Introduction To World Religions And Belief Systems.pdf

K °i2 Curriculum Compliant

T H E

P A D A Y O N

S E R I E S

Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems a

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A u t h o r : N A P O L E O N M . M a b a q u ia o JR ., P h D Project Director: RONALDO B. MACTAL, PhD

1 0 ! TABLE OF CONTENTS Series Introduction, v Preface, vii

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Unit

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T he N ature of R eligion and the A brahamic F aiths Chapter

The Nature of Religion, 6-40 Lesson 1: Understanding Religiion Section 1: Etymology and Key Elements Section 2: Spirituality and Divine Absolutes Lesson 2\ Studying Religions Section 1: Approaches to the Study of Religion Section 2: The Value of Studying Religion

Chapter

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, 41-133 Lesson 3: Judaism Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Lesson 4\ Christianity Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Lesson 5: Islam Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

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Cs l D R eligions O riginating in I ndia , C hina , and J apan Chapter

Hinduism and Buddhism, 137-198 Lesson 6: Hinduism Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Lesson 7: Buddhism Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Chapter^

Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism, 199-276 Lesson &. Confucianism Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Lesson 9\ Taoism Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Lesson 10. Shinto Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

References, 277

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Overarching Questions ■sr What is the nature of religion? ■a? What are the main features of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?

Content

Performance

Demonstrate your understanding of religion in terms of its etymology, key elements, spirituality, approaches, and value; and of the main features of the Abrahamic Faiths (Judaism, Christian­ ity, and Islam) in terms of their origins, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges.

Perform the activities specified in the chapters and lessons under this unit, which will enable you to use your learning and reflect on your own spirituality.

LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The unit generally aims to introduce the nature of religion and the Abrahamic faiths consisting of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These three are generally referred to as Abrahamic faiths or religions since they all trace their spiritual roots to Abraham’s belief in one God. After going through the various lessons under this unit, you are expected to come up with a reflection paper about how these lessons have broadened your view of life and have deepened your spiritual life.

UNIT I

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LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Chapter 1

Content The Nature of Religion

Competencies «• How did the word religion come about? ■® What are the key elements of religion? ■® What is the relationship between religion and spirituality? «*■ What are the different forms of absolutes in religion? i®- What are the different approaches in studying particular religions? i® What is the value of studying religions?

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Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

How did Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originate? Who were their founders? What are the sacred texts of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? •® What are the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? «*■ What are the denominations and challenges of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?

P relearning C oncept C heck Direction: Mark the level of your knowledge or understanding of the statements in the table on the succeeding page using the following signs: 0 no knowledge + low level of knowledge ++ average or moderate level of knowledge +++ high level of knowledge At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit!). Answer the right column {After Studying Unit I) after you have studied all the lessons in the unit.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Before Studying Unit 1

Statements 1. Based on its root words, the word religion, means “to join again” or “to reconnect.” 2. Religion contains a worldview that involves spirits, sacred things, ethical codes, community, central stories, rituals, and artistic expressions (music, paintings, dances, and sculptures, among others). 3. While one can be spiritual without being religious, one cannot be religious without being spiritual. 4. It is possible to have a religion even without a belief in God. 5. Sacredness can be inherent (when one’s sacredness is not derived from something else) or derived (when one’s sacredness is derived from something else). 6. The divine absolute, the inherently sacred, can be in the form of a god or gods or some other form such as the soul, principles, or teachings of a revered teacher. 7. God’s relation with nature can be one of transcendence (outside nature), immanence (within nature), or both. 8. Approaches to the study of religions, which come in the form of “theories of religion,” can be internal (the approach of a particular religion to the understanding of its own doctrines and practices) or external (the approach of a certain academic discipline to the understanding of a religion’s doctrines and practices).

After Studying Unit 1

9. External approaches to religion include the approaches of theology, comparative religion, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and anthropology. 10. The value of studying world religions can be theoretical (as it cultivates a better understanding'of human civilization and cultures, among others), practical (as it provides different models of spirituality and answers to our big questions in life, among others), and artistic (as it cultivates a better appreciation of artworks that are religiously inspired). 11. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originated from the family of Abraham. 12. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are monotheistic religions (religions that believe in just one God). 13. One can be a Jew in a biological and religious way. 14. Abraham and Moses were the founders of Judaism. 15. The Hebrew or Jewish Bible, called the Tanakh, generally corresponds to the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. 16. For the Jews, God gave His commandments to Moses in written and oral forms. 17. The Jews are still waiting for their Messiah. 18. Sects of Judaism range from ancient and medieval forms to modern ones. 19. The major challenges of Judaism include anti-Semitism and the Arab-lsraeli conflict. 20. Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

21. While Christians generally believe in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity (that the one God has three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), there are some Christian sects that do not. 22. The Christian Bible consists of an Old Testament and a New Testament. The New Testament is taken as the fulfillment of the Old Testament. 23. The Gospels are divided into the synoptic and nonsynoptic kinds. 24. The Christian Churches are generally divided into Western and Eastern Churches. The Western Churches are divided into Catholic, Protestant, Anglican, and Nontraditional Churches 25. Muslims call their god “Allah.” 26. Islam was founded by Mohammad, who regarded himself as the last messenger of God. 27. The sacred text of Islam is called the Qur’an. 28. Muslims have five obligatory activities called the Five Pillars of Islam, consisting of a testimony of faith, prayer, charity for the poor, fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca. 29. The division between Sunni Muslims (or Sunnis) or Shia Muslims (or Shiites) resulted from issues concerning who should succeed Mohammad as the spiritual leader of Islam after his death. 30. Islam has a mystical version called Sufism, which has produced great poets.

UNIT I

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—

T he N ature

of

R eligion

Overarching Question What is the nature of religion?

EXPECTED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The chapter aims to explain the nature of religion by clarifying its meaning, specifying its significance, and examining the different ways of studying various religions. The meaning of religion is clarified by looking into its etymology (that is, its meaning based on the history of its linguistic form), key elements (its basic components), and the nature of spirituality and divine absolute. Examining the ways of studying particular religions would require examining the various disciplinal approaches to the study of religions and ascertaining the value of studying religions on theoretical, practical, and artistic levels. At the end of the chapter, you must write a research paper on a certain influential religious leader. The paper should: (1) provide a brief biography of the religious leader, (2) identify and explain the teachings of the religious leader, and (3) reflect on the ideas of the religious leader concerning the nature of religion.

LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

Learning Lesson 1. Understanding Religion

Competency «■ Explain the meaning of religion in terms of its etymology and basic elements. >«• Explain the relation between religion and spirituality and the different forms of the divine absolute.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Lesson 2. Studying Religions

■a- Differentiate the various ways of studying religion. Explain the value of studying religions.

EX PLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D V IEW S

1. How would you define religion?

2. What characteristics do you think are common to all religions?

3. What do you think is the value of studying the different religions in the world?

4. Identify three benefits of having a religion.

5. Identify three benefits of studying the different religions in the world.

6 . What do you think is the relationship between spirituality and religiousness/religiosity?

UNDERSTANDING RELIGION

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Meaning and Key Elements

♦

Section 2: Spirituality and Divine Absolutes

Key Concepts

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religion

1®

materialism

>® “religare”

1®*

spirituality

»

1®

religiousness

<® “religio”

1®

divine absolute

■® worldview

1®

god-centered sacredness

<® spiritual world

1®

nongod-centered sacredness

■® sacredness

1®

theism

■® inherent sacredness

1®

atheism

>® derived sacredness

1®

agnosticism

i® community

1®

nontheism

i® rituals

1®

traditional pantheism

i® central stories

1®

panentheism

«® artistic expressions

I®

transcendence

■® supernaturalism

1®

immanence

“relegare”

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: «■ Explain the etymological meanings of the term religion. <® Identify and explain the key elements of religion. ■a- Explain the difference between religiousness and spirituality, as well as their relationships. ■a- Distinguish between god-centered and nongod-centered forms of sacredness. i® Distinguish between theism, atheism, agnosticism, and nontheism, i® Distinguish between traditional theism, pantheism, and panentheism.

Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 27. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING ; j Knowledge and Skills

MEANING AND KEY ELEMENTS

What does the word religion mean? . What are the key elements of religion?

In examining the meaning of religion, we shall look into the etymology (the origin of the linguistic form of the said word) of the word religion, the definitions given to religion by some scholars from different disciplines, and the key elements of religion (the common characteristics of religions).

ETYMOLOGY There are at least three closely related accounts on the etymology of the term religion. According to the first account, the term comes from a Latin

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word that means “to tie or bind.” Some identify this Latin word as religare (Palmer 2004, 14) while some identify it as religio (Saucier and Skrzypiska 2006, 1259). In any case, this etymological meaning of religion, to tie or bind, indicates the two objectives of religion: first, to bind humanity and the divine together; and second, to bind humans into a community that is bound with the divine. The second account states that the term religion consists of two Latin words, namely, re, which means “again,” and lig-, which means to “join” or “connect” (Molloy 2010, 5). Religion, based on the combination of these two Latin words, therefore means “to join again” or “to reconnect.” And what is being joined again or being reconnected, in this context, is humanity and the divine, or the human world and the sacred world. This meaning of religion suggests that there was originally a unity between the human world and the sacred world which was somehow lost or strained; and religion is the way for humans to recover or reestablish that unity. According to the third account, the word religion derives from the Latin word relegare which literally means “to tread carefully” and which indicates “respect and care for both the natural and supernatural worlds” (Palmer 2004, 14). This further suggests that a primary concern of religion is to provide guidance on how humans ought to live. It can be observed in these three etymological accounts of the meaning of the word “religion” that religion serves as a bridge between the human world and the sacred world. Accordingly, the etymological accounts suggest that a higher purpose in human living is unity with the divine, and religion provides the necessary way or guidance to accomplish this purpose.

D efinitions from S ome S cholars Scholars from different disciplines have defined religion in varying ways, though some similarities and intersections can easily be observed in these definitions. These definitions resulted from their studies of religions using the lens or perspectives of their own respective disciplines, which include sociology, anthropology, philosophy, theology, and religious studies. Examining these definitions will give us an idea of the different aspects of religion, as well as of what is essential in a religion. Here are some of these definitions (as quoted in House 2006, 15): 1. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834): “The essence of religion consists in the feeling of absolute dependence.” 2. James Martineau (1805-1900): “Religion is the belief in ... a Divine mind and will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with mankind.”

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

3. C. P. Tiele (1830-1902): “Religion is . . . that pure and reverential disposition or frame of mind which we call piety.” 4. F. H. Bradley (1846-1924): “Religion is ... the attempt to express the complete reality of goodness through every aspect of our being.” 5. James Frazier (1854-1941): “[Religion is] . . . a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man.”

6 . Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): “[Religion i s ] . . . a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things . . . which unite into one single moral community.” 7. Rudolf Otto (1869-1937): “Religion is that which grows out of, and gives expression to, experience of the holy in its various aspects.”

8 . Paul Tillich (1886-1965): “Religion is the state of being grasped by an ultimate concern, a concern which qualifies all other concerns as preliminary and which itself contains the answer to the question of the meaning of our life.” 9. J. Milton Yinger (1916-2011): “Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggle with the ultimate problem of human life.” 10. John Hick (1922-2012): “ Religion constitutes our varied human response to transcendent reality.” 11. Ninian Smart (1927-2001): The six characteristics or dimensions of religion are: “the ritual, the mythological, the doctrinal, the ethical, the social, and the experiential.” 12. Peter Berger (1929- ): “[Religion is] ... the establishment through human activity of an all-embracing sacred order, that is, of a sacred cosmos that will be capable of maintaining itself in the ever-present face of chaos.” 13. James C. Livingston (1930- ): “Religion is that system of activities and beliefs directed toward that which is perceived to be sacred in value and transforming power.” 14. Roy A. Clouser (1937-): “A religious belief is any belief in something or other as divine. ‘Divine’ means having the status of not depending on anything else.” 15. Roland Robertson (1938- ): “[Religion pertains] to a distinction between an empirical and a super-empirical, transcendental reality: the affairs of the empirical being subordinated in significance to the nonempirical.”

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THE KEY ELEMENTS Though the human desire and effort to unite or reconnect with some sacred or divine reality may be an essential feature of religion, as indicated by its etymology and the definitions of some scholars, religion, as commonly understood and practiced, has other important features. In identifying the key elements of religion, two things need to be noted. First, these elements are limited to those shared by the particular religions that we shall examine in this textbook (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto). This means that there is no claim that these key elements are final and complete, for once we include other religions, other elements may have to be included or some of the elements in our list may no longer be applicable. Second, not all of these key elements are essential in the sense that not all particular religions have all of them in the same degree. Most of these elements are shared by these religions, but some of these elements are shared only by most of them. (For instance, while most religions have a definite set of ethical codes, Shinto does not.) In any case, in what follows, we shall look into the following key elements of religion: worldview, spiritual world, sacredness, community, central stories, rituals, ethical codes, and artistic expressions.

W orldview Religion contains a worldview. A worldview refers to a set of beliefs that is both coherent and comprehensive. As a coherent set of beliefs forms a belief system, another way of saying the same is that a worldview refers to a comprehensive belief system. First, religion consists of beliefs. Beliefs generally refer to assertions, claims, or thoughts about things that are held to be true. Beliefs are, strictly speaking, mental states that advance claims or knowledge about the world, and are expressible in the form of statements (or propositions). Examples of religious beliefs are the beliefs that humans have immortal souls, that there is a God or gods, and that there is universal justice in the world in which wrongdoings shall be appropriately punished and good deeds shall be appropriately rewarded, if not in this world, in the afterlife. Second, a set of beliefs forms a system when these beliefs are coherent; and they are coherent when they are consistently interrelated. Being interrelated, the beliefs in a system influence or affect one another. For instance, the belief that humans are free and thus are accountable for their actions is related to the belief that there is universal justice; or the belief

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

that human life is sacred, as it is a creation of God or animated by a soul, is related to the ethical principle that it is wrong to destroy a human life. And being coherent, these beliefs do not contradict one another. An example of two incoherent beliefs are the belief that there is universal justice and the belief that there is no life after death. For without an afterlife, there would be no guarantee that universal justice will be served in that all wrongdoings will be appropriately punished and all good deeds will be appropriately rewarded. Being coherently interrelated, a worldview thus has the function of giving order to our experiences and the realities in our world. Lastly, a belief system is comprehensive when it accounts for a wide range of phenomena (or events in the world) or when it deals with a wide range of human concerns. Religious belief systems are comprehensive in this light for they address a wide range of human concerns. For instance, they address concerns about what makes life meaningful, what happens after death, how the world began and how it would end, how humans ought to deal with one another, why there are various human races and languages, how humans ought to regard their natural environment or its nonhuman members, and what is the right attitude towards wealth, authorities, spouses, money, sex, worries, knowledge, sufferings, and so many others. A set of beliefs that is not comprehensive is not a worldview.

S piritual W orld Religion believes or assumes that there is a spiritual world or a transcendent reality (see Hick’s and Robertson’s definitions of religion on page 11), in addition to the physical, natural world that we live in. By spiritual, we simply mean nonphysical or nonnatural. As such, the spiritual world refers to what is sometimes also called the transcendental world or supernatural world (by “transcendental” and “super,” we mean “outside the physical or natural”). Being nonphysical, the spiritual world is known or accessed not by means of scientific methods (generally the methods of sense observation and quantification), but by other means of knowing such as visions, revelations, and mystical (or religious) experiences. Moreover, the acceptance of its reality or truth is not a matter of having some objective evidence or method of verification; rather, it is a matter of having faith. Religion is therefore opposed to materialism (sometimes also called physicalism or naturalism), which is the belief that reality is just physical and nothing more, or that the only real world is the world that is known through the methods of the sciences. Depending on the particular religions being considered, the spiritual world of religion usually includes a God, gods, souls, angels, principles (like the law of karma), and values, among others. UNIT I

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We earlier noted that religion contains a worldview or a comprehensive belief system. It shall, however, be noticed that it is not only religion that contains a worldview. Science, some philosophies, and ideologies (like Marxism) also contain worldviews, for they too hold a set of beliefs that are coherent and comprehensive. One essential difference, however, between the religious worldview and these other worldviews is that the religious worldview includes a spiritual world.

S acredness Religion regards certain things as sacred (on page 11, see Livingston’s, Durkheim’s, and Clouser’s definitions of religion). The sacred is contrasted with the ordinary, secular, or profane. While ordinary things can be used as mere instruments to satisfy human interests, sacred things are treated with respect or reverence. Also, the value of ah ordinary thing depends on human interests (it is “mind-dependent”), while the value of a sacred thing does not (it is “mind-independent”). A sacred thing either has its own (intrinsic or inherent) value or it derives its value from association with a sacred thing which has value on its own. In this consideration, we can distinguish between two kinds of sacredness, which we shall call inherent sacredness and derived sacredness. Something has inherent sacredness if it has value on its own (or it is valuable by itself), while something has derived sacredness if its value is derived from something that has inherent sacredness. Accordingly, we respect the inherently sacred because it is worth respecting on its own; and we also respect the derivatively sacred because we respect the inherently sacred that is associated with it. Our division of the sacred into the inherent and the derived can be gleaned from the following remarks by Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 34) on the nature of the sacred in consideration of the views of Durkheim (1915) and Pargament and Mahoney (2002): “As stated by Durkheim (1915, 52), by sacred things one must not understand simply those personal beings which are called Gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house— in a word, anything can be sacred. Thus, the designation is not limited to higher powers or imminent forces, but includes other aspects of life that take on divine character and meaning through their association with or representation of the holy.” These remarks indicate that the inherently sacred are usually spiritual in nature, such as God or gods, souls, principles, and values; while the derivatively sacred are usually physical in nature, such as spaces (like the places of worship and the places where important events or turning points in the development of a religion occurred—which may be a

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

place in nature like under a certain tree, a certain river, a certain mountain, and others), symbols, statues, relics, scrolls, and clothing. Moreover, this explains why the spiritual world is given a value higher than the physical world (see Robertson’s definition of religion). A typical way of showing respect to sacred things is by following the ethical codes associated with these things, saying prayers, offering flowers, tithing, and others. And when respect is accorded by a person to sacred things, the belief is that this person has done something good which will merit some form of reward, either in this world or in the world beyond.

Ethical C odes Religions have ethical or moral codes (see Martineau’s, Durkheim’s, and Smart’s definitions of religion on pages 10 and 11), referring to guidelines concerning how humans ought to relate to the divine, treat one another, or behave towards one another, God, gods, and revered teachers. In some cases, these codes also include rules about what types of food to refrain from eating generally, what type of clothes to wear on specific occasions, and others. Some of these ethical codes are revealed by a God to chosen messengers; while some are realized through a heightened form of spiritual activity like meditation.

C ommunity Religions have communities. A religious belief system is shared and practiced by a community of believers (see Durkheim’s and Otto’s definitions of religion). The community of believers usually involves an organization consisting of a hierarchy of authorities. Each level in the hierarchy has designated rights and duties. How people get to occupy the higher positions vary in different religions.The ways include revelations, reincarnations, blood relations, and election by revered members of the religious community.

S acred W ritings Religions have sacred writings, which contain their main teachings or doctrines, central stories, ethical codes, and prophecies. Sacred writings are divinely inspired. Their contents are usually revealed by a God or gods through chosen messengers. In some cases, they are arrived at by revered teachers as realizations during spiritual activities like meditation. Sometimes the mere recitation of passages in the sacred writings can already produce religious effects like blessings, forgiveness, spiritual calmness, and power to UNIT I

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overcome sin and fear or to exorcise evil spirits. Sometimes, too, the mere presence or sight of a sacred book is enough to produce these religious effects.

C entral S tories Religions have central stories. Some scholars refer to these stories as “myths,” but due to a connotation of the term “myth” as being a story that is purely imaginary or that is historically untrue, we shall use the (hopefully) neutral term “story.” The central stories of religions include accounts of how the world and the human race (or a chosen human race) began; how God was personified or manifested in the world; how a great teacher came to a realization of religious truths or received messages and instructions from God, the gods, or the heavens; how the important events in the life of a great teacher came about; and how some actions of faithful followers (like acts of martyrdom) became worthy of emulation or sources of religious inspiration. ^ "

R ituals Religions have rituals (see Smart’s, Durkheim’s, and Yinger’s definitions of religion on page 1 1 ), which include ceremonies that reenact sacred stories, and various activities, such as songs and dances that express praise or thanksgiving to God, gods, or a revered teacher or prophet.

A rtistic E xpressions Religions engage in various artistic expressions for their beliefs. These artistic expressions can be in the form of music, dance, architectural design, sculpture, poetry, drama, and others. Many of the world-renowned artistic works were religiously inspired.

scussion

Questions

1. Take a look again at the definitions of religion given by some scholars. Among these definitions, which for you best captures the meaning of religion. Why? 2. Which among the key elements of religion do you think is the most important and the least important? Explain your answers.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

I^Activityl

Choose a world-renowned work of art considered to be religiously inspired. Make a presentation of it in class. (This can also be a written requirement.) Explain the specific religious inspiration of the artist behind the artwork.

SPIRITUALITY AND DIVINE ABSOLUTES

»*■ How does spirituality relate to religiousness? •a- What are the different forms of divine absolutes?

We noted that among the key elements of religion are the belief in a spiritual reality and the sacredness of certain things. In this section, we shall discuss concepts related to these two elements, which are important considerations in understanding the meaning of religion. Related to the belief in the spiritual world is the concept of spirituality, while related to sacredness is the concept of the divine absolute. Concerning spirituality, we shall examine how it relates to and differs from religiousness (or “religiosity”). Concerning the divine absolute, we shall look into the nature of its existence and how it relates to the natural or secular world.

I. SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGIOUSNESS In two large-scale studies examined by Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 28) (see also Saucier and Skrzypiska 2006) about how people perceive the relationship between spirituality and religiousness, the respondents classified themselves into three categories:

1 . those who considered themselves as both religious and spiritual (around 69%); 2 . those who considered themselves as spiritual but not religious (around 2 1 %); and 3. those who considered themselves as religious but not spiritual (4%).

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These findings, among others, point to a difference between the concepts of spirituality and religiousness. Some of the questions that arise, in this consideration are: Is spirituality opposed to religiousness? Is it possible to be religious without being spiritual? Is spirituality not an essential component of religion such that we can have a religion without spirituality? How do we make sense of the expressions “spiritual but not religious” and “religious but not spiritual”? What is the role of spirituality in religion? Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005) identify two general perspectives on the relationship between spirituality and religiousness. Both perspectives assume that religiousness and spirituality are not identical concepts; but while the first perspective regards the two concepts as incompatible opposites (or mutually exclusive, that is, they cannot go hand in hand), the second one does not. For the first perspective, it is not possible to be religious and spiritual at the same time. A religious person, in this regard, is not a spiritual person, and a spiritual person is not a religious person. On the other hand, the second perspective maintains that it is possible to be religious and spiritual at the same time. A religious person can be a spiritual person, and a spiritual person can be a religious person. What makes them different or not identical is simply that one is a form or version of the other. That is, either religiousness is a form of spirituality or spirituality is a form of religiousness.

A . O n the I ncompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness The first perspective, which sees religiousness and spirituality as incompatible opposites, is based on certain views, opinions, or observations about what makes religiousness and spirituality different. These views result from separating (or polarizing) certain features of religion into two opposing features. Let us then analyze the following two main views (see Zinnbauer and Pargament 2005): Separating the Substantive and Functional Aspects of Religion First is the view that religiousness is substantive (or substance-oriented) while spirituality is functional (or function-oriented). Substance here refers to beliefs (doctrines) and practices (such as rituals), while functionality refers to the goals of uniting with the sacred, living a meaningful life, and having harmonious social relationships. Actually, substance and functionality are both features of religion. Through its beliefs and practices, one hopes to attain unity with the sacred, live a meaningful life, and have a harmonious relationship with other people. But some people have divided these two

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

features, and they have thought that religiousness was solely about the substance of religion while spirituality was solely about the functionality of religion. Separating the institutional and Subjective Aspects of Religion Second is the view that religiousness is institutional and objective, while spirituality is personal and subjective.That is to say, religious persons express their faith in the context of a community or an organized group, while spiritual persons express their faith as individuals. Again, like the first view, religion actually has both communal worship and individual worship, but some people have separated these two kinds of worship into two incompatible opposites. Consequently, they have associated religiousness with communal worship while spirituality with individual worship. Analysis The question with these two views is, are they right in separating the substantive and the functional features of religion, as well as its institutional and personal features? The answer, of course, is no. First, limiting religiousness to substance alone does not explain how religion affects the personal lives of believers or what religion does to make the lives of the believers meaningful. On the other hand, limiting spirituality to functionality alone without any basis on substance will not explain what makes spirituality different from other ways of attaining unity with the divine or living a meaningful life. There are different ways to address the existential questions of humans (questions concerning the meaning and purpose of human existence), and what makes a spiritual response to these questions different from nonspiritual ones must be based on some beliefs and doctrines. The substance and functionality of religion, in short, cannot be separated from one another. Second, inasmuch as religiousness involves communal or organizational activities, the end goal is still a personal relationship with the divine. The communal activities, in certain respects, are ways by which the believers strengthen or enhance one another’s personal relationship with the divine. On the other hand, inasmuch as some forms of spirituality are antireligious institutions, spirituality cannot occur in a vacuum. Spirituality exists in the context of a tradition or culture; and so while it can be practiced individually, it is still community-dependent. Moreover, there are also spiritual organizations where those practicing spirituality of some form organize themselves into groups. This implies that there is nothing contradictory in being individually spiritual and being part of an organized group of fellow spiritual persons.

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In short, we cannot separate the communal and the personal features of religion.

B. On the C ompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness Let us now examine the second perspective which claims that religiousness and spirituality are compatiole. That is, though being spiritual is not the same as being religious, one can still be spiritual and religious at the same time. As earlier noted, this is because their difference lies only in the fact that one is a broader concept than the other. There are two competing views here. One claims that it is spirituality which is the broader concept, while the other claims that it is religiousness. Religiousness as a Form of Spirituality The view that claims that spirituality is the broader concept is based on the observation that it is possible to distinguish between a kind of spirituality that occurs within the context of a religious tradition (by “religious tradition” we simply mean the tradition of a particular religion such as Christianity, Islam, and others) and a kind of spirituality that does not (such as the spirituality of the so-called “spiritual mystics”). We may call the former kind religious sp iritu a lity, and the latter kind nonreligious sp iritu a lity. Because spirituality can be religious or not, then spirituality is a broader concept than religiousness. Spirituality as Part of Religiousness On the other hand, the view that claims that religiousness is the broader concept is based on the consideration that while spirituality is an essential part of religion whose goal is unity with the divine, religion has other important goals too. For instance, “social connection, community service, education, healthy lifestyle promotion, or financial assistance may also be pursued by religious organizations, families, and cultures in order to support the spiritual development of its members” (Zinnbauer and Pargament 2005,36). Because religiousness involves things other than spirituality, then religiousness is a broader concept than spirituality. Analysis These views show that regardless of which concept is regarded as broader, spirituality or religiousness, spirituality and religiousness can ramain compatible with one another.The possibility that one can be spiritual without

20

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

being religious and the fact that being religious involves more than being spiritual do not prevent one from being spiritual while being religious at the same time. More importantly, however, even given the same conditions, one can still maintain the idea that spirituality is an essential component of (not just compatible with) religiousness such that one cannot be religious without being spiritual in some way. For while there can be nonreligious spirituality and religiousness involves more than spirituality, it can be maintained that spirituality in the context of religious spirituality is essential to religiousness. We just have to qualify that the kind of spirituality that is essentially involved in religiousness is the religious kind.

II. FORMS OF DIVINE ABSOLUTES We noted earlier that a key element in religion is sacredness. We further noted that what is sacred can be a lot of things. It can be a spiritual being, a rock, a place, or a scroll. One way to understand this is to distinguish between the inherently sacred (those that are sacred by themselves) and the derivatively sacred (those that are sacred by association with other sacred things, usually the inherently sacred). The inherently sacred is described in different ways, one of which is its being the divine absolute, the source (or sources if the divine absolute is thought to be more than one) of all positive values. In religion, humans achieve ultimate happiness through their unity with the primary source or sources of all positive values. Thus to achieve that unity is the very goal of religious spirituality. The divine absolutes, however, take various forms in different religions. And so to have a deeper understanding of the different religions, we need to have an overview of the various forms that divine absolutes may take.

G od-C entered and N ongod-C entered F orms of S acredness In most religions, the divine absolute usually takes the form of a God or gods. We shall refer to this form of the divine absolute as god-centered sacredness. There are, however, some religions where the divine absolute does not take the form of a God or gods. Instead, sacredness is centered on either the soul, certain principles, or the teachings of a revered teacher, among others. And we shall refer to this form of the divine absolute simply as nongod-centered sacredness. God-centered sacredness, however, takes different forms depending on the following considerations: (a) reality, that is, whether there really is a God or gods; (b) quantity, that is, whether there is

UNIT I

21

just one God or there are many gods; and (c) relation with nature, that is, whether God or the gods exist outside or within the natural world.

V iews on the E xistence of G od/ s With regard to the reality of God or gods, there are three basic views or positions. First is theism, which asserts the reality of God or gods. Consequently, theism subscribes to god-centered sacredness. Second is atheism, which rejects the reality of God or gods. Consequently, atheism does not subscribe to god-centered sacredness. It may either subscribe to a non-god-centered type of sacredness or altogether reject any form of sacredness. Sometimes an atheistic belief system, while categorically rejecting belief in God (or the necessity of this belief), would attribute god­ like qualities to certain personalities. Third is agnosticism, which claims that there is no certainty whether or not God or gods exist. Agnosticism is thus opposed to the certainty assumed in the positions of theism and atheism— theism assumes certainty with regard to the existence of God or gods, while atheism assumes certainty with regard to the nonexistence of God or gods. And fourth is nontheism, which simply makes no position about the existence of God or gods. The best way to describe the view of nontheism is its attitude of indifference to the very question of the existence of a divine being.

V iews on the N umber of G od/ s With regard to whether there is just one God or there are many gods, the opposing views are called monotheism, the belief that there is only one God, and polytheism, the belief that there are many gods. How many gods does a polytheistic religion believe in? There can be thousands or millions of them.There usually is hierarchy of gods in a polytheistic religion. Sometimes there is one supreme god among the gods. Sometimes there is a set of supreme gods, often numbering in three (a trinity). Sometimes there is one highest god and then next to him is a set of supreme gods (again usually a trinity), and below them are the rest of the gods. The gods can be abstract entities (entities with super powers but which cannot be identified with anything in this world). They can also represent forces of nature (including biological ones such as fertility) or ideal values or traits (such as wisdom, compassion, and mercy), or they can be historical figures (including emperors, venerable teachers, and ancestors) who have somehow achieved immortality.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Polytheism takes the form of henotheism when it serves and worships a single god while recognizing the existence of other gods that can equally be served and worshipped. It can also take the form of kathenotheism when it worships a single god at a time, or when it worships different gods at different times, depending on the person’s needs and/or which god becomes supreme over another at a certain time. As henotheism is a specific form of polytheism, kathenotheism is a specific form of henotheism.

V iews on G od’ s /G ods’ R elation with N ature Lastly, with regard to the relation of God or gods with the natural world, there are three basic views. First is traditional theism, which views God or gods as transcendent beings as they exist outside the natural world. Second is pantheism, which views God or gods as immanent beings as they exist within the natural world. Pantheism further claims that God or gods have no identity outside the natural world, or that the natural world is God Himself or the gods themselves. A person who says “I am God” or that “Everything is God” is usually a pantheist; and what the person means by his/her utterance is that since everything that exists is part of God (for God is nothing but the totality of everything that exists), everything bears the qualities of God, and thus, in a certain sense, is God. Third is panentheism, which sees God or gods as both transcendent and immanent. Meaning, while God or gods exist within the natural world, their identity is independent of the natural world. While God or gods are not the totality of everything that exists, they are nonetheless present in everything that exists. Discussion Questions 1. Does a person need to be religious in order to have spirituality in his/ her life? Explain your answer. 2.

Is the belief in God necessary in a religion? Is it possible to have a religion even without the belief in God? Explain your answer.

Activity Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map.

Worldview

relegare

Rituals

to tie or bind

Sacred Writings

Spirituality

Monotheism

Religiousness

Pantheism

Theism

Sacredness

Religion

Review Questions Encircle the letter of your answer. 1. Based on the etymology of the word, “religion” means: a. to tie or bind d. all of the above b. to join again or to reconnect c. to tread carefully

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

e. none of the above

2. Religion contains___________________, which refers to a set of beliefs that is both coherent and comprehensive. a. a worldview c. a philosophy b.

an ideology

3. For believing in a spiritual or nonphysical world, religion is therefore opposed to: a. idealism c. spiritualism b. materialism 4. Religion regards certain things a s _______________, which are contrasted with ordinary or secular things. a. practical c. useful b. sacred 5. If something has value on its own, its sacredness is said to b e ___ a. derived c. inherent b.

figurative

6 . This is usually understood as referring to the functional and subjective aspects of religion. a. spirituality c. faithfulness b.

religiousness

7. This refers to the belief that rejects the reality or existence of God or gods. a. atheism c. theism b.

agnosticism

d. nontheism

8 . This views God or gods as transcendent in that they exist outside the natural world. a. traditional theism c. panentheism b.

pantheism

9. This claims that there is only one God. a. monotheism c. polytheism b.

dualism

10. This view is accepted by someone who serves and worships a single God while recognizing that there are other gods that can equally be served and worshipped. a. nontheism c. henotheism b.

pantheism

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25

KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson. K What 1know about the meaning of religion

W What 1want to know about the meaning of religion

L What 1have learned about the meaning of religion (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

STUDYING RELIGIONS

Guide Question How and why should we study religions?

♦

Section 1: Approaches to the Study of Religions

♦

Section 2: The Value of Studying Religions

Key Concepts

B3F

theology

»

B®

comparative religion

«*■ Calvinism

I®

philosophy of religion

«■ animism

b®

psychology of religion

B®

sociology of religion

B®

B®

B®

I® 5

US’

B®

sacred

religious symbols

»*■ theoretical value of studying religion anthropology of religion mystical experience ISF practical value of studying religion unconscious mind interpersonal/ethical value collective unconscious of studying religion archetypes B® personal/existential value of alienation studying religion totems „ artistic value of studying religion

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EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: is- Identify and elaborate on the different approaches to the study of religions. «*■ Explain the different religious theories that result from certain approaches to the study of religions, ns- Elaborate on the theoretical, practical, and artistic values of studying world religions.

I^A ctivit^l Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS

What are some of the main approaches to the study of religions?

There are many ways of studying religions. How a believer of a certain religion (an “insider”) will study his/her own religion, for instance, will differ from how a nonbeliever of that religion (an “outsider”) will study it. Their motivations and methods will be different. For our purposes, we shall examine certain approaches to the study of religions that are based on certain academic disciplines. Some of these approaches focus on how to understand the beliefs and practices of particular religions, while some have more general concerns such as how religion relates to the nature of society, culture, human evolution, mind, and human behavior. Most approaches come up with what are called “theories of religion,” referring to accounts or explanations of the origins and functions of religion. A theory of religion may be internal or external. An internal theory of religion is a particular religion’s account of its own origins and functions (e.g., Christianity’s

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

own account of the origins and functions of the Christian religion); while an external theory of religion is an account of the origins and functions of particular religions, or religion in general, using the methods of certain academic disciplines. As we examine the different disciplinal approaches to the study of religion, we shall briefly touch on some of the external theories of religion. Some of these theories may be controversial, or questionable, for some people; nonetheless, knowing them broadens our understanding of the meaning and nature of religion.

THEOLOGY The etym ological meaning of the word theology— based on its Greek origin, namely theo, which means “God,” and logos which means “discourse” or “study,”— is “study of God.” Theology, however, is not just limited to the study of the nature of God, for it also studies in a systematic way the main doctrines of a particular religion. In addition to the main scriptures of a particular religion, theology often involves the study of the works of recognized theologians who are usually believers of the religion. These theologians, through their works, systematically explain the main doctrines of their own respective religions. For instance, Christian theologians explain the doctrines of Christianity, and their works constitute Christian theology. The term “theology,” though often used to refer to Christian theology, also applies to the systematic study of the other monotheistic religions, standardly referring to Judaism and Islam. Hence, we also have Jewish theology (and Jewish theologians) and Islamic theology (and Islamic theologians). For other religions, the systematic study of their doctrines is usually referred to as “philosophy” instead of “theology.” One obvious reason is that the term theology implies a belief in one God but other religions may not subscribe either to the belief in God or gods or to the belief that there is only one God. Consequently, the systematic study of the doctrines of Buddhism and Hinduism, for instance, are respectively called Buddhist philosophy and Hindu philosophy, and not Buddhist theology and Hindu theology. We also have Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto philosophies; instead of Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto theologies.

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Religious Studies and Comparative Religion If theology focuses on a particular religion, religious studies examine the different religions of the world. In particular, a student of theology intends to deepen his/her understanding of a particular religion, while a student of religious studies intends to understand the different religions of the world. Furthermore, if theology studies a particular religion always from the inside, religious studies study different religions mostly from the outside. This means that a student of theology is a follower of the particular religion he/she is studying; whereas a student of religious studies is usually not a follower of the religions he/she is studying. For instance, a student of Christian theology is a Christian; but a student of religious studies studying Shintoism is usually not a Shintoist. Still another difference is that while theology limits itself to its own internal theory of religion (its own account for its origins and functions), religious studies considers external theories of religion (accounts of the origins and functions of religion by other academic disciplines). On the other hand, comparative religion refers to a branch of religious studies that is concerned with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices of two or more particular religions. In light of these considerations, our approach in examining the different world religions in the subsequent chapters mainly falls under religious studies. Given this, we, however, also use other approaches especially comparative religion and philosophy of religion—which we will discuss next. The most influential proponent of comparative religion in the nineteenth century was Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900). Muller, an authority of Sanskrit (the classical religious language of India), urged that the study of religion should not be limited to the religions of the Mediterranean (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) and that the great religions of the East should also be seriously studied. He also introduced a broad program and methodology of comparing religions, which “included principles like gaining knowledge of others through their own writings, grouping religions according to their regional, linguistic contexts, and avoiding the common distortion of comparing the positive aspects of one religion with the negative aspects of another” (Paden 2005, 212-213). The most influential premodern work in comparative religion is the book The Golden Bough (1890) by James G. Frazer (1854-1941). The book is a vast collection of rituals, myths, and religions organized by patterns and themes, which made extensive use of sources from primitive and folk cultures (Paden 2005, 213). And the bestknown scholar of comparative religion of the last generation was Mircea

30

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Eliade (1907-1986), whose studies included the concepts of sacred space and mythic time, and the sacredness of nature (Paden 2005, 215).

P hilosophy of R eligion Philosophy of religion deals with philosophical issues found in religion. These philosophical issues include, among many others, whether we can adequately prove the existence of God, reconcile the existence of evil with the existence of a God who is wholly good and all-powerful, reconcile God’s omniscience (the power to know everything) and foreknowledge (the power to know future events) with human freedom, explain the nature of miracles, determine the meaningfulness of religious language (how religious linguistic expressions acquire their meanings), and many others. Philosophy of religion tries to settle issues in religion solely by means of the human power of reasoning. This means, among others, that the philosophy of religion justifies claims by the strength and coherence of arguments. Some theologians also engage in philosophy of religion to show that what is believed by faith can also be demonstrated by reason. Two famous and highly influential Christian theologians who also engaged in philosophy of religion were St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. One contribution of St. Augustine was his theory that evil is the absence of good (which he adopted from the view of the Greek philosopher Plotinus on the nature of light and darkness). St. Augustine used this theory to resolve the philosophical question, “If everything comes from God, where does evil come from?” According to him, evil exists in the world but it does not come from God, for what only comes from God is good. The absence of good (the moral kind) is caused by our disobedience to the will of God. Aquinas is famous for his five proofs for the existence of God: his arguments from causation, motion, necessity, design, and degrees of protection. Briefly, the arguments from causation and motion claim that the series of causes and effects, and movements in the world, must begin with God being the first cause and mover; the argument from design claims that the intricate design of the world cannot be attributed to mere chance but only to God as the divine intelligence; the argument from necessity claims that there must be a God who is a necessary being (one who has always been existing) to explain how contingent beings (those that presently exist but previously did not) have come to exist; and the argument from degrees of perfection claims that there must be a God whose perfection serves as the standard for determining the degrees of qualities that we attribute to things (like that they are good or better). i

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Psychology of Religion Psychology, in general, is defined as the study of “psychological and biological processes and behavior in humans and other animals” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Psychology of religion is the application of the different psychological theories and methods to explain religious phenomena, which include the belief in God, religious experiences and behaviors, and spirituality. In brief, it is the study of religious phenomena in so far as they may be understood psychologically (Merkur 2005,165). Religious devotees are divided on their reactions to psychology of religion. On the one hand, some view psychology of religion as a program that reduces religious phenomena believed to be real to mere psychological phenomena. On the other hand, some view it as a way of purifying religion from the idolatry or worship of human-made objects. Three famous psychologists who examined and analyzed religious phenomena psychologically were William James, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. William James (1842-1910) focused on the psychological process that occurs in a religious conversion, when a nonreligious person becomes religious (Merkur 2005, 172). Some of the contributions of William James were his distinction between institutional religion and personal religion, his analysis of religious experiences as mystical experiences, and his pragmatic approach to the value of religion—that the truth and value of a religious belief for an individual depend on the beneficial effects of the belief on the life of the individual. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalysis, which generally claims that our behaviors are largely controlled by our unconscious mind which contains our repressed sexual and violent desires. Freud viewed religion negatively. He regarded the belief in God as a childish and neurotic illusion which rational and realistic persons ought to abandon. It is an illusion because it is just a product of the human imagination. It is a childish illusion for, as Freud remarked, “religion originates in the helplessness and anxiety of childhood and early manhood” (quoted in Merkur 2005,166). Accordingly, God is just the projected ultimate father image that helps humans deal with their feelings of helplessness and guilt. God, in this regard, serves as a source of security and forgiveness. Carl Jung (1875-1961) was the founder of analytic psychology, the name given to Jung’s psychological-therapeutic system which divides the unconscious mind into the personal and the collective. Related to Freud’s concept, the personal unconscious mind contains all our personal experiences that we are not aware of (because we have suppressed them);

32

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

while the collective unconscious mind contains universal experiences of mankind and the archetypes (the basic universal images that recur in various forms in different cultures) which we have inherited from our ancestors. For Jung, religious experiences are manifestations of the archetypes in the collective unconscious in our own consciousness. Since becoming aware of our unconscious makes us a whole person (a fully realized Self), religion is thus seen by Jung as something positive (Merkur 2005, 177).

S ociology of R eligion Sociology “studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of the constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Sociology of religion, on the other hand, studies religious beliefs, practices, and organizations using the theories and methods of the discipline of sociology. Sociologists are primarily interested in examining the effects of religion on society. Influential sociological theories of religion came from Karl Marx (1818-1893), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), and Max Weber (1864-1920). During his time, Marx observed that the capitalists, in their pursuit of profits, eventually exploited the workers. The goods that the workers helped produced by means of their labor (using the materials and machines owned by the capitalists) were sold in the market at a certain value. But what the capitalists gave back to the workers as payment for their labor were merely their subsistence wages that were just enough for the workers to survive. Aside from being exploited, the workers were also dehumanized or alienated in the workplace. For the workers to bear their miserable and unfulfilling life, the capitalists created various belief-systems, foremost of which was religion, for the working class to see their state as something positive and justified. In this regard, Marx described religion as “the opium of the masses.” Durkheim was more interested in the unifying effect of religion among members of a society. After studying the indigenous Australians, Durkheim claimed that the totems (sacred objects used as emblems or symbols of a group of people, family, clan, or tribe) that the aborigines worship represented their own conceptions of a unified group or society. Durkheim further claimed that more complex societies had more complex religious systems, but they were all same in that they had religions as ways of unifying their societies. One of the significant sociological findings of Max Weber was the significant contribution of that the Calvinist religious ideas had on the development of the economic system of capitalism. While for Marx religion

UNIT I

33

is a creation of capitalism, for Weber it is the other way round—capitalism is largely due to religion, more specifically, the Calvinist religion. Accordingly, Calvinists believed in predestination, the view that God has already decided on who will enter heaven or not. But because they wanted to know who would eventually be saved and enter heaven, they thought that financial success was one good indicator. The idea is that one who experiences financial success is blessed and is thus favored by God. This idea led Calvinists to engage in activities that would increase their wealth, paving the way for the development of capitalism.

A nthropology of R eligion The word “anthropology” means science of human beings or humanity. As an academic discipline, anthropology “studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species.” Anthropology has two major fields: physical anthropology, which studies the “the origin, evolution, and diversity of people,” and cultural anthropology, which studies “culture in all of its aspects and uses the methods, concepts, and data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology, folklore, and linguistics in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the world” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Anthropology of religion, on the other hand, “explores the ways religious practices are embedded in .. . specific forms of sociality, regimes of power, historical struggles, and modes of production” (Lambek 2008, 5). It studies religion in relation to other social institutions and compares religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Most of the major thinkers recognized in this area are also those recognized in the sociology of religion like Durkheim and Weber. This suggests that the works of these thinkers cut across the disciplines of sociology and anthropology. For this reason, let us examine the ideas of another pioneering anthropologist of religion, namely Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917). Tylor, in his work Primitive Culture (1871), claimed that the essence of religion or the minimum defining property of religion, is “the belief in Spiritual Beings,” which he called animism. Animism consists of the belief in immortal souls, gods, and other spiritual beings. It is present in varying forms in the religions of the lower races up to the civilized races of mankind. In fact, the religions of civilized races evolved from the animism of the lower races. Tylor cited the association of morality with animism which was little represented in the lower races but became an integral part of the religions

34

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

of the civilized races. The belief in the soul as something separate from the body though residing in the body resulted from dealing with certain biological questions such as those concerning the difference between a living body and a dead one; the causes of waking, sleep, trance, disease, and death; and the origin of dreams and visions involving human images. From the belief in human souls grew the belief in other spirits, like those that inhabit nature and those venerated as gods. Discussion Question Which among the theories of religion discussed do you find most appealing? Why?

