

hag been u bed in

Quran

a*;

sanse.

'ufais

vapjnclike substance,

4

which

my

"^ y*\2*r)^ ^*

Lord's command,' *leo nnantf

It

isuuet* frcrj

:

it

a "rrhtle,

the holicweof

the physioal heart. and through the tissues spreads ever into the whole nifiee the

same

yjfil and

The third word

body.

sp'rittial onti^y as

r^fi

combined l.rces

"»

in

w

a 'so

man

of

denoted b} the words

iceording to Mie Sans she

atger

1.

Ihya, vol. Ill, pp. 8-4,

8.

Ibid., vol. Ill, p. 3

SApUaj

8,

The Quran, XVIT,

95.

4,

Ihya, vol, IN,

p, 8,

(^-*i*Jt also sig»

(^.ifli!^

and

immal

2^'jj Z*Jal y»

20 desires (vjg-ftM)

s

represents

lb

.

on the side of

life

paesions and appetites &b constituting the evil tendencies

But y-**^

men.

in

butive

names

also described by different attri-

in

aocordarice kith

in

the different states

atone time-or the other °: (1) When agreement with the will of God and is cot distur-

that predominate in

it is

bed by animal passion,

2^ k 2j^1j

cXjj

which art at

SUi J\\ the

LtlJJ^ (3)

When to

it,

I

the

swear by

(Cf. the

yet

I

qvil)-

is

it

soul

called

8.

9.

is

In this last sense

^JLMl

called

Quran: 8

is

to

*»"3l

V

And

struggle against the

under their complete oon-

^-iMf

'the

VjUV y-iW

insinuating

soul'

^aj

L-j

tf

|

hold not myBelf clear, for the heart

^maJHs

equivalent

^

is

prone to

to

^-AHl

which according to the

i^Wj »j§d|j v-*" *i» fr«W<

Ihya, vol. Ill, p.

i^iijfti

7.

and though

complete oontrol, yet

Its

Ztf\*f&}] (tho desire-nature),

6.

'paoified'

then (^Juil

ceases

r^UW

Quran, 9 >j«J0.

6. Ihya., p. 8

thou soul

'the self accusing soul'.

onslaughts cf passions and trol,

not

'self-accasing soul' (Cf. the

<^U^

when

it is

not under

resistance

offers

it

iB

I«*£Uj

return to thy Lord, pleased, and

(2)

the desire-nature

^JuH

:

^jl Ztt^fOh,

J\

rest,

pleasing Him.).

Quran*

the

(Cf.

soul'

'paoified

the

2u+k+Jl |j*&Jt

oalltd

is

it

4—

uf^o.f ^-«u. 2&iJiM

LSXXIX, 47-30. LXXV. xn, 51.

.

uiiic^u

^*y

i*w

3

21 Sufis, stands for the bad

word

man.

qualities iu

The fourth

JSeJl (Reason)

me»0B the knowledge of the true nature of thing. 10 lb alao means the same spiritual entity or percipient mind as denoted by the other three words.

Leaving aside their differences, eaohof these terms

Of these GhazzaJi

stands for a divine spiritual entity. prefers to ubo t^ UM In

all bis reiigtoue

and moral writ-

ings. This idea of spiritual entity

in

Philosophy by various terms,

'the scul',

'the

self;

equivalent of the Arabio

Now

w» lM <,

Visible,

(he^rt),

heart,

like

10. 11.

and

word uJfiJU

man. 1 *

Tt

because

though

the

Its

relation

relation

rhya, vol. Ill,

'self as the best ,

of

p. 4.

tt is oalled

is

will be need to

wJU*

the physical

transcendental

with the physieal

Sabatanoe with

its

heart aooi-

jy>V\ jJlSau Jail

While the remaining three words

JWJ

abiding

does not belong to the

oonneetion

the

mind',

1

oonnected with

is

it

-the

perceiving,

but to the invisible world,

(metaphysical). is

word

the knowing,

is

entity in

spiritual

use the

shall

I

eto.

e.g..

expressed in modern-

mean a

rubtle

r j\H

s i/JJi\

Bubstanos (see

above) *eytjt^1 y-AiM (animal spirit or desire- nature),

*nd

intellect respectively.

12,

Ihya, vol. Ill,

p.

8—

22 Thongh

dents. heart,

conneoted only with phyaipafc

direotly

controls all the bodily tuuotionB.

it

knowledge of

knowledge of the ultimate

reality,

and for which

inborn yearning

body

a physical

dwell in

preparatory ground. first

whioh

it

has an

has been specially

it

In order to achieve this ideal the Self most

equipped.

13

in

For

three

powers

1

*

world whioh

this

is

its

the realization of the ideal

therefore,

preliminary,

For

physical needs of the body.

haB

the key to the

is

Self has an ideal to realise, for

The

the

whioh

thiB entity (Self)

It is the

is

to

purpose the Self

this

(l) *--a*Mj

provide for the

vjt&J| (2)

*j«*SM

(3) JljAVI. 1. (a)

to obtain

irjy&JHs the disposition which enables the body

what

good for

is

hunger, thirst, etc enables

it

to

(b)

repel

it; it

wAstl

or

includes such Qualities i

the disposition whioh

a

what

avoid

harmful;

is

{eludes such qualities as anger, pugnaoity, basic dispositions •pushes');

an

ee-

These

etc.

called by Ghazzali idafilj^Jt

it

1

*

(the

he describes them as inherited psycho-physical

opposition p, which modern psychology terms 'instincts', VjSal* Is the capacity whioh enables the body to 2.

carry out the beheets of

t-.


tributed in all parts of the body,

force" 3.

15.

v»y&Jf*Vjia3Jl

is die.

t

and acts as a 'moving

8

(JtjjVf

i'b

that faculty

in

the

v&JjoJl i.'ijkW Z£jj* l&di)

Xi. Jhya, y,ol. IU, p. 6. 1$. gb? a vol. Ill, p. o. 16. Ihya. vol- HI, p. 6: Jj**J|

body whioh

•23

psroeiveB and knows the objeots wbioh bhould be acquired

and those

y/h'uih

should be avoided 17 .

It acts as

an

instrument cf ueroepJien and recognition of what

good for the organism. forces would hare

*Wl

floundered

it

the above mentioned

This faculty of

blindly.

(knowledge) aud cJfjtiVt (apprehension)

by two main groups hearing,

sight,

Ja»?

{a

:

)

and

and

(

memory

-

internal faculties

(b) the five

j^»W

and <J yfo»H ^flJl

),

formed

which hare

fcouoh,

(imagination), jlCs* (reflection),

tion), IcAaJl

is

the special senses, namely,

smell,

taBte,

special sense organs;

of

Without

ii

(

(recollec-

oommon-

sense ) ls : these hare po Bpeoial sense organs, but are located

is

in

the

folds

brain 18

the

of

11.

lay*,

uHr-b?^

18.

Ibiri.,

JjIi^Jt

'****

by Qhazaalt

synthesizing the sensuous ° meaning to

sw* B

—

yaJlj

^ cL.;***!*

aJlg*

modern psychologists funotioos,

i.e.

hinder

vol.

11 T,

lobs

believes

in

the

ft

some

of the

localisation

tff

every mental faculty has a oorratponding

seat in the (olds Ibya'i

^JU- *W* £+»i

ihya, vol III, p. 5. Ghazaaii like

19.

*

fire Bpeoial

* rel="nofollow">/W) Jj«Wl>*

impressions coming to the brain :

The

jj-aJ^ as described

a speoial faculty which by

thorn

.

oi

of the brain.

he says that the

btaln

UAltj»t* and the power

the frontal lobe of the

.For instance,

memory

is

V "^

of

brain

g'

imagination ***>j*Jl

on page

8,

located iu the

SatiUB **$'• 1b

located in

^^•JKr^t.

2* sensed enable the orgaDiam to act in present situations, the five interna] faculties enable

it

learn from paBt

to

ezperienos, and to foresee future situations.

These foroeB and

faculties oontrolthe

whcle physical

organism which aots as a vehicle for their manifestation; while

these forces together with all ths bodily organs,

all

though unoonsoious of bbemBelveB and

ends,

their

have

been so fashioned as to obey the Self implicitly. Thus really the Self that controls all

the organism. to

the

—

It

may

correlation

of

the bodily

mind and body, Ohazzali

supremacy

the source of all aotirity;

of

all

Mind

important, for

it is

human nature

its

own is

to

nay, even

speeds;

he at or i bed Co the

soul.

from our point

been mentioned

view,

oi

meat

the

thdy which make the uoderetanding

possible!

Animals share with man above,

all

the qualitiee which have

namely,

senses. 80 Ghazzali ascribes even the

Ihya, vol. Ill, p.

0.

powers

'internal'

of reflection

Ohazzali describes these

forcesTinefcjnosi-ra detail iulhya, vol. Ill

It is interesting to

come

that

qualities

under wofoMj vjt&Sl as well as 'external' and

SO.

is

the foroeB which have been described above

JUf[jcftjOVl are

of

He

the active principle which

it is

the growth of bodily organs

inward yearnings of the

is in

'IdealiBt'.

mind over mutter.

fashion b matter aooordicg to

Of

functions of

here that with regatd

be noted

modern philosophical terminology, an believes in the

it is

Bk

3. 4

note that his analysis of them' (See

on

and

0.

tallies

fief t

pag$)

25 and

by experience

of learning

to

animals 11

*He would

.

not agree with Desoartes that animals are machines, or with the Behavioriets that their movements are redoxes

and conditioned IJo,

reflexes, devoid of

all

mental proeestes-

on the contrary, he believes with meat

of the

psychologists, that animals possess mental

memory,

as apprehension,

Farther,

we And

cempartmeutp

powers such

reflection, etc.

that Gbazzili does not believe that

the various Bpeoies of tight

modern

:

organisms were created but, like the

modern

in

wafer"

evolntionlsta

he sees a contnuity in life 19 ; and, he even believes that (Continued fvym paqc 24)

with semi cf tie M.t- theories about instincts; for as 1

-

c\ are inherent qualities of the

analysed by

biai,n.t

for the use

or the body,

know

usyobc-physiou! inherited

t e.,

organism to perceive and

enabling the

iJispoeuicrF,

the objeits

rf

its

defiires,

regard to these cbjeots, and. them.

forces in instincts

''an

:

Gf.

W.

inherited

to pay attention to,

experience an •quality

it

in

it

its

moving

defizsiton

of

a certain class, to of

a particular

at)

objuot,

and to aof in

a particular manner,

or at least,

(Wm.

93.

Ibid,, p. 8.

p. 1.

to>

Mol>ougall:

Introduction to Sooial Psychology, p. 29, 1993). Ihya, vol. III.

of

pctFessor to perceive,

emotional exciten.en&

91.

with

or innate psycho-physical

•experience an impulse to such action".

As

aotlng as

finally,

objects

upon perceiving such

regard to

etc, exciting

MacDongall's

disposition wbioh determines

and

mind

s

126

man

capable of progress to in infinite degree 8

is

most interesting, And thought-provoking believes

in the evolution,

While the modern theory

not of

of

It is

.

to note that

he

matter, but of mind.

Evolution regards mind a

by-procuot, Gbazeali

considers mind

to be the

moving

force in the universe,

and matter a by-product.

Blind

oontaios ir

and can,

itself

a great possibility

according to

him.

development,

of

progress to an

infinite-

degree. 3ati

what

is

that

by whiob man can make such

progress and attain to such spiritual

man two qualities which animal and make him capable of

are in

(knowledge), and

(1) jJUJl

sUnds

for the knowledge

next*

at>d the

4

of

(9)

the

perfection ? There-

him above the

raise

They are

perfeetion.

VdljtM affairs

JWl

(will).

of

this

world

as the knowledge of abstract truths and self-evident truths 95 * JLc cannot be acquired as

,

well

through the senses alone, sense

38

enables (will)

It is

.

man

behind tbe objects of

gained through iotelleot

to generalize

an. act

and

full

significance of the

its desirability,

to achieve th*t er,d

38.

loid.,p

24. Ifaya.vol 25.

Ibid.,

2B. Ibid.

J&atf

{

and form concepts.

has been defined by Ghazzali thus

understands the

him

it lies

:

)

which

vjtjVI

When

a

man

consequences of

a strong desire

is

aroused in

by procuring the proper mean*

7.

in,p.7:*>jj»VlJ *>^d3ljr VU.

&;jj*H

SujUJl

j-y^'

jjUJV

27 tor

will 97 in

then

It;

The

.

him

in

is bis

or

from conation

should be distinguished

will

*^'j'

animals, which latter ixneie^a only in the qualities of

Au

arises here

interesting qaobtiou

relation between is

strong desire

that

reason*

Ghazzali,

power behind

the

ia

(reason) aod "vt^jVl (will) ?

And

According to

only motive to action?

the it ie

JW1

What

:

rtason whioh determines the end, but the

That

supplied by the will.

ie

it

is,

reason

aots aa

a guiding principle and diotates to the will that

whioh

to be done,

is

Q whereas will aoos as amoving force 8

Ghazzali, like Kant, regards reason

bo achieve the end-

the supreme f&otor ia determining the end; but, unlike

Kant, he regards reason

powerless

in

determined eod witnoub the intervention

So

it ib'

knowledge and

from animals. and

will.

The

will

will

Knowledge develops

the

in a chilJ in

37. Ibid.,

H*b JWW

i&. Ibid

On

two

knowledge

(

'

Jjjl

since

tilaili

ao

calls

il;

vJfjVlU

these

y

basio

**-*tj#J'—motiv*

forces— they impel the organism to aoticn. 29. Ihya, vol. Ill, p. 7.

grow.

KnowAcquired know-

stages:

\ii)

page 5 Ghazzali

**t>1jV»

man

development of knowledge.

ledge oi self-evident true be and

forces

this

develop these qualities as *b*y

grows with

,

of the will.

chat distinguish

Children do not possess

I hay

achieving She-

28 80

Jed.ge.

Tre

.intuitively

child

by step; and

step

through experience and the

knew

gets to

truths

self-evident

be acquires

knowledge

reflection gradually

— of course

knowing was always ia him* Oaoe is Bfcored op in him in the form of

possibility of

acquired, knowledge

dispositions

be

to

whenever needed.

used

When

the

has gained the knowledge nf self-evident truths

ohild

and acquired knowledge by experience and to have attained

Is said

development 91 .^

But there

development; indeed grades.

to a very

it

is

is

no

reflection he

high Btage of

human

limit to the possiblity of

inflnite.

bas however

It

These grades vary from tbe experience of an

man

ordinary

to

divine revelations

tbe

direct vision

prophets-

of

saints and the

of

Again,

there are

no

bounds to the knowledge of the spiritual kingdom of truth,

and

it

comeB to different people

To

differently.

some the mysteries of the universe are revealed all of a .sudden, through &£l£+J1 Aa while to others knowledge comes slowly after a good Prophets

cultivation).

attain

highest grades of spiritual

nature oan

rise.

SO. Ibid.

;

all

of

development

vdAlaa+St

(self-

a sudden to the to

whioh human

know only about

the

and the stages whioh he traversed

during bis progress and does nob

of

Further, one can

stage he bas reached

ohild

deal

nothiug beyond that; just as a

know anything vol. Ill p.

7-

of

the

experiences of m

,

WJ i?£u. i+jsyi r jWr <J<W? 81. Ibid., vol. Ill, p. 7.

^ Spat

29 grown up person, so an ordinary man oan know nothiog of the experiences of a prophet.

Thus

the

human

development

splrilual

the darkness of his

Self

33

is

capable

The only hindrance

.

own

dispel

for

We now whioh

come

it is

is

is

from hie

not only the

also the object

the question

«_»4m!1 stand to

of the relation in-

one another

the consequences of t^etr interplay 88 <J*3Jt .

principle

man

created 3 *. to

JW|, 'iy^i\

to

cnly through

It is

darkness

this

feature of his nature,

whioh he has been

.

Knowledge

heart and approach reality. distinguishing

infinite

.heart which acts as a veil

between him and the ultimate truth 83

knowledge that he can

of

ib

and

the guiding

and v^iJI & ud iJ**"H the unharnessed forcecr

but they are there to be exploited and utilised by jSeJt for

the

good of

turned to

and

it

is

the Self

the benefit

or

function,

the

32. Ihya, vol. Ill,

5R

These energies oan be

the

detriment of the

of

<J*"*'

to

divert

,

34. Ibid.,

p.

p.

6: 6

4>jl*Jf

:

*g*

J

d»* u**%\ y yAti *J

35- Ibid., yoi. Ill, pp. 9-10.

(M

^ J** j *#*** *•** ru

& **» „» 36. Ibid., p. 6w

these

p 14:

jJUU J^Si j*X^ Jji/j vJ»l 83. Ibid

8elf,

J*tt*-

30 great

energy into the right ohannel.

Bfcores of

forces are

outcome

the

nature, uiz.,

of

three 3 *

elements in

the divine, Z****^, the beastly, ferocious. 38 At the other end ot this

triangle of forces and directly opposed to

another element in his nature, which (the satanio element),

is

JWt,

is

JW^

stands

called AJulla^fcJf

and which functions

to JXaJl. *£Jt]a£&Jt too, like

in contradiction

man and

inborn in

not to be found in animate.

elements in the nature of

There are. therefore.four mac; there are in every man

the sage, the dog, the pig, and the devil 9 9 . is

his

ZftJlfjII,

and ZgtyJl, the

is

These

his

*^f&

or his lust and

gluttony, the dog

or his anger and ferocity, 'and the

which

incites

and the sage

these is

two animals

(JftaH.

The

A man

devi!

is

him

pig in

is

his

u^

the attribute

to rebel against (J**Jl,

any one

is

of

them or

partakes of the natures of more than one of them accor-

ding as the one or the other element or elements pre-

dominate

in him.

Before explaining

between theae forces

is

human

the equilibrium

maintained or disturbed,

describe the nature of J**J1 factor in

how

which

is

let

us

the most important

nature-

87. libd., vol. Ill, pp. 9-10. 38.

Adjeotive

noun frcm 'ji^fwild

the lion, ete

39

Ihya, vol. III.

p.

9.~

umciala,.

like

31 iJjUJt is distinct

source

Ss the

when

or the bisic force underlying the latter;

of,

bat sometimes

from JUJf inasmuch as the former

with ihe utter altogether

idetti6ed

it is

has developed to a certain

it

below.

It

is this

is

that

Bease

called the

distinguishing feature

forces

him. At

in

JaJI

iirsi,

extent as explained

J*M

toe

sometimes

is

mbn and one

of

of the

only an undeveloped

is

inboru rational faculty, ready to develop and expand, 40

and JUM

is

buc another

name

for

development and

its.

extension, for ^JSaJl develops AEd6xpandgin proportion to

Ihe knowledge that

(s

acquired. * x

acquired knowledge that of the ideal

112

It is

it

U

Tt

the other

haB

intimnte connexion

r-ecausfl of this

roaches rhe

(J£*J1

it

makes possible tbs realization

between the two that sometioia* the one 43

ocly wheD

is ulGTitified

stage of

first

its

vith

develop-

ment when a child begins to l^arn M's aelf-evirfcjt truths (£ij»paH IubU3t .»«iaH) which pradu lily become known 40.

tbe drst

lhya, vol. I p is

the

Ibid., p.

ti7

foundation

75

— iu

thy

:

£^+ and

wordB

41.

Ibid., vcl. I,-pp. 76, 77.

42.

Ibid

,

vol, HI. P.

J, S^jjill fjWl<

IS.

Jl

J

*JLJlj cr V
origio of

and source.

Aluhasibi

I*—

^ U>*t1 sj*,ai* v/»3'

Ibid., vol. T, PP. 67, 77, 71.

l^^**^*

^

*»

Sis

to

him as he grows up. The second stage

ment

when

reached

is

experience and

a

man

reflection, 4 *

in its develop-

begias

and can handle abstruse

problems, learn, theoretical sciences

intellectual

by

learn

to

Z>Jaft\ ), acquiring ultimately a mass of

(f^\

knowledge.

It can develop to tbe extent of foreseeing oonsequenoe of

events, enabling

man

according, to the impulses of the moment. stage

that

stage

is

man

J&J1

is

and nob

to act according to them,

It is in this

with JUS| 4B .

identified

The

third

reached when the divine element (agJOjK) in

begins to asserlr

itself.

.,

This flej&ent

man, and

the aboriginal rational faculty in

reality

is- in it

become*

the nucleus in the expansion of <J3*1| or the basic principle

throughout the various stages of

The other

stages

(ss*< Ant£C+H

j

in

.its

devekpment:

its

development are as acci etions-

with relation to

it,

and

it

gathers force or

weakens according to the nature of these accretions and1 acoording to the workings of the various other foices at a given tiniu.*

the guiding

struggling

When allowd

6

to

grow,

principle— a divine

light,

good

Self.

for

tbe

highest- stage of

the

of

development when

44, Ibid., vol. Ill,

p. 7.

**~&«J1

Of. vol. IIT, p. 76.

45. Ibya, vol.

I, p.

it

jJUI| f

it

beoomes

unerrirg, everIt

reaches the

understands the *!

J*«Ju>

J\

'

76

:

^

jJiJI r

46. Ibid., vol. Ill, p. 6, 14. Cf. vol.

J*

^lfet

I p.. 76.

1+}^

?

33 true nature of IhiDgB, and even

knows

mean in g of

the

the ultimate realities, like God.'soul, etc. It is clear that the

used by Ghaazali,

word

reason*.

ments

man

rational

mate the

capable of

realities- 47

word

iaculty,

same

four

stages or ele-

(1)

an undevelop-

(2)

self-evident

truths,

understanding or knowing the

The

stage

last

ulti-

generally expressed-

(3) is

is,

J&aJt

is,

by

according' to

original rational faculty,

loped to the highest pitch.

only -deve-

therefore*

human

human understanding hy which man can anything frcm the simplest objects of unse to the or

intellect

k*dow

eapeoially as-

a highly developed faculty

(±)

Of thebe

reason.

Gliazzali. the

traced

develops 'in man':

knowledge (fWfj. nod

(3)

JwM,

more oomprehensivo than the English

Ghazzali has

in JfcJl aa it

ed primitive

in

is

Arabic word'

ultimate realities.

There

therefore,

is,

man tor knowing the' known by JJW! when it

faculty in

can be degree.

spiritual

develops

no

separate

whiob

iraths,

to a certain

This knowledge oi spiritual realities

ic

not only

an iotelleotaal experience, but a living spiritual apprehension Of the

most intimate nature. Though

or elements oan be olearly traced,

tbey do not ex(at in

separate water tight compartments.

evident truths, they vary both in different

individuals. 48

*7. Ibid., vol.

f*^J

Z

I, p.

*)*r **}*

all these stages

Except the

in intensity

In a

fully,

self-

and exteneity

developed

J&iM

all

76— i-3V| r

46. Ihya, vol. I, p. 77.

vj*

!

Aye***

•

y

34 these elements exist:

and the divine element

strongest, and oo*extensive and in

otoer elements

when

all

cc- operation with the

these have

and are

developed

working rightly; otherwise, when out weakens: and io proportion to

at its

iB

from them,

off

it

weakness the sataniu

its

4 element and the animal forces get strong ".

<J**H and

human

*#^&ll work

forces

opposing

as

in

Both work through the animal forces

self.

* j^mJ1« the

one using them as sources

the

<~> *i*l

\

oonstruo-

of

energy and the other as instruments of destruc-

tivo

The animal

tion.

forces, instigated by

JJWI and try

against*

overcome

to

*^^*^?,

-

J**"

it.

revolt

w,ith

the

help cf tha divine element, fights thoee forces and tries

channel

to control them and -divert them into the right

so as to

make them

useful

for

the

Self.

If it

pucoeeds

making them completely submissive to itself, the evil tendency is waakeued aod rendered ineffective, and a harmony conducive to the controlling them and

in

realization

When

the

of

jS*l! has

ideal

is

thus checked

produced the

evil

in

the

self.

tendency and

has subdoed and harmonised the animal forces, its struggle ceases and the self is enabled to pursue its pro* gtess untrnpeded towards

— vthen

self

struggle in

prevails— which

Stf^JtyJuJi Instigated,

come

it,

by

ia

its it

It is this ttate of the

goal

has

ceased

tied

harmony

despribsd by the Quranic phrass as

(the tranquil soul).

*?P^^',

But

rebel against

if

*j*£llawfctf

J5**'

and over-

the evil tendency gets strong and gains complete

49. Ibid, vol. III. rr

»- >0-

'

35 asoendenoy over them; while the divine element beoomes

weaker end weaker

till it is

almost completely smothered.

become subservient

All the other faculties then eetun ie element and even

devises

ways

the

reason beoomes the slave of

passions, instead of their master. It

to

It is

so subdued that

and even

for the gratification of paeeion

makes that whioh they Beek look pleasing/

The

evil

tendenoy becomes stronger and stronger, continually

them to gratify themselves, even at the expense

inoiting

of the good of the to revolt,

(the

and

is

instigating

eelf.

sl

active

the

principle in iftL-Vl ^pJJS)

The divine element, however,

soul).

usually keeps on struggling it Is

golf, viz.,

with

'Struggling

Of. the

60.

'Satan

ma.'jj

Library

series):

other

is

tendency;

ccrcition

ie

it;

of the

coutirually

omitted by the

-^W*^ ^iZUf&^j*

III.

Nature,

"Reason

i>,

p.

Bk.

!.-,

JQ.

'Jf.

Hume:

.\

127 (Everyman's and ought only tr he, the

is

II, n.

hcd oan itver pretend to any

than to serve ard obey them." Bat Ghazzali's

cffioe

position

vol.

passionp,

the

slave of

.

evil

eleoueLi

tendency,

evil

Quran. XVI. 63

Human

Treatise on

This

when the divine tje

the

pleasing tu theac their actions.

Ibya,

51.

tuodameutaHy different (rem that

According to Hume, reason its

again*t

seldom completely subdued.

human

animal forces

It instigates the

function

i*

to devise

is

ways

the slave at d

of

means to

t
Eume

pass or b i

and

satisfy them.

Ohaszali believes that, though reason can, when degraded,

be, 'the

ie to rule

salve of passions', yet

and control

thorn.

its

natural fecctibn^

36 Quranic expression t^yjl

The relation

fMi\

i

(the striving soul) 69 .

and their respeotive functions— how to keep in check the satanio

Jftfi

bow

they revolt against

it,

man

have been described figura-

"The

its

body and

abode and

its faculties

its

brings

and his auger

the

kingdom

of the

capital,

the

members

of his

a '

trickster,

to be

oonoealed

is

like

and

but

wicked;

and under the garb and

mischief

frightful

never

for a moment.

let free If

the

in his administration

wicked

the

ifl

to

a liar,

is

he pretends

deadly

poison •

dispute with the sinoeie

so that the

from disputation and opposition king avails himself of the vizier

and seeks

away from the counsel

polioe.

of his sincerity is

about his opinions and measures

latter iB

a sincere

like a

brings in the provisions

His habit and custom vizier

like

is

food and provisions to the town,

deceitful

sincere,

His deBire

and indignation are

The servant who

the

are like the artisans ard workers;

adviser and a wise vizier.

who

of

is

The body

while his intellect the reflective power,

servant

simile

body", he writeB, "is the simile of a

in his

king in his kingdom. soul and

the duty of the

it is

and animal forces and

tively by Qhazzali in *y*Jf *l
soul of

with ooe another

these forces

of all

of the

his

advice and

turns

wicked servant, believing

that right consists in rejeoting his

advice; and

if

under

the guidance of his vizier he appoints the police (not forgetting to keep

it

also under due

oontrol, as

advised

by the vizier) upon she treacherous servant and hie Riders and abettors so that the polioe disciplines the 1

69.

Lit, 'the upbraiding soul'.

'M servant and compels him to listen to the vizier, thereby

making

the

supreme over this

ado: crusher and

latter

wicked servant and hie followers and helpers, until he

becomes a eubdued gubjeot and not the Tuler, and control acd

kept under order and

and administrator;

in that case

would be righted and kingdom.

Thus,

and

intellect

at

desire,

if

the

bou!

throughout the

same

time

not

help

the

Bceks

anger

the state

affairs of

justice established

establishes

the

not the commander

is

the

ia

of the

and indignation over anger and

permitting

indignation to become head strong, and even making use o( desire to

use

of

then

one

keep them under

against the ether as the

powers

its

So the Btruggle

<)Wf

in the

ite

supremacy amongst the basic

Bide,

and

*ye&\

and

v^M

AgJlkgAH on the other, continually goee

instigated by

on

balanoed and

53 ''.

for

on one

demands,

occasion

remain justly

will

qualities beoome virtuous

forces,

due restraint, thus making

human

self. It Is

the equilibrium between them qualities

of

character which are conducive to the realization

of

all,

inolusive

the ideal; in

but.

jSfi, that

of

results

in

the disturbance of this equilibrium results

the predominance of oce

of tbein

over the o tee re,

producing qualities wbiob, impede the progress of the self

towards

its

goal.

For

instance,

fW

if v

\

becomes

predominant, qualities of the wild animal such aa enmity, hatred, aggrandisement,

element traasoendB

its

etc.

ioilcw;

and

if

the divine

bounds, qualities such as overlord*

59. Ihya, vol. III. p. 6.

,-

—

38 ship, despotism,

been worked in

etc,,

qualities have*

oat in detail by Ghazzali and arranged

groups as follows 84 A.

All theee

result-

.

— Qualities produced by the Predominant* of Vjy&H, ^JwW,

($)

impeding the Progress of the

When Yhy&H qualities

and

Self.

predominant., the following

ia

activities result 2

Shameleasness wickedness

— (*»Uj)

impudence

or (<£-£*.),

f

extravagance( ji^p) r

Btinginess (j£J8J),hypoerisy (**£») disg-

racefalness (ZCXfe), wantonness

(2i».sB-.) (

vanity or triviality (•A***), greed (cTj*),,

covetcusnesa (fc^),

flattery

(i3f*)>

jealousy (tV**), grudge (***), wiukei glee

or joy at

another's

misfortune

(**W*), gluttony (*jA), voluptuousness

fa^etc. (it)

When

(fc--«Jt)

predominates, the following

qualities result:

Rashness (jj£), prodigality (^i*) haug. htiness (£*,), bragging '<-*!>ride o r self, elation •

(yG), selMove

derision

v-*),

(ffjyLV) contempt (otfinJuJ), humiliation of

others

jf&m>

(

),

mischief-making

(yJlvjtjl), love of aggrandisement r

lW»), enmity

04. Ihya, pp. 9

— ]Q.

(

Vjtjtf

),

hatred

(

(

*y^k

Pb*u,

),

,

39 and

oppression of

and abase

people

with

violence

^Wt

S&

(^aMi

Ju&JO

f*«y The predominance of *jutlsx&lf through the predo* Hainan ca

Vy^Jt and lj^I produoee

both

of

the

following qualities and aotivitiesr—

Trickery

jL.

(

deceit

),

cunning

(

fjj£. ), (*!*».), deceifcfalness (>**&), daring (v'tj»),

deception

(

j^i^U

ezoitiog

),

enmity

{r-i}**)' insincerity cr dishonesty

wickedness

(

<&j£,

(cr*)» foul fpeeeh ( Ui, )

),

f

etc (iff)

When

the divine element

bounds, the following

man transcends

in

quaii'fcfes result:

Lordship fyty.y,. love of overloidship

f^gA^Vl

}

t

special

or

deairp

oneself

),

r

appropriation or olaim

privileges ( to

j*&3

appropriate

(^jyV

l>

/,

serfdom

despotism

eve? thing

for

jlj^uLV). uniqneness

lordBhip (
yoke of

^

(i

love of supremacy or predomi-

nance ( P^bwLMt*** to

ire

—

from

in

the

and humiliation (J^Lit

£41y! tj &4j**J1 a«j u^>, etc. Farther man possessed of these qualities desirea the knowledge for

himself

of

comprehension of rejoices

and claims r cognisance, «nd

all BoieneeB,

knowledge, eflsttioei

when knowledge

is

of

thftagu

ascribed to

1

uni him

—

40

\

when

and

grieves him. 85

to

£,— Qualities When

imputed

is

\

prohieed by controlling 'iy^5J\

conducive (i)

ignmfarce

to the realization

*

i^miSA]

of ike ideal,

¥jy&Jl isopntrolled and kept in moderation,

the following qualities are produced:— ,

Chaatity (2lA£), contentment (SfiliS;, llity (^t**),

fear

abstinence

God,

of

ilolwul),

cheerfulness ,dL*4$M

piety

,4**ji,

resulting

m

tranqui-

piety

pleasing

(Jjj), (,£)**),

appearance

cT**)' modesty l*^J*), gracefulness

and wit

( vWjlo ),

helping others

VticL*-

(

)

-etc.

(it)

When

iy>fl*Jl is

controlled, the following qualities

result:

Courage ( •

*£

),

and

courage

forbearance forgiveness

.

56.

[

patienoe

(jJiUl,,

(oUj),

bravery

(

J*

i^**).

nobility

r J«5

and ),

p.

9.—

),

generosity

eell-control (

fortitude

ecdurance

firmness

(

(

bf»

jf*

Jl*J»t

) J,

and stead ineES

(J^)> gravity »rd wisdom

X»ljA}, dignity (jlSjJ)

lb* a, vol. Ill,

(£cla£),

etc.

—

41 (Hi)

When

Vj^iJf and k^«*J| are subordinated to

divine

following

the

clement, produced:

Knowledge (*!*), wisdom oonviotion the

(

&+£»

thingB,

of

things as they are

the

tion

and

right

servitude of

ThUB,

man

occupies

of

of

pnpremacy over oreaknowledge,

and freedom

from the

v^&Jf and i^Awt^ etc. 80 r position midway between

animals and acgelB, andhis true differentia

Be

and

and insight,

through perfection of greatness,

faith

supremacy over every-

;

of

,

knowledge

thing by virtue of knowledge

and

are

qualities

and com prehension of

iirfj**) i

essences

(

tiie

is

knowledge.

oan either rise to the level of angelB with the help

knowledge, or

fall to

the level Df animals by letting

his anger and Inst dominate him.

It is,

tbeiefore,

know-

ledge which htlpe the growth of the divine element in

him and makes possible the realization of the ideal. "The horse", says Ghazzali, "shares, for instance, with theaaethe quality of oarrying bnrdene, but is distinguished from it by his swiftness and beauty, if tbesequalitiee

were taken away from him, he would be reduoed

the level of the aes. Similarly

man

and the borBe certain qualities and 56. Ibya, vol. Ill, p.

****

f

U«Jl

fjtfAJI

j* u o

u jr^

l

BhaTes witb is

tc

the ass

distinguished from

10— h**s

jUWLl, VjHV»j ?4>l** y* JK.1i

ffrl

eftU

'^ Vl

<&*** a»^v«j

^ JW*J*jWl ^ J*»1

^

»*£-*!*

J*<

42 them by eertain other

These lather qualities are

qualities.

his distinguishing Features; and these qualities are of the

nature of the qualities of the angels nearest to God,

Man.

therefore,

position

occupies a

animals and angels. Ioasmuob as es

.

he

feels

level

and

of plants,

in as is

much

as he

an animal,

inasmuoh as he has a form and stature, he an inanimate nbjeot.

ST

His special quality

knowledge of the true nature uses

eats and procreat-

and makes voluntary movements, he

and like

on the

is

man

midway between

all

resembles angels and deserves to rack with

he deserves to be called angel and a divine person.

;

But whoever expends to the lowest like

level

like

combines

it

faculties

use of

animals eat

or revengeful

fbese

qualities

in

him

all

it is

falls

like

a

like a pig,

a oamel, or

—or

he,

and beoomes a

the foregoing psychological analysis of is

he

".

dear that

all

human

bodily organs and mental

have been created to help

but

eta.,

a leopard, or cunning like a fox,

veritable devil"

nature

pursuit of hie

an ox, or voluptuous and gluttonous

all

From

in the

animals, beooming either

of the

or ferocious like a dog,

proud

power

his

eating as

phvsieal pleasures,

ideal;

whoever

so

members of his body and his faoulties in him in seeking knowledge and doing good

actions, he

dunoe

;

the

the

assisting

them

things

of

is

is

man

to realize the

knowledge which enables him to the right

these qualities,

and makes the realisation

the ideal possible. 57. Lit. Like

an image drawn on the wall.

53. Lit -a rebellious devil.

of

—

THE RELATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND MORALITY IN THE ETHICAL SYSTEM OF AL-GAHZZALI Knowledge

i'b

one

Morality and good

system.

ethical

of the corner-stones of al-Qhazzali'f

The

possible without knowledge.

( aql)

contents,

source and

knowledge must, therefore, be understood

conditions of in detail.

oonduot are not

The faoulby

knowledge

of

innate

Intellect ia the

rational

faoulty

whloh distinguishes bim from animals, beoause source

1

knowledge of which the

of the kind of

in capable.

Intellect

in intensity

found

is

And extensiby

in all

or reason

is intellect

man,

of is

the

latter

are

it

men, though differing

9 .

Distinct f.rnia of intellect are desoribed at different

These forms can ba

places by aUtShazzuli.

according to a 6chemo. tiality for the

Initially

development

of

aspects, viz

The former

knowledge

which the various apprehended principles 1.

is

fibs

the first

p is

76:

knowledge though

Ihya, Vol

T.

of

eeii*evident

it

begins with

&y*"j £Ulj ^.j*

the 'candation, origin

Al-Muhasibi's definition

9.

p. 77.

in

e\perieoca and intuition are

Such kuowledge, I,

*nd eiiebential

the knowledge of the form

-bjflcts of

lb

Ihya, Vol. i. e.,

is

a poten-

This knowledge h*s

knowledge

formal

,

is

knowledge under condi-

tions of experience and intuition.

two

ictellect

classified

is

as follows

:

*nd

Jjtf

source.

44 -experience,

noote than what ia given in experience and an suoh ia not baead on experience it is a priori*. For in euch propositions as, "A person oannot be in two is

;

places at the same time,*'

what we have

we have

more than

asserted

actually observed.

Existential knowledge objeots and events

given

in

knowledge

the

is

experience and

the

of

intuition.

It

comprises the contents of knowledge in contradiction

to

the form

knowledge.

of

knowledge,

Existential

-again, is of

two kinds, viz., phenomenal, and spiritual. The former grows gradually with the growth of the

*hiJd aB

his

experience

accumulates*.

person acquires the knowledge This knowledge once acquired •dispositions to be

The next stage "to

foresee

is

of is

what

At

is

stored

the

first

present now. the form

in

of

revived and used whenever needed.

marked by foresight

a

;

man

able

is

the oon sequences of events and to act aooord-

ing to them, and not according to -the

impulses

the

of

•moment.

Knowledge

of the

spiritual

When a man he comes to know the knowledge.

realities, eg.,

God, soul,

is

the highest form of

has acquired this knowledge, significance etc.

of

the

spiritual

ThiB knowledge depends

upon intuition (Mukashafa), but it comes differently to different people. To some it comes slowly through good ft

deal of self-cultivation (Mujahada) and

a

to

few

it

is

revealed directly. 3.

Ihya. Vol. Ifl.

p.

U.

4-

Ihya, Vol. II,

p.

7

:

Ibid. Vol. I, pp.

LuJ£»J1 <.jM]

76—78.

J JjCW?

tf

t

Both

intellect

91

and, on

its basis,

•long with the age of the person. potentiality.

of knowledge

6

occur together.

is

intuition,

is

a

leads

knowledge

is

acquired, bat both

As experience accumulates begin

primarily oonoerned

it

becomes

with,

In this connection

with the material objects

is

it

explioit.

very meagre

is

and events which immediately present 6.

it

is

In the young child formal knowledge

Existential knowledge, to

and

first intellect

Formal

.

innate and existential knowledge

is implicit.

Knowledge develop

Through eiperieooe and

the growth

to

At

to

themselves in

be noticed that al*

Ohazeali sometimes uses 'aql and sometimes qalb to denote the percipient mind. The word 'aql is used in various eenses, viz., knowledge, the sense of intellect

is

intellect,

identical with qalb

eto.

Aql in

which means

transcendental spiritual

subtlety

knows

3—4). Although aUQhazaali

is

(ihya, Vol. Ill, pp.

that

perceivee and

consoiou* of the differenced beSweon intellect and the

self,

he inden tines one with the other.

the mental

life

ofniau aud comprises the lower and

Aql

higher faculties distinguishes

Qalb BtandJ. for

is

man fron

the highest faculty cf qalb whioh

animals, and aB euoh

used to mean the whole aql is related to

it

che*

aa light

of is

is

sometimes

man's mental powers, and related to the sun or vision

to the eye (Ihya, Vol. Ill, p. 14). 6.

The

intellect possesses the potentiality of aoquirfng

knowledge.

But

this

potentiality cannot be converted

into actuality unless two conditions are fulfilled. Firstly,, that

the development of

intellect

is

dependent upon (Ml

M «M2f P000>

)

46 The nest stage

•experience. is

able

to

think of the

reached when the person

is

Further development

before

which were experienced

objects

is

marked by

The highest development culminates the spiritual realities.

in the

foresight.

knowledge of

7

(Continued from page 45) bodily growth (Ihya, Vol. Ill,

must be some external cause Vol. 1, pp. 76, 77

c&J

:

y*«! tt*

J&i m~*g

f

p. 14).

to exoite

J*

(Ihya, Vol. Ill, p. 11),

all sciences reside, potentially

come from

without)

;

J*e>

to action (Ihya,

^J»

i>j*jJ.1

to see

if

l&jTi

the eye

is

al.Gbazzali concludes in the intellect

The highest development

I,

ji.

to

that;

and do not

what comes from without

cause that brings them out (Ihya, Vol. 7.

it

Vi*a- tyS* j-jW* *i*j

J

Just as there must be something see

Secondly, that there

is

the

77).

cf intellect

is

reached

when it understands the fcms nature of things, and even knows the meaning of the ultimate realities like God, 'soul, etc Aql is therefore human intellect by which man can know anything from the simplest objects of sense to the ultimate realities. faculty ia

man

knowledge

of

for

There

is,

knowing the

spiritual

realities

'

therefore,

co separate

spiritual

truths.

is

not only an intellect

ton! experience, but a living immediate spiritual

hoDPion cf

realities.

The

appren-

47 Theoretically

there

c( the development

no limit to the

is

aDri

intellect

of

possibilities

knowledge 8

The

.

grades of actual development, however, vary from the experience of an

the direct spiritual

be tubjeoii to varicuB restraints and limitato a limn".

The heart may

14:

T-^l u'

him down

tions which keep

Ihya, Vol.

8.

to

and the divine revtUtioo of prophets.

vision of saints

A man may

man

ordinary

^yU^k^l jJUU

p

Ill,

**jl/->.

we

JjjSJ irj«L~..

find that

^

al-Gbazzali

does nob believe that the various Bpecies belong discreet forms in the

sense,

absolute

to

but sees u con-

tinuity in life whicb the evolutionists have done recently

(Ihya, Vol III,

p,

8) and,

though he regards man to be

the highest of creations he

believes in

farther progress by him to

Vol. Ill,

Though

p. 7).

an

fcba

infirito

the science*

possibility of

degree (Ihya,

have made greatr with

progress and fathomed the mysteries of flatter great success, the

problem

from solved, and the world

where

huai*a happiness

of

in

at a loss to

to gc for th* solution cf this problem-

great thinkers ot the modern the solution

human

of

ur^erBtindicg of

world *r&

bapp.'n-'sn

human

nature.

Al-Gharzali o»n guiue Immunity.

mind

to be the

a by-produot.

moving

Mind

of development,

and

fcrce in

ft

oi

is

understand

So^e

of the

opmicr tbat

consists in tna

In

this

right

diractinn

A'Ghazzili considers

he universe and matter

includes in itself a great possibility it

can according to hits, progress.

to an infinite perfection. 9.

far

Ihya, Vol. Ill,

pfi:^

<>'

i *jj** J

48 be prevented from farther development because of the 10 following causeB

the heart of the child.

dark.

own

purification so that

Some

<(4)

may have rendered

gu it

solely with its

may Btand between the sectarian beliefs* (6) A man how the truth is to be

prejudices

ignorant

be

e.

does not strive towards the

it

heart and the objeoti.eo,

may

Sins

(2)

be undeveloped,

The heart may be occupied

(3)

objects.

may

(1) It

:

as

to

sought.

Knowledge serves a two-fold purpoee. 11

It is, firstly,

an apprehension of objeots and their significance, and teoondly,

a

or reason

is

guUe

to

conduct.

Accordingly,

considered to have two aspects,

intelloot

viz.,

theore-

and praoticil.

tical

{aUAql an-Nazari)

Theoretical reason

with the understanding of spiritual realities.

concepts.

It

concerned

phenomenal and the

apprehends, generalises, and torus

goes from

It

the

is

the concrete

to

the

abatraot,

from the particular to ihe general, from the diversity "to the unity, embracing wider and Btiil wider fields under one principle as

it

advances.

Ic

is

this

same

up towards the transcen-

theoretical reason lhat looks

dental world and receives knowledge and influence from

it— knowledge

of

the mysteries

of

God, His oieatiou,

bat theoretical reason

mode in

of

its

the region

attributes, etc.

Intuition

is

nothing

working at a higher plane.

operation, however, of

His actions,

seems to be different

the transcendental world.

10.

Ihya, Vol. Ill, p* II.

11*

Mizan al-Amal, pp.

The

89*86.

But

this

411

question doea

uofc

Theoretical reason haa

belong here.

given us various system \ of knowledge cilled sciences) tb»

which will be disoassed

ethioal significance of

reason

Practical

maid

dl'-Amali)

(al-'Aql

But

ennobling influence.

reason

its

lies in

the

saint,

a patriot

or

the whole

life

is

of the

construction there

for

most

in the

is

whioh works for destruction. all

human

sway

practical

of

reason,

self a

So

for

macy 'over them, there follows

of its decisions

in-

reason which works-

should remain

faculties

but

reason whioh in*

theoretical

In cpposition to

aots.

ft

patriot, or artist is guided

saint,

fluences the praotieal reason in

individual

individual act of

practical reason,

directed by

bv ideals ocnoeived by

band*

It gives direction

An

roluntary individual aots.

to

the

aotive funotion

its

domain of human conduct.

is

from theoretioal

It receives

of theoretical reason.

below..

it

?atanio element

Is

essential that

under the absolute* it

if

loses its supre-

the wreck

of

human*

oharaoter.

The ledge

efchioal

depends

nature of the various systems of know-

upon

their

ethical

utility.

Soianoee

i'ulum) whioh are of two kinds, Shnr'tyya (reiigious)> #,$.,

Qnr'an, Sunna.

Philosophy,

ete.

etc.,

A soience

lation to the goal.

It is

and bad if

1 it *.

it

and 'Agliyya

hinders

derives

good

If it

L

p.

value from

its

re*

helps lie realisation

Of the solenoss whioh are good,

^ > *M ^ t-u^O^ 12. Ihya, Vol.

its

(intellectual), &,g r

96

;

3/-**

**!»

*&l

***»

fleft

JjC w^U

^UleJHwU* Ua*JL* 1*1* 4>jf

50 there are tome (he acquisition

of which

is

fard Kifay*

W»i mediolDe and others the acquisitionwhich hfard 'ay* (obligatory)1 '. ALGhazzali main-

(optional^ of

the acquisition of religions soienees ('nlam

tains that

They are the means to the purification of the self which is a further means to the realization' of the ultimate end. However, they Bhar'fyya)

is

fatd kifaya.

past from the external to the internal judgment. When the individual begins to see in their laws not only the

commands of God but also the true ways to the attainment of eternal happiness, they beoome fard 'ayn 1 *.

What

is

really binding

on man

is

the knowledge of the

method how to acquire the happiness of the next world 15 . It consists of 'ilm aUMu'atnala, whioh oompriBca bctb 18 and 'ilm aUMukAikafa, i e,, knowledge and a conduct

Man

pure knowledge* '.

the latter.

to

attain'

Mu'amala

is

can acquire both, but very few

So

ethioally speaking,

'ttm al.

the only science whioh iafard ayn.

It includes the

kcowlelge of 'ibadat (man's relation

to God), 'adat (man's relation

to

man), and the know-

19. Cf. Jhya, Vol. Ill, pp. 12, 14, 15

;

Ibid., Vol. I,

H-19. fard'ayn is that soienoe whioh is obligatory on every Muslim (lyha, Vol. I, pp. 18f), whereas fard kifaya pp.

is that,

what

is

not binding on every Muslim,

if

there

are sufficient people versed in It to natisfy the needs of the community ( Ihya, Vol. I, pp. lfi ff). ,

14 1ft.

Ihya, Vol.

Ihya, Vol.

16.

d**lVj

17.

*/*" fk

f

I,

p. 17.

T,

pp. 18»l9.

Wl ar-V^r

;

51 ledge of good and had, qualities of the aouL

the knowledge of theie qualities alone

Id reality

ford 'ayn,

ia

Tbe

ibadat and aiat are only means bo these qualities 'knowledge of these qualities

This knowledge alone

ultimate goal.

the

feo

sU-Mu'amala. qualities of

Id

tbe scion oe

is

necessary to lead one

is

good

the various

of

'tZm

is

patienoe (sabr), thankfulness

the self like

{ikukr), fear {khawf), hope (raja), abstensicn (zukd), as

well as of bad qualities like jealousy (haaad), pride

(kibr).

eelf*esteem ('u/e) etc., and diseusses the real nature and these qualities,

limits of

avoiding them

together with

and training required -end 18

for

and culmination

highest end of

man

it.

with oonduct.

It

wholly absorbed a light

from

this

God

in

light

with

many

the knowledge of

Bis attributes, His heaven, •rtill

the

hell, etc.

truth

By

for

does not deal

it

when man

purifying tbe heart. the

heart of

living.

In

it ia

all spiritual realities

It

man

it

tbe curtain

of

Riven to

such as God,

actions, prophethood,

are

piroelved an

ji*M Z*l* uXJjJ f

is

things chat were vague or were

doubt

if

revelation, is

removed

with one'*

eyes.

IB.

the

It is the

becomes absolutely manifest, and

realities

fffpiritual

it

itself in

only hearsay beoome real and

man

is

Ethioal and praotical

the stage,

after

which reveals

alMukazhafa

al-Mit' amain.

in this world.

oomes at

aequiring and

of

symptoms thereof

the

— '22m

of *ilm

eoienoes are not oonoerned

is

means

the

3 Jo\J\ flc ^*j

all

own

AN EXPOSITION OF AL GHAZZALI'S VIEWS ON THE PROBLEM OP THE PHEEDOM OF THE WILL The problem its ethical

Ha

cf tbe

freedom

of

the

beoause of

will

significance is vary important for aLGbazzali.

discuaaea

it

in

different oonneotionB

works.

his

in

bis treatment of the*

Tha present ohapber brings together problem. Al-Ghazz
argument for the freedom of

He

the will on experience.

oonoeivea

of

world as

the

consisting of three realities, viz., tbe physical {'Alam

Mulk), the mental

Alam

ah

{'Alam al-Jabrut) and the spiritual

The

aUMalakut).

whioh

world

spiritual

it

beyond the ken of the physical senses, oan be apprehended

through intuition only by tbe enlightened.

Gbazzali tbe spiritual world It is essential to

iB

a reality

al-

direotly.

of theBe regions of

take full cognisance

bis experience in cider to

known

To

understand hiB position with.

regard to the problem of the freedom of the will. I

Light tbe wilt by

is

thrown upon the problem

oommon

of the

freedom of

sense and practical experience.

Al-

human oharaoter can be changed and improved indicates that man is free *. The He ethical significance of this discussion is ob?ious

Gbazzali holds that the

fact that

f

asserts emphatically

1.

Is

human

character

ie

capable of

They argue that an expression which Btands for man's inner

improvement.

Khulq

that

Some

Ibya, Vol. 88.70.

people deny

Ill, pp.

48-60

it.

;

Miaacal 'AmsJ,

PP.

53 form, just

a.&

Khalq

(ho cater form

Ghazzali

the

If

ail

meaning,

all

nxhortation,

instruction,

would

matter

of fact,

state

Bnt for

human

of

have anj

to

edncation,

become meaningless.

what would hive been the

these,

society.

As a

not only man bat even animals are capable

human

AI*Ghazzali admits the limits beyond which

cannot ba fruitful

regulate and

them

seif-

trained by praofcicn and instruction.

of being

-efforts

bis

character were

o!

moral imperatives would cease

correct,

fcr

life

whe nrpue against

those

improvement

the

of

practical

in

assertion of

possibility

-diecipline

Neither can be changed. But

experience

brings

evidence.

tbe

man.

of

which stands fcr

an expression

is

discipline

nor

is it

without them

life

out,

desirable that he should

would

dc

ec. fcr

impet'ect rut

not onlj

be

can only

but cannot recti

passions,

his

man

instance,

tor

;

also impossible.

enbanoe the (a)

there

he admits,

Again,

difficulties in the

ohange

;

of oharscter

rf the

the nast.

olasscs of I.

In this

men

respect

b<*

rf thepsssicna

describes frur

:

f

are without ability evil,

ripM:

ignorant, devoid Ibya, Vol69.70.

p&ssicna

8

Those whese character good and

which '

and

Tbe greater habitual gratifioaMrr in

2.

lectors

twr>

Tbe greater inherent strength in certain individuals

(6)

ara

III.

li»

yet unformed,

n distinguish between

and wrenp.

cf reflection

PP.

49

who

;

They aTe

and telf.enc-

M'zan-al-'Amal, np v

54 hare no

sciousneee, will,

and no

belief.

moral

They are not yet wholly

subjected to the pleasures of the senses.

oharacter

suoh

of

men oan

They need only a guide, mioation and motive to a follow

to

the

;l9sires,

and

tbem

excite

a

deter*

aotuate All

path.

right

obildren by nature are tuoh.

mislead

The

be improved

easily.

them

no*

obaraoter,

Their parents

worldly

their

'

thua making thsm greedy and an>

oootrolled.

Those who ire under the control whiab tbay yet regard rb distinguish

evil.

They oan

between gocd and evil developed,

self-aonsoijusnees

is

that the rational

Belf

Yet tbey

of passions,

f of

is

Tbey

realise*

only true

tbe

low their lower

tbey are not

Their

self

accustomed to aot

self.

beoadse rightly.

Tbey have knowledge. They oan be reformed firstly, by uproobiog the evil habits and seoondly by cultivating the virtuous babits.

Suoh men are amenable

to

good influence,

if

they have tbe will to improve their obaraoter.

Those who are addicted

to

evil

ways and are

oocvinoed that those ways are good and to act according to tbem is absolutely necessary-

Tbe frr.w

th9

real nature of things has been

their

obeoured

minds and the gratification

of

lower self dab beoome tbe 'purpose of

their lives.

Their eeif-oonaoiousnesa consists

only of the animal desires.

The rational

55 self

his heon wholly suppressed and rendered

These people have been brought

ineffective.

up on these

To Improre

ideas.

ohara-

their

oter !b almost impossible, because the grounds'

which mislead them ere too many.

ThuBe who

4

the

in addition to being

above, are proud of

ideas mentioned

doing

evil

regard

and

as a

it

others astray and

of leading

thing

honour.

of

ment

of

all

Only a conversion

such a oharaoter

power

can

bring

brought up on

is

Improve-

the hardest of

through

Divine

about a revolutionary

change under these circumstances* It 13

*bout the third and the fourth types of

Qod has

that

J

said

,

"God hHB

Bet

hearts and upon their hearing, and

firjt

type

a seal upon their over thf ir e>cs

is

a

1

oovering, ard there

The

men

is

ib

a great chastisement for them.'

ignorant, the bcc end ignorant and

misguided, the third ignorant, misguided and wicked,

and the fourth ignorant, misguided, wieked and devilish. *

Imprcvement

in character till

man

begins to aot as

a free agent involves deitlopnent. and the seeker of

truth stages

iu

his

upward

flight

may

wholly

evil.

pass through three

4

I,

.

That which by

is

and aet*

passion, It

Quran,

II, 7.

Of.

4.

Ihya, Vol.

J

II, pp.

89-41.

is

overpowered

aooording to Weir

tries te find

dictates.

3.

It

ways and means

/

56 to

been almost

Quran

the

in

This

self.

5

reason has

of

Tbere

extinguished.

The lower

self.

ideal

light

between the

distinction

lower

The

them.

gratify

higher

no

is

and

the

has become the

self

consciousness

oalled

ie

an-N&fs-al.Ammatah,

the

inBinUftfcive self.

U.

That whioh

Ib

and

not settled

is

unstable

Rood or evil, between which there tant Btruggle. Sometimes of the

it is

one and sometimes

tbe other.

of

capable of doing both good and

is

a olear distinction between the lower and

evil

There

reveals itself

occasional impulses which one or.EDot quite

This

oalled in tbo

is

Quran

al-Laiwwamah, the reproaching

has received the

Light.

consciousness--

It

always acts

according to the dictates of reason.

element has been

rendered

an-Waft-

salf.

The Bxedly good and illumined It

It

is

subdue-

3.

a ocrs-

under the Bway

the higher self, but the lower self in

is

in

The

ineffective.

evil

In

snob a consciousness the destructive qualities are eliminated and cultivated.

At

the constructive

this

stage

between the two selves self,

which

the master.

Man

higher

5.

Quran, XII, 08.

6.

Quran,

LXXV,

2.

is

is

the

rnee are distinction

The has hecome

lost to eight-

the true

self

has achieved perfect freedom

57 This rational

has been oalled in the Qaran 7

self

as a&.tfeifg.al'Mutmainnah,

The

the

self

at Peace!

progress from the an-Naf$.al.Ammarah

stage

through

man

the efforts of

man

that

an-Nafs-al-mutmainnah

the

to

stage

indicate ^clearly

free.

is

II

A

close study of

bum an mind

(

Alim

al-Jabrnt, the

Reason, Will, and Power

'Alam

bridge between

world },

the

of

which

is

the

al-Mulk and 'Alam al-M(ilakut

how Ui man is free. Al-Ghazzili analysep the processes in the human mind leading to action, and points ouf; the limits of human freedom and deterreveals

minism ". and

ImprttssiODR

through

human

thfl

internal

in

the

which

and external

senses

and

imagination

heart, affect

unceasingly

enter

one way or the other.

heart, A ic

seneos are closed,

already

idoaa

Even

if

the

ide*a which arc

Imagination

ft

the

afifent

throngh

these ideas shift from one object fo the other and with it

heart patses from one

the

heart

i'e

al'KhawAtir,

i.e.,

idea?,

Whatever

come

to

it

knowle

XXXIX,

Qaran,

8.

fhya, Vol

'•{».

heart an? called of

thought and

apprehended by the

the heart inter.dg, receives, etc.,

most These ideas are the springs

as thonght.

7

the

assail

which consist

rftenllectiann, that, is, the

first

The

aevur in the same state constantly

Whatever impressions

heart

state to the ctber

97.

III, pp.

33-97

;

Tbirt..

35-3P

58 of

human

Thsy

aotioD.

or impulse.

i&olination

leading to al-Vtiqad,

intellect

Conviction

miaaioo of reason.

When

will.

aotioa

will

% e

by a process

if

of

oooviotion or

,

an the

per-

followed by al-Iradah,.

is

formed

is

Of

carried oat.

is

ar-Raghbak, <•»,

This inclination muBt,

place, be followed

aofcioo is to take

>.*.,

first exoite

it

these, idea

exottoa power,

and

and inclination are

not under the complete control of man.

The ideas which two binds 9

laao"

to the operation of will are of

:

good aotion, and

1.

Those which lead

to a

2.

Those whioh lead

to an evil aotion.

known as Ilham, inspiration and the Booond as al.Wa&ws, lit. whisperings of Satan., i.e., Now, these two types of ideas are doe to seductions. different elements in the nature of man, known as The

are

firat

ar-Rabbaniya,

and

Divine,

the

As-Shaitaniya.

the

Satanic.

These elements direot

;

angelic

influence

nature of

in the

forces

of

and satania

the

in

forces,

man

are under the

oosmos,

known

as

whioh are oreated to help

The divine influence whioh enables the heart to receive the good idea is oalled at-Taufiq, the divine aid, and if the Heart or hinder the workings of the universe.

accepts the evil idea,

taken

.

in this

of the angslio 9.

10-

way

it is

oalled

tbe heart of

al-Khidklan, the fot~

man

ia

between thapulli-

10 ani the satanic influences .

Ihya, III, Ihya, III,

p. S3. p.

23.

By nature,

59 however, the heart

equally stHoeptible to the angelio

1b

m

well as the safcanlo influences 1 *.

ie

guided

element

by "aU'A^l",

"al-Ghaaab' tiou

,

,,

by

l;d

<s

i.e.,

,

aah.Bbahwah \

"self-aBsertion"

become a

the

abode

of

has

devil

i.e.,

of 6b 8 devil's

eppetitioa,

solfaetarlion

across the miud

is

medication

innumerable etc.

19

or

ideas

will

flit

tbe moral wreck io spite-

God and

But concentration of mind en

.one

Good and bad

ideas

duration.

quick

in

hucrosfair.n.

remains unaffected by

But the Huccesaion

27;.

p.

the heart are

their

Good and bad

of a Rhort

mind

onnie into

and

to

uiact be concentrated on

The mind

only

(Ibya, III,

reason.

approach

o; tbe saint

thinga

spiritual

of angels*

through the mind c*nnot he

of ideas

controlled.

of himaelf.

and bo the heart But if appetite and

^ximplo, envy, greed, malice,

Tbe paadaga

and Mood of

evil rules,

Satan.

The avenuea

complete!)

flesh

gates to enter the heat t, but the

m*ny

angelj bave only oao,

oflfshouca, fjr

Appsli-

anger).

becomoB the renting plaoe

heart

reason, One

the satsnlo

brought under the subjection of

anger are ruled and

tion

(lit.,

elepaflM

"appefeifcion,"

i.e.,

and njlf-%8aert»on inhabit the tb rough tbeoi the

idea

reason, and

t.e. t

man and

Tbe

The divine

of ideas

cannot be marked.

good and bid ideas.

on God and apiritual

is

A

every

man

in

deep

other thing.

?o quick that che distinc-

The heart

ib

ausoeptibis to both

However, concentration of mind things will greatly promote good

11.

Ihya, III, p 24.

13

Ihya, HI, pp ,7-31.

;;o

ideas and oheok bad ones 18 . Idea

naturally and

is

Man

inclination.

followed by

necessity

of

oannot intervene,

Before pointing out the free or determined nature 'of

the third step, oonviotion,

of reason, action

we may

with

or permission

disoueis the various typeB of

human reason and of human actions

reference to

"Ghazznli gives three types

Natural action

i.

knowledge,

(al-fi'l

Intentional aotion

is raised

or

(al-fi'l

wades through

human

al-Iradi).

If a

a

is

will.

needle

towards the eye, the eyelids are at once cloved.

A man oannot do otherwise an

Th« closing

of the eye-lids

The analysis

in

this

oane

•of

an

intentional aotion gives the following facts 16

If a

14

The displnce-

at-Tabi'i).

natural aotlon, and obviously unaffected by 2.

will.

:

man swims

-ment of water as a

human

is

man moves

intentional

aotion.

a needle towards one

a drawn sword towards one's head,

:

?

eyeB cr moves

one's eyes

former oase will at once be closed and

in

:

in

the

the latter oase

one's hand will suddenly be raised to shield one's

head.

These prompt aotions are duo to the consciousness of the evils to be avoided,

and

this given rise tc

volition which

movoB the eye and the hand without the Intentional

aotions are

conscious processes. its

least delay

not blind responses, hut are

When

a needle or a

sword

is

raised,

perception comes to the mind and the knowledge of the

dangers to be avoided IS

is

aroused

Ibya. III.pp. SB A-IQ

14.

Ibya, Vol. IV, pp. 219

15-

Ihya, Vol. IV,

p.

919-

fi

at

onoe,

This

gives

61

rUe

and the vuhtiou causes movements.

to volition

Ilia natural aa well as the intentional

actions

are-

both involuntary and necessary. The difference between the

two

is

the intentional action

that

perception and knowledge, while in paroeption of the objeot

in

which an alternative

the natural

Allaotione

(al-fi'l-al-ikhtiyarl).

is

possible and

reason makes a

ohoioe, are voluntary aotions, for example*

to the

committing,

of

our actions in our dally practical

In this respect

we can say that things presented

suicide, life.

aotioa-

not there

is

Voluntary action

3.

preceded by

ib

snd most

mind are

two types lC .

of

Those wbioh our iutrospeotion or observation.

(t) '

pronounces without deliberation as agreeabhv

Nj

or diuagr&eable. to the

(u)

alternative

presented,

mind.

Those about which our reason hesitates

Here an

pronounce bucu a judgement.

native is presented to the mind. of tbe first is that of the

o(

averting therefore this

the

dangor

we do not

knowledge our

our power

is

this

yet the intention

Ihye, Vol. IV,

Most p.

of a

needle

that

she

On

hesitate.

will iB al

aooount of

onoe formed and order to avoid

our eye-lids at onoe closed.

aotion

deliberation.

alter-

advantageous and.

reused to act in

the needle and

Though

movement

ia

to

The example

Here we know

towards our eyes

16.

is

happened with intention,

w%b without hesitation or cf

219.

our aotions where we

62 have a choice are voluntary actions. reason

oases

we know whether

Until

be exebuted

or

hesitates

In these

suspended

is

the action whioh

we need

agreeable or not, and

is

is to

deliberation until the intellect decides in favour of acceptance or rejection.

This

however, a complex process during whioh the Stitanic element in man tries to sway deoision of reason.

But

is,

it is

for reason to

repel

tier en t strength' of the instinots of appetition

assertion, and

the

and

in* self*

tendencies formed by previous acts are

factors 'which often disturb the

But when

The

on-slaughts.

its

intellect

the will to exeoute

balance of this conflict.

decides finally,

the action,

it iB

foTlcwed by

and the action will be

executed unless there are any external

hindrances in

the way, e.

this will is too

sometimes the source of

g.,

weak, to shake

off

the inertia, yet

if

the first idea

is

attractive to the heart, this will become strong and firm.

Even

then, sometimes something

still

more powerful

suddenly claims ones attention and one forgets

all

about it 17 . voluntary aotions too will

In'

as

ledge,

Now

is

it

produoed

this will whioh-is

in the

is

produced by know-

first

kind of actions.

produoed after deliberation, when *

i

(

translated •'tthtiyar",

Into lit.

acceptance or ohoioe.,

i. «.,

rejection

freedom.

constitutes

The

word

from "Ehair" whioh means "bood So "al-Ikhtiyar" means the choice of an When the dec'sim of the inMfecfc idea or an ebjeoot.

''al.lkhtiyar''

is, derived

;

'.

17.

Thya, Vol Hf, pp. 39-37.

63 1 is aeoepesd as good, one is impelled to not aoocrdtagl; *.