I^Activityl

Choose one from the theories of religion we have discussed. Do further research on it and write a critical analysis of it. What for you are its strengths and weaknesses?

THE VALUE OF STUDYING RELIGIONS

What is the value of studying world religions?

In this section, we elaborate on the theoretical, practical, and artistic value of studying religions. We begin with a brief discussion of Ninian Smart’s reasons for why it is important to study world religions. Then we proceed to an elaboration of the theoretical, practical, and artistic value of studying world religions.

T hree R easons for S tudying W orld R eligions In his book The World’s Religions (1992,9), Ninian Smart identifies three reasons why it is important to understand the world’s religions. First, “they are a vital ingredient in the varied story of humankind’s various experiments in living.” The idea is that we need to understand religions if we want to have a better understanding of human civilization, for these religions are a vital component of how humans have lived their lives throughout the ages. UNIT I

35

Second, “is the fact that in order to grasp the meanings and values of the plural cultures of today’s world, we need to know something of the worldviews which underlie them.” Meaning, the world’s religions contain the worldviews that underlie the different cultures of the present. Therefore if we want to understand the meanings and values of these cultures, or the practices and behaviors of people of different cultures, we need to understand the religions associated with these cultures. As Smart (1992, 9) remarks, “To understand the Middle East, you need to know something about Islam, not to mention Christianity and Judaism; and to understand Japan, you need some insight into Buddhism, Shinto, and the Confucian heritage.” And third, “we may as individuals be trying to form our own coherent and emotionally satisfying picture of reality, and it is always relevant to see the great ideas and practices of various important cultures and civilizations.” Meaning, the different religions of the world provide different models of spirituality from which we can learn or which we can eventually follow as we desire to improve our own spiritual lives.

T he T heoretical, P ractical , and A rtistic V alues We can gather from the points of Smart that understanding the religions of the world has both theoretical and practical benefits. Theoretically, it provides us with a better picture of human civilization as religions are an integral component of the development of human civilization. This, among other things, enables us to understand current world events better. Furthermore, understanding religions helps us deal with fundamental questions about life such as those concerning our place in the universe, where we come from, the purpose of our existence, and how the world will end. We need to address these questions to appease our mind, and religions provide us answers to these questions. Practically then, understanding religions has two levels—we can call the first the interpersonal level of practicality, and the second the personal level of practicality. On the interpersonal level, studying religions enables us to better deal or interact with people of different cultures. We get along with others better when we understand the bases of their worldviews and the attitudes that go with them. In studying the world’s religions, we gain insights into the religious and family traditions and the everyday lives of people of different cultures, which will enable us to better interact with them.This is especially important in light of the fact that we are now living in a globalized and multi-cultural world, wherein people of different nationalities can freely move from one country to another and interaction between people of different countries

36

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

is easier (brought about in large part by the convenience of travelling and by the Internet). Thus if we are Christians and we are to deal or interact with Buddhists and Muslims, it would be good to know something about Buddhism and Islam. For instance, if we are hosting them in a gathering, we need to consider the kind of food that we will offer to them. We may also need to provide them a place where they can say their prayers at certain times during the day. Still connected to the interpersonal level, studying the world’s religions also helps cultivate the attitude of tolerance and the appreciation of human differences among people. We can observe that at their most essential level, all religions promote world peace or universal harmony among humans; but why is it that religious differences are said to be a major cause of certain conflicts and wars? In addition to the fact that these conflicts and wars are usually due to the mixture of politics with religion, or the use of religion for political reasons (for the acquisition of earthly power and dominance), they are perhaps also due to a misunderstanding of the peculiarities or uniqueness of each religion. The case is similar to the fact that it is only when we have a deeper understanding of a certain person that we become more tolerant and appreciative of how he/she differs from us. Second, on the personal level, studying the world’s religions will enable us to personally understand better the kind of spirituality that we would want to pursue. Such a study will help us in our own spiritual quest. This holds true even to those who are not inclined to involve themselves in traditional religions but have a strong interest in spirituality, for knowing the stories of other persons’ spiritual journey may provide them with valuable insights for their own spiritual journey. In addition to these points identified by Smart regarding the value of studying world religions, we can add a point identified by Michael Molloy in his book Experiencing the World’s Religions: Tradition, Challenge, and Change (2010, 28). Molloy said that studying world religions will help us cultivate a better appreciation for the arts. Different religious traditions provide us with some of the most beautiful works of art in the fields of painting, sculpture, music, dance, poetry, and architecture. Studying these religions will thus pave the way for discovering and appreciating these magnificent works of art. Discussion Question Aside from your own religion, what other religion or religions are you most interested in studying? Why?

UNIT I

37

I.

Write a reflection paper on the value of religion on your personal life. In what way has your religion helped you become a better person?

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. ■ Practical Theology James Frazer Karl Marx

Studying Religions

Anthropology Philosophy

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Artistic Theoretical Psychology Sigmund Freud

eview Questions Encircle the letter of your answer. 1. Based on its etymology, this word means “the study of God.” a. Theology c. Comparative Religion b. Religious Studies 2. This studies different religions of the world usually “from the outside.” a. Comparative Religion c. Religious Studies b. Theology 3. This is a branch of religious studies that systematically compares the doctrines and practices of the different world religions. a. Theology c. Comparative Religion b. Religious Studies 4. This deals with issues like whether the existence of God can be adequately proven and whether the existence of evil can be adequately demonstrated to be compatible with the goodness and power of God. a. psychology of religion c. philosophy of religion b. sociology of religion 5. This person is the most influential proponent of comparative religion in the nineteenth century. a. Friedrich Max Muller c. Mircea Eliade b. James G. Frazer 6. The following is a Christian theologian and philosopher famous for his five proofs for the existence of God: a. St. Augustine c. St. Anselm b. St. Thomas Aquinas 7. He is the founder of psychoanalysis who saw religion as a childish illusion that serves as a mechanism for people to deal with their helplessness and anxiety. a. William James c. Carl Jung b. Sigmund Freud 8. He saw religion, particularly the Protestant Church of Calvinism, as the one that created capitalism. a. Karl Marx c. Max Weber b. Emile Durkheim

9. He saw the essence of religion, or the minimum defining property of religion, as “the belief in Spiritual Beings,” which he called animism. a. Karl Marx c. Edward Burnett Tylor b. Emile Durkheim 10. He was the founder of analytic psychology who saw religion as a way of making persons whole. a. Sigmund Freud c. William James b. Carl Jung KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson. K What 1know about the methods and value of studying religions

W What 1want to know about the methods and value of studying religions

L What 1have learned about the methods and value of studying religions (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

J udaism ,, Ch r is tia n ity

and, Islam .

Overarching Question What are the main features of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in terms of their origins, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges?

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of the three Abrahamic religions, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Specifically, the chapter looks into the origins, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges of these religions. At the end of the chapter, you must write and submit a paper that does a comparative analysis of these three religions on certain themes which are to be specified by the teacher. Such themes may include the religions’ founders, sacred texts, notions of the absolute, views on the essential human condition, morality, and liberation (or way to achieve ultimate happiness), practices (which include rituals and celebrations), denominations, and challenges (which include issues concerning gender, relation with the state, modernization and technology, and the expanding understanding of human rights). The following is a sample template for this activity—the teacher is free to make changes as he/she sees fit or appropriate.

Religion

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

Founder(s) Sacred Texts The Absolute The Human Condition

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Morality Liberation and Ultimate Happiness Practices Denominations Challenges

LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

Learning Lesson 3. Judaism

Competency r «s- Trace the origins of Judaism and identify its sacred texts. Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism. "3s Distinguish the different denominations of Judaism and discuss some of its challenges.

Lesson 4. Christianity

■s- Trace the origins of Christianity and identify its sacred texts. is- Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Christianity. •a- Distinguish the different denominations of Christianity and discuss some of its challenges.

Lesson 5. Islam

•s- Trace the origins of Islam and identify its sacred texts. «3= Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Islam. «*• Distinguish the different denominations of Islam and discuss some of its challenges.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

EX PLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D V IEW S

1. List concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you associate with Judaism.

2. List concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you associate with Christianity.3

3. List concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you associate with Islam.

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JUDAISM Guide Question What are the basic features of Judaism?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges Judaism Jews 1SF Abraham B33 Moses B33 Sarah B33 Hagar B33 Isaac K33 Ishmael d r' Jacob KT Esau B33 Rebekah Leah and Rachel B33 Joseph B33 Twelve Tribes of Israel 1®* Tanakh B33 Talmud and Midrash I® 5 Mishnah and Gemara B33 Torah, Nevi’im, and Kethuvim B33 613 Mitzvot I® ’ Ten Commandments

B33

Key Concepts

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

C33

US’ B33 B33 B33 C33 K33 I® 3 B33

I® 3

K33

B33

Pentateuch Moses Maimonides/ Rambam Thirteen Principles of Faith YHVH/Yahweh Adonai Olam Ha-Ba Messiah Minyan Sabbath Pesah (Passover), Shavu’ot (Pentecost), Sukkot (Booths) Ro’sh ha-Shanah, Ten Days of Repentance, Yom Kippur Ancient denominations: Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots Medieval denominations: Karaites, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, Mitnagdism

ps- Modern denominations: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, Chasidic, Reconstructionist, Messianic Judaism w

Holocaust, Anti-Semitism Diaspora, Zionism

■a- Arab-lsraeli Conflict

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: ps- Narrate central events in the lives of Abraham and Moses as founders of Judaism. ps- Identify and distinguish between the different sacred texts of Judaism: the primary ones (the Tanakh, consisting of the Torah, Nevi’im, and Kethuvim) and the supplementary ones (the Talmud, consisting of the Mishnah and Gemara). »*■ Identify and explain the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism: monotheism, the commandments, the thirteen principles of faith, rituals and festivals, and others. ps- Distinguish the various denominations of Judaism: the Ancient/Hellenistic denominations (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots), Medieval denominations (Kariate Judaism, Rabbanical Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism), and the modern denominations (Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, Chasidic, and Reconstructionist Judaism). ps- Discuss some of the challenges faced today by Judaism.

I^A ctivit^l Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 75. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS Guioe Questions How did Judaism originate? What are its sacred texts?

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In this section, we shall examine the origins and sacred texts of Judaism. We shall begin with a short historical account of the terms “Judaism” and “Jews.” This is intended to clarify how we shall use these terms in our discussion. After which, we shall trace the history of Judaism and briefly discuss the central events in the lives of Abraham and Moses. Lastly, we shall examine the different sacred texts of Judaism, the primary and secondary ones, and the various books that constitute the Hebrew Bible.

JUDAISM AND THE JEWS The followers of Judaism (literally, Judah-ism) are called Jews. Based on a recent estimate by Deming (2015, 270-71), there are about 14 million Jews in the world. The majority of the Jews reside in Israel and the United States, each having about 6.2 million Jews. Next to these two countries is France, which has about 600,000 Jews (many of whom were migrants from Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia). Canada has around 420,000 Jews and the United Kingdom has around 360,000. The rest of the Jews are scattered in other areas of the world. On another account, Matthews (2010, 237) estimates the population of Jews in the following areas: Worldwide: 15,118,000; North America: 6,169,000; Africa: 238,000; Asia: 5,350,00; Europe: 2,017,000; Latin America: 1,137,000. The terms “Judaism” and “Jew” were derived from the word Judah, which was the name of the fourth of the 12 sons of Jacob. Each of the 12 sons of Jacob became the ancestor of a certain tribe. The tribe of Judah, therefore, was one of the 12 tribes of Israel (for Jacob was also called Israel). Originally, the term “Jews” (“Yehudi,” in Hebrew) thus referred to the members of the tribe of Judah. But later on, the tribe of Judah, along with some other tribes (those of Benjamin and Levi, brothers of Judah), became part of the Kingdom of Judah when the Kingdom of Israel was split into the Northern Kingdom, which became the Kingdom of Israel, and the Southern Kingdom, which became the Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Israel was later on conquered by Assyria (in 721 BCE) and the 10 tribes constituting it were exiled from the land. They dispersed and were consequently assimilated by other peoples. The Kingdom of Judah, whose tribes traced their lineage to Israel, was left (though after a century and a half this kingdom was conquered by the Babylonians). In any case, from then on, the term “Jews” was used to refer to the members of the Kingdom of Judah, and no longer just to the specific tribe of Judah.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

While the followers of Judaism are called Jews, it must be noted, however, that in the present usage of the term, “Jews” does not necessarily refer to followers or converts of Judaism. There are Jews nowadays who belong to another religion (say Christian Jews) or who do not belong to any religion at all (some are even atheists). This is because one becomes a Jew either by ancestry or by religious affiliation or conversion. In terms of ancestry, one is automatically a Jew if both one’s parents are Jews. In the case of mixed marriages, there are traditional and liberal views.Traditionally, one becomes a Jew if one’s mother is a Jew regardless of whether one’s father is a Jew or not. Liberally, one can also be a Jew if one’s father is a Jew even if one’s mother is not, so long as one chooses to be a Jew. In terms of ancestry, one becomes a Jew regardless of whether one follows the teachings of Judaism or not. On the other hand, in terms of religious affiliation or conversion, one is a Jew if one professes to the faith of Judaism or if one is converted to Judaism through a formal process. Thus it can happen that one becomes a Jew even if one has no Jewish ancestry (see De Lange 2000,1-25; Rich 2012 for a more thorough discussion of this topic). In our discussion, we shall, however, limit our use of the term “Jews” to mean followers or converts of Judaism. Jews are also called Hebrews and Israelites. They are called Hebrews because they are descendants of Abraham (the grandfather of Jacob) who was called a Hebrew. They are also called Israelites because they are descendants of Jacob, who was also called Israel (see below how he got this name). In this light, the term “Israelites” means “Children of Israel,” but Jews also take this term to mean “God’s chosen people.” Non-Jews, on the other hand, are called Gentiles in the Hebrew Bible.

ABRAHAM AND HIS DESCENDANTS Two persons are considered founders of Judaism, Abraham (2000 BCE) and Moses (1391-1271 BCE). It was with Abraham that God made a covenant or contract that would define the relationship of the Jews with God. Basically, the covenant was that God would bless and protect the lives of those who would obey Him. And it was through Moses that God made his commandments known to the people, the specific rules that God wanted his people to obey for their part of the covenant. These rules make up a significant part of the Torah, the sacred text of Judaism. In what follows, let us go over the highlights of the lives of Abraham and Moses in relation to their significant roles in the development of Judaism.

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Abraham was the first patriarch (which originally means “father-source”) among the three patriarchs of the Jewish people. The second was Abraham’s son, Isaac, and the third was Isaac’s son, Jacob. Abraham was first called Abram but he was later on called Abraham by God after God made his covenant with him and his descendants. His wife was first called Sarai but was later on called Sarah by God also after this covenant. Abraham lived in Ur of the Chaldeans (in present-day Iraq). His family included Terah (his father), Sarah (his wife), Nahor (his brother), Milcah (Nahor’s wife), and Lot (his nephew, the son of Haran, his deceased brother). God’s covenant was revealed to Abraham in several occasions. The first encounter of Abraham with God was when God spoke with him in Harran (where he was settled at the time along with his family), asking him to leave Harran and go to Canaan to be the father of a nation. God said to him (Gen.12: 2), “Go from your country, your people, and your father’s household to the land I will show you. I will make you into a great nation, and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all the people on earth will be blessed through you.” Abraham followed without any question and he brought with him his wife Sarah, his nephew Lot, and all his possessions. In return for his obedience, God would make him the father of a great nation and God would bless and protect him and his descendants. There was, however, one big problem. How would Abraham be the father of a great nation when he was childless? Sarah could not conceive a child. Abraham told God that if that were the case, his only heir would be his servant. But God assured him that he would later on have his own son who would be his heir, and that his descendants would be as many as the stars in the sky. Meanwhile, Sarah urged Abraham to have a child with her Egyptian slave or maidservant named Hagar. Hagar got pregnant with Abraham and gave birth to a boy whom they named Ishmael. Ishmael would later on grow to become the patriarch of the Arab nations. God expressed his covenant again with Abraham, but this time he made it clear that this covenant would be everlasting between him and Abraham, along with Abraham’s descendants. As a sign of obedience for this covenant, God required every male in the family of Abraham and his descendants in the generations to come to be circumcised (Gen. 17:1-16). It was after this

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event that God changed the name of Abraham (from Abram to Abraham), and Sarah (from Sarai to Sarah). In obedience to God, Abraham, Ishmael, and all the males in Abraham’s household were circumcised. But later on, Abraham and Sarah, though already very old, conceived their own child, whom they named Isaac. Being the son promised by God to Abraham and Sarah, Isaac became the heir of Abraham in his covenant with God. But, God also blessed Ishmael, Isaac’s brother, and also made him a father of a great nation (the Arab nations). God tested Abraham’s obedience, presumably to see whether he was worthy of the covenant, by asking him to sacrifice Isaac. Abraham obeyed but when he was about to slay Isaac with the sacrificial knife, an angel appeared and asked Abraham to stop. Then Abraham saw a ram whose horns were caught in a thicket. He took the ram and offered it to God as a sacrifice instead of his son. Then God, upon proving the faithfulness of Abraham, reiterated his promise that Abraham would be the father of a great nation and that his descendants would be blessed and protected by him (Gen. 22:1-18). Isaac married Rebekah and they had twins, Esau and Jacob. Esau was older than Jacob and was the favorite of Isaac, while Jacob was the favorite of Rebekah. Esau, being the eldest, was the rightful heir of Isaac, but due to the connivance of Rebekah and Jacob, Jacob was able to get the blessings of Isaac to be his heir. But though Jacob acquired the blessings of Isaac in this way, he had a dream in which God approved of him being the heir of Isaac. In Gen. 28:12-15, this dream is told this way: He had a dream in which he saw a stairway resting on the earth, with its top reaching to heaven, and the angels of God were ascending and descending on it. There above it stood the Lord, and he said: “I am the Lord, the God of your father Abraham and the God of Isaac. I will give you and your descendants the land on which you are lying. Your descendants will be like the dust of the earth, and you will spread out to the west and to the east, to the north and to the south. All people on earth will be blessed through you and your offspring. I am with you and will watch over you wherever you go, and I will bring you back to the land. I will not leave you until I have done what I have promised you.” And so Jacob became the third patriarch to whom the covenant was passed on. Jacob had two wives, Leah and Rachel. With his two wives and with the maidservant of each of his two wives, Jacob had a total of twelve sons (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebelun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin) and one daughter named Dinah. Each of his sons would later be the patriarch of a tribe, and their tribes would later be UNIT I

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known as the twelve tribes of Israel. The name “Israel” here refers to Jacob for he was given that name, which means “he who struggles with God,” after wrestling with a man till daybreak and overcoming him (see Gen. 32:22-29). The man did not give his own name when Jacob asked for it, but the man is traditionally considered to be either an angel or God himself. The man said to Jacob: “Your name will no longer be Jacob, but Israel, because you have struggled with God and with humans and have overcome.” And the man blessed Jacob. So God entered into a covenant with Abraham, and through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, the covenant extended to all their descendants. God promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation, giving them land and prosperity. In return, Abraham pledged that he and his descendants would be loyal to God, following all of his commandments. During the time of Abraham and his sons and grandsons, God made His desires known to them by directly communicating with them and appearing in their dreams. It was during the time of Moses that God gave the Jews his commandments, which would constitute the Jews’ specific part of the covenant.

MOSES Moses was born during the time when the Israelites were living in Egypt as slaves. How did the Israelites become slaves in Egypt? It all started when Joseph, one of Jacob’s twelve sons, was sold as a slave by his own brothers because they envied Joseph for being the favorite of Jacob. Joseph was taken to Egypt by his masters. But Joseph, because of his talent for interpreting dreams, intelligence, and character, was well-liked by the pharaoh and became a powerful leader in Egypt. Joseph was later on reunited with his brothers when they, upon the advice of Jacob, travelled to Egypt to buy grains because of food shortage in Canaan. Upon the request of Joseph, all of his family to his brothers along with their families and his father Jacob—settled in Egypt. Their numbers grew and they lived a good life. But when Joseph died, things turned bad for the Israelites because they were forced to become slaves in the Egyptian empire. When the Israelites called on God for help, God chose Moses to lead them out of Egypt and return them to the promised land of Canaan. Moses was himself an Israelite but he spent the first half of his life as an Egyptian prince. The growing population of the Israelites became a threat to

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

the Egyptian empire, so one day the pharaoh ordered that all male Israelite newborns be killed. To save the life of Moses, his mother and elder sister put the baby Moses in a basket and placed the basket in the Nile River. It happened that the pharaoh’s daughter was about to bathe in the river. Upon seeing baby Moses, the Pharaoh’s daughter decided to adopt Moses and treat him as one of her own. So Moses grew up living a life of an Egyptian prince while his fellow Israelites were suffering. One day, Moses killed an Egyptian foreman while protecting an Israelite slave from the harsh treatment of the foreman. The pharaoh ordered Moses to be killed, but Moses was able to escape. He lived in Midian, a place outside Egypt. Moses got married and lived a quiet and simple life as a herdsman. One day, through a burning bush, God called Moses and asked him to return to Egypt to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. Despite a series of peaceful negotiations with Moses, and along with the plagues that God sent to Egypt to demonstrate His power, the pharaoh would not allow Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt until the tenth plague, in which the angel of death killed all firstborn sons of Egyptians but spared the firstborn sons of Israelites. This event, called the Passover, is an important event in the history of the Jews and is still being recalled as a Jewish holiday. On their way out of Egypt, the Israelites were chased by the pharaoh’s army. God helped them cross the Red Sea on dry land by making the waters subside, but the waters returned in time to drown the pharaoh’s pursuing army. The Israelites were guided by a pillar of cloud by the day and a pillar of fire by night as they crossed the Red Sea or the Sinai Peninsula. God provided them manna and quail for food as well as water on a daily basis during this episode. The highlight of this experience for the Israelites was the receiving of God’s commandments, given to Moses by God on top of Mount Sinai. This essentially was a renewal of God’s covenant with them, being the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. If they would obey, serve, and be faithful to God, he would make them a great nation in a land God promised to them, bless their lives, and protect them from harm. They, however, had to fulfill their part of the contract. They needed to fulfil their obligations, which now God had stated clearly for them. The Israelites first wandered for 40 years before being able to enter Canaan. After Moses died, Joshua led the new generation to enter Canaan. After the entry into Canaan, three major periods of Hebrew history followed: (1) the age of the judges (the judges were appointed by God to lead the people in particular situations); (2) the age of the kings (the first of the kings was Saul, followed by David, and then by Solomon); and (3) the age of the UNIT I

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prophets (the prophets included Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, among others, who were messengers or spokespersons of God).

THE HEBREW BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED WRITINGS

T he T anakh The sacred writings of the Jews are divided into the primary (or foundational) and the supplementary ones. The primary ones are those found in the Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures), known in Hebrew as the Tanakh (orTanak).The supplementary ones are called the Talmud (which contains the Mishnah and Gemara) and Midrash. The Hebrew Bible is a collection of particular books which were once separate scrolls. The word Bible, in fact, was derived from the Greek word biblia, which means books. Thus a bible, strictly speaking, means a collection of books. The particular books of the Hebrew Bible are classified into three groups: (1) theTorah (TheTeachings), (2) Nevi’im (The Prophets), and (3) Kethuvim or Ketuvim (The Writings).The name Tanakh is actually an acronym for these three particular books. The vowel “a” was added to the first Hebrew letter of each of the names of these particular books, namely T-N-K. (See Molloy 2010, 292-94 and Matthews 2010, 238-39 for a discussion of the Hebrew Bible.)

T he T orah The word Torah means “teachings and instructions.” The Torah is the set of laws that God gave to Moses on Mount Sinai. This set of laws is believed to have been given to Moses in two forms: the written form, known as the Written Torah, and the oral form, known as the Oral Torah. The Written Torah consists of 613 rules (m itzvot in Hebrew), which include the ten commandments written on two stone tablets. The Oral Torah (which Moses transmitted to Aaron, his brother, who in turn transmitted to his sons and others), which supplements the Written Torah, was originally intended toremain as an “oral tradition” and to be passed on from parent to child throughout the generations. It was only later (fourth century BCE, after the destruction of the second temple of Jerusalem) that the Oral Torah was written to ensure its preservation during the times of war. What the Tanakh contains is the Written Torah; the Oral Torah is what is contained in the Talmud, which consists of the books of Mishnah and Gemara (previously these books were separate until they were combined to form the Talmud).

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

The Written Torah is considered the most important part of the Tanakh because it contains God’s covenant with the Jews and God’s instructions to them in fulfilling their part of the covenant. The Torah in the Tanakh contains five books, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutoronomy. These five books are also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses, for they are widely believed to be written by Moses (some contemporary scholars, though, question thinking).

T he N evi ’ im The Nevi’im consists of materials from what are called former prophets (or major prophets) and latter prophets (or minor prophets). There are in total 22 books comprising the Nevi’im. Each book is named after its respective prophet.

T he K ethuvim The Kethuvim consists of materials that are generally based on human knowledge and experiences, some of which reflect Greek, Persian, and Egyptian influences that greatly influenced the Israelites.

T he P articular B ooks The following are the books under the three particular books of the Tanakh. Torah (The Teachings) Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy

Nevi’im (The Prophets)

Kethuvim (The Writings)

(Former Prophets) Joshua, Judges, First and Second Samuel, and First and Second Kings

Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and the Festal Scrolls: Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and (Latter Prophets) Isaiah, Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Ezekiel, and The Twelve (treated Nehemiah, and as one book) consisting of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, First and Second Chronicles Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

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The Tanakh generally corresponds to the Old Testament of the Christian Bible with some minor differences in the order of the books. The name “Old Testament,” however, is not acceptable to some Jewish scholars because of its connotation that it is meaningful only in relation to the “New Testament.”

T he T almud As noted above, the Talmud is a set of books consisting of the Mishnah and Gemara, which are commentative and interpretative writings. The Mishnah is a collection of writings that were originally oral instructions intended to supplement the laws of the Written Torah. The Mishnah thus refers to the Oral Torah. The Gemara, on the other hand, is a collection of legal and ethical commentaries on the Mishnah. The Talmud has two versions, the Babylonian Talmud and the Palestinian Talmud, produced by the rabbis (Jewish teachers) from Babylonia and Palestine, respectively. The Babylonian Talmud is considered the more authoritative version and thus is what is standardly referred to when one speaks of the Talmud. The Palestinian Talmud is considered incomplete and not clearly written.

T he Midrash The Midrash examines the nonliteral meanings of the Tanakh. Midrash writings are ordered around the layout of the Tanakh. They are mostly stories that relate to words, themes, or stories in the Tanakh, which aim to make these words, themes, or stories more understandable and applicable to a person’s life. Sometimes a midrash changes the general understanding of a biblical story. For example, many people familiar with the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden will say that Eve ate an apple. The idea of the apple came from a midrash, for in the biblical story the name of the fruit is not mentioned. lA ctivit^l

Watch a movie about the life of either Moses or Joseph (this can be arranged as a class activity). After watching the movie, write a short reflection paper about the movie.

DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Guide Question What are the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism?

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

The Basic Doctrines The 613 Mitzvot The basic doctrines and practices of Judaism are mainly defined by the Torah, which contains the commandments Moses received from God on Mount Sinai. The most familiar among these commandments are the so-called Ten Commandments, which are expressed in Exodus 20:1-17 as follows: “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me.” “You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand generations of those who love me and keep my commandments.” “You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name.” “Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son or daughter, nor your male or female servant, nor your animals, nor any foreigner residing in your towns. For in six days the Lord made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy.” “Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the land the Lord your God is giving you.” “You shall not murder.” “You shall not commit adultery.” “You shall not steal.” “You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.” “You shall not covet your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male or female servant, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.” One simplification of the Ten Commandments is as follows (see Altman 1985, 21; quoted in Urubshurow 2009, 102): 1. lam the L-rd your G-d. There is only one G-d, The L-rd. 2. You will have no other gods, neither in belief nor through an act of worship. UNIT I

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3. You shall not pronounce the Holy Name of G-d needlessly. 4. Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it, by ceasing productive labor and dedicating it to spiritual rest. 5. Honor your father and mother. 6. Do not murder. 7. Do not commit any act of adultery. 8. Do not steal. 9. Do not testify as a false witness against your neighbor. 10.

Do not covet your neighbor’s possessions.

(Note: the vowel “o” in the words referring to God and the Lord was intentionally omitted so as to be faithful to the original Hebrew word referring to Yahweh, namely “YHVH,” which does not contain any vowel. See discussion below.) The Jews, however, believe that the rules or commandments, or mitzvot in Hebrew, that God revealed to Moses are much more than these 10 rules. Traditionally, they believe that these commandments, all found in the Torah, amount to 613. Accordingly, what the Jews refer to when they speak of the “Mosaic Law” or the “Law of Moses” are not just the Ten Commandments but the entire 613 mitzvot. The 613 mitzvot were identified and itemized by the Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). Maimonides’s full name was Moses ben Maimon, but he is known in the Hebrew world as Rambam, an acronym of his title as “Rabbi Moses ben Maimon.” Maimonides is considered to be the first person to write a systematic code of all Jewish law which he laid down in his book Mishneh Torah (Deming 2015, 289-90). He itemized the mitzvot as consisting of 248 positive rules and 365 negative rules (Rich 2012). While the Ten Commandments (Aseret ha-Dibrot in Hebrew) are also part of the 613 mitzvot, Jewish scholars refer to the 10 Commandments as the 10 category commandments, meaning, the ten general (or generic) rules under which the particular rules in the 613 mitzvot can be classified. They further note that the first five of these 10 commandments, written on the first tablet, all concern love of God (the fifth, love of mother and father is considered under love of God for a person’s mother and father are regarded as God’s co-creators of the person); whereas the next five, written on the second tablet, all concern love of neighbor. In any case, based on the list identified by Maimonides, the 613 mitzvot concern the following themes: (1) God, (2) Torah, (3) signs and symbols, (4) prayer and blessings, (5) love and brotherhood, (6) the poor and unfortunate, (7) treatment of Gentiles,

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

(8) marriage, divorce, and family, (9) forbidden sexual relations, (10) times and seasons, (11) dietary laws, (12) business practices, (13) employees, (14) servants and slaves, (15) vows, (16) oaths and swearing, (17) the Sabbatical and Jubilee years, (18) the court and judicial procedure, (19) injuries and damages, (20) property and property rights, (21) criminal laws, (22) punishment and restitution, (23) prophecy, (24) idolatry, idolaters, and idolatrous practices, (25) agriculture and animal husbandry, (26) clothing, (27) The Firstborn, (28) Kohanim and Levites, (29) T’rumah, Tithes, and taxes, (30) the temple, the sanctuary, and sacred objects, (31) sacrifices and oferings, (32) ritual purity and impurity, (33) lepers and leprosy, (34) the king, (35) Nazarites, and (36) wars.

T he T hirteen P rinciples of Faith In addition to itemizing the 613 mitzvot, another extremely important contribution of Maimonides to Judaism was his formulation of the Thirteen Principles of Faith in his book The Guide to the Perplexed, which have become the credo of Judaism (De Lang 2000, 63-65). They contain the core beliefs of Judaism, which include monotheism (the belief in one God), the Mosaic Law, God’s rewards and punishments for human deeds, the coming of the Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead (see Urubshurow 2009, 113). The following is one translation of these principles from the original Hebrew: 1. God exists. 2. God is one and there is nothing else like him. 3. God is spiritual in nature; he does not have corporeal aspects (physical form). 4. God is an everlasting God, without beginning or end. 5. God alone is the appropriate object of worship and prayer. 6. The Hebrew prophets spoke the truth from God. 7. Moses was the greatest of God’s prophets. 8. God gave Moses both the Written and Oral Torah. 9. There is and will be no other Torah other than the one revealed to Moses. 10. God is aware of every thought and action of human beings. 11. The righteous will receive a reward from God; he will punish the wicked. 12. The promised Messiah will come at the proper time. 13. All human beings who have ever lived will be raised from the dead.

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The following is another translation (Urubshurow 2009, 113-114): 1. The Creator is the Author and Guide of everything that exists. 2. The Creator is a Unity. 3. The Creator is not corporeal. 4. The Creator is first and last. 5. It is right to pray to the Creator, but to no other being. 6. All the words of the prophets are true. 7. The prophecy of Moses is true and he was the father (criterion) for all prophecy. 8. The Torah now in our possession is the one given to Moses. 9. The Torah will not be changed, nor will the Creator give any other Torah. 10. The Creator knows the deeds and thoughts of people. 11. He rewards those who keep his commandments and punishes those who disobey. 12. Though the Messiah delays, one must constantly expect his coming. 13. The dead will be resurrected.

Monotheism Thus the Jews believe that there is only one God, the creator of the world and the author of the divine laws, both written and oral, which were given to Moses. God is pure spirit and has no beginning and end. He is wholly good and all-powerful. As there is only one God, then all praises, prayers, and worship should be directed to him alone. God is also just, for he rewards those who do good (those who follow his divine laws) and punish those who do evil (those who do not follow his divine laws). The Jews refer to God as Yahweh or YHVH. Hebrew was traditionally not written with vowels, so the name of the Lord that is translated as “Yahweh,” which was revealed to Moses, was originally written as “YHVH.” When Moses asked the Lord his name so he would know what to tell the Israelites if they asked who sent him to deliver them from slavery in Egypt, the Lord replied, “Ehyeh asher Ehyet3' (translated as “I am who I am.”). “YHVH” and the phrase “Ehyeh asher Ehyef’ are related in terms of their grammatical roots. It is, however, customary for Jews never to speak the name YHVH aloud. Instead, they use the word Adonai (meaning “Lord”) as a substitute when reading the Hebrew scriptures. It is only the high priest of the temple of Jerusalem who is allowed to say “YHVH” and only during the celebration of the holy Day of Atonement.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

The Afterlife The Jewish belief in an afterlife is called Olam Ha-Ba, translated as “The World to Come.” The expression Olam Ha-Ba, incidentally, is also used to refer to the messianic age, the period in which the Messiah that the Jews are waiting for will come. The world to come thus means both the kind of world that one will live in after one’s bodily death and the kind of world that will be established by the Messiah when he finally comes. While believing in an afterlife, the Jews have no precise doctrines indicating the specific nature of the afterlife. Consequently there are Jews who believe in reincarnation, while there are some who believe in something similar to the Christian heaven and hell (the difference, however, is that the Jews believe that punishment in hell is only temporary—there is a specified time for the punishment after which the soul is either completely destroyed or goes to a state of remorse). The lack of precise doctrines in this mater is a result of the Jewish emphasis and focus on how to live life in the here and now according to the laws of God, and not on how to get into heaven.

T he Messianic A ge Regarding the Messianic Age, the Jews believe in the coming of the Messiah and the resurrection of the righteous dead (dead Jews who lived a righteous life).The Messiah, from the Hebrew word mashiach which literally means “the anointed one,” is conceived by some Jews as a human being, not a god or a demigod, who will be a great political and military leader. They believe he will deliver the Jews all over the world from oppression, establish peace on earth, create a world government based in Israel, and rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, among others.The Jews (except those affiliated with a form of Judaism called Messianic Judaism) do not believe that Jesus Christ is the Messiah. Before Christ, there were in fact others who also claimed to be the Messiah, all of whom the Jews also rejected. They also believe that the prophet Elijah, who did not die but simply ascended to heaven, will someday return to the world to announce the coming of the Messiah. And when the Messiah comes, the dead Jews who faithfully obeyed God will be resurrected and will live among those still living.

RITUALS AND MAJOR FESTIVALS The following are some of the basic Jewish rituals and major festivals (see Molloy 2010, 323-330; Matthews 2010, 270-74 for a thorough discussion of these rituals and festivals). UNIT I

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Daily P rayers Jewish males observe three daily prayer services during the day—in the morning, afternoon, and evening. When making their prayers either in their home or synagogue, they must face the direction of the site of the temple in Jerusalem. A minyan, consisting of 10 Jewish male adults, was traditionally required for a public service or any public reading of the Torah. After the ruling by the Rabbinical Assembly Committee in 1973, women may now be part of the minyan if agreeable to the presiding rabbi.

T he S abbath Day (S habbat) The Sabbath occurs every sunset on Friday until sunset on Saturday. Strictly no work is to be done on Sabbath for it is the most sacred day of the week for the Jews, dedicated solely to prayer and rest from the usual everyday activities. The observation of Sabbath honors the day when God, after seeing that all that He created was good, rested on the seventh day, and most importantly, God’s commandment to keep the Sabbath day

C ircumcision and R ite of P assage On the eighth day after their birth, male infants are circumcised, which signals their entry into the covenant between God and their Jewish patriarchs. When boys reach the age of 13, they undergo a rite-ofpassage ceremony that marks their entry to adulthood. One who has undergone such a ceremony is called Bar Mitzvah a bar mitzvah, meaning, “son of the commandment.” It signals their acceptance of their religious duties. In some forms of Judaism, girls also undergo the same ritual when they reach the age of 12. A girl who has undergone such a ceremony is called a bat mitzvah.

Major J ewish F estivals The major festivals Jews celebrate are classified into two kinds: the Pilgrim Festivals and the Days of Awe. The Pilgrim Festivals consist of the festivals of Pesah (Passover), Shavu’ot (Pentecost), and Sukkot (Booths). These festivals are called Pilgrim Festivals because the ancient Israelites

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

living in the Kingdom of Judah would make pilgrimages to the temple in Jerusalem, as commanded in the Torah, to celebrate them. Days of Awe or the Days of Repentance, also called the High Holy Days, consist of the Ro’sh ha-Shanah, Ten Days of Repentance, and Yom Kippur. It is a period for serious introspection, a time for deep reflection on one’s life as one considers one’s sins of the previous year, repent on them, and seek reconciliation with those one has done wrong. The festival of Pesah (Passover) recalls the Lord’s liberation of the Hebrews, led by Moses, from bondage in Egypt. There are eight days of Pesah, the first of which occurs on the Sabbath. This day begins the cycle of Jewish festivals according to the lunar calendar sometime in April or May. Pesah opens with a Seder meal partaken at home. A Seder meal consists of symbolic foods, foremost of which is the unleavened bread (bread without yeast) symbolizing how there was no time for the Israelites to wait for the bread to rise in their rush to leave Egypt. An additional place is set at the table for the prophet Elijah, and a cup of wine is reserved for him—these are actions representing the hope that Elijah will return to earth to announce the coming of the Messiah. A book called the Haggadah provides detailed guidance for the celebration. The festival of Shavu’ot or Shavuot (Pentecost) is a celebration of the spring harvest season and God’s gift of the Torah—God’s giving of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai. Harvesting the first fruits symbolizes receiving the Law from God, which will now guide them in starting a new life after years of slavery. Generally, no work is done during this celebration which, depending on the form of Judaism, can last either for several days or just one day. Sukkot (Booths) is the festival during which Jews build temporary booths where they take their meals for one week. This reminds the Jews of the time when they lived in booths in the desert after being delivered by God from their slavery in Egypt. The booths were traditionally made of olive, myrtle, and palm branches; but nowadays, these booths come in the form of huts which can be made of bamboo whose leaves serve as roofing. Generally, no work is done during this holiday. The Ro’sh ha-Shanah or Rosh Hashanah celebrates the Jewish New Year and God’s creation of the world as described in the Torah. It signals the beginning of time. The celebration, which is now observed for two days, is started with the blowing of the shofar, a ram’s horn (except if the day falls on a Sabbath), to remind the Jews that they stand before God and that they therefore need to repent for their sins of the past year. Work is not done during the celebration.

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Yom Kippur is the Day of Atonement and is considered the holiest day among Jewioh i .tuals. To atone means to make up for one s faults, and this day has traditionally been kept by prayer and strict fasting, with no food or drink during the entire day. Yom Kippur begins around sunset of that day and continues into the next day until nightfall, lasting about 25 hours. Observant Jews will fast throughout Yom Kippur and many attend synagogue services for most of the day. The ten days in between the Rosh Hashanah and the Yom Kippur are referred to as the Ten Days of Repentance. I^ A c tiv it^ l Choose two stories in the Old Testament that demonstrate the Jewish belief in one God. Write a short reflection paper on these stories.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Question What are the denominations of Judaism and some of its challenges?

GENERAL FORMS OF JUDAISM Just like most world religions, Judaism has many denominations (sects, kinds, forms, or movements). For purposes of presentation, we classify these forms of Judaism into three historical groups. The first are the Ancient Forms (or the Hellenistic Sects, for they flourished during and after the war with the Greeks), consisting of the forms of Judaism practiced by the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots.The second are the Medieval Forms, consisting of Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism. And the third are the Modern Forms, of which the major ones are the Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative forms of Judaism (minor ones include the Reconstructionist and Messianic forms of Judaism).

A ncient D enominations After the war with the Seleucid Greeks for about 25 years, the Jews were divided into four groups: the Essenes, Sadducees, Pharisees, and Zealots (see Molloy 2010, 312-313; Matthews 2010, 251-52; Urubshurow 2009, 111-112). The Essenes were ascetics (living in the mountains, isolating themselves from the world) who engaged in mysticism and devoted

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

themselves to strict discipline. They were said to be the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which were discovered in 1947 near the Dead Sea. Among others, their beliefs included the coming of the Messiah, whom they were eagerly awaiting. The Sadducees consisted of the priests and the aristocrats of Jewish society. They were conservative when it came to religious matters, but they were liberal when it came to social matters, adopting the ways of Greek culture. They only accepted the Written Torah (they did not believe that the Oral Torah came from God), and their religious life revolved around the Temple. They rejected popular belief in angels, the apocalypse, and the resurrection of the body in the afterlife. The Pharisees, on the other hand, believed that both the Written Torah and Oral Torah came from God, and they were open to the interpretations of the rabbis of these sacred writings. Their religious life centered on the study of the Torah. The Zealots appeared after Rome conquered Judea. They were nationalists who waged war against the Romans to defend Judea, and they would rather commit suicide than be taken as prisoners by the Romans. After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, only the form of Judaism practiced by the Pharisees survived and this became the common form of Judaism for many centuries. There were only some minor differences in practices and customs between the Ashkenazic Jews, the Jews residing in Eastern Europe, and the Sephardic Jews, the Jews residing in Spain and the Middle East. Moses Maimonides, the author of the thirteen Principles of Faith, was the most notable Sephardic Jew.

Medieval D enominations The Medieval Forms of Judaism consisted of Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism (see De Lang 2000,67-71; Molloy 2010, 314-15; Matthews 2010, 252-58). During the ninth century, a distinction between Karaite Judaism and Rabbanical Judaism arose. The Karaites, followers of Karaite Judaism, revived the position of the Sadducees. They did not accept the Oral Torah for they believed that the teachings of the rabbis, which formed part of the Oral Torah, were subject to human errors. For them, only the Written Torah came from God. In contrast, the Rabbanites maintained the position of the Pharisees, who believed that both the Written and Oral Torah came from God, and that the interpretations and teachings of the rabbis were inspired by God. It was Rabbinical Judaism, the kind practiced by the Rabbanites, that became the dominant form of Judaism.

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Hasidism, also called Chasidism, developed in Europe around the 1700s as a reaction to the formalistic ritualism of Rabbinical Judaism and its emphasis on the study of the Torah to get closer to God. It sought to develop a personal spiritual life in terms of experiencing the mystical presence of God in everything. It believed that God is present in everything (the belief called panentheism, see Chapter 1) and that we need to experience God in everything we do. The Hasidic movement was founded by Israel ben Eliezer (c. 1700-1760), a mystic and faith healer. He believed that devout practice and obedience to the laws of the Torah and Talmud should be accompanied by a direct personal experience of God who is present everywhere. Chasidism encountered opposition from tradition-minded Jews whose practice of Judaism was called Mitnagdism (meaning “opponents”). At first, the disputes between followers of Chasidism and Mitnagdism were heated but later on they were relatively unified in opposing liberal forms of Judaism.

Modern D enominations Nowadays, there are many Jews living in the United States. It is even said that there are at present more Jews living in the United States than in Israel. While in Israel the only accepted form of Judaism is what is called Orthodox, in the United States there are three major movements: the Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements (De Lang 2000, 72-83; Molloy 2010, 330-35; Matthews 2010, 259-61). Minor movements include Reconstructionist Judaism and Messianic Judaism. Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions compatible with the surrounding culture. Some of the reforms that it introduces are the use of the vernacular language of the country (thus abandoning the use of Hebrew in religious ceremonies), equal role of women in religious activities (women can participate in all forms of rituals), ordination of women as rabbis, participation of Jews in the cultural and political activities of the country in which they find themselves, interfaith marriage, and consideration of LGBT issues. Reform Judaism began in Germany and later on became dominant in America. In 1854, Rabbi Isaac Mayer came to America from Germany and introduced radical reforms in the practice of Judaism. For instance, he advocated the abandonment of dietary restrictions and other practices such as covering the head during synagogue services. Orthodox Judaism was a reaction to Reform Judaism. It insisted on the old ways.The German-Hungarian rabbi Moses Sofer (1762-1839), a strong proponent of Orthodox Judaism, once taught that “anything new is forbidden

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

by the Torah.” Orthodox Judaism is characterized by its maintenance of the traditional forms of worship in the Hebrew language, and of the traditional observances prescribed by the Torah, such as men and women sitting separately in Orthodox synagogues and women not participating in some of the rituals. Conservative Judaism is basically a middle-ground position between Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism. While it preserves Jewish tradition, it is also open to the modern historical scholarship in analyzing the Written Torah and Oral Torah. Conservative Judaism was founded by Solomon Schecter in the mid-nineteenth century as a response to Reform Judaism. Schecter found Reform Judaism extremely liberal, so he made Conservative Judaism a blend of Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism. For instance, while Conservative Judaism preserves the use of Hebrew in religious ceremonies and other traditions, it gives women equal rights to participate in all religious activities and even become rabbis. Reconstructionist Judaism developed from Conservative Judaism and from the ideas of Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983). Reconstructionist Judaism does not see Judaism as a religion whose doctrines and laws are fixed and binding for all generations. It sees Judaism as the evolving religious civilization of the Jewish people. Thus it rejects any beliefs that confer a fixed, absolute, or unchanging status to the Jewish religious practices and beliefs. Such beliefs include the beliefs that God chose the Jews as his people and that God once and for all gave all his laws to Moses. The Reconstructionists, however, may still engage in certain usual Jewish religious practices, but only because they see these practices as cultural activities of the Jewish people that are still applicable to the present generation. For them, Judaism needs to be reconstructed to be relevant to the times. Another notable form of Judaism is what is called Messianic Judaism, which believes that Jesus Christ is the Messiah that the Jews have been waiting for while adhering to the usual Jewish religious practices like the Sabbath and others.