From

this

determined

natural

io

we understand

discourse

and intentional actions

voluntary actions the ooenrrenoe of an idea

daelre

not under

it

his reason

what he

in

is

1

'.

ib

In

followed

other words, the oocurrenoe of

or, in

fcy inolioatioo,

man

that

the complete

control of

Thus man

free to choose.

is

man

;

free to

but

do

desires, nut hie desiring is net in hi $ power. 90

Ill In Ghazzali another apparently opposite tendency stands oat clearly. On the one hand, man can make or

mar God

himself, he is

will.

to

oboose, and, on

of everything.

Whom He

wills,

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 219.

19.

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 219.

90.

Ihya, Vol. IV. pp. 218-219 ;-

(Aj>

—Of.

jrfffl

J

the other,

Nothing happens

18.

£*r 3 f

free

the disposer

without Hit

l

is

He

gu'des aright

Zy u* rt U ,\ai J ajj Ji pi^ f >U

»J« >\&t

U

Quran. Ch 77, 30-31

J*A>

Jb

*J1

f

"This

y,

J3 3 UM\

a reminder so Whoever please tikei to his Lord a way. And yea do :

not please except tbet God pleases. aitease to

enter His mrrev nnd for

firepaied painful chastisement".

is

He nukes whom he the unjnrt, He has

64 and whoa? He wills decides

He

what he ohooseB

He wishes and

astray.

leads All

heavenB add earth

in

41

proceeds from Him''

To understand

.

doable tendency in

this apparently

Ghazeali with regard to freedom and compulsion, the responsibility of actions attributed to

now

Ood and man, we

turn to another aspect of the problem.

Hume

Ghazzali, like

700 years

after, holds the

sequenoe

theory and rejects the efficiency theory of causation 8 *. 21.

2U-223.

XXI, 22. (a)

For a

&

Ill, pp. 41

Ihya, Vol.

42. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.

Quran, VI, 125; LXXXII, 13, 14;

Cf.

23, etc full

discussion of this theory see Ghazzali 'a

Tahafut,

220-223

277-296

pp

Ihya, Vol. IV,

pp.

Obermann, Dar PhiloBOphieehe

also

;

;

uod ReligioUBe Subjeotivisunis Ghazzali's (L^ipzing, 1929) pp. 6B-85. (6)

D. B.

Mao Donald,

"Jcurnal of Amerioan Orien-

tal Sooiety for 1699,''

says,

''Id

the Tahafut

philosophers as

in

Vol.

bip and

times

earlier

XX,

part

he bad

thigh;

I,

p 103,

smitten

the

he had turned,,

al.A B h'ari,

their

own

weapons against them, and had shown that with their premises and method no oertainty oould be reached. the extreme of

In

that

intellectual

book he goes to scepticism,

and,

seven hundred years before Hume, he outs the bond

of

oausalifcy

with the edge of hi*

(

dlaleotio,

and proclaims that we oan know (S» on Mxt page)

65 Ghazzali denies that anything ean prodaee anything*

There

There

no power

ie

ii

in

the cause to produce the effect.

no causal ronnection between

They

thlngi.

We Bee

era Dot oonneoted bat conjoined.

one thing:

preceding the other over and over again, and through habit begin to think that they are oonneoted. In reality there

ie

nothing ae oauee whioh prodaoei

effect.

The-

fact ie that antecedents have consequents. 90

"God alone have

ie

tbe effioiect cause, bat the ignorant

misunderstood

and

mis-applied

the

word

power."*"

"Ae

to the orderly succession,

let it

be understood

that the two events are oonjoined like relations between, the 'oondition and the conditioned', Now, certain

conditions are very apparent and oan be

even by moo

of

little

understanding.

conditions whioh are understood eee

known easily But tbere are

through the ligbt of intuition.

only

by

thoee who-

Henoe the common

error of miscalculating the uniformity of events"

1

.

{Continued from page 64)

nothing of oaase or

effect,

but simply that

one thing follows another/' Benan, "Averroei'V p.

in

74t hie

"Hume

n'a

rine dit de plus".

book "Melange"

(p.

Hunk

879) hae admirably

summarizd tbe arguments of Ghazzali against causality,

99,

Ihya, Vol. IV, p. 930.

94.

Ihya, Vol. IV, p. 230.

9*.

Ihya, Vol, IV, p. 990.

:

Thermit a divine purpose finking the antecedents to the ooueequente and nMuifeBting itself in tin exltting- orderfty-fuoeeesion of events* without the leaf! breach or irregularity" ill

Scnae events succeed othexs

.

as (he

orderly: succession,

We

condition in occurrence.

conditioned followe the

oannot say that

body

been oauled by the body, though ditlon

of

life.

In

is

life

hae

the con*

eame way, we must imagine events in tfce univeTBe. What*

the

the orderly succession of

ever happens in the heaven b or

on

the earth, happen

according to a necessary and true order. As they occur, bo mnet they ooeur. No other order can be conceived or

Imagined 97 . Ihya, Vol. IV, p. 220

86.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

27.

p.

220.

>& V3

r

*3£

tf NI3

like Leibnitz, believes fjL^'j ijH^.Vl J*'*** Ghazzali, that the order of the things in whioh they occur is the

only true order and

plan of the knowledge-

it

is

according to the pre-ordained

Creator who knew everything by foreNo other order than the one in which the

thing* happen can be conceived. the'

moat complete

if

there

it

and

was

He

a better

did not

This

the perfect and

And arrangement and God oould make

of the possible arrangements.

make

it,

then

niggardliness on the part of God.

goodness and

is

shows a kind of This is against Hie

it

therefore impossible. ,4nd *

if

{m on

God was next pee*}

67 '

Quran

Verity", sevy* the

•

eport.

most

We

wbat

the earth and

feeavens and

** ,

did not create* the

between them in

1b

not create then both bnt with troth. Bat them do not know." (Gf. Quran, XLIY,

We did of

£8, 39). In Bhort,

God oreated

life,

knowledge, will and aetlon,

on the one band, and, on the other an order (a system) He imposed tbe order upon the external to them. These items must oonform to the crder external items. this order cf succession

to bnt imposed upon them,

obligatory and necessary and •planning

which

(

aUhikmat al-azaliya

very

is

is (

the result of divine

Ihya.VoI.

IV,

921

p.

),

Gbazztli does not

under stand.

difficult to

Is

-want to enter into the metsphysical implications of this problem, because bis aim is only to warn in the

way

of

Tauhid wbich leads to action

Qbizzali,

as

we have

seen,

denies cause

sense of power or efficient force wben

Tbe

than God.

other

efficient

in

the

applied to things

cause

is

cnly

one.

According to him there is only one eternal power (aUqudrat al-agaliv<*) which iB the cause of all created

The meaning

things.

from page

unable to make

wisdom. lore

it

ie

But He

better, is

is

power

is

one.

AH

ie

known other

66)

all

unthinkable.

and there neauty.

It

eternal

The substance

only to the illumined. (Continued

of th*R

it

is

against His power

and

powerful and

all-wise.

There-

So whatever

is, is for

the beet

everywhere

great harmony,

(Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 220-921).

order end

68 things are

The doer

they are created.

accidents,

it

only one.

Man

is

the author

aotions from one point

of his

and Qod from another.

of view

The

relation of man's

the one hand, to his power and will,

aotions. on

is like

the oonneotion of the conditioned with the oondition;

and the relation of man's aotlon to the divine power, on the other hand, is like the oonneotion of the effeot with

its

Bat by common usage anything which connected with power, though it be onlytjae

oause.

If visibly

abode or channel (Mahall) of power,

God

"oause". oreative

'

is

power.

is

regarded as

the real oause of man's aotions, as

But man

apparent cause of

the

is

a>

aotions as in him the manifestation of uniform succession of events takes place. to

God has found

One who

attributes all his aotions*

the truth and has reached the real

souroe.

Thus we have the apparent paradox that man is •determined in his freedom 10 . The Ash'arites use for this kind of determined freedom the word 'Kasb'.

When

fire

bums,

burns out of necessity (jabrX

it

It is completely determined.

action

nor

is

He

between the two.

free as

God.

God is

the

it is

sum

Ikhtiyar, but that of

man's

will is

as.

wholly

of

man

Man's

is

fire,

neither against

For those who have

the two.

is

fiee.

not determined as

'Kasb' (acquisition)

freedom nor against determinism. insight,

is

God's

aotion

is

not like that of God, because-

formed after hesitation and deliberation,

ay.,

vol. iv, p.

aaoi— J* ijst**J> '4*

Whieh

impossible in the case of God.

is

Deliberation

fa

doe to laok of knowledge. God's knowledge ie perBe need no deliberation for Hie lkhtiyar', fect. «',

e. t

ohoioe 9 '-

The word oause 29. of

W. R.

Of.

ie

osed in the Quran in .different

Sorely

"Moral Valnee and

:

God", Cambridge, 1918,

a conception

446*447.

pp.

it ie

tense that we mast speak of such a mind as apeak of cbcioe between alternatives other than

in tbie

free-

To

suggest that

to

is

Idea

we form

'If

mind,

a perfect or infinite

of

tbe-

best might be chosen and this would

(Tie

be

inconsistent with the idea of perfection.

"A

finite

mind, limited

knowledge and power

in

and distracted by desires other than the

may

bare

yet

wbioh

tion,

Is

a

measure

partial

will of goodness,

of self-determina-

complete only in the

It

infinite

incompletely determined by foroes externa) to

And

it

if

stands as

itself.

realm of

between the

does

it

is

nature and the realm of goodness, eonsciou? of the good

and yet

beset

forel) than the

by

many

relative

taneity of snch a mind

to direct to

allow

temptations to

fall

independence ot

may

be exhibited

it?

own path toward

it

to lapse into evil.

the gnal ..

Tts

cf

to a

lower

partial sponin

tbe

power

goodness or

freedom will not be

complete agreement with the ideal cf goodness but wilt

it

exclude total subordination to the forces beyond

itself,

and give opportunity

log the

good,

activity will 'be spontaneity.''

In spite

of

recognized

for its

choosing

and aerv

restrictions.

as possessing

a

human* cere of

7ff"

Hbki you

:

"The angel

yon

shall cause

shall be

of death

brought

bo die

;

who then

to your

(XXXIUI).

beak''

soul, at the time of their death"

given -charge of

is

Lord you

"Allah takes the

"Have

(XXXIX-49).

"We

you oonaidered what you saw ?" (LVI-63)

pour

down the water pouring it down io abundanoe. Then' we cause to grow therein graio" (LXXX-96-97). Fight them

:

Allah shall ohastiae them by your hands and

bring them

to disgraoe"

(IX- 1 4).

"So

will*

you did not

waa Allah who slew them, and thou* didst not smite when thou didst smite hut it waa Allah

slay them,

who

smote,

good

gift

but

that

He might

from Himself"

befalleth thee

of

it

(0 man)

befalleth thee

ill

oonfer upon the believers a

"Whatever good from Allah, ana whatever

(VIII. 17). it is

from

it is

thyself.''

"Ghazztli points out that negation and affirmation for

otia

and the same aotioo throw new

nature of causal ion.

and

light

on the

Negation affirms God as the real

Affirmation establishes man' a free will faithfully eseouting divine order 80 ". efficient cause,

The above passages show that the word BigniGes creative power, and must be applied alone. to

But as man's power

is

God alone

is

the

word must be applied

to

oauee''

to

God>

the image of God's power,

him the word ha* been applied only

sense.

'

io its

seoondary

real effioient cause,

Him

in

its

and the

root sense,

».*.,

power. Is not everything delusive except God • A thing which oannot exist without ths help of the other is not 30.

Ihya. Vol. IV,

p.

231.

-

71

real bad delusive.

There

existenoe of God.

He

only one saeb existence, the

is

alone

tence of all other things depends upon Him. it

He

in His grip.

He

is

is

last.

He

is

He

eternal

is

and

other in an orderly succession.

point of view of the seeker. is

He

first

the first and

and tbe all

hidden

to those

world through see

an*

after

the last from the

is

He

So

experience.

is

tbe first in

Similarly,

Him in this and He is manifest

who want

to Bee

their senses,

Him through

last.

created

In his spiritaal progress,

the last stags to bo reached.

existence and the last id

who

is

oompared with

as

first

Everything

They have emanated from Him one

things.

He

He

and tbe

the eternal

.exis-

and tbe everlasting.

the eternal

the manifest acd tbe bidden.

the

Ths

is self-eslsting.

ths eye of reaEon and to

He

ie

sensible to those

whom

the

mysteries of the snpersenauous world have been unfolded.

This

ths dootriue of

is

tenoe) whioh

means thao

"Tauhld" (Unity of Bxls-

the causes, nay, all activity

all

mental or material begins and terminates in the

first cause,

thrown

determinism aod freedom

resume of a long aod

asked

of

the

uw a itself

will

by giving a brief

allegory

views"

1 :

which

it

el*

—

paper with a Bpot of ink on

paper why

paper excused

the

on the problem of

detailed

oites to illustrate his

A devotee

le

the mov9r and fashioner of the universe.

Further light oan be

Qhazzah

Him who

had blackened

it.

its faoe.

He).

The

bv making the ink responsible for

The ink being asked, made the pen responsible, saying that it was living iD an inkpot quite innocently it.

I!.

Piy*. Vol. [V, pp.

Will

8.

72 when the pen disturbed part

bo

'tried

prove

The pen on

comfort.

its

innooenee and related

its

history and the oruelty of the hand In depriving

home and removing ;koife

and then patting

the ink from

and

it

skin and shaping

its

its life

it

of its

with a sharp

it

ink-pot and removing

into the

it

its

letting it fall

The

on the paper.

pen had no power and the hand wbb wholly responsible

The hand on

for the spot. lity to

do anything

of its

its

own

part explained

accord.

its inabi-

was no better

It

was moved only by Power without which it was no better tban a dead mass The devotee then asked Power which •of matter.

"than a pieoe

answered thus the hand

I

was neither


I

know

me and

resist

it

its

in

''Knowledge,'

:

.

who

raise

my

obedienoe.

sent

I

action do-

By nature

my

certain agent

is

I

had do

called 'Will.'

cf

Will when

an agent named

delivered his message to

I the ability

work.

to

Tbe answer

"The mind

remain 60 as long as rates.

me

This agent

orders.

-compelled to obey, though

of

A

accord.

obliged

latent in

was absolutely

I

motion nor had

my own

Power

was

I

moved.

it

only by name "

asked for was

Beason to

of

It

not to blame,

before

to impart motion

power to

am

"I

:

long

inaotive.

or stone.

of olay

to

ard

I

me through was

s'noply

not know the rpasco I

am

inactive

and

1

master hesitates aad delibe-

As soon as he has decided, I accept bis orders

unquestionably.

So please do

not

rebuke

me

but

The devjytee then tnrned to Mind, Knowledge and Beason for an explanation. Beason «»id that it was a lamp which was not self-illumined «ud did not know who lighted it. Mind replied that ask Knowledge."

— 73 was a mere tabvXa rata whioh bed been spread by some •one other than himself. Knowledge excused ilaeU by taring that it wee a mere inscription made on tablet it

the lamp

after

had

Reason

of

Knowledge was not the anthor

"Ton

better aBk the Fen 89 ," said

become

luminous*

the inscription!*

of

Knowledge, "as there '

no inscription without the Pen."

•oan be

When

the devotee heard

from Knowledge abont

Pen, Lamp, Tablet, Inscription, etc, he was perplexed

and made tbe observation that he wan being driven from pillar

to

without getting a

poet

satisfactory

reply.

Hitherto be bad been receiving soma concrete answers, hot the hub were given by Knowledge had out the ground

from under

Tbe

bis feet and he

knew noTwhere of

other than three lighted with

other than paper cr

tablet

oil

and

metal, the fire,

Lamp

tbe Writing

ordinary pen en ordinary

with

wri'len

wood or

were wholly incomprehensible to him.

was, therefore, wholly at a loss wbat ts do.

Knowledge, bearing the complaints answered thut he (the devotee) was in a

position

In

to

attentively,

i.e.

he was nod

right, for

But

goal, ha

flaemg

must

that

if

he was

determined

ftill

to

Knowledge mcBt

tbe devotee

was determined,

listen

Knowledge proceeded as follows "Tour journey consists of three stages 32.

the devotee

pursue the path successfully and

reach the destination. atfain his

of

rcuticue hie journey, net having the

equipment necessary

to

go next.

ink, the reed, the pen, the hand, etc., could be seen.

But tbe Tablet other than that

He

to

the celestial Pen.

:

(l;

The

'

74 terrestrial

wot Id {'Alam

nl-itvik), the objects

oew be perceived- with the physioal senses.

you haye

left

behind.

al'Mcukut) whioh

lies

(2)

The

beyond

celestial

which

of

This region!

world ('41am-

The

the physical sen fee.

1

Pen whioh writes on the heart belongs to this world whioh will begin wben yon see this Pec. This world is full of

dangers and

overoome them.

(3)

I

do not know you

The intermediate world

Jabnti) or the world of power.

two and serves as a

It lies

tor

will be able l

{

Alam

between the

«f-

first

You have traPower, Will and Enow-

link between them.

velled three stages of this, wz., ledge.

'The celestial world begins when the Pen whioh reoordi Knowledge on the heart becomes visible and

man

acquires unshaken faith of the reality of the unseen

world.

If

you cannot

Pan then

the

see

you better

discontinue your journey.'

The devotee opened his eyes wide to see the celestial Pen, as he was in the habit of seeing a physical pen. His mind was accustomed to experience the thingB of the physical world.

He

to

failed

see the celestial Pen.

Knowledge again helped him by giving him further hints to have conception of tbe celestial world which was devoid of £hyaioal determinations and limit?, and prooee<

house

is

way

"The furniture

of the

aceordicg to the status of the dweller*

Now,

ded to explain

God does not

in

this

:

resemble anything.

also transcendental.

Ha

i»

So His attributes are

beyond spaoe and time.

Hie

Hand, Poo, Writing, Speaking, etc are unlike the thing* we experience in this world.' One who has a right con* .

75 caption of

You do Thai

Him oan

apprehend

there are

their apprehension

Bin:

of

(1)

all

tiotfa

of metaphor.

Him as an Those who believe Him to-

Those who ooneelve

(2)

(3)

be neither of the two and yet both. position.

lb

They hold a middle

Beams that you belong to this position..

believe, that

Be

immaterial and yet you oaonofc

is

have a transcendental conception

of

His Hand, Ben

1

Tablet.'

As

this learned

oisCooree of

shortcomings.

This realisa-

the devotee beard

Knowledge, he realised tion

of

material limitations bat also above the limita*

anthropomorphic being.

and

faia

waa the starting point

of

essence of the reality

shame and

self

his ascent.

things aroused in

o(

of.

realities.

Tne<

Knowledge dawned upon his heart and the ear*

tains from

hia eyes

fell

spiritual realities ae they

el Knowledge for

its

it

writes

away.

He

witnessed

Now

the

The devotee then thank*

were

invaluable help and proceeded

bia journey further.

why

him a sense

reproaoh which tore away the curtain-

whieb was hindering him from seeing the light of

Hie cen»

regarding the nature and.

seioneneas of bia ignorance

to

HJm~

men ai regard* Those who conceive* Him to be not only

thne categories

as transcendental and believe

above

You

attribute*

not seem to have a right conception of

listen,,

Him

Him and Hit

on

be asked the invisible Pen as-

sciences on

toe heart of men, which-

produoe Will whiob move the I*ower whereby voluntary actions result.

The

the inquiry to the activities.

invisible

Pen

tqld

Hand which was

The Hand

told

him

him

to address* „

the cause of it*

to direct his inquiries

tJ

76 "to the

Power.

'received

The devotee then asked

the aniwer

"I

:

em

the

Power end

merely a quality, yon

should better ask the possessor of the quality." The 4evotee was about to ask the Omnipotent, when he beard

a voice from on high, saying : "He oannot be asked 88 -what He does, and they shall be asked ." The devotee -was overawed and beoame unconscious, in whleh state

When

he remained for a long time.

he oeme to bis

senses, he poured forth his beart in silence

-divine

and bene6eent.

forgiveness

•God "the

I

open

knot of

-curtain,

I

fear

shall

"Thou

art

Thy

no mortal.

my solace. Thy meroy is my refuse. 0, my heart so that I may know Thee. Untie my tongue " A voice oame from behind the is

do not transcend the

"Stop,

Return and follow them

prophets-

•

limits

of

in everything.

the

Take

what ibey give you and do what they ask ynu to do. Ton can have only this from the Divine favour, that 'you have known the great faob that you oannot

Sim, His beauty and grandeur" 4

When

the devotee heard

know

.

the vtoice

be realized his

and returned to the World of Power {'Alam al* Jabrut) and accepted the excuses of Knowledge, Season, limits

Will, Power, the hand, the pen

,

because the devotee had realized

only cause

(fa'il).

the ink and the paper,

now

that

Gcd was

causes were merely such in a metaphorical sense, thing

the

The other substances spoken of as

Him and

proceeds from

XX

38,

Quran,

34.

Ihya.Vol. IV,

t,

23. p.

91V.

returns to Him.

Every

He

is

77 the first and the last, the manifest

and the hidden,

btta-

arohiteot of the universe.

would not have been

It

derived his dootrine of

God

logical

if

al-Ghazzsli had

as the cause of all oauses>

from his sequence theory of causation. It seems thatal*Ghazzali derived hie sequence theory from his realization of

God

as the sole cause and

the moving foroe in

the universe.

Al-Ghazzali describes four olasses of those fess

faith

the dootrine

in

of

who

the one Doer.

pro-

Of

these'

by

faith,,

only two relevant classes need be mentioned. 1.

The common people who

believe in

it

or on the basiB of philosophy. 2.

The

'illumined'

who had

a vieion of Reality,

and spiritually realized that

He

is all in all. the>

only Doer, the only Mover*

This experience

is,

in rare oases, a

permanent

state.

In other minds this vision sometimes flashes through, like lightning.

experience

is

But

more

to the illumined the evidence of this-

real than that of the physical senses.

AWGhazzali was not only a great philosopher but a great mystic too.

freedom

of

man

is

His position with regard

to

the

based upon his study mad experience

phenomenal and the transoedental worlds ('4fof». aUMulk, 'Alatn al.Jabrut and 'Alam aUMalakut), This of the

what explains his apparently pared oiioal man it determined and yet free. is

position, thai

AL-GHAZZAXL'S APPROACH TO ULTIMATE

BBALITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE RELATION OF THOUGHT AND INTUITION IN HIS AND IQBAL'S SYSTEMS. SYNOPSIS 1.

The three grades (

knowledge

of the

deduction and

imitation)

of

God, taqlid 'ilm

iD tuition

al-

mukashafa ? II,

(i) (li)

What

is

'ilm al-mukashafa ?

'Ilm al-mukashafa of non-seekers of God.

(iii)

Saints without 'ilm al-mukashafa.

(iy)

The roots

of 'ilm

God and yearning III.

(i)

al-mukashafa in lore of for

Him.

The two worlds— Sensual and shadow, the

effect

or

the

spiritual-one

symbol of the

other. (ii)

Man must

naturally yearn

the

for

know*

ledge of the spiritual world. i

(iii)

IV,

(i)

Physical world-Spiritual World.

Man

is

endowed with the power

hend the (ii)

to appre-

spiritual world-Beascn.

Reason, a spiritual essence equipped with the genies essential for existence in of time and space.

this

This equipment

which might, through

wocld

is

a veil

purification, be

made The

Into a transparent glass as

It

were.

79 veil will be

dropped temporarily daring this

life br well, if

the light of reason

an corrupted, and there

knowledge V.

of

is

pure and

a desire lor the

in

Gcd.

AKGhazzali has been cherged by Dr. Sir

Muhammad

Iqbal with the ignoranoe of the following:— (i)

That thought and

are

intuition

organically

related. (iii)

That the finitude

by

its

of

thought

it

very nature,

eompiement and

That thought and intuition


imposed upon

i*

rejuvenate each other. (iv)

That iotniticn

is

only a higher form of intellect.

Bat al-Ghazzali exactly holds the views with the ignoranoe of which he has been charged.

AUGhazzali does not deny thought as mean a of reaching the infinite. In what eenes he believes it

and

in

Again, Dr.

what eenpe be denies

It

?

Iqbal charges al-Ghazzali with

the

ignorance cf the dynamic nature and the internal infinitude of thought Al-Ghaz^ali'e

conception

of

the

infinitude

of

thought and process of knowledge. VI.

Forme U)

of intuitive experience,

llham.

Dropping of

att

tlkam-wahy.

idea in the mind, the

"whence" and "how" cf which is not underExample from al-Ghazzali'e life. stood. (II)

(iii)

In sleep

While awake, intuition of an

idea clothed

in

80 forms. In muraqaba, sudden dropping

familiar

of the veil of the senses.

may

Intuition

be symbolic- idea or impression

from unseen world clothed directly from the storehouse

in

images

memory within

of

the-

range of experience, VII.

Beality seen face to faoe-Ezample.

Inherent of

acquiring

difficulties in

the

knowledge

God. Mysteries and wondsrs of the world, an evi-

(i)

dence of God.

them when

But we come

in oontaot

with

immature, later on they

'
appear as common-place. The veil of domi-

nance

of passions

and appetites.

God's Light by which everything manifestsitself and even exists, like the light whioh

(ii)

manifests colour.

Method

observed.

Were God

to

He

is

too obvious to be

of contraries inapplicable.

be withdrawn

the universe-

would collapse simultaneously. VIII.

l

Ilm al-mukashafa

that

God

being.

is

the

at its highest reveals not only

only Light but also the only

Everything exists

in

its

God-aspect.

Nobbing but God exists by itself. This iB called of God-Unitarian realising One-and Onliness experience,

misunderstood

as ittihad,

highest

Next stage

in progress:

Descent-

point of ascent.

Goal

of goals,

what next

?

31

Foot Note

.

—

Exirainabion

(i)

conception uf

of

aNGhazzali's

Goi

re-pantheism.

Writer's opinion of al-Gbazzali'B priBil'ion.

view

Brief

(ii)

of

Mujaddid Ahmad

Sirhindi about descent: quotation

T

from

Dr.

Iqbal

game

the

to

effeot.

IX.

The

knowledge

veils to the

classification of

the veils

men and

pure

of

Various to the tia for

find

movement

creede;

men who bave

men who

God

of the

light

and

are unveiled.

absolutely unpredioahle. to the relation of

relating

beliefs

Al-Ghazzali's

darkness, mixed

darkness, euro light and

The unveiled

God.

of

God

heaven made the differen-

various grades cf the gnostics of Allah.

The problem

ot muta', the

Obeyed One.

Gairdner's opinion that this eobeme embodies the

opinion that the sohetie

ciency

Writer

al-Ghazzali,

inner-most thoughts of is

stupendous but

thought out-Why ?

insuffi-

AI-Ghazzali's atti-

tude as revealed in his life-work.

There are variuus grades of the knowledge of God.

Tbt lowest gride

is

the faith of the

bated on authority and tradition. if

oommou

people

The higher grade

the knowledge of the learned based on deduction and

reflection.

Bui

ti*k4*tofi$

(Ihyt*

the

highest

Vol. 8, 14

knowledge ;

Vol. 1.

is

PP-

't/m

o?-

18-19)

82 "Ilm

the light

that)

purged of 'ilm

6cd

Muamald

al.-

knowledge which

God 35 ,

cf

forms

comes

irrespective

No. 293

One

Mnkashafa.

cf these

who

is

through

17).

It

is

the

intimates (BidJirjio)'

the

the

unseen.

sufiem are agreed

that

certain

Sirhindi

aots;

common they

religion

points

two

relates to

and His

it

and

that there are

)

p.

3,

God

to

what

of

when

virtues,

experiences ara

Ahmad

attributes,

to

and relates

of visionary

Mujaddid

Vol.

the result of

is

the heart

with

filled

(Ihya,

Writers on

35.

icto

instils

and

vioes

certitude whioh

a

i-.l-Mitkashqfa- is

heloug

out

forms

to

of

to.

Epistle,

( l

men,

Ilm

«*•

the knowledge of God, His

this iB

the peouliar privilege

The second

are rear unto Allah.

is

tits

of information relating to the unseen in Ibis world of

men

and their

self-discipline

affairs.

This latter can bo acquired by

and freedom from dominance

of the senses

by those who do not seek God. Thoee who are filled God and are always occupied with hie 'with the love Temembrunce, nay no heed to this world and are often .even

deficient in

therefore,

They His

this

not

type

'ilm al-Hukashafa t

recognized

by

the

common

are ceoupied with that which relates to

aotsi in

and are, people.

God and

which kind of knowledge the common people

are not interested.

make

of

Al-Gbazzali,

this distinction clearly,

though he did uct

pointed

oat that 'Urn al-

JAukashafa relates to tbe knowledge of God, the essence cf things, and that it cannot be attained without acquiring 'ilm at-mu'amala, of wbioh tbe love of God »nd (See on fuxtp^pt)

33 Its basis

One

or experience.

vision

diieofc

ia

with certainty through personal ixpener.ce

realizes

truths

',he

whlcsh formerly one accepted od the eviicj.c? of antbcj ity

or deduction.

nature Kfcion

of

Beliovevg hold

diflforeur.

vi-->v g

tiio

fjhoijfc

God, angels, fljivon, Uell, Prophbl-hood, reve-

and essence

of things,

But through 'ilm nZ-M^'ca-

shafa doubte are removed and realities are revealed

somotimea f

Ilm al-Wukiishafa

is

oomeR with

»,

pi umigea

Ainther

pingle leap.

His grace to those who

However, the myetur its

that are »ot earth will bs revealed in thb next 30

r.-t

rare

Tiic'xr

teat

But

His way.

in

ceil

[

In

Grew.

Divine

is

h

n? ouc'b

Sometime?.

purified.

determines 'ilm al-Mukustiafa

God

cft<jn fiyusbolieal'y.

acquired gradually

become? more and more o^eflH, iu

though

in their np.kednes9,

revcu.'»d

en

tbin

.

[Oontimwl

thirst for the fcant

p ige

from,

aspacL

3, p. 12) that

S2)

knowledge

Ho it

a

tion cf the heart

Reality

of.

Sirhindi

arrives

the meet lujpcr-

has unambiguously pointed

man

oooupiep himself with

cut llbja,

Whatever then

al-^Iiik
exactly

as

pur -Sua-

Llit-

and does not seek God he

attain the kaowl&dg j of Gad. will no<; be 'Tint

is

will ire

not

attains

Eveu Mniaddid Ahmad the

corclupion.

satiiC

Moreover, AU*h doaa not look upau

this effurS b,dJ

kind ot knowledge with favour f*r

keeps

it

man

this

occupied

with non-God 36.

teries of
Visionary exparienoes and knowledge

God

are no eer bain criterion

nearness to

Allah.

g

for

ot

mys-

determining

llm-alAIukMhufa

brings

ft

{Sea on »sri p'xge)

c4 Sc

who

be

Mnknshafa as ledge

aeeka

God

He

his goal.

knew God and the essence through 'ilm vLMuamalu,

biaieelf

starts -with tnqltd

oouteuiplauoD and

by

(

before

sets

t2m

j,U

and know-

but aeakB to

meditation,

6f things directly for himself

Al-Ghazzali conceives the world as havibg

naming them

faoes (Miehkat aJ-Anwar, p. 28),

as the material ('Alam al-Mahsiw or

two

differently

Mushah adah or mulk).

and the Celestial world ('Alam aUMalakut) or the world of

i

enHOs ('Alam

al-Hissi)

and the world

of intelligence

('Alam al-Aqli) or the Higher World ("AlamaVAlaw) and tho

Lower World ('Alam

mean one and the fame world

is

All these expressions

al-Sifh).

This transcendental

thing.

beyond the ken of sense and imagination.

physical world

is

a direct consequence, a

the

World

the form to

lowness to

the

Celestial as rind

to the kernel, or

is

as

or as darkness to light, and

spirit,

loftiness"'

manifestation,

"The lean world-

a symbol of the transcendental world. is to

The

He who

never

yearns for the

kaowiegde of the spiritual world and remains occupied (Contuenued from pago 83) certitude

of

(biddiqio) ol

knowledge.

There are often

God who are granted

true ones

this certitude

without

visionary experienoeB or other forms of 'ilm aUMukashfa.

Buf al-Ghazzali would heart of the

regard this certitude fixed in

Friend (Wali) of

God

the

as a form of ilham

dropped in the heart without the Friend's consciousness of its souices or its manner of coming to him, aftd fn ills

opinion this would constitute one at the real fartta

4>f 'ilm

al'MukathafcL.

\

8ft

-wholly with the seen world

man

unBeen world as

It ie only

worse than

a brute, nay,

net furnished with wings for

that, for the brutes are flight to the

ie

ib-

through the physical world that one can

rite to the spiritual world, for th6y ere related

The

other intrinsically.

world that

to

each

beyond the

ia

may, from the

apprehension of sense and imagination

viewpoint of the pilgrim to God, be called the Fold of the

There are folds within folds and

Divine, the Holiness.

no man

he has traversed

shall attain untc Allah until

the highest.

Thus, there are grades

of

aeceneion in

the

and the pilgrim's progress alsng the 'Straight Path (Qur'an. 1,4) ie his progress through

spiritual world,

these folds (Misbkat al-Anwar, pp. 28-29).

The lowest

earth

from which

heaven

cf the

of the pilgrim is that

prooeede hiB bodily movement

his

;

from the next heaver above, and neit itt

From

above

etill

upward

flight to

Besses from the

his

here the soul canals wings for

wiu; seems unity with Prre Deity, a

Seven-Fold way (Miehkat al-Anv*r, p M.-»n ie

endowjd

wi'.h the

power

power

spiritual

w^rld

whicAi

termer! varicu*ly ap the

tic

is

It

is

a

(MUbkat al-Anwar,

sin -if,

(Mibbkat al-Anwar, p withtfi, tbe

0),

in

tn

the

apprehend the heart of

p. 40),

the

men

Human Soul

the Divine Light,

to

265). etc

"24J.

tracfcondeutsl prophe-

Hidden LighV roe Light

Reason (Ihya, p

proceeds

seneation

the

cf

the light

faith,

Insight,

man who knows, says

aUGnazzali, this multiplicity of terms implies only one idea (Misbkat al Anwar,

Season.

Thin

is

p.

6).

He

the power to which

prefers

God

to

call

it

referred in the

8tf

Que 'an, "And thus cur powar. v

n.Tr

Thou

from

h-Fpii" thee with a spirit 1

know what the book was, was but we made it a light guiding

didst net

(what) the faith

thereby

wo

did

whom we please

of

"

our servants (Qur'au, 42, 62)

move in the world of dominance aud sgnee as in the Eealm Celestial ;Misbkat nl"Anwftr r Ip itaelf its proper sphere is the Ren lm Celestial. p. 7). Bet for the perception and knowledge of M e world Reason

is

as free to

"

Dominacco and Sense

of

it is

equipped w»th external ard

internal senses. But this equipment, while

it is

the Physical

for the existence of this spiritual entity in

and the unseen-

world, becomes a veil between Beasnn

worSd and a source cf error

world (Mishkat al-Anwar, ses

will

be cast

witness the unseen

God

eyes.

after

off

will say

apprehension of that

in the

p. 10.)

essential

This veil

the sen-

of

Death and, then, man

Realities, as

unto man,

will

with hib physioal

if

'We have

stripped

from

thee the veil that covered thee, and thy vision this day is

sharp"

(Gf.

Mishkat al-Anwar,

p. 10).

This verse

is

quoted by al-Ghazrali and the use of the world kaahf iu this oase

confirms the theory developed subsequently

\lm al-Mukashafa is the direct when the veil of the senseB has been that

The authority

of the senses

tances, suppressed even It so

is,

when we are

intuition of Reality, lifted.

in

circums-

certain

alive,

Then

happens often also while we are awake.

the light of Beaton lost in the

is

pure and unoorrupted and

remembrance

of

God, (Ihya, Vol.

sleep.

as in

man

if is-

8, pp. 17-18)

he will perceive unseen Realities directly in a way that

can be best expressed by saying

'intuitively'.

But

this*

87

and imagination' though gross miy also

v?tl of "Beruo t»a

and refined by free'ag

clarified

life

nance of the senses bo that the

becomes, aa

God

it

of

may

Reality

In the case of the prophetB this veil

through.

filter

light

from the Domi-

were, transparent glass and they can

in the physical

see

world which becomes a 'Niche' for

Hi* Light. Dr. Iqbal says

al-Ghazzali

thai;

tha* thought and intuition

iuoonolusivenees timet''

because of

(Reconstruction

He

p. 6).

and

simulate finitude

with serial

alliance

its

of Religious

himselfc points out

to aeo

organically related and

are

thought must necGasarily

t.bat

"...failed

Thought

in Islam,,

relationship betvteeu

the

thought and intuition in another pannage in the same, book.

Nor

'

is

thtre any reason to euppese that thought

and intuition are eesent

opposed co eaoh other.

ally

They ppring up from the same root and complement eneb other.

grasps

The one grasps Reality Pieoemeal, the other ib

in its

eternal, the other

The one

is

Tbe one

wholeness.

fixes its

on the temporal aspect

gaze on of

Reality

present enjoyment; of the whole of Reality

the other aims n^ traversing the whole by slowly

fying and closing up the var oub {or

eacluaivo

O'jhar

the

(or

«iaaie

the-

observation.

mnt.u&l

regions of the whole

Both are

dance with their function

Berpson rightly Bays

Ib

in

in

need of eaob

Both beak visions of

rejuvenation.

Reality wnioh reveals

;

speci-

itself

life.

to

them

io accor-

In fact intuition, a»

only a higher kind of intellect"

(Religious Thought in Islam, pp. 2-3).

Al-Gnazzali not only holds the same view,

.<

m

men-

88 above but also

tioned

shown above, according vity of reason

is

develops

it

proper acti-

to al-Gbazznli. the

Tboughc

intuition.

is

As

elaborately.

a form of activity

imposed upon reason by the necessity of the sen sob, in a

world of time and spaoe, and the finite and temporal nature of thought is conditioned by these limitations,

Thus thought atd have the

also,

same roots and they are organically

Intuition, Bergson saje,

lated.

intellect- Intuition, al-Ghazzali

form

to al-Ghazzall

according

intuition,

of intellect,

when

the

is

only a higher form of

would eay,

intellect

is

the higher

freed

is

limitations of the senses (Mishfcab al-Anwar. Al-Ghazzitli

re-

from the

p. 37),

does net deny thought a* means of

reaching the Infinite.

"These gcoptics of God after their

descent from the Heaven of Reality are agreed that they

saw nothing have reaohed

Ofe

existent but this stage

by

Being. But of thcee some

thought while others have

by ecstasy and experience"

reached

"it

Anwar,

p. 19).

Again, *'The knowledge cf that

is

in the heart

Mishkat

(

the reality of the

al-

world

sometimes comes through the senses

(thoughts directed to the world of senses) and srmetimes

from the preserved -Tablet sun

is

at

direct and

it

perceived

by

itself

the eyo,

even a3 the form of the

sometimes

sometimes by looking at

by its

looking reflection

through water, and this reflection does nob differ

form from the original"

do

difference

(

Ihya,

Vol

3, p.

11

between intuitive knowledge

knowledge acquired

by

reflection

). (

in its

There

ileam

)

is

and

with regard to their

respective nature, seats and sources except

in bo far as

.

89 they are different forms of activity. ing to al'Gbazzi'.li>

Tbe introduction

dapands on

iDtuition,

Divine graos as well.

his theory

unacceptable

until

intuition

determined.

(Ihya Vol. 3

in

might Bay 6ses

in the

words

gaze on

its

fncotion

Both

them

;

taotor in

p. i(J, 16;.

We

one (intuition)

the

other (thought on the

the

eternal,

itself to

unknown

ihe

of Iqbal that

temporal aspect cf Reality.

which reveals

cannot make

religious alemont

of the

accord-

seek visions of Reality

accordance with their

in

in life.

Thought

complement each other- Tbe

anrf intuition

learned in their search after

Go 3

and contemplation,

the

the purification of

while the

heaifc,

iueist

Sufis

more on thought emphasize more

prepare

to

txpenerce, yet contemplation

intuitive

part of the discipline of tbe Sufi, and

it

it

for dir«ot

an eBsen'ial

is

of'eu during

i'b

contemplation that intuitive experience comes aB a climax; as

if

Hebfe and

transparent

imagination

glass

The

suddenly become like a

through thought are greatly

knowledge (Qur'an,

Al-Gbaxzali,

knowledge

cf

fcbey

Reality

become ettab-

S. 6),

denies though/ as

God. when

Peck

rejuvenated by intuitive

experience, for with tbiB experience lished in

who

learned

a ireans to the

itip scrupulously oivoroed

from

non.ccncertual modes of approaching Reality, and bated entirely upon logic life

rake

of al-Gbagzali himself,

eight be set hie

to examine lie

To

illustration

*ti

when

at

mind on the eearoh

from the

tha age of twentyfor troth,

and begai* »'

the

foundations of certitude he found that

omrtd not treat the eviednoe of his tenses.

But log>

<:,0

cally, he

not

could

either, for

trust

who knows

and we might find Ghazzali was

he like a

life

up

another

in

ia thin state

cfirao

hood by argument and logic

Al-

life.

logia

sufis.

till

be had

If

truth

sifting

he found

left

but from

from

far

philosopher.

truth this

It is in

from

that;

false-

tiuth

lay

remained ccnai»'<eut and

logical distrusting the light of intuition he

wandered

and

AI-Ghaazali trusted thia light

and proceeded on hin journey the

v<±'m

as a reassurance that the light of reason wag

not a mere halJuoinalicn.

with

dream

two month?, snd

for

then came light not from argument and within,

intellect

his

of

profound ficepticirm and

with

filled

this

alj

wako

He w&8

paralysed.

that

evidence

knowiodge attained hero

all

we

unreal when

the-

as baB done

eenso

that

would have-

mucy another

al-Ghnzzali dis*

an instrument for the knowledge of God. To know Beality, Thought and Intuition should truete thought sb

work

as allies

complementing and

rejuvenating each

other.

Dr. Iqbal says further: " Both Kant and failed to eee that thought* in the vory act

passeB beyond

its

own

are reciprocally exclusive.

thought which limitation oirouib of

beyond

is,

iu

its

Not so

essential

the

itself

own

individuality.

uothing

is

alien to

it.

of

Nature

finitudes

of

nature, iaoapjble of

and cannot remain imprisoned its

knowledge-

of

Tbo finitudea

finitude.

Ghaazali

In

in the

the

narrow

wide world

It is in itb

progres-

sive participation in the life of the apparently alien thai

thought demolishes the walls of its potential infinitude.

Its

its

tuitude and enjoy*

movement becomes

possible*

91 ptiiy

because of the implicit presenoe

da^lity of the infinite, whioh keeps alive with

and sustains

of aspiration

h

it

mistake to regard thought as inconcluaiva, for

in its

own way,

Islam

greeting

;

its

essential nature, then,

dynamio and unfolds

it is

its

time like the seed which, from

in

present

Thought

fact.

dynamic

in

the

not

infinitude

beginning,

the very

therefore,

is

the

tree

whole

in

aB a ita

self-expression, appearing to the temporal vision

series

of

definite

ucderetooct except

opacification?

by a reciprooal

meaning

lies

whole

of

which they are

wholu

is,

which oannot be Thuir

reference.

not in their Belf-identiry, but In the larger fcae spooifio

to use a Qur'aniu

Tablet',

ved

is

thought

internal

carries within itself the organio unity of

»i

too,

with the

the finite

of

it

p. S)

Again "In B6ttf,ic

a

is

It

(The Reconstruction of Religious Thought

ignite''.

as

the flame

it

pursuit.

endless

in ita

indivl-

its finite

in

itself in serial

metaphor, a kind

whioh holds up the

possibilities of

aspects.

knowledge as

This larger of

'Preser-

entire undaterara-jd

a prisenh reality] revelling

time aa a suooosru'io

of finite

app^arinij to reach a unity which is already

excepts-

present

in

them."

(Too Reconstruction of Religicus Thought ia

Islam, p.

fi).

The following

will

throw light on the dynamio n&tura

of tkiuuglifi atid ita internal

his pointed

iufiuiiude

whioh Dr. IqbaL

bnfc,

AKQhazzali pointed cub (Ihya, Vol, that

8, p.

26.

Urdu)

no knowledge through thought oan bo attained with.

out previous knowledge. There take plaoe analyses Bynfche.

see

and

various

dispositions

known

the

of

we

as

advance towards the unknown- Thus the parent thought

always has

in

follows, and

it

germs

the

it is in

a

way

of

knowledge that

the

all

Relf-unfoldment of the same

a

seed with nourishment and engrafting from observation,

To

experience, and refleotion.

germ-plasm of the died out.

on from man

tion to generation and

germ- plasm

.

f

the

new

hap not

parent of humanity

first

It is living

by analogy the

illuetrAte

still

is

to

maji and genera-

uo folding*

itself

24-25)

thought tree

is

the

in

is

neither of BaHt nor of

a oomplete tree of knowledge, the

on-ending

,

Anwar of

Qur'an by 'a Blessed Olive

in the

the

West'.

From

wi advance towards

the trunk of a parent propoaitirr.

are

al

Qar'an he says that the light

symbolised

which

the

In

births.

While explaining the Light- Veree (MiBhkat pp.

yet

r*mifJCE,tio r iP of

ever-progressing,

conclusion

'each

becoming a seed for further conclusions'' not to be symbolised by a quince rr

.

apple

which

The Tree or

is

pomegra-

nate tree, but by Olive tree because the fruit of the Olive tree yields light

and the brightest

of all oils

the fruit of thought yield bright light. of thought is unlimited

tree that

is

space and distance,

is

ii

by an Olive

no direction nor nearnets nor

recognizee said that

this

tree

is

neither

the

from

p. 44).

the;

The

only a prosaic way of saying what Dr. lqbal

haff-expreused in a terse and definite language. -in

fruit

thought does not exist in

East nor from the West (Mi*hkat al-Anwar,

above

the

Sinop

to be symbolised

Since

Blessed.

it is

it

and so does

very

-finitude, ete."

acts

of

\

knowledge

passes

"Thought

beyond

ite

93 Again, in Mishkafc oontrasMug the light of Bea6on

with

be

the eye

onb

point]

tha)ti

ooucepte cannot

oonoeuts and

in

it

at

any one moment

id

conoeived

be

The knowledge content presented finite,

Season apprehends

to the

as

finite.

mind or present

but potentially

ia

it

cognitive of the infinite; for example, reason apprehends

again. Reason

the series of integers which are infinite,

knows

that

it

possesses the knowledge of things and so

on to ad infinitum.

From of

the

thought within

thought is

this

infinite is it

is

it

seems that ai-Ghazzali was ooneoiouB

potentially a seed

as the

a process

and of the

faob that

microcosm containing

infinity

of thought

reaches

has the tree.

of Belf-unravelling, for as

progressing from concept

materialising and

The progress

of

thought

to oonoept eaoh time

it is

presenting the potentialities with

a-

larger oonoept. All forms of 'ilvi

aUJInkaskafa or knowledge from

the higher world, are convey ad to

man by

%erleV known as angels (Miabkat al-Afiwar, highest from of 'tin al-Muk
wfihyi

which

is

tbe privilege

of

agents of that

T'3OTT"?n»

intuitive experience

the prophets and

in

which the Messenger Angel assume* a visible form before tbe prophet. All utber forms of intuitive experience are 'ilham.

The commonest fcfm

of intuition is putting,

mind soao knowledge or an idea the whecoe, why, or how of whioh we do not know and oannot understand. Other forms in whioh Intuitive knowledge comes to matt in the

are dreams or waking visions (Ihya, Vol. 3, p. 16).

In sleep the senses cease to function and the soul is

'

94 from the preoocupaticu with the world of senses. Then often enough for the souls of the virtuous the veil from the unseen world is withdrawn, and a person left free

receives knowledge,

from that world,

of things distant in

spaca and time, especially of things that are yet in

womb

of the future;

and preserved

him

in

and ideas or impressions imprinted

al-Lawh aUMahfuz are conveyed to

adyanoe. All objects and

in

the

all aots, all chat exists ia

this world, or has existed since its creation or will

exist

day of resurrection, already axis' , imprinted

in the

till

thg

1

world on the al.Lawh al-Mahfuz cr the Pre-

spiritual

served Tablet.

It,

.garb and-then doffs

ideas that

come

only for a time assumes a physical Just as the imagination

it.

mind with words,

to the

clothes

similarly 'n

that state of sleep the imagination olothes tbB ideaa and

impressions

conveyed to

it

from the unseen world,

stored

in

memory, which are

direct representation

of

the

familiar forms

in

either a

idea or are symbolic of

it

(AUMadnun, p. 5; Mishkab al>Anwar, p. 38), We never see in dream God or the prophet themselves but the idea of

them clothed

image

is

this

form and colour.

in

mads by God a

symbol

Thip idea or

Only

vehiole of knowledge.

or image will

have some correspondence

with the quality of the imagined or the symbolised, the Image iul

of

form as

God must befits

An enemy may by,

be usually light, or

the

some

e.g. t

beautl-

beauty and greatness of God.

be symbolised by a snake, a voluptuary

a pig, the devil

by a toad,

visualised by ths symbol

etc.

of

Similarly

beauty,

"

God may be

grandeur

and

majesty-

Preoccupation with passion and appetites acts .at a

95 mind aud the spiritual world.

betwoen the

vfill

b.xs'

not drawn

is

towards

it«

dominant

in tercets

world but

spiritual

and no dream? are a

desires of

secret

cf the

fullilmoiiii

towarJe the

Tho

mm.

(Iliya,

Vol. 4,

pr- lfii-165).

What

possible

Bleop

is

possible in wakefulness,

inherent strength of the

salf-disoipline,

prophetic

tal

ir-

authority of the senses over the soul

if tfie

by

is

(Mishkn,t

spiri!;,

aUAnwar,

suppressed

is

an seen den-

ti

and the grace of God. An illu^traiiou pp. 87-39) of

waking vision may

a

The propheS

be cited from al-Gha?.zali.

said that he

AbJur Rahman b. Awf enter Paradise crawling, Prophet saw tion of the

!,'hb

while awake.

Tbe

saw The

soul got the intui-

and directly th« internal senses clothed

idea.,

th« idea in a form analogous to the idea.

Abdur Rahman dragged him down

much

so that hie

with

ditf&onlty

The riches

to this

*vnrld,

of

so

strong faith and groat piety could bat

work

entering heaven due

The

salvation.

his to the

downward

difficulty

pull of

of

excessive

worldly possessions was symbolised by tho imagination

The Prophflt saw the image with his eyes. trutn tha f he saw, but it was not the person of

by a crawl. It wasi .,

p.

-

Abdur Raman but th» person i6ed truth

perceived

Rahmanof

intuitively

in

Thus can be explained

the Piophei

relating

to

idea.

Tt is a

tho person all

universal cA

the waking

the dead

Abdur visions

or the living as

visions of spiritual ideas clothed in analogous ''mages.

This phenomenon of Intuitive experience by symbols^ oontd be explained

windows

by assuming that the heart has two

(Ihya, Vol. 9, pp. 94,36), contiguous to each other,

1)6

one opening towards the world

of sense,

and the other

Realm CeleaHal forming the opening for theentrance of ilham and wahy. This latter window opens for those who are not under the dominance of senses. Whatever knowledge or light comes to the heart from the Realm Celestial caets its reflection on both these Whatever is perceived by thi* aspects of the heart. towards the

celestial

aspect

images, directly

images from the

means

of

drawn from the great storehouse

of

of the

heart

is

world

celestial

perceived by

itself

and corresponding,

to the impresBionB realised by the senses. In the world of

we

sense where there

is

and the

perceive first the image and

then

idea,

always a room for discrepancy between tbe form spirit, for in the oase of

those whose sense and

imagination have remained gross on acaouot of slavery to

the senses

the

light

of

Reality

will

not

filter

through, therefore in tbe resultant darkness there will

always be found room for mistake (Miabkai al-Anwar,

But

p. 87).

world

idea

the

the knowledge

in is

perceived

Hence there

given a suitable form.

pondence

between

Vol. 3, pp. 34-35),

window

is

perception

the

In

first

from the

Celestial

and then direotly is

a certain

lorm and the

corres(Ibya,

spirit.

the case of spiritual adepts

this

almost constantly opened so that the spiritual is

not interrupted even during the waking

hours. (Ihya, Vol.

3, p. 13).

In purging the heart of vices, and adorning

it

with

virtues, as indicated above, rests the principle of general

whloh prepares the heart for the intuitive God. lAaraqaba or Contemplation, is a parti-

self-discipline

knowledge

of

ealar form of practice whioh prepares Ibe heart for

J7 l

immediate intuitive experience provided the heart is sjready sufficiently purified. It oonsiste cf ocmplebe mental detaphment from

upon the

tion

environment, and concentraheart, and then, as it were,

all

phyaiciil

is

how

flashed or

com-

This

waiting for the light to come to the heart.

knowledge from God

often

is

direotly

manieated to the heart.

Tha QHthpd

by closing completely

of the heart

may

sensea

knowledge from the depths

of saaking

digging

-

be likened to the

piths of the

the

uncut the pond,

aad obtdioning nurer and fresh water from beneath, alter the inlets pouring in water from outride have been Ubya, Vol.

closed

already of

tba

"It

is

3, p.

17).

giveu in thie section, of the source and

knowledge that comes

a sorting

deep haunted

more reocot

r

to

manner

man Maodonald

Wordsworth

anticipation of

i

Bays,

'otaraal

jraver by the eternal mind' and of a

coooeptiino

of

touch with the Infinite". life 10

About the explanation,

a

subliminal

iThe

still

self in direob

Keligioue Attitude

and

Islam, pp 2:53— 2^4).

Sjmetimes one sees reality not in symbols butr clothed in physical nakedness. The Prophet usually taw the Messenger Angel in the fr,rm of Wahya Kalby

who

possessed

au extremely beautiful person.

however he s*w sftw

tha Angoi in his real

him on th« night

a'nd once,

of his

form.

Twee Once

he>

Ascent at S'ldrat-ol-Muntiha,

on another ocaision, when at the request of

the Prophet the Auget appeared at the top of Koh
Vol.

8, p. 15

)

—

;

98 Such a vision may usually take tbe form of sudden flash which might overwhelm the soul. It may be of a short or long duration, and long intervals.

might be ,

This droptng

'

may

ecetir

at short or

off of the veil

something analogous to

of senses

the experience of

^Wordsworth, frequent in childhood

though

rare in

advanced age:

"Those obstinate questionings Of sense and outward things. Falling .

*

from us vanlshinge;

Blank misgiving of a Creature

M oving about in worlds

not realised,

High

whioh

before

instincts

our mortar

nature

Did tremble (Ode

:

like

a guilty (thing surprised'*

"Intimations,

etc.).

The infinite marvels of the universe are an overwhelming evidence of the living, infinitely wise and Yet tbe common people often do not

powerful Qod. realise

One

it.

of the reasons

is

man oomes

that

into

contact with the wonders and mysteries of the heavens etod the earth; *

''

--

and what

the beginnings of

life

is

when

between them, almost from his' reasoning

faculties

not yet developed.

When he becomes mature

uave become too

familiar,

and

seem

moreover now he becomes the victim of 1

-paisions

whioh act as a

With suoh an "that a*

infills

veil to truth.

variety of forms of

have

the objects

commonplace appetites

and

Men

are familiar

life

and beauty

sudden revelation of something new may. sot

move them

to

wonder and yet

it is

often

on suoh oeeeek&e

99 Heat men cfy oat, spontaneously, in praiie and admiration

"The bend

their Creator,

of

Divine".

If a

made

that

m

is

wise man, blind by birth, were enddenly

and

to poteeie eight

eland

in

midst

the

the

of

wonderful panorama of form and colonr and witness

powers and

the mysterious forces and the stupendous

magnitudes of the universe, he would be simply with awe and ecstasy, rather the probability

filled

he

is that

would be overpowered and bewildered, and even lose hie reason (Ihya, Vol.

"God

is

4, p. S76).

the Light of the

Heavens and

'(Qur'an, 34-35) but only to those

-the

who know

nothing so utterly manifest as Allah; and yet

Earth", there is

it Is

by

this

He ra hidden from the sight of the coalmen When we see the various colors, the red, the

very fact that people* blue,

and the green during the day time, we may deny

that there exists light, alongside

and the green. exist

We

the blue

see the colors

by themselves.

Were

and the red

and thick that they

there eternal sunlight of

unchanging shade, only the wisest few would believe that colours owe their manifestation or even inseparably

something

although th|t something

blended is

with

existence to

the

sunlight,

the most manifest of all

things and through- it along all things become manifest.

The troto ceive,

of this

beobmee

phenomenon, though

evident

difficult to

con-

when night follows the day.

4hts method of contraries however, cannot be applied to

:

~

Qo&r

Allah

He

too 'obvious.

ft

ffejtfulgeftoe

IfleJ&et

ie

obsoure to the

He

is

common

concealed in the exosestft-

of'Hir own glory (Ihya, Vol;

»fc Anwar, pp.

24*87);

people because

'

-

4., pp.

275-270;

-100 But, Allah's, gnoBtios.

i

own

witness, with bhair is.tbe

"There

no

ib

He

selfhood

and

referred

to only

do

ib

•

identity,

all

only an image of the real."

derives

in ita

"None

but

bub also that

He

possesses

are

individualities

that

(Miahkat,

is,

their

by

exists

translated

p. 22.

itself;

God-aspect, .for from

everything

Him

alone

ib

Thua man reaches the highest point the realization of God, namely, the kingdom

and absolute

pare

He

Deity; but

other

the fieal Being;

being.

its

of ascent in of

Nothing

Gairdner).

exists only

is

a figurative- sense,

ia

they

if

a reflection of the actual and they are

existence is only

by

alone

but He".

fie

na

eyes, not only that Allah alone

Beal Light, buc also

pot only that there

know

{'Arifeen)

vanishes here into

One-and-Onlicess»

totality;

Plurality

and there remains no room

for further progress.

most tempting

It is

outpourings

ecstatic

They

scrutiny of an

ascent to that

there

exists

'Allah

.

bear the

theologian,

"Allah's

and

balls

if

We

all is

it is

perishing from

Here

is

Allah alone".

could easily argue from Allah". Yet in the same r

us that Allah's gnostics witness

that, "everything else is perishing exeept

and not that

of the

with their physical

nothing save

Dj 18).

is all

breath aNGhazzili

p. 18).

any lurking

certainly not

orthodox

Beality, witnessed, as

(Miahkhat al-Anwar, this that

will

for

when they reached the ultimate point

gnostics,

eyes,

al-Ghazzli

of

pantheism in them. close

examine these myatical and

to

His countenance,

perishing ab any point of time bat

eternity to eternity"

(Mishkat al-Anwar,

something beside Allah that

Again "All existence

Is

exclusively

ib is

is

perishing.

His Aspect.

Vfow

it

101 it impossible

he ehould be greater than His

thafi

The meaning

Aspect.

is

to be called Greater, or

He

that

fe

absolute? Great

too

Most Great by way

or comparison'' (Mishkat,

p.

own

of relation

19 translated by Gairdner).

Allah oaooot be greater tbaD His aspect nor lesser,,

and therofore muBt be one with are net self-eubsietent ard

it.

Yet though things only in

exist

God-

their

aspect, they have an actual being.

There get

no dcubt that

is

reflections

of

in isolflted

But

pantheism.

sentences we will

we remember

if

al-

Ghazzali's rational and practical attitude as a whole,

we in

we cannot associate him with pantheism He bimsali would have vehemently denied

will find that

any

it.

frrni.

He

had grout respeot

mystics like al-Hallai.

tor

His seemingly blasphemous utterances were not account because ihey were made

taken

of their

own-selves

so nvorwhelrpei] that they loRt

aught rco

"Bot the one grace

else.

the

in

r

life

otj

ihie

it

be

in a state of ineb-

nought but God acd

riation. If they could perceive

conciouBoess

fco

Iobb

war because they were capacity for thrught of

11

Gcd

of

oavth".

that created bala-

faye

h!

Ghazzati

is

•'KeaflOt" (Misnkdt. p 20, Bit* wjB^ticn ib

between the ct throe/,

God aid

hit

banthttisf

who wrxld deny

sxeept Gsc. relation

t<-

creation ic

two

entitle*

who

divide

and 'hat or the

the existence of tver\ thing

The univerpn has a being but only with

God. This

ip

tbe me-anfrg of the Qur'anio verse,

"Everything periehetb exoep* Hieocnntener.ce, Hip aspect" (Qttt'ao, 88.28). It is difficult to

determine exactly what

At-GbVatali means by 'wpecf, In any esse

it

does

away

— 102 pantheism and yet retains mystical verity of the

'with

One

and-Onliness of God. This truth la revealed either to the learned through

study and oontamplation or to the saint-friends of

through eostaoy. These latter sometimes

God

in the Btate of

transport are ao overwhelmed by the experience chat they lose

their

reason for the moment, lote oonBoiousness of

everything, even of their

were

of 'Fana.fi'1 Fana'.

me.

am

the

Belvea

and beocma, as

{muttihidX with Allah. This

identified

out "I

own

Some

of

One Real"

the stage

is

in that state

(Al-Hallaji),

How great is my glory"

when they return

them

it

have or led

Or "Glory

be to

(Abu-Tazid al-Bistami). But

to themselves they realize that

it

was

4

not actual Union with Allah, not ittihad but Tatehid, that is,

peroeption of the Unity of Allah.

There erience,

is

no point

of ascent

and though the mystio would

bhis is not the goal of goals. is

beyond the Unitary expfain remain there,

The next stage

in his progress

his descent to the lowest heaven -the world of physical

and reason

activity of sense

the light he has found.

—bringing along

with him

Al*Ghazzali says, "This

is

the

goal of goals, and the highest object of spiritual searoh

bat only the gnostics 37.

oafi fully

understand

it".

37

Mujaddid Ahmad Sirhlndi has said on numerous

oooaslons that the aBoent

of

'goes' but also

ing from Igbal

the first part of Saint- hood

The descent is one of the char: prophltio sainthood. Then men not only 'oarries' (Epistle 36, 302, sto.). The follow-

and the deseent acteristfos

is

is

is

illuminating:

'Muhammad

<*

the next.

of

Arabia

asoended (See

the

highest

on next H>ge>

-

105 "lb

no wonder,

is

learned

the

"if

towards the heaven of this earth to

this descent

liken

he says,

'

Bub some gnostics have' immersed in the One-and-..

the descent of the ang?l.

gone

Being

farther.

God

Onliness of the descent

of

they have deolared that thisdssoehb is*

Qod

usa physical parts and aeusea'

to

(Mishkat al-Anwar. p 24

This descent, therefore,

:

is

r

into

Continued from page 103)

Heaven and retarnned.

I

hid reaohed

I

point,

These are

turned'. Btlnt,

that

Abdul Quddua

the of

God

swear by

never

should

words

Gangoh.

of

that

if -I

have

re-

a great

Muslim

Id the whole range of

will ba probably difficult to

God words

whioh, in a single sentence, disclose auoh an

aoute per-

SuS

literature

it

between the pro-

ofjptlon of tbe psychological difference

yhetio and

the

mystic types

consciousness.

of

The

mystio does not wish to return from toe repose of 'unU feary

ezperianoo'

;

aod even when he doeB return, as

hf must), his return does not mean much for mankind at

The prophet's return

large.

:a

He

creative.

to insert hiroBelf into the sweep of time with

control the forces of niatory, and

fresh world of ide»ia. unitary experience is

1b

forces,

human

to

thereby to create a

something

final

;

for the prophet ib

wo rid 'Busking

calculated to completely

psyohoio.

transform the

world. The deaire to Be* his religious experience

transformed into a living world- force prophet, Islam,

a view

For the mystic the repose of

the awakening within him, of

gioal

returns

is

supreme in

the*

(The LleooEstruobion of Religious Though in

p. 118).

l(Jl

the

mankind

of

life

rejuvenated with the

spiritually

Unitary ezperienoe. What would be the nature friend after his desoent

He

oannot mean by

norma)

therefore, -this is

He

this

activity

"The most

consists in not

cutting oneself

is

a definite statement

beautiful qualities in the Saint-friends of

God which draw

the

three directions

:

human

firstly,

heart tcwards tbem

in

knowledge

their

Hie books, His prophets and

angels,

lie in

of

God,

their teaoh-

secondly, in the power tbey possess of reforming

irige;

own

their latter

purity

souls and the souls of their

and

from the

God and

all

administration): that

is

base and

evil (Ihya, Vol. 4, p. 261).

to

veils

withdraw

hi?

sight".

is

it

light

of

(Misbkat p.

runs

-

"Allah

and darkness;

splendour of His

them, the

translated by Gairdner); (Ihya, 1, Allah

and their purity

evil,

Aspect would surely consume any one

with

in their

lastly,

a tradition of the prohbet,

is

hath seventy thousand

were He

and,

dominating passions that lead astray from

beckon towards

Here

fellowmen. This

they accomplish by 'trshad and Siasa (by

fact

•direction

veils

merely says that

but da'wa al-Eag oan be inferred from

dIb writings, e.g. t here

Him

and cannot be

what only the gnostics can understand.

away from mankind

from

merely a retrun to the

this descent

called the goal of goals.

That

His

not made clear by al-Gazzali.

this return is inevitable

for

self

is

of the saint-

who apprehended

al-Anwar,

p.

47

40)

pore and glorious Light, therefore the

muat relate to those

from

whem

Allah

is

veiled.

Al»Gbazzali makes an attempt to give a classification Of

— 10J>

incidentally brings

the veiled amog mankind, which

prominence many

into

Mankind

nature of God.

who

those

conceptions

haffling id

divided

the

of

into fcur clawes:

with darkness, thoee veiled by

are veiled

and darknees. those veiled by purs Light, and laafy thoee win attain nnto Allha. (Miehkatal- Anwar, pp. 33-36.)

mi«d

ligbfc

The

mcpfc

problem

is

tbe

aolft

of

this

Movement

the

scheme are the

Vicegerent and the -theory

the Mut'n or the

of

the knowledge

that

parts of

startling

Heavens

of the

baeie fcr th9 gradations of rtarnea cf the fantastic

Buf inspite

Miehkat, h:a position

ip

like that of

schemes

quite dear

to Allah.

Mut'o in

:

That God can be apprehended, tbtocph ''Urn al-Slukashijn. Tc attain the knowledge of God i» the 1,

perfect ir.n

highest

of

highest knowledge of

He

that

abet lately

'8

lU&r.ng other oriniens, in

his

remarks

cpiclon of people 3.

man on this earth. That the God ebould consist in knowing unknowable has been

rejected,

bv al-Ghazzali bimBe'f

in Ibyft.

'ilm ji-vutkashate, as

regarding

who do not know.