SOME MAJOR CHALLENGES

A nti -S emitism and the H olocaust The Jews have faced great challenges, foremost of which are antiSemitism which led to persecutions like the Holocaust, Zionism, and the Arab-lsraeli conflict. Anti-Semitism refers to a negative attitude toward the Jews. In particular, it refers to hatred toward Jews either as a religious or UNIT I

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racial group. A person who holds such an attitude is called an anti-Semite. There are many ways in which anti-Semitism is manifested such as social and legal discrimination, verbal attacks, and violent acts against individual Jews or Jewish communities. The attitude of hatred results from certain prejudices or negative beliefs about the Jews. These prejudices can be classified socially, economically, religiously, and racially. Social prejudice against the Jews sees Jews as “corrupting a’ given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, “Jewish’ culture” (see Harap 1987,76). Religious prejudice against the Jews is directed at the religious views of Judaism. Jews are hated for holding on to Judaism. The reasons for this hatred can involve religious practices such as the practice of no work during the Sabbath day or Jewish actions that have religious implications, like the belief of some previous Christians that it was the Jews who killed Jesus Christ. Economic prejudice against Jews perceives them to be performing activities that are harmful to the economy of the country in which they happen to live. Some think that powerful Jews control the economy of a certain country for the benefit not of the country but of the. Jews, and that Jews are greedy and manipulative and cheat non-Jews in business transactions. Racial prejudice against the Jews, on the other hand, does not concern their religion but their racial or ethnic group. Jews, in this regard, are believed to belong to an inferior race relative to the race of their host country. Racial anti-Semitism culminated in the rise of Nazism in the twentieth century. Finally, political prejudice against the Jews is based on the belief that Holocaust Memorial, the Jews would like to dominate the country in which Miami Beach, Florida, they happen to live, if not the whole world itself. Jews, USA in this regard, are seen as power seekers. These prejudices led to persecutions of the Jews. Some of the major persecutions were the following. First, when the Kingdom of Judah or Judea fell under the Seleucid Empire of Babylonia in 167 BCE, the Jews were forced to embrace the Greek gods. Jewish practices such as the observance of the Sabbath day and circumcision were banned and outlawed. Statues of Zeus and other Greek gods were placed in the altar of the Temple of Jerusalem. Possession of Jewish religious writings was considered a capital offense. Any Jew not conforming to these forced laws was persecuted.

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Second, thousands of Jews were killed during the series of Crusades: the First Crusade (1096), Second Crusade (1147), and Shepherds’ Crusade (1251-1320). The Crusades were military expeditions organized by Western Christians to recover the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims and to prevent the spread of Islam. But in the process, the crusaders killed many Jews in Jerusalem. Third, hundreds of Jews were killed after being blamed for the Black Death epidemic (mid-fourteenth century). Jews were suspected of poisoning the wells which caused the disease. Fourth, thousands of Jews were massacred during the political conflicts in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the mid to late seventeenth century. Jews were expelled from their place in Yemen (seventeenth century) to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah (somewhere in southwestern Saudi Arabia), and which became known as the Mawza Exile. And lastly, millions of Jews were killed by German Nazis during World War II (1939-1945). The systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II has been called the Holocaust.

Z ionism Because of the diaspora (the dispersion of the Jews outside of Israel) and the many persecutions and acts of discrimination that the Jews suffered as a result of anti-Semitism, they dreamed of someday going back to their promised land, Canaan or Palestine (now Israel), and establish their own state. This dream was translated into a movement called Zionism, after the word “Zion” which refers either to Jerusalem itself or to the mountain on which Jerusalem is built. There were three highlights among the series of events that eventually led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948. The first was the publication of the influential book The Jewish State (Der Judensaat) (1896) by Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), an Austrian Jewish journalist. It was in this book that the notion of a Jewish state was envisioned and the need to establish it was justified. The Jews needed a homeland of their own where they would no longer be persecuted by anti-Semites. In August 1897, Herzl organized a world congress of Zionists in Basel, Switzerland and became the first president of the World Zionist Organization. The second was the Balfour Declaration in 1917 in which the British government, then in control of Palestine (then called the British Mandate of Palestine), supported the notion of a Jewish homeland. As a result,

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the British allowed a limited immigration of Jews to the territory of Palestine. The third was the decision of the United Nations (United Nations [UN] Resolution 181) after World War II to divide the British Mandate of Palestine into two states, one for the Jews and the other for the Arab residents of Palestine (who were Muslims). After this decision, the Arab residents of Israel have been called Palestinians, while the Jews have been called Israelis (see Matthews 2010, 2 6 1-62 for a discussion of Zionism and the Holocaust).

T he A rab -I sraeli C onflict The Jews accepted the UN resolution to divide Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state, but the Arab residents (the Palestinians) did not. Moreover, the Arab nations surrounding Israel did not accept the institution of Israel as a Jewish state in Palestine. The result was a series of wars initiated by the Arabs. The major ones included the 1948 War of Independence, 1956 Sinai War, 1967 Six-Day War, and 1973Yom Kippur War. These wars between Palestinians and Israelis have so far been won by the Israelis. While there have also been a series of peace talks, the conflict remains up to this day.

| I.

Activity

|

Identify one famous Jewish personality (scientist, singer, songwriter, politician, movie actor/actress, athlete, and others) and write a short paper on his/her life. Examine and reflect on how the person practices Judaism.Research also on the role of the Philippines in helping the victims of the holocaust and in the institution of the State of Israel. This can be a written or an oral report.

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map.

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Karaite Judaism Abraham

Anti-Semitism

Yom Kippur

Arab-Israeli Conflict

Orthodox Judaism

Sadduces

Sabbath Day

613 Mitzvot

Tanakh

Kethuvim

Talmud

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

_____________and Moses Primary/Foundational: 1. ___________ : Torah, Nevi’im, a n d ___________

Supplementary. 2. ___________ : Mishna and Gemara

1. _

Doctrines

_

3. Midrash 4.

2. 13 Principles of Faith

Afterlife 5. Messianic Age

3. Monotheism

Judaism

1.

DailyPrayers

2. _

Practices

3. Circumcision 4.

Right of Passage

3. Holidays and Festivals: Pesah, Shavu’ot, Sukot, Ro’sh ha-Shanah, 10 Days of Repentance,

V /

1. Ancient Forms: Pharisees,___________ , Essenes, Zealots 2. Medieval Forms:___________ , Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, Mitnagdism 3. Modern Forms: Major Forms:___________ , Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism; Others: Reconstructionist Judaism, Messianic Judaism. 1. ___________

3. Zionism

2. Holocaust

4. ____________

Review Questions Enricle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The terms “Judaism” and “Jews” were derived from the word “Judah,” which was the name of one of the twelve sons o f ____________ a. Abraham b. Jacob c. Isaac 2. Jews are also called “Hebrews” because they are descendants of who was called a Hebrew. a. Abraham b. Jacob c. Isaac 3. The third patriarch of the Jewish people w a s--------------------a. Abraham b. Jacob c. Isaac

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4. God gave his commandments t o ____________ on Mount Sinai. a. Abraham b. Moses c. Esau 5. The primary sacred writings of the Jews, also called the Hebrew Bible, is c a lle d ________________ a. Tanakh b. Talmud c. Torah , 6. What is contained in the Mishnah is what was originally regarded as the. a. Written Torah b. Oral Torah c. Written and Oral Torah 7. T h e ____________ consists of materials from the former and later prophets. a. Torah b. Nevi’im c. Kethuvim 8. The Talmud that is considered complete and more authoritative is th e _____________ a. Babylonian Talmud b.

Palestenian Talmud

c.

Greek Talmud

9. The Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar who itemized the 613 mitzvot and formulated the 13 principles of the Jewish faith w a s_____________ a. Moses Maimonides b. Moses Sofer c. Solomon Schecter 10. The festival o f ____________ recalls the Lord’s liberation of the Hebrews from the bondage of the Egyptians. a. Pesah or Passover b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost c. Sukkot or Booths 11. The festival o f___________ _ is a celebration of spring harvest and God’s gift of the Torah. a. Pesah or Passover b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost c.

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Sukkot or Booths

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

12. ---------------------celebrates the Jewish New Year and God’s creation of the world. a. Ro’shha-Shanah b. Sukkot c. Yom Kippur 13. The Pharasees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots are forms of Judaism. a. Ancient b. Medieval c. Modern 14. Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative Judaism are forms of Judaism. a. Ancient b. Medieval c. Modern 15. Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism are forms o f ____________ Judaism. a. Ancient b. Medieval c. Modern 16. T h e ---------------------believed that both the Written Torah and Oral Torah came from God. They were open to the interpretations of the rabbis of these sacred writings. a. Pharisees c. Essenes b. Sadducees

d. Zealots

17. They were nationalists who waged war against the Romans to defend Judea. They would rather commit suicide than be taken as prisoners by the Romans. a. Pharisees c. Essenes b. Sadducees

d. Zealots

18. ____________ did not accept the Oral Torah for its followers believed that the teachings of the rabbis, which form part of the Oral Torah, were subject to human errors. a. Karaite Judaism b. Rabbinical Judaism c. Hasidism 19. ____________ maintained the position of the Pharisees. They believed that both the Written Torah and Oral Torah came from God, and that the interpretations and teachings of the rabbis were inspired by God. a. Karaite Judaism b.

Rabbinical Judaism

c.

Hasidism

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20. ____________ is also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism. It seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions compatible with the surrounding culture. a. Orthodox Judaism b.

Reform Judaism

c. Conservative Judaism 21. ____________ sees Judaism as the evolving religious civilization of the Jewish people. a. Orthodox Judaism b. Reconstructionist Judaism c.

Messianic Judaism

22. ____________ believes that Jesus Christ is the Messiah that the Jews have been waiting for while adhering to the usual Jewish religious practices like the Shabbat and others. a. Reform Judaism b. Reconstructionist Judaism c.

Messianic Judaism

23. ____________ refers to the hatred toward Jews either as a religious or racial group. a. Anti-Semitism b.

Holocaust

c.

Zionism

24. T h e ____________ refers to the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism 25. ____________ refers to the movement whose goal was to realize the dream of the Jews to go back to Canaan or Palestine, their promised land, and establish their own state there. a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson.

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K What 1know about Judaism

W What 1want to know about Judaism

L What I have learned about Judaism (Write at least the five most important ones.)

L esson. 4 s a® ss#.

CHRISTIANITY

What are the basic features of Christianity?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Key Concepts

**■ Jesus Christ

■a- Resurrection of the dead

«*■ Messiah

«■ Angels

Holy Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit «*■ John the Baptist «■ Day of Judgment «*■ Old Testament, New Testament •a- Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John ea Acts of the Apostles Epistles «■ Revelation **• Peter and Paul *3“ Heaven, hell, purgatory

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«*■ Baptism is- The Lord’s Supper «■ Lenten season **■ Christmas ■a- Ascension and Pentecost «■ Roman Catholicism «■ Greek Orthodox Church Protestantism **■ Lutheran and Calivinist Churches «*• Anglicanism «■ Sectarianism **■ Nontraditional churches

EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: **■ Discuss the highlights of the life of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity. i«■ Discuss the elements of the Christian Bible. Identify the Christian views about the nature of God, basically the Holy Trinity. Explain the nature of Jesus as fully human and fully God, and as the Messiah. «*■ Discuss the Christian views on the resurrection of the dead, last judgment, angels, and the two great commandments. «■ Discuss some of the main Christian practices and holy days: baptism, ' Lord’s Supper, Lenten season, Christmas, Ascension, Pentecost, birthday of Mary, and veneration of saints. Explain the differences among the different major divisions in the Christian Church: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox churches. «■ Discuss the differences among various Protestant churches. «*■ Discuss some of the challenges of Christianity.

lActivityl

Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 106. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS Guide Questions How did Christianity originate? What are its sacred texts?

According to the estimate of Deming (2015, 326-27), “Christianity is the world’s largest religion, encompassing a third of the world’s population or more than 2.2 billion people ... Today about 20 percent of all Christians UNIT I

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live in Africa, and about 25 percent live in Latin America; Europe accounts for another 25 percent, Asia for about 15 percent, and North America for about 10 percent.” On a very general level, Christianity is the religion that is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, and Christians are the followers of these teachings. But what are the teachings of Jesus Christ? We shall deal with this question in the next section. First, let us briefly describe who Jesus Christ is and examine the holy book in which his teachings are written.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JESUS Jesus was born in Nazareth and lived around 7 BCE to 30 CE. Jesus was later on referred to by his followers as “Jesus Christ” (or Jesus the Christ) in recognition of his being the Messiah prophesized in the Old Testament of the Holy Bible (the sacred book of the Christians). The term Christ is Greek for the title “The Anointed One,” which in Hebrew is translated as “Messiah.” While Jesus was born as a human, most Christians believe that Jesus was not just human but also God. He is, in particular, the only begotten Son of God sent to this world to redeem mankind from their sins or disobedience to God.To deal with the nature of Jesus— his human and divine nature—will already bring us to the main doctrines of Christianity and teachings of Jesus. So in our brief description of Jesus, we shall limit ourselves only to some key events in his earthly life and avoid any reference to his teachings or his nature except when unavoidable. We know about the life of Jesus through the Four Gospels (the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John) of the Holy Bible. According to their account, Jesus was conceived in the womb of Mary through the Holy Spirit. Image of Jesus Christ Mary was chosen by God to be the mother of Jesus, of which she was made aware through an angel. Joseph, a carpenter to whom Mary was engaged, stood as the foster father of Jesus. When Jesus was born in Bethlehem in a manger, he was visited by shepherds and the three Magi or wise men from the East (said to be Mazdean priests from Persia) who, guided by a star, came to bring gifts to the baby Jesus (gold, frankincense, and myrrh). Jesus grew in wisdom. At the age of 12, he was intelligently conversing with the Jewish scholars on matters concerning the Hebrew Scriptures. At the age of 30, Jesus began his ministry to fulfill his divine mission.

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Jesus was one of the people who went to the Jordan River to be baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (who was a cousin of Jesus being the son of Mary’s sister, Elizabeth). John the Baptist announced and preached that the Kingdom of God was coming soon and that the people needed to prepare for it by repenting for their sins and undergoing baptism or the purification ritual of water immersion. During Jesus’ baptism, the Holy Spirit appeared and descended on Jesus like a dove, and a voice from heaven proclaimed that he was the Son of God. John the Baptist then publicly proclaimed that Jesus was the prophesized Messiah. Afterwards, Jesus went to the desert alone and spent 40 days fasting. There the devil (Satan) appeared and tempted Jesus three times. He prompted Jesus to prove that he was really the Son of God by turning stones into bread and by throwing himself from the mountain. He also said he would give Jesus all the riches and power of the world if Jesus would only bow down to him and worship him. Jesus was able to overcome all these temptations. Jesus, accompanied by his twelve apostles, then proceeded to preach at different places in Israel. The apostles were: (1) Simon (also called Peter), (2) Andrew (Simon’s brother), (3) James (son of Zebedee), (4) John (James’s brother), (5) Philip, (6) Bartholomew, (7) Thomas, (8) Matthew (the tax collector), (9) James (son of Alpheus), (10) Thaddaeus (or Judas, son of James), (11) Simon (the Zealot), and (12) Judas Iscariot (who later on betrayed Jesus). Jesus preached about a lot of topics which included the Kingdom of God, his being the Messiah and the Son of God, forgiveness, love for God and one’s neighbor (and enemies), the power of faith, humility, the proper attitude toward the Law of the prophets, helping the needy, the proper way to pray and fast, uselessness of worrying, murder, divorce, adultery, mercy, hypocrisy, judging others, Sabbath, his fulfilment of the prophecies, the last judgment, the great commission, and others. Jesus often used parables in his teaching. Among his parables were the parables of the sower, the workers in the vineyard, the wedding banquet, the ten virgins, the bags of gold, the tenants, the rich fool, the unmerciful servant, the mustard seed and yeast, the lost sheep, the lost son, the shrewd manager, the persistent widow, the ten minas, and the good Samaritan. And while preaching, Jesus performed several miracles that included, among others, healing the sick (the blind, the mute, the men with leprosy, the crippled, the paralyzed) multiplying five loaves of bread and two fish to feed five thousand people, changing water into wine, raising the dead (a girl and Lazarus), calming a storm, restoring demon-possessed men, walking on water, and resurrecting from the dead and ascending into heaven. UNIT I

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The teachings and missionary work of Jesus got him into conflict with political and religious authorities. Some of his pronouncements and actions (such as his proclamations that he was the only begotten Son of God who was sent to the world to redeem mankind of their sins and that he was the prophesized Messiah, and his different views on certain established Jewish laws such as those concerning Sabbath and fasting) were found to be blasphemous by the Jewish high priests. He was also considered a threat to the stability of the control the Romans had on Israel. The Romans feared that he might cause an uprising against them. Specifically, Pontius Pilate, the Roman authority who presided on the case of Jesus, feared that not giving in to the demand of some Jews to have Jesus crucified might lead to some political unrest. All these led to Jesus’s arrest and later on to his death through crucifixion. The night before his arrest, Jesus had supper to celebrate the Passover with his apostles, which came to be known as the Last Supper or the Lord’s Supper. Three days after his death, Jesus’s tomb was found empty by his first visitors (the three Mary’s) and he was said to have resurrected. He appeared to his disciples and friends, and ate and communicated with them. He told the 11 disciples (Judas committed suicide after betraying Jesus) about the great commission—they were to travel and make disciples of all nations, baptize people in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and teach them to obey God’s commandments. Forty days after, he ascended into heaven. In the Acts of the Apostles, the book in the Holy Bible after the Gospels, we see Jesus’s disciples, especially Paul and Peter, carrying out the work of spreading his teachings to various regions outside Israel. The early Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Romans until the Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the state religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity then spread further and continued to do so after the fall of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, various scholars and religious leaders at different stages of Christianity’s development reflected, examined, and analyzed the teachings of Jesus, giving rise to different forms of Christianity.

T he H oly B ible The sacred texts of Christianity are contained in the Christian Bible, usually referred to as the Holy Bible. The Holy Bible is divided into two parts, which are called the Old Testament and New Testament. The Old Testament, which was originally written in Hebrew, is basically the Hebrew Bible, the sacred text of Judaism. It contains all the books of the Hebrew Bible with

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some modifications in the arrangement. The New Testament, which was originally written in Greek, contains the life and teachings of Jesus, the early development of Christianity, as well as Christianity’s belief about the end of time. From the perspective of Christianity, the New Testament contains the essential principles or core of Christian teachings, and the Old Testament provides the foundational principles that properly guide us in understanding Christianity’s essential principles. The Old Testament contains prophesies that Christians believe are fulfilled in the New. Foremost of these prophecies is the coming of the Messiah who would sacrifice Himself for the sins of mankind. Christians believe that this prophecy is fulfilled in the New Testament through Jesus. Just like in the case of the Hebrew Bible, it took many years to complete and finalize | | f ? the list of books that constitutes the New Testament that we read today. The New Testament is divided into four main parts: (1) the Gospels, which are narrations or descriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus; (2) the Acts of Apostles, which is generally a historical account of the early growth of Christianity; (3) the Epistles, which are letters written mostly by the apostle Paul to the early Christians; and (4) Revelation, which symbolically speaks of the Christian vision of how in the end of time the good will eventually prevail over evil, or how the Kingdom of God will eventually reign in the world.

T he G ospels The Gospels consist of the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John.The word gospel comes from the old English godspell (which in turn came from the Greek word evangelion and Latin word evangelium), which means “good news” or “good tidings.” The good news of the gospel is the coming Kingdom of the Messiah, and of redemption through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, the central message of Christianity. The authors of these books, namely, Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, who were early followers of Christ, are referred to as the Four Evangelists. The books of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are referred to as the Synoptic Gospels (synoptic is a Greek word which means “having a common view”) for their close similarities in form and content and for relying on a common source. Scholars name this hypothetical common source as the Q Gospel, from the German quelle, meaning “source.” It is said that the book of Mark was written first, for the books of Matthew and UNIT I

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Luke are said to have used the book of Mark (in addition to the Q Gospel) as a source. The book of John is not included in the Synoptic Gospels, and as such can be called a non-Synoptic Gospel, for its differences from the other Gospels in terms of form and content. The book of John is said to have separate sources (see Molloy 2010, 357-358). The four Gospels are usually likened to different ways that artists would represent the same object or event. The Synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the role of Jesus as the messianic teacher and healer sent by God or as the promised Messiah of the Old Testament. Scholars note, however, that their intended audience are different. Matthew is primarily addressed to the Jews, Mark to the Christians in Rome, and Luke to the Greeks. The book of John, on the other hand, emphasizes the mystery of Jesus being the incarnation of God, or the divine nature of Jesus being the Son of God. It is designed to appeal to all ethnic groups.

A cts of the A postles The book of the Acts of Apostles describes the early stage of the development of Christianity. It narrates how Christianity as a religion began and propagated first among the Jews and later on among the Gentiles (the non-Jews), from the ascension of Jesus into heaven until the time when the apostle Paul preached in Rome. It also shows the dedication and sacrifices of the apostles, primarily Peter and Paul, as they preached the teachings of Christianity in various regions.The Acts of Apostles is widely believed to have been written by Luke, the same author of the book of Luke of the Gospels. It is in fact believed that the books of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles originally constituted one continuous account of the origin and development of Christianity by the same author which was later on divided into two parts. Among the highlights of the book are as follows: Within the period of 40 days between the resurrection of Jesus from the dead and his ascension to heaven, Jesus appeared to the apostles and to his mother Mary and friends in various times. The Holy Spirit descended on the apostles and gave them the gift of tongues or the ability to speak various languages (this event has been called the Pentecost). Peter’s preaching resulted in many conversions and baptisms. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, and other Christians were persecuted by Jews, which included Saul (from Tarsus). Saul, on his way to Damascus to lead the persecution of further Christians, had a vision (Saul went blind for three days until his sight was restored by Ananias, a Christian), which led to his conversion to Christianity. Peter also had a vision in which food considered unclean in Jewish tradition was made clean by God. He

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interpreted this as God’s message that the gospel must also be preached to the Gentiles or that salvation must be for everyone and not just for the Jews. Saul, changing his name to Paul after his conversion, travelled in various places, vigorously propagating Christianity especially among the Gentiles. Peter and Paul performed miracles which included curing the sick and making a lame person walk. Due to resistance from certain Jews in power, Peter and Paul, along with their companions, were put to prison several times but God always helped them escape (sometimes through an angel, sometimes through an earthquake). The disciples of Christ were first called Christians at Antioch.

T he Epistles The Epistles refer to the 21 letters in the Bible. The word epistle comes from the Greek work epistole, which means “letter” or “message.’The Epistles expound on the great themes of God’s saving work on the cross; thus they play a major role in the formation of doctrines throughout the development of Christian churches. These letters were written either by an apostle (Paul, Peter, John) or a family member of Jesus (James, Jude), except for Hebrews whose author is unknown (it was first attributed to Paul but later experts doubted it due to the writing style).The Epistles are divided into two classes: the Pauline Epistles and the General (or Universal) Epistles (Molloy 2010, 360). The Pauline Epistles, consisting of the first thirteen letters, were written by Paul. They were addressed to individuals and particular churches and dealt with specific issues or problems. Some of the letters were written by Paul while in prison, so they have been called Prison Epistles. The letters addressed to individual church leaders and dealt with ministerial matters are called Pastoral Epistles. The General Epistles, consisting of the remaining eight letters, were written by other apostles: one by an unknown apostle, three by John, two by Peter, and one each by James and Jude. Written for a general audience, these letters are sometimes also called Catholic Epistles. 21 Epistles 13 Pauline Epistles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Romans; 1 Corinthians; 2 Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians (Prison Epistle);

8 General Epistles 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Philippians (Prison Epistle); Colossians (Prison Epistle); 1 Thessalonians; 2 Thessalonians; 1 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle);

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11.2 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle); 12. Titus (Pastoral Epistle); 13. Philemon (Prison Epistle) 14. Hebrews; 15. James; 16. 1 Peter;

17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

2 Peter; 1 John; 2 John; 3 John; Jude

R evelation The book of Revelation (written around 95 CE) is the last book of the Christian Bible. It symbolically describes how the battle between good and evil would come to an end as revealed in visions. In particular, it symbolically describes how the forces of evil (Satan’s army) will be finally defeated and the Kingdom of God will finally reign in the world. It is considered an example of apocalyptic literature, referring to writings that describe how the end of the world would come about. The author of this book, the one narrating his visions which he believes are revelations from Jesus Christ, names himself in the text as “John of Patmos” (Patmos is a small Greek island in the Aegean Sea). It is traditionally believed that this is the apostle John, the same person who wrote the Gospel of John, but some present-day scholars doubt this, claiming that the author, though certainly a Christian, may be a different John. The book is divided into two parts and it is the second part (the longer part) that contains the visions and symbolisms. The first part (Chapters 2-3) are letters to the seven Christian churches of Asia Minor (presently referring to Turkey), and they contain moral admonitions (but no visions or symbolisms). The said churches referred to the churches of (1) Ephesus, which was advised to return to its first love; (2) Smyrna, which was advised to endure persecution; (3) Pergamum, which was advised to repent; (4) Thyatira, which was advised to remove its false prophetess; (5) Sardis, which was advised to wake up from its sleep; (6) Philadelphia, which was advised to continue its patient endurance; and (7) Laodicea, which was advised to end its lukewarm faith. Though these were actual churches in the past, they also represented seven different forms of churches throughout history. The second part (Chapters 4-22.5) of Revelation contains the visions and symbolisms. The symbols include the following: angels, whore of Babylon, beast, lamb, lion, horse, horsemen, locusts, bottomless pit, star, fire, smoke, dragon, woman, bowl, trumpets, and certain numbers (like 7,3, and 666). As these symbols are largely unexplained in the book, scholars have different interpretations of what they mean or are intended to mean. The book of

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Revelation culminates in the prophecy about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.

|^Activit^J 1. Do an artistic presentation of a certain stage in the life of Jesus. 2. Do an artistic presentation of the various books of the Holy Bible (Old and New Testaments). (This can be a written report or a PowerPoint presentation.)

DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Iui be Q u e s t i o n What are the main doctrines and practices of Christianity?

Christianity, as earlier noted, is a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. But what are the teachings of Christ, and what are the doctrines of Christianity that are based on these teachings? Except for some general points about these teachings and doctrines, most Christian denominations, however, do not agree on some particular points. In this light, when presenting or discussing a doctrine, adopting the point of view of a certain denomination may be unavoidable. If one asserts, “This is what Christians believe,” it will always be possible to reply, “But not all Christians believe that.” In this consideration, what we shall present here are doctrines perceived to be what most Christians believe in. Along the way, we shall point some deviations from these doctrines. These deviations, however, shall be more properly treated in the next section where we shall examine the different Christian denominations.

THE NATURE OF GOD Christians, like the Jews and Muslims, are monotheistic in that they believe there is only one God.This is the same God as the God of Abraham, Moses, and the other prophets in the Hebrew Bible. In the first of the Ten Commandments revealed by God to Moses, God affirms His oneness, saying “I am the Lord your God .. .You shall have no other gods before me.” Being a Perfect Being, God possesses certain divine attributes, among which are the following: (1) He is a pure spirit (He does not change; He is simple in UNIT

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that he cannot be divided into parts; He does not need a body to exist.); (2) He is eternal (He is neither created nor destroyed; He has no beginning and end); and (3) He is all-powerful (omninipotent), all-knowing (omniscient), wholly good or benevolent, just, and caring. Unlike the monotheism of the Jews and Muslims, the monotheism of Chrisitianity is qualified by the belief that God has three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit. This belief that God has three such persons has been called the belief in the Trinity (sometimes the Blessed or Holy Trinity). Christians believe that there is no rational explanation for this; it is simply a mysterious truth that is accepted as a matter of faith. One helpful way to understand the Trinity though is to think of it as the three fundamental ways of referring to the same God. There is just one God, but we can refer to God as the Father (the Creator), the Son (the Savior or Messiah), and the Holy Spirit (the power of God as experienced in human lives). The Trinity thus expresses the personal nature of God, the three personal ways of how God is related to humans—that He creates, saves, and empowers them.

THE NATURE OF JESUS There are at least seven fundamental beliefs that Christians hold about the nature of Jesus. First and foremost, Jesus is God. Jesus is God in that He is the Holy Trinity’s God the Son. When we say Jesus is the Son of God, we are not speaking of two gods here—one, the Father God, and the other, the Son God. Rather, we are speaking of the person of Jesus as God, his being God the Son. Second, while Jesus is God, he is also human. He became human when he was born into this world and later on died on the cross in order to save mankind from their sinful nature. By being both God and human, it does not mean that Jesus is half-god and half-human, making him a demigod. Rather it means that Jesus is wholly God and wholly human; his divine nature is not weakened or diluted by his human nature and his human nature is not strengthened by his divine nature. Jesus is wholly God in that he has all the divine attributes in their full capacity, such as being eternal, all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good. On the other hand, Jesus is wholly human in that he is subject to the same conditions and struggles that ordinary humans are subject to, such as having free will, being subject to temptations and ageing, having feelings of hunger and pain, and having a mortal body. His being human does not make him a lesser God, and his being God does not make him a superhuman.

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Third, Jesus is the Messiah that was prophesized in the Old Testament. Jesus came into this world in order to save mankind from their sins. God becoming human was the perfect sacrifice that would redeem mankind from their downfall and make them worthy of salvation again. Jesus the Messiah will come again to establish the Kingdom of God in this world. Fourth, Jesus came into this world (to become human) through virgin birth. Jesus was conceived in the womb of Mary through the Holy Spirit, and not through the natural reproductive means humans engage in to conceive a child. Fifth, Jesus was sinless. As earlier noted, Jesus, being wholly human, was subject to the same kinds of temptations humans experience, but Jesus was able to overcome all his temptations. Sixth, Jesus resurrected from the dead. Three days after he died on the cross, Jesus became alive again and met with his disciples, mother, siblings, and friends. And lastly, Jesus ascended into heaven. After 40 days since his resurrection from the dead, Jesus ascended into heaven and promised to come again during the Last Judgment.

THE HUMAN CONDITION Humans are made in the image and likeness of God. This means that humans bear certain resemblances with their Creator. There are two main resemblances humans have with God. First, humans are made to resemble God’s eternal and spiritual nature by possessing immortal souls which continue to survive after their physical death. Second, humans are made to resemble God’s wisdom by possessing reason and will which enable them to know and make their own (free) choices. These godlike attributes, however, have important consequences. First, humans are accountable for their actions, that is, they deserve rewards for doing good actions (actions that obey God’s will), and they deserve punishments for doing bad actions (actions that disobey God’s will). Second, God’s rewards and punishments extend to the afterlife in the form of an eternal reward of happiness or heaven, and an eternal punishment of suffering or hell. To be in heaven is to enter the Kingdom of God and be united with God, while to be in hell is the opposite. To enter the Kingdom of God, good works, however, are not enough. One must also accept the truth of the gospel, which is that Jesus Christ is God who became human in order to save mankind from the punishment of hell due to their sins. In addition to heaven and hell, some Christians (the

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Catholics) believe in purgatory, a temporary state in between heaven and hell and in which people who died with minor (or venial) sins are put. They further believe that the prayers of the living offered for the souls in purgatory can positively affect the chances of these souls to eventually enter heaven.

RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD AND LAST JUDGMENT When humans die, it is believed that they immediately undergo a particular judgment on whether they should go to heaven or hell (or purgatory). There will, however, be another judgment, the Last Judgment, which will take place during the second coming of Jesus the Messiah. Christians believe that in that time, there will be the Resurrection of the Dead, followed by the Last Judgment. In the resurrection of the dead, the souls of dead people will reunite with their physical (but now “glorified”) bodies, after which everyone, including those living during the second coming of Jesus will face judgment for their actions. It is further believed that those who have been living a Christian life will be lifted to the sky to be met by Jesus. Those who are already in hell and heaven will remain there (those in purgatory will be transferred to heaven). If previously they were in heaven or hell only in their spiritual form, now they will be in such places in both their spiritual and physical forms.

A ngels The Bible speaks of angels. Angels are spiritual beings created by God to serve him and help humans. Angels have free will (this contrasts with the Islamic view that angels do not have free will), which means they can either be good, (when they obey God) or bad (when they disobey God). Bad angels, those who have rebelled against God, are called devils. The leader of bad angels is Satan or Lucifer. Christians identify the serpent in Genesis, who tempted Eve to disobey God, as Satan. Satan continues to tempt humans to disobey God, but he will eventually be defeated during the second coming of Jesus. On the other hand, good angels mentioned in the Bible include the angels Gabriel and Michael. Gabriel, “the messenger” was the angel who appeared to Mary to inform her that she would bear a son conceived by the Holy Spirit. Michael “the archangel” (meaning, the chief angel), is the angel identified in

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the Book of Revelation who leads God’s armies against Satan’s forces and who defeats Satan during the war in heaven. Christian theologians classify different kinds of angels mainly according to their functions like the Seraphim, the highest angelic class who serve as the caretakers of God’s throne; the Cherubim, who guard the way to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden; and the Thrones, who serve as living symbols of God’s justice and authority.

T he Two G reat C ommandments A summary of the ethical teachings of Jesus was provided by Jesus himself. In Matthew 22:34-36, Jesus was asked by a Pharisee considered to be an expert in Jewish law with the question “Which is the greatest commandment in the Law?” Jesus replied, ‘“ Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.” Furthermore, in Luke 10:25-28, Jesus was asked by another Pharisee with the question, “Teacher... what must I do to inherit eternal life?” In response, Jesus asked the Pharisee, “What is written in the Law? ... How do you read it?” Echoing Jesus’s reply when asked about the greatest commandment, the Pharisee replied, “Love the Lord with all your heart and with all your soul and will all your mind; and love your neighbor as yourself.” And Jesus said to the Pharisee, “You have answered correctly ... Do this and you will live.” As our heart (referring to our emotions and desires), soul (our life), and mind (our reason or intelligence) constitute the essence of our human life, loving God with all our heart, soul, and mind means totally surrendering our life to the will of God. And as we love ourselves unconditionally, our love for our neighbor should also be unconditional.

T he P rimacy of Love Jesus emphasized that love should be the proper attitude towards God and our neighbor, instead of focusing on following certain rules on how to relate with God and our neighbor. This shows consistently in his teachings concerning Sabbath, fasting, praying, and forgiveness, among others. When the Pharisee asked Jesus who our neighbor is, Jesus narrated the parable of the good Samaritan. One insight to be gathered from the parable is precisely the difference between just following certain rules and acting out of love. The (Jewish) priest and Levite, expected to be knowledgeable about Jewish laws and rules, ignored the wounded person who has been robbed most

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likely because they thought that helping the person was beyond their duties. Though not specified in the story, one probable reason why they did not help was because the wounded person might have been a Gentile— a non-Jew. The Samaritan, though also a Jew, was not expected to be knowledgeable about Jewish laws and rules. He helped the wounded person not because he wanted to satisfy a rule obligating him to do so, but simply because he felt compassion and love. To further emphasize the point, it would have been sufficient for the Samaritan to help the wounded person by simply bandaging the person’s wounds and pouring oil and wine on them, but he went out of normal expectations when he brought the person to an inn, carrying him on his donkey, then requested the innkeeper to take care of the person, and promised the innkeeper that he would reimburse the expenses. This same emphasis on the primacy of love in our actions was beautifully illustrated by the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:1-7, saying: “If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have faith that can move mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing.”

SOME PRACTICES AND RITUALS

B aptism B a p tis m is a ritu a l fo r m oral purification (“washing impurities away”) and serves as an initiation rite. A person who undergoes it signifies his or her commitment to repent from his or her sins, lead a new life, and make himself or herself ready to receive the Kingdom of God. John the Baptist performed this ritual for people to cleanse themselves of sins in preparation for the imminent coming of the kingdom of heaven. At the same time, baptism is an initiation rite as it signals one’s entry into the Christian community. Different forms of Christianity differ on certain aspects of baptism both in terms of how it should be done and what it does to a person. During the early period of Christianity, baptism was done by immersing the body in water, just like how John the Baptist did it in the river of Jordan. Some forms of Christianity still do it in the same way, but some forms of Christianity just

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sprinkle water on the head of the person to be baptized. Another point of difference is the proper age when a person should be baptized. Some perform baptism on babies. Some claim that this is to ensure that when babies die, they will not go to hell—the assumption is that baptism is a necessary condition for salvation. On the other hand, some perform baptism only for persons who are already mature enough to make a personal decision to repent for their sins and accept Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. Here, baptism is just a form of public profession of one’s Christian faith, but it is the repentance for one’s sins and personal acceptance of Jesus Christ as. one’s own Lord and Savior that serve as the necessary condition for salvation. In addition to baptism, some Christians also undergo the Sacrament of Confirmation, which is a blessing of baptized believers to complete their baptismal grace and consequently to strengthen their faith. Confirmation is commonly administered in the early teen years of the believers.

T he L ast S upper/ E ucharist The practice of sharing a meal of bread and wine imitates the Last Supper that Jesus had with his disciples before his death, and recalls Jesus’s sacrifice leading to his death and resurrection. During this meal of bread and wine, Christians prayerfully recall Jesus’s death and resurrection. It is a symbolic sharing of Jesus’s life and death, but Christians have different beliefs about certain aspects of it. Some see the substance (or essence) of the bread and wine as transforming into the substance (or essence) of the body and blood of Jesus (the physical components of the bread and wine remain unchanged but their essences change into the essences of Jesus’s body and blood, respectively, a process that is called transubstantiation). Some, on the other hand, believe that the substance of bread and wine coexist with the substance of Jesus’s body and blood (the physical and essential components of the bread and wine remain, but the essential components of Jesus’s body and blood are added through a process that is called consubstantiation). Still, some believe that the bread and wine simply change their symbolism or what they represent, from things that will nourish the physical body to the life and death of Jesus (or the body and blood of Jesus). (This process is called transignification.)

Celebration of the Lord’s Supper also differs in style and frequency among various forms of Christianity. Some have it once a week (during a mass/ service on Sundays); some have it every mass/service held every day; and some have it only once a month. The type of bread used for this purpose, called host (or hostia in Latin), may vary, and some just use grape juice or water instead of wine.

>

L enten S eason

Lent refers to the 40 days of repentance and preparation for Easter— the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. The 40 days signify the 40 days of fasting and prayer that Jesus spent in the desert after his baptism by John the Baptist and before his public life or Messianic ministry began. But instead of fasting, Christians usually do abstinence or avoidance of pleasures like the consumption of luxury foods such as meat products during this period. Some Christians begin the season with Ash Wednesday, when priests put ashes in the form of a cross on the foreheads of believers. The week before Easter, which falls on a Sunday, is called the Holy Week. Some Christians celebrate the Sunday before the Holy Week, called Palm Sunday, by waving palm branches, recalling Jesus’s entry to Jerusalem. Holy Thursday recalls Jesus’s last supper with his disciples, while Good Friday recalls His death on the cross. Black Saturday is a day of quiet and prayer. Easter Sunday, celebrated at dawn, recalls the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. Each form of Christianity has its own way of celebrating Easter Sunday.

C hristmas Christmas is the Christian celebration of the birth of Jesus which takes place on December 25 of every year. The fourweek preparation for Christmas, which remembers the period prior to the birth of Jesus, is called Advent. Several days after Christmas, on January 6, Christians celebrate the feast called the Epiphany or Three Kings, which mainly commemorates the visit of the three wise men to baby Jesus.

A scension and P entecost The feast of Ascencion celebrates Jesus’s ascencion into heaven 40 days after Easter or the day Jesus resurrected from the dead. The feast of

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Pentecost, which recalls the first preaching of the apostles, is celebrated ten days after the feast of Ascension.

O ther P ractices Being the mother of Jesus, some Christians (the Catholics) practice devotion to Mary. Part of this devotion is the annual celebration of her birthday, called the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which falls on September 8. Mary is seen by these Christians as someone who can intercede between the believers and Jesus. In addition to Mary, they also venerate the saints, who they regard as the martyrs or heroes of the faith. The veneration is done either individually, in which the particular birthdays of individual saints are celebrated, or generally, in which all the saints, known and unknown, are given honor. The general veneration, called All Saints’ Day or All Hallows’ Day, is done every November 1. Discussion Question Read Corinthians 13:1-13. Which passage strikes you the most and why? Identify an experience of yours that demonstrates the meaning of this passage.

lActivityl

1. Identify three parables of Jesus Christ that interest you most and write a reflection paper on them. 2. Do an artwork that presents one of the following: the Apostle’s Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, and the Beatitudes.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Question What are the denominations and challenges of Christianity?

The early Christians, including the apostles, suffered persecution in the hands of the Romans. But this changed when the Roman Emperor Constantine (306-337 CE) converted to Christianity (following his/her mother Helena’s conversion to Christianity) and made it the state religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity then became a world religion with a hierarchical structure. The

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Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, became the central authority. When the Roman Empire later on collapsed, the Christian church was able to maintain much of its organizational structure. In the course of its development and further expansion, certain doctrines and practices (pertaining both to religious expressions and organizational management) have been established to which some Christian groups have reacted in varying degrees. These reactions have given rise to the different forms, sects, or denominations of Christianity, which continue to increase in number up to this day. Christian churches are generally divided into the Western and Eastern Churches. The Western Churches are divided into three groups: the Catholic (or Roman Catholic), Protestant, and nontraditional churches.The Protestant churches include the Lutheran, Calvinist, Church of England (or Anglican), and Sectarian churches. The Calvinist church gave rise to the Presbyterian Church.The Sectarian churches include the Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, and Pentecostal churches. Anglican churches refers to the church of England and other churches. The Eastern churches, on the other hand, are divided into two groups: the Eastern Orthodox churches and other Eastern churches.The Eastern Orthodox churches include the Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian, and Bulgarian Christian churches. The other Eastern churches include the Armenian, Egyptian Coptic, Ethiopian Coptic, and Nestorian churches.The following table shows these divisions in Christian churches. Christian Churches Eastern Churches

Western Churches Catholic

Protestant Lutheran, Calvinist (Presbyterianism), Sectarian (Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, Pentecostal)

Anglican Church of England, other Anglican churches

Nontraditional Mormon, Jehovah’s Witness, Christian Science, Unity, Unitarian, Unification

Eastern Orthodox Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian

Others Armenian, Egyptian Coptic, Ethiopian Coptic, Nestorian

Let us briefly differentiate some of these churches. Because we cannot hope to cover all their specific differences, we shall just mention some of their identifying features.

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T he C atholic C hurch The Catholic Church (or Roman Catholic Church) (“Catholic” means universal) is believed to have been founded by Jesus Christ through the apostle Peter, who is considered as the first Bishop of Rome or Pope. The Pope is the central authority whose views on doctrines pertaining to faith and morals are regarded as infallible (that is, not subject to error). Catholics accept seven sacraments, which are sacred rites or occasions for experiencing God’s saving presence. These sacraments are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist (Communion or the Lord’s Supper), Penance, Holy Matrimony or Marriage, Anointing of the Sick (formerly Extreme Unction), and Holy Orders. Catholics believe in purgatory, venerate Mary and the saints, believe in transubstantiation, and believe that their priests should be celibate. They also believe that God’s revelations are contained in the Sacred Scripture (the Holy Bible) and Sacred Tradition (teachings handed down since the time of the Apostles).

Eastern O rthodox C hurch The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of the Christian churches that formally separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054 when the Bishop of Rome, Pope Leo IX, and the Patriarch of Constantinople (Eastern churches call their bishops “patriarchs”) Michael Celarius, excommunicated one another because of some disagreements (see Molloy 2010, 372-77; Matthews 2010, 300-02). These churches include the Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian, and Bulgarian Orthodox churches.The split between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, called the East-West Schism (sometimes called the Great Schism), involved various aspects such as doctrines, language, politics, and geography. One major reason for the split concerns a controversy regarding an entry in the Nicene Creed [The Nicene Creed is a profession or statement of the core elements of the Christian faith as approved by the bishops and patriarchs of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches in 325 CE (Kennedy 2011,68-69)], pertaining to the nature of the Holy Trinity, particularly concerning the origin UNIT I

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of the Holy Spirit. While both churches believe that the Son came from the Father, they differ as to where the Holy Spirit came from. The Roman Catholic Church believes that the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and the Son, while the Eastern Orthodox Church believes that the Holy Spirit came (or proceeded from) the Father only. In the original version of the Nicene Creed, it was stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father. The Roman Catholic Church, however, later on decided to add the clause “and the Son” (this clause is called the “Filioque clause”) to make it clear that the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and Son. The Patriarchs of the Eastern Orthodox churches strongly opposed the inclusion of the Filioque clause and the manner by which it was done—that they were allegedly not consulted (Kennedy 2011, 94-95). Aside from a difference of belief concerning the source of the Holy Spirit, other differences between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are the following. In celebrating the Eucharist, the Roman Catholic Church use unleavened bread while the Eastern Orthodox Church use leavened bread (for the Eastern Orthodox Church believed that the use of unleavened bread is a Jewish practice during the feast of Passover). In terms of governance, the Roman Catholic Church adheres to the Papal Supremacy, in which the Pope, or the Bishop of Rome, is the supreme authority among all Christians. In contrast, the Eastern Orthodox Church adheres to the concept of Pentarchy, in which authority is shared among the Patriarchs of Rome, C onstantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. While both Churches believe in the virgin birth of Jesus through Mary, the Roman Catholic Church further believes in Mary’s immaculate conception (that God spared her from original sin) and bodily assumption into heaven which the Eastern Orthodox Church rejects (for the Eastern Orthodox Church, Mary was chosen by God because of her purity and obedience). The Eastern Orthodox Church also does not agree with the Roman Catholic doctrine of the purgatory. And unlike the Roman Catholic priests, Eastern Orthodox priests can marry; and they wear beards.