That tbn-e

is

»

is

certain affinity in

mm

between spirit.

part is

Of

it is

nLlvHtd form as also

in

"There

spirit.

ard Gcd not

this Rffinity

symbolic ccrreFpon-

certain

denoe between aoaa and Gud there

in

tbey have reaohed their

affinity

be put

or paper, and

down

discover

an

form but «n

in

nlpar terms

right to hold our tongue with regard to

God might

is

outward

part can

impcssible to lay

wayfarers to

ttie

it

it

and

bo that tbe

for themselves

destination.

it

when

That wbioh oan

;

106 be pat down

is

that

man anon Id

thosa of His attributes to

in

oultivate

The

elaborated in

we

which

bourselves,

oharity, etc.,

be near an to Allah

affinity

exclusive characteristic

of

is

man and

commanded

knowledges, love,

e.g..

writing and speech

are

in/

which oannot be that whioh is an is

hinted at in the

Qur'anio verse.

'And they ask you about the soul

Bay the soul

divine affairs

farther in

him

of

verse, etc".

of

is

the verse,

my "We

(Qnran, 17, 85), and

'when I made him, breathed into

(Qar'an, 15, 29);

soul'

and again

in the

have made thee a successor on the earth,

(Qur'an, 38, 26; Of. Ihya,

p.

263).

The problems of the Vicegerent and the movement Heavens do not play any part in the religious

The highest point

philosophy of al>Ghazzali. in the knowledge of

and the goal

of

God

goalB

lies

in the

is

to the life in the midst of men.

of

ascent

Unitary experience

the desoent thereof

from

IDEA OF LOVE IN THE PHILOSPHY OP

AL-GHAZZALI

*

"Love of God, according to al-Ghazzali, of Islam.

He makes

ill

the

supreme end

is

the essence

man

of

world. Sabr (patience), *uhd (ababinenoe),

«

eto.,

themselves are virtuea of very high order,

this

in

wbloh

in

are merely

subservient to love of God; and the virtaea like ihawq (yearning), uns (affability),

tbe

more advanoed

nda

(aatiaf action),

love. *

aspects of this

are

eto.,

Some

theo-

logians have oritioiBed tbe possibility of love of God.

Tbey argne that love oan exist only between members of the same speoiss, and since man and God are not homogeneous, no love can exUft between them. Love they hold,

is

God.

nothing other than the obedience of Al-Ghazzali in

love between ty

reply explains the meaning

man and God and

I.

e. g.,

"God

loves

Ihya, Vol. IV, 252

of the

Ihya, Vol. IV, 252.

8.

Qur'an, V, 57

;

of

Qur'an and tbe

them and they love God" 3

h\k

J*

*^j4*3 2

to-

establishes its possibili-

and supreme value on the basis

Hadith,

man

Of. II, 165.

*ii\

iftftjlfj

;

l^\

^

jull,

Ufl*

108

"No

one will be truly faithful

God

till

him

dearer to

le

than all%lBe."'

lies in the

asked, tin of

man may be

has been ea!d above that the perfection of

It

knowledge

love of

is

of

God

knowledge to

How

God.

then,

it

The

also an ultimate end ?

rela-

which al-Ghazzali has explai-

love,

ned, indicates a solution of the inconsistency in tion.

B

Love Hadith

4.

a natural

is

:

Of. Ibya, Vol. IV, p. 253.

philosopher of the

century A.

6fch

out the relation ,

Munie

H, who

al. nfibshaq J

"Levers' Friecd"

the utmost extremity

it ie

sjve affection'.

Love

because

is

not

all

love

affection

more

is

oalled 'love'.

more

and

tr.

are

'Lcve

particular

particular

esoeB-

is

than affection

than

opposite tbiogs

called

by

'affection' reaches

knowledge, but

And two

which

(ed.

In bis

affection but all affection is not

all affection is

affeotion.

ledge,

ib

poiu-

love with knowledge.

of

O. Spies, Pp. 24-26) he says, "when

because

was under a

influence of al-Ghazzali, has very clearly

definite

And

towards objects

inclination

Shihabuddrn Subrawardi Maqtul. the greatest

5-

ted

ques-

'knowledge'

knowledge

all

o^meout

'friendship

lcve.

and

of

is

know-

'enmity'.

Because knowledge pertainB either to a thing which

is

agreeable and suitable to the body or the spirit which is

'pure

called

good'

the bum an soul seekH that,

whioh

the

it,

and

and

and attain perfection; is

'absolute affection desirjse to

or,

it

betake

;

and

itself

to

pertains to a thing

not suitable and not agreeable to the body and

spirit

whioh

is

called 'pure evil'

and absolute (see

defect';

on next p*g$)

ioy Hate, od the centra 17*

that give pleasure.

of objects that give pleasure or pain.

Ualesa

become known, tbero can be no odeasiou for

objects

Knowledge

either inclination or repulsion to them.

objeots

natural

Both love and bate imply

repulsion that gives pain.

knowledge

is

may

of

give plea eu re or pain to the person or ieava

him indifferent. Id the case of pleasure, the person is drawn nearer to objeots but in other oases he is repelled from them. Similarly, knowledge of

A

pleasure to the person. of tbe flesh and thereby

heart will not

fael

Why

should a person

will

be

taken np

and loves him

ia

Gcd may or may not

give

person given to temptations

burdened with hindrances in the

pleasure

in the

knowledge

feel pleasure, is

below.

A

God.

a question which

who knows God

parson

ab a higher plane of

of

spiritual

develop-

ment than tbe one who knows God withous loving Him. Al'Ghazzali holds kuowledge of God as the perfection of

man

haoause witb?u'<

it

love of

Gail

is

not possible*

But knowledge of God does not mean lore of God in all God is a higher ideal than mere inataacss Hence lova o'<.

knowledge. (Continued from pay? 108)

and tbe human bouI si ways flies from that and it has a natural aversion towards that. From the first oomes 'friendship'

round

is

and

frcin the second

knowledge, ths

e eouud

60 the

first

is affection,

and

'enmity'.

round

And one oannot reach the the third round is love. world of love which is the highest of all, unless he makes two rounds of the stair from knowledge and affection''.

110 Within knowledge of God there ere various stages

and the highest stage of

Knowledge may be peroeptnal or super>perotp-

love.

The former

tual."

apprehension of objeots* through

is

Peroeptnal knowledge of objects and their love

flenses. is

the highest form

related to

1b

oommon

to

men and

be

known

He

be an

God eannot

animals.

nor

immediately through knowledge,

can

Enow-

objeet of love determined by snob, knowledge.

ledge of of

God

is

such a knowledge.

7

alone

is

capable

This knowledge comes through

and

reasoning

refleotion,

faith,

Man

supsr-peroeptual.

intuition

(

ah

'ilm

Mukathafa), she enumeration being in the increasing

Love

order of spiritual development.

of

God

is

associa-

ted with each type of superperceptual knowlegs of God,

But the highest and the most

in the heart of the seeker.

complete love

is

associated with

Wby

should a person

of God and direct at length that Is

the highest

knowledge.

-type of

He

intnition,

God

Him?

his love to is

pleasure in the knowledge

feel

AI-Ghazzali explains

the supreme object of love

because

the ultimate and absolute souroe of all the causes

because of whioh objeots are loved.

The impulsion causes

:

(1)

Love

to

may

love

of the self.

6

be broadly put to four

Every

living individual

.is

instinctively compelled to struggle for Its.owo preserva-

At the .perceptual

tion.

level

-man

tence notf.orho.rror pf death pr

~i

6.

*. :

-InyaiVor.IV,

strives for. his exis-

the Divine retribution

of.

p. 225,

IhyaVVeUV.P.

"'

!

2*6.

v

Ill •Iter death but simply because he loves his exislenee for its

own

He

lake.

lores nob only (he self as soon bat

also the perfections of the feetions

He

self.

dislikes his imper-

because every imperfection means a non-exis-

tence of an aspect of the

Next to the

self.

self

and

Its

perfections, a person loves that on which all this depends, e.0.,

his limbs, strength; wealth, progeny, family, friends,

tribes,

etc."

(9)

Love

of a

benefaotor for the bene-

received from him. A mans' love for his benefactors 10 Is nothing but a desire for the preservation of

fits

thoae It

is

who

a form of self-love.

own

for his

when alive,

minister to his desire for self-preservation.

The beoefictor

sake as the self

the benefits cease, even

and

is

ie

not loved

may

cease

the benefactor be

still

more or less directly proportional to the

urgency of the

Beauty

This love

isif

is

loved for

benefit or gain.

received.

gifts

Its

its

own

Lore

(3)

of

beauty.

sake irrespective ci

any

apprehension gives rise to pleasant

11

which constitute an end in itself. The quality of beauty resides in the harmony and aeethetio feelings

Ibid., P. 255.

9.

Hie

lcve, in

al-Qhsaaali'e opinion,

for his son appears to be unselfish, but a close inspection will reveal that he loves him, because he finds in

him his

own

way

preservation and perfection.

In the same

the preservation of the tribe he sees hiB tion.

His son represents him even

Thus he

lives further in his

son

is

and blood. Ibid., p. 266.

11.

lbye,Vol.IV,pMfi5-*6 rt

,

,

his

in

preserva-

after his

who

10.

own

own

death. flesh

112 .perfection of objeots.

peroeptible bodies

conceptual

We

love

have never

has called

qualities

men

in

who have gone

qualities

direotly

limbs,

bub

aluo

character, virtue, knowledge".,

e. g. t

those

whose exoellenb

human

tbe

like

forma,

often

Beautiful objeoba include not only

head

of

tbe

and

highest!

we

heart,

Knowledge

observed. for

befoze us and

of

these

sacrifices

from

order to advance the cause which was dear to

soma persons, for sxample, love Abu Bakr and

them.

If

'Umar,

it is

because

chey represented in

and conduct the highest

their persons

expressions of some of the

tnobleBt qualities of the heart euoh as knowledge, power, devotion, love, courage, piety,

etc.,

which enabled them

to control and curb their baser nature

nobler and higher

Tueaa

self.

with them, after their bonea ard

and disappeared 13

two

Good

souls.

(a)

,

and develop

qualities flesh

Love ba&ed on

did

thsir

nob die

had decomposed between

affinity

souls are naturally attached

to each

other.

Al-Ghazzali explains, that inspire of love.

is

man

Love

12.

Ibid

13.

How

,

p.

a

well-known.

to love.

hew Gcd

holds all tbe causes

He

Therefore

for the Prophet

is

aUo

alone

is

excel leu t

worthy since

it

256.

man has come to appreciate fcheaa He has been bearing alii his

qualities life

the

Btoiies o! their valcur, their self-sacrifice, their charity,

etc,

which have made lasting impresaicna on bim, with*

out himself beicg tbe recipient if there

is

a beauty iu their aotinns,

making a stirring appeal

their favours'. *bc,

which

to his inner self.

is

capable of

113 Tboie who love objects other than God, have do knowledge of God. Knowledge of God leads

is

to the love of God.

the source of the love of God.

man

Since

the

loves

flelf

he mast love God

who

is

tha Creator and alBO the Creator of what he desires for his preservation

Man

and perfection.

cannot achiero

anything without His grave and blessing.

The second oause too must lead man

Who

Is

God

From Him alone all The human philanthropist is> the Divine Benefactor. The

the nltimate Benefaotor.

the benefits

are

received.

only the instrument of

man

benefioenoe of expeotB

of

is

born

bis selfish motives.

of

He

and longs for something better than what he

by way of popularity,

sacrifices

tion

to love

influence, or gratifica-

of his desires. 14

some

God does not

anything from His creatures and

expect

has no selfish end

in view.

The

He

third

possesses

beauty to an Lies

as

man

oause of

love

the qualities

cf

is

also present in

absolutely supreme degree.

disoerES

them

in

God.

power, knowledge and

These

o.uali-

himself are the gifts of

As compared to God in these qualities, man has no entity. God's knowledge is boundless, Hit power God.

absolute and His beauty pertect.

Therefore

God alone

deserves complete and exclusive love.

Further, 14.

man

possesses

» eertain affinity or like-

Ihya, Vol. IV, P. 257.

have been

AI-Ghezsali would counted as gross hedonist bad he not men-

tioned also the fourth oause of love.

114 10 ness to Allah.

Man

Hadifeh.

f

is

enjoined to adorn

Prophet, Vwith the virtues of love, charity,

eto.

himself with the

"Characterise

Allah.

virtues of

from the Qur'an, and the

It is evident;

Bat there

yourself", said the Allah", 16 e.g., knowledge,

is

also a

deeper correspon-

man and God which ia numerous verses of the Qur'an, e.g., "And

dence and affinity between hinted at in

they ask thee about the soul, say: the soul

God" 17

of

of

My

;

"When

soul"

18 ;

the earth" 19 . eaya,

I

"We

But

an

affair

made him and breathed unto him have made thee a Vicegerent en deeper affinity,

this

impossible bo express In words.

is

is

It

al-Ghazzall

can only be

experienced and realised by the intimates of God.

The realization that God possesses all the four factors whioh oommand love to an infinite and perfect and

degree,

that

He and none

else

deserves our love

and adoration comes to man by hearsay, by thought

and

reflection, or

by direct intuitive knowledge of God.

Complete love, when

God joy,

love

of

everything except

entirely obliterated from the heart bo tnat

is

lives,

the

man

breathes and acts in and for God, and finds no

nor peace except

Comes

to

man when

in

that

he has

15.

Ihya, Vol. IV, P. 363-

16.

Cf. Iby*,

17.

Qur'an, XVII, 15.

which relates

to

Him,

wholly purified himself

Vol. IV, P. 36S.

XV, £9. 19. Qur'an, XXXVIII, 26; Of. also the Hadith: "God created man in His own image" (Ihya, Vol. IV, 18.

p. 853*.

Qur'an,

115 'ilm

aU

proved by a number

of

through 'Urn al-Mu'
to

Mukashafa,

Thab God also Iovjb mao verses from

who

towards

want

the perfection of what

and imperfection.

God

is

beings from

all their

No

20.

Quran, 21-

It is

.

Tnen, what

He

Himself,

words when used fur

change o»l

is

His love

loves

for

cuorn,

affeot

is

Him.

of

affeotiun for anything otber

own works, which

He

God

aoi as separate

Hie

Jjvee,

God

is liko

rreans that

He for

man

net'i

He

in

His

aloue

loves Hitnwtlf.

man

tuaitQB tnat

Ha

from the heart or draws hia nearer, or

Ihya, Vol. IV, II,

.

an -imperfection pi

iinpiy

In everything

1

man towards like? Wheo God

hi said thsfc God'B iv^e of

veil

no defect

need,

may

tlio

eeif<

God towards

in

ft

Further, the iove of

removes

Need

imperfection

no the same as the love

than Himself will

exists.

a need.

have the same sense as when used for

loves His oretoturas,

Icve for

This

a Divine connotation^ so to Bay*

love

It

objeot.

Therefore the word Iota when used

inn** not

other cbjnots.

Him

means

an urge towards

God has no

eternally the All-Perfect.

Bd His

satisfy

inclination

man, and for that matter

God have

an

is

impossible.

is

to

and

love

agreeable

of something,

that suoh an

anything

for

an

Impulse

the

is

a defeot, a

evident

Now

purify themselves", etc"°

inclination

them and

loves

"Verily, Allah loves the repentant

an inclination implies

"He

the Qur'an suoh as,

they Irve Him"; those

is

p.

28

239.

Tiya, Vol

IV,

p.

231.

ff;

Quran. V,

54;

and

116

He

had ordained him from eternity to be able boapproaoh

Him.

New,

if

love

is

attributed to the

Wilt of

eteroal

God, through wuirh man hag become able to aproaoh

Him, if

of

the love of

God

for

for

man

God

the luve of

God through whioh

the hearb of man, hadith (oreated,

This

cause.

man

attributed to the

is

the

love

God

of

'Bub

aations-

removed from

the veil has been

man

for

will be

beoause of the newness of the

cew),

Bub the

impossible.

is

be eternal 8 ".

will

what-

fact is that

ever happens, happens througn purificatioh of the heart,

whioh

also according to the Will of God.

is

tion of the heart has its natural

nearness to

God

plaoein God, for

is

The

purifica-

oonsequenoes.

Bub by

not meant that any change can

God

is

unchangeable. Whatever happens*

happens to man.

Man becomes

space and time but

in

appetites

and anger,

man becomes in

nearer to

God not

In

good qualities by controlling his

etc.

way

In this

the position

of

higher without constituting any difference

the position

man means

take*

of

that

God,

after

In

man

God for heart, God

short the love of

has purified his

has admitted him to His proximity and has removed of his heart in

the veil

Him

with the eyes of his heart.

Love

a mental activity.

is

the conduct of man. all

order to enable him to observe

the

God is desirous of union of God loveB death for

,,

jty

[

Only

in

it.

it is

eyes, the lips

The man who

with God.

and

loves

Therefore a lover

a means of achieving the

one case he may not deBire to

die fcr the

time being.

prepared

meet his Beloved.

to

expresses itself in

The tongue, the

bodily organs betray

cherished end.

It

lb

is

when he He*

is

then,

not quite

wants

ftp

117 prepare himself better by means of more worship and

more

actB of piety.

He who

God

loves

looks after

God

wholly

is

in

the

hands

the

He

for good actions.

outer

unite? his inner

He wakes him

eelf .

thonghts on one object, the veil between

e

i

,

man

is

with

all

his

He removes

on Himself-

The

Himself and the creature.

not infallible; a minor

of bin

self

concentrate

such a man beoomes the Will of Gcd.

will of

However, such a

transgression might be

committed by him, as when for a moment hie lower •elf might get the better of him

One who

God

loves

He

tbe sinners'*.

lovee

all

His creatures, even

loves the sinners for they are God's

creatures though he hates their sin-aspect love anything which

are based

"They are another."

on

justioe,

bis actions

not on bigotry,

efce.

severe on the unbelievers and merciful to one

other eigne of love are that

hymns

sings

Gad,

to

he

comforted by being obedient to God.

God, also stands of

does not

1"

Among alone, be

equity and

He

But

against Gad.

is

in

awe

His beauty begets

of

love,

man

is

like* to

be

consoled end

One whe

lovee

Him. Just as the knowledge

even so the knowledge of His

Sublime Majesty begets awe, Vol. IV, p 881.

92.

Itaya,

23.

Ihya, Vol, p. 983ff.

94.

Iyya, Vol. IV, p. 986.

Iff.

Qmr'an, XLVII, p. 39.

-

his

is

mover

adviser, the oleanser of his heart and the

limbs

He

deeds and thoughts.

all hie

God ,s

of

118 In short, love

the

is

essence

of

All the

religion.

highest sooial and moral virtues are born of the love of All that is not the fruit of this love is to be consi-

God.

dered as the result the pasBiona.

passions

is

the

oi

Whatever

pursuit of the appetites and is

the

resulb of appetites and

a vice.

Besides the above-mentioned signs of love, there are

some

speoiflo virtues

whioh follow from

are the higher aspeots of love

itself.

it.

In fact, they

They are shtwq

8 (yearning), una (affability) and rida (satisfaction)' .

When whioh

is

the lover has an eye upon all the perfeot beauty

yet behind and beyond his reach, there

in his

is

heart a restlessness and a fond yearning bo reach Him.

Then

this

yearning of the heart towards God

is

oallel

overwhelmed with the joy

of the-

8 jfcotpg *.

When

the lover

is

nearness to Allah, the experience of the Divine Presence through 'ilm al-MuKashafa is dominant, and thue when that which has been revealed to

his eye is set only upon

him and

is

that which

When

is

yet veiled, then this joy

is

called utu*

B .

the lover in this state thinks of the Majesty

and the absolute

self-suffioieney

possibility

of his falling

pain whioh

is called

26.

upon

present to his inner perception, and not

of the Beloved,

and

away from Him, then he

the-

feels

2£Aa«/**.

Joyous submission to the resignation.

27.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

p.

28.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

p.

29.

Ihya, p. 291.

291. 291.

will of God, willing,

1'9 Rida fruit

of

remain ever pleased with God.

to

is

G°d and

love of

the

oeareet to Allah; and

doubts involved in

one becomes

it

fchoBe

the

in

for the rida

the property of the soul

is

cannot be completely resolved

knowledge

when man

he will be allowed to

a

seeming contradictions and

the

gifted with the

In the heaven

It is

God

of

.

will get a viBion of Allah,,

for whatever he desires


tilt

30

and

highest itages of the Heaven will ask only the

of

Beloved.

God

will be pleased

with

them. This highest blessing of the pleasure of Allah will be granted to those soul that art At rest

(with Him),

who !

Return to thy Lord,

My

things against rida

is

who

people

well-pleased

My

garden'. 91

believe

one's will

"O

Him-

(Him), bo enter among

well pleasing

servants, and cuter into

Some

pleased with

are ever

that

in suffering

only patience

is

and

possible

in

and

unimaginable, deny love altogether. Any one

occupied in doing any serious work does not olten notice

One eugBged in fighting does not often know that he is wounded and do«B nob feel pain until afterwards when he sees the blood flowing. Then again any noise,

etc.

1

often in love of the things of the world one of

pain

but instead of being sorry he

is

is

oonsoioua

pleased with

it,

because of the achievement of the aim at the end. The troubles of travel

may

be pleasures at the prospect of

Xeaohiug the destination.

When taut,

the pains coming

bow much more SO.

Ihya,

11.

Qur'an,

p.

from other sources are

pleasing are the pains

2Wff. p. 27. SO.

plea-

oomlngfrom

120 the beloved. This

is

the state with a worldly beloved seen

by the bodily eyes when one

is

conscious about the

also

origin cf the beloved which wan a drop cf dirty water, and

the beloved oarrying within the bcdy nothing ehe besid-

es

filth,

loved, ib

What

will be the

whose beauty

state in relation to

the perfect Beauty.

There

longed suffering".

ci innumerable oases of

death

is

The

in rida.

most acute or pro-

first is tbe possibility of rida in the

the overwhelming evidence

men and women who

suffered

and the moat cruel tortures and pains cheerfully

because

it

was the

will

and pleasure

nf Allah.

grades of cheerful submission to the

The first ib the hope of a reward in The nexb is the feeling that whatever it

as be-

seen by the eyes of the heart; and

is

There are several problems involved

is

Qod

the will

cheerfully,

-will too.

yet apart from this

The highest

stage

Allah.

of

the next world. befalling

is

him

and hence he must bear

hie Beloved,

of

will

There are

is

he

may have

his

own

reached when the desire of

the lover becomes identified with the will of his Beloved

and that

becomes highest

are met with In

no wonder

life

amongst lovers

that this love

higher degree in those

and

pleasure.

t

of

Suoh

mortals.

bould be found

who have

God

is this:

evil

and hsnee shoo Id he who 83-

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 997

88.

Ihya, Vol. IV, p. 80Q.

If.

is

a

infinite

.

the conception of

the source of all

rida

Is

in

8

It is

even in

realised the

sternal beauty and goodness of Allah"

The second problem involved

in stances

good and of

all

ever pleased with

1

Ailah welcome

others?

According

ultimatfly be

with

ard

Bin

f

to

J. I

evil

himself be well as in

in

rated to God, yet

He

neither

is

th« evil hnn materialised.

ask the

He

'Why'.

The lover and

hates evil,

is

opposed to

remains reconciled fo the fact that

the

universe

becauee

it

not

is

may

be olaimed

without

exists

the

in

will

that according to the Qor'an

the Eadith one most be satisfied

by God.

impospible to

Tt ip

decreed by God: for. then,

ore

at

it

it,

God 3 *. Tt

If

(Itasab)

God doeB not

of

yet

of

pleased

nor withtho evil-doer bv whose acquisition

i*

may

al-Ghnzzali, thcnph evil

elpe

it

is

it in

and

this

it

with what

is

decreed

conceive that sin

must be oaused

it

evil

is

not

by some

wrald contradict the Unity

decreed by God, tc regard

and

of

God.

and be anpry

what is decreed by God an evil. How the two contradictions ? Hrw can W-?«

to regard

to reconcile

and dipnatiefeotion be referred to the same thing at the same time ? Only the people weak in understanding and ignorant of the secrete of knowledge doubt the matter and regard the eileboe at forbidden things as the tage of satisfaction (riJa) and call ii; good character, although

it

is

sheer

igroranee.

The truth

fs

that rida

and dissatisfaction are rontually exclusive and contra* dietary when both are referred to the earns object el the eame time from the same point of view. Baft if

from cne point of view and Win from Mother they eannot be regarded m eontradlctoriee. Jor example* If an enemy of yours, who is also an dieeatisfaction ie

84.

Ihya, Vol.IV, pp. Wfl-808,

122 enemy

of

trying to

who had beeu

another enemy of yours, and

second enemy of yours, dies,

kill this

you are

both sorry and glad at his death. You are sorry because he had been trying to kill another enemy of yours, and

you are

waB an enemy

glad, because he himself

Similarly, the sin has also

be considered,

firstly,

two points

of yours.

of view.

God

with reference to

It

may

because

it

God by His power and- intention. view satisfaction may be expressed

happened as an act of

From with

this point

sin.

do as

He

He

is

of

the absolute Master and his a right to

The other consideration

likes.

point of view of man. is

The

sin resulting

a quality of his conduct and

the anger of

about

From

the oauses this point

of

anger

of

that

and

view the sin

the-

from action

indicates that he has

it

God on him and

from

is

God has brought disgrace

is

of

him.

bad and must be

despised.

There are many examples to Bhow that one thing from one point of view and dislikes point of view.

When

a

man commits

decreed from the very beginning*

God.

Therefore,

if

a

man

it

from another

a sin, It

likes a

it

had been

was the plan of

loves God, he ought to hate a

man who is hated by God, and be angry with a man with whom God is angry. A man who loves God ought to love him whom God love's and hate him whom God hates.

All these things

and an explanation and but

evil both, are is

belong

of it in

pro-determination

to

terms

is

from Hia intention.

Good

forbidden.

Evil

is

decreed:

bated, whereas the good is desired and liked.

But the oomplete understanding

of

this

problsok

involves the problem of predestination and relates to

123 The Prophet deolared, "Predestina-

'ilm al-Mukashafa, tion is a secret of

there

is

the

the HsAith

Am

Don't disolose

God.

overwhelming evidence

condemning

it".

However,

Qnr'an and

of the

and lauding virtue, making

vice

bil-Ma'ruf and Nahy'anil-Munkar a duty for a

MuBlim. Lastly, rida

may

prayer on the part will

is

And

this

ing

bo

of

God, of

prayer

in

was the constant praotioe for forgiveness

We

for this

must is

that

all

Pray-

of the Prophet.

our bouIb rise up in prayers to

let

Prayer induces a state purges and

meekness towards God,

cleanses the heart, opens She breast and makes one susoeptible to the Divine influence fly

and knowledge

from a place stricken with

again, nob contrary to rida.

sin or

but because

healthy

all

if

there will be none to lock after the

The Prophet compared 96 . line

the

men

to the flight

it

plague

it is

is,

flying

against

desert the

siok

mura

3 ".

The Prophet forbade

from a plague-stricken place nob because rida,

is

not against the pleasure

is

the will of God.

humility and

To

the

forgiveness,

and

of evil,

is

enjoined by the Qur'an as a form of worship.

God

God.

whose pleasure

forme

all

entail a rejection of

to

To seek

from sins and

refuge

said

of the lover

the Beloved.

of

good,

be

piaoa-

»qd the dead.

from the fighting

Al'Ghazzali relates numerous traditions about

lovers ol

God

with God and how

»e

He

to

too

how

they were very pleased

was pleased with them.* 7 This

&fi.

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 302-303.

36.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

37.

Ihya, pp. 904

p.

ff.

303

121 is

attainment of the highest spiritual pro*

indeed the

on

gress

Man's

earth.

highest pleasure

purest thoughts and words and in the for this

always the will

is

But people

of

with regard to God 38 he*

-oause the grades of the love of this

ledge of

God

world and the know-

There

are different with different persons.

are three such 'the qualifciJS

noblest oonduct,

God.

in love

differ

grades

and names

(

:

1

)

Those wht have heard

God and have simply

of

the

in

lies

them and know nothing more.

learned

Though sometime! they

understand their meaning wrongly and do not know the true fact, yet with acoeptanoe and con6rmation

and begin to worship, leaving aside

lieve

These men are called

•who have

'the

false ideas.

men

all

of the right,'*"

They are

led astray.

be-

dissuasion. (3)

Those

(3)

Those

-who have the true knowledge. These are the intimates, 40 the nearest

As has been

ones to God.

'God increases with the knowledge of God,

love of

The whole

The more one knows of bis work, more one knows Him. The grades of knowledge of

universe •the

said,

is

His work.

His work, the universe, are innumerable.

That

people are so different in grades with regard to -God.

which

By

increasing our kaowledge about

ib

the act of God,

inoreased.

is

why

love of

the creation

our knowledge of God

With the inoreaee of

the love of God, which

is

this

Is

knowledge, inoreases

the souroe of eternal

joy and

blessing.

38.

Ihya, Vol. IV, p.

99.

"Ashab

al

346—386.

Yumin',

lit.

people of the riqhUkand

tide.

40.

Siddiqun, the most truthful.

AL-GHAZZALI Belief in

life

O.N

after death is

for evil ones are the

religious life. Heaven,

common is

fundamental

a

Be wards

every revealed religion,

puniahment

THE VISION OF GOD.

conceptions of almost

of

good deeds and-

for

guiding

pleasure,

hell,

taciet

incentives of

etc, are

pain,

all religions.

Al-Ghazzali

a great defender and exponent of Islam whioh, aa

demands a right

he explains,

adjustment cf

men's

oonduot to an unseen order of things lying at the basis of the

phenomenal world.

Islam io oonoeption of the

from that

many

of

believed in the pbysioa!

hereafter.

life

exiitenoe

of

the

The

latter

the things of tne>

Al v Uhazzali besides believing

existence, giveb them a

of

after death Blightly differs

contemporaries.

his

cf

His interpretation

in the

physioaL

spiritual meaning.

Al*Ghazuali has established on Islamic principle* that the sumoiuuj bocum, the complete or the ultimate end of a

mans

which

will

endeavour

in etna

world

become possible in the

Quran declares

the vision of

God

hereafter.

Tne

life

God or His countenance to man. "And the good that ye

the sight of

be the highest felicity shall give in

is

o(

alms bball redound unto yourself

shall not give but as

seeking

the faoe of God.

;

1 '*

and ye "'And

who, from desire :o see the face of their Lord are cons* tasb amid trials, and observe prayer and give* alms in ;

seoret

and

in the open, out

upon them, and turn aside J.

Quran,

II, 274.

of evil

what we have bestowed by good ; for these is

126 the recompense oof)

that abode" 3 .

of

"And who

offereth

favours to any one for the sake of recompense, but

3 only as seeking the face of his Lord the moBb High" .

"And thruBt not thou away those who cry to their Lord 4 "Be at morn and even, craving to behold hie face" patient with those who call upon their Lord ac morn ,

and even, seeking usury

to increase it

with the substanoe of others shall

have no increase from God in alms, as seeking the

to

you"

a

"Whatever ye put out at

hie face''".

but whatever ye shall give

:

face

of

God, shall be doubled

.

The phrase 'the face of Allah* whioh occurs frequently in the Quran was interpreted by the early theologians And it was considered as the sight or vision of God. by them the highest end of man. They held out hopes that at least some of the believers will be able to see God. 7

They "agreed

Almighty will create

that

in

in

man

the

next world

God

the

a perception id the sense of

God without mediation"*. The M'ntazilites, oontrary, regarded the vision of Geo as an impo-

vision, to see

on the

ssibility,

because

it

'involved a directing of the eyes on

2.

Quran, XIII, 22

3. ft.

Quran, XOII, 19,20. Quran, VI, 52.

fi.

Quran, XVIII,

6.

Quran,

7.

Of.

8.

Shihabuddin Suhrawerdl, Maqtal

XXX,

27.

37.

D. B. Maodonald

on MyBtioipm, Vol.

iv

s

:\

ed.,

2e».

t

Aspect of Islam, pp. 186-187

and

trn.,

:

Three Treatises

Spies, p.

"11 ;

T},», s-

127 the part of the seer, and position on the part of seen'*.

They argued

that

being beyond space, cud never ba

God

delimited and assigned a particular place and direction.

They, oennistant to their position, tried io explain away

Quran bearing on

the passages of the

A].

subject.

the

Ghazzali to meet their objections argued that

this vision

has no special olaim to the eye or any other sense organ. It is

God can

a complete knowldege which

Just as the concep-

without the mediation of the senses. tion of

God

cations

of

as

we have

here,

it

and

spatial

temporal

immediate knowledge of God, or tbe vision of Him,

the

in

from tbe impli-

free

is

man

create in

characteristics,

tbe

the special perception

i.e.,

next world will be free

limitations 10 .

from suoh

Al-Gazzali explains the nature of the vision of

God

God which

will

as the perfect and direct knowledge

of

constitute the highest blisb for tbe percipient.

In

tli's

knowledge

of

world the

He u&unot

God.

possible.

perfect 11 .

r

lt

differ in thij wp.y that

the?

r.f

conceptual

perceive Hiriof

directly.

Goi

will

not oDly direct but also

God aud

tho Utt.r

the vision of

ny far

is

tiw

God

mora

acd direct exiorienco than the firmer.

To take an analogy may be compared 9.

bo

will

The conception

vivid, complete

haB

the direct knuwtad^o

In the next world,

boeome

believer

iro:ri

to

D. B, Maodonald

tho prossut

the

:

life,

peroapiual

tuia

diffdirbnce

knowledge of a

Ddvelonrasnt of Muslim

logy, p. 145. 10,

Ihva, Vol. IV, p 3f»3,

11.