T he P rotestant C hurch The Protestant Church developed from the movement of protest against certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly inspired by Martin Luther’s publication of his Ninety-Five Theses, which he posted on the door of the Castle Church of Wittenberg in 1517, demanding for reforms in the Catholic Church (Molloy 2010, 383-86; Matthews 2010, 304-05). Luther was particularly opposed to the sale and purchase of indulgences, which

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were then believed had the power to shorten the time that an individual, after death, would have to spend in purgatory before entering heaven. Protestants reject the authority of the Pope, claiming that the Bible alone (instead of the Bible and Tradition) is the authority in matters of faith and doctrines. They reject the doctrine of transubstantiation, replacing it, as earlier noted, either with consubstantiation or with transignification. They believe in salvation by faith alone, instead of good works alone or faith and good works combined. They hold that one can directly ask God for forgiveness for one’s sins and that priests can marry. They also reject the veneration of Mary and the saints. In contrast to Catholics who celebrate seven sacraments, Protestants acknowledge only two sacraments, Baptism and the Eucharist. Luther believed that Christians should be able to read and interpret the Bible for themselves, and this required translating the Bible into the native language of the Christians. Thus Luther translated the Bible into German so that Christian Germans could read and interpret it for themselves. Luther rejected celibacy; he in fact married Katharina von Bora, a former nun, and had six children. There are many forms of Protestantism. Let us examine some of the major ones.

L utheranism and C alvinism ( and P resbyterianism ) The two early forms of Protestantism were Lutheranism or Calvinism (or the Lutheran Church and the Calvinist Church) (Molloy 2010, 387-388; Matthews 2010,305-306). Aside from Martin Luther, another major leader of the Protestant movement was John Calvin (1509-1564), regarded as the leader of the French Protestants. Calvin shared some of Luther’s thoughts but disagreed with him Martin Luther on some points. The result was a division between the Lutheran Church and the Calvinist Church. Later on, the Presbyterian Church, formed in sixteenth century by John Knox (1513-1573), evolved from the Calvinist Church. Knox was a former minister of the Calvinist Church who established his own Protestant church in Scotland. One difference between the Lutheran Church and the Calvinist Church concerns what actually occurs during the Lord’s Supper. Calvin shared Luther’s rejection of the doctrine of transubstantiation. But while Luther advanced the doctrine of consubstantiation, Calvin (and Knox) held the doctrine of transignification. Another identifying feature of Calvinism (and Presbyterianism) is the belief in predestination. Calvin believed (and Knox defended) that God predestined UNIT I

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or intended whether some people would be saved and go to heaven after they die, or be damned and go to hell instead. Predestination follows from God’s foreknowledge or knowledge of the future (as God is omniscient or all-knowing, then He also knows the future); for if God already knows the future, then He already knows who will and will not be saved.

PROTESTANT SECTARIANISM At the heart of the Protestant movement is a principle, called the Protestant Principle, which gives every individual the right to interpret the Bible and critically examine Christian beliefs and practices.This principle has resulted in the generation of many forms or sects of independent Protestant churches (and their number is continuously growing). This division of the Protestant Church into many independent churches resulting from the said Protestant Principle is sometimes referred to as Protestant sectarianism (Molloy 2010, 388-390). The differences among these churches range from style of organization to style and focus of worship—from simple to ritualistic, from structured to informal, from highly informative to emotional, and from communal to highly individualistic. In what follows, let us briefly examine some of these Protestant churches.

A nabaptists and B aptists Anabaptists and Baptists are two independent Christian groups which share some central views. Though they are both identified with the Protestant movement, they have different views about their relation and origins. Some think that Baptists originated from or were heavily influenced by Anabaptists, while some (considered to be the majority) claim that they are totally unrelated in terms of their historical origins. One account holds that the Anabaptist Church developed alongside the Lutheran and Calvinist Churches, while the Baptist Church developed alongside the Separatist Movement in England (in relation to the Anglican Church). In any case, one central view that they share is their rejection of infant baptism. Both groups or churches favor adult baptism, according to which baptism should be done only on adults who have already accepted Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. In this connection, both believe that full immersion is the only legitimate way of baptizing a believer. Furthermore, both churches believe in the separation of religion and state, and they practice simple rituals in their worship services. The successors of Anabaptists today include the Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Schwarzenau Brethren, and River Brethren. Baptist Churches, on the other

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hand, are generally divided into General Baptist Churches and Particular Baptist Churches.

Methodists Methodism began as a society within the Church of England led by John Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-1788), who were former missionaries of the Church of England. They first wanted reforms within the said church, but soon their followers grew in number and they established their separate churches, which came to be called Methodist Churches. ( 'ne distinct feature of Methodist beliefs is their use of logic and reason in understanding and interpreting matters of faith (understanding the Scripture and God’s will and actions, among others). Methodist Churches emphasize missionary work.

Q uakers and S hakers The Religious Society of Friends, also known as Quakers, was founded by George Fox (1624-1691). The Society began during a preaching of Fox on the Pentecost Day of 1652. It was called “Quakers” because Fox believed that people should “quake” (tremble) at the Word of the Lord. The Society has no priests and does not celebrate the Eucharist. Their church services are conducted mostly in silence and with no rituals. There are no priests and no celebration of communion as well. The Quakers are known to be pacifists as they strongly oppose the use of violence or war in settling disagreements. The Church of the Shakers, founded by “Mother” Ann Lee (1736-1784), developed from the Church of the Quakers. They were first called Shaking Quakers and later on just Shakers primarily because their worship service involves devotional dance. The Shakers, like the Quakers, are usually farmers. But unlike the Quakers and other Protestant sects, the Shakers, both male and female, practice celibacy. Once they become members of the society or church, Shakers are forbidden to have children.

P entecostal C hurch A distinctive feature of this movement is its belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts, including the ability to speak in tongues and the power of healing. The movement derives its name from the feast of Pentecost, during which the Holy Spirit descended on the Apostles (as described in the Book of Acts of the Apostles of the

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Bible), empowering them with the gift of tongue (the ability to speak many languages) for the preaching of the gospel in various places. For this reason, this movement is also described as Apostolic or Full Gospel. Pentecostal Churches, however, are divided on the nature of the Holy Trinity so they have Trinitarian and Non-Trinitarian branches. The United Pentecostal Church International, for instance, rejects the standard idea of the Trinity, that there are three Persons in one God. Rather it believes in the Oneness of God, which upholds that God is a single Person who has three manifestations: the Father (in the Old Testament), the Son (during Jesus Christ’s ministry on earth), and the Holy Spirit (after Christ’s ascension).

T he A nglican C hurch The Anglican Church originated in England during the time of King Henry VIII (1491-1547). In 1530s, King Henry VIII made himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and challenged the authority of the Pope (Molloy 2010, 388; Matthews 2010, 306). King Henry simply wanted the Pope to agree to his divorce from his first wife, Catherine. It had nothing to do with doctrines and practices. It was only later that the changes that made the Anglican Church distinct from the Catholic Church were King Henry VIII introduced. Anglicanism is generally regarded as a kind of middle way between Catholicism and Protestantism. Its religious doctrines and practices are a blend of those found in Catholicism and Protestantism. One important contribution of this church was the publication of the King James Bible in 1611, an English version of the Bible whose writing was sponsored by King James I (the successor of Queen Elizabeth I). Later on, the Anglican Church in England branched out into different forms of churches outside of England. Majority of these churches are members of the international group of Anglican churches called the Anglican Communion. The Anglican Communion recognizes the Archbishop of Canterbury in England as its leader, though not in the same way that the Pope is seen as the central authority of the Catholic Church. For one, each of the Anglican churches is free to decide on its own religious practices. In addition to the Christian Bible, something common to all Anglican churches is their use of the Book of Common Prayer, which is a collection

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of major prayers in English for church use. Some Anglican churches ordain women as priests and even appoint female bishops.

N ontraditional C hristian C hurches The Churches of Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Protestantism, and Anglicanism are considered traditional churches for while they have differences in doctrines and practices, they maintain certain views regarded as traditionally Christian, especially those concerning the Holy Trinity (that there are three Persons in one God) and the divinity of Jesus (that Jesus is God—as God the Son). However, there are churches that deviate from these traditionally Christian views, but still members of these churches consider themselves Christian for they profess to follow the teachings and examples of Jesus and see him as the key to salvation. Whether they are really still Christian is debatable for some Christians. Most of these churches originate form some Protestant or Anglican churches. These non-traditional churches include the Mormon (or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) and Jehovah’s Witness (Molloy 2010, 394-98; Matthews 2010, 309-12). Jehovah’s Witnesses do not believe in the Holy Trinity and the divinity of Jesus. For them, God, Jehovah, has only one person (a view called unitarianism), and Jesus, though the Messiah, was actually the archangel Michael created by God (as His only begotten son) and whom God recreated as Jesus the man to save mankind. They also do not believe that humans have immortal souls (“soul” for them only means life), nor do they believe in hell as eternal damnation. According to them, these beliefs are not found in the Bible. For them, giving allegiance to God means separating themselves from the affairs of the world. Thus they are strongly apolitical. They do not involve themselves in political affairs such as elections and they refuse to be drafted during wars. They refuse to salute the flag. They also do not allow blood transfusion because of the biblical teaching against ingesting blood. The Mormons, on the other hand, have a different understanding of the Holy Trinity. They believe that God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are not three Persons in one God (as traditionally believed by Christians) but are three different Persons (and hence are actually three distinct Gods). These three Persons constitute what they call the Godhead, ' for they are one in purpose. Some Mormons also believe that since Jesus was created by the Father, Jesus was a lesser God than the Father. In addition to the Bible (which the Mormons believe is not free from errors), the Mormons UNIT I

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have other sacred texts, foremost of which is the Book of Mormon, written by Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844), the founder of the Mormon Church.

S ome C hallenges In addition to the challenges arising from the diversity of views of many Christian denominations, some of the issues that most Christian societies face nowadays concern the following: (a) issues arising from the use of modern technology in biomedicine, such as researches involving human embryos (such as stem-cell research), the use of contraceptives, and the practices of invitro fertilization, surrogacy, and organ transplantation (especially in cases where the organs come from brain-dead patients and severely damaged infants); (b) issues arising from the expanding scope of the concept of human rights, which include the right of women to assume leadership in churches (women as priests and pastors, for instance), the right to same-sex marriage, the right to gender preference in one’s sexual lifestyle (which includes homosexuality, bisexuality, sex change, and others), the right to abortion, and the right to divorce; and (c) issues about church-state relations, which basically come down to whether churches should meddle with politics, which translates to endorsing candidates during elections, and endorsing or condemning governmental policies or laws such as those concerning death penalty and reproduction. Discussion Questions 1. What do you think of the idea of predestination? Do you agree with it? 2.

Read James 2:14-17, which talk about the relation between faith and deeds. How do you understand these passages?

I^A ctivit^l I.

Do the following tasks. 1. Identify one Christian denomination in the Philippines that was founded by a Filipino. Do a research paper on its origins, doctrines, and practices. 2. Interview a Christian parent or couple on why they are Christians, what denomination of Christianity they are members of, and what Christian beliefs and practices they adhere to. This can be a written or an oral report.

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II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. Gospels Prtotestant Churches Jesus Christ Lord’s Supper Eastern Orthodox Churches

Christianity

Holy Trinity Old New Christmas Church-state Relations

Review Questions Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The title of Jesus as the Christ is a recognition of his being the a. Holy One b. Last Prophet c. Messiah

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2. Jesus was baptized b y ___________ a. Joseph b. the High Priest

c.

John the Baptist

3. Jesus often preached using___________ a. parables b. actual events as demonstrations c. argumentation 4. The Roman emperor who converted to Christianity and made it the state religion of the Roman Empire w a s___________ a. Marcus Aurelius b. Constantine c. Julius Ceasar 5. The former persecutor of Christians who later on became a great defender and propagator of the Christian Faith w as------------------a. Peter c. Paul b. John

d. Ananias

6. We learn about the life of Jesus mainly from th e ___________ a. Gospels b. Acts of the Apostles c.

Epistles

7. The ___________ are letters of the apostle Paul to the early Christians. a. Acts of the Apostles b.

Epistles

c.

Revelation

8. T h e ___________ symbolically speaks about the Christian vision of how in the end of time the good will eventually prevail over evil or how the Kingdom of God will reign in the world. a. Acts of the Apostles b. Epistles c.

Revelation

9. Of the four books of the Gospels, the book o f ___________ is not part of the Synoptic Gospels. a. Matthew c. Luke b. Mark

d. John

10. The Epistles addressed to individual churches and dealt with ministerial matters are called. 102

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a. Prison Epistles b.

c. Catholic Epistles

Pastoral Epistles

11. The author of the Revelation introduced himself in the said book as a. John the Baptist

c. John of Patmos

b. John the Apostle 12. The Christian belief that God has three persons, namely, the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit, is referred to as th e ___________ a. Trimurti c. Holy Trinity b. Tripikaya 13. The process wherein the physical components of the bread and wine remain unchanged but their essences change into the essences of Jesus’s body and blood, respectively, is called___________ a. transubstantiation c. transignification b. consubstantiation 14. The-------------------is a Christian ritual for moral purification and serves as an initiation rite. a. Baptism c. Confirmation b. Lord’s Supper 15. T h e ___________ recalls the first preaching of the apostles. a. Feast of Ascencion c. Advent b. Feast of Pentecost 16. The Pope or the Bishop of Rome is the highest spiritual leader in the a. Greek Orthodox Church

c. Protestant Church

b. Catholic Church 17. The so-called East-West Schism refers to the split between the a. Catholic and Protestant Churches b.

Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches

c. Catholic and AnglicanChurches 18. The Protestant Church developed from the movement of protest against certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly' inspired by the publication of the Ninety-Five Theses by__________ a. Martin Luther c. John Knox b. John Calvin

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19. The leader of French Protestants who advanced the belief in predestination w a s ----------------a. Martin Luther c. John Knox b. John Calvin

/

20. One central view shared by Baptists and Anabaptist is their rejection o f__________ a. baptism c. adult baptism b. infant baptism 21. One distinct feature of the_________ is their use of logic and reason in understanding and interpreting matters of faith. a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church b.

Presbyterian Church

22. Their worship service involves devotional dance: a. Quakers c. Methodists b. Shakers 23. A distinctive feature of th e __________ is its belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts including the ability to speak in tongues and the power of healing. a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church b. Presbyterian Church 24. The__________originated in England during the time of King Henry VIII, who challenged the authority of the Pope. a. Anglican Church b. Mormon Church c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness 25. T h e __________does not believe in the Holy Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, for they consider God as having only one person. a. Anglican Church b. Mormon Church c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness Explain: 1. The Christian message that a loving God sent His only begotten Son in order to redeem humankind from eternal damnation. 2. How do the two great com m andm ents sum m arize the Ten Commandments of Moses?

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3. Reasons for the split between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson.

K What 1know about Christianity

W What 1want to know about Christianity

L What 1have learned about Christianity (Write at least the five most important ones.)

ISLAM

Guide Question What are the basic features of Islam?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Islam

K ey C oncepts

Qur’an

Muslim

I®- Sunna

Abraham

»» Hadith

Ishmael

»

D®5

Hagar

Tawhid

BSP

Muhammad

Day of Judgment and Day of Resurrection

®5 Mecca

B

US’

Yathrib/Medina

BS=

Khadijah

^

63s Abu Talib US3 ES=

Night of Power

US’

Kabah

B§=

Night of Journey

BS=

Hijra

Five Pillars of Islam (shahadah, salat, zakat, sawm, and hajj) Jihad Sunni and Shia Islam Sufism

Rightly guided caliphs 0®* Caliphs and imams Kg3

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Shari’ah

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EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: ■a? Identify the spiritual and biological ancestors of Muslims, i®- Narrate some key events in the life of Muhammad, the founder of Islam. '«■ Explain the basic features of Islam’s sacred texts, namely the Qur’an and Hadith. >®- Explain the Five Pillars of Islam, namely, shahadah, salat, zakat, sawm, and hajj. is- Distinguish between Sunni Islam and Shiite Islam. «*■ Explain the basic elements of Sufism or Sufi Islam.

Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 131. This can be done individually or as a class.

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS

How did Islam originate? What are its sacred texts?

Because it began only in the seventh century BCE, Islam is considered the youngest of the major religions. But with its followers, the Muslims, constituting almost 25 percent of the world’s population, Islam is considered the second largest religion (Deming 2015, 390). Though earlier Muslims were Arabs, there are actually more non-Arab Muslims today than Arab ones. According to the estimate of Deming (2015, 390), “the nation with the largest Muslim population is Indonesia—where almost 13 percent of all Muslims live (over 200 million according the Pew Research Center). After Indonesia comes Pakistan (175 million), India (160 million), and Bangladesh (145 million). Egypt and Nigeria currently tie for the fifth spot (78 million each); and Iran

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and Turkey tie for the sixth spot (73 million each). Of these eight countries only three are in the Middle East (Egypt, Iran, and Turkey) and only one is Arab (Egypt).”

ISLAM AND THE MUSLIMS The word Islam literally means “surrender” or “submission.” In the context of the religious tradition of Islam, the word specifically means “surrender or submission to God.” The word Muslim or Moslem, on the other hand, means “one who submits to God.’Thus the followers of Islam are the Muslims (or Moslems). Muslims refer to God in Arabic as Allah (see Molloy 2010, 430; Peters 1994, 8-9). The use of the word “Allah” is not intended to qualify the kind of God that Muslims worship. Allah is not different from the God of the Jews or the Christians. Allah, in fact, is the same God that Abraham—a common spiritual ancestor of the Jews, Christians, and Muslims— recognizes. Though most Arabs are Muslims, and the early Muslims were Arabs, the terms “Muslims” and “Arabs” are clearly not equivalent. Before most of the Arabs became Muslims, they were either Jews, Christians, or others (Judaism and Christianity were already established when Islam was only beginning to establish itself). There are Arabs who remained non-Muslims even today—the Arab Jews, Arab Christians, and others. Furthermore, since the spread of Islam outside of Arab territories, there have been various non-Arab Muslims, such as the Muslims in Indonesia (whose population is predominantly Muslims), Pakistan, Philippines, Malaysia, and many other parts of the world. If being a Muslim means submission to God, wouldn’t this make anyone who submits to God, such as devout Jews or Christians, Muslims as well? Submission to God, according to Muslims, means first and foremost accepting and putting into action the fundamental doctrines of Islam, which are contained in the so-called Five Pillars of Islam. If Islam means “submission to God,” then these five pillars are the Five Pillars of Submission to God. In addition to believing in Allah, one also needs to accept other beliefs especially that Muhammad is God’s last prophet or messenger. This means that to be a Muslim, or to be one who submits to God (as Muslims understand it), one must, in addition to believing in God, also accept that Muhammad is God’s last prophet, among others. (See below for a discussion of the five pillars.)

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Islam shares some of the accounts in the Bible of the Jews and Christians, and Muslims recognize most of the prophets mentioned in the Bible. Muslim Arabs, in particular, trace their racial and spiritual roots to Abraham through his son Ishmael. (Some Muslim scholars trace their spiritual roots even to Adam, the first human in the Biblical account.). It will be recalled that Abraham had two sons, Isaac and Ishmael. Isaac was Abraham’s son from his wife Sarah, while Ishmael was Abraham’s son from Hagar, the Egyptian maidservant of Sarah. Isaac had a son, Jacob, also known as Israel, whose 12 sons became the 12 tribes of Israel. One of Jacob’s son was Judah, whose tribe and later on kingdom became the basis of the word “Jews” and “Judaism.” On the other hand, Ishmael travelled with his mother Hagar across the desert to another region. Ishmael is said to have established a tribe called Ishmaelites, who were later on called Arabs. Abraham is the common spiritual ancestor of Muslims, Jews, and Christians in so far as the belief in one God is concerned. But while the Jews trace their racial roots to Abraham through Isaac, the Arabs trace theirs to Abraham through Ishmael.

MUHAMMAD Islam began and developed in the region of Arabia, particularly in the cities of Mecca and Yathrib (Yathrib was later on called Medina— meaning, “the city of the Prophet”) in the early seventh century CE. Muslims believe that the teachings of Islam all come from God or Allah through the revelations Muhammad (also spelled as “Mohammad” or “Mohammed”) (570-632 CE) had. Muhammad is considered in Islam as God’s chosen messenger. In this light, Muslims believe that Islam, in terms of its teachings, was founded by Allah (Peters 1994,3); but as a religious tradition, Islam is widely considered to be founded by Muhammad. Muhammad regarded himself, and likewise by the entire Muslim world, as the last among a series of prophets or messengers of God. Muhammad acknowledged the personalities in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures to whom God revealed his messages, such as Abraham, Noah, Moses, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Muhammad and his followers regarded Jesus as a mere prophet and not as a God as the Christians believe), as all prophets of Islam. Being the last of the prophets, Muhammad and his followers believed that the , messages and instructions revealed to him by God were the final ones. In this regard, Muslims regard Muhammad as the “Seal of the Prophets,” which indicates that there will be no further prophets after him, and consequently, there will be no further revelations from God after those he had. UNIT I

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Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE. Being orphaned at an early age, Muhammad first lived with his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later on, after his grandfather died, with his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of 25, Muhammad married a widow named Khadijah, who was then 40 years old. Muhammad met Khadijah when he worked as a caravan driver for Khadijah, who took over the caravan company when her first husband died. Muhammad and Khadijah led a successful married life which only ended when Khadijah died after 25 years of marriage. They had six children, consisting of two sons and four daughters. The two sons unfortunately died in infancy. Among the daughters, only one, named Fatima, survived after Muhammad’s death. Fatima had two sons from her marriage to Muhammad’s cousin Ali ibn Abu Talib (the son of his uncle Abu Talib), who became the fourth Caliph of Islam and first of the twelve imams (Muslim leaders) after Muhammad’s death. Their two sons, Hassan and Hussein, would later on be recognized as imams (or spiritual leaders). Wanting to deepen his spiritual life, Muhammad frequently went to the caves in the hills surrounding Mecca to meditate. At the age of 40, while meditating in a cave at Mount Hira in about 610 CE, he received his first message from God through a bright presence which Muhammad identified as the angel Gabriel. This first interaction of Muhammad with God through the angel Gabriel has been called the “Night of Power.” Muhammad at first doubted himself about the experience, thinking that he might have just hallucinated. But he was later on assured by the cousin of Khadijah, named Waraqa Ibn Nawfal, who was a believer of one God and who later on became a Christian, that what Muhammad went through was an experience of a prophet that was in line with the experiences of the Jewish and Christian prophets. Muhammad would later on continue to receive messages from God until he died on June 8, 632. Muhammad would share his religious experiences and the messages that he received with the members of his family and close friends (which included his wife, cousin Ali, and close friend Abu Bakr), who became the first Muslims. One of the important messages Muhammad received from God was that only the One God, Allah, should be worshipped. Thus the statues of other gods should be destroyed. This particular revelation put Muhammad in conflict with people in power in Mecca, in particular the people who profited from the business involved in the pilgrimage movement in the region. Mecca was then a center of religious pilgrimage. At the center of Mecca was a square-shaped shrine called Kabah (Kaaba or Ka’aba, which literally means “cube”), which contained a black meteorite which was worshipped for it was

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believed to have been sent from heaven. Within the Kabah were statues of so many tribal gods and goddesses that people worshipped. Yearly, many people from other regions would visit Mecca to worship these gods and goddesses. Because Muhammad taught the people that these statues must not be worshipped and should be destroyed, his life was threatened by the people who were profiting from the yearly pilgrimages. And when his wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib, who had some influence in society, both died, Muhammad feared for his life and considered leaving Mecca. But it was during this stressful time, in 620 CE, that Muhammad had a spiritual experience in which he was carried to Jerusalem and from there, guided by the angel Gabriel, was brought up to heaven (or paradise). Once in heaven, Muhammad first encountered the angels and the previous prophets like Abraham, Noah, and Moses and then was united with God. Muslims have called this experience Muhammad’s Night Journey or Night of Ascent. To escape the increasing persecution of Muhammad and his followers in Mecca, and upon the invitation of the leaders of Yathrib (to serve as an impartial arbitrator of the conflicts there), Muhammad and his followers moved from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 CE.The migration has been called in Arabic the Hijrah (or Hegira). This was a momentous event in the development of Islam, for it was the beginning of the favorable acceptance of Islam and, consequently, of the establishment of the Islamic community (called umma). The Muslims considered this period (of the Hijra) as the beginning year of the Muslim calendar. Soon, despite initial opposition from the Jews and other residents in Yathrib, the Muslims were able to establish themselves in Yathrib, which was later on called Medina. Medina then became one of the three most sacred cities of Islam; the other two are Mecca and Jerusalem. But though already living a relatively peaceful life in Medina, Mohammad had always wanted to go back to Mecca. In a series of war with the Meccans, (in one occasion Mohammad was even injured), the Muslims were able to go back to Mecca and finally take control of the city in 630 CE. Muhammad destroyed the images and statues of the gods and goddesses worshiped in the region and established the Islamic faith. Soon, Islam spread to the other regions of Arabia. Mohammad, though, continued to make Medina the place of his residence. Before his death in Medina in 632 CE, Muhammad was still able to make one final pilgrimage to Mecca and deliver his final speech to the Muslims there (Molloy 2010, 425-29; Matthew 2010, 328-35; Peters 1994, Ch.2, for some other details on the life of Muhammad). In sum, the spiritual ancestors of Islam include Abraham, Ishmael, and the other prophets, which include Noah, Moses, and even Jesus.The founder

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of Islam as a religious tradition, however, was Muhammad. Muhammad, regarded by Muslims as the last prophet or messenger of God, is believed to have received from God his final messages and instructions. Such messages and instructions were later on written down and became the doctrines of Islam, which constitute its holy book, the Qur’an, and bases of its religious practices. And with the military leadership of Muhammad and his faithful followers, the Muslims were able to overcome various obstacles in establishing Islam in Mecca and later on spread it further to the other regions of Arabia and beyond.

THE QUR’AN ANDHADITH Muhammad shared God’s messages to him first to his close family and friends and then to other people. Though some of these revelations were written down by his close followers, memorization through oral transmission was the primary way of preserving these messages. The consistency of these messages was maintained by Muhammad. If there were questions about what these messages really were and meant, Muhammad was there to clarify it. But when Muhammad died, his disciples became concerned about how to deal with the variations that might arise with regard to the messages, so they decided to write down an authoritative version of the messages. The project of writing down Muhammad’s revelations was initiated by Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph (from khalifa which means “successor”) or successor of Muhammad as Islam’s spiritual leader. The project was finished in 656 CE during the caliphate of Uthman. The finished book was called the Qur’an, which literally means “The Recitation” (see Molloy 2010, 425). The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters (or suras), which cover a wide variety of topics which include the spiritual origins of Islam in the persons of the different prophets, values, and specific instructions on how to live an ethical life. As the messages of God were revealed to Muhammad in Arabic, an authoritative written version of these messages had to be in Arabic. Thus, any translation of the Qur’an is considered to be an interpretation of the original messages already. The Qur’an contains the main doctrines of Islam, but to help themselves understand and interpret these doctrines, Muslims rely on what is called the Hadith, which literally means “reports” or “recollections” (Molloy 2010, 462).

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The Hadith consists of written narrations of Muhammad’s life, which report his words, actions, decisions, and characteristics as a person. While the Hadith refers to the entire collection of narrations, a hadith refers to each narration. Each hadith consists of two parts: the text or report itself and the chain or series of narrators for the Hadith (this was intended to give authenticity to the report). Each branch of Islam, however, refers to a different collection of hadiths, though they may be about the same things (that is, about the same events in Muhammad’s life). The idea behind the hadiths was that Muhammad’s life was an ideal manifestation or a perfect model of a life lived according to the teachings of the Qur’an. While Muslims do not regard Muhammad as a god (neither did Mohammad proclaim to be one), they regard him as a human who has lived a spiritually and morally perfect life. Among the hadiths, those recalled by Muhammad’s wife Aishah are regarded as the most trusted. One popular hadith was the one recalled by Umar, the second caliph of Islam. According to his hadith, angel Gabriel appeared in human form and had a conversation with Muhammad about the essence of Islam. It is said that while Muhammad was kneeling, a man kneeled beside him and asked him about what it means to submit to God. Muhammad replied by stating the Five Pillars of Islam, to which the man agreed. When the man left, Muhammad told Umar that the man he talked with was the angel Gabriel (Urubshurow 2009, 230). The Hadith is generally also called the Sunnah. Some Muslim scholars, however, make a distinction between the two (see, for instance, Peters 1994, 214-15; Matthews 2010, 336), and they disagree about the nature of the distinction. We can identify at least three views on this. One view claims that the Hadith as we have defined it is actually the Sunnah, and the Hadith actually just refers to the sayings of Muhammad, which would make the Hadith simply a part of the Sunnah. Another view maintains the identity of the Hadith as we have defined it above, and understands the Sunnah as a set of practices that Muhammad taught the Muslims to follow and which were passed on to the next generations of Muslims. Consequently, this view sees the Sunna as more reliable than the Hadith. Still another view simply regards the Sunnah as referring to the contents of the Hadith, that is, the Hadith is the set of written records of the Sunnah— understood here as referring to the words, actions, and decisions of Muhammad. These are issues that Muslim scholars are to decide on. For our purpose of indicating' another sacred work of Islam that records the ideal life of Muhammad as he practiced the teachings of the Qur’an, it will suffice to follow the third view, that the Hadith contains the Sunnah. UNIT I

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THE SH A R IA H From the religious doctrines of the Qur’an and the Hadith, Islamic scholars formulated the Shari’ah, which literally means “pathway to be followed” or f‘the path leading to the watering place”—for the path to this place is the whole way of life in the desert. Shari’ah refers to the Islamic Law or the basic Islamic legal system. Recognized by most Muslim groups, the Shari’ah is a system of duties, responsibilities, or rules which Muslims must follow as a matter of religion. It covers all aspects of life such as issues arising from one’s personal dealings with other people; matters concerning marriage contracts; trade regulations; how to govern the state; rules for prayer, charity, fasting, sexual intercourse, hygiene, and diet among others; and punishments for specific crimes like theft, drinking alcohol, adultery, and murder (these punishments include beheading, stoning, and flogging). In varying degrees, Shari’ah serves as the basis for making legal laws in many Muslim countries which include Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Brunei, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Mauritania, Qatar, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. In sum, the primary sacred text of Islam is the Qur’an. The secondary ones are the Hadith and the book of Shari’ah. The Qur’an contains God’s messages to Muhammad. As Muhammad is believed to be the last prophet (and there will not be another one), these messages are believed to be the final messages of God to humanity. The Hadith is a written record of the words, actions, decisions, character, and practices of Muhammad, which constitute a perfect model for a life lived according to the teachings of the Qur’an. The Shari’ah refers to the Islamic legal law, which was based on the Qur’an and Hadith and was formulated to serve as specific guidelines for Muslims in carrying out their everyday affairs or activities. sc us s i o n

Q uestions

Identify a movie depicting Muslims. How were the Muslims depicted in the movie? Do you think they were rightly depicted in this movie? Why?

lActivityl

Research on how people in some parts of Mindanao became Muslims and how conflicts in Mindanao were related to Islam. This can be a written or an oral report or a video presentation.

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DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES

What are the major doctrines and practices of Islam?

O neness of G od (T awhid ) At the core of Islamic faith is Tawhid, referring to the belief in the oneness of God. The Arabic word “Allah” for God already existed even before Muhammad received his messages from God, but the Arabs then regarded Allah as merely one among the gods that they worshipped. Acting on the messages that he received from God, Muhammad taught and asserted that only Allah is God and there are no other gods aside from Allah. Allah, in fact, embodies everything that the other gods were thought to embody. That means Allah, the only true God, has all the powers attributed to the other gods, such as the powers to help humans deal with their problems, forgive, and send rains, among others.The Qur’an particularly notes that God, being one, cannot have a father and a son, indicating Islam’s nonacceptance of the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity. Aside from the word “Allah,” Muslims call God by other names (it is said that Muslims have 99 names for God), each name indicating a specific divine power. These names include the following: the Most Compassionate (ar-Rahmn), the Merciful (ar-Rahm), the All-Peaceful, (as-Salm), the Forgiver (al-Ghaffr), the Gentle, Knower of Subtleties (al-Latf), the Grateful (ash-Shakr), the Responsive (al-Mujb), the Praiseworthy (al-Hamd), the Cause of Death (al-Mumt), the Light (an-Nr), and the Patient One (asSabi) (Urubshurow 2009, 199-200). The attributes of God as indicated in these names suggest that the Allah of Muslims is a personal God, one who cares about the affairs and welfare of humans.

T he A fterlife Like the Jews and Christians, Muslims believe in an afterlife and in the Day of Resurrection and Day of Judgment. A day will come when dead humans will be resurrected and will be judged by God according to their deeds on whether they deserve eternal happiness or suffering. In this connection, Muslims also believe in heaven or paradise (Jannah), a place of eternal happiness where good people (people who submit to God’s will) are put by God; and hell (Jahannam), a place of suffering where evil people (those who do not submit to God’s will) are put by God. UNIT I

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A ngels and J inn Muslims also believe in angels and jinn (the singular is jinnie, djinnie, or genie), who are spiritual beings created by God. The angels are believed to have been created by God from light.They do not have free will, and so they are not accountable for their actions and are neither good nor evil. They act as messengers of God to the prophets, who in turn are God’s messengers to the people. For instance, Muhammad received his messages from God through the angel Gabriel. Angels also keep a record of the good and bad actions of humans. It is believed that two angels are assigned to each human being upon birth to record the good and bad actions of the human being and report them back to God on the Day of Judgment. On the other hand, jinn are believed to have been created by God from smokeless and scorching fire. Unlike angels, jinn have free will and thus are morally accountable for their actions and are either good or evil. For this reason, like humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment and will be sent either to heaven/paradise or hell. When God ordered the angels and jinn to bow down to Adam, the first human, a jinnie called Satan refused to do so. As a result, God banished Satan from Paradise. Satan and his followers continue to disobey God by tempting humans not to obey God’s commands. An example is Satan’s temptation of Abraham to disobey God’s command to offer his son as a sacrifice.

THE PROPHETS As already noted, Muslims believe in prophets or messengers of God. God speaks to the people through the prophets. Muslims recognize many of the prophets recognized by the Jews and Christians though they appear in the Qur’an in their Arabic names. These include Adam (Adem), the first prophet, Abraham (Ibrahim), Ishmael (lsm‘l), Noah (Nu), Moses (Musa), Elisha (Alyasa), David (Dawid), John the Baptist (Yahya), Jesus (Isa), and Muhammad. Jesus, as earlier noted, is recognized as a prophet and not as a god. Muhammad, as also previously mentioned, is regarded as the last of the prophets (Peters 1994, 185-189).

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM There are five obligatory activities for all Muslims. They are standardly referred to as the Five Pillars of Islam. These activities were mentioned by Muhammad in the famous hadith involving the angel Gabriel.To recall, in this hadith, Muhammad had a brief interaction with Gabriel who had assumed

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a human form. The angel Gabriel asked Muhammad what “submission to God”—or “Islam”— meant, and Muhammad replied by stating the five pillars. The five pillars, which define the Muslim life, consist of the following: (1) testimony of faith (shahadah), which requires Muslims to publicly profess or affirm their faith in the oneness of God and in the authority of Muhammad as God’s messenger; (2) prayer (salat), which requires Muslims to pray to God five times each day; (3) charity for the poor (zakat), which requires Muslims to donate a certain percentage of their resources to the poor; (4) fasting during Ramadan (sawm), which requires Muslims to abstain from taking in food and water for a specified period of time; and (5) pilgrimage to Mecca (haj)), which requires Muslims who are physically and financially capable to visit the holy place of Mecca at least once in their lifetime. 1. Testimony of Faith (Shahadah) The shahadah or the Islamic testimony of faith is the most important among the pillars for it serves as the foundation for the other pillars. Anyone who submits to the will of the one God and in the authority of the messages that Muhammad received from God must worship God through daily prayers, provide help to those who are in need, make sacrifices and empathize with the unfortunate ones through fasting, and give honor to the place of origin of one’s faith. The testimony of faith is done by publicly reciting in Arabic the Islamic creed which can be translated in English as “There is no god but God (Allah), and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Non-Muslims wanting to be converted to Islam must recite the creed with conviction. Muslims, for their part, regularly recite it to reaffirm their Islamic faith or to verify their membership in the Islamic community (or simply to tell the world that they are Muslims). The creed is recited in their daily prayers, and it is written in Arabic everywhere inside their mosques and over the doors of these mosques. It is also the first words traditionally spoken into the ear of a newborn from a Muslim family. 2. Prayer (Salat) Daily prayers are obligatory on every Muslim who has reached the age of puberty, unless one is p h y s ic a lly a n d /o r m e n ta lly incapable of saying them. The daily prayers are done five times a day:

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(1) before dawn, (2) at midday/noon, (3) mid-afternoon, (4) sunset, and (5) nighttime. They are intended to focus the mind on God, express gratitude to God, and worship him. The prayers are recited from memory in Arabic, and they consist of verses from the Qur’an ' and other prayer formulas. They are also accompanied by several body postures: standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting (exceptions are given to those physically incapable of performing these postures). Prayers are done facing the direction of Mecca (they were earlier done facing the direction of Jerusalem until later revelations to Muhammad changed the direction to Mecca). A person called a muezzin usually announces the times for prayer from the top of a tower called a minaret. Nowadays, calls to prayer are recorded and are played over loudspeakers. A purification ritual, particularly a ritual washing called wudu, is done before performing the prayers. It consists of washing certain body parts with water (or with sand if water is unavailable). Prayers may be done almost everywhere, such as at homes, offices, universities, and fields, or at mosques, except on Fridays, the day of public prayer, during which prayers are done at mosques at midday in most Muslim countries (the day of public prayer used to be Saturday following the Jewish Sabbath until it was changed to Friday in accordance to a message received by Muhammad from God). Public prayers are usually done by men only at a mosque. Women ordinarily pray at home, but when they are allowed to pray at a mosque, they are separated from the men. 3. Charity for the Poor (Zakat) The practice of zakat is in line with Muhammad’s overall vision of a just society. To address the injustices and inequality existing in society, Islam requires believers to donate a certain percentage (usually 2.5 percent) of their total resources or accumulated wealth each year to the poor. This practice is also done as a way of submitting one’s properties to the purposes of God. The payment of zakat, or the giving of charity, is usually done at the end of the month of Ramadan. Those who do not have much money should compensate for it by doing good deeds toward others. Aside from the yearly obligation to give charity to the poor, Muslims are also expected to perform charitable acts whenever necessary, as Islam highly regards these acts as morally valuable.

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4. Fasting during Ramadan {Sawm) Fasting is done by Muslims on many occasions. They fast to atone for their sins, fulfill certain obligations, or observe certain special days. Ritual and shared fasting is done during the month of Ramadan, which is the ninth month in the Islamic (lunar) calendar. From dawn to dusk, Muslims must avoid all food, water, tobacco, and sex everyday of this month. Fasting during the month of Ramadan (which falls differently every year since its determination is based on the lunar calendar) is required for all Muslims at the age of puberty and up, except if one is physically not capable for reasons like illness, old age, and certain female conditions such as pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menstruation. Fasting during Ramadan serves several purposes for Muslims. Generally, it is done to promote spiritual growth or purification by disciplining an individual’s desires, foster spiritual unity among Muslims, empathize with the suffering and the poor, and reinforce dependence on God. It was also during the last ten days of the month of Ramadan when Muhammad first received his revelations. The feast at the end of this month is therefore seen as a fitting way to celebrate this special event. Furthermore, during Ramadan, Muslims are expected to exert more effort to follow the teachings of Islam, such as seeking forgiveness from God, expressing gratitude to God, reading the Qur’an, and refraining from doing bad deeds. 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) The annual pilgrimage to Mecca or hajj is required for all Muslims who are physically and financially capable. The pilgrimage is done from the eigth to twelfth (or in some cases thirteenth) month of the Islamic (lunar) calendar. Even before Muhammad was born, pilgrim age to Mecca was already a regular religious practice. While the practice began with Abraham, later pilgrims worshipped other tribal gods and goddesses. Muhammad adopted this practice but in light of Abraham’s belief in one God. Thus the objective of the pilgrimage for Muslims is to give honor to the holy places

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associated with Allah and his prophets, such as the Kabah (believed to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael) which houses the black meteorite (believed to have been sent by God through Angel Gabriel), and the places where Hagar and Ishmael drew water while travelling across the desert, and where Abraham offered Ishmael as a sacrifice to God (this contrasts to the Jewish and Christian account in which it was Isaac who Abraham offered to God as a sacrifice). A Muslim male who has undertaken the journey to Mecca is called a hajji(male pilgrim), while a Muslim female who has done the same is called a hajjiyah (a female pilgrim). Being a hajji or a hajjiyah confers prestige to a Muslim. It must be noted however that Muslims distinguish between this annual required pilgrimage to Mecca, called the “greater pilgrimage,” and the voluntary pilgrimage to Mecca which can be done at other times of the year, called the “lesser pilgrimage.” Pilgrims, both men and women, refrain from certain actions like sex and violence. Men wear a special clothing called the robe of Abraham, which consists of two pieces of white, seamless cloth. Though there is no required clothing for women, they usually dress in white and they do not veil their faces during the pilgrimage.

*

During the pilgrimage, Muslims perform a series of rituals that involve giving honor to certain places and objects associated with the prophets Abraham, Ishmael, and Muhammad, and reenacting important events in the lives of these prophets (Molloy 2010, 431-437; Matthews 2010, 335-37 for additional discussions of the five pillars).

T he J ihad Though not officially a pillar, the important Islamic principle called the jihad—which literally means “struggle"— is sometimes referred to by some Muslims as the sixth pillar. Nowadays, most non-Muslims understand jihad as a military warfare or battle of Muslims against non-Muslims. Muhammad and his followers did engage in military warfare against non-Muslims when they went back to Mecca from Medina, so jihad does include the meaning of physical struggle to defend Islam. But jihad is not limited to this. It also means psychological, spiritual, and moral struggle to overcome the evils

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within oneself and in one’s environment and thus to lead an ethical life according to the principles of Islam. In this consideration, a distinction is made between greater jihad, referring to spiritual self-perfection, and lesser jihad, referring to warfare. In its general sense, jihad thus means any kind of struggle to defend the faith of Islam.

O ther I slamic P ractices Other Islamic religious practices include the following (Molloy 2010, 437-40). Muslims are opposed to the practice of celibacy even for their imams (religious leaders). Males are allowed to have four wives whom he must treat equally, while women are allowed to have only one husband. Muslims are forbidden to eat pork, drink alcohol, and engage in usury and gambling. Muslims also practice circumcision. Male Muslims are circumcised between the ages of 7 days and 15 years (age 7 or 8 is common) depending on local practice. In some Muslim areas, even women are circumcised at the age of puberty. This practice is sometimes referred to as female genital mutilation. Both men and women are required by the Qur’an to wear modest clothes, which has been translated to include, among others, the practice of covering the hair or both hair and faces of women by a veil or headscarf in varying ways in different Muslim regions. In traditional Muslim societies, the parents arrange the marriage of their children. The bridegroom’s family provides dowry, or an offer of money or property, to the family of the bride as part of the marriage contract. Some of the main festivals and holy days observed by the Muslims are the following: Day of Sacrifice {Id al-Adha), which is celebrated during the month of the Hajj; Day of Breaking the Fast {Id al-Ftr), which is observed just after the end of the month of Ramadan; Muharram, which celebrates the migration of Muhammad and his followers to Yathrib (Medina); Muhammad’s birthday, which is celebrated on the twelfth day of the third month of the year; and the birthdays of other holy men and women of Islam. ^ A c tiv ity ! Interview a Muslim about how he or she understands jihad and its importance to Muslim life. This can be a written or an oral report.

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DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Questions What are the denominations of Islam? What are some of its major challenges?

Just like other world religions, Islam has many sects or denominations. In this section, we shall look into the three major ones: Sunni Islam, Shia/ Shiite Islam, and Sufi Islam.

T he R ightly G uided Caliphs After Muhammad’s death, the Islamic world was headed by the caliphs (which literally means “successors”). The first four were (1) Abu Bakr, who reigned from 632-634 CE; (2) Umar, who reigned from 634-644 CE; (3) Uthman, who reigned from 644-656 CE; and (4) Ali, who reigned from 656-661 CE. It was during the reign of these four caliphs that Islam spread in many regions outside of Arabia (such as Iran, Africa, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt), which eventually led to Islam becoming a world power. Islamic countries enjoyed economic prosperity during this period. It was also during this time that the Qur’an was finalized, reproduced, and distributed to many parts of the world. The reign of these four caliphs is considered the golden age of Islam and has been called the era of “The Rightly Guided Caliphs” (Peters 1994, 115).

T he I ssue of S uccession When Muhammad died, there was a disagreement over who should be his rightful successor. Some felt that it should be someone elected by the Islamic community and has the moral authority to be its leader (being a devout Muslim), while some felt that it should be a direct descendant or someone in the bloodline of Muhammad. Muhammad, however, did not have a living son when he died (his two sons from his first wife both died in infancy and apparently he did not have a son from his other wives as well). Though Abu Bakr was the father-in-law of Muhammad, being the father of Muhammad’s youngest wife Aisha, he was not an immediate family or a blood relative of Muhammad. It was only Ali who was a blood relative of Muhammad. He was the prophet’s first cousin, as he was the son of Muhammad’s uncle, Abu Talib. Ali later on became Muhammad’s son-in-law for being the husband of

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his daughter Fatima. Because of this, some felt that it was AN who was the rightful successor of Muhammad. Ali and Fatima had two sons, who should rightfully succeed Ali as the caliph (Molloy 2010,443-446 and Peters 1994, Chapter 3 for a discussion of the succession issue).

T he S unnis and S hiites The question of who should be the rightful successor of Muhammad divided the Muslim world into two major groups, the Sunnis (or Sunni Muslims) and the Shiites (Shia’s or Shia Muslims).These form the two major denominations of Islam, Sunni Islam and Shia or Shiate Islam, respectively (see Molloy 2010,446-52; Matthews 2010,337-38).The Sunnis, the largest denomination of Islam (making up 75 to 90 percent of all Muslims today), believe that a caliph should be elected by the community. Anyone who is righteous and just, and who is living according to the teachings of the Qur’an and the Hadith, could be a caliph. Since God did not appoint a particular leader after Muhammad’s death and the first four caliphs were elected and were followers of the Qur’an and the Hadith, these four caliphs were rightful leaders of Islam. The Shiites (making up about 10 to 15 percent of all Muslims today), however, have a different belief. They believe that only a descendant or blood relative of Muhammad could be his successor. And since only Ali was Muhammad’s blood relative among the first four caliphs, the Shiites believe that only Ali was the legitimate or rightful one, which makes Ali the first legitimate caliph. The term “Shia” is a contraction of shiaatAli (or ShiatAli), meaning supporters or followers of Ali. The Shiites claim that Muhammad himself on one occasion named Ali as his successor. The Shiites also believe that only the descendants or blood relatives of Muhammad can be imams or spiritual leaders of Islam. An imam, in its general usage, refers to any religious leader. The Sunnis also refer to the caliphs as imams, indicating that their usage of imam only refers to political leaders. In contrast, the Shiites consider only Ali, among the four caliphs, as an imam, indicating that their usage of the word “imam” refers to a spiritual or religious leader. This ties up with their belief that an imam, a religious leader of Islam, should come from the bloodline of Muhammad and is therefore chosen by God. Furthermore, Shiites believe that caliphs should be imams, that is to say, political leaders should be religious leaders as well, just like in the case of Muhammad who was both a political and spiritual leader. After the death of Ali, there has, however, been no agreement on the number of legitimate imams among Shiites. One Shiite group (called the

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“Twelvers”) claims there are twelve; another group (the “Seveners”) claims there are seven; and still another group (the “Fivers”) claims that there are only five. When Uthman, the third caliph, was murdered, Ali became the fourth caliph. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah (from the Umayyad dynasty), challenged the authority of Ali. Muawiyah, a cousin of Uthman, was disappointed in the inability of Ali to bring the murderers of Uthman (later on believed to be supporters of Ali) to justice. After wars between the forces of Ali and Muawiyah were fought, Ali submitted to a peaceful process of settling his dispute with Muawiyah. However during the said process, Ali was assassinated. Ali’s son Hassan succeeded Ali as the next caliph, but his reign was short. To avoid civil war and further bloodshed with the troops of Muawiyah, Hassan gave up his leadership to Muawiyah. Hassan, however, did this on the condition that Muawiyah would not appoint a successor and let the Islamic world decide who the next caliph after Muawiyah’s reign would end. It is said that Hassan and Muawiyah thus entered into a treaty in this regard. Hassan later on died, believed to have been poisoned by the men of Muawiya. Before Muawiyah’s death, he appointed his son Yazid to be his successor, and so Yazid became the next caliph. Meanwhile, Ali’s other son Hussein refused to recognize the authority of Yazid for it violated the alleged treaty between Muawiyah and Hassan. Furthermore, Hussein decided to assert his right to the caliphate, being the son of Ali. In one of the battles between the forces of Hussein and Yazid, particularly in Karbala (modern Iraq), Hussein was killed along with the members of his family. As the forces that killed Hussein were identified with the Sunnis, the killing of Hussein heightened the conflict and division between the Sunnis and the Shiites. The death of Hussein is regarded by the Shiites as a heroic act of martyrdom (fighting for his God-given right to the caliphate) and has been regularly reenacted by the Shiites as part of their religious rituals. Hussein’s martyrdom, in particular, is remembered annually during the month of Muharram. The Shiites’ veneration of Hussein, along with his father Ali, constitutes one major difference in the religious rituals of the Sunnis and the Shiites.

T he S ufis Sufism is the mystical version of Islam. It is called Tasawwuf (literally, “to dress in wool”) in Arabic. The term “Sufism” comes from the Arabic word suf, which means “wool,” the material that makes up the garments worn by Sufi ascetics.

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Sufism has various orders and many prominent leaders, one of whom was Ibn Arabi (1165-1240). If the division of Islam into the Sunni and Shia versions came about after the death of Muhammad, Sufi Islam came about after the reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. After the reign of these caliphs, Islam spread to many regions and eventually became an empire. Being a world power, Islam enjoyed material prosperity and luxuries (mainly from tribute money from the conquered). The question of whether worldly power and wealth was the real objective of Islam eventually arose. As a reaction to the worldliness enjoyed by Islam during that period, Sufi Islam developed. Sufism emphasized what it thought to be essential in Islam, its spirituality, which has been undermined or lost when Islam became a world power (Molloy 2010, 453-59; Matthews 2010, 341-43). Sufism is not an Islam sect that is separate or distinct from Sunni and Shia Islam (though as we shall discuss later on, some fundamentalist Muslims do not consider Sufism as part of Islam), for it can be found within the Sunni and Shia sects. That is to say, there are Sunni Sufis and Shia Sufis. The Sufis’ take on surrendering oneself to tawhid or the oneness of God is for each individual to have a direct experience of God and be united with Him. The Sufis believe that this can be achieved in this world by means of certain meditative practices. Knowledge of God is achieved not by the usual means of logical understanding, which they believe is limited, but by means of intuition and mystical or religious experiences. Aside from praying and repetitiously reciting the different names of God, some Sufis, particularly the Dervishes of the Melveli order in Turkey, also engage in what is called Sufi whirling (or spinning) meditation, which is a kind of physically active meditation. It is a form of dance performed as part of a worship ceremony, in which performers spin in circles, symbolically imitating the spinning of the planets as they orbit the sun. Through this dance, the performers aim to abandon their egos or personal desires and focus on God and the music. For Sufis, worshipping God is done not out of fear of hell or desire for heaven, but solely out of love for God. This view is well captured by Rabia al Basri, one of the famous Sufi poets, in her poem “If I Adore You”: If I adore You out of fear of Hell, burn me in Hell! If I adore You out of desire for Paradise, Lock me out of Paradise. But if I adore You for Yourself alone, Do not deny to me Your eternal beauty. (Translated by Charles Upton. Taken from Poet Seers, Sufi Poets. Online: )

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Sufis believe that God’s presence can be felt anywhere, in every aspect of nature. In this regard, they allude to certain verses of the Qur’an like “Whithersoever you turn, there is the Face of God” (Sura 2: 109) and God is “closer than your neck vein” (Sura 50:8). Also a common practice among Sufis is the visitation or pilgrimages to the tombs of Islamic saints, great scholars, and righteous people to seek spiritual guidance and ask blessings from their spirits. Sufism contributed significantly to the development of Islamic literature, especially in the area of poetry. Using their own languages and blending Islamic themes with inherited popular stories or legends, the Sufi poets contributed to the development of regional and national literature. The great Sufi poets include Omar Khayyam, Rumi, Kabir, Hafiz, Attar, Rabia al Basri, Yunus Emre, Bibi Hayati, and Bulleh Shah. Sufi poetry is known for expressing divine love and describing the mystical union of the soul with God using metaphors of secular love and union with the beloved. Following are some samples of these charming poems (all taken from Poet Seers, Sufi Poets. Online: ). From Rumi: I was dead, then alive. Weeping, then laughing. The power of love came into me, and I became fierce like a lion, then tender like the evening star. From Omar Khayyam (“Enjoy”—A verse from the Rubaiyat): In life devote yourself to joy and love Behold the beauty of the peaceful dove Those who live, in the end must all perish Live as if you are already in heavens above. From Hafiz: I have enough of loss, enough of gain; I have my Love, what more can I obtain? From A Hallaj (“I Am the One Whom I Love”): I am the One whom I love, and the One whom I love is myself. We are two souls incarnated in one body; if you see me, you see Him, if you see Him, you see us.

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Sadly the Sufis are being persecuted by certain Muslim groups. Many of their mosques and shrines have been destroyed and some of their orders have been outlawed in certain Muslim countries. One reason is political, like when the Sufis or their leaders would not support the political leadership in certain Muslim countries. Another is the perception of some Muslims, mostly the fundamentalists, that Sufi practices are contrary to the teachings of Islam. For instance, Sufis are accused of engaging in polytheism for venerating the saints and great teachers. They are also criticized or persecuted for believing that God is everywhere and for opposing the Islamic belief in the Day of Judgment for they claim that it is possible to be united with God while living in this world by means of certain practices like the whirling dance.

S ome C hallenges What are some of the challenges facing Islam in the world today? The Jews are still troubled by the Israeli-Arab wars. The Muslims, on the other hand, are still troubled by their internal wars, particularly between the Sunnis and the Shiites, and between mainstream Islam and Sufism. Islam has also been associated with some terrorist acts, whether rightly or wrongly. Another challenge concerns how women are treated in Islam. While outsiders may see that Muslim women are not enjoying the rights that they deserve or are entitled to, insiders generally see that the Islamic laws and practices pertaining to women are precisely intended to protect women from being corrupted by the undesirable ways of the world, especially those of the West (see Matthews 2010 346-51 for additional discussion on the challenges of Islam in the modern world).

SCUSSION

iESTIONS

Which do you think has the better view on how Muhammad’s successor should be chosen, the Sunnis or the Shiites? Why?

I^ A c tivity l

I.

Research on a work of art (architecture, painting, music, novel, or poetry) that was inspired by or is associated with Islam. How is Islam shown in this work of art? This can be a short paper or a video presentation.

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II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept

Islam

map.

Review Questions Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The word Islam m eans----------------a. worship of God b. surrender/submission to God c. oneness of God

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2. Muslims see Muhammad as th e __________ a. Seal of the Prophets c. First Prophet b. Leader of the Prophets 3. The first interaction of Muhammad with God through the angel Gabriel is called__________ a. Night of Ascent c. Night of Power b. Night of Faith 4. Muhammad’s spiritual experience in which he was carried to Jerusalem and brought up to heaven is called__________ a. Night of Ascent c. Night of Power b. Night of Faith 5. ---------------- has been called the City of the Prophet a. Mecca c. Hegira b. Medina 6. The Qur’an literally m eans__________ a. The Revelations c. The Recitation b. The Teachings 7. T h e _________ consists of written narrations of Muhammad’s life. a. Qur’an c. Shari’ah b. Hadith 8. The following refers to the Islamic Law or the basic Islamic legal system: a. Qur’an c. Shari’ah b. Hadith 9. Muslims refer to God in Arabic a s __________ a. Allah c. Deus b. Tawhid 10. _________ are spiritual beings who have no free will and act as God’s messengers to the prophets. a. Angels c. Imams b. Jinn 11. The Muslims’ testimony of faith is referred to in Arabic as________ a. salat c. zakat b. shahadah

d.

hajj

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12. The Muslims’ prayer done on a daily basis is referred to in Arabic a s ----------------a. salat c. zakat b. shahadah

d. jihad

13. T h e _________ means struggle and it is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam. a. salat c. jihad b. zakat

d. sawm

14. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and AN are known in the Muslim world as th e __________ a. four venerable imams c. four most loyal Muslims b. rightly guided caliphs 15. T h e _________ believe that a caliph should be elected by the community. a. Sunnis c. Sufis b. Shiites 16. T h e _________ believe that only a descendant or blood relative of Muhammad could be his successor. a. Sunnis c. Sufis b. Shiites 17. _________ refers to mystical Islam. a. Sunni Islam c. Sufism b. Shia Islam 18. His death isregarded by the Shiites as a heroic act of martyrdom a. Hassan

c. AN

b. Hussein 19. The Shiites call their religious leaders__________ a. caliphs c. Prophets b. imams 20. The Muslim belief in the oneness of God is called. a. Sawm b. Jannah c. Tawhid

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson K What 1know about Islam

W What 1want to know about Islam

L What 1have learned about Islam (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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Overarching Questions What are the main features of Hinduism and Buddhism? What are the main features of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto?

Content

Performance

Demonstrate an understanding of the main features of religions originating in India (Hinduism and Buddhism), China (Confucianism and Taoism), and Japan (Shinto) in terms of their origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denomina­ tions, and challenges.

Perform the different activities specified in the chapters and lessons under this unit, where you will use your learning to reflect on your own spirituality.

LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The unit generally aims to introduce the nature of religions originating in India (Hinduism and Buddhism), China (Confucianism and Taoism), and Japan (Shinto). After going through the various lessons under this unit, you are expected to come up with a reflection paper about how these lessons have broadened your view of life and have deepened your spiritual life.

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LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

Chapter 3

Competencies

Content

Hinduism and Buddhism «■ How did Hinduism and Buddhism originate? Who were their founders? <® What are the sacred texts of Buddhism and Hinduism? ■®- What are the basic doctrines and practices of Buddhism and Hinduism? ■® What are the denominations and challenges of Buddhism and Hinduism?

4

Confucianism, and Shinto

Taoism, i® How did Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto originate? Who were their founders? i® What are the sacred texts of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto? <® What are the basic doctrines and practices of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto? i® What are the denominations and challenges of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto?

PRELEARNING CONCEPT CHECK D i r e c t i o n : Mark the level of your knowledge or understanding of the

statements in the table using the following signs: 0 — no knowledge + — low level of knowledge ++ — average or moderate level of knowledge +++ — high level of knowledge At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit II). Answer the right column (After Studying Unit II) after you have studied all the lessons in the unit.

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Before Studying Unit II

Statements

After Studying Unit II

1. The primary Hindu (revealed) sacred texts are the Vedas. 2. The epics Ramayanc. and Mahabhrata are part of the sacred texts of Hinduism. 3. The Hindus believe in one absolute reality (called Brahman) and many gods and goddesses (believed to be manifestations of Brahman) at the same time. 4. Reincarnation and karma are among the beliefs of Hinduism. 5. Hindus believe in a social stratification system called the caste system. 6. Hindus practice various types of yoga to achieve liberation from suffering and the illusions of the world. 7. Hindus believe that gods can have human incarnations which they call avatars. 8. Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was a former prince who later on became a hermit before reaching enlightenment and becoming the Buddha. 9. Buddhism teaches the Four NobleTruths, which analyzes the cause and end of life’s sufferings. 10. Buddhism has two major denominations: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. 11. Mahayana Buddhism teaches that a bodhisattva is one who has attained enlightenment but postpones his/her entry into the state of nirvana out of compassion to help others also attain enlightenment. 12. Confucianism and Taoism are two world religions that originated in China.

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13. Confucianism appeals to the “Mandate of Heaven” in explaining the origin of things and in judging what ought to happen or be done in the world. 14. Confucianism conceives of an ideal person, described as a noble person or a gentleman, who is educated, virtuous, appreciative of the arts, and knowledgeable of rituals and ceremonies. 15. The authoritative books of Confucianism were used as the bases for civil service examinations in China for a long period of time. 16. Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are the two important Taoist thinkers/philosophers. 17. Taoism teaches that the ultimate principle of reality, called the Tao, cannot be spoken. 18. Taoism teaches the principle of acting without actions (wu-wei) as a way to go with the natural flow of nature. 19. Taoism believes that nature leads to the harmony of opposite forces (yin and yang). 20. Taoism engages in alchemy to achieve immortality. 21. The practices of Tai Chi and Feng Shui have Taoist bases. 22. Shinto originated in Japan. 23. Shinto believes in spirits, called kami, inhabiting nature. 24. Japanese emperors were regarded as gods in Shinto. 25. Places of worship in Shinto are called shrines.

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O ^ T jE R * I

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Overarching Question What are the main features of Hinduism and Buddhism in terms of their origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges?

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, the two major religions that originated in India. Specifically, the chapter looks into the origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges of these religions. At the end of the chapter, you must write and submit a comparative analysis of these two religions (the themes are to be specified by the teacher). Such themes may include the religions’ founders; sacred texts; notions of the absolute; views on the essential human condition, morality, and liberation (or way to achieve ultimate happiness); practices (which include rituals and celebrations); denominations; and challenges (which include issues concerning gender, relation with the state, modernization and technology, and the expanding understanding of human rights). The following is a sample template for this activity (the teacher is free to make changes as he/she sees fit).

Religion

Hinduism

Buddhism

Founder(s). Sacred Texts The Absolute The Human Condition Morality Liberation and Ultimate Happiness

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Practices Denominations Challenges^

LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

Learning Lesson 6. Hinduism

Competency Trace the origins of Hinduism and identify its sacred texts. «■ Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Hinduism. «*■ Distinguish the different denominations of Hinduism and discuss some of its challenges.

Lesson 7. Buddhism

Trace the origins of Buddhism and identify its sacred texts. ■s' Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Buddhism. Distinguish the different denominations of Buddhism and discuss some of its challenges.

EXPLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D VIEW S

1. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you can associate with Hinduism.

2. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you can associate with Buddhism.

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» *9#•«#"ff1,0, ■

HINDUISM Guide Question What are the basic features of Hinduism?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origin and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Key Concepts tllf

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Indus River Dravidians

03= Aryans »*• Harappan culture «■ Aryan Invasion Theory w Aryan Immigration Theory «■ Shruti and Smiriti texts «*■ The Four Vedas: Rig Veda, YayurVeda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda ■a- Four Parts of the Vedas: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads

«*■ Ramayana and the Mahabharata **■ Rama and Krishna •a- Bhagavad Gita «■ Brahman and Atman ■s- The Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva ■s- Maya and Moksha •a- Samsara and Karma >s- Varna, Ashram, and Purushartha «■ The Four Denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism ■s- The Six Philosophical Schools: Samkhyaj Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta

UNIT II

139

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: »

Explain how Hinduism began along the banks of the Indus River.

is- Explain the difference between the Aryan Invasion and Aryan Migration Theories. «■ Distinguish between the two kinds of Hindu sacred texts: the Shruti and Smiriti texts. «*• Identify and distinguish among the Four Vedas. «■ Discuss the plots of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. ■a- Explain the nature and relationship of Brahman and Atman. •3s Explain the many Hindu deities as manifestations of Brahman. ■a? Identify and describe the three primary gods constituting the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. **■ Discuss the concents of karma, samsara, maya, moksha, varna (caste), ashram (state of life), purushartha (basic aims of life), and yoga. <& Distinguish the kinds of yoga. ■3" Distinguish the different religious forms of Hinduism: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. cr Distinguish the six main Hindu orthodox philosophical schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vendata. «■ Discuss some of the challenges of Hinduism today.

|^Activityl

Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS

How did Hinduism originate? What are its sacred texts?

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H indus and H induism Hinduism is the largest religion in India, the second most populous country in the world. Deming (2015, 10) estimates that more than 80 percent of the inhabitants of India, which is about 1 billion people, consider themselves Hindu. Aside from this, Deming (Ibid.) also states that “[m]ore than 30 million Hindus also live in the countries surrounding India, such as Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan; and large populations can be found in Indonesia, Malaysia, the United States, Mauritius, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.” As of 2010, Matthews (2010, 66) estimates that there are more than 830 million adherents of Hinduism in the world. Hinduism began along the banks of the Indus River. A greater part of this river lies in what is presently called Pakistan, which used to be a part of India. The words “India” and “Hindu,” in fact, were derived from the word Indus (Molloy 2010,78-79). According to archeological findings on this river, there were already people who lived along its banks in or even earlier than the second millennium BCE.These people, called the Dravidians, were highly civilized.Their sophisticated civilization was called the Harappan civilization, and one of their largest cities, called Mohenjo Daro, had a population of about 40,000 people in 2000 BCE (Koller 1985, 21). The Dravidians had their own system of religious beliefs and practices. But in about 1500 BCE, the Aryans, a group of people of Indo-European background, came to the region. The Aryans, too, were highly civilized and also had their own religious beliefs and practices. It was during this period that the sacred texts of Hinduism, generally called the Vedas and which were written in Sanskrit, were believed to have been written. In light of these circumstances, there are two accounts of how Hinduism originated. The first, called the Aryan Invasion Theory, claims that the Aryans invaded and imposed their culture and religion on the Dravidians (Klostermaier 2007, 18-20). This would make the Aryans the writers of the Vedas, and thus the founders of Hinduism. For some time, this account was generally accepted until it was challenged by the second account.The second account, called the Aryan Migration Theory, maintains that the Aryans just migrated in repeated waves into the region (Pakistan and Northern India), and intermingled with the Dravidians (Urubshurow 2009,357,359-60; Jacobs 2010, 8-10). There was then a cultural interaction between the Dravidians and Aryans, which gave rise to the religious beliefs and practices contained UNIT II

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in the Vedas. The Vedas, in this regard, might have been written by the Aryans only or by both the Aryans and Dravidians. In any case, the origins of Hinduism, in this consideration, cannot be traced exclusively to the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans (Matthews 2010, 65-66 and History of Hinduism fn Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004). The fact is that it is generally not known who really wrote the Vedas. For this reason, unlike other world religions, the specific founders of Hinduism are unknown. Like most world religions, Hinduism does not refer to a particular set of religious beliefs shared by all Hindus. Hinduism refers to a family of religions that are native to India, are based on the Vedic traditions, and share certain doctrines in varying degrees. (We shall examine these doctrines in the next section.) The Hindus in fact did not originally use the word Hinduism to refer to their own religious views. The word was previously an “outsider’s term,” used as a convenient term by non-Hindu scholars studying the religious views of Hindus. Early Hindus, especially their scholars, referred to their own religious beliefs as Sanatana Dharma (meaning, “eternal law”). While this was the case, most Hindus, however, later on adopted the outsider’s term “Hinduism” to refer to their own religious beliefs (see Jacobs 2010, 6).

T he S hruti and S mriti T exts The sacred texts of Hinduism are divided into two main categories: Shruti, which literally means “what is heard,” and Smriti, which literally means “what is remembered” (Matthews 2010, 68-69; Urubshurow 2009, 384). Shruti refers to all Hindu sacred texts containing revealed knowledge (or knowledge based on direct experience), while Smriti refers to all Hindu sacred texts containing remembered knowledge (or knowledge based on the recollection of the experience). The Shruti texts (“revealed texts”) therefore are primary sources that contain truths that are eternal and unchanging and of divine origin, while the Smriti texts (“remembered texts”) are secondary sources that contain truths that may change over time and are of human origin. Shruti texts are true by themselves while Smiriti texts are true only in so far as they conform to the Shruti texts. The main Shruti texts are the Vedas. On the other hand, the main Smriti texts consist of the following: (a) the Itihasas (the epic poems), consisting of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (of which the Bhagavad Gita is the most important part) (Urubshurow 2009, 387-89); (b) the Puranas, consisting of comprehensive discussions of the history of the universe, the genealogies of kings, heroes, and demigods, and Hindu cosmology and geography); (c) the Dharma Shastra, referring to the books about laws and

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

rules of behavior, such as the book Laws ofManu (Matthews 2010, 77-78); and (d) the Later Sutras, referring to later Hindu texts like the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Urubshurow 2009,390-391). In what follows, we shall examine the Vedas and the two epic poems.

T he F our V edas The term Vedas, which means “wisdom” or “knowledge,” refers to the writings about the attainment of wisdom or knowledge of the true nature of reality, which is regarded as a necessary condition for overcoming the suffering in this world. The Vedas consists of four basic sacred texts— Rig Veda, Yayur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda (written around 1500 BCE), the “wisdom of the verses” or “hymn knowledge,” is considered the most important and the oldest of the Vedas. It is a collection of chants and rituals used to honor various gods and goddesses who are called the Vedic deities. Some of these gods and goddesses are: Indra (the chief of the gods; the god of storms and monsoons), Agni (the god of sacrificial fire), Vac (the goddess of communication), Soma (the god of intoxication manifested in plants), Surya (the sun god), Varuna (the god of the sky; the guardian of the cosmic order), Mitra (the god of faith­ keeping and loyalty), and Rita (the god of order and principles) (Matthews 2010, 69-71). The later Vedas (written around 1000 BCE) are generally elaborations of the verses and rituals of the Rig Veda. The Yayur Veda, the “wisdom of the sacrificial formulas” or “ceremonial knowledge,” is a collection of materials recited during sacrificial ceremonies and ritual activities. The Sama Veda, the “wisdom of the chants” or “chant knowledge,” is a collection of musical expressions of the verses from the Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda, the “wisdom of the Atharvan priests,” is a collection of practical prayers and magical prayers for specific purposes, like spells for a long life, curses, love charms, prayers for prosperity, and others.

T he F our P arts of the V edas Each of the four Vedas consists of four parts: (1) the Samhitas, (2) the Brahmanas, (3) the Aranyakas, and (4) the Upanishads. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas focus on ceremonial rites and rituals, while the Aranyakas and the Upanishads focus on philosophy and spiritualism. The Samhitas are collections of mantras or hymns that are used in sacrificial ceremonies and mystic rituals addressed to the different Vedic deities. The Brahmanas contain elaborate explanations, often through mythologies and legends, of UNIT II

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the mantras, as well as instructions on how to properly perform the rituals associated with these mantras. The Aranyakas (aranya means “forest” so Aranyakas means “Books of the Forests” or “Forest Books”) contain discussions about practices developed by the hermits or ascetics living in forests. These practices were intended to serve as substitutes for conventional ceremonies and rituals which cannot be done (or are not practical to perform) in the forests. The Aranyakas facilitated the transition from the standard rituals and ceremonies found in the Samhitas and Brahmanas to the philosophical and spiritual interpretation of these rituals and ceremonies found in the Upanishads. Finally, the Upanishads (also called the Vedanta) are the concluding sections of the Vedas. They are the philosophical parts of the Vedas as they deeply discuss the major Hindu doctrines such as those concerning Brahman, Atman, moksha, maya, karma, and samsara (we shall explain these concepts in the next section). The discussions in the Upanishads are mostly in the form of a dialogue between a master (or an enlightened guru) and a disciple. It is believed that traditionally there are 108 ancient and original Upanishads, but some scholars believe that some have been added later on. Jacobs (2010,12) represents the structure of the Vedas in terms of its four parts as follows: Rig Veda

Sama Veda

Yayur Veda

Atharva Veda

Samhitas Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads “It is possible to fill in all of the empty cells with names of particular compositions; however for our purposes, it is not necessary,” clarifies Jacobs ( 2010 , 120).

THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHABHARATA The two great Sanskrit epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were written more or less during the period from 200 BCE to 200 CE. They

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are not mere stories for they also tackle the basic teachings of Hinduism, especially concerning dharma, which generally refers to one’s moral duties or tasks in a given situation and which are also based on one’s social standing. These stories have been continually retold in various art forms in India and are part of the early education of all Hindus. Furthermore, they have made a profound influence on the development of art in Southeast Asian countries influenced by Hinduism (see Jacobs 2010, 15-18 for a brief summary of these epics). The Ramayana. The term Ramayana, which is a combination of the words Rama and ayana (which means “going” or “advancing”), literally means Rama’s journey. This epic poem is traditionally believed to have been conceived or written by the Hindu sage and Sanskrit poet Valmiki. Consisting of 24,000 verses in seven books and 500 cantos (major divisions in a long poem), it deals with human values associated with the concept of dharma. In particular, it tackles the dharma or moral duties of Rama (the seventh avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, a supreme Hindu god) as he assumes various roles in the story, like being a son, a husband, a brother, a servant, and a king. Here is a brief summary of the story: Rama, being the eldest among the four sons of King Dasaratha of the kingdom of Ayodhya, is set to be the next king. But due to the intervention of Queen Kaikeyi (the king’s favorite among his many wives), Bharata, her own son from the king becomes the next king instead. Consequently, Rama is sent to the forest along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana. But while in the forest, Sita is abducted by Ravana, the mighty demon king of Lanka who admires Sita’s beauty. Hanuman, the general of the army of monkeys, helps Rama and Lakshmana find Sita. Hanuman, however, is caught by Ravana, but Hanuman is able to set Ravana’s kingdom in flames and eventually escape. A great battle between the forces of Ravana and the forces of Rama, Lakshmana, Hanuman, and the army of monkeys follow. Rama is able to kill Ravana and rescue Sita. Sita proves that she manages to maintain her purity while being held captive by Ravana, which pleases Rama. Rama and Sita, along with their friends, return to the kingdom of Ayodhya. Bharata gives the crown to Rama, and Rama becomes the king of Ayodhya. UNIT II

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The Mahabharata. For its deep reflection on the concept of dharma, some Hindus regard the Mahabharata as the “fifth Veda.” The term Mahabharata literally means “the great story of the Bharatas.” Bharatas is the name of the clan or dynasty of the main characters in the story (as Bharatas was their early ancestor). The word “Bharatas,” however, is also generally used to refer to the Indian race, and so Mahabharata is sometimes also understood as “the great story of India.” The Mahabharata, believed to have been composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE by the Hindu sage Vyasa, is regarded as one of the longest epic poem in world literature. It is approximately eight times as long as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and three times as long as the Bible. The story is mainly about a great war between two groups of paternal first cousins (or more particularly, between the sons of two brothers, Pandu and Dhritarasta) over who should have control over their kingdom. Within the main story, however, are so many substories. Pandu’s five sons (Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva) are collectively called the Pandavas. On the other hand, Dhritarasta’s 100 sons are collectively called the Kauravas.The Pandavas, who are actually sons of gods (as the two wives of Pandu were fathered not by him, but by certain gods), are the heroes, while the Kauravas are their enemies and the villains in the story. Though the Pandavas eventually win the war against the Kauravas and Yudhisthira (one of the Pandava brothers) becomes the king, Yudhisthira, however, is deeply troubled by the killings brought about by the war, especially since these killings involve his relatives. The Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita (which literally means the “Song of the Lord” or the “Song of the Divine One”) consists of 700 verses and is part of the Mahabharata (Book 6).The Gita, as it is conveniently called, is considered to be the most important part of the Mahabharata from a religious and philosophical perspective, for it is in this part where the religious and philosophical concepts of Hinduism are mainly tackled. The Bhagavad Gita is basically a dialogue between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna (who is actually an incarnation of the Hindu supreme god Vishnu) before the start of the Kurukshetra War, the final battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. This dialogue is brought about by Arjuna’s doubts about whether or not to go on with the war. Arjuna is deeply affected by this moral dilemma: while he recognizes that

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it is his moral duty to fight the enemies, he is bothered by the fact that his enemies are his relatives, to which he also has morai Juties. Arjuna is thus torn between his moral duties as a Pandava prince and as a first cousin of the Kauravas. Arjuna consults Krishna on what he must do. Krishna advices Arjuna to proceed with the war, and it is in the course of explaining the reasons for this advice that Krishna elaborately and profoundly discusses the religious and philosophical concepts of Hinduism such as dharma, maya (illusion) and moksha (liberation from illusion), yoga and its kinds (different techniques to attain moksha and unity with Brahman), Atman and Brahman, and varna (the caste system). Though just a part of the Mahabharata, the Gita is often treated as an independent book, and it has been translated in many different languages (Molloy 2010, 89-90).

1. Recall the moral dilemma of Arjuna in the Gita. If you were the one consulted by Arjuna, what would be your advice and how would you justify your advice? 2.

Recall the story of the Ramayana. Suppose that you were Rama and that Sita was not able to prove that she remained pure after being held captive by Ravana. What would be your reaction? Will your love for her change? Will you still make her your queen?

lActivityl

Make a concept map of the sacred texts of Hinduism.

BASIC DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Guide Question What are the basic doctrines and practices of Hinduism?

B rahman and A tman Brahman refers to the essence or true nature of all reality or of everything that exists. It is, in short, Ultimate Reality. Being the essence of all reality, including us, Brahman is conceptually inexhaustible in that all our descriptions of it, however sophisticated, will never suffice to fully capture its nature. These descriptions, at the most, will just give us an idea of what it is. Nonetheless,

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let us examine some of these descriptions in three pairs: that Brahman is one and undivided, unchanging and eternal, and spiritual and necessary. First, Brahman is one in that there is no other reality other than Brahman, and it is undivided in that it has no parts. Second, Brahman is unchanging in that it is not Subject to space and time, and it is eternal in that it has no beginning and end. Third, Brahman is spiritual in that it is non-material and is therefore not subject to physical laws, and it is necessary in that it is not possible for it not to have existed. If Brahman is the essence of everything, then the essence of human individuals must also be Brahman. The essence of a human individual is traditionally called his/her soul or self, which accounts for the unchanging and spiritual features of his/her identity. Hindus call this essence of human individuals Atman. Atman is thus Brahman conceived in the context of human individuals.The reality is that Atman is not distinct and separate from Brahman. Atman is Brahman. The concept of Atman arises only when we are talking about Brahman in the context of human individuals. However, humans are usually inclined to think of themselves as having a separate and distinct essence (soul or self) from Brahman, primarily because of egoism or the strong desire to be in control of their actions and thoughts. It is this thought of separation from the essence and ground of all things that is the main source of human sufferings. Consequently, it is what must be overcome to put an end to human suffering. The ultimate Hindu goal is the unity of Atman with Brahman (Molloy 2010, 84-85).

B rahman and the D eities While Hinduism believes that there is only one ultimate and supreme reality (Brahman), it also worships many deities (gods and goddesses). Doesn’t the belief that there is only one ultimate reality naturally lead to the belief that there is only one God? Actually, Hinduism believes that there is only one God, namely Brahman, and the many deities that they also believe in are just the different manifestations of Brahman that humans are capable of conceiving. As it were, God is only one but he manifests as many. Scholars disagree over the precise number of the Hindu deities, but perhaps just to emphasize the many (or better yet, infinite) possible manifestations of Brahman, in addition to what the Hindu sacred scriptures identify (from 33 to 33,333—see Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004), some say that there are millions of these deities (some say 33 million; some say 330 million—see Urubshurow 2009,10). Being the essence of everything, Brahman is thought of as impersonal and highly abstract (detached from mundane or human

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affairs). The many Hindu deities can be seen therefore as concrete forms of Brahman to which humans can personally and meaningfully relate.

T he T rimurti and A vatars Among the many Hindu deities, there are three major or supreme ones: (1) Brahma, the creator (not be confused with Brahman); (2) Vishnu, the preserver; and (3) Shiva, the destroyer. Collectively, these three supreme gods are known in Hindu as the Trimurti.TUese three principal gods correspond to the three major functions of Brahman, namely, creation, sustenance (protection or preservation), and destruction. Now while these three principal gods are often described as the three supreme gods, Brahman, of course, is higher than any of them. Brahman, however, is also often called the Supreme God, which may give rise to some confusion. Perhaps Brahman should be referred to as the “Highest Supreme God” to avoid confusion. In any case, the Trimurti are believed to have human incarnations, that is, they assume human forms called avatars. The avatars mingle and interact with humans. Two popular and important avatars of Vishnu are Krishna of the Bhagavad Gita and Rama of the Ramayana (Molloy 2010, 96-101; Urubshurow 2009, 361-65).

O ther I mportant D eities Other deities who are also important for Hindus include the following. Ganesha (or Ganesh) is the popular deity with an elephant head and the son of the god Shiva and goddess Parvati. Ganesha is the god of success and destroyer of evils and obstacles. The goddess Shakti embodies the energy­ giving power behind all creation. The goddess Lakshmi is a manifestation of Shakti and who embodies light, beauty, good fortune, and wealth. And Hunuman is the monkey deity who helped Rama save Sita in the epic Ramayana.

Maya and Moksha St

Maya is translated as “illusion.” Experiencing and knowing the world as physical, changing, and divided into many separate things is maya or being under the influence of maya. As the real nature of the world is Brahman, which

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is the opposite of how we experience and know the world, how the world presents itself to us is an illusion. An illusion is a misleading image, when something appears not in its true nature, as, for instance, when a straight stick appears bent when inside a glass of water, or as when one sees a pool of water in a desert when there is really none (a mirage). In the same way, as the world appears to us not in its real nature, not as Brahman, the world (as we experience it) is an illusion; and we are under the influence, or spell, of maya.This illusion includes experiencing our self as the body and as something separate from everything else. Moksha, on the other hand, is the liberation or release from the state or influence of maya. We achieve moksha when we experience the world as Brahman, or as one, undivided, unchanging, and spiritual reality. What is it like to achieve moksha? If living in the state of maya is suffering, then moksha is freedom from suffering. And so moksha, for the Hindus, is the ultimate human goal. It is what we should ultimately all strive for (Molloy 2010, 86-88).

S amsara and K arma Samsara corresponds to what is called reincarnation or rebirth. In particular, it refers to the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death. The belief is that when a human individual dies, his/her soul is reborn in another body, and this happens again and again. Integrally connected to samsara is karma, referring to the law that regulates samsara such that one’s actions will have appropriate consequences in one’s current or next life or lives. In the context of social classes (the caste system), karma determines what will be one’s social class in the next life. A good life now will result being in in a higher caste in the next life; a bad life now will result in being a lower caste in the next life. The law of karma is a moral law or principle of cause and effect, according to which an action of a certain moral type will result in consequences of an appropriate type. More concretely, a bad action will result in bad consequences while a good action will result in good consequences. Karma and samsara together ensure universal justice, for no one can escape the appropriate consequences of one’s actions. If the appropriate consequences of one’s action do not occur within the duration of one’s present life, they are bound to occur in one’s next life or future lives. The goal of Hinduism is to stop samsara through moksha, for living in samsara means living in maya and suffering. Once one achieves moksha, one will no longer be reborn; one will cease to be an individual and will merge with Brahman. Hinduism offers different ways or paths to achieve moksha (the “yogas”), according to one’s disposition and preference. One of these ways

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is doing one’s dharma, generally referring to one’s moral duties or tasks for rightful living (Molloy 2010, 87-88). (Note: Karma is generally the moral law or principle of cause and effect governing human actions. The word karma, however, is sometimes used as not referring to the principle itself but to the appropriate consequence of a certain action. There are two versions of this usage. In one version, karma is either good or bad. Here, a good action results in good karma while a bad action results in bad karma. In the other version, karma is just bad. Here, a bad action results in karma; a good action does not result in karma.)

V arna , A shram , and P urushartha One’s dharma (moral duties) is defined by one’s social class (varna) and stage of life (ashram) and in consideration of the basic aims of life (purushartha). Varna. The Hindu system of social classes, called the caste system, has four main divisions or varnas. Arranged from highest to lowest, these four varnas are as follows: (1) the Brahmins, consisting of priests and teachers; (2) the Kshatriyas, consisting of kings, governors, and soldiers; (3) the Vaishyas, consisting of merchants, cattle herders, artisans, and agriculturists; and (4) the Shudras, consisting of laborers and service providers (Urubshurow 2009, 370). Under these four castes are many subcastes. It is said that the basis of one’s caste was originally individual merit (that is, one’s caste was decided on the basis of one’s capacity, skill, and talent), but later on birth became the sole basis—one is born into one’s caste. People belonging to the first three varnas (the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas) are also called “twice-borns” (dvijas), in contrast to the Shudras who are called “once-borns” (Jacobs 2010, 59-61). Accordingly, there are two births: the first is biological, the second spiritual. Once-borns are only biologically born, while twice-borns are biologically and spiritually born. Being spiritually born, and thus being a twice-born, means being eligible to study the Vedas (in Sanskrit) and perform the Vedic rituals. This means that the Shudras, being once-borns, can never be eligible to study the Vedas and perform the Vedic rituals. But worse than the situation of the Shudras are the outcasts (“out of caste”) or people who do not belong to any varna (though some believe they form the fifth caste).They were previously called “Untouchables” (a term considered politically incorrect); now they are refe'rred to as Dalits, meaning, “oppressed” or “downtrodden” (Mahatma Ghandi referred to them as the Harijans, meaning, “children of God” or “people of God.” They are part of what the Indian government calls the “scheduled castes”— see UNIT II

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Klostermaier 2007,13 and Jacobs 2010,61 -62). The Dalits work as manual laborers, doing the dirtiest work possible for an Indian, such as cleaning the streets, latrines, and sewers. They normally could not fully participate in Indian social life. For instance, they are prohibited from living within a village and entering a temple or school. People of other castes usually see them as unclean, both spiritually and physically, and thus avoid any contact with them. Ashram. The Hindus identify four stages or ashrams of life, each of which has its specific duties. Though nowadays only a few Hindus strictly follow all these four ashrams, they remain the ideal stages for the Hindus to go through in their lives. The first is the Brachmanchari Ashram or the student stage of life (from birth to around 21 years of age). At this stage, one is expected to be pure (that is, celibate), live a simple life, serve a guru or spiritual teacher, study the Vedas, and build good character traits. The second is the Grahasta Ashram or the household stage of life (approximately from 21 to 42 years of age). At this stage, one is expected to build a family, provide for one’s family, protect and nourish family members, raise children with spiritual values, and give to charity. The third is the Vanaprashta Ashram or the retired stage of life (approximately from 42 to 63 years of age). At this stage, one is expected to devote more time to spiritual matters which include going on a pilgrimage, observing moral strictness, and undergoing penance. The fourth is the Sannyasa Ashram or the renounced stage of life (approximately from 63 to 84 plus years of age). At this stage, one is expected to be detached and retreat from worldly goals and focus on deepening one’s spirituality by focusing one’s mind on God. Purushartha. Hinduism identifies four basic human aims or purposes of life, which are collectively called Purushartha. The first is dharma, which refers to virtuous living or living according to duties, rights, and laws. The term “dharma” is also used to refer to moral duties themselves. One’s dharma or moral duties are determined by one’s caste and stage of life. They must be performed selflessly, that is, without attachment to their consequences. The second is artha, which refers to economic security or the active pursuit of wealth and career to achieve financial security or material success. The third is kama, which refers to enjoyment or the active pursuit of pleasure, which can be physical, emotional (love and affection), or sexual. The fourth is moksha, which refers to the liberation of the self from maya (illusion) or freedom from samsara (the cycle of birth, life, and death). In cases of conflict among these basic human aims, they are prioritized in the following way, the first being the most valuable: first, moksha; second, dharma; third, artha; and fourth, kama. This means moksha should be prioritized over dharma; moksha or dharma should be prioritized over artha; and moksha, dharma,

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or artha should be prioritized over kama. Furthermore, the level of emphasis among these aims varies according to one’s stage of life (ashram). For instance, generally speaking, while in the student and household stages, emphasis should be on artha and kama; but once in the retired and old stages, it should be on dharma and moksha (Molloy 2010,90-92; Matthews 2010, 78-79).

T he F our Y ogas The Sanskrit word yoga literally means “union.” In the context in which it was introduced, in the Bhagavad Gita, the term particularly means “union with the divine” or “union with Brahman.” Furthermore, since the various types of yoga speak of different paths to achieve the said union, the term “yoga” has come to be understood also as “path.” There are four main types of yoga. The first is Karma Yoga, also called Dharma Yoga, or the Path of Action. This is the path taken by those (especially the Vaishyas) who intend to achieve moksha or unity with Brahman by performing actions that are in accordance to their dharma or moral duties, or more simply, by fulfilling their roles in life to the best of their abilities. An important aspect of this yoga is the fulfilment of one’s duties or dharma dispassionately or without focusing on the outcome. The second is Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion. This is the path most Hindus take (especially the Shudras and Dalits). It is taken by those who intend to achieve moksha or unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god or gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices and flowers, dancing, and singing hymns. The third is Jnana Yoga or the Path of Knowledge. This is the path taken by those (especially the Brahmins) who intend to achieve moksha or unity with Brahman by deeply exploring the nature of reality through a serious study of the sacred texts. Practitioners of this yoga focus less on worship and more on philosophical study, the ultimate objective of which is to achieve an understanding of the connectedness of Atman with Brahman. The fourth and last is Raja Yoga or the Path of Meditation.This is the path taken by those (especially the hermits) who intend to achieve unity with Brahman by managing one’s mind or thoughts through various meditative techniques. This is related to Jnana Yoga, which intends

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to achieve knowledge of Brahman and the unity of Atman and Brahman through studies and philosophical thinking. Raja Yoga also intends to achieve this but through sudden realization resulting from meditation. They have the same goal but different means. The first three yogas are discussed in the Bhagavad Gita, while the fourth (the Raja Yoga) is discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (one of smriti Hindu sacred texts). Each of these four kinds of yoga caters to a disposition of a person—whether he/she is a person of action, devotion, knowledge, or meditation. Hinduism allows a person to choose which path or yoga he/ she prefers to take to achieve moksha for these four yogas, when practiced well, will lead people the same destination. There are other types of yoga, which are mostly subtypes of these four main kinds. A popular branch of Raja Yoga, for instance, is Hatha Yoga (whose origin is traced to Patanjali). Hatha Yoga focuses on physical postures (the asanas), and it has become popular as a form of physical exercise. Nowadays, when one says “yoga,” one is usually referring to Hatha Yoga (see Molloy 2010, 92-95; Matthews 2010, 80-83).