Ihya. Val. rv,r. 2G3.

theo-

12a physical object which

mere comprehensive

distinctly

is

1

and direct than the mere idea or image

The knowledge ia

ruya

called

(seeing),

wajh

(

vision }t

(face),

seeing of God.

God

of

of

11 .

it

acquired through the vision liqa

nnzr (look),

One can think

meeting

(

of

etc.

1

".

),

muthdhada an actual

It is

God here on earth and

have some knowledge of ,Him but cannot Bee Him Xi The higheBt knowledge of God on earth is not, then,

On

direct or complete knowledge.

"Thou

told

canst not see me" 15

,

this earth

Moses was

nor could Muhammad,

the Prophet get vision of God here without a veil interposed in between 16 "Eyes apprehend Him not ' 17 , is the 1

.

verdict until

of

we have

after death that off thy veil

"shuffled

God

off

God

will be disuuBsed

is

man,

Bight,

coil".

"We

today

This happiness

.

all

It

iff

have stripped

is

keen" 18

ie

,

due to the

essentially involved here.

more

understand that of

mortal

experience the highest bliss in

will

10 the vision of God

this

will Bay to

from thee eo thy

The percipient that love of

True knowledge oannot oome

the Quran.

fully

below.

fact

TMb point

Here we have

the pleasure r that a

man

to

can find,

13.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

13.

Ihya, Vol, IV, pp. 264, 268, 465; Ihya, Vol. II,

p.

207.

P. 2.

14.

Ihya, Vol. IV,

16.

Quran, VII, 139; lbya, Vol. IV,

16.

Ihya, Vol IV, p. 268.

17.

Quran, VI, 104.

18.

Quran, 60,

19.

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 268, 270.

p.

268

22.

p.

268.

129

God

the pleasure of the vision of perfection and permanence.

is

the highest in value,

shown before

has been

It

that the pleasures of the intellect are superior to those

But among the

of the sense.

pleasure which

ledge

Aud

from

inferior to the

is

from the knowledge of God

accrues

the highest' piaasure.

the pleasure

idea

is

muoh

we experience when he is The knowledge of God we possess here

pleasure

vVon,

up, this

less

we

take

than the

aotually present.

based on think* an actually seeing of God. To

ing, while vision will be

sum

know-

the

Just as the pleasure

an absent friend,

of

of

is

pleasure that one would derive

the vision of God 10 .

in the

intellectual pleasures, the

is

Bummum bonum

the

of

a man's

endeavours, will involve pleasure without pain, wealth

without poverty, perfection without defeot, joy without sorrow, glory without disgrace and knowledge without ignorance 3 '.

As

to

in order to

the

which a man

conditions

beoome

must

fulfil

they are two,

viz.,

have the vision of God, knowledge of God and love of God,

Knowledge

God

in this

of

qualified to

lead to the vision of God,

world

complete knowledge of God,

ie

conceptual.

It

to the direct, immediate

i.e.,

in

the next.

will

and

Love that the

believer has in the world will lead to his appreciation of.

and delights from the vision.

The conceptual knowledge In the

God

world will reach

in the

life

its

of

God

that one

possem*

oulmioation in the vision of

hereafter**. It has been rightly said that

10;

Ibi*)., p.

%L

Muan *J>Amal,

S3.

Ihj». Vol. IV, p. 968-969.

970. p. t.

130

man

will

death with the same faoultlea and

after

rise

whioh he had when he died. He who hai no knowledge of God, will not have vision. The perfecideals

tion of vision will be in direot proportion to

the com-

to

f

God,

prehensiveness of his knowledge.

Him

different persons will see

one,

is

differently,

but

know-

their

ledge being different. „

of

,

However, no believer is without some knowledge God. The knowledge and the freedom from the love

at this world will pass over to the

no heart

life

on absolutely pure.

will pass

h

.So

God

the vision of

Jknojwledge of

the joy of

it

God one

possesses in

m\J£ \fa%\$

the joy of

is

Jfllfiah, is

YJlftjGjnd

God

more pleasure from

w *' n

0|ie

ijfyapfj^e

other

if

and that

*° ve

'

or 'he

who has no of

God.

of

God

of

this

world

God than If

the

persons

on the same beautiful

f ftoe

w ^l

love for

God oan only

is full of

in

whose

The heart

world.

get

more pleasure

it.

enter a pure heart,

the love of this world.

man's heart

of thd Learned

goost-io (Arif)

of the love of this

But the love whioh is free from -trary,

ba quite different

will

the sight of

ftjyfo|pual faculty of vision, gaze

te°%Jfr*

and will

to the love

Crom that of the

is full

this world;

God

dominated by the love dominated with the love

one which

beoomes

of

the learned,

be different

it

purged

The joy wbioh the Prophet

dj^jve out of the vision of f^pjpp

before

Bat

be determined by the

will

will be proportionate

j^pg^has in thib world.

death.

It will be

by God by punishment or graoe worthy of the vision of God. ilf

after

On

the/

eon*

the love of thl* world, ba

181 "will find

the next world

quite strange tc

him and (he

vision which will give joy to others will cause a misery to him. since

The

this world.

life

he will miss the

of

his

for the things of the spirit.

affinity

which one sbenld acquire

affinity

filth

in or ease

pleasures will

spiritual

misery as he has no

The

next

the

in

is

God.

the love of

This love can be acquired through the purification of

Therefore,

the

hath corrupted

Qur'an says, it

(soul) 33 ".

Man's condition as be compared

to a lover

the darkness while he

Now

sweetheart

knowledge

sees his

being constantly

is

He cannot

left

troubled by

fully enjoy

the sight

beautiful

face in

troublesome eeorpions, etc

the

hhu, his joy will b« unmixed

lover, being released

God can

presence of suoh hindrances.

in the

when

of

sweetheart's faoe in

suppose, be sees his sweethearts

the broad daylight

have

to the

who

snakes- and scorpionsof his

man and God. "And undone Is ha who

as Bins stand as veils between

the heart,

from the worldly

,

Similarly, God's

have

desircc, will

nothing to mar his happiness when be comes face to faoe with God.

Deeds done en earth, according bo evaluated

in the

world

r.o

to ai.Qhazzal!

come and

*ftd Hell will be allotted accordingly.

opinion,

will

depart

impurity attaobed to

from the it.

punishment! even though pain In

the grave" 4 .

91.

Quran, XOl,

34.

Ihys.p. 968.

world

heart,

be nothing

ic hie

without

Henoe, no one it

Heaven

plaoes in

No

will

will

some escape

more than a

There will be different grades of 10. .«4.

132 Heaven and Hell for men, on value of their deeds done

men with Heaven

respect to

basis of the

believe

in

Ss

God.

divisi

The doomed

will be

They

oondemned to

will be

those

who

in

God, have Binned

in

will be

spite of their faith in the oneness of

those

After appropriate punishment they will be

this world.

The

third group will be of those

no meritorious deeds The people

free.

{halikun),

These classes are further

The redeemed

eternal Hell-fire.

set free.

doomed

(mu'adfalhabun), saved {najun), and the

numerous gradeB.

who do not

divides

grades in Hell and

their spiritual

meritorious (fa'izun). ble into

religion*

He

here on earth.

into four main classes, viz., the

re-deemed

the

the

to

tbeir oredit

of the last

who

will

but will be just set

group will be those

have gained meritorious reward.

have

The most

rank among this group will be privileged

who

exalted in

to see

God

face to face.

may

It

be noted that knowledge, Icve and the oon*

sequent vision of

God are

the sense that

all relative in

no man oan achieve a perfection in them. possesses them to a degree with bility before

attain to

him

to advance farther.

perfeot

whioh God has

him

satisfaction

Him

knowledge

of Himself-

faim a yearning for self to

of

and

God even

joy, but

will remain;

it

Eaoh man

an unlimited possi-

A

roan oan never

God — the knowledge

There will always remain after

the next world.

in

still

'

He

has revealed Him-

His vision

the yearning to

will bring

in

will

give

know more

of

continual inorease of

knowledge, will oontlnually produce new satisfaction

and new

joy.

This will be bliss indeed. *""

90.

Ihya, pp. 91

II.

"

APPENDIX

I

AL-GHAZZALI ON CHILD EDUCATION

•

Education of children 1 ohild

is

an important

affair.

His heart

a trust in the he-nds of the parents.

is

Is like

a fine and clean precious store, free of all

vings

and writings.

development. to

what

Jf

he

It

capable

ifi

educe* ted

is

to

grown up and

will

acquire Hie

engra-

every sort of

of

become accustomed

when

even

good, he will surely fellow truth

is

A

happiness of both the

worlds, which will be shared by big parents and teBchers.

The lack

rf prefer education ruins the child,

and

in

bis

sine his parents as well as hie teacherp will have a ak&re.

The parents should tcaoh their children good etc.,

couihiot,

and should keep them away from bad company.

the beginr icg they should

teach

th^m

In

despise

Bell-

This oare must begin from the very beginning.

The

adornment, pleasure, comfort,

first t'nirg is

woman.

etc.

that he must suck the milk

of

Milk bacomes h part of child's

nourishes the minJ and influences worse.

to

The boman soul

influences of food as

it ie

is

it

for

delicatelv

resprneive to

a

\irtuous

system.

better sensitive all

It

ard for go

the

the itfluenoeB

on tbe body.

When

the ohild

is

capable of distinguishing thingR,

mrre oare is to be taken. Tbe onset of the sense shame is the beginning of tbe discrimination between

still

of

1

Ihya,

voL

II, pp.

63

ff«

134 good and

evil,

and marks the dawn

A

of reason.

child

1

with a sense of shame has bo be taken more oare of

whom shame

is

not developed.

child's earliest desire

is

for food.

than the ohild in

The

taught the manners concerning

it.

He

He must

ought to be begin with

Bismillah (saying Grace), eat with his right hand, eat

from what is eating,

morsels

is in

front of him, not look greedily at one

not be hasty in eating, ohew well, not take in

in

quick succession, not smear hie hand and food, and

clothes with

ought to eat bread only

not

form the habit of

order to

in

Those who eat mode-

He

must be praised before him.

to consider

it

and become

a

Sometimes he

overeat.

eating ooarse food without dishes. rately

who

ought to be made

good thing to give away food to others

eelf-saorifioing.

The boy should be taught coloured or silk dress-

plain clothes

to prefer

to

Before him despiee the boys

Do

dressed in silk and in gay colours

mix with such boys as are fond comfort and funny clothes. to

not allow him

and indulge

of

in

Then, he ought to be sent to school and be taught the Quran, Hadith and the stories of the pious people, so that their love takes roots

in "his

heart*

He must

not be allowed to read amatory poetry and to meet persons

and

wit*

who

eonsider such poetry a sign

Such poetry will sow the seed

ot

cleverness

oi evil in

him.

Reward the boy if he does something good, He will be and praise him before the people for it* Overlook him if he does pleased and encouraged. something unpleasant for the

first

or second time.

Do

135 not expoie his

seorets.

If

great harm, he will not oare

Warn him be

not to repeat

made known

quently.

If

he.

it

much about

or his faults would

Do

not scold him fre-

accustomed

gets

not mind the scolding and would

to

The father ought

ways.

aiderat: ly

and Boold him but seldom.

nd him

of his father's

He must day as

from sleeping BO(t beds.

The mother

also

She ought to remi-

evil things-

warnings.

laziness.

But he inUBt not be stopped

night exoept

ia the

if

be tries to do

secret

in

musb be avoided.

boy must cot be allowed to do anything

for he doea in

it

matter of

In shot!, the love of aonii'ort in the

bed, dressing and food

A

him con-

talk to

to

and

not be made accustomed to Bleep in the

causes

it

would

he

it,

to his faults

stick

fall in evil

ought to Btop him from

future.

in

it

again

others.

to

him no

revealing bringB

only what he considers

he has the Lubis of doing everything opeuly,

lie

in

secret

evil.

If

will not

do anything bad.

A

time in the day must be fixed for a walk to avoid

laziness.

He

miiBt have

and walking Rnricualv.

must not turn one

qIb back

article of food

the habit

He must

not yarning

of

not yawn before others,

towards others, must not put

upon another, must

not.

obin on hie hand and must not make of his

support his

arm

a pillow

for hie haad, beoause all these are signs of la^jnesa.

He must

not boast among his companions of the

things of his father.

what he

He

n>UHt

also not

eats, wears, or poReescies.

On

be proud

of

the contrary, be

must behave with those

gently and

he meets

with

humility.

He

ought not

he must be

rioh,

to

from others.

take things

that his position

told

not to take.

Accepting things from

of inferiority

and degradation. and

habit

The

morsel.

tails for a

silver

a

must be oheobed

He must

others

he

dogs,

of

places of sitting.

He must

how

be taught

He must

be checked from speaking

a sign of

shamtilessnss and

otherwise

ba allowed

only the

the

habit

but only give an answer of what

understanding

him who ing

is

room

for

habits,

is

away from the

<ereate

are

with tboeo acquired

society of evil

teaoher beats

muoh

etc.

in

to sit properly.

much

as

it is

ought tc be

H? must speaking

not

first,

show

respect to

standing up aod by mak-

nonsense, cbscene

is

He must

fuss

a

nor seek

not be

who have such bad in

bad company.

educating boys the fundamental point

If the

should be

aeked of him, after

ought to

be checked from what

these

for

and

gold

him

associate

te

He

false

of

and also from scolding.

coarse

allowed

He

well.

older than him by

He must e,nd

it

their

low people talk

becomes a habit.

it

develop

to

of

too

Swearing whether true or

;

who wag

habit of throwing sputum,

the

avoided

greed and

in boys,

taught to avoid

too much.

is

taught good manners.

ba

a sign

is

poor, he must

is

and greed

love

Is

and

to give

is

things from olherB

be told that to take humiliation

Tf

he

If

3b

to keep

In

them

men. boy,

the latter

anybody's

musl not

reoomiDtada-

137 but

tion,

be

with ^patience •laves

He must

patient..

an act of bravery;

is

who torn

it is

not allowed to play hie

is

heart dies and the sharpness of hia intelleot life

becomes bitter

learning at

women and

from the school, he must be

boy

If a

bear

that to

aod crying.

to weeping

After coming baok

allowed to play.

be told

is lost.

His

ho begins to seek excuses for not

till

all.

He must

be taiight to obey his parents, teaohers, instructors and nveryone who is older than himself

whether a

He must

relative,

cr a

acquaintance

an

stranger.

with respeot, and stop playing

look to thorn

before them, «

When

he xeaches the age of 'tamiz" he ought to be l

taught clpftDJinees and prayer,

made

Iu

Bamzan he must

He must

to fast sometimes.

be taught religious

He must

laws according to bis requirements. to

look with

horror

upon

be

be taught

misappropriation,

theft,

Iving, and obscenity, etc.

After being educated on of

puberty he must be

tboee

deeper

wpirir,

should

world to come.

become

the hands

The centre

become the If all

like

this

initiated

into

$e

The vanity and of

pleasure of

h

gravity

of

God and

bis the>

impressed in childhood,

an engraving on a stone.

of the parents to

they please.

be

of

nature of the wcridly Jcys should be

impressed upon him.

it will

i!eo

the age

af:

significance

the

aud meaning of religion,

the transitory

desires

iuitiafcad into

H* mu«t

things.

the above lines

It

is

in

bring up their obibjren a*

APPENDIX

II

SDHRAWERDI MAQTUL'S PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION ACCORDING TO THE

WORKS

OF HIS YOUTH INTRODUCTION Shihabnddio Buhrawerdi Maqtul (ob. 587 A. H.) i» one of the original Muslim thinkers of the 6th century A. H.

He

is

Even

youth he stood unrivalled as a thinker 1 . the author of many books, especially on philosophy in

and mystioiBm 9 the most oharaoteristic work

of

,

is

Eilcmat

uUhhraq ("The philosophy

a book on the metaphysics of lity as light

and endeavours

and origin

of

have been

published

various writers,

on

of Illumination"),

He

oonoeivea rea-

to prove that

it is

the uouroa

Although thorough studies

things.

all

light.

which

the

philosophy of light by

there remains

much

investigation to

bo done.

*

The numerous works

according to the stages

1.

Muhammad

in Persia. 2.

A

of

Iqbal,

London 1908, detailed

of Buhrawerdi oan be classified

mental development through

Development of Metaphysics pp.

123 eqq.

and exhaustive

list

of

bis

works

is

given by O. Spies, Three Treatises, pp. 101-02 (Arabia text)

and Mu'nisul-'Ushshaq,

pp.

ll-U.

139

We

which he passed. clear-out periods.

oan differentiate between

three-

8

*

(a) (6) (0)

Works of hie youth. Works of the peripatetic Period. Works of the Avioenno-PIatonio period.

Anjong books

of

hib

youth are Hayakilun-Nur and a

number of rasa il written in Persian. The present paper is an attempt to collect philosophical

ideas

of

systematically the philosophy of

and

Suhrawerdi of his

to fthe period of his

to

describe

youth on the basis

his utterances in "Three Treatises

and on ''&£u'nis-uMJshshaq." e

the Boattered

on Mysticism" 4

These treatises belong

youth and are therefore important

for the study of his mental

growth

The

titles

and the

purport of tuose rasa'il are as follows. I.

Laughat-i-Mnran, ''The Language

of the Ants".

Here Suhrawerdi has explained the must ahstruee and mystical ideas in commonplace terms.

mals are employed as characters who

The

treatise as a

and destiny

of

ani-

i»nd

talk nnd think.

whole deals with the nature, purpose

mac.

Safir-i-Simcrgh

II.

Birds

,

"The Note

of Simurgh'

.

It

deals with the Aims and obieotB ot myscioism. 3.

185*9, p. 4.

L. MaaflifcnoD: i

tteoueil de Testes Inedita, Paris

13.

0. Spies *nd S. K.

KhataV, Three Treatises on

Myetioism, Stuttgart 1935, Boimer Oriental

Stodien,

Heft 12 5.

Bonner

O. Spies, The Lovers' Friend. Oriental.

Stnpien. Heft 7.

Stuttgart

1934,

140 HI.

"The Treatise

Riealt ufc-Tair.

which points out the

the e«eker

that beset

difficulties

Bi'd" 8

of the

after truth-

Mu'nis-uI-'Ushshaq, "The Lovers' Friend"

IV.

an allegory based on the Quranic story of Joseph.

how Grd

a symbolic discourse on Reality

is

is

It la

created the universe.

oonoeived as an eternal beauty which oan be

realised

through Divine

spiritual

grade of perfection to be achieved by man here on

earth. the

The

perfection

knowledge of

self,

Love which

can

man who

of Plato

be attained

we

The most

The

and Nen-PIatonism «eemB rraeeahle

and, therefore,

think

it

through

only

the description of the

is

conceived as a microcosm.

"s

highest)

the

the universe and God.

abstruse part of the book of

is

in

powers

Influence

the book

belongs to the third period of

Snhrawerdi.

The ideas oontained

in these rasa'il

form to the doctrines

of nhe

gonism to the Quran io

spirit.

standing foreign conoeives

Quran and bear no antaHowever, the one out-

influence, viz.,

all spiritual

are made to con-

the Persian,

is

that be

things to he of the nature of light.

There seema to be a struggle between the Islamic and Persian doctrines wherein the Tblamlo elements predominate. 6.

This

treatise

called

is

^wll

^wJ

£»»y.

Mohd. Rhafi, Lahore, 127 calls 'Omar b. Banian

Al-Baihaqi in his Tatimma, ed. 1935, Vol I f Arabic text), as "Lisan al

Haqq" and

him, and not to tbe At-Tair.

p.

therefore tbe

title of

th$

reference

work which

is

is

to

Risalat

141

The Background of Suhrawerdi's Thought.

I.

Muslim thinkers can mainly be divided into three sohcols, viz., the rationalists, the orthodox theologians,

The

and the Sana.

rationalists,

i.e.,

the Mn'tazilites

and

the philosophers, regard reason as the eoaroe of knowledge

and

The Mn'tazilites

more

consistent

thinkers than the philosophers, as the latter

with a few

truth.

exceptions end

invariably in

are

The orthdox

mystioism.

theologians rely mainly on revelation as the souroe of

The

truth.

admitting the olaims of reason and

Sufis

revelation as the sources of truth consider

the only

sure

souroe of the

knowledge

intuition as of

spiritual,

troths.

Though

all

tiiesohools of

MuBlhn thinkers are indebted

the Greek, the Persian, the

to external influence, e.g.,

Christian, etc., yet the sohool which

is

affeotod

most

Is

The philosophers gave a higher

that of the philosophers.

value to the Greek culture and science than to the Isla-

mic

culture.

The

Sufis,

on the whole, taking their aland

on the Quranic dootriae, absorbed and not the

their

systems alL

They always kept before them the

sorts of elements. spirit

in

of

letter

the

law which became the

oentxa) principle of their systems.

The vig. t the

Sufis

may

be divided into three main classes, speculative metaphysicians

apoetioa,, the

the moderate group

who

tried to reooneile the extremist

olaims of the former two. e.

,

Ibn Adham,

heft-fire

eto.

and

It

The early Sufis were ascetics, wae the fear 61 the eternal

which drove them to rigorous disciplines and

eofterltiet.

She moderate group by an

attempt to

142 reeonoile the claims of asceticism and free speculation

aimed to bring Sufiem within tbe

fold

of

Islam.

These

thinkers respected both the letter and tbe spirit of the

The formal

law.

means

disciplines prescribed

to an and, which end

purification

the

is

by the law are the

of

Aba Talib al-Makki,

heart from the animal passions.

al*Ghazzali ( al-Quehairi, etc, belong

to

this

mode

of

The speculative metaphysicians from the point view of philosophy are of paramount importance.

thought. of

They thought

out

theories, such as

The

most original

the

and

those about the universe,

detailed

etc

soul,

ohief characteristic of this sohool is that they tried

to find out the hidden

and esoteric manning

law

the

in

Ibn al-'Arabi and Sub rawer di are the best

of Islam.

representatives of this sohool.

The main causes which thought are as follows the Quran,

e. g.,

-esoterioally.

(I)

:

mode

of

The mystical expressions

in

led to this

J' which led people to interpret them

(2)

The over

e-nphftsis

theologians on the forma) side its spirit.

ssoterio

(3)

The

knowledge

r.f

of truth

(4)

of

tha,law

influence of the

in the dootrine of tbe infallible

know and

esoteric

the

nrtl

ndox

afi

t)j«

oost of

Magians

whr;

cUiued

The

bel ef of t.he

Imam who

Sb

!

'ites

alone onnld

interpret the law.

The most powerful

sect of these Shi'ites

was that

of

the Isma'ilians whose doctrine of Ta'wil pr-ved fatal to the forma! side of the law. They held tbe Quran to be an allegory and interpreted

it

and also Hadith

in

an esoteric

were given to Heaves, Hell, pleasure, pain and other Qaranta ooneeptipni. The' doctrine of Ta'wil later on hneauie the Central

manner.

Spiritual meanings

143 prinoiple with the speculative Sufis.

At one time

in their history the Isma'ilians

Many

a very great danger tc the reet of Islam.

men to

Nizam ul*Mulk

like

write books

Many

menace*.

at-Tusi, al-Ghazzali,

againBt of the

doctrines

their

some

ai did

Imam-al Ghazzali*.

It

great

had

etc.,

oheok the

to

who wrote

thinkers

Jema'ilians gradually aseiniilattd

became

against the

of their doctrines

through him that

is

Ibn al-'Arabi and Snhrawerdi icherited esoberio ideas. Al-Ghazzali besides giving physical meaning to Hell,

Heaven, pleasure and pain gives them a spiritual meaning Similarly the use of allegory after the fashion

as well.

of the Isma'ilians

allegory.

"Hay? Ibn Yaqzan"* Of.

7.

waB written

which he expressed

ad. Dalai, pp.

obapters 1*9

18*21

;

al-

al-Mnsfca-

;

to oheok the onslaught of the Batinites.

In his book

8.

in

Ibn Sina wrote an

ut'Tcsi, Siyesat-Nama,

Munqidh min

Ghazzali' s zhiri

became common.

at-Tafriqa

aMsIam waz-

hain

zandiqa while propounding the rules for the oriterion

bow

to interpret the

Quran, Hadith and the dootrines

of other soots Ghazzali himself has yielded to the doctrine of

Ta'wil,

and mostly he Bides wich the

not tho letter

of

the

His Ihya

law.

between the formal and the inner side favours the inner side of

nary,

if

madnun

a

means

bihi

to the

it

is

at

spirit

a

and

struggle

Islam.

He

The formal, though neoe>

inner.

an ghairi ahlih*'\

Books eto.

like

"Kitab

aJ-

follow only the

esoterio Bide of the law of Islam. 9".

the same

Ibn Tufail later on also wrote an allegory under title.

— 144 the most subtle and abstruse ideas in oommonpiaoe terms.

Al-Qhazzali popularised the usa of the allegory Closely connected

Ihya, vol. IV) pp. 215-18).

doctrines of allegory and efeotenoism belief of the

Muslim philosophers

is

(0. g. t

with the

common

the

that the masses cannot

understand the nature of ultimate things. Suhrawerdi's allegories are the oldest allegories Persian literature of the

supporter

known

bo far.

He

belief

that the

truth should

revealed to the masaes to olotbe

"To

10 and,

is

the

strongest

not be

therefore, he always tried

oommonpiaoe things

obsoure terminology.

in

save himself from the troubles the Sufi should

express

all

that

understand

is

those

in his

own ken is

not

as only a few can

conceptions." ll

'To divulge tbe Divine secret

in

Suhrawerdi

says.

unbelief, to divulge the

of predestination is rebellion ana bo publish a13 In the allegory 13 pertaining tosecret is unbelief...."

seoret

the poopoo the animal

"Many

is

made

a time have I said that I will divulge

Whatever But out

secrets there are in the world.

of fear of the

There are a thousand 10.

to Bay:

Three Treatises,

sword and slaps on the neck tieB

p. 13.

acoording to their intelligence",

where he has 11

p.

91.

IS. Ibid. pn. 90-98.

my

tongue."

"Speak

to the

p. 21; see aJso pp.

illustrated this truth.

Three Treatise*,

19. Ibid.

on

pp. 90-22-

people

20*23

145 As

to the

hcurcea

Suhrawerdi's philosophy, ha

of

And made use

drank deep at various sources principle,

idea,

He

etc

story,

,

of

every

which served hie purpose.

took his materials from the Quran, Hadith and the

Ho was

Sufis.

by Plato.

influenced

Neo-Pythagorianism,

Platonism,

Neo-

Aristotle,

Iranian and Shi'ita

*

conceptions.

In spite of the fact that he borrowed ideas from

many

sources, ha did

differed

not aocept

them

Ha many

slavishly.

from Aristotle f and Plato very freely

in

points and roBe above all the minds that influenced him.

He

system of his own which

a

built

is

unique and

original.

Existence aad Nature of the Ultimate Principle

II

Suhrowerdi haB not sjqtematically disouesfd the txi&tenou and the rature of the

ultimate principle in the

The following oonelusioca have been drawn

treatises.

on the basis

of bis

utterances therein.

It

appears tbab

these treatises were addressed to his intimate associates

and confidants who knew

Subrawerdi, Sufi as he reasoning

cannot prove

Instead of n-aking him to doubt and "ma'rifa''i that

is,

believes that

logical

the

ezistenoe of God, eta. 14 a believer , it rather leads a man

despair.

one

his metaphysical views-

It

ia led

iB

only

through

to believe in

gnosis

the existence

of Godi etc Gnosis doeB not depend on arguments and

proofs to establish

its

conclusions.

It

relies

on an

observation (mvshahada) of a very intimate nature, vis., 14.

Three Treatises,

p. 81.

146 an observation with the eye

of the

only in the state of ecstasy when paneled

and one

4oo

around him.

is

unoonscioDB of

The order

removed, and the

is

It ia possible

one's senses are bus-

absorbed in God and

is

the self and the world 'aql (intellect)

heart.

of the

and the

'kaiin'

The

peer has gone beyond 18 the physical world and above the category of being .

'makan' are loBt to sight.

When

the Sufi

through which the nature

upon his heart, entiteis,

such a state, a divine light dawnB

ib in

God, Soul,

e. g.,

things are seen as

becomes manifest. The

etc.,

with the eyes. It

if

many

of

an intuition or

is

inner perception^ The theologians believe that God, in the next world, will create a perception in

which he

will be able to see

God can

create

him of

is

Subrawerdi says that

similar perception

a

in this

in

A

"The semblance

:

enabling

was once asked,

eufi

the proof of the existence of

which he replied

man

world direotly without the help

arguments and proofs 10 .

"What to

God

to see

Him,

man through

of the

through arguments

seeks after the Truth

Creator

the

is

?''

one who like

one

15. Ibid., p. IS. 16. vol. I,

Three Treatises, PP. 18*29

The

;

knowledge of spiritual called ZAitK+Jt

J*

*J£

ai.d

after his heart

U

31

;

Cf.

soienoe

realities

1

a.

J**

*

a stage

and

ia

al-Ghazzali,

through

comes

by al-Ghazzali.

£rw&*J| *1p "comes limits of

p.

Ihya,

which the

to the

heart

is

According to him

when man transcends the

wholly absorbed in God,

puri6erl. It is light that reveals itoelf to [See

on n&tt page)

147 searching after the bud with a lamp" 17 this divine light that the

It

.

was through

Propheti lost in ecstasy, asoen-

"My

ded the Heavens and perceived the Troth. has seen

my

•my belief

is

not increased/' said

wad through

P<

'Ali (peace be

Ah

'Omar.

r,ord," said

'

this light of the

is

removed

Ali, the prince of Sufis

18

nature

ultimate principle

heart that 'Omar and

is

ultimate principle.

of the

only one-

according to Suhrawerdi,

who

It is subBtanoa

uses

in the

it

The

(wujud)

same pease

External phenomena are merely

as did Spinoza.

acci-

They are the manifestations of the Bubstanoe' . To prove this Suhrawerdi quotes the following verses from the Holy Quran den'js

:

(CoMinutd from page 14G) the heart of man, its evil qualities.

when it ia purified and purged of all With this light many thtage that are heard

-vague, or are only

Knowledge about

of.

beoome

spiritual

all

real

realities

and

living.

such as the

person of God, His attributes, His aotion, His dispositions

of

the

the

of

affairs

universe,

Satan, angels, Hell, the Heavens, etc,

is

prophet-hood,

tevealed to him.

removes the curtain of doubt till ths truth becomes absolutely manifest, and spiritual realities are perceived It

man

by

as

if

with hie

very nature of man, filth of this

17.

.

upon them) saw God.

the

to

"If the veil

heart

own

if

eyes.

his heart

world

'Three Treatises,

" p. 31,

31-31

18.

Ibid., rp-

19.

Three Treatises, P. IS.

Tfc

is

possible

in

the

were not soiled by the

148 "Bo that they worship not Allah who bringeth forth the hidden in the heavens and the earth" 90 .


And

there

not a thing but with Us are the Btores thereof and 1 we Bend it not down save in appointed measure"' lb is

,

is

unique in existence.

anything else"

"Naught thB Seer"

.

cannot be compared with

.

is

23

It

3

as

He

His

likeness;

and

He

is

the

alone will remain for ever;

Hearer,

all else

is

transitory.

"Every one

that

is

thereon will pass away

remaineth but the countenance

of

;

there

thy Lord of Might

and Glory" 9 \ not every thing exoept'Gcd in

'"Is

the

first,

vain?'" He 8

the last, the manifest and the hidden '.

He

is is

knows all the secrets in the heavens and "Not a secret of you will be bidden* *".

omnisoient and the earth' 7 . It is

on the basis of such utterances, mainly Quranic

that a hazy picture of Subrawerdi's metaphysical views of his

make

younger days, oan be formed. it

quite clear that he

20.

Quran, XXVII, 25.

21.

Quran, XV, 27.

22.

^i *JW

was not an anthropomorphist

y-4*

23.

Quran, XLII,

21.

Quran. LV, 96-27.

25.

Three Treatises, p 27.

26.

Gf.

27.

Three Treatises, pp. 17

98.

Quran, LXIX, IB.

9.

Quran, LVIII,

The utterances

3. ,

149 orthodox theologians especially the Hanbalites.

like the

The

anthropomorphistB attributed human qualities to

God and

mentioned

Him

Quran.

the

in

sits tightly

By

and direction.

to plaoe

they said, and not

where 2-

God

believed that

on

tbe

'arsh

as

doing so they confined

knowledge

It is the

God Himself

that

is

God,

of

present every

.

Suhrawerdi oan aiso be distinguished from the Mu'tazilites

and tbe Muslim philosophers who denied omnisci-

ence to

God they

God

whe

believes that

thing.

God resembles

i?

that of al-Ghazzali

unique and incomparable to any-

Al-Ghazaal: hoIdB the attributes and words which

are used

connote certain

to

merely metaphors. the description abort,

of

He

knows the universals

of the particulars 80 .

and haB no knowledge His conception

only

said,

of

Suhrawerdi

like these

who

He God is

On

Him

te ba

goes to far as tr Bay that even is

beyond

all

metaphor 31

Jn

.

believed

God of

to be nothing

any power

the contrary ho believes

to

God

but a meta-

gove/u 10 be

the

omnis-

and omnipotent-

cient

As to his attitude

to

his

instinctive belief tf his

country that there are two independent ..

id

neither an anthropomorphist nor

phorical entity devoid universe.

qualities

29.

Three Treatises,

30. Of.

realities, the

good

p. 26.

Al-Ghazzali's tahafut, pp. 928-238i

He

has

shattered into pieoee tbe argument of the philosophers

who

held that

W.