S ome P ractices and R ituals Hindu religious practices and rituals are greatly based on their religious beliefs. Some of these practices are as follows. First is the Hindus’ worship of so many gods and goddesses, which is based on their belief that these gods and goddesses are concrete and personal ways by which they can connect with the impersonal and abstract Brahman—which has infinite manifestations. Their worship (called Puja, meaning “worship”) of these personal deities— done in various ways, such as saying hymns and prayers, offering sufferings and flowers, and the like, and which they do either in temples or in their houses—is one of the paths or yogas (the Bhakti Yoga) toward achieving moksha (Matthews 2010, 95; Jacobs 2010,28-29). Second is the practice of meditation, which is another kind of these paths (the Raja Yoga) (Jacobs 2010, 52-54). Third is the Hindus’ veneration of some animals (Molloy 2010, 105), especially cows (these are special animals for Hindus as their milk-giving capacity symbolizes universal motherhood) and monkeys (for their role in the Ramayana). Aside from what these animals symbolize or represent, the Hindus’ worship of these animals is based on the Hindus’ belief that they may be reborn in the bodies of animals. Fourth is the Hindus’ veneration of their gurus (Molloy 2010, 103; Jacobs 2010, 40-42) or enlightened teachers. This practice is

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based on their belief that it is possible to achieve moksha while in this world by following any of the four yogas preached by these gurus. Fifth is the practice of renunciation or asceticism of holy men (called the Sadhus), which is based on the belief that such practice is another way to achieve moksha (Jacobs 2010, 39-40). Sixth is the Hindus' attitude towards one another. How they treat one another is determined by their dharma, which in turn is determined by their respective castes and the stage of life that they are in. Last is the practice of nonviolence toward all life forms, called ahimsa (for some Hindus, ahimsa extends to the practice of vegetarianism).This is based on the Hindus’ belief in samsara where the bodies of all life forms are possible receptacles or vessels of individual human souls. An important ritual among Hindus is Namaste, a gesture of greeting wherein the two palms are placed together in front of the chest and the head bows while saying the word “Namaste.” This is done to greet anyone, regardless of age and relationship to the greeter. Another traditional ceremony is called the Upanayana, which is done to signify the preparedness of twiceborns to study the Vedas and perform the Vedic rites (Matthews 2010, 94). The ritual is tradionally limited to boys in the upper three of the four varnas of society—the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas—when they reach the age of seven years. However, women and Shudra children are now being considered to undergo the same ritual, as there is a growing clamor that they, too, should be entitled to study the Vedas and perform the Vedic rituals.

S ome H indu F estivals Hindus have so many festivals, most of which are celebrated in honor of certain gods and goddesses, such as Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, and the goddess Durga, usually in celebration of their birthdays. One anticipated festival is Holi, the festival of colors, where Hindus smear each other with the “colors of joy.” Hindu boys and girls playfully throw colored water on each other, sometimes with the use of water guns. This symbolizes universal brotherhood and is associated with the Divine Dance (called Raaslila) staged by Krishna for the benefit of his devotees. Another famous Hindu festival is the Kumbh Mela, where millions of Hindus peacefully gather and bathe in a sacred river to wash away their sins and free themselves from the cycle of death and rebirth. They take a

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dip at the Sangam, the place where three rivers—the Ganges, the Yamuna, and the mythical Saraswati—come together at the edge of this North Indian city. The Kumbh Mela is held once in every twelve years.

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Symbolisms associated with Hinduism include the Mantra Om (Aum) and the Gayatri Mantra, which are recited in Hindu prayers. The swastika (•S?) is an Aryan or noble symbol, representing truth and stability within the power of Brahma or Surya, the sun god. Hindus have been using this symbol since the early Vedic culture. It was unfortunate that it was recently associated with Nazism, which perverted the divine meaning of the symbol. Tika (Tilak or Tilakam or Pottu), a symbol put on the forehead or between the eyebrows, is a unique feature associated with Hinduism. It basically gives the wearer a feeling of sacredness and reveals the particular god worshipped by the wearer, as certain shapes are associated with certain gods (such as the U shape for Vishnu, three horizontal lines for Shiva, and a red dot for the goddess Devi). Hindu priests wear the tilak in varying lines and color to represent the particular school of thought they represent. It also has nonreligious uses. Indian females, for instance, use the Bindu or Bindi (a dot) as part of their makeup and the red dot as a mark of being married. Discussion Questions Do you agree with the moral principle of karma? Can you identify events in your life that seem to demonstrate this principle?

^ A c tiv it^ l

Identify one Hindu festival and do a research on how it began and its religious significance to the Hindus. Clip pictures of how the festival is celebrated. This can be a written report or a PowerPoint presentation.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Question What are the basic doctrines and practices of Hinduism?

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T he F our Major D enominations There are four major denominations of Hinduism: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism (Jacobs 2010, 21-29). Under these four main denominations are numerous subdenominations. There are two main considerations that differentiate the four forms of Hinduism from one another: (a) the kind of god (among the many manifestations of Brahman) they consider supreme, and (b) the kind of path or yoga they prefer to practice to achieve unity with their chosen supreme god. Vaishnavas, the followers of Vaishnavism, consider Vishnu (usually in the form of Krishna or Rama) as their supreme god. Vaishnavas are deeply devotional and they practice bhakti yoga or the path of devotion. Shaivas, the followers of Shaivism, consider Shiva as their supreme god. Shaivas value self-discipline and philosophy, and they practice jnana yoga or the path of knowledge (sometimes along with ashtanga yoga, which is a kind of classical Indian yoga). Shaktis, the followers of Shaktism, consider the goddess or Divine Mother Shakti (also known as Devi) in her various forms (such as Kali, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati) as their supreme god. Shaktas prefer karma yoga or the path of action. Finally, Smartas, the followers of Smartism, consider any of the five deities consisting of Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, and Surya as their supreme god. Smartas are free to choose which among these five gods they would like to regard as their supreme god as well as the kind of yoga they would like to practice. For this reason, Smartism is considered a liberal form of Hinduism.

T he S ix Main P hilosophical S chools Hinduism is not just a family of religions, but also a family of philosophies. The distinction between religion and philosophy in this context, however, is not clear-cut. One practical way of distinguishing the religious from the philosophical forms is in terms of the standards used for classifying them. For the various religious forms of Hinduism we look at their preferred supreme god and type of path to achieve unity with their supreme god. For the various philosophical forms of Hinduism, we look at, on the general level, whether they generally accept the authority of the Vedic teachings, and on the particular level, what their particular views are on the nature of reality and how this be can be known. * Indian philosophical schools of thought are referred to as Darsanas (meaning, philosophies, worldviews, or teachings).They are divided into the orthodox (Astika) and unorthodox (Nastika) schools. The orthodox schools

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accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vendata (Matthews 2010, 83-84). On the other hand, the unorthodox schools do not accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical schools: Buddhism, Jainism, and Carvaka. While both orthodox and unorthodox schools are Indian philosophical schools (for they both emerged and developed in India), it is only the orthodox schools that are commonly regarded as Hindu philosophical schools, as they are based on the authority of the Vedas. Hindu philosophical schools in this connection are also referred to as the Vedic philosophical schools. In what follows, we shall limit our examination of the philosophical schools to the orthodox schools. The Nyaya school was founded by the sage Gautama (not to be confused with the Gautama of Buddhism). The school focuses on logical reasoning (or argumentation) and epistemological investigations (investigations on the nature and sources of knowledge) as the means to acquire knowledge. One of its conclusions is that there are four means to acquire knowledge, namely, perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony of reliable persons. The Vaisheshika (or Vaisesika) school was founded by the ascetic Kanada.The school is mainly concerned with issues concerning metaphysics or the nature of reality (or existence). Using the method of the Nyaya school, it advances an atomistic view of reality in which everything that exists can be shown as a combination of indestructible simples. The Sankhya school is said to have been founded by the sage Kapila though there is no known existing work of his. One of the main claims of this school is that the universe is the result of the interaction between two different kinds of reality: Prakriti (or Prakrti), referring to matter, nature, or the material principle of the universe; and Purusha (or Purusa), referring to consciousness, spirit, or the conscious principle of the universe. Purusha, though distinct from Prakriti, is bound to be connected to Prakriti. This means that Purusha is naturally under the bondage or control of Prakriti. Consequently, the ultimate goal of Purusha is to liberate itself from Prakriti. The Yoga school refers to the kind of yoga, called Raja Yoga, developed by Patanjali in his work Yoga Sutra. Recall that there are four yogas, and the Raja Yoga is one. (The other three yogas—the Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Jnana Yoga—were introduced in the Bhagavad Gita.) This school advances the path of meditation, along with other practices such as ahimsa (nonviolence), to control the mind and eventually liberate itself from worldly concerns. The Yoga school is closely influenced by the Sankhya school of liberating consciousness from the bondage of matter. The difference is that

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while the Sankhya does not see the need for the concept of a personal god (Ishvara) to pursue the liberation of consciousness from matter (which made scholars interpret it as an atheistic school), the Yoga school recognizes the need for a personal god. The Mimamsa school was founded by Jaimini, whose work “Mimamsa Sutra” became the basis of the school. In this connection, the school’s main contribution is the formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation (also called “Vedic hermeneutics”). The Sanskrit word Mimamsa, literally means “investigation,” “inquiry,” or “discussion.” In the context of studying the Vedas, Mimamsa means the investigation of the proper way of interpreting the Vedic texts. The Vedanta school represents the last or concluding segment of the Vedas, also called the Upanishads. Recall that the Upanishads contain the philosophical discussions on the key concepts of Hinduism, such as Brahman, Atman, karma, samsara, and others. This school is thus generally after knowledge of what the Vedas teach, and it utilizes the rules of Vedic interpretation developed by the Mimamsa school. These six schools can be seen as three sets of sister schools, for one school serves as the method of another school. Specifically, the related schools are the following: Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Sankhya-Yoga, and MimamsaVedanta. In the first set, the Vaisheshika school uses the logical reasoning of the Nyaya school to investigate the nature of reality. In the second set, the Sankhya school uses the Yoga school as the method for attaining the liberation of Purusa from Prakriti. Finally in the third set, the Vedanta school uses the rules for Vedic interpretation formulated by the Mimamsa school to interpret the concluding philosophical parts of the Vedas.

S ome C hallenges The challenges that Hinduism faces include the harm (social inequality, discrimination, oppression, disrespect of human rights, and others) brought about by the caste system on those belonging to the lowest caste, the Shudras, and especially those considered without a caste, the Dalits (or the Untouchables). Recall that these people are traditionally considered “onceborns” which bar them from participating in religious activities. In addition, they are traditionally not allowed to study in universities or get a formal education. In short, they do not have any opportunity to improve the state of life that they are born into. The Indian government has, however, been doing some positive steps to address these problems, so some of the members of these castes can already get a formal education, participate in religious activities,

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avail of legal assistance, and get reserved slots for employment in some institutions. The problem is that some traditional Hindus, especially those in the villages, still resist the changes and this results in serious conflicts including murders, riots, and even suicides. The situation of women is another major issue, as it is in most world religions. Despite the fact that Hinduism worships goddesses and venerates female gurus, women remain marginalized in traditional Vedic culture. For instance, women, even those belonging to the first three castes, are traditionally considered “once-borns.” This means that only males in those castes are eligible to study the Vedas and perform Vedic rituals. Women are traditionally expected to merely focus on serving their husbands and raising their children. Learning to write and read are seen as something that would just distract them from doing their roles as wives and mothers. The Indian government, however, has also been doing positive steps to remedy the situation of Hindu women. There are already Hindu women who study the Vedas and participate in Vedic rituals. Some, however, feel that much still needs to be done, for in the villages nothing much has changed in the situation of women. In the area of politics, the conflict between Hindus and Muslims continues despite the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, in which Muslims in Pakistan were given state autonomy. Wars between the two groups continue to be fought along the border between India and Pakistan, particularly in Kashmir. Once in a while, conflicts between the two groups occur within India. Another challenge of Hinduism, as it is again with most world religions, is how to deal with the changing world, specifically the rapid development of technology (in the areas of medicine and communication, among others), and the introduction of new values, new ways of doing things (the fast pace of doing things, for instance), and new attitudes, like that of consumerism. People are preoccupied with so many things, losing time for religious and spiritual things. How Hinduism can adapt to these changes without compromising the integrity of its key teachings is a big challenge. Discussion Questions What are your thoughts about the Hindu caste system? What do you think are its advantages (if any) and disadvantages both to society and individuals?

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I^A ctivit^l I.

Watch the movie Gandhi (this can be a class activity) and write a reflection paper on it. Focus on how the doctrines and practices of Hinduism, as well as its challenges, are shown in the movie.

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. YayurVeda Karma Shaivism

Brahman Yogas Hindu-Muslim Conflict Kumbh Mela Samkhya Trimurti

Hinduism

Migration Mahabharata Invasion

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Review Questions Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. According to archeological findings, the Indus River already had inhabitants in or earlier than the second millennium BCE. These inhabitants were called_______ __ a. Aryans c. Harrapans b. Dravidians 2. According to th e _________ , the Aryans conquered and imposed their culture and religion on the early inhabitants of the Indus River. a. Aryan Invasion Theory b. Aryan Migration Theory c. Aryan Acculturation Theory 3. The following category of Hindu sacred texts refers to revealed texts and thus constitutes the primary sacred texts of Hinduism. a. Smiriti texts c. Shmuruti texts b. Shruti texts 4. The following kind of Veda refers to the collection of materials for recitation during sacrifice or lines intended to accompany ritual activities. a. Rig Veda c. Sama Veda b. YayurVeda

d. AtharvaVeda

5. T h e _________ is considered as the most important and the oldest of the Vedas. a. Rig Veda c. Sama Veda b. YayurVeda

d. AtharvaVeda

6 . T h e _________ is part of the Vedas that refers to collections of mantras or hymns used in sacrificial ceremonies and mystic rituals addressed to the different Vedic deities. a. Brahmanas c. Samhitas b. Aranyakas

d. Upanishads

7. T h e ________ _ are the philosophical and concluding parts of the Vedas. a. Samhitas c. Aranyakas b. Upanishads

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8 . This Hindu epic is regarded by some Hindus as the fifth Veda and the great story of India. a. Ramayana b. Mahabhrata c. Rama and Sita 9. T h e _________ is considered as the most important part of the Mahabharata, which is basically a dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna. a. Ramayana b. Mahabhrata c. Rama and Sita 10. The monkey general who helps Rama rescue Sita from the mighty demon king of Lanka is __________ a. Lakshmana b. Hanuman c. Ravana 11. _________ refers to the one true essence of reality for the Hindus. a. Maya b. Moksha c. Brahman 12. The three supreme gods of Hinduism—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva— are collectively called in Hindu as th e __________ a. Trinity b. Triumvirate c. Trimurti 13. The supreme Hindu god Vishnu corresponds to the function of Brahman a s __________ a. the Creator b. the Preserver c. the Destroyer 14. The supreme Hindu god Brahma corresponds to the function of Brahman a s __________ a. the Creator b. the Preserver c. the Destroyer 15. The avatar or incarnation of the supreme Hindu god Vishnu in the Bhagavad Gita is __________ a. Rama b. Krishna c. Yudhisthira 16. _________ refers to rebirth or the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death. a. moksha b. samsara c. karma 17. It is the principle that maintains that one’s quality of life in the next life is determined by one’s actions in the present life. a. varna b. samsara c. karma 18. _________ refers to the Hindu concept of one’s social class. a. Ashram b. Varna c. Purushartha 19. _____ _____refers to the Hindu concept of one’s stage of life. a. Ashram b. Varna c. Purushartha

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20. The varna or caste of priests and teachers is __________ a. Brahmins c. Vaishyas b. Kshatriyas

d.

Shudras

21. The varna or caste of laborers and service providers is __________ a. Brahmins c. Kshatriuas b. Vaishyas

d.

Shudras

22. The following refers to the retired stage of life wherein one is expected to devote more time to spiritual matters. a. Brachmanchari Ashram b. Grahasta Ashram c. Vanaprashta Ashram d. Sannyasa Ashram 23. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the enjoyment or active pursuit of pleasures. a. dharma c. kama b. artha

d.

moksha

24. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the liberation of the self from maya or illusion or freedom from samsara. a. dharma c. kama b. artha

d. moksha

25. _________ is the path of devotion taken by those who intend to achieve unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god or gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices and flowers, dancing, and singing hymns. a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga b. BhaktiYoga

d. Raja Yoga

26. _________ is the path of meditation taken by those who intend to achieve unity with Brahman by managing their mind or thoughts through various meditative techniques. a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga b. BhaktiYoga

d. Raja Yoga

27. The Hindu principle o f_________ teaches the attitude of nonviolence towards all life forms. a. Upanayana b. Ahimsa c. Namaste

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28. The Hindu festival_________ is also called the festival of colors, where Hindus smear each other with the “colors of joy.” a. Kumbh Mela b. Holi c. Raaslila 29. During_________ , millions of Hindus peacefully gather and bathe in a sacred river to wash away their sins and free themselves from the cycle of death and rebirth. a. Kumbh Mela b. Holi c. Raaslila 30. This Hindu denomination worships Shiva as its supreme god. a. Vaishnavism b. Shaivism c. Smartism 31. This Hindu denomination worships any of the following five deities. Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, and Surya: a. Vaishnavism b. Shaivism c. Smartism 32. The following kind of Indian philosophical schools of thought accept the authority of the Vedas. a. Orthodox Schools b. Unorthodox Schools c.

Modern Schools

33. This Indian philosophical school focuses on logical reasoning and epistemological investigations as the means to acquire knowledge. a. Samkhya d. Vaisheshika b. Yoga

e.

Mimamsa

c.

f.

Vendata

Nyaya

34. This Indian philosophical school advances the path of meditation to control the mind and eventually liberate it from worldly concerns. a. Samkhya d. Vaisheshika b. Yoga

e.

Mimamsa

c.

f.

Vendata

Nyaya

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KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson.

K What 1know about Hinduism

W What 1want to know about Hinduism

L What 1have learned about Hinduism (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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BUDDHISM Guide Question What are the basic features of Buddhism?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1 : Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Key Concepts

Siddartha Gautama

ns- The Four Noble Truths

Four Sights

«■ The Eightfold Path

Middle Way

**- The Five Precepts

Tripitaka/Pali Canon

is- Meditation and Chanting

The Three Jewels: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha

is- Theravada/Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism

The Three Marks of Existence: Impermanence, No­ self, and Suffering The Four Dharma Seals: Three Marks of Existence, Nirvana Samsara and Karma

■s- Arhats and Bodhisattvas is- The Trikaya ■*■ Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism ts- Madhyamika and Yogacara Buddhism ■s-

Chan and Zen Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism

Law of Dependent Origination

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EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: isr Discuss the significant events in the life of Gautama Buddha that led him to attain enlightenment and consequently establish the religion of Buddhism. •5- Describe the Tripitaka (or the Pali Canon) and the Mahayana Sutras, the sacred texts of Buddhism. rar Explain the concepts constituting the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. os- Explain the elements of the Three Marks of Existence: impermanence, no-self, and suffering (or unsatisfactoriness). i®- Explain the Buddhist concepts of samsara, karma, and nirvana (as the fourth element of the Four Dharma Seals). «*■ -Identify and explain the Four Noble Truths. »5- Identify and explain the Eightfold Path. ns Explain the concepts of the Law of Dependent Origination and Emptiness. ■s- Enumerate the Five Precepts of Buddhist Ethics. ■«■ Distinguish between the Theravada and Mahayana Schools. ■«■ Explain the difference between an arhat and a bodhisattva. «r Explain the difference between the concepts of small vehicle, great vehicle, and diamond vehicle. ■s- Discuss the three bodies of the Buddha as contained in the doctrine of the Trikaya. «a? Explain some basic features of some Mahayana Schools: the Vajrayana, Tibetan, Madhyamika, Yogacara, Chan and Zen, Pure Land, Tendai, and Nichiren sects. ■s- Discuss some of the challenges Buddhism is facing in the modern world.

I^A ctivit^l Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 200. This can be done individually or as a class.

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CULTIVATING Knowledge and Shills

ORIGIN AND SACRED TEXTS

How did Buddhism begin? What are its sacred texts?

B uddhism and the B uddha Buddhism is one of the four largest religions of the world. Christianity is the largest, but whether Buddhism is the second, third, or fourth largest depends on how Buddhists are identified.This is because many practitioners of Buddhism are also practitioners of other religions.The problem is whether to count only those who are exclusively Buddhists or also include those practitioners of Buddhism who also belong to other religions (like Taoism, Shinto, Hinduism, or Confucianism). In any case, based on the information from the US State Department, the Buddhist population of the world is somewhere between 400 million and 1.5 billion (Deming 2015, 63). In the 2007 estimate of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year (cited in Matthews 2010, 103), the areas of Buddhist concentration are as follows: World: 362,542,000; Asia: 376,365,000; Europe: 1,645,000; and North America: 3,142,000. Buddhism is basically the religion founded by the Buddha, and Buddhists are basically those who follow the teachings of the Buddha. Who is the Buddha and what are his teachings? In this section, we shall briefly examine the life of the Buddha and the basic texts that contain his teachings. We shall deal with his teachings and the practices and forms of Buddhism that developed from these teachings in the next two sections. The term Buddha is not a proper name but a title which means “the enlightened one” or “the awakened one.” This means anyone can be a Buddha or be given the title Buddha, if one is able to attain enlightenment. And since Buddhism teaches that enlightenment is something that an ordinary human, with proper training, discipline, and attitude, can attain, becoming a Buddha is not exclusive to one or a few individuals. In the

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history of Buddhism, there are in fact several who have attained enlightenment or Buddhahood. But when one speaks of “the Buddha” (in contrast to “a Buddha”), one refers to the historical Buddha who is recognized as the founder of Buddhism as a world religion. There may have been Buddhas previous to this historical Buddha but it was through him that the teachings of Buddhism were expressed, handed down to later generations, and later on written.This historical Buddha refers to Gautama Buddha, whose preenlightenment name was Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha Gautama achieved enlightenment when he was 35 years old. From then on, he has been called Gautama Buddha. Because Gautama belonged to the Shakya clan, some of his followers, especially the Chinese, also call him “Shakyamuni,” which means “the sage of Shakyas.”

T he L ife of G autama Gautama, according to the estimate of scholars, was born around 563 BCE in northern India at Lumbini Grove, about a hundred miles from Benares. He was a Kshatriya prince. His mother was Queen Maya Devi Tharu and his father was King Suddhodana Tharu, who was the leader of the Shakya clan in the state of Kosala on the northern border of Ancient India. There are many different stories about how Siddhartha was conceived in the womb of Queen Maya and how, as a child, he showed signs that he was destined for greatness. One common account has it that one night Queen Maya dreamed that a beautiful white elephant with six white tusks and which bore a white lotus flower in his trunk touched the right side of the queen and then entered her womb. When the queen woke up from the dream, she found herself already pregnant with Gautama. Following customs, the queen went to her father’s kingdom in order to give birth to her son there, but on the way, she gave birth to Gautama in a garden beneath a sal tree. It is said that while giving birth to Gautama, Queen Maya held a branch of the tree which bent on its own to assist her. It is also said that right after Gautama was born, he took seven steps and loudly declared that this birth of his would be his last (indicating that he had been reborn several times and that he would already achieve in this current lifetime the enlightenment that he was seeking for in several lifetimes). The queen died seven days after giving birth to Gautama. The queen’s sister, Maha Pajapati, then took care of baby Gautama. It is also said that a Brahmin hermit (by the name of Asita) visited the baby Gautama and predicted that Gautama would one day be a great leader without specifying what kind of leader—whether as a king (as a political

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leader) or as a spiritual leader. In any case, Gautama’s father, who was a king, very much wanted Gautama to be his successor, and he was deeply bothered by the ambiguity of the hermit’s prophesy. He wanted Gautama to be a great king like him, and the thought that Gautama might choose the path of spirituality extremely worried him. So he devised ways to ensure that such a possibility would not present itself to Gautama, or the mere thought of it would not enter Gautama’s mind. The king then built three palaces for Gautama, one for every season (winter, rainy season, and summer), and made sure that Gautama was provided everything that he needed and desired. The idea was to prevent Gautama from being exposed to things, especially the sight of suffering, which would trigger spiritual reflections. The king arranged Gautama’s marriage with Yasodhara at the age of 16, and Gautama had a son with Yasodhara who was named Rahula. But while Gautama was living a very comfortable life as a prince within the walls of the palaces, deep in his heart he was dissatisfied with his kind of life and began to think that there might be something more to life than what he already had. It is said that these thoughts were triggered when he heard a song of a lady servant in the palace which longed for her beautiful life outside the palace. At the age of 29, Gautama, against the advice of his father, decided to go out of the palaces in order to meet his subjects. It is said that his father arranged things so that Gautama would not see any sight indicating human suffering. But while outside the palace, Gautama came to places where he saw things that troubled his mind. He saw what has been called the Four Passing Sights. He first saw an old man, then a sick man, and then a corpse being prepared for cremation. Realizing that he, too, would grow old, be sick, and die someday, these sights caused him to ask questions concerning the purpose of suffering and life in general. Afterward, he saw an ascetic (a wandering holy man who has renounced worldly possessions) who, though without any possession, seemed to be content and at peace with himself and the world. This fourth and last sight gave him the idea that renunciation of material possessions must be the key to overcome the sufferings brought about by old age, disease, and death. Gautama resolved to seek answers to his questions, especially concerning suffering, what causes it and how it can be overcome. He then decided to leave his comfortable life in the palaces and travel to the forest to live the life of an ascetic, thinking that living this kind of life would give him the answers to his questions. Arriving at the forest, he gave his horse and jewels to his servant, cut his hair, put on simple clothes, and joined the company of the ascetics there. Soon with the guidance of various teachers and his strong determination, he learned and mastered the various meditative techniques UNIT II

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practiced by the ascetics. Still unable to find his answers and blaming himself for not trying enough, he lived the ascetic life to the extreme, meditating for days and depriving himself of any material comfort. One day, while bathing in a river, he collapsed and almost died from drowning. Fortunately, he was saved by a village girl named Sujata who gave him some food and drink. When Gautama recovered, he realized that he would not find his answers in that kind of life (the ascetic life) and thus he resolved to leave it and search for another path. If both the extreme of self-indulgence, which he experienced during his life as a prince, and the extreme of self-m ortification, which he experienced during his life as an ascetic, do not work, Gautama thought of seeking a middle path between these two extremes. Gautama went on to meditate about this middle path. While meditating under a Bodhi tree, Gautama was tested by Mara, the lord of illusion. Three times Mara tried to prevent Gautama from achieving his enlightenment by presenting him visions designed to distract Gautama and destroy the rhythm of his meditation. Such visions—first, the beautiful daughters of Mara, then an attack of Mara’s army, and then Gautama’s own self—were designed to appeal to Gautama’s desire, fear, and love of self or ego, which were aimed to distract his meditation. But Gautama was unmoved by all these visions; he maintained his focus. He knew these visions were illusions. And so, after meditating for 49 days under the Bodhi tree, Gautama, at the age of 35, finally attained enlightenment. He found his answers at last. From that time, Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha, the “awakened one” or “the enlightened one.” He had complete realization of the cause of suffering and the necessary steps to overcome it, which came in the form of the Four Noble Truths (we shall explain these truths in the next section). Gautama at first hesitated to teach the contents of his realization, called the dharma by Buddhists, to other people because he feared that he might not be able to do it well. But according to a common account, he later on reconsidered when he was persuaded by the deity Brahma Sahampati to teach and spread the dharma. Gautama then went to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) and delivered his first sermon. His first audience and disciples consisted of former ascetics like him, who were his former companions in seeking for enlightenment in the forest. Together they formed 172

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

the first sangha, the company of Buddhist monks. Because the said sermon started the growth of Buddhism, Gautama is said to have set in motion the Wheel of Dharma in delivering the sermon. His first five disciples all became arhats, referring to persons who have achieved the same enlightenment that Gautama had. Being an arhat, just like being a Buddha, means no longer being subject to the cycle of death and rebirth. A Buddha and an arhat are persons who have achieved the same enlightenment. The difference is that while a Buddha has achieved it through his own efforts, an arhat has achieved it with the guidance of a Buddha. Soon Gautama’s disciples grew in numbers. For the remaining 45 years of his life, Gautama, along with the sangha, travelled to various places teaching the dharma. Many more became his disciples, and many more sanghas were established. One day, when he heard of his father being seriously sick, he went to see him to teach him the dharma so that he, too, might become an arhat. Gautama’s wife Yosadhara and son Rahula also became his disciples. Ananda, his first cousin by his father, also became his closest companion. When his father died, his foster mother Maha Pajapati (the one who took care of him when his mother died) expressed her intention to join the sangha and become a monk herself. At first Gautama was reluctant but later on approved of it, paving the way for the practice of ordaining of nuns or female Buddhist monks. Gautama regarded males and females as having equal capacity to attain enlightenment. On the full moon day in the month of April or May, Gautama died and attained Parinirvana, that is, complete Nirvana. He was 80 years old (see Molloy 2010, 127-131; Matthews 2010, 105-111 for further details on the life of the Buddha).

B uddhist S acred T exts The earliest collection of Buddhist teachings is the Tripitaka (Tipitaka in Pali), written down by the third century BCE. The Tripitaka is also known as the Pali Canon as it was first written in the language of Pali (a Prakrit or Middle Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent). It was during the First Buddhist Council, shortly after the Pali Canon death of the Buddha (about three months), that the contents of the Tripitaka were determined. The teachings of the Buddha were recited in full by the various disciples of the Buddha, which were then verified by other monks in the council. It was, however, only later that these teachings were written down (Matthews 2010, 116-117).

The word “Tripitaka” means “three baskets,” signifying the way in which these teachings were originally written down and stored—they were written down on long, narrow leaves, which were sewn together on one side and were grouped into bunches and stored in baskets. Accordingly, the Tripitaka consists of three pitakas or baskets that are divided by subject matter. The first is the Discipline Basket ( Vinaya Pitaka), whose contents were recalled by a monk named Upali. It deals with the rules and guidelines for monks and nuns. These rules and guidelines concern everything involved in living the monastic life of the sangha—from basic morality, interaction between monks and nuns and between monks and nuns and the laity, to robe-making. The second is the Discourse Basket or the Sayings Basket (Sutta Pitaka), whose contents were recited by Ananda, Buddha’s cousin and constant companion. It consists of records of the teachings and sermons mostly of the Buddha on theological matters and moral behavior of all Buddhists. Some of these teachings and sermons are attributed to Buddha’s disciples. The third is the Special Teachings Basket (Abhidhamma Pitaka), whose contents were recited by Mahakashyapa, the successor of Buddha. It is a collection of short texts consisting of songs and poetry, stories of Buddha and his previous lives, and discussions of Buddhist doctrines based on the everyday life of the Buddha. The Tripitaka is the only primary or canonical sacred text accepted in Theravada Buddhism, one of the two major sects or denominations of Buddhism (Molloy 2010, 147). The other major sect, called Mahayana Buddhism (we shall discuss the main differences between these two sects in Section 3), accepts other Buddhist writings, in addition to the Tripitaka, as their primary or canonical sacred texts. Most of these other sacred texts are collectively called the Sutras, which are particularly referred to as the Mahayana Sutras. These Sutras were written down between 200 BCE and 200 CE, during the period when the split between the two major Buddhist sects (Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism) developed. The Mahayana Sutras basically reflect distinctively Mahayana concepts. Different forms or branches of Mahayana Buddhism emphasize different Sutras; some, however, are important to most Mahayana branches like the Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra. The Lotus Sutra contains the teachings of the Buddha that serve as the bases of certain teachings of Mahayana Buddhism, such as those concerning the nature of the Buddha (as having three bodies) and the goal of becoming a bodhisattva (someone who has achieved enlightenment but out of compassion has postponed his/her entry into the state of nirvana—the state of liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth—to help others also achieve enlightenment). The Heart Sutra, which

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is part of a larger text, the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, is a short piece of writing containing the Mahayana perspective on key Buddhist concepts like nirvana, emptiness, and ultimate reality. Other important Sutras include the Land of Bliss Sutras, which are the foundational texts of Pure Land Buddhism, a form of Mahayana Buddhism whose teachings focus on Amithaba Buddha (a celestial/heavenly Buddha).These Sutras describe the ideal world of Pure Land or Land of Bliss, referring to the paradise of Amitabha Buddha, and discuss how people can enter this ideal world (Molloy 2010, 155). Other important Buddhist texts which can be regarded as secondary Mahayana texts, are those written by the early Buddhist thinker Nagarjuna, who founded a Mahayana school called the Madhyamika (“Middle Way”). One of his important writings was the “Memorial Verses on the Middle Way,” in which Nagarjuna, interpreting the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom, elaborates on the concepts of emptiness (Sunyata in Sanskrit, Sunnata in Pali) and impermanence. Other important texts are those written by the Tibetan monks of Vajrayana Buddhism, another form of Buddhism which some scholars treat as a form of Mahayana Buddhism (while some regard as an independent form of Buddhism and the third major Buddhist sect). Two of the well-known texts written by the Tibetan monks are the “Great Stages of Enlightenment,” which deals with the value of ethical behavior and control of the mind in tantric practice, and the “Tibetan Book of the Dead,” which discusses the stages a person goes through while undergoing the cycle of death and rebirth. Discussion Questions 1.

Recall the first three of the Four Passing Sights that Gautama had when he went out of the palaces to meet his people—the sights of old age, sickness, and death. From your own point of view, in what way will these sights, or better yet, human realities, make a person reflect on the real purpose of life?

2. What for you are the advantages and disadvantages of living a very comfortable life? What about living a pauper’s life? Are there significant commonalities and differences between these two lives?

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Watch the movie Little Buddha (this can be done as a class). Write a reflection paper on the life of Gautama Buddha.

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DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Guide Question What are the major doctrines and practices of Buddhism?

T he T hree J ewels of B uddhism The Three Jewels of Buddhism (Sanskrit-7r/rafna; Pali-Tiratana) refer to the three essential or fundamental components of Buddhism which are the three foundational structures of Buddhism. Buddhism will not stand if any of them is absent. These Three Jewels are the (1) Buddha, (2) Dharma, and (3) Sangha (Molloy2010,131-32).The Buddha, having achieved enlightenment in his lifetime, represents the ideal human being whose life all Buddhists strive to emulate. What the Buddha represents—enlightenment— is the main goal of Buddhism. Dharma (in Sanskrit) or Dhamma (in Pali) is the sum total of Buddhist teachings about how to view the world, live properly, and ultimately achieve enlightenment. In other words, Dharma represents the path toward achieving the goal of Buddhism, which is enlightenment. (Observe that the Buddhist usage of the word dharma is different from the Hindu usage. Recall that for Hindus, dharma refers to the spiritual and moral obligations of a devoted Hindu as defined by his/her caste and stage of life.) Sangha, on the other hand, is the community of Buddhist monks and nuns. These monks and nuns preserve the Dharma and teach them to the laymen. In sum, Buddhism exists because it has a goal, offers a path toward achieving that goal, and has a community of devoted disciples that preserve and share the teachings concerning that goal and path.

T he T hree Marks of Existence The Three Marks of Existence (or the Three Marks of Reality) refer to the Buddhist concept of the three fundamental characteristics or traits of existence; namely: (1) impermanence (Annica in Pali; Anitya in Sanskrit); (2) no-self (or not-self) (Anatta in Pali; Anatma in Sanskrit); and (3) suffering or unsatisfactoriness (Dukkha in Pali; Duhkha in Sanskrit) (Molloy 2010, 132-33). The realization of these three marks of existence was part of what the Buddha had come to know after much meditation and his achievement of enlightenment. While some Buddhist scholars understand existence here as limited to sentient beings (that is, beings that are conscious and that include humans and animals), some understand it to include all beings, sentient and

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nonsentient alike. We shall, with some qualifications, take the view that they apply to all beings. Impermanence. According to this mark of existence, anything that exists is subject to change. There is nothing permanent in the world; nothing remains the same. What presently exists will later on cease to exist. That there is something that does not change and eternal is an illusion. This fundamental Buddhist view of reality has many important consequences. Recall that Hinduism believes in Brahman, the ultimate essence of the world which is eternal and unchanging. Hinduism even believes that the multiplicity of the things that we observe, presumably involving their changes, is maya, an illusion. Buddhism, with its view on the reality of impermanence as a universal mark of existence, therefore rejects the Hindu belief in Brahman. For Buddhism, Brahman is an illusion.This explains why Buddhism is considered an unorthodox Indian philosophy, for in rejecting Brahman, it rejects the authority of the Vedas (see Section 2 under the chapter on Hinduism). This Buddhist view apparently also comes into conflict with the belief in God, for God is regarded as a being whose divine nature and existence are not subject to change. (This, among other things, like the Buddhist view that the belief in God is not necessary to achieve nirvana, is one reason why Buddhism is regarded as an atheistic religion.) No-Self. The concept of self or I is what explains the personal identity of a human individual. It refers to what makes the person the same person throughout the changes that he/she undergoes in his/her lifetime. The usual explanation for what makes personal identity possible is the individual’s possession of an enduring and independent self or I, corresponding to what is traditionally called “soul.” The Buddhist teaching of no-self rejects this explanation. Buddhists do not believe in the existence of an enduring self or an eternal soul. The Sanskrit Anatma literally means “no Atman,” which implies that the no-self teaching literally rejects the idea of Atman, the Hindu concept that corresponds to enduring selves or eternal souls. The alternative Buddhist explanation is that the word self is just a convenient term for a collection of physical and mental factors (in the same way that, following the philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1965), the term university is just a convenient term for a collection of buildings, offices, people, and others). The Buddhists, in particular, explain that the idea of a self is brought about by the interplay of five aggregates (Skandhas in Sanskrit) namely: (1) form or matter (Rupa)\ (2) sensation or feeling ( Vedana)\ (3) perception and memory (Sam/'na); (4) mental formations (Samskara); and (5) consciousness (Vijnana). The form or matter refers to the material factor, while the others refer to the mental factors (Santina 1984, 129-136). UNIT II

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The no-self teaching applies to all things, not just to humans. Things have no essences or enduring selves (or natures) that explain their respective identities (which in turn differentiate them from one another). They are simply collections of various elements overlapping and connected in certain ways, and these collections are what explain their identities. [Following the popular analogy of the philosopher of language Ludwig Wittgenstein, what makes something a piece of rope is not a single fiber that runs throughout the whole rope from one end to another, but the multitude of overlapping fibers that are connected in certain ways (see the Philosophical Investigations, 1953).] In sum, all things are empty of essences or enduring selves. The Buddhist concept of emptiness (Sunyata in Sanskrit; Sunnata in Pali), referring to the view that things do not have essences (or intrinsic natures), has been elaborated by the Buddhist philosopher and founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, Nagarjuna (c. 150-c. 250 CE) Suffering. The word suffering is just a convenient translation of dukkha, a word that corresponds to what a number of English terms convey like unsatisfactoriness, disquietude, pain, dissatisfaction, and stress. Suffering is a universal characteristic of all things in so far as all things, being impermanent and empty of essence, can be conditions for suffering. The experience of suffering, however, is a trait only of sentient or conscious beings, which include humans and animals. The impermanence of things does not cause suffering; what causes suffering in a sentient being, say a human, is the attitude he/she adopts towards impermanence, which in turn is brought about by his/her ignorance. If one is ignorant of the impermanence of things, one may easily get attached to these things in the sense that he/ she may desire or crave for these things to last. He/she eventually suffers for things do not really last. It is therefore the attitude of craving in the context of the reality of impermanence from where suffering arises (Santina 1984, 29-41).

SAMSARA, KARMA, AND NIRVANA While Buddhism does not accept the Hindu concepts of Brahman and Atman, and does not recognize the authority of the Vedas, it nonetheless adopts some Hindu concepts, foremost of which are the concepts of samsara, karma, and liberation from samsara—which the Hindus call moksha but which the Buddhists refer to as nirvana (Molloy 2010, 138-39). Samsara and Karma. The Buddhist concepts of samsara and karma have basically the same meaning as those of the Hindus. Samsara, or rebirth, to recall, refers to the continuous cycle of birth, life, and death. When one

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is born, one lives, dies, is reborn, lives again, dies again, is reborn again, and so on. Karma (which literally means “action”) refers to the moral law of cause and effect governing one’s actions within one’s present lifetime and across lifetimes. A bad deed will result in undesirable consequences, while a good deed will result in desirable consequences. Karma also determines the quality of life one will have in the next life, say whether one will be reborn as an animal or a human. In the Hindu tradition, karma also determines one’s caste in the next life. In Buddhism, the amount of suffering one experiences or will experience is determined by karma. But since the Hindu explanation of the concepts of samsara and karma assume the reality of Brahman and Atman, the Buddhist explanation of the same concepts will have some qualitative differences. The Hindus believe that one’s eternal soul remains throughout the cycle of rebirth. The Buddhists, on the other hand, do not believe in an eternal soul, and so they have a more sophisticated explanation of rebirth, as contained in their teachings about the no-self and law of dependent origination (the causal interconnections among the “twelve links”— see discussion below). The question is, who or what is reborn if there is no soul or enduring self? Some Buddhists use the following analogy of the candle flame to deal with this question: Suppose you use the flame of one candle to light another candle. The flame represents the soul or self while the two candles represent two human bodies. Now suppose just as the flame of the first candle lights the other candle, the flame of the first candle dies out. It would appear that the flame of the first candle is just transferred to the second candle, that the flame of the second candle is the same flame that the first candle had. But we know that this is just an appearance. It is not the same flame. Nirvana. Nirvana is freedom or liberation from samsara and suffering. One who enters into this state will no longer be reborn. When we add the concept of nirvana to the three marks of existence (impermanence, no-self, and suffering), the result is what Buddhists call the Four Dharma Seals. Nirvana is not the same as enlightenment; nirvana is the state one enters into after achieving enlightenment. This explains why it is possible to be enlightened already and still not be in the state of nirvana (this is the case of the boddhisattvas, those who have already attained enlightenment but decided to postpone their entry into the state of nirvana in order to help others achieve enlightenment—a teaching traditionally identified with the Mahayana branch of Buddhism which we shall discuss in the next section). When one becomes fully aware of the true nature of things and acts accordingly (as specified in the Four Dharma Seals, Four Noble Truths, and Law of Dependent Origination), one achieves enlightenment (“bodhi”), after which one may enter into the state of nirvana. UNIT II

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T he F our N oble T ruths The three marks of existence concern fundamental truths about existence in general. The four noble truths, on the other hand, are fundamental truths about one of the_three marks of existence, namely, suffering. Furthermore, suffering as a mark of existence, is generally an experience of any sentient or conscious being. The four noble truths, on the other hand, focus on suffering as experienced by humans. Accordingly, the four noble truths deal with human suffering in terms of ( 1 ) its reality or existence, (2 ) its cause or origin, (3) its end or termination, and (4) the path or way that leads to its end or termination. Specifically, the four noble truths are as follows: (1), suffering exists; (2), suffering is caused by craving or desire; (3), to put an end to suffering is to put an end to craving; and (4), the way to put an end to suffering is by following the eightfold path (Molloy 2010,134-136; Matthews 2010, 111-114; Santina 1984,29-50) 1. Suffering exists. The first noble truth is that suffering exists. Eliminating suffering in one’s life begins with recognizing its reality. Suffering can be physical, emotional, and mental. Physical suffering includes the physical pain brought about by old age, sickness, and death (the first three of the Four Passing Sights of the Buddha). Emotional suffering includes those brought about by failure and separation from and loss of loved ones. Mental suffering includes those brought about by ignorance, worry, and misunderstanding. 2. Suffering arises from craving/desire. Desires create emptiness within oneself, in that in desiring for something, one creates a lack that one needs to fill up. Thus the more your desires are, the greater is the lack that you need to fill up in your life. Furthermore, desires create further desires. Fulfilling a desire will just lead one to more and greater desires, and it goes on and on. In the end, we are never satisfied; we are always in the state of dissatisfaction. Craving may also come in the form of being attached to desirable things. When we get attached to an enjoyable experience or to a person whom we love, we want the experience and the relationship to last. This craving is bound to fail for experiences and relationships, as well as ourselves and our loved ones, are not permanent. 3. Eliminating craving eliminates suffering. If craving is the cause of suffering, then the termination of suffering requires termination of craving. One, however, cannot just stop making desires by no longer making desires. It would be impossible to live without having any desire. To totally refrain from making desires is to put an end to 180

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one’s life. This means that we need to qualify or determine which desires result in suffering and thus need to be eliminated. Accordingly, the desires that cause suffering are those made out of ignorance (ignorance about the fact that the objects of desire are impermanent) and the attitude of attachment (with the objects of desire). In short, the desires that need to be eliminated are the ignorant and attached desires. These desires are actually interrelated: when we are not mindful of the impermanent nature of the things that we desire, we get attached to them. In contrast, what we should cultivate are the enlightened and detached desires. 4. The way to eliminate craving and consequently suffering is by following the eightfold path. We noted that to eliminate suffering, we need to eliminate the ignorant and attached kind of desires and cultivate the enlightened and detached kind of desires in our lives. Now how do we cultivate the right kind of desires? The Buddha provides us with the following eightfold path as an answer: a. Right understanding— understanding of the true nature of things, specifically, knowledge of the three marks of existence, the four dharma seals, and the four noble truths. b. Right intention/thought— cultivating thoughts and motives that are pure and not selfish. c.

Right speech— speaking honestly and kindly; avoiding lies, exaggeration, harsh words, and expressions that hurt people.

d. Right action—doing actions that do not hurt people and animals, which include not stealing and engaging in sexual misconduct. e. Right work/livelihood—pursuing a means of livelihood that does no harm to oneself, other people, and animals. f.

Right effort— improving oneself while avoiding extremes or observing moderation or the middle way.

g. Right meditation (right mindfulness)—focusing one’s energies on the right and positive things. h. Right contemplation—cultivating mental states or thoughts that bring inner peace. All the steps above are interdependent and are divided into three groups of training: ( 1 ) the way of morality or good conduct (consisting of right speech, right action, and right work); (2 ) the way of mental development (consisting of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration); and (3) the way of wisdom (consisting of right understanding and right intention).

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DEPENDENT ARISING The Buddhist belief in the principle or law called Dependent Arising or Dependent Origination (Pratitya-samutpada in Sanskrit; Paniccasamuppada,Paticda-samuppada, and Patichcha-samuppada in Pali) is understood on two levels: the general and specific levels. On the general level, it mainly states that everything is causally interconnected or that everything affects everything else. Another way of putting this is that all things in the world are interdependent, such that nothing happens, exists, and ceases to exist independently of certain conditions. The Buddha explains this in this way: “When this is, that is. This arising, that arises. When this is not, that is not.This ceasing, that ceases.’This principle strongly affirms that everything is subject to the law of cause and effect. Whatever happens or occurs is an effect of certain causes, which in turn are effects of certain other causes, and so on. There is no first cause or a cause that is not an effect of other causes. Nothing exists that is not causally related to some other things. This principle explains why there can never be anything permanent in the world. For something to be permanent, its existence should not be dependent on anything. On the specific level, the law of dependent origination is intended to explain the phenomenon of rebirth (or samsara) and suffering. We noted that samsara is governed by the moral law of karma—a good action will produce good consequences, while a bad action will produce bad consequences.The law of karma is part of the law of dependent arising. It explains why good and bad consequences arise from certain types of actions.The law of dependent arising also explains how rebirth and suffering are possible even if there is no eternal soul or enduring self. The law explains it in terms of the causal interplay among the so-called Twelve Links, which consist of the following: (1) ignorance; (2) volitional (or mental) formations; (3) consciousness; (4) mind/ body (or name and form); (5) senses and sense objects (or the six senses); (6 ) the contact between sense organs, sense objects, and consciousness; (7) feelings; (8 ) craving; (9) attachment (or clinging); (10) coming to be (or becoming); (11) birth; and (12) old age and death (see Santina 1984, 107-116; and Piyadassi 1991, 137-169 for an in-depth discussion of this Buddhist teaching).

S ome B uddhist P ractices The Five Precepts. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism is called the Five Precepts, which are training rules whereby one commits

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oneself to abstain from five kinds of action, namely, ( 1 ) killing and harming living beings, (2) stealing, (3) engaging in sexual misconduct, (4) lying, and (5) drinking alcohol. The first precept cultivates the virtue of ahimsa or nonviolence. In some Buddhist traditions, those who wish to practice Buddhism more strictly follow eight precepts instead of just five. The additional three are avoiding the following actions: (6 ) eating at the wrong time; (7) singing, dancing, playing music, attending entertainment performances, wearing perfume, and using cosmetics and garlands (decorative accessories); and (8) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping, and oversleeping. There are, however, novice monks and nuns in Buddhism who commit themselves to ten precepts which divide the seventh precept into two and add another one. The additional actions that must be avoided are (7) singing, dancing, playing music, and attending entertainment performance, (8 ) wearing perfume, cosmetics and garlands; (9) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping, and oversleeping; and (10) accepting money (Matthews 2010, 109-110). M e d ita tio n and C hantin g. T hrough m editation, one prim arily trains the mind to control its own thoughts. The practice of meditation is central to most Buddhist traditions for its important role in achieving enlightenment. Chanting is also one way of training the mind by repetitiously uttering the Dharma or Buddha’s teachings. Bowing, Lighting Incense, and Altar Offerings. Buddhists show respect to a statue of the Buddha or a boddhisattva by putting their palms together and bowing (or prostrating) in front of the statue three times. Lighting incense is another way of showing respect to the Buddha. It is also done as part of the offerings to the Buddha when asking for his blessings. Altar offerings at temples, in the form of flowers, fresh fruits, and small vegetarian dishes, are a form of thanksgiving for Buddha’s teachings and blessings received from the Buddha or a boddhisattva. Some Major Holidays and Festivals. Most holidays and festivals celebrated by Buddhists commemorate important events in the life of the Buddha or various boddhisattvas. Some of them are as follows: (a) Buddha Day ( Vesak), the most important Buddhist festival for it celebrates the birthday of the Buddha on the first full moon day in May; (b) Sangha Day (Magha Vesak UNIT II

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Puja Day or Fourfold Assembly Day), which is celebrated on the full moon day of the third lunar month (March) to commemorate the visit of the Buddha to the Verunan Monastery in the city of Rajagaha, where he was welcomed and honored by 1,250 arhats; (c) Dhamma Day, which is celebrated on the full moon day of thg eighth lunar month (July) to commemorate the Buddha’s first sermon at the Sarnath Deer Park (where “the wheel of the Dharma was turned”); (d) Kathina Ceremony (Robe Offering Ceremony), where the laity offer new robes and other necessities to monks and nuns; (e) Festival of Floating Bowls (Loy Krathong), which takes place in all parts of Thailand on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month, where people float bowls made of leaves and flowers, incense sticks, and candles on the water to commemorate the holy footprint of the Buddha on the beach of the Namada River in India; and (f) the Buddhist New Year, which is celebrated on different days by Buddhists in different countries. Discussion Questions 1. Recall the second point in the Four Noble Truths—that the cause of suffering is craving or desire. How true is this point? Can you identify an experience of yours that demonstrates this truth? 2.

From your point of view, how can human suffering be eliminated? Or can it really be eliminated? Explain your answer.

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Write a short paper comparing and contrasting the views of Hinduism and Buddhism on the nature of human suffering and how it can be eliminated.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Questions What are the denominations of Buddhism? What are some of its major challenges? Most Buddhist scholars identify two major traditions of Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism, described as the “Way (or Teaching) of the Elders”; and Mahayana Buddhism, described as the “Great Vehicle” (Molloy 2010, 142-43, 149; Matthews 2010, 117-119). Some add a third one: Vajrayana

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Buddhism, described as the “Diamond (orThunderbolt) Vehicle” (Molloy 2010, 168-173). These three Buddhist traditions are no doubt the dominant forms of Buddhism today. Theravada Buddhism is dominant in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar (formerly Burma). Mahayana Buddhism is dominant in China, Japan, and Korea. Vajrayana Buddhism is dominant in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Those who identify the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions as the only major Buddhist traditions regard the Vajrayana tradition as a form of the Mahayana tradition. On the other hand, those who consider the Vajrayana tradition as the third major Buddhist tradition see the Vajrayana tradition as something that developed on its own and thus should be treated as an independent Buddhist tradition. For our purposes, we shall follow those who classify the Vajrayana tradition under the Mahayana tradition, and thus regard Theravada Buddhism and Mayahana Buddhism as the two major Buddhist traditions.

T he T heravada and Mayahana T raditions The Theravada and Mahayana forms of Buddhism accept the basic and important Buddhist teachings we discussed in the previous section—the three jewels, the three marks of existence (impermanence, no-self, suffering), the four dharma seals (three marks of existence plus nirvana), the four noble truths, the eightfold path, samsara and karma, dependent origination, and the moral precepts.There are, however, significant differences which concern the following points: first, the sacred writings or texts they regard as canonical or authoritative; second, what they consider as their ideal Buddhist (what their followers are aiming to become); and third, how they understand the nature of the Buddha. We have already dealt with the first consideration in the first section of this chapter. (Recall that Theravada Buddhism accepts the Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, as the only canonical sacred texts. In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism considers the Tripitaka and some other writings, collectively known as the Mahayana Sutras, as canonical sacred texts). In what follows, we will discuss the second and third considerations more elaborately.

A rhats and B odhisattvas For Theravada Buddhism, the ideal Buddhist is called an arhat (Sanskrit; Pali: arahat, which means “perfect being,” “one who is worthy— Molloy 2010, 143); while for Mahayana Buddhism, it is called a bodhisattva (Molloy 2010, 151). Before we proceed, it must be noted that Theravada Buddhism also has a concept of the bodhisattva, which has a meaning different from the

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Mahayana concept. For Theravadins (the followers of Theravada Buddhism), a bodhisattva is anyone who is on his/her way to enlightenment (he/she has not yet attained enlightenment but he/she is on his/her way to attain it). For this reason, in the previous lives of the Buddha, Theravadins consider him to be a bodhisattva. To avoid confusion, we shall use the word “bodhisattva” to refer to the Mahayana concept of it. Both the arhat and the bodhisattva (in the Mahayana sense) have already achieved enlightenment and are thus worthy to enter the state of nirvana. The arhat automatically proceeds to the state of nirvana, and because of this, the arhat is also understood as one who has attained nirvana. As earlier noted, the arhat, however, differs from a Buddha in that a Buddha attains enlightenment by means of his/her efforts alone, while an arhat attains enlightenment with the help and under the guidance of a Buddha. The bodhisattava, on the other hand, is one who has attained enlightenment also with the help and under the guidance of Buddha, but, unlike the arhat, the bodhisattva postpones his/her entry to the state of nirvana out of compassion in order to help others attain enlightenment. A bodhisattva’s state of mind is called bodhichitta, referring to the desire to achieve enlightenment in order to help others also attain enlightenment.

G reat and S mall V ehicles Closely related to the difference concerning the Buddhist ideal is the contrast of what the names of these two major traditions signify. Accordingly, the expression “Mahayana” signifies “The Great Vehicle,” while the expression “Flinayana” (“Hinayana Buddhism” is the other name of Theravada Buddhism) signifies “The Small Vehicle.” Vehicle here is meant “way, means, or path toward nirvana.” The following is one common illustration to explain the contrast between the great and the small vehicles. The term “vehicle” can be imagined as a ferryboat used by enlightened beings to travel toward (the state of) nirvana. In the Mahayana tradition, they believe in a bodhisattva, who postpones his/her entry to the state of nirvana to help others attain enlightenment. A bodhisattva helps others to be on the same ferryboat that he/she is riding toward nirvana. The bodhisattva therefore needs to be in a large ferryboat (thus a “great vehicle”). In contrast, in the Theravada tradition, each enlightened person, called an arhat, enters nirvana individually. Thus, each arhat needs to be in just a small ferryboat, enough to accommodate one enlightened being (thus a “small vehicle”). Theravadins, however, do not like the derogatory connotation of “Hinayana” as a small vehicle and its suggestion that an arhat is selfish (for

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just thinking of his/her own enlightenment and nirvana), for after all, anyone who is selfish cannot attain enlightenment. Consequently, they prefer the name “Theravada” to “Hinayana.’T h e name “ Theravada” means “teaching of the elders,” which indirectly suggests that the Theravada way, compared to the Mahayana way, is the one true to the original teachings of the Buddha. Another reason why some prefer the name “Theravada” to “Hinayana” is the hypothesis that these two names do not actually refer to the same tradition. According to this account, the Buddhist school originally named “Hinayana” has long ceased to exist (Rahula 1996).

T he N ature of the B uddha Theravadins and Mahayanists both believe that Gautama Buddha is not the only Buddha. They also share the belief that after Gautama Buddha, there will be another historical Buddha, named Maitreya (in Sanskrit; Matteya in Pali), who will come to usher in the golden age of Buddhism. Theravadins believe that Buddhas are historical persons who have achieved enlightenment on their own, the last of which was Gautama Buddha. The Buddha, for the Theravadins, is therefore essentially human and nothing more. Furthermore, the other Buddhas that they accept are limited to the previous historical Buddhas before Gautama Buddha. Mahayanists, on the other hand, has a different view on the matter. They advance the doctrine of the Trikaya, according to which a Buddha has three bodies (777 means “three,” and Kaya means “body”); namely: ( 1 ) manifestation (or emanation) body (Nirmanakaya), (2) truth (or reality) body (Dharmakaya), and (3) bliss (or enjoyment) body (Sambhogakaya).Therefore, a Buddha for Mahayanists is essentially not just a human being. And so in addition to Gautama Buddha, the previous historical Buddhas, and the future historical Buddha (Maitreya Buddha), they believe in other Buddhas in other worlds (Molloy 2010, 151-154). The manifestation body of a Buddha is his/her historical body or his/her body that appears in space and time. It is a Buddha’s physical body that is born, walks on earth, and dies. Gautama Buddha is one personification of the manifestation body of a Buddha. The truth body of a Buddha refers to the very principle of enlightenment or the Truth (referring to the truth of the Buddha’s teachings or Dharma) that a Buddha has known (or the Reality that a Buddha has come to realize) during enlightenment. Truth is independent of the Buddha that comes to know it, and it remains the same whoever Buddha comes to know it. A Buddha’s truth body is therefore not subject to change and is not in space and time. It is what makes someone a Buddha and so it is the essence of Buddha nature. The bliss body is the body or aspect of the

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Buddha that experiences the joy of having achieved enlightenment, known the Truth, or entered the state of nirvana. It is the joy of being released from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. These three bodies of the Buddha, said to be the three appearances of the Buddha, however, are also believed to be personalized or embodied by certain Buddhas. As such, there are the Nirmanakaya Buddhas who embody the manifestation body. Gautama Buddha is an example of this kind of Buddha. There are also the Dharmakaya Buddhas who embody the truth body. An example of this kind of Buddha is Dharmakaya Samantabhadra, who is believed by some (in Tibetan Buddhism) as the Primordial Buddha (being the embodiment of timeless awareness of the Truth). Finally, there are the Sambhogakaya Buddhas who embody the bliss body. These Buddhas are celestial, cosmic, or heavenly beings, for while they have physical forms or figures, they are not subject to space and time. These celestial Buddhas are usually objects of devotion, for they are the Buddhas in “Pure Lands”— referring to heavenly places characterized by the bliss of enlightenment and nirvana. Amitabha Buddha is an example of a Sambhogakaya Buddha.

The 3 Bodies of a Buddha

What the 3 Bodies Represent

Names of Buddhas Personalizing the 3 Bodies

Examples of Buddhas Personalizing the 3 Bodies

Manifestation Body

The physical body of a Buddha

Nirmanakaya Buddhas

Gautama Buddha

Truth Body

The enlightenment of a Buddha

Dharmakaya Buddhas

Dharmakaya Samantabhadra

Bliss Body

The joy of a Buddha in nirvana

Sambhogakaya Buddhas

Amitabha Buddha

S ome Mahayana S chools TheTheravada tradition as practiced in the different countries in which it is dominant is basically the same.The differences in the practices of Theravada Buddhism are minor to constitute subschools within the tradition. While Theravada Buddhism is practiced alongside some other religious practices in these countries (for instance, 90 percent of Thais are Theravadins and yet most of them also engage in some Hindu practices), the main teachings

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of Theravada Buddhism remain intact. It is the Mahayana tradition that has subschools, and there are a lot of them. Let us briefly describe some of the major ones (as discussed in Molloy 2010, 160-167; and Matthews 2010, 122-130).

V ajrayana B uddhism The Vajrayana School is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, but because of its unique components, some consider it the third major Buddhist tradition. Also called the Thunderbolt Vehicle or Diamond Vehicle, this school is mainly characterized by its view that one can quickly achieve enlightenment and become a bodhisattva in one’s present life by following some esoteric (mysterious) practices. Its beliefs and practices are described as esoteric or mysterious for they are not openly taught. Instead, they are taught by a teacher exclusively to his/her students. Vajrayana Buddhism is also called Tantric Buddhism as it follows the teachings of the Tantras, which advance the view that the body and all its energies, including those manifested in sexual union, could be used to attain enlightenment. In this connection, sexual imageries are sometimes used to describe the union of wisdom and compassion. This view opposes the belief that enlightenment could only be achieved by denying the body of sensual pleasures.

T ibetan B uddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Vajrayana Buddhism. When Vajrayana Buddhism entered Tibet, it, blended with the indigenous religious practices of Tibetans, which included nature worship and shamanism. The resulting Tibetan Vajrayana includes the practices of meditation and yoga, and the use of mantras, mandalas (sometimes sands are used to tediously create mandalas but once done, they will be destroyed to emphasize the impermanence of things), and prayer wheels (the belief is that turning a cylinder containing papers bearing sacred phrases will create good karma). The spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism is generally called a lama (aTibetan translation of the Indian word guru). A dominant form of Tibetan Buddhism, called Gelug-pa (also called the Yellow Hat sect), calls its superior head the “Dalai Lama” (literally means “ocean superior one”). The lamas are believed to be reincarnations of previous lamas, who in turn are believed to be emanations of certain bodhisattavas. When a Dalai Lama dies, the search for his successor is a search for his reincarnation.

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Madhyamika and Y ogacara S chools Madhyariuka is Sanskrit for “Middle Way.” The Madhyamika School developed from the works of Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna, who lived around 150 CE, is known to have extended the notion of no-self to ail things. Recall that the no-self doctrine states that there is no unchanging, eternal, or enduring substance that is responsible for one’s sense of self or personal identity. Nagarjuna is said to have advanced the concept of emptiness (sunyata), which states that all things, including persons, do not have essences— referring to abstract, unchanging substances inherent in things. The Yogacara School, on the other hand, is associated with Asanga, who lived around 400 CE. The Yogacara School went beyond the view of the Madhyamika in claiming that it is not just that things are without essences, but the things that serve as the objects of consciousness do not really exist, being just creations (or constructs) of consciousness. It further claims that even the I, the subject of consciousness, does not also exist. In the end, there is just a stream of consciousness. For this reason, this school is also called the “Mind-Only” School of Buddhism (Matthews 2010, 119-21).

C han B uddhism Chan Buddhism was established in China by Bodhidharma when he brought Buddhism to China in 520 CE. The Chan School of Buddhism, sometimes called the Meditation School for Bodhidharma, emphasized that meditation is more important than scriptures in knowing the Truth and reaching enlightenment. It is said that Bodhidharma was inspired by Kashyapa who smiled when the Buddha, in one of his sermons, just kept silent and held a flower. Kashyapa’s smile indicated that he understood the Buddha’s sermon which for him was about the “True Dharma” (the true teaching behind the teachings, which is beyond words). It is said that Chan Buddhism was greatly influenced by Taoism, the indigenous Chinese religion traditionally believed to have been founded by LaoTzu.

Z en B uddhism When Chan Buddhism was brought to Japan, it became known as Zen Buddhism. The Zen type of meditation is called zazen, meaning “sitting or seated meditation.” Enlightenment in Zen is called satori, understood as a return to the original condition of the human mind before it was contaminated by various concerns in life. Zazen is practiced through either of the following

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two methods: (1) shikantaza, the practice of just sitting (cross-legged) and thinking of nothing, or emptying one’s mind; and (2) the use of koans, which are riddles, stories, or sayings that one focuses on during zazen to free the mind from its everyday concerns and from traditional ways of thinking (which act as barriers to the mind’s spontaneity or free-flowing nature). Here is one popular koan: “Two hands clap and there is a sound, what is the sound of one hand?” Here is another one, entitled A Cup of Tea: Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912), received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen. Nan-in served tea. He poured his visitor’s cup full, and then kept on pouring. The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain himself. “It is overfull. No more will go in!” “Like this cup,” Nan-in said, “you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show you Zen unless you first empty your cup?” (Quoted in “Zen Koans," online: http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.html)

P ure L and B uddhism Pure Land Buddhism is the largest form of Mahayana Buddhism in East Asia, most especially in China and Japan. It is a popular devotional form of Buddhism for it can be practiced by lay people and monks alike with the same results. This school believes that there is a sphere or level of reality beyond the earth, called the Pure Land, that is ruled over by Amitabha Buddha—a celestial Buddha (a personification of the bliss body of a Buddha). To be in the Pure Land is to experience the bliss of nirvana. The belief is that having complete faith or devotion to the Buddha Amitabha, instead of performing good deeds, is sufficient to be reborn in the Pure Land. One popular practice of devotion to Amitabha Buddha is the repetitious recitation of the name “Amitabha Buddha” with complete focus and sincere faith. Once in the Pure Land, the belief is that people will easily attain complete enlightenment and enter the state of nirvana.

T endai B uddhism The Tendai Buddhism in Japan began in China as the Tiantai sect. It was named after the mountain, Mount Tiantai, where the Chinese monastery in which the sect is thought to have begun is located. A Japanese monk by the name of Sacho (767-822 CE) went to this Chinese monastery to study Tiantai Buddhism and later on returned to Japan to establish the Tendai %

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Sect, whose center is located on Mount Hiei, north of Kyoto. One significant feature of Tendai Buddhism is its arrangement of the various and often conflicting Buddhist texts in a meaningful way, as different stages leading to full enlightenment. The Tendai monks are known for their practice of Kaihogyo, a kind of meditation !hat requires the extremely difficult challenge of circling Mount Hei on foot for many days in a row (that takes place over seven years). It is believed that those who will be able to complete the challenge will attain enlightenment. In reference to this practice, Western scholars describe Tendai monks as “marathon monks.”

N ichiren B uddhism Nichiren Buddhism has the distinction of being the kind of Buddhism that began in Japan. Its founder, Nichiren (1222-1282), was a former Tendai monk. One distinctive feature of the Nichiren sect is its view that the Lotus Sutra contains all the essential religious teachings of Buddhism. Its devout followers use a chant or mantra to profess their faith in the teachings of the Lotus Sutra. The chant goes as follows: “ Namu Myoho Renge Kyo,” translated as “Praise to the mystic law of the Lotus Sutra.” Nichiren Buddhists believe that repetitiously saying this mantra will enable them to connect with the divine power of the universe.

S ome C hallenges Buddhism is becoming popular in the Western world. Part of its attraction is that some of its teachings seem to be consistent with some modern values and can be used to deal with the pressures of modern life.The Buddhist idea that one can attain enlightenment with one’s individual efforts seems to be in accord with modern-day individualism. The Buddhist practice of meditation can be used to deal with everyday stress. The Buddhist ideal of nonviolence is also attractive to some people. There are, however, some modern values that directly oppose some Buddhist teachings, foremost of which is the value of consumerism, which contradicts the Buddhist teaching of detachment from one’s desires and self. The danger, thus, is that people may just take from Buddhism aspects or elements of it that are useful to them and just ignore the rest. This may contribute to a popularized understanding of Buddhism which ignores its true meaning and goals. One challenge facing Buddhism concerns women. Women, in principle, can be ordained as nuns in Buddhism. But the reality is that not all Buddhist

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sects ordain women as nuns. There are some sects where there is still opposition to ordaining Buddhist nuns, but efforts continue to make the ordination of Buddhist nuns a universal practice in all Buddhist sects. Just like any other religion, Buddhism, generally perceived as a peaceloving religion, sometimes get caught in political issues that put its followers in difficult situations. The Chinese invasion of Tibet (on October 7, 1950) is one clear example. The Chinese, some of whom are Buddhists, destroyed many of the Buddhist temples in Tibet when the Chinese Communist government under Mao Tse Tung invaded Tibet. The religious practices of Tibetans, majority of whom were Buddhists, were also outlawed. Until today, the Dalai Lama, who assumed the leadership of the Tibetan government (a theocratic form of government being ruled by spiritual leaders) when the Chinese invaded Tibet, is still in exile in India.

If you had the time to study a form of Buddhism more extensively, which form of Buddhism would it be? Why?

^ ^ A c t iv it ^ l

I.

Visit a Buddhist temple in the Philippines. Describe your experience.This can be an oral or a written report.

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. Nirvana Gautama Buddha Meditation and chanting Dependent Arising

Tripitaka Mahayana Tibet Vajrayana

Sangha Nichiren impermanence no-self

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Buddhism Review Questions I.

Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The title “Buddha” m eans__________ a. the anointed one c. the chosen one b. the enlightened one 2. In her dream prior to her pregnancy, Queen Maya dreamt about a w hite__________ a. cow c. elephant b. monkey

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3. A Brahmin hermit predicted that the baby Gautama would one day b e __________ a. a great spiritual teacher c. a great king b. a great leader 4. The last of the Four Passing Sights that Gautama had was the sight of: a. an old man c. a dead man b. a sick man

d. a contented ascetic

5. One who has achieved enlightenment with the guidance of a Buddha is generally called------- ---------a. an arhat c. a guru b.

a Buddha

6 . The sacred Buddhist text recognized by both Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism is th e ----------------a. Tripitaka c. Heart Sutra b.

Lotus Sutra

7. The following part of the Tripitaka consists of records of the teachings and sermons mostly of the Buddha on theological matters and moral behavior for all Buddhists. a. Discipline Basket c. Special Teachings Basket b. Discourse Basket

8 . The Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are regarded as Buddhism’s a. Three Marks of Existence

c. Three Sutras

b. Three Jewels 9. _________ refers to the community of Buddhist monks and nuns. a. Dharma c. Annica yb.

Sangha

10. This Buddhist concept rejects the belief in an eternal soul or the Hindu concept of Atman. a. impermanence c. no-self b.

suffering

11. The addition o f _________ to the three n w k s of existence makes up the Four Dharma Seals. a. impermanence c. suffering b. no-self

d. nirvana

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12. The cause of suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths, is a. craving or desire

c. immorality

b. misfortune 13. This law, on the general level, states that everything is interconnected a. karma

c. samsara

b. dependent arising 14. Right action, right speech, and right work of the eightfold path belong to the following group. a. way of mental development c. way of wisdom b. way of morality 15. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism is called the a. Law of Dependent Arising

c. Law of Karma

b. Five Precepts 16. T h e _________ is described as the “Diamond Vehicle.” a. Mahayana Buddhism c. Vajrayana Buddhism b. Theravada Buddhism 17. T h e _________ is described as the “Great Vehicle.” a. Mahayana Buddhism c. Vajrayana Buddhism b. Theravada Buddhism 18. The Mahayana doctrine that Buddha has three bodies is called a. Trimurti

c. Tripitaka

b. Trikaya 19. The ideal Buddhist of Mahayana Buddhism is called__________ a. an arhat c. a bodhichitta b.

a bodhisattva

20. Gautama Buddha is considered as an example of a __________ a. Nirmanakaya Buddha c. Sambhogakaya Buddha b. Dharmakaya Buddha 21. Celestial Buddhas, like Amitabha Buddha, a re __________ a. Nirmanakaya Buddhas c. Sambhogakaya Buddhas b.

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Dharmakaya Buddhas

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

22. The spiritual leader of the following form of Buddhism is called a lam a__________ a. Tendai Buddhism c. Chan Buddhism b. Tibetan Buddhism 23. This form or school of Buddhism is also called “Mind-Only” school for its rejection of the existence of the objects and subjects of consciousness. a. Yogacara c. Pure Land b.

Madhyamika

24. A technique for meditation in this form of Buddhism uses koans. a. Tendai c. Zen b.

Nichiren

25. The monks of this form of Buddhism are described as “marathon monks” in reference to their form of meditation wherein they circle Mount Hei for many days in a row. a. Tendai c. Zen b.

Nichiren

II. Identify and explain the following: 1. The Four Dharma Seals-----------------------------------------------------------

2. The Four Noble Truths

KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson

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K What 1know about Buddhism

W What 1want to know about Buddhism

*

L What I have learned about Buddhism (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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O verarching Q uestion What are the main features of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto in terms of their origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges?

EX PECTED L EA R N I N G OUTCOME

The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of the major religions that originated in China (Confucianism and Taoism) and Japan (Shinto). Specifically, the chapter looks into the origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges of these religions. At the end of the chapter, you must write and submit a comparative analysis of these three religions (the themes are to be specified by the teacher). Such themes may include the religions’ founders; sacred texts; notions of the Absolute; views on the essential human condition, morality, and liberation (or way to achieve ultimate happiness); practices (which include rituals and celebrations); denominations; and challenges (which include issues concerning gender, relation with the state, modernization, and technology and the expanding understanding of human rights. The following is a sample template for this activity the teacher is free to make changes as he/she sees fit.

Religion

Confucianism

Taoism

Shinto

Founder(s) Sacred Texts

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The Absolute The Human Condition Morality Liberation and Ultimate Happiness Practices Denominations Challenges

L EA RNI NG COMPETENCIES

Competency

Learning Lesson 8. Confucianism

•s- Trace the origins of Confucianism and identify its sacred texts. w

Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Confucianism. Distinguish the different denominations of Confucianism and discuss some of its challenges.

Lesson 9. Taoism

**■ Trace the origins of Taoism and identify its sacred texts. cr Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Taoism. «■ Distinguish the different denominations of Taoism and discuss some of its challenges.

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Lesson 10. Shinto

■s- Trace the origins of Shinto and identify its sacred texts. **■ Explain the basic doctrines and practices of Shinto. «*■ Distinguish the different denominations of Shinto and discuss some of its challenges.

EXPL ORING INITIAL IDEAS AN D VIEWS

1. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you can associate with Confucianism.

2. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you can associate with Taoism.

3. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you can associate with Shinto.

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l i E s s j Q N j S ; S9?ife BBSS: S # ' i*p- SSp & t#

CONFUCIANISM Guide Question What are the basic features of Confucianism?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1 : Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Sects and Challenges

Key Concepts

is-

Confucianism

*r The Basic Relationships

is-

Ru Tradition

«*■ The Confucian Virtues

•a-

Confucius

is-

is-

202

The Five Classics (Book of Rites, Book of Changes, Book of History, Book of Poetry, Spring and Autumn Annals)

is-

The Four Books (Analects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Mencius)

is-

Mandate of Heaven

«•

Rectification of Names

Ren or Benevolence

«s- Li or Propriety ^ Shu or Reciprocity US’ Xiao or Filial Piety Wen or Culture lt3' Mohists (Mozi) Ejr Legalists (Han Feizi) ISP Taoists ^ Mencius

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Xunzi (HsunTzu) Neo-Confucianism (Han Yu, Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming)

EXPECTED L EA R N I N G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: •s- Explain the relation between Confucianism and the Ru Tradition. ■sr Narrate the key events in the life of Confucius. »

Distinguish the books consisting the Five Classics of Confucianism,

ear Distinguish the books consisting the Four Books of Confucianism. «*■ Explain the Confucian concepts of a noble person and the Mandate of Heaven. ear Explain the meaning of the Confucian principle of the rectification of names. <>*• Identify and explain the Confucian virtues by giving concrete examples, i®- Identify and differentiate the rival theories of Confucianism: the Schools of the Mohists, Legalists, and Taoists. ear Identify and differentiate the different Confucian Schools: the Schools of Mencius, Xunzi, and the Neo-Confucians. •a- Identify and elaborate on some of the challenges of Confucianism.

|^A ctivityJ Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS

How did Confucianism originate? And what are its sacred texts?

C hina ’ s T hree T eachings

*

There are three major religions in China, namely, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. These three religions are collectively called the Three

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Doctrines (Molloy 2010, 215) or the Three Teachings (Deming 2015, 119), suggesting their harmonious co-existence throughout Chinese history. It is said that it is typical among Chinese, though some may consider themselves as belonging to one of these religions, to engage in some of the practices of these three religions at the same time. Of these three religions, Confucianism and Taoism originated in China, for Buddhism was only brought to China. These three religions flourished in China almost within the same period, and they influenced each other’s development. We have already examined Buddhism in a previous chapter and some of the forms it has taken when it was brought to other countries, especially China and Japan. In this chapter and the next, we shall then focus on Confucianism and Taoism.

C onfucianism In 2007, it was estimated that there were 6,447,200 followers of Confucianism in the whole world; and majority of them (6,376,000) lived in Asia (Matthews 2010, 172). The term “Confucianism” was originally used by the Jesuits of the sixteenth century to refer to a Chinese cultural tradition named the Ru Tradition, which generally meant “the tradition of the scholars.” The Jesuits, accordingly, wanted to transform the tradition into a school of thought, or an “ism.” Referring to the said tradition as “Ju,” Rule (1986, 2, 195) writes: Until Nicholas Trigault published his version of Ricci’s journals in 1615, there was hardly any knowledge of, not to say debate about, Confucianism .. .The Jesuits were virtually the first Europeans to discover Confucius and Confucianism, ‘the sect of the literati’ as they not inaccurately called it . .. The Jesuits, representatives of European values and intellectual methods, attempted . . . to understand Chinese intellectual life in terms of systems, and transmuted the tradition of the Ju or Chinese ‘scholars’ into an ‘-ism’, Confucianism. (Quoted in Yao 2000, 16-17) Consequently, “Confucianism” has been thought of, especially in the West, as referring to a distinct Chinese tradition that was founded or originated by its leader, Confucius. While it is true that Confucius and his followers have successfully transmitted and transformed the ancient cultural tradition of ru, it must be noted that this tradition existed long before Confucius was born. What then was the ru tradition? Roughly, the ru tradition, or ru jia {ru jiao or rue xue), means “the doctrine or tradition of the scholars” (Yao 2000, 17). But who were the ru or scholars in this regard? Yao (2000,18-20) explains that the meaning of “ru” went through a number of stages before the time of Confucius: “Firstly, ru referred to dancers and musicians in religious rituals

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... Secondly, ru were masters of rituals and ceremonies .. . Thirdly, ritual masters became teachers in official education. To be able to look after rituals, ru must have mastered history, poetry, music, astrology, archery and mathematics which were closely related to rituals in ancient times.” In addition, ru were devoted to the study of the “six classics” (the Book of Poetry, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals) and emphasized the virtues of humaneness (ren) and righteousness (yi) (Yao 2000,17). The association, and eventually the identification, of the ru tradition with Confucianism was based on the recognition of Confucius as the highest figure in the ru tradition. He was a great master, teacher, and innovator of the ru tradition. In light of these considerations, we thus say that Confucianism has its roots in the ru tradition.The originality in Confucianism, as a religion or as a philosophy, lies in the changes that Confucius and his followers introduced to the tradition to nurture or cultivate it (Yao 2000, 21). It must, however, be noted that while all Confucians (followers of Confucius) then were followers of the ru tradition; not all followers of the ru tradition were Confucians. This means that there might have some who resisted the innovations Confucius introduced to the ru tradition. Confucius C on fuciu s is the recognized fo u n d er of Confucianism.Though there are some disagreements about the details in his life, there is no doubt that Confucius was a historical figure. Also, there was nothing extra-human or supernatural, or mythical, about the events in his life. He was born in the normal human way, and he lived and died in the normal human way. Confucius is believed to have Confucius lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His original Chinese name was “Kong Qiu” (or “K’ung Ch’iu); but he later on became known by the title “Kong Fuzi” (or “Kung Fu Tzu”), which meant “Master Kong.” The name “Confucius” was actually a Romanized/Latinized version of his name, created and spread by sixteenth century Jesuit missionaries (Molloy 2010, 235; Littlejohn 2011, xviii).The following were the highlights of Confucius’ life as gathered from the accounts by different scholars* which vary in emphasis and level of detail (see, for instance, the accounts of Molloy 2010, 235-236; Matthews 2010,182-183; Urubshurow 2009, 458-463; Yao 2000, 21-26).

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Confucius was born in the state of Lu, or Shantung province— (presently Qufu, south of Beijing). His father, named Shulianghe, was a tall soldier who later on worked as a minor official in Lu (as head of a certain county in Lu). His father died when he was just three years old. This later on forced the young Confucius to engage in various forms of physical labor to help his family and finance his studies. But despite the difficult circumstances in his life, Confucius was still able to study and master the skills being studied by educated boys of aristocratic families, namely, ceremonies, music, archery, carriage driving, calligraphy, and calculation (or mathematics). It is said that Confucius pursued these things for he simply loved doing them. He also studied works that later on were called Confucian classics. While being poor, Confucius grew up as a gentleman. When his mother died when he was seventeen years old, he mourned for twenty-seven months, refraining from work, sexual relations, eating refined food, wearing fine clothes, playing music and others. He later on got married and had a son and a daughter. He first worked as a keeper of the granary accounts of the Chi family. This experience opened his eyes to social injustices. Later on he became a successful teacher. But he still longed to play an influential part in the government, for he believed that he could institute social changes once in a government post. At the age of 51, he became the head of a county in Lu, just like his father. After a few years, he became the Minister of Industry, Minister of Public Security, and acting Prime Minister of Lu. His political career, however, was cut short when he offended one of Lu’s powerful noblemen. At the age of fifty-five, he left Lu and went into exile in 497 BCE. Along with his disciples, he travelled to several states to search for other positions while approaching princes and dukes to promote his social teachings. He was often rejected and once he was even imprisoned and their lives (his and his students) were endangered. In 484 BCE, Confucius and his disciples returned to Lu, when the Duke of Ai of Lu invited Confucius to act as his adviser. He spent his last years as a scholar editing the classics. He died in 479 BCE at the age of seventy-two or seventy-three.

T he S acred T exts The sacred and authoritative texts of Confucianism consists of two collections of books named the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics (Wujing, Wu-ching) consist of the following: 1. Book of History {or Book of Documents) {Shujing, Shu Ching): a collection of historical materials (speeches and reports) on the deeds of emperors, and pieces used in ritual dance performance at the Zhou 206

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royal court (roughly from 3000 BCE to 700 BCE). The documents contain the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, the belief that Heaven grants its mandate to emperors who care for their subjects. 2. Book of Poetry (Shijing, Shih Ching): a collection of 305 poems of the Zhou period, whose topics include love and war, and are grouped into folk songs, festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house. It is believed that there were originally 3,000 poems but Confucius just chose 305 and “edited them into a book to be used for education” (Yao 2000, 59). 3. Book of Changes ( Yijing, / Ching): a book containing a divination system, referring to a system that shows the patterns of the universe through the use of the hexagrams (patterns of six yin-yang, dividedundivided, lines), and which, consequently, enables us to foresee or predict future events. It was in this book that the concepts of yin and yang were introduced. 4. Book of Rites (Liji, Li Chi): a book containing detailed rules for performing rites and court ceremonies. 5. Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqui, Ch’un Ch’iu): a collection of historical records about the state of Lu, the state where Confucius was born and died. It must be noted that another book, called the Book of Music, used to be regarded as the sixth classic. But this book no longer exists. Some think that parts of this book may have been incorporated in the Book of Rites. Some (Yao 2000, 57) think that it might have been included in the books burned during the Burning of the Books, a period, during the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE, when Confucian teachings were seen as a threat to the then existing political power (the ban on Confucian books was lifted when the Qin Dynasty was later on overthrown by the Han Dynasty in 191 BCE.). What is the significance of these classics to Confucianism? Confucians generally believe that these classics contain the heavenly principles or the Way of Heaven (Yao 2000, 50). In particular, Yao (2000, 50-51) identifies four primary roles these classics played in the transmission of the Confucian tradition: “Firstly, they were the key textbooks for students ... Secondly, the classics were considered to be the source of the Confucian way of life . . . Thirdly, the classics were the root from which numerous Confucian branches developed . . . Fourthly, the Confucian classics were appreciated primarily for their political functions and applications.”

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These classics were called “Confucian Classics” not only because of their relation to the teachings of Confucius, but also because it was traditionally believed that Confucius played a significant role in their formation. In particular, it was traditionally believed that Confucius was the one responsible for the form in which each’ of these books presently appears. The writings were already there but they were disorganized. Confucius edited and rearranged them so that he could take them as textbooks for his students (Yao 2000, 53; see also Matthews 2010,188). Some contemporary scholars, however, have raised some questions about this belief (Yao 2000, 53-54). The Four Books, on the other hand, consist of the following: 1. Analects (Lunyu, Lun Yu):a collection of the sayings, speeches, and discussions of Confucius and his followers. The sayings and short stories often begin with the phrase “The Master said.” As Confucius did not write down his teachings, his students took notes of them. These notes were later on compiled to form the Analects. 2.

Great Learning (Daxue, Ta Hsueh): a text discussing the character and influence of the noble person, and deals with the three central Confucian concerns: education, morality, and politics. It teaches the cultivation of the self and development of one’s virtue, through learning, as the way to produce order in the family and state. This book is actually a chapter in the Book of Rites.

3. Doctrine o f the Mean (Zhongyong, Chung Yung): a book that demonstrates the relation of the Way of Heaven and human nature. Accordingly, it is the way prescribed by heaven that humans achieve virtue or happiness by living a life of moderation or equilibrium. This book is another chapter in the Book of Rites, which is believed to have been written by Zisi, a grandson of Confucius. 4. Mencius {Mengzi, Meng Tzu): a collection of the teachings of Mencius, often in the form of conversations that Mencius had with kings during his time. The sayings of the Mencius, just like the Analects, often begin with the phrase “Mencius said.” Mencius, who lived some generations after Confucius, is regarded as the second great Confucian thinker after Confucius. Among the key ideas of Mencius is the thought that human nature is good. These Confucian texts, for a long period of time, became the “core curriculum” of Chinese education and for the civil service examinations in China—China is the first country in the world to require such examinations for eligibility for governmental employment. Previously the Five Classics were

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the key textbooks for education and for state examination (from the Han to the Tang Dynasty, 206 BCE-905 CE), but they were later on replaced by the Four Books (during the Song-Ming dynasty, 960-1628 CE).The Four Books were compiled and edited by Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200 CE), the Chinese philosopher who started the Neo-Confucian movement. Yao (2000,64) further notes: “In 1313 the Imperial court of the Yuan Dynasty (1260-1370) decreed that the questions of state civil examinations had to be taken from the Four Books . . . This decree effectively promoted the Four Books to a position above on the Five Classics. From then until the beginning of the twentieth century, a majority of Confucian scholars concentrated on the Four Books rather than the Five Classics, and every schoolboy had to learn them by heart before he reached adolescence.” This system of state examination, however, was stopped in 1905 by the Qing dynasty in light of attempts to catch up with modernization. And when the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911/12, the entire civil-service system was abolished. sc us si o n

Q uestions

1. What were the skills Confucius interested in acquiring? Do you think that these skills are still relevant in our time? Why? 2.

Do you think knowledge of our own rites, rituals, and ceremonies (and how they should be performed properly) should be part of our education? Why?

3. What for you should one know to be considered an educated person?

I^Activityl

Watch a movie about the life of Confucius (one movie is entitled “Confucius” which stars Chow Yun-fat). This activity can be done as a class. Write a reflection paper on the life of Confucius as depicted in the movie.

DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES G uide Q u e s t i o n What are the basic doctrines and practices of Confucianism?

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Mandate of H eaven The belief in the Tao, which generally means Way or Path, as the ultimate principle governing the universe and which must be realized by every human being in his/her actions is shared by both Confucians and Taoists. They, however, have different attitudes towards the nature of the Tao, or ways of dealing with it, and different views on how the Tao is to be realized or cultivated by humans in their lives. Taoists believe that the Tao is beyond concepts and words and thus no amount of education will enable us to know its real nature. The Tao that can be talked about does not refer to the real, eternal Tao, as the Tao Te Ching (the main Taoist text) states. What we can do is simply go with its flow, as manifested in the way nature moves. We shall explore this Taoist attitude towards the Tao in the next chapter. Confucians, in contrast, think of the Tao as contained in the Way of Heaven (“Heaven” is Tian, the Will of Heaven or Mandate of Heaven is Tien ming), which can be known or learned through proper education (by studying the Confucian books). The emperors of the past, for instance, who ruled by serving the interests of their people had the Mandate of Heaven. And so studying how these emperors ruled (in the Book of History) is one way to know the Way of Heaven. The ideal of Confucians is thus to know the Way of Heaven through education and to conduct their lives accordingly. “Thus they devote their life to learning, education and the transmission of ancient culture because of their belief in the Mandate of Heaven which can be known through learning, divination and observation . . . ” states Yao (2000, 147). For “[t]he Way of Heaven signifies morality, and to follow the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous life” (Yao 2000, 148). Confucians, in sum, do not speak of a God or gods to ground or justify their beliefs and practices. They instead speak of the Way or the Mandate of Heaven.

T he N oble P erson ( J unzi, C hOn T zu ) The way of humans should be in harmony with the way of heaven. Another way of saying this is that human actions should have the Mandate of Heaven. The ideal human for Confucians is therefore one who has known the Way of Heaven through education and acts in harmony with it. Such an ideal human, from the Confucian point of view, is called a junzi {chun tzu), which is translated as a superior man, an excellent person, a gentleman, a virtuous person, an exemplary person, or a noble person. The goal of Confucian

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education is to produce noble persons for it is only when rulers and subjects are noble persons that social harmony would be ac! eved. Generally, the noble person acts according to the Way of the Heaven, or act in ways that have the Mandate of Heaven. In particular, this means that a noble person knows and does his duties according to his role in the various relationships he might be in, say in his roles of being a father, younger brother, son, ruler, or husband. These duties are specified in Confucius’ discussion of the basic relationships or the rectification of names. Some scholars distinguish between three categories of persons described in the Analects: apprentice {shi), exemplary person (junzi), and sage (shenren) (Littlejohn 2011, 32). The goal of the apprentice is to become an exemplary person. “While the exemplary person is the highest level to which most of us can aspire, there is a loftier ideal in the Analects. It is to become a sage (shengren),” explains Littlejohn (2011,34). While to become a junzi is our ideal, but once a junzi there is still a higher ideal, being a sage. Sages are rare, as Confucius says: “I will never get to meet a sage— I would be content to meet an exemplary person” (quoted in Littlejohn 2011, 34). Confucius recognized some sages in the past (Yao, Wu, Wen, and Shun). And while he also deserved to be called a sage, he humbly refused the title, saying: “How would I dare to consider myself a sage or ren? What can be said about me is simply that I continue my studies without respite and instruct other without growing weary” (quoted in Littejohn 2011,34).

T he B asic R elationships Confucius is known to have identified five basic types of human relationships. A typical list of these relationships consists of the following: (1) father-son; (2) elder brother-younger brother; (3) husband-wife; (4) elder friend-younger friend; and (5) ruler-subject. There are, however, some variations in the list of some scholars. For instance, instead of the “elder brother-younger brother,” some have the “elder sibling-younger sibling” relationship (Littlejohn 2011, 26). And instead of the “father-son,” some have the “parent-child” relationship (Deming 2015,150; Littlejohn 2011,26). These variations indicate the desire to make the relationships more inclusive, to accommodate other equally important relationships into the list, while maintaining their number to just five. The main point, I think, is not that there are only five basic relationships; but that there are basic relationships (which can be more than five) in which each party in the relationship has duties or responsibilities towards the other party. As these basic relationships have

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this essential feature (they are defined by reciprocal responsibilities), the other relationships that will emerge from them will therefore likewise have the same essential feature. Thus, a parent has responsibilities towards his/her child, and a child has responsibilities towards his/her parent; a ruler has responsibilities towards his/her subject; and a subject has responsibilities towards his/her ruler; and so on. The relationships that will grow out of these basic relationships will be the same: the doctor-patient relationship, the teacher-student relationship, and employer-employee relationship, for instance, will also be defined by reciprocal responsibilities (each party in a relationship has responsibilities towards the other party). The other important point is that it is only when the reciprocal responsibilities of a relationship are done that there will be harmony in that relationship. And if we think of society as consisting of various human relationships, then society will only achieve harmony if each of the relationships that constitute it is in harmony. This last point leads us to the principle of the rectification of names.