God

has no knowledge of tha partieulars

Ihya, Vol. IV, pp. 216-991.

tj»

150 and the

evil,

light

fcha

.md the darkness which create alt

we cannot say any-

the good and evil things respectively,

thing with certainty. There are only two utterances the basis

he

is

which

of

He

a dualist.

it

may

say?,

be said that philosophically,

"whatever retreats to pure dark-

ness has also that (darkness) for

"whatever Beeks

all things

eause

is

is

transitory

a mcnotheist and believes that

God

is

the absolute'

obher lights are non-existent aa compared with

source and origin of other lights which are*

"3 .

"Light upon

whom He

(Ilimsell)

mankind

source." At.d

proceed from a single cause. The nature of that

It is the

light

he

its

aa light'" .

conceived by him to be light.

light; the it

from

light is also

Theologically,

rn

in

allegories" 31

light;

Allah guideth into this

will;

and Allah speaketb to

"You have

all the lights of

this world through the light of the sun. All the

luminous

ohjeots obtain light and acquire brillianoy from

,,8B

it

.

The

the source of light and it gives light to moon and other objeote ae On the basis of such expressions we oan discern the rudiment of the conception of reality aa light 37

sun

is

.

.

33.

Three Treatises, Three Treabisee.

31.

Quran, XXIV, 35

36.

Three Treatises,

36.

Throe Treatises,

32.

p. 18,. p.

p.

14

01

pp. 91, 25.

37. Al-Ghazzftli also conceives the

aB light. His book

the verse of the

Quran:" Allah

and earth." God light, i e the

mishkat al-anwar is

in this* book is

source of

is

nature a

of reality

commentary on

the light of the heavens

conceived to be absolute-

all things.

5!

It

perceived nt

diuniy

is

tbirf

stago

of hi? intellectual

development. Further, he conceives reality as beuuty also, whicn conception

very clear'y brought cut. "Verily, God

ia

a8 likes beauty'*

is

He Die beauty is unmingled with any evil and Hiu perfection without any defect 39 beautiful,

.

.

Beauty {Jamal) and perfection {Kam*l), acoording to Suhrawcrdi, are terms

identical

things seek perfection *°, and this perfection

ment

of absolute beauty

* l .

Ait

significance.

in

is

The oonception

the attain-

of reality as

beauty becomes very clear, as we will find below, when

be explains bow the One created the many,

HI, Creation of the Universe The things were created through agencies hy way emanation. Tha urder of creation thing which 3

'aql*'

God

as follows. The

is

of

first

oreated was a 'luminous essence' oalied

This essence was endowed with three qualities.

.

38.

The Lover' Friend,

39.

Three Treatises,

10. Of.

Mizan-al-aroal, pp. 19

t

33

pp. 50*01.

al-Ghazzali's f

p.

conception

"The

of

perfection,

perfection of every ttw:g

in the realization of the perfection peculiar

consists

that thing.

The perfection which

is

consists

the apprehension

the true

in

of

peculiar

tc

to

man

nature nf

things" 41.

49.

The

liovar' Friend, p. 33.

Cf. Al-Ghazzali, Ihya, Vol. I, p.

73—

JW1 Sharh-aUhya,

God

Vol.

I,

p. 163.

"The

tilt

first

the Almighty created was intellect.''

jli

u jy

thing which

,

152 viz.,

the knowledge of the

the knowledge of truth,

and the knowledge

Husn

phenomenal world.

the

of

self,

came into existence from the quality of the Ishq (love) came into existence knowledge of truth

(beauty)

;

from the quality

knowledge of the

of the

self

Huzn

;

sorrow ) came into being from the quality of the All the three knowledge of the phenomenal world. emanated from the one source and were related to each (

other 48 .

on

A

its

Husn whioh was prior in existence

own beauty and found

cheerfulness appeared

into existenoe all the affection for

himself extremely beautiful.

in his face,

angels 44

Husn gazed

at

a smile appeared on the face

oontcmplated

out of whioh came

who has an him unceasingly and when

of

.

'Ishq (love)

Husn,

'Ishq

was disturbed

and wanted to move but Huzn suspended himself on to

him and from this suspension came into being the heavens and the earth 45 These three elements constitute nature of all things. The oelestial and the terreBtial .

worlds are ruled by them.

When Adam was the celestial world

created,

the

inhabitants

Husn who was world came to see Adam and

were disturbed.

the king of the spiritual

finding the place pleasant, took possession of him. 43.

44.

1908,

p.

Love

Lovers' Friend, pp. 3-4.

Mohd. lqbal, Metaphysics in Persia, London, 1135— The Sufis like Avioenna "look upon the

ultimate reality as 'Eternal Beauty' consists in

seeing

its

own

Universe-mirror." 45.

of

Lovers' Friend,

p. 4.

'face

whoae very nature reflected

in

the

153 and Sorrow without

it

followed

also'

and joined

both the worlds 18

oame

to see

AWn because they could nob live

Since then they have been rilling

it.

Whej

.

the time of Yusuf oame,

him and took possession

Hasu*

him and there

of

remained no difference between Huan and Yueuf. 'Ishq

oame

also

Huzn

1

".

Husn

altar

They

departed lo do

again*

hand in the neok of reach the parlour of Husn and

patting his

failed to

ascetic

exercises

Ta'qub.

went

in finding

-

Canaan and took

to

^thq took

with Zulaikha 49

its

way

'Ishq

to

Egjpt and

Huzn

and

illustrates,

the Universe and

secondly,

whioh

of

iB t-he

ideal

man's

the universal

force called rlies all movements 31 . It

"Every time

I

turn

at a stage

my

".

celebrated

as

the

end succeeded

How God

how beauty

or

created

p^rfeation

oan be attained through

love.

Tl>

lb

lova

whioh unde-

a traveller by profession 61

face to a direction,

It goes to different

has different names in different places

am

of

identified itself

in the

firstly,

life

ia

possession

60 they could not lire .

Husn without whioh

The allegory

am

Huan

.

Ruig.

I

order to see

in

9

'mcver'

every day

countries and

"In heaven I

and on the earth

46.

LoverB* Friend pp. 4-6.

47.

Ibid., pp. 6-8.

46.

Ibid., p, 8,

49.

Ibid., pp, 8-11.

80.

Ibid., pp. 8-11, 90-34.

61.

Lovers' Friend,

p. 99.

53.

Lover*' Friend,

p. 11.

.

I

am

154 ai the "quieter" 63

known

.

8uhrawerdi's position

one thing and then another

was oomplete.

This

is

is

follows

as

till

the

process of creation

doctrine

the

God created

:

of

Neo-PUttonio

emanation. The workings of the force of love are obvious.

"Love", according to Ibn

Bi'na

is

defined "as the

appreciation of Beauty'"*. "This striving for the ideal love's

is

movement towards beauty which, according to

Avioenna,

identioal with perfection.

is

evolution of forms all striving,

is

Beneath the visible

love whioh aotualisea

the force of

movement, progress"". Mamal* and 'Eamal',

aeoordiog to Sufarawerdi, are the two different names of

Husn 88

.

Suhrawerdi's dootrioe

of love

and perfection

agrees with that of Ibn Bina.

The fundamental difference between the God of NeoPlatonism and that of Buhr award is that to the former i

the universe It is

is

the eternel emanation, while to the latter

merely a manifestation* 7 of God. IV.

Nature and Destiny of the

Human

soul

is

of divine origin

things yearn b to return

53.

to

which

whence

Ibid., p. 11.

54. Metaphysics of Persia, p. 3d. 65. Ibid

,

p. 39.

56. Lovers' Friend, p. 23. 57-

Three Treatises, p

13.

Human it

Soul

like

all

other

had come and in

155 attaining this eud consists

its

perfection

68

"Whatever

.

retreats to pure darkness has also that (darkness) for its

source". it

''

Whatever seeks

thing)

(a

"The proof water

He

is

of

life

its

watery

is

it

We

.

It

is

natural it

for

.

without water''

"If 60 .

when it leaves the "And that thy lord,

.

human

the

often forgets

has

its

illustrated

soul to seek

destiny and goes this

point

give here a short resume of full of

it.

in

A

an

king

beautiful flowers of all

was inhabited by beautiful and sweet

Every imaginable beauty was

to be

peaoookB was caught by the

the

light'""

.

had a beautiful garden kinds.

61

from

9

Suhrawardi

'allegory 68

live

that

cannot continue"

anion with Qod, yet astray.

cannot

it

the fish

this is

the goal'"

Though

light is also

found in

it*

birds.

One

of

order of the king and

imprisoned after beicg sewn in a leather.

He

could not

With the time, he forgot all about the garden and its He thougt that there was no better and nicer

see anything exoept the inside of the basket.

passage of

oon tents.

08. Three Treatises, p 14, Cf- AI-Ghassali, Mizan.

al-'Amal, •oul lies in

19-20:— The perfection of the human knowing Qnd, Hia qualities and the disposition

pp.

pf the affairs of the universe. is

an

affinity

He

also believes that there

between soul and God.

p. 95*',.

09.

Three Treatises,

p.

14

60.

Three Treatises,

p,

H.

61. Three Treatises 83.

Quran, LIU, 43.

63.

Three Treatise^

p. 15.

pp.

2235.

'

Ihya,

vol.

IV,

;

156 •place

when

than

the

knew not where

impulse, and he

he heard the following:

oame

''There I

sometimes

sweet breeze oame from the garden, he

the

One day

Bat

the basket.

of

inside

am

to

me

an

oame from.

the impulse

—

morning almost saying

the

friends'* a *.

you from the

a messenger to

felt

But the bird could not recognize whence

the message

oame from.

"0 lightning that flashes, From what sides of tbe enclosure do you The ignorance was due

having forgotten the

to his

garden and the things connected with Allah, therefore

He

"When the bird was

spread" 66 .

"Ther forgot

it.

caused them to forget their souls" 60 .

and oame

pet free

to his

campanions,

ashamed of his previous state. "Alas, my grief that I was unmindful of Allah" 67 "And cow we have removed from thee thy covering and piercing is thy sight this day" 68 The goal of man is bis union with God. Suhrawerdi

he

felt

.

.

believes that this union

support

many

verses of the

"The day when tbey All will be

Qcran

shall

p. 93.

65.

Three Treatfses,

p. 23.

66.

Quran, LIX,

90.

XXXIX,

67.

Quran.

68.

Quran. L, 37. Quran, XXXIII, 43. Quran, XXXVI, 39.

70.

Him" 60

brought before Ua"'°.

Three Treatises,

57.

brings for his

:

meet

64.

69.

He

possible.

is

.

.

L57

"Unto Ua Bat there

ia

their return" 71 .

art)

obstructions between

In order to attain

goal. tiiraself

f

rom

his

goal,

man

him and his

should detaoh

distractions and master

the worldly

his

passions.

As regards the powers of man, he stands midway and

between angels Suhrawerdi,

"if

"No wonder

animals.

an angel nommita no crime, or

or an animal does an evil act, because

nob poBsesB the capability of doing

evil

carries the

commands

is,

the

of passion

of

says

a beast

the angel does

and the beast does

On the man who

act o( a

and submits himself

God, ihe Great, that

to

And, by

passions in spite of the light of the intellect. the honour

',

if

not possess the capability of understanding. other hand, the (real) wonder

1

man who

the

remains firm-footed at the time of the attack of pasaiona superior

is

to

an angel; and again, one who

missive to passions

in

far

The human soul nas External senses

1.

71.

72

Quran,

worBe than a beast"* the following powers 7 :

Three Treatises,

97

:

p. 46. Cf.

*

— "Mao occupies a position

Al-Ghagzali, Psycho-

Aligarh, Vol. 2, No. 3,

midway between

animals and angels and his line differentia

He

.

25.

logical Basis, Musi. Univ. Jour, p.

sub-

hearing, taste, smell

Bight,

LXXXXVII,

ia

a

is

the

knowledge.

can either rise to the level of angels with the help of

knowledge or

fall to

the level of animals by letting his-

anger and lost dominate him." T9.

Lovers' Friend, pp. 11.90.

:

:

158 and touch 74 2.

.

Internal senses whioh are physiological

L3U. cajS

(1)

cay SX«U cay £»3l4 cay 4ju0 cay j Z+*Ub

(1) (3)

(3) (5)

ebo.

3,

Internal senses whioh are perceptive

I.

Hiss-i-Mushtarik (general sense or sensor inm) It is located

lobe

frontal

in the

of the brain.

SenBe impressions coming from are received by

It

it.

:

all

the senses

only apprehends sensible

forms, II.

Quwwnt-i-K hayal{\m&g\nB.b\or\) in the

middle lobe of the brain.

the sensible as well as

function

to create

is

material with whioh divided into (a)

Quivwat-i'Wohm

is

located

with

It deals

conceptual objects.

new

Its

ideas out of the old

endowed.

It

it

is

It

;

It

gives only senseless

is

always misleads,

Quwwat-i-Mutakhayyila

and falsehood. angelio

lb

:

imagination. (b)

:

:

It giveB both truth

Sometimes

it

acts

power and sometimes as

as an

defiiieh.

Thoughts which are ruled by Jfic are called ijflU and are angelio, and those ruled by

wahm 74.

The sense

are bad and are called mutakhiyyila. of t?uci,

these senses.

he says, com prises all

159 III.

(Memory)

Quww;'t-i.Httfiza

It

is

located

the hinder part of the brain, and conserves

oomes to 4.

what

it.

Internal senses which assertive

are appetitive and self,

^y and *-** oy

*>**

:

are the basis nf

hunuo

senses

external

they are

let

Th „ Be

All other internal

they degrade

and

if

man

in

and

are subordinate to them.

loose,

of animals

:

They stand

actions.

contradiction to c)**.

ievel

in

If

to the

properly controlled,

they elevate him to the rank of angels 75 . •{«,)

Vyfii *£*•£ enables roan to take

what

is

useful

what

is

harm-

to bim. (b)

li--*

1

* ssj*J enables

ful to

A.

to repel

him 76 .

Ja£ o>*3 A rational faoulty whioh distinguishes man from animals and enables him to know all abstract truths ani intellectual It is through this Jte that man Hcienoes. :

attaint 6.

man

his

salvation

77 .

Jjt jSfi (Eternal Intellect): It 1b the impersonal and the universal soul whish perxeates the whole

The individual

universe All

the mental virtues are

srul its

It Is immaterial, imperishable

76. Of.

Three Trea*lss>.

76. Lovers' Friend, p 19.

77. Ibid

,

p-

W>

p. 46.

partakes of

it.

manifestations.

and trausoenden-

a

160

Man, then, u*-flfi

is

cajJ

the secrets

all

and the earth* B

*

and

knows

It

fcftl.

of the

.

celestial as well terrestial,

bind

heavens

him

.

to

the

whereas J*c conneots him with the

v*f"

°V

physioa!

world,

spiritual

world.

overpower the

and

Sometimes these

faoulties

make man

But the right position of Bhould control and guide them so that

their

intelleot is that

it

intellect

slave.

the person Bhould realize his perfection which consists in 78 The knowing the Becrets of the self, the universe, etc.

knowledge

is

possible in the very nature of

man.

There

uo limit to such knowledge. The control of passions, love, contemplation and the guidance of wisdom, in short is

can enable

man

to attain to his perfection.

But there are difficulties whioh beset the soul searoh of truth. Suhrawerdi illustrates this fact in an i

allegory

known

allegory points

as the "Treatise of the Bird"*

out

how

worldly

distractions

This

and

impediments oan be surmounted by the seeker after truth, and bow after great difficulties, the seeker can have the

knowledge of truth. The bird narrates how a flock of allured by hunters birds in which he was flying was and the imprisonment Into a trap, liow the bondage

became comfortable and congenial to 78. Of.

Ihya

Al-Gh*zzalis

III* P. 5*6.

There

is

s

it

s division of

and how ultima-

human

faculties,

hardly any difference between

Suhrawerdi. the division of al.Gha7.zali and that of 79. Lovers* Friend, p. 30.

40>S1. 80. Three Treatises, pp.

fri

tely

mauy

after

privation a

the

birds

secured their

freedom.

Human

heart cannot

know

truth until

oriented in the direction of troth.

universe".

refleote tbe

If the

universe can be reflected in

between

and tbe truth

it

The spiritual

truths

apprehend God

is

is

purified, tbs

But many things come

it.

,

for

self-purification

apprehending 83

The way to

.

and

The more

will

it.

one detaoh himself from the world and torn heights

human

more

will he be

proportionate to

labours, and tbe utmost exertions

unboundel munifioenoe" Bs ,

and

only road to

the face towards

bo 'turn

61. Threti Treatises, p 96. 62. Three Troatises, p. 17.

self

Gid

amani-

entirely

Cf. al-Ghazzall,

Ihya,

p 11 He gives five reasons which prevent the heart from apprehending tbe

Vol. Ill,

may

are met with

9 *.

Self. purification, then, 'is the

oipation'

his atten-

able to reach spiritual

tbe divine favours are

'is

the

that the heart should be purified

the worldly attachments effaced from

tion to God, tbe

whole

33

condition

essential

is

properly

mirror which

It is a

heart

it is

truth.

U)

:

It

may

be undeveloped,

(9j

sins

may render It dark, (9) il may be oooupied with its own purification, (4) some traditional prejudices may cbeok tbe reflection of truth, and (5) man may be ignorant as to the direction of truth. 83. Of. Quran, LXXXIV, 3. 84. Three Treatises, p. 0; Ibid., pp. 24-96. 65. Three Treatises, p. 5.

.

162 *e

ib liberation'

* .

The tortures and mortifications which sufie enoounin order to gain liberation from, he thraldom of

ter

i

Suhrawerdi has

passions are pleasures to them.

87

an allegory

in

Some

bats

illus-

became

trated this

fact

hostile to a

chameleoD and agreed to punish him by

throwing

him

sub as this waB the greatest

the

in

punishment according to the gave

the sun

Maneur eayB

But of

to their surprise,

Eusain.i-

death.

:

my

"Kill me,

"My

bats.

him instead

to

life

.

my

life is

confidants; killing

death, and

my

death

me

is

is

my

my

life.

life"

8

*"

Abo Sulaiman Darani says, "If the heedless knew what pleasures of the gnostic they lack, they wculd die cut of Badness' B0 '

Knowledge of God

V.

We now pass phy.

.

Man's aim

which consists

on to his mystioal and ethical philosoin this

in fiis

life Is

If

common ran and wants

must have a

faith

in

to attain hiB

union with God-

possible through Ma'rifa.

the

man

to

see

Knowledge

is

turn

make him

Three Treaties, pp. 19-20.

88. Ibid., p. 18.

89

This

is

ocly

desires to rise above

God

face to face,

Ibid., p. 90.

he

the knowledge of the realize the unseen.

the central part of the Bufi dootrine;

66. Three Treatises, p. 27. 87.

perfection

the unseen, a desire to see the

unseen, both of which lead him to

unseen, which in

(Ma'rifa)

it

166 arises from faith and yearning and leads

man

to appre-

hend God* Suhrawerdi constantly prays knowledge 00

He

.

God

to

to increaee his

Bays that the more learned

man

the

The prophet said, ''Never has God created an ignorant watt"". Although the prophet the

more

perfeot be is" 1 .

was an embodiment

of perfection, yet

my

prophet in the Quran, ''And say,

me

in

to the

said

Lord, increase

knowledge" 98 .

This knowledge

is

not the knowledge of taxation,

marriage, business, and the

comes

God

like

9

*.

to the heart through intuition

It

is

gnoeis which

and revelation.

It

pertains to the knowledge of God, His qualities, His disposition

of

cfae

affairs of the Universe, the secrets of

the spiritual world, the heaven

and the earth,

etc.

•"

These mysteries about God, the soul and the universe should be known but not divulged because every heart

cannot contain them

'".

The highest

perfection

then, lies in attaining the resemblance of

Knowledge

of perfection is a quality

who has more knowledge about

the

God cf

of

man,

517 >

One

man.

realities

of

the

90. Ibid., p. IS

91. Three Treatises, p. 39. 92. Ibid

,

p. 39.

98.

Qaran, XX, 118.

94.

Tbree Treatises,

p.

96.

96. Ibid., p. 89; Of. al-Ghaezali, lhya, vol. I.pp.18-19. PP.

Three Treatises*

S7. Ibid., p. 40.

p. 89.

164 Universe

noble 88 , and one

is

who does nob poe aess

id

is

imperfeot 00 .

The is

God

acquisition of the soienoe of knowledge of

A

superior to all the other soienoes.

soience Is prefe-

rable beoauee of its subjeotmatter, the Btrong arguments

and proofs

it

seeker 101 .

101 •oienoes

uses and the advantages

Ma'rifa has .

Its

aim

is

all these

truth,

it

brings

to

the

advantages over other

uses observation (musha-

it

an established faot that observation is hada), and more oonvinoing than argumentation. 108 And the advanit is

tages that will aeorue from

it

will be everlasting

98.

Three Treatises, pp. 40-11.

99.

Ibid., p. 40.

Three Treatises,

101.

104 .

p. 30-

102- Three Treatises, 31-39; Cf al-Ghaszali, Ihya, Vol. .

1, pp.

19-14.

three faotors is

sought,

intelleotual

e. g. t

philological

through

:

"The nobility of a soienoe depends on (1) The faculty by whioh that knowledge

soienoes,

intelleot

soienoes

beoauee

philosophy

it

acquired

The generality

whioh can be derived from

material whioh

is

and philology through hearing, and

intellect Is superior to hearing. (2)

benefits

are superior to

employs,

tannery, since the

e. g.,

teaoher

(3)

it.

teaching

works

of

being superior to the dead skins".

He

the soienoes* 103.

Three Treatises,

p. 31.

104.

Three Treatises,

p. 39.

God

The kind

cf

superior

to

upon cbe human

mind and the tanner upon bbe skins that soienoe whioh leads one to

is

of the

is

aaJmals, minds further prove*

the noblest

of all

16$ through ecstasy (dhauq) tha* m'arifa

It is

The

seeker in

its

is possible.

attainment rises by steps to tbe know-

The main

ledge of tbe spiritual realities.

steps

are as

icllowet i.

When

the heart

is purified,

divine

to appear in

tbe transcendental world begin

lights

from

the heart.

Tbeae are merely flashes and accidents. They are not constant and permanent. Tbey suddenly appear and

"He

disappear.

God

says about

it is

it

who shows you

the lightning"

that ''the splendour of

109

His lightning

almost takes away the eye- sight" (Quran, XXIV, 49). They increase with the These flashes are delightful.

But he believes that oan come without exer-

increase of the ascetic exercises. in a purified heart such flashes

10 e .

Sometimes man begins to apprehend some of the stateB belonging to the next world in every thing that he sees. Sometimes he beoomes mentally unbalanAt the time of the break, the seeker inde consolaced.

cises

tion in

the past memories against tbe onslaught* of

passionB

10 *.

When

This

is

tbe first stage.

the light from

the spiritual world reaches

utmost extremity' and remains for a long time, it ia This stage is more perfect than the called 'tranquillity.' 'the

first one. self,

he

Qoran

When

feels

the seeker ooraee

highly regretful for

this 'tranquillity,' says

ODttoy times.

105.

Quran, XIII, 13

106.

Three Treatises,

10?.

Ibid., p. 33.

p. 84.

its

back to his physioal separation.

Suoi^werdi,

Is

In the

mentioned

166

"And God sent down Hie

'tranquillity'™ 9 .

One who

has attained to this height, can read the hearts of others

and the meaning of many unknown things become clear

The Prophet onoe

to him.

said about 'Omar,"

"Verily,

Some-

tranquillity speaks through the tongue of 'Omar."

times he hears discourses from the divine world 10 ".

This

is

the second stage

"And

becomes such that

this Tranquillity

desires to keep

it

off

from himself he cannot do

if

so.

man

Then

man

reaches Buoh a stage that whenever he likes, he

gives

up the body and goes

to

the world

of (divine)

Majesty, and his ascents reaoh the high spheres.

whenever be

likes or desires

he looks at himself he

he can do so.

beoomea happy v

And

So whenever because

he

discerns the

radiance of God's light (falling) on him.

Hitherto

a defect.

'

If

it is

he exerts further, he also passes this stage.

He

bee: toes such that be does not look on himself and his

knowledge Akbur

'.

of his existence is lost; this is called

W' en one

forgetfulness

it is

"Fam-i-

forgets himself and also forgets the

called

"Fanadarftina" 110

Btage the seeker after truth has reached the

.

At

this

highest end

and baa realized what is possible for him. This is not an end ol man's efforts in the Buddhist sense of Nirvana. lu

Nirvana the individual

passes

into

annihilation

According to the Sufi philosophy the individual soul

108

Quran, XLVIII,

109.

Three Treatises, pp. 35*36.

110.

26.

Three Treatises, pp. 36-37.

M6r attains everlasting existence by joining v;ith

the nniver-

b»I bouI.

SuBs consider

a polytheism to delight in the

id

ledge one baa gained about say,

The

objeot of worship. of knowledge,

is in it, will

the face of

himself and the world called 'Obliteration 111 "Every

Thy Lord,

is

pass

.

away and there remainetb bat

the glorioug and beneficent'' 11 '.

the seeker passes through the following stages 113 :—

"There

no God bat God

is

seeker only realizes that there

God,

Divinity

the divinity

is

all

negated from what

He ard He

lb is

3.

to

atage

first

not God.

Bat at

other things

all

exists.

All

They are only mani-

no Thoa but Thou".

is

is still

stage, besides

the

This

stage: of

"Him" is used for the absent for the one who is present. At this unification, the presence cf God is

higher

but ''Thou" stands

alsj

except

Him.

"There

unification

is

the

In

alone that

other thing are only phenomenal festations of

this stags the

other things.

no He but Him".

is

th 9 stage existence also is negated

except God.

At

',

after truth

no other Deity

is

negated from

is

'There

2

bis

the delights

Sufi losest firstly,

In his asoenb to the divine,

1.

God

and, secondly,

•round him. This stage one that

Iu doing this, they

God.

has made knowledge and not

seeker

the

know-

felt.

4

'"There

;

s

no

I

bub

111.

Three Treatises,

112

Quran,

113.

Three Treatises,

LV

:

Me

.

This

p. 37.

V7, 28

pp. 37-88,

is

a

still

higher

163 In "ThooBhip"

eoage.

addresses another. in

Qod and

there

arid the sought.

there

because one

a duality

is

At this stage, the Sufi

absorbed

is

no distinction between the seeker "And every thing wilt perish save His is

faofr' 11 *.

There long as folly


no

limit

man wears

the

garb of humanity, he cannot

comprehend the world

once asked 'what beginning

is

is

He

?''.

regards

as

"A

divinity.

of

Ttuaivwuf

Ood and

But aB

spiritual grades-

the

to

the

Sufi

was

answered. "Its

end

it

has no

end" T1 «. VI.

Love of God Sohrawardi regards love

cf

man t

in this world.

the heart which a

attain his perfect !on.

the knowledge whioh

development. for

God

is

God

the highest end

as

It is the highest virtue or quality

man

should develop in order to

But love

from the knowledge

isolated

of

is

of

God.

of

higher

The theologians

God in

is

not a quality

It is

an aspect of

point of spiritual

believe that

Man's love

an impossibility since man and God are not

homogeneous-

Love can take

place, they argue,

beings whioh are homogeneous.

Man'B

between

affection

fcr

God consists, according to tbem, in his obedience to Him 114 Suhrawerdi says that homogeneity is not condi.

XX VIII,

114.

Quran,

115.

Three Treatises,

88. p.

38

116. Three Treatises, p. 41; Cf. al-Ghazzali, U-ya, Vol.

IV,

p.

262.

Subrawerdi'a words and

eimilar to those of al-Ghazzali.

arguments are

Al-Ghrzzali says that {see

on next pope)

169'

ticD of lore as sometimes a object,

man

loves

a

eolour or an

though they are not homogeneoas with him.

''Love consists of an affection which has transgressed its limit" 117 . It implies an imperfection on the part of the lover

;

the lever has not acquired

Something

still

acquired.

If

will

Human They are

is

But

full

oreated to

he

have certain functions to perform.

fulfil

their

lies

a mission.

In carrying cut

seeing beautiful

the

aod

external

and smelling,

forms, hearing melo-

odour,

respectively.

internal

senses have

The performance

certain functions to perform.

The

and pleasure.

perfection

dious voices, and smelling fine all

fully,

comprehension of

pleasures of the senses of sight, hearing

Similarly,

not yet

impossible fcr man.

faculties

consist in

desirable. is

man comprehends God's beauty

this mission

t. g. t

is

remain? to be realized, which

have no further desire.

God's beauty

what

all

of such

functions whioh are peculiar to particular senses, gives

the greatest pleasure to th»m.

Man

But over and above

'and internal senses with animals. all these,

man has auotber

whose fun ot ion

ib

shares his external

faculty

known

as intellect

The

to realize the intellectual truths.

(Continued from page 108) the theologians hold that love cannot exist between

man

and God. They define the love of God as obedienoe to Him, According to them love ean exist between the

members

of the

arguments.

,

highest Ideal

same

species.

Ghazzali refutes their

He also established that love of God of man and is the essence of Islam.

217. Three Treatises,

Is

the -• '

p.

41; Lovers' Friend, pp. 24-80.

170 function of the intellect and

knowledge of truth, and

And when

rational

the

comprehension of

the soul has acquired this,

perfection and experienced

soul

it

the-

is

realities.

has reaohed

its

This

the highest pleasures.

pleasure cannot be compared with any otiier pleasure as "one who did not taste, does not know' 118 .

l

Jamal and Kamal' are only

Hum (Beauty).

different

names

Everything, whether spiritual cr oorpo-

rea l, seeks not on ly perfect ion but also b eauty 119

Three

118.

tor

Treatises, p. 42

-

Gf, af-Ghazzali. Ihya,

;

Vol. IV, p 354. There seems to be no difference between the view of aNGhazzaliand those of Sahrawerdi. Affection

may

be defined as a natural inclination towards

which give pleasure. it is

called love.

If

the inclination

becomes strong

Affeotion is of different kinds accor-

ding to different senses.

it

The

beautiful

eye, for instance, apprehends

pleasure or pain.

forms, the

ear musical sounds, the cose sweet odour, eto

apprehension of these objects

man has another

tion whioh

it

.

n

the

these

atjimals

the-

But over and above tbeaa

inner sense or faculty of perfec-

implanted in the heart.

this faculty that

,

lies the psrfeotion of

But man shares with the other

external and internal senses. senses

parti-

Every sense perceives a

cular kind cf object which gives

senses.

objects

God and

It is

only through

other mysteries of the heaven

and earth oan be known.

And

apprehending these

in

objects lies the perfection of this faculty,

119 Vol. IV,

Lovers' Friend, p. 23 p.

206.

He

Of. al-Ghazzali, Ihya,

also oDnoeives

as one and the same thing. as beauty.

;

He

'Kamal and 'Jamal'

too conceives reality

.

171

man

Husn

through

(Sorrow),

e„

t.

oomea to

'Ishq

can be realized through 'Ishq

It

when one has

purified

his hearb by eubduiog hi a passion and has UBed his inter-

nal and external senses properly.

only at

'Ishq cornea

a time when the worldly attachments are eliminated

And

from the heart. to the sought,

desired objeot

head

perfection or beauty

i. e,,

1*

'Ishq which takes the

it is

Tour teacher

cation.

man's

is

"Eject hollow imaginations from your

.

languish through coquetry

;

whioh

seekers

with

utter

himself Act thus" 121

he will

and increase suppli-

when you reaoh there

love,

is

;

the

tongue of ecstasy

:

.

Love

is

"ufncost extremity" of affeotion

the

'exoessive affeofcion".

Mod, because love.

And

beoause

"Lcve

is

hat

all affeotion is

not affeotion.

It ia

.

more particular shao

all love is affeotion

affeotion is

1 *3

affee-

all affection is

not

more particular than 'knowledge', knowledge, hut

And two opposite

all

things,

knowledge

is

come out of

knowledge, which are oalled 'friendship' and 'enmity*.

Because knowledge pertain? either to • thing which

is

agreeable and suitable to the body or the spirit which

is

oalled 'pure good' and 'absolute

human

soul seeks

it,

sod attain perfection is

not aqreeabl*

sailed 'pure evil*

to

and desires ;

or,

it

the body

and

Lovers' Friend,

p.

121.

Lovers' Friend,

p. 24.

Lovers' Friend,

the

to betake itself to that,

and the spirit which

120-

122.

aod

pertains to a thing wh>oh

and 'absolute

soul always Bias from that

affection';

defect'; it

24.

p. 24.

is

and the human

has a natural aversion

172 towards

From

that.

the second

So the

'enmity'.

the second round

affection,

is

the highest of

knowledget

is

and the third round

is

which

is

tbe world

unless he makes

all,

from knowledge and

stair

round

first

And one cannot reach

love.

is

the 6rst cornea 'friendship' and from

affection'".

of love

two rounds

"Tbe world

of tbe of love

the end of the world of knowledge and affection".

"One who

is in

union with

it is

the end of the learned

scholars and illustrious philosophersflaid

And

therefore

it Is

:

No

128 . bat the mature has love"

None The word plant

known

created being has love,

'Ishq

is

derived

as 'Ashaqah (ivy)

loot of a tree, Bboots

its

from the name of a ThiB plant grows at tbe

roots in the ground and-becomes

very firm and then

slowly and gradually climbs on the

tree and ultimately

covers the whole of

It begins to

it.

suck tbe nourishment of the tree with the result that the tree dries up 1 ". Similarly, in the heart of a faces to the spiritual

man

there

\b

a tree. It

one which faces to tbe spiritual wurld

is

tbe real tree,

and the other which faces to the physical world

shadow

tree.

shadow

tree

If

man

indulges in the worldly things,

of

man,

Then the

weaker and sometimes withers away. As forgets

Is

tbe the

becomes stronger and gradually occupies

the whole heart

man

The

as well as the physical world.

all

real tree becomes it

gets shrivelled,

about, tbe spiritual world.