R ectification of N ames The idea that everyone should know and do the appropriate duties or responsibilities of every role that he/she assumes in society is referred to as the principle or theory of the rectification of names. The roles that we play are defined by certain names or designations, like the names “father,” “son,” “elder,” and “ruler.” Rectification of these names means, in this context, clarification of the duties or responsibilities required of each person who is assigned or who assumes these names. In short, if you are called a “father” then know and do what a father must do; if you are called a “ruler” then know and do what a ruler must do, and so on. Social disharmony arises if we do not know and do the responsibilities implied by our designations or names. More generally, social irregularity arises when there is a “discrepancy between names and reality, between language and action, and between rights and duties” (Yao 2000,35). As Confucius writes: “If names be not correct (zheng), language could not be fluently used. If language be not fluently used, affairs could not be carried on to success... ritual/propriety (li) and music could not be flourishing . . . the punishments could not be properly made .. . then the people would not know how to behave” (quoted in Yao 2000, 35). If people will not perform their duties in their capacities, for instance, as rulers, fathers, husbands, wives, and sons, then they will abuse their titles and violate the names or designations that define their duties (Yao 2000, 35).

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T he C onfucian V irtues Confucius identifies certain virtues, called the Confucian Virtues, which a person must have to be a ju n z ior a noble person. These virtues are often also called the five cardinal virtues of Confucianism. But except for the virtues of ren (benevolence) and li (propriety), scholars differ on what the remaining virtues are to comprise the five cardinal virtues. The following is one list (by Molloy 2010, 241-43): 1. Ften (Jen) or benevolence or humaneness: generally doing things that benefit other people. A person practicing ren has compassion for others—as “[cjompassion for others is the mark of a good person” (Matthews 2010, 185). 2. Li or propriety: generally doing things that are appropriate in a given situation. It originally refers to proper ways of performing religious rites and to proper behavior in court ceremonies. In its general meaning, however, it includes proper ways of speaking, behaving, dressing, and others, in given social situations. One has to observe li in every area of life, as in the basic relationships we discussed above. When the virtue of li is internalized, the result is the virtue of yi (“Yi is internalized li”— Matthews 2010, 185). One has yi when one has incorporated li in his/her life. 3. Shu or reciprocity: generally doing things in accordance to the Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you do not want others to do unto you.” In the Analects, Confucius emphasizes the importance of reciprocity as follows: “Tsu-kung asked, ‘Is there a single word which can be a guide to conduct throughout one’s life?’ The Master said, ‘It is perhaps the word shu. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire’” (quoted in Matthews 2010, 185). 4. Xiao or filial piety: generally doing things that show love, respect, and devotion to the members of one’s family. Special emphasis, however, is put on the duty of children to respect and take care of their parents. In the Analects, we can read Confucius’ emphasis on the element of respect when taking care of one’s parents; thus: “Confucius’ pupil Ziyou asked about filial piety. Confucius said, Today filial piety means being about the task of nourishing one’s parents. But that is what we do for dogs and horses. If the/e is not respect, how do these actions differ?”’ (quoted in Deming 2015, 125). The living and those who passed away constitute the Chinese concept of family; thus the virtue of xiao includes the celebration of ancestral rites that prescribe specific actions, offerings and prayers. UNIT II

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5.

Wen or culture: generally doing things that cultivate one’s sense and appreciation of culture, which includes acquiring artistic skills (in the areas of music, painting, dance, and others) and art appreciation (like watching concerts, visiting art museums, attending art exhibits, and others).

Some scholars (see Yao 2000,34), on the other hand, have the following list: humaneness (ren), righteousness (y/), ritual/propriety (//), wisdom (zhi) and faithfulness (xin). Still, some (Littlejohn 2011,31) add another one to the list, namely, haoxue or “self-cultivation,” generally referring to the virtue of doing things that enhances one’s own character and talents, and that refines one’s humanity. It includes giving one’s utmost or best in one’s endeavors, and requires the willingness to learn from others. Again, just like in the case of the basic relationships, we take the position that the important thing here is that these virtues are the ones that a noble person must possess, and not that there must only be five of these virtues. And so, we prefer to call them the “Confucian virtues,” instead of the “five cardinal virtues,” and accommodate all the virtues identified by the various scholars in this regard.

R espect for A ncestors and T emple W orship As noted above, the Chinese concept of family extends to those who have already passed away. Consequently, the Confucian virtue of filial piety, which requires respect for one’s family members especially the elders, extends to one’s dead relatives.To show respect for one’s dead relatives one visits their graves at least once a year (especially during Tomb Sweeping Day). Family members clean the tombs of their dead relatives; they place the favorite food and wine of their dead relatives on their graves, burn incense, and kneel before their graves to pray for them. Respect for the dead relatives is also done at home or at a temple. At home, families usually put up shrines dedicated to their dead relatives. In these shrines are ancestral tablets (stones in which the names of the deceased relatives are curved), portraits of the dead relatives, and incense-stick holders. Confucians also visit temples to show their respect to Confucius and to pray for his blessings. The rituals in these temples vary from one region to another.

K ey F estivals and H olidays Some of the main festivals and holidays celebrated by Confucians are as follows: birthday of Confucius (September 28th, lasts 10 days), Chinese New Year (January 31st), Ching Ming or Qingming, also known as Tomb-

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Sweeping Day or Ancestors’ Day (takes place 106 days after the winter solstice, families visit their ancestors or relatives’ graves), and Chongmyo Taeje (to honor the kings and queens of the Yi dynasty, takes place on the 1st Sunday of May). Discussion Questions ■a- Do you agree with the idea behind the principle of the rectification of names? Explain your answer. "s- How would you compare and contrast the Confucian principle of the rectification of names with the Hindu concept of dharma? Will it make a difference if we will understand the Confucian concept of Heaven as a kind of God? Explain your answer.

^ A c tiv it^ l

Write a reflection paper on the Confucian virtues. How important are they if we are to make ourselves noble persons? Cite examples in your life in which you have demonstrated these virtues.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Questions What are the denominations of Confucianism? And what are some of its challenges?

Forms of Confucianism are more properly called “schools” rather than sects or denominations. Furthermore, Confucianism and its different schools arose as a result of their interaction with non-Confucian schools prevalent during that time. In this regard, we shall first briefly examine the rival schools to Confucianism, after which we shall deal with the Confucian schools.

T he R ival S chools Two interrelated questions became the points of disagreements between Confucianism and its rival schools. The first question concerns

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human nature, whether humans are inherently good or bad. The second question concerns the role and desirability of government in promoting social harmony. These two questions are interrelated for the answer to the first defines the answer to the question. If, for instance, humans are naturally good, government intervention to human natural actions would either be unnecessary or should be done on a minimal degree. But if humans are naturally evil, then this intervention is absolutely necessary and should be strictly done.

T he Mohist S chool The Mohist school originated in the teachings of M ozi(M o Di, Mo Tzu, Master Mo; 4797-381 ? BCE). Key elements of these teachings (based on the discussions of Fraser 2000, Yao 2000, Matthews 2010, Molloy 2010, and Urubshurow 2009) are as follows. Laws are necessary for without them people are naturally predatory (will naturally take advantage of others). Society needs to adopt two principles to establish social harmony and justice. The first is the utilitarian principle which states that right or good actions and policies are those that promote the overall welfare of society (or one that provides the greatest benefit to most members of society). The second is the principle of the universality of love, which states that everybody ought to love everybody else equally and impartially. These two principles allegedly conflict with some of the Confucian ideals. For instance, practices, rites, and ceremonies that do not promote overall welfare of society should be abolished. Another, virtues that conflict with the universality of love, like filial piety which gives preference to members of one’s family, should be discouraged.

T he L egalist S chool Legalism or the Legalist School (Fajia, Fa-Chia) developed from the ideas of Shang Yang, Li Si, and Han Feizi. Though he studied under the Confucian philosopher Xunzi and was influenced by Xunzi’s view of human nature as fundamentally evil, Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu, c. 280-233 BCE) later on abandoned his Confucian training and became the greatest of the Legalist philosophers. Among his political ideas, Han Feizi advocated the view that political duties take priority over other duties. “A soldier, it was said ran from battle because he thought that, if he was killed, he could no longer serve his father. Han Feizu commented: ‘A filial son to his father can be traitorous subject to his ruler’” (Han Feizu, Encyclopaedia Britannica

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2013). Legalism was the popular school during the violent Warring States era (475-221 BCE); and it became the political framework of the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE), China’s first imperial dynasty, in unifying the whole of China. The following are some of its key ideas. Human beings are naturally selfish. They naturally seek to satisfy their own self-interests even if they have to lie, steal, cheat, and kill. This human nature cannot be changed by education or self-cultivation. It, however, can be manipulated to benefit the state, or to promote social order, by means of rewards and punishments. Good rulers are therefore not determined on the basis of their morality but by their ability to manipulate the selfishness of their subordinates through a system of rewards and punishments. Consequently, a strong state control and absolute obedience to authority are necessary to establish social harmony. Against the Legalist School, the “Confucians argued that history thus demonstrated that while Legalism was useful in a time of war, it was unsuitable as the basis of a permanent government . . . ” (Yao 2000, 82).

T aoism Taoism developed from the teachings contained in the books Tao Te Ching, traditionally believed to be written by Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu, a book named after the philosopher Chuang Tzu who wrote a big part of this book. Taoists believe that the Tao, the Way, though unknowable being beyond words and concepts, should not be hindered as it flows or moves within nature and human nature. Hindering the natural flow of the Tao will lead to natural disasters and social disharmonies. On this perspective, social harmony is to be achieved not through education and political control. When the Qin Dynasty, which adopted the Legalist School, failed, the early emperors of the succeeding Han Dynasty adopted the “naturalistic and liberal” Taoist ideology which advanced little or no governmental interference in economic affairs (laissez-faire). While this resulted in economic recovery and increase in state resources, the ideology “could not satisfy the needs of a strong and growing empire, and failed to provide any coherent administrative policies” (Yao 2000, 82).

T he C onfucian S chools

*

The school that Confucius established has been called Ruism or the Ru school. It will be recalled that Confucianism was identified with the then existing Ru tradition, though Confucius, who was a ru master himself,

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introduced significant changes to the tradition. After Confucius, several Confucian schools have emerged, each with certain unique features while maintaining the Confucian ideals. In what follows, we shall examine the three prominent ones: the schools of Mencius, Xunzi (Hsun Tzu), and the Neo-Confucians. •

S chool of Mencius Mencius (371-289 BCE), as earlier noted, is considered the second great Confucian after Confucius. In this connection, he is sometimes referred to as the “second sage.” Mencius studied under Zisi, a grandson of Confucius. Mencius’ writings, which form the fourth book of the Four Books, were intended to elaborate on and glorify the teachings of Confucius. Mencius’ teachings revolve around his view that human nature is fundamentally good. This inherent goodness of humans, however, can be corrupted; so it needs to be protected and cultivated by means of education. Without proper education from good teachers, children, who are by nature good, can turn into criminals. Like Confucius, Mencius extends his teachings to the affairs of the state. Though not popular among the rulers during his time, Mencius teaches that a good ruler is one who is morally upright, for it is only then that a ruler will have the Mandate of Heaven. Heaven is the source of all goodness and has instilled goodness in the hearts and minds of humans. And so, it is only when humans cultivate the goodness in them that their actions acquire the Mandate of Heaven. Consequently, a humane government avoids war and governs not by power or by means of harsh punishments but by the moral character of the ruler who serves as the role model for his subjects. (See Yao 2000, 71-76; Molloy 2010, 245-246; Matthews 2010, 189-190 “ Mencius,” Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013.)

S chool of X unzi (H sun T zu ) Xunzi (c. 300-230 BCE) holds views different from Mencius. We noted that for Mencius, Heaven is not just the source of everything that exists in nature for it is also the standard of moral goodness. Heaven, in short, is both natural and moral reality. What has the Mandate of Heaven is morally good; what does not have it is morally evil. On this view, moral standards are not human creations. Heaven has put the standard of moral goodness in the hearts and minds of humans. And this makes human nature inherently or naturally good. But since the innate goodness of humans can be corrupted, education (in the Confucian Classics) is necessary. For Xunzi, however, 218

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Heaven is just the source of everything that exists in nature; and is thus morally neutral. It does not prescribe a standard for moral goodness. Heaven is just natural reality; moral reality is not part of it. Moral standards and values are therefore human creations. Without a standard of moral goodness written in their hearts and minds, humans are naturally inclined to satisfy their own needs and selfish interests. This makes humans, for Xunzi, inherently or naturally evil. But this natural character of humans can be corrected by education (in the Confucian classics) and the practice of the Confucian virtues. (See Yao 2000, 76-80; “Xunzi,” Encylopaedia Britannica 2013; Molloy 2010, 247; Matthews 2010, 189-190)

N eo-C onfucianism The movement of Neo-Confucianism was started by Han Yu, but two of the influential neo-Confucianists were Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200) and Wang Yangming. Neo-Confucianism basically arose from the need for Confucianism to assert its identity from two rival religions in China during that time, namely Taoism and Buddhism. This event was a critical stage in the development of Confucianism for it was during this time that Confucianism acquired a religious status. In distinguishing itself from the two religions, it has established itself as a distinct religion. Thus, statues of Confucius and temples holding elaborate ceremonies, with sacrifice, music, and dance, were set up. A hierarchy of authorities was also set up. Soon, Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, formed China’s Three Teachings or Doctrines. Molloy (2010, 249) notes that: “Pictures and statues of the three founders— Laozi, Confucius, and the Buddha— began to appear, with the three figures side by side in friendly poses.This practice continues today.” (See Molloy 2010, 248-251; Urubshurow 2009, 469) School o f Han Yu (768-824). Confucianism was declining when Buddhism came to China and Taoism was becoming influential. NeoConfucianism was a movement whose goal was to revive the then declining Confucianism. The one who led the movement was Han Yu when he opposed the Buddhist influence on a Tang emperor (Matthews 2010, 189). He is said to have reminded his Taoist emperor “that Buddha was a barbarian, and urged him not to honor the foreigner’s religion” (Urubshurow 2009, 469). School o f Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200 CE). In the course of redefining the identify of Confucianism in light of the influences it had from Taoism and Buddhism, Zhu Xi compiled, edited, and commented on writings he deemed important for Confucianism. The result was the Four Books,

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consisting of the Analects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Mencius, which became the basis for the civil service examinations (replacing the Five Classics). But while Zhu Xi wanted to rid Confucianism of Buddhist influences (he, for instance, rejected the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness)* he generally welcomed the Taoist influences, especially the idea of the natural order of things (Molloy 2010, 249-250). S chool o f Wang Yangming (1 4 7 2 -1 5 2 9 ). Among others, two contributions of Wang Yangming were the emphasis on the mind and the simplification of the rituals. Wang Yangming believed that it was by means of reflection on one’s own mind, through meditation, rather than a rational study of the things outside the mind that truth and virtue would be known. His school was then called the School of the Mind. In this connection, he taught that the way to deal with the troubles in the world was by means of intuitive knowledge of the self, together with practical action. Also, he argued that a simpler form of rituals and ceremonies in temples, minimizing, for instance, the statues of Confucius, was more in line with the teachings of Confucius. Wang Yangming is regarded as “the fourth great Confucian after Confucius, Mencius, and Zhu Xi.” (Molloy 2010, 250; Urubshurow 2009, 471).

S ome C hallenges In his discussion of “Confucianism and the Modern World,” Molloy (2010,255-258) identifies some major challenges of Confucianism. First, the educational curriculum of Confucianism which was adopted by the government collapsed during the downfall of the Qing (Chi’ing) Dynasty in 1911. One reason was the challenge posed by modern education which was more scientific and technology-based. When modern technology coming from Europe was introduced in China, traditional Confucianism appeared inadequate. Second, the New Culture movement in China in 1916, led by those who were able to study in Western universities, criticized Confucianism on many aspects of it.The movement was heavily influenced by pragmatism—which generally views truth in terms of its usefulness or practical consequences. Among others, the movement criticized Confucianism for allegedly “enslaving women to their fathers and husbands, of subjugating sons to tyrannical fathers, and of keeping alive a culture and literature that only looked to the past” (Molloy 2010, 255). Third, Confucianism was greatly weakened when the Communists took over mainland China in 1949.The communists were critical of Confucianism

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for allegedly preaching elitism rather than egalitarianism, or for preaching inequality in that some people are more privileged and noble than others. While Confucianism teaches that everyone, in theory, can be a junzi or a noble person, in practice, not all can avail of the Confucian training necessary to achieve it. Communists, in contrast, hold that education should be equal to all. Another, the communists accused Confucianism of gender discrimination: Confucians, for instance, are accused of reserving education and official power for males (except in the case of empress Wu, who ruled China from 683 to 705 CE).The communists further criticized Confucianism for its backward vision, for focusing too much on the value of the old and the past rather than the new and the present. While Confucianism was generally seen as a nonprogressive world­ view, other Asian countries like Singapore and South Korea partly attribute their economic development to their adherence to Confucian ethics and virtues. Confucianism today is evolving and is adopting to the challenges of the time; it is, for instance, slowly correcting its negative aspects (those that are no longer applicable to modern life) like those concerning rights of women.

What do you personally think, are humans naturally good or naturally evil? Identify instances that seem to justify that humans are naturally good, and instances that seem to justify that humans are naturally evil.

I^A ctivit^l I.

Interview a Filipino-Chinese about Confucianism, how he/she regards its teachings and whether he/she practices its teachings.

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. Book of Changes Doctrine of the Mean Confucius

Mandate of Heaven educational system XunziHanYu

Analects Ren Rectification of Names Rectifi Ancestors China

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Confucianism

Review Questions I.

Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. Confucianism was originally identified with to the Ru tradition, which generally meant: a. tradition of rituals c. tradition of aristocrats b. tradition of scholars 2. Despite his meager resources as a child, Confucius was still able to acquire the skills expected of educated boys of wealthy families. Among others, such skills included:

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a. music

d.

all of the above

b. archery

e.

none of the above

c. calligraphy 3. Aside from the Five Classics, the other collection of books that forms the sacred texts of Confucianism is called: a. Four Books c. Six Books b. Five Books 4. The follow ing is a book of d ivin a tion th a t makes use hexagrams: a. Book of History d. Book of Rites b. Book of Poetry c.

of

e. Spring and Autumn Annals

Book of Changes

5. The following book contains historical records about the state of Lu, Confucius’ hometown: a. Book of History d. Book of Rites b. Book of Poetry c.

e. Spring and Autumn Annals

Book of Changes

6. The following book contains the sayings, speeches, and discussion of Confucius and his followers: a. Great Learning c. Doctrine of the Mean b. Analects

d. Mencius

7. The following book discusses the character and influence of the noble person, and deals with the three central Confucian concerns, namely, education, morality, and politics: a. Great Learning c. Doctrine of the Mean b. Analects

d. Mencius

8. Confucians resort to the Way or Mandate o f ____________ in explaining the nature of reality and justifying human actions: a. God c. Nature b.

Heaven

9. According to the principle of the Rectification of __________ , our actions should be appropriate to our roles in social relationships. a. Nature c. Narr\es b.

Heaven

10. The following virtue originally refers to proper ways of performing religious rites or to proper behavior in court ceremonies but it is now

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generally understood as referring to doing things appropriate in a given situation: a. Ren c. Shu b. Li

d. Xiao

11. The following virtue generally means doing things that show respect, love, and devotion to the members of one’s family: a. Ren c. Shu b. Li

d. Xiao

12. The following virtue is usually translated as benevolence or humaneness for generally referring to doing things that benefit other people: a. Ren c. Shu b. Li

d. Xiao

13. The following school advocates the utilitarian principle and the principle of the universality of love: a. Mohist School c. Taoist School b.

LegalistSchool

14. The following is regarded as the greatest philosopher of the Legalist School: a. Mozi c. ShangYang b.

Han Feizi

15. The following is considered the second great Confucian after Confucius: a. Mencius c. WangYangming b.

Xunzi

16. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human nature is fundamentally evil a. Mencius c. Han Yu b.

Xunzi

17. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human nature is fundamentally good: a. Mencius c. Han Yu b.

Xunzi

18. Among the contributions of the following was the publication of the Four Books, which he complied, edited and commented on: a. Mencius c. Zhu Xi b. 224

Xunzi

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

19. The following is said to have started the movement of NeoConfucianism: a. Han Yu c. Zhu Xi b.

Xunzi

20. Among others, the following philosopher of Neo-Confucianism set up a school called the School of the Mind: a. Han Yu c. Wang Yangming b.

Xunzi

KWL Chart Direction: Fill in the K"and Wcolumns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson. K What 1know about Confucianism

W What 1want to know about Confucianism

L What 1have learned about Confucianism (Write at least the five most important ones.)

•

TAOISM Guide Question What are the basic features of Taoism?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

♦

Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

♦

Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Key Concepts •

** ra

Tao Te Ching LaoTzU

sa- ChuangTzu ra ra ra ra ra *§> ra

m Feng Shui ra­ Taoist Alchemy (External Alchemy, Internal Alchemy)

**■ Three Treasures in Internal Alchemy (vital essence, chi, Taoist Canon (Daozang) spirit) Tao Philosophical and Religious Yin and Yang, Law of Taoism Reversion Way of the Celestial Masters Te and Wu-wei IGF Chang Tao-ling Three Jewels IGF Great Purity, Highest Purity, Three Pure Ones (Jade Numinous Treasure Pure One, Supreme Way of Orthodox Unity Pure One, Grand Pure One) » Greek Orthodox Church LeihTzu

S3*

ra The Eight Immortals ra Taoist Meditation

‘ar Way of Complete Perfections

ra Tai Chi

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EXPECTED L EA R N I N G COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: **■ Discuss issues surrounding the identity of Lao Tzu as the founder of Taoism. «*■ Describe the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu as the sacred texts of Taoism. «• Explain the meaning of the central Taoist concepts: Tao, Yin and Yang, Te, and Wu-wei. Discuss some practices associated with Taoism like Tai Chi and Feng Shui. «■ Identify the major deities of Taoism. «■ Distinguish between Philosophical and Religious Taoism, i®- Identify and differentiate the various sects of Taoism. «■ Discuss some of the challenges of Taoism.

I^ A c tiv ity l

Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be done individually or as a class.

CULTIVATING Knowledge and Skills

ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS Guide Questions How did Taoism originate? What are its sacred texts?

Taoism (Daoism) is another world religion that is native to China. It is generally believed to have been founded by LaoTzu (or Laozi), the traditionally recognized author of the primary foundational text of Taoism entitled Tao Te Ching (or Dao-de Jing). In 2007, based on the estim ated Matthews (2010, 171) of the areas of Taoist concentration, there were 2,777,000 Taoists in the whole world; 2,765,000 in Asia; and 12,000 in North America. Molloy (2010, 229) notes that Taoism is particularly “strong in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and in overseas Chinese communities, such as in Malaysia and Singapore.” UNIT II

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L ao T zu There is a standing discussion among scholars over the real status of Lao Tzu as the author of the Tao Te Ching: whether there really was such a person who wrote such a text (Chan 2014). There is, for instance, the view that the Tao Te Ching was not written by one person alone but a group of individuals; and that the name “Lao Lao Tzu Statue in Yuanxuan Taoist Tzu” was used merely as a collective Temple in Guangzhou, China name to represent this group. Those who hold this view believe that either there really was no individual named “Lao Tzu” (that “Lao Tzu is a purely legendary figure”— Urubshurow 2009, 457) or there was such an individual but this individual was just one among the writers of the Tao Te Ching—allegedly the one who wrote the first half of the said text. For our purposes, however, we shall assume the standard view that Lao Tzu was a historical figure who once lived in China around 640 BCE; and he wrote the whole of the Tao Te Ching. Little is known about the life of LaoTzu.There are only some stories about certain aspects of his life. One aspect of these stories concerns how Lao Tzu got his name, which literally means “old man,” “old child,” or “old master.” When Lao Tzu was born, it is said that he already had white hair (and white beard too—adds some accounts); and thus had a general appearance of being an old man already while still being a child. This appearance of Lao Tzu is explained by a legend (Urubshurow 2009,218) which states that Lao Tzu, after being conceived by a shooting star (this ties up to another legend that states that he was a product of virginal conception—see Molloy 2010, 218), was in the womb of his mother for 62 years before he was born. In any case, it is believed that it was because of this appearance that he was given the name “LaoTzu” understood in the sense of being an “old man” or an “old child.” On the other hand, the name “Lao Tzu,” in the world of learning, also means “old master” or “old scholar.” In this regard, the name “Lao Tzu” is an honorary title given to a highly venerated senior teacher. In light of the strong influence of Taoism on the development of Chan and Zen Buddhism, it is supposed that the title “Lao Tzu” must mean something similar to the title “Roshi” in Zen Buddhism, which refers to a highly respected senior Zen master (Rosenthal, n.d.). In any case, on this side of the story, Lao Tzu got his name for being a highly respected old scholar.

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It is quite possible that Lao Tzu got his name for both reasons: having an old appearance as a child, and being respected as a senior scholar. Whatever is the case, the name “Lao Tzu” is not a proper name, or a specific name of a particular individual, but is either a nickname (when understood as an “old man” or an “old child”) or an honorary title (when understood as an “old master” or an “old scholar”). And thus, even assuming that there really was a historical person traditionally named or called “Lao Tzu” who wrote the Tao Te Ching, it is possible that the real or actual name of this person might have been different (Chan 2014). Another aspect of these stories concerns Lao Tzu’s profession or line of work. According to a popular account— based on the historical records of Sima Quian (or Ssu-ma Chi’en) (c. 145-86 BCE)— Lao Tzu worked as a librarian (curator, archivist, or a record keeper) at the Royal Library of Chou for many years. Connected to this account is an interesting story in which Lao Tzu had a philosophical conversation with the then young Confucius who visited the said library to do research on the rituals and ceremonies of ancient kings (though some doubt whether such a conversation really occurred—see Matthews 2010, 174-75). In their encounter, Confucius is said to have asked Lao Tzu about what he thought about his (Confucius’) studies of the rituals of ancient kings. In response, Lao Tzu is said to have given this advice to Confucius: The ancients you admire have been in the ground a long time. Their bones have turned to dust. Only their words remain. Those among them who were wise rode in carriages when times were good and slipped quietly away when times were bad. I have heard that the clever merchant hides his wealth so his store looks empty and that the superior man acts dumb so he can avoid calling attention to himself. I advise you to get rid of your excessive pride and ambition. They won’t do you any good. This is all I have to say to you (see Introduction to Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching, translated by Red Pine, 2006). Confucius is said to have been very impressed with Lao Tzu’s advice that he later on told his disciples, “Today when I met Lao-tzu, it was like meeting a dragon” (Ibid.). Still another aspect of these stories concerns how Lao Tzu got to write the Tao Te Ching. According to the story, one day Lao Tzu got tired of his job as the state librarian and decided to retire from it. He resolved to travel to the far west of China—some say also because he was disillusioned with society or the politics in China (Urubshurow 2009,457). Carried by an ox, he was about to cross the western border when the gatekeeper named Yin Hsi UNIT II

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(also referred to as Kwan Yin) stopped him. It is said that Yin Hsi recognized Lao Tzu as the old scholar and prompted him to write down his teachings, otherwise he would not let Lao Tzu pass the border. Lao Tzu obliged and wrote down his teachings for two consecutive days; and the result was the book Tao Te Ching. After passing the border and leaving China, nothing is known about what happened to Lao Tzu. Some hypothesized that he might have gone to other countries like India to preach and later on returned to China. Some say he did not teach but lived a life of peace and contentment until he died at the age of 87. Still, some (those inclined to think of Lao Tzu as a kind of god— as the human incarnation of the Tao) describe him as ascending into heaven in the form of a magnificent dragon (Mollloy 2010,220).

Ta o Te Ch in g and Ch u an g Tzu The Tao Te Ching (sometimes called the Laozi) is the most important text of Taoism. Tao basically means “way,” but the whole title has been translated in various ways: sometimes as “The Way and Its Power,” sometimes as “The Classic of the Way’s Virtues,” sometimes as “True Classic of the Way and the Power.” Basically, the book talks about the “Tao” in terms of its reality and fundamentality, how it can be known, whether it can be expressed in words, and its different manifestations in various areas of life. It is relatively a short book of around 5,000 Chinese characters, consisting of eighty one short chapters, which are arranged in two sections. The first section is called “Tao Ching,” comprising of chapters 1 to 37; the second is called “Te Ching,” comprising of Chapters 38-81. The statements are usually poetic in form and are often short. Next in importance to the Tao Te Ching is the book that has been called Chuang Tzu after the name of its recognized lead writer, the Chinese philosopher Chuang Tzu (“Zhuang Zhou,” “Zhoungzi,” or “Master Zhuang”) who lived during the fourth century BCE (c. 369 to 286 BCE). Just like Lao Tzu, little is known about the life of Chuang Tzu. Sima Qian’s historical records state that Chuang Tzu was a minor official from the town of Meng (in Modern Anhui) in the state of Song. Chuang Tzu was described as a scholar with a comprehensive scope of learning but who preferred the views of Lao Tzu. Chuang Tzu, accordingly, wrote the book Chuang Tzu to elaborate on the teachings of Lao Tzu—to make them more intelligible to common people. If there are doubts on whether the whole Tao Te Ching was written by Lao Tzu, it seems generally established that the book Chuang Tzu was not entirely written by the philosopher Chuang Tzu. The latter book is generally accepted as a collection of philosophical texts written during the fourth,

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third, and second centuries BCE, which aims to expound and elaborate on the teachings of the Tao Te Ching (Shuen-fu Lin 1994, 245-47). The book consists of thirty-three chapters which are divided by modern scholars into three parts. The first part, consisting of Chapters 1 to 7, is called the Inner Chapters for all the chapters in this part are widely recognized by modern scholars as written by Chuang Tzu himself. These chapters contain the core Taoist teachings of Chuang Tzu. The second part, consisting of chapters 8 to 22, is called the Outer Chapters for these chapters are believed to have been written not by Chuang Tzu but by his followers. These chapters basically elaborate on the ideas discussed in the Inner Chapters. The third part, consisting of chapters 23 to 33, is called the Mixed Chapters for they are a combination of philosophical texts that are believed to have been written by Chuang Tzu and his followers (Puqun Li 2012, 195). Unlike most philosophers, Chuang Tzu presents his teachings not in a discursive (formal and logical) way but in a form that is highly literary in nature (usually in the form of short stories that are full of symbolisms). Incidentally, for his style of writing, some modern scholars consider Chuang Tzu as the greatest prose writer of the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy (Shuen-fu Lin 1994, 248). But more importantly, in this way, he is able to give life, through concrete illustrations, to the highly abstract ideas associated with Taoism, thus making these ideas easier to grasp and their relevance easier to appreciate. Sometimes he caricatures some rival thinkers, especially Confucius, to establish the superiority of the Taoist teachings. These two books, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu, are considered to be the two foundational texts of Taoism, in both of its philosophical and religious forms. Other important Taoist texts include the work of Lieh Tzu (Leih-tzu or Liezi; estimated to have lived during the fifth century BCE) called The Pure Classic of the Perfect Virtue of Simplicity and Vacuity. Lieh Tzu, consequently, is regarded as the third greatest Taoist thinker in the history of Taoism next to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu. His work is a collection of stories, sayings and short essays considered to be the most easily accessible of the Taoist classics. Another is the I Ching {The'Book of Changes), which was written before the Tao Te Ching, and in which the concepts of yin and yang were first introduced. Though likewise included in the Confucian Classics, this book has a profound influence on Taoist thought. Philosophical Taoism, the view that regards Taoism as a purely philosophical system, considers all these books as purely philosophical works; while Religious Taoism, the view that regards Taoism as a religious tradition, considers all these books as divine or sacred works. Religious Taoism, in addition, recognizes other sacred texts, which, together with the UNIT II

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abovementioned Taoist texts, form the so-called Taoist Canon (also called the Daozang or Tao Tsang). The other sacred texts of Taoism, which are enormous in number, deal with a wide range of topics that include, among others, guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga; stories of wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes of longevity and magical powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions of rituals (Molloy 2010, 228). scussion/A ctivity

Think of your personal belongings. Group them into two: those that you can do without (you can go on with your normal life even without these things) and those that you cannot do without (you cannot go on with your normal life without these things). Reflect on your classification. What are the bases of your classification? Focus on the things you considered you cannot do without. If you were to simplify your life (or further simplify it), will the list of things under this group change? Elaborate on your answer.

DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Guide Question What are the major doctrines and practices of Taoism?

TAO AND RELATED CONCEPTS The Nameless Origin of the All Things The Tao Te Ching (translation by Lin 2006) begins with the following passages: The Tao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name. The nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth. The named is the mother of myriad things. The Tao, based on these passages, is the source of the universe—“the origin of Heaven and Earth.” It is the origin of all kinds of things—“the mother of myriad things.” But why can it not be spoken or named? For being the source

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of everything, it is above all things. And being above all things, it cannot be described, conceptualized, or classified. For the concept used to describe or classify something must be higher than the concept being described or classified. For instance, we are able to say that “blue is a color,” and that “Pedro is a man,” because the concept of color is higher than the concept of blue, and the concept of man is higher than the concept of Pedro. But if no concept is higher than the Tao, then it cannot be described or classified. This is why the Tao cannot be spoken of, for to speak about the Tao is to describe it using higher concepts, which cannot be done since there is no concept higher than the Tao. What all this means is simply that the Tao cannot be fully grasped using our concepts and words. In fact, even the word “Tao” itself does not really capture what it is intended to represent. The word is used simply as a convenient indicator, a linguistic device, or a “sign post” (following an analogy of the philosopher Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investigations 1953) that points to or that directs our attention to a certain kind of reality— in this case, the origin of all things. As the Tao Te Ching states in Chapter 25: “I do not know its name. Identifying it, I call it Tao.’ Forced to describe it, I call it great.” A very famous anecdote of Chuang Tzu is the so-called “Butterfly Dream,” which goes like this: Once upon a time, I, Zhuangzi, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was Zhuangzi. Soon I awakened, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man. — Translated by Lin Yutang and quoted in “Zhuangzi’s Butterfly Dream,” online: http Maoism, about. com/od/chuangtzu/a/Butterfty_ Dream, htm.

The anecdote, among others, talks about the difficulty in distinguishing between dreaming and waking states, or between reality and illusion. The anecdote can be read as suggesting the idea that we cannot fully know the ultimate reality of things, or that ultimate reality is something that will always escape our understanding. Given this, what Chuang Tzu’s butterfly dream is showing is the unknowability of the Tao. The situation is something like this. We go on with our everyday life confident that we know the difference between reality and illusion; but when we deeply think of it we realize that we actually do not have a strong basis for distinguishing the two— reality and illusion. We know that reality has an origin or source, otherwise nothing could have existed at all. But whenever we try to know what this source is,

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what we always come to know is not reality but an illusion. We know that there is the Tao, but whenever we try to grasp it what we have always turns out not to be the Tao. In sum, the Tao is the origin of all things. Being so, it is the highest kind of reality. And being the highest kind of reality, it cannot be described, talked about, or conceptualized; for to do so would mean that there is still something higher than it. An unavoidable question here is whether the Tao is God. If we understand God as a person who cares about human beings, and who punishes or rewards them according to whether they obey certain rules, the Tao is not God (Molloy 2010, 221).Taoists, however, as we shall later on discuss, believe in many kinds of deities (gods and goddesses). (Some scholars think that the Tao is closer, if not equivalent, to the Hindu concept of the Brahman.)

T he W ay and H armony of O pposites The Tao is traditionally translated as “The Way,” sometimes more particularly as “The Way of Nature.” Nature, or the universe, is not a static reality. It flows in that it moves and changes. The Tao, being the source of. everything in the universe, therefore is also the way, or principle, by which the universe flows. The natural way for the universe, or the natural flow of things, is directed towards stability or harmony among the various opposing forces. Without harmony, these forces will eliminate one another, eventually leading to the destruction of nature. The Tao flows (moves and changes) peacefully and leads to the harmony among opposites. The / Ching, or the Book of Changes, speaks of the natural way of harmonizing the opposing forces in nature in terms of the principle of the yin and yang. Yin is the dark force (or principle), while yang is the light force. They are opposite but complementary forces, like dark and light, night and day, hot and cold, sky and earth, male and female, right and left, front and back, birth and death, up and down, out and in, strong and weak, and so many others. These forces or principles are symbolized by the yin-yang circle. This circle is divided into two intertwined comrrialooking figures. One figure is light, representing / yang; the other is dark, representing yin. Inside I each figure is a small dot of contrasting color: the l dark figure has a light dot while the light figure \ has a dark dot. The dot in each figure represents the seed of the opposite figure. Meaning, the dark

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figure will eventually turn light (with a dark dot), while the light figure will eventually turn dark (with a light dot); and this will be repeated in endless cycles. But as each turns into its opposite, a balance or harmony between the yin and yang principles is maintained. The principle of the yin and yang is also called the Law of Reversion—the forces of yin and yang reversing with one another—which the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 2, translation by Mitchell 1995) describes as follows: When people see some things as beautiful, other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad. Being and nonbeing create each other. Difficult and easy support each other. Long and short define each other. High and low depend on each other. Before and after follow each other. Te and W u -w e i

The Tao is impersonal or is indifferent in the sense that it is not influenced by human actions and desires.TheTao will assert itself regardless of human actions and preferences. Thus the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 32, translation by Lin 2006) explains: The Tao, eternally nameless Its simplicity, although imperceptible Cannot be treated by the world as subservient If the sovereign can hold on to it All will follow by themselves Heaven and Earth, together in harmony Will rain sweet dew People will not need to force it; it will adjust by itself What humans can only do is either go with the flow of nature or resist it. Whatever humans do in relation to the Tao, however, will have consequences. Generally, interfering with the Tao, or the natural course of things, will result in conflict, chaos, and damages; while going with its natural flow, or living in harmony with the Tao, will result in peace, order, and preservation. This brings us to the Taoist concepts of Te and Wu-wei.

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Te refers to the power to bring the Tao into realization. It means “virtue,” both in the sense of “moral character” and the “power to act.” Thus the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 21) states: “The appearance of great virtue follows only the Tao.” Virtue, in this sense, does not refer to the virtue of following a moral code but to the virtue of acting without effort or without following prescribed rules. This kind of action is called Wu-wei, which literally means “no action.” Chapter 63 tells us to “Act without action. Manage without meddling. Taste without tasting.” Wu-wei particularly means detached actions, that is, doing things with openness to their consequences and not being attached to them. The following chapter (Chapter 2, translation by Mitchell 1995) from the Tao Te Ching describes wu-wei as follows: Therefore the Master acts without doing anything and teaches without saying anything. Things arise and she lets them come; things disappear and she lets them go. She has but doesn’t possess, acts but doesn’t expect. When her work is done, she forgets it. That is why it lasts forever. Wu-wei also means living in harmony with the flow of nature, never resisting it. In this connection, wu-wei is described as effortless or spontaneous action. For if we are just going with the flow of nature, our actions are effortless, just like how, for instance, plants and animals live, they just follow the natural course of things to survive. This is also shown when one (say an athlete, a tailor, or a carpenter) has become so skilful in what one is doing. Such a skill has become second nature to the person that he does it effortlessly. Detachment and living in harmony with the natural course of things are demonstrated by the following story of Chuang Tzu about the Taoist attitude toward death: that we should accept it as part of the natural course of things like the passing of the seasons. Molloy (2010, 224) narrates this story as follows: Upon hearing of the death of Zhuangzi’s wife, a friend, Huizi (Hui Tzu), goes to offer sympathy. Although he expects to find Zhuangzi crying and in ritual mourning, Huizi finds Zhuangzi instead singing and drumming on a bowl. Huizi is shocked—and says so. Responding in a thoughtful way, Zhuangzi says that at first his wife’s death saddened him terribly, but then he reflected on the whole cycle of her existence. Before his wife was a human being, she was without shape or life, and

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her original self was a part of the formless substance of the universe. Then she became a human being. “Now there’s been another change, and she’s dead. It’s just like the progression of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter.” When winter comes, we do not mourn. That would be ungrateful. Similarly, a human being goes through seasons. Zhuangzi describes his wife as now being like someone asleep in a vast room. “If I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show that I don’t know anything about fate. So I stopped.” Wu-wei, acting in harmony with nature, does not only mean acting out of respect for things outside of one’s self, it also means acting out of respect for one’s own nature. This is explained by the following passages from Guo Xian (quoted in Fung 1975, 101, which in turn is quoted in Urubshurow 2009, 486-87): With conscious effort some people try to be great artists, but they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the great artists spontaneously become artists. With conscious effort some people try to be sages, but they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the sages spontaneously become sages. Not only that the sages and artists are difficult to be imitated, we cannot even be fools, or dogs, by simply wishing and trying to be. The Three Jewels Connected to te (virtue) and wu-wei (effortless action) are the three major Taoist virtues, known as the Three Jewels (or Three Treasures) of Taoism (not to be confused with the Three Jewels of Buddhism—the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). These virtues are compassion, moderation or simplicity, and humility. We will find these virtues stated in Chapter 67 (translation by Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching thus: Some say that my teaching is nonsense. Others call it lofty but impractical. But to those who have looked inside themselves, this nonsense makes perfect sense. And to those who put it into practice, this loftiness has roots that go deep. I have just three things to teach: simplicity, patience, compassion. These three are your greatest treasures. Simple in actions and in thoughts, UNIT II

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you return to the source of being. Patient with both friends and enemies, you accord with the way things are. Compassjonate toward yourself, you reconcile all beings in the world. Let us elaborate on the virtue of simplicity. An ideal Taoist prefers a simple life. Living according to the natural flow of things means living a simple life. Simplicity is avoiding extremes. As the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 29) states: “Therefore the sage: Eliminates extremes; eliminates excess; eliminates arrogance.” Chapter 9 (translation by Mitchell 1995) further states: Fill your bowl to the brim and it will spill. Keep sharpening your knife and it will blunt. Chase after money and security and your heart will never unclench. Care about people’s approval and you will be their prisoner. Do your work, then step back. The only path to serenity. Simplicity includes contentment. A simple life is a life lived with contentment. The Tao Te Ching has plenty of passages about contentment. In Chapter 44 (translation by Mitchell 1995), we will read the following: Be content with what you have; rejoice in the way things are. When you realize there is nothing lacking, the whole world belongs to you. Chuang Tzu has the following story to demonstrate the Taoist preference for a simple life (quoted in Matthews 2010, 177): Once Chuang Tzu was fishing the P’u River when the King of Ch’u sent two of his ministers to announce that he wished to entrust to Chuang Tzu the care of his entire domain. Chuang Tzu held his fishing pole and, without turning his head, said: “I have heard that Ch’u possesses a sacred tortoise which has been dead for three thousand years and which the king keeps wrapped up in a box and stored in his ancestral temple. Is this tortoise better off dead and with its bones venerated, or would it be better off alive with its tail

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dragging in the mud?” “It would be better off alive and dragging its tail in the mud,” the two ministers replied. “Then go away!” said Chuang Tzu, “and I will drag my tail in the mud!” Furthermore, a person living a simple life is one who adopts to various situations while maintaining one’ sense of stability or peace of mind. He is like water that fills in any shape of container that it is poured into and remains serene. In Chapter 8 (translation by Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching, we will read: The supreme good is like water, which nourishes all things without trying to. It is content with the low places that people disdain. Thus it is like the Tao. This is elaborated in Chapter 78 (translated by Mitchell 1995); thus: Nothing in the world is as soft and yielding as water. Yet for dissolving the hard and inflexible, nothing can surpass it. The soft overcomes the hard; the gentle overcomes the rigid. Everyone knows this is true, but few can put it into practice. Therefore the Master remains serene in the midst of sorrow. Evil cannot enter his heart. Because he has given up helping, he is people’s greatest help. True words seem paradoxical.

TAOIST DEITIES As earlier noted, Taoism has philosophical and religious kinds. Philosophical Taoism limits its studies of Taoism to its philosophical ideas. The basic doctrines of Taoism that we have discussed above (the concepts of Tao, Yin and Yang, Te, Wu-wei, and the Three Jewels) constitute the main philosophical ideas of Taoism. Religious Taoism, on the other hand, treats the same doctrines as religious or sacred. In addition, Religious Taoism,

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influenced by Chinese folk religions, also believes in many deities (gods and goddesses). Taoism, in this regard, is a polytheistic religion. It is said that there are thousands of Taoist deities. Some are spirits of nature occupying rivers, streams, and mountajns. Some represent different powers of the universe. Some are holy men who are believed to have achieved immortality (they include emperors). And some are ancestral spirits who are usually regarded as protective household gods (Molloy 2010, 228-229).

T he T hree P ure O nes The most important of the Taoist deities are the ones constituting the so-called the Three Pure Ones or Three Purities (called Sanjing or San Ching), which is regarded as the Taoist version of the Trinity. These gods are considered the pure manifestations of theTao.The belief in the Three Pure Ones is said to be based on, or is consistent with, the following passages in Chapter 42 (translation by Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching-. The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two gives birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things. The three gods that constitute the Three Pure Ones are as follows. The first is called the “Jade Pure One” ( Yuanshi Tianzun) or the “Primeval Lord of the Heaven.” He