123.

Lovers' Friend, pp. 24.267

124.

Lovers' Friend,

p. 26.

But when

73

man

oegins to

nourish the real tree with the water of

knowledge, love jumps beart, and covers the

shoot*

shadow

tree

its

roots into the

with the result the*

becomes paler and paler and the real tree begins

this tree

to

in,

grow again and

its

numerous branohes begin

to

spiritual

nourishment from the divine fountain.

when

has reached

it

dies and the soul of

man becomes

identical with the real he attains the highest perfection 185 .

tree and

This Btage

leading one

"Unto Him good words exalt''

t.hat

li '\

It is

'hhq becomes

l

through

reached

is

oalled the pious deed

He

shadow tree

perfection, the

its

draw And

Ithq which

to

may

ha

the first beloved.

ascend, and the pious deed doth

through the purification of the heart

and

perfect;

man 137

in its

perfection lies the

Ishq cannot enter a heart unless the lower appetites of the soul are sacrificed 138 But every

perfection of

one oancot reayh

.

this height of perfection

;

"it

requires

years thai an original stone through the sun becomes a

ruby

in

Bodakhsbac or a cornelian

Love,

in short, i? ac

the

in

basi?

Yaman 1 ""

of

ali

creation

as

l3u .

well as of perfection

"But for you, wo wouldn't have koawc Love, 131 But for Love, we wouldn't have known you" .

125.

Lovers' Fribcd, pp. 26-28.

126. 127.

Qurar.,

128.

Lovers' Friend, p. 29.

199.

Lovers' Friend,

130.

Ibid., p

131.

Ibid., p. 3

XXXV,

11.

Lovaru' Friend, PP 29.30. .

.

i

P.

29

30. •

*

174 CODClusiOB

Suhrawerdi in^ns younger days oonoelved both light and

The conception

beauty.

beauty can be established on

of

reality as

reality

aa

the basis of the utteranoea

in the Treatises bat the conception

of reality aB light is

dimly perceptible and therefore oannot be established. These views are not without precedent. Ghazzali also conceived reality as beauty as well aa light.

The human soul lies in

reaching

lized through

its

is of

divine

origin.

origin.

Its perfection

This perfection can be rea-

knowledge which

is

the differentia of man.

Knowledge means the knowledge of God, His qualities^ His actions, angels the secrets of the heavens, and the i

earth, etc.

Everything seeks

perfection

or

beauty whiob

possible through the cultivation of love.

When man. baa

wholly detached himself from the worldly desires and solely occupied

with God, he Bees all

ia

realities.

is

And


Suhrawerdi has followed al'Ghazsali

days both

in

letter

and

thoroughgoing Ghazzalian.

spirit.

in his

He seems

younger to

be a

APPENDIX

III

A BEVIEVT

The Doctrine madhhib ahi

of the Sufi* (Kitab al-Ta 'arruf

Translated from

al.tacawwufj-

Abu BaWr

the Arabic of

By A

fi-

al.Kalbadhi

J. Arbsrry,

Cambridge University Press, 1935, 10s. 6d. Net. In order to interpret tbe meaning and spirit nnder lying the

Muslim

tbe Orientalists of the

inetitutions,

West have, cf fate, been busy with the study of original and old literature on the culture and religion of the As Sufiem has played a most important

Mueealmans.

part in tbe make-up of their traditions and culture, this subject has received epeoial attention.

Mr. scd Mss.

A. J. Arberry. Assistant Keeper in the India Office,

Egypt the Arabio

text

:

London, edited

doctrines.

587

AH.,

is

ie

one

of

treatises of

Bhihabuddin held

commentary on

He

in 1934,

in

;

,

d.

880 A. E.

He

has

out an English translation of the same.

The work authoritative

Old Books

"Kitab aUTo 'arruf fi-madhhib

ahl al-tasawwuf of al*Kalabadh

nrw brought

of

it it

in

the oldest,

systematic aed

kind

Arabic en Sufi

its

in

as-Sufcrawerdi

great eeteem

el*MaqtaI, d.

and wrote also a

(Cf.Ot Spiel, the Lov.rs' Friend, p. If).

credited to have eaid,

ahculd net bave kxowu

"But

for the Ta'erraf

of Sufism." (Cf.

we

"Introduction.*'"

176 p. XII).

It

ranks as high as the "Risalah" of Qushayei,

and "Qut al~Qulub' r

of

Abu Talib al-Makki.

The anthor attempts

to

reoonoile

the views of

theologians with those of the Sufis.

The early

the

Sofia

were

aacetios. They did nob question the validity of the Islam io doctrines bat quenched tbeir yoarning for

the unseen by finding a hidden meaning under

ventional laws of iBlam.

But, later

Sufis introduced heretical

doctrines into

some

on,

con-

tile

cf

the

system.

their

The orthodox who had looked askance on Sufism from its very inception, became all the more hardened in their opposition with the introduction of heretical elements

Various attempts were made to soften this opposition by purifying Sufism from un-Islamio elements,

into

it.

4. g.,

by Muhasibi,

d.

243 A.

H

Al-Kalabadhi, d. 380

,

book under review), and later on by Al-GhazzalL The book comprises an Introduction by the translator, 75 Chapters and a Iieb of Teohnloal Terms, the (in the

Introduction

is a

mine

ning the book and the matter of the book significance

life

of the

(6)

information concerauthor.

concerned with

and the derivation

etc (Ohs. 1-1), the dootrine

is

of valuable

nature, the

of

the Sufis,

e. g.

tbe doctrine of attributes,

dootrine of vision, etc

form the very essence

(a) the

of the conception cf Sufi,

main doctrines

of unity,

Tbe subject

,

y

the

which, aocording to the author,

of Islam (Chs. 5-30), (c) the

spirit

tual grades snob as fear, hope, love, etc. (Ohs. 81-51),if<0

the teohnioal terms of Sufism, tion,

''

"passing away,"

tion of the

e.

?.,

"union," "separa-

etc. (Ohs. 62-63),

and

(*)

evalua-

phenomena of Sufism (Chs. 54-75).

Al-

177 Kalabadhi admirably summariaea the

mo si

subtle prob-

lems of Safiam with great eaae and simplicity: note, eg., bis deeoripfeioD of ths aoops

of

ha man reason

are agreed that tho only guide to

God

holding that the fuootion of the intellect of

an intelligent peraon who

the intellect

is

ia

in need

a thing originated

nuttier illustrates hie

"They Himself,

the funotlon

la

of a

guide

for

:

and as each

in time,

only servea as a guide to things like

The

God

is

;

itself",

fc. 4(5).

remarks oopionaly with appro-

priate quotations, both in prose and verse.

The translation

The Arabic versos

is literal.

are,

however, rendered into English verse form. Translation itself is a is

very

difficult task

and

its

inherent difficulty

enhanced whur: one has to deal with a subtle

like Sufistn.

bis task.

soierice

Mr. Arberry has admirably auoceeded

He

the languages.

in

has kept intact intrinsic beauties of both

We

compared the translation with the

original and found that besides a few minor mistakes,

on the whole luoid and haa an

it

'a

It

haa beon done very well.

Mr. Arborry

who have grasped of Suli

is

one

tho

philosophy.

of the

spiri*.

ease of dlotiou.

few English Orientalieta

of the Arabia

He Usj

placed a

indispensable mfoTmatiion at the disposal of

mysticism and Islunic philosophy.

Language and store-house of '

No

SuBbcj will be wri'jtca without laving this pcj-iitibutioii

t

the

student

h'e'jt-ry

of

work under

APPENDIX IV MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY -IIS SCOPE AND MEANING Section of

Presidential Address to the

All-India

Muslim Pbiloeohy The

etuiy and researoh.

acoording recognition to the said,

of

rather tardily.

the subject in which

Universities,

on

At the

ita

would

I

like

to

though

(subject,

it

mupt. be

stages .of the study

initial

present

make

to stimulate

Universities are

Im'.ian

at

li>43.

Philosophical Congress

the Indian

instituted the Section of its

Lahore Session,

Philosophical Congress,

A few years ago

Islamic Philosophy

it

is

Indian

io

certain observations

Hoope and meaning, which will necessarily be

a sketohy oharacter in the short

i.itue

at

my

of

disposal.

Arabian Philosophy, Islamic Philosophy acd Muslim Philosophy are the terms used since our 'subject

is

interohabgeibly.

Bub

not limited to the contribution!

made by the Arabs, the term Arabian Philosophy is too narrow for our purpose. lb has been cultivated by the peoplee of various raoes and religions The term Islancio PhilosDphy will likewise limit its scope, meaning thereby the interpretation of the fundamental principles of Islam

Holy Quran. It will, therefore, exclude many important aspects of Muslim thought like Metaphysics, etc. Heooe Muslim Philosophy seems to be »b enunoiated

the

in

the

mest pre'enble

includes all the

of the three terms,

m ^-Muslims to When

is

systems cultivated by the

Philosophical

Muslims, and, by extension

because

l

t >e

contributions

made by

the development of these systems.

Islam extended beyond Arabia, Muslims cirre

io coutact with various peoples

and their cultures, The

179

many

contact raised

and

religions,

political

Mr slims

to study the

problems which led the

social

literatures

The study was prosecuted with zeal under the injunotion of the Holy Quran an«i the Tradof these peoples.

ition of the

Prophet (may peaue be upon

Imuran says,

"To whom wisdom

great good."

The Tradition

knowledge oven

it

if

be

The Holy

given has been given a

is

of the

Prophet says, "Seek

What

China".

in

hiral).

the Muslims

produoad after the assimilation of different philosophies is

a unique contribution with distinctive

of its

own, having

foundations in

its

The Muslim philosophers, o' Plato,

Aristotle,

e.g

the

Holy Quran. the

aasimilated

,

Plotinua,

divine knowledges of the Quran,

characteristics

the

in

light

ideas

of

the

synthesizing these ideas

into metaphysical theories at oi.oe original and coherent. ,

Muslim thought of

represents a

human thought— philosophical

"The Arab has impressed Bur ope,'' Draper

says,

Christendom oonoede

ing

traoes of

nan

see,

his

as

:inger

in tr-o

on

as

the sky,

scientific.

stamp upon

remote a future

Ho has

this cruth.

reads the names

who

well

intellectual

bis

"and not

will

the development

in

s»tase

left

which every one

the stars

of

unfad-

on

any

ordinary celestial globe''. In

tbe

ooureo of

came to express

itself

its

development Muslim though!

in the

var'vu* Byttema of Dialec-

tic*,

Philosophy and Mysticism

brief

mention (1)

t

•

of these systems.

Diabetica

:— Dialecticians

are

etpreas their contention in logical forms. *f»nngbt

make a very

ahall

tbcmselvae

as to

She

sources

those

Thev of

who

differed

knowledya.

180

Some considered it to The former may be latter the

and the

called the Rationalistic

Orthodox or SoholaBtio Dialecticians Dialecticians

nationalistic

(a)

be reaBon, while others revelation.

who

been a set of Philosophers

:

— There

;

never has

human under*

exalted

standing to suoh an extent as the Rational Sohool of In

Dialectics.

their

Metaphysics, Ethics,

The knowledge

are thorough-going rationalists.

they

etc.,

oi

good

and bad, the real and the 'non-real' can only be attained

No human

through reason.

has any value unless

They regarded man maker

of his

own

it ia

God

in

their opinion,

governed by rational motives-

own

as the creator of his

action and

destiny.

In Metaphpsics their eepb of

action,

reasoning led *hem to a con-

as wholly devoid of personality.

They are

Mcnotheists and their attempt to purify God from anthroelements, has

pomorphic

shorn

Him

of all

qualities

which they thought man had beBtowed on Him. attributes oan be assigned to qualities.

and the

Him

other than negative

Like Hegel, they identified in God the subject object, the

knower and

held, aots acoording to a plan,

a sort of vague unity

God

is

eternal i*w

known.

the

and

1b

force, as the Theologians believed. is

No

God, they

nob a free creative

In

phorfc,

Gcd

their

without any personality. Their

bound by rational motives and

airaa

These Dialecticians started kb theologians bub ended as metaphysicians.

They discussed suoh problems

the nature of Thing. that can be predicate-

They defined Thing

known and oan stand Even before the

as a

quality of

as

as a conoept

aubjeot

to a

existence

is

161 added to a thing,

the quality of existence

added to the easenoe,

is

oomsB an aotuality, while without only

in a state of

When

bes both essence and accident.

it

this quality

it

be-

remains

it

non-existence.

lb) Orthodox

Dialecticionsi—Mhuy

Scholastic

or

schools of Bobolastio Dialeotioians rose simultaneously in

countries as Ibn-Hazm's school in

different

Tabawip school

qand and surpassed

school in

Aghari's

Iraq.

This bad for

other eohoole.

source

of

that

reason,

that

solved by

human

but

the

is

is

only

may

incompetent

is

it

This school

the really real

tbo view

revelation

etc.

Secular knowledge

knowledge.

through

gained

know

Bohool believes

school

exponents

its

suoh original thinkers as Baqillani, Gbazz&li. This

at-

Egypt, Maturidi'B school in Samar-

in

Ashari'B all

Spain,

to

a protest against

mysteries of the Universe oar

the

They regarded God

thongbt.

absolute power and a free

is

be

ae an

agent directing the

oreative

He

coarse of the Univeree.

he

not circumscribed by any

aim or plan as thin would limit His power. The solution tbey offered with regard to she freedom of the will and the

thic^.JDMtself

Leibnitz's theory

oeare of

oomepticn

Kanti&i?

?n

Hose

the 'pre-establishtd rxittence

,if

regarded as their forerunners in

human tence

that

resemblance, to

harmony' and they

aay

be

the development of

Tho earlier thinkers regarded

exis-

one cf the qualities of existing things.

The

rhrught. as

a

things were there-

When

added to other qualities

It

the quality

became

of existence

existent-

refuted it arguing that existenoe was the entity and not a quality added to it.

wai

Asharitei self of

the

In their daring and thorough

we

metaphysical scheme!

the words of MaoDonald,

find, in

atoms raining down

through

that "Luoretian

empty void,

the

self-

developing monads of Leibnit'z 'pre-established harmony'

and

the Kantian things-in-them^elves

all,

impotent

in

Asharite bhat

their

thing-in

The

doctrines.

Kant, to

of

itself.

fix

But

beside

consistenoy

parallel

was

knowledge to the

of

reaching that thing-in-iteelf they

were much more thorough than Kant.

Only two

of

survived their attack, substance

Aristotelian categories

and quality.

the

the Aeharites

of

rotation

the in

object

are lame and

The others,~quantity,

plaoe, time,

and the

rest were only relationships (Itibars) exiBtiDg subjectively in fche'mind of the

knower, and northings. Belationships

had no real existence ... except substance pp. 200

ties

the categories had gone

and quality" (MaoDonald, Theology,

f).

how There

all

is

qulities are of

two kinds, negative and

always a change in the qualities bub the quali-

cannot exi&t without substance.

Therefore subs*

The remaining

two categories,

tanoe

also

changes.

substance and quality, also

viz.,

reasoning led them to Atomism. ever,

positive.

is

modern

vanish.

thflir

Their Atomism, how-

not only of space, but of time also, physioist they

Thus and

like the

the conception

introduced

of

"Leap".

Ohazzali in hit book, cipated Deaoaroes

through

all

in

the

'Deliverer froon Error' anti-

Method

of

Doubt and passed

the stages of doubt, discarding

and disbelieving even

his

senses.

all

authority

Bat Ghaszali went

183 farther

than Descartes and seriously qaesbioned the

validity cf thought as an instrument of

inspired

finds certainty only in the 'will to believe',

Divine

Will.

It

by

'Volo ergo bub' with OhaBzali,

is

whereas with Desotrbes

it is

About

'Oogito ergo sum'.

another book 'Revival

his

Ha

knowledge

Sciences',

of

which

in

Qhazzali has discussed at length the fundamental princt-

and philoauphioal dootrines, a Euro* pean writer observer 'This work, probably owing to pies of his ethical

:

its

originality,

the Middle

was never translated into Latin daring

Ages, and remained a closed book to

Arabian Scholars.

It

bears no remarkable a resemblance

h»d any

to the 'Discourse

on Method'

translation of

existed in the days of Descartes,

it

of DeEC*rfces that

k

would hive cried cu against the plagiarism

oiis

but

all

every ''

>

Gh%sszaH wrote another book tanoy of analytical Philosophers', in oauBdtion, "he" in

bond

of causality

reason,

which ch^

So Drove the incoicpe-

oailed

'Refutation

while discussing

words

of

MaoDoaaU,

effect but simply that

one

f-bing follows

ming up the views

of Qhaz/jali

"Hum*

Ujorti

In the

Kant,

bhafc

law of

"cuta

than

ci

cause

an**,

Sum-

another"-

on causation Kenan aayi,

that''.

aime book Gh-izzili has demonstrated, theoretical reason na^ Dot solve the

mental problems the exiet-enne of

the;

with 5kb sharp edge of his dialsct'o

and proclaims thai we can know nothing

never 5aid

tha

Che

of

of

religion

i'ulU-

*nd philosophy, each

God, the immortality

eternity nf tho universe.

like

of the Bcnl,

or

.is '..hj

184 (2) Philosophers

who has

thinkers

infallibility.

was a group in Plato's and

great faith

Aristotle

Muslim

Aristotle's

eyes was the greatest

thsir

in

of

This group of Muslim philosophers

teacher ever-born.

may

—There

:

be divided into several sobool sfPeripatetios, Ishraqi

philosophers and Natural philosophers. (a) Peripatetics

Aristotle.

They

:

— They are called Peripatetics after

believed

the

in

oapacity

of

human The

reason to solve the mysteries of the Universe.

main representatives

of this school are Eindi, Farabi,

Ibn Miskawaih, Ibn-8ina, Ibn-Rushd,

etc.

This eohool

believed that Aristotle possessed the most perfect lect.

They regarded philosophy

Truth.

They summed up

and Muslims

in

a

manifestation

ah a

of

their position as philosophers

syllogism

Quran is truth, but truth and Quran must agree."

intel-

is

:

"Philosophy

one;

is

truth;

therefore Philosophy

Greek Philosophy reached the Muslim thinkers not lull of inconsistencies and in its original form bub transformed out of sbapa.

Neo-Platonists,

who were

mostly Christians, were responsible for shaping Greek philosophy in the light of Christianity. They represented

Greek philosophers as great saints and mystics, and Greek philosophy as the truth compatible with the dootrine, Rationalism of the Greeks

Intuitionalism. It took the to

free

it.

it

into

had reached them,

inconsistencies that

Besides, on the basis of

thinkers

was changed

Muslim thinkers a long time

Greek philosophy, as

the accretions and

Christian

had

of

orept into

Greek philosophy, Muslim

made great advances. Farabi, known among the

185 Mu*aalmans system

aa the Second Teaobar,

Witb Arisbotle Logio

of Aristotle.

mafchod to arrive

method

aa

at the

well

Unlike

metaphysics.

truth

iB

itself:

is

its

a

is

a

part of

is

a

thorou-

it

Farabi

Aristotle,

the

merely a

but with Farabi

truth,

the

as

improved upon

ghgoing Ideiliat, and Aristotle's theory of the eternity

hid no plaoa

of matter

accord iug to him, is

the

in

mind which

the adumbration of the

ib

fashioning foroe

the Universe.

In

Farabi follows Plato; but he regards

In his Ethicg a philosopher

Fatabf b Afe&aphysics. Matter,

insufficient

aa

ho sanity, unless he

i*

guide the destinies of

to

man

also a

namely,

of character,

a prophet. Tbn Sioa,

who

sysbom embraces problems whiob had

Aristotle, is his

not been

an humble follower of

olai'n* to be

by

envisaged

He lojk

AHatefcle.

fragmentary psychology and infused into principle.

The

v

Tbn-Sin

a hierarchy of spiritual agencies'

from him

in

regarding

Ibu-Sin'* argued

oausj to preoade

iie effect; in

be simuiunenus

e

key aa

it

opens

Ibu»Bina,

is

-.}.,

or

it is

an appreciation

Universal foroe that exists in

:io*>

of tha

in

God.

oi

iviceaaarv for aifeob

may

movement

of a

an j

Love, aooording to

look

a

believed

creation

Onmu

time.

in tne c.»a-

fastens

i

otuga always precedes

*;ha!i

thu

with

is fllied

^istotle out diifered

like

as the

it

assumed

Ariatotle'e theory

theo&W.

Universe

of the

the eternity

a dynamio

it

man ann God

bsfcweon

>id

Aristotle's

of

beauty.

evei y thing

It

is

the

from mineral

world to the animal kingdom, impelling everything to beooiue

more and more

perfeot

or

beautiful.

In the

— 186 kingdom

vegetable

manifests

it

growth and production.

and

unified

become* somewhat oonsoioua

It

animal kingdom, while

the

in

assimilation'

in

itself

in

man

it

becomes folly conscious and can develop to an unlimited In

degree.

short,

is

it

spiritual

a

principle

which

is

striving to realize itself in various degrees of perfection

through different strata of existence.

Most theory

the

cf

Muslim Philosophers advocated

evolution

of

dynamic force

mind

of

of

It

theory

this

The

Ehaldun.

Ibn-Miekawaih

to mind, matter

best

Ibn-Miskawaib,

are

But the

from the primal mind

is

world has evolved.

that the

matter.

was ascribed

of evolution

being only a by -product.

and

the

explains

representatives

Rumi

iDd Ibn-

the evolution

of

matter as follows:

"The combination

of

primary substances produced

the mineral kingdom, the lowest stage of evolution

The

to

first

is

appear

form cf

A higher

life.

reached in the vegetable kingdom. is

'spontaneous grass'

then plants

and various kinds of trees, some of which touch the borderland of animal kingdom, in so far as they manifest

animal

certain

characteristics.

Intermediary

between the vegetable kingdom and animal kingdom there

is

a certain form of

nor vegetable, but shares {e.g.,

Coral).

stage of

life is

and the sense the earth.

The the

first

which

t>he

characteristics

step beyond

differentiation,

is

thfs

of

both

intermediary

development of power of movement,

of touob in tiny

Th e

neither animal

life

wormB which orawl upon

sense of touob owing to the

develops other

process

of

forms of sense, until w«

187 reach the place of higher animals in whioh intelligence

man

begins to it

i

an asoending seals. Humanity

feet itself in

tonohed in the ape wbioh undergoes further develop-

ment, and gradually develops erect stature and power of understanding

ends

and

sitnihr

humanity

— Iqhal — pp.

Metaphysics in Persia lu their

Development of

A'fhe

begins''

animality

Here

man.

to

33-31).

cosmology, Muslim Fhilosophere did not

cod tent tb^icBelves with presenting merely an intelleoconception

tual

of

endeavoured to present a conception being

man, — his moral,

of

they

but

Universe,

the

which the whole

in

and esthetic

religious

also

self,

could tind expression. (b) Ishrxgi

This Bcbool

Fh

losophy [Philosophy of Illumination):

'analytical

Observation,

to reach toe truth. is

Philosophy

— all

of

in a

of all of is

tti

*lse being

inc 4,tcduCi of light,

existence.

school

Maqsui,

of

and cries

tais

who has

book called Hikmatul*

Illumination).

Light creaUa darkness or Li^bt

insfciuiLent

intuition

this

Shababuddiu Suhrawardy

reality as light

an

The greatest representative

expounded his philosnphv Isbraq

as

means through which

eoBta&y are tbe

school

reason

contemplation,

-

—

Plate and the Platonisfcs.

isselt to

affiliates

They disregarded of truth.

;

Hs

conceives

darkness rr non-existence,

non-light

wbich

is

the

Another representative

All

that is not

fountain-head is

Ibn Tafail

Ppain who, though generally regarded as Peripatetic

an

lahreqi.

Juab

as

Suhrawardy'e

Philosophy

U

Iranian in contest but Plutonic in form, so Ibn-Tufail'e

philosophy

is

Aristotelian

in

content but Platonic in

188 form.

Ibn-Tufail has explained his philosophy in

'Hayy Ibn-Yaqzari,

allegory,

man on an island where Hayy through hie own

an,

which he imagines a

in

no human beings.

there are

introspection,

observation,

contemplation and ecstasy attains to the highest form of knowledge.

Natural Philosophy— Natural philosophy does

(e)

not form part of modern philosophy, but the ancients regarded

it

They confine them* the natural phenomena. They

as a part of philosophy.

selves to the

study

of

believed that the knowledge gained

oan lead

man

through the senses

truth.

The sciences whioh

they cultivated were Mathematics,

Physios, Chemistry,

to

universal

Astronomy, Geography, History, Medicine, Ethnology, etc

who

I shall

mention a few

of the

representatives

chief

left their

impress on their successors.

Abu-Bakr

Mohammad

almost

all

Zakarya,

(

932

d.

the natural sciences but his

)

cultivated

fame rests ou

medicine, ranking acoording to some, above Ibn-Sioa as

a physician.

He

baaed hie investigations on

individual as well as collective, whioh ho

experience,

believed has a

greater value than logical deduoticn.

Oeber or Jabir, the obemiBt. was the

first

He founded

scholar

who

employed the

scientific

School

West; and just as Aristotle waB regarded as

in the

method

the founder of Logic, Jabir

a Chemical

was regarded as the founder

of Chemistry.

Ibn-ul'Haitham (Alhazen)

(d.

1038), a great scientist

and mathematician, an aoute thinker,

is

famous for his

189 book on Optics, blfio

which he diaousses vision

in

way. Knowledge aocording bo him

ib

ic a

goien.

based on sense

perception elaborated by understanding.

Another great

them

all,

perhaps

scientist,

was Al-Biruni,

rian, astronomer and

the greatest

at onoe a mathematician,

it

histo-

In hie book 'QaM*n

physicist.

Masudi' he comes so near the modern researches that

of

must be said

'that

astronomical

modern methods

are as old as genius.'

A

great philosophical writer on almost every topic

oonneoted with

human

sooiefcy

was Ibn-Khalduu.

He

the founder of the science or philosophy of History, his famous Prnlogouiena

la

Universal History he

his

co

is

disousses uuoh problems as the riEe and

fa.'l

inter-relation of the various gradus

society, produc-

uf

nations,

of

tion of foods, labour, etc (4)

Mysticism:

— The Sufis regard real knowledge

immediate and personal whioh in a state of ecstasy.

In

;vn

and exporiencas the presence

is

OLiy gained by intuition

aoatasy a Sufi sees realities of

Goi.

The SuGs regard burnac soul

to bo of

divine origin,

huinan body, but restless to

i.auipoi:«ri'.y lod^ocL in tin.

return to Goc! -Hoi b^ing the only realitj cor.ceiva as

Will,

systems.

On

Boaus/ or Liant.

these isoncepuicne

Suij&m

they id

its

r.nd

Ii

s.v»

builr.

thoi:*

iov'-pmeiiC p*< Mieietic

asoefcio,

thfloBophv::

a peaking

MubUoi Suns have never been

whiah they th-.i

harla of

Bfoiaphysio^l

passed

throuph

stages.

though

of a superficial nature,

Rtriotly

pantheists,

they could never dissolve the personality of God. larities,

as

since

Simi-

between Suflisw,"

190 Buddhism,' Vedanttstn, Christianity,, and

have given

numerous

to

rise

Neo-Platonism regarding

theories

its

origin.

"A

Superficial

reBemblanoe

exists, " says

O'Leary,

"between the Buddhist Nirvana and the fana or the re-absorption of the soul in the divine Bpirit of

Sufiism.

But the Buddhist) doctrine represenss she soul as losing its

individuality ip the passionless placidity

of

absolute

quiesoenoe, whilst the Sufi doctrine, though also teaohing a loss of individuality, regards ever-lasting life sisting

the

in

Beauty''

contemplation of

ecstatic

(O'Leary, Arabia Thought,

p.

as con-

the Divine

191).

—

Muslim Thought and Europe: Muslim culture penetrated Europe through Spain and Southern loaly (6)

and

Muslims

Sioily.

in

Spain had reached a very high

degree of culture when Europe was steeped in ignorance. Scholars from Universities

all

to

The seoond great

over

Europe

flocked

Arab sciences

study

and

factor in the spread

of

to

Spanish

philosophy.

Muslim

philo-

sophy were the Jews, who translated works from Arabie into Hebrew, and being a mercantile community, carried

philosophical knowledge wherever thoy went in

They made a the

greatest

regarded

by

particular study of Ibn

Muslim them

ttuah'l

Philosopher of as the

greatest

Sj:»ir>,

Europe.

(Averroes)

who was

commentator

of

Aristotle.

Alter the re-oonqueBt of Toledo

Raymond Archbishop

of

by the Christiana

Toledo (1130-1150 A.D.) foun-

ded a College for the translation of Arabic scientific nnd philotfri'hioal works into Latin, and in a ehoit time

191 workg

of

Tbo

Rushd and ether Muslim philosopher^

became availaole

When

in Latin translation?.

Fredrick II of Sicily was crowned Emperor

of tb*

Holy Roman Empire

great

admirer of Arab culture

established a hi-iiB-lf

college

could raad

original.

of

]^iu A.D., he, beings

in

(

ind

translation

Muslim at

sciences,

Palermo.

Ha

Arabic Philosophical works in the

In 1224 be founded the University of Naples

which becme a oentre for the Bpread

By

aud philosophy into Europe. century nearly

all

the important

of

Arab sciences

the middle of the

works

of

ilth

Ibn Kushd

and oshor Muslim philosophars had been translated into Latin.

"By

Arab Soience bean transmitted to Europe and

the close of the 13th century

and Philosophy had

Spain's work aB an intermpdiary wae done. lectual

avonue leading from

through the Pyrenees wound

and the Alpine passea into

portals

the

The of

intel-

Toledo

way through Provence Lorraine, (Jar many and

its

Central iurope, as well as acrose the Channel into England "

(Hibti, History of the Arab*, p. 689).

Throughout *he ISth oanrury Muslim Pniloeophy dominated

in

the Paris University.

Through Franuiacan reached England.

Friars*

As early as 1209

Latin translation of a bsok of Ibn ed in Cambridge.

Muslim \.

D.

w«

Muslin thought.

find that

%

Bushd was prasnrib-

Soger Raoon, the faUier

inductive method, studied at Toledo and cruld

speak Arabic, and

pHFosophy

of

modern

'•md

*nd

came directly under the influence of

192

Many European cultivation

universities were noted

Muslim

of

fur

their

Padua and Bologna.

ecienoe, e.g„

It is

from these centres that Averroism spread to North-

East

Italy.

The professors

these universities under

of

MuBlim philosophy were regarded as freeThe influence of the Muslim philosophy wag

the influence of thinkers.

the

precursor of the

"was the direct parent a deeper

the

way

for

the

Aoquir.as, Duns influenced by it.

In the words in

of Iqbal,

"The

Europe unfortunately took

It

the

was

like

Spinoza,

p.

295).

Thomas

etc.,

wara

Politioal fail of Islam

place, at

to see the

Science, and werp fairly on

Inductive knowledge.

thinker

a

Dante,

Scotus,

Muslim thinkers began

prepared

has been nursed and broughb.

Many

up on Muslim thought.

it

(O'Leary

Renaissance."

io fact

''Jt

evolution in North.

its final

EaBt Italy, where, as an antiecclesiaBtioal,

European culture

294),

p,

on Christian and Jewish

inipreesion

and attained

thought

thought

of the Philo-Pagan element in the

(O'Leaay, Arabic Thought,

Renaissance''

made

Muslim

Renaissance.

moment when

a

futility

way

of

to fcbe

Deductive buiiding cf

practically at this

moment

that Eurupe tnok up the task of research and discovery. Intellecual aotivity in

the world cf

Islam particularly

ceased from thin time, and Europe fruit of the labours? of

Movement

in

foroe set free

Munm

Europe was duo

began to

a

by Muslim thought.

large extent tn the It

exaggeration to Bay that the fruits of

is

nojjkt ail

au

Modorn European

shape of Modern Soienoe and t'hiloso

Humanism

in the

phy are

many ways

in

The Huu.iGi?t

thinkers. to

reap the

only a further development

of

193 (Extract from the letter of Dr. Iqbal

Muslim Culture." to

Sahibzada Aftab Ahmad Kh*n, dated 4th June, 1920). I

w^uld conclude

schools

some

nf

this

turned survey

Muslim Philosophy with a brief reference to the ohief characteristics which made the Muslim

.of

Philosophers worthy of their thinkers of the world. ttudied,

commented

and endeavoured

Muslim philosophers not only

upoii

to

with the greatest

place

and enlarged Greek philosophy

and weak spots

but also discovered inconsistences it

of the various

They investigated

remove them.

regions which the Greeks had

left

in

unexplored, by intro-

ducing as problems demanding serious enquiry, suoh life, topics as phenomenon of dreams, miracles, future immortality of the soul, Divine attributes, Divine unity, They enriohed the human aelE by proving that it etc.

was not only an

intellectual self but also a

spiritual self. In short, they

moral and

made philosophy

a

the instru.

which confronted ccect not only of solving the problems man in his everyday life but also of solving the riddle of the universe.

Dr.

ZAKM

-<

'

HUMM LHR«>

32148 JAMIAMIU.:/* ioLAMIA.

F ^

H

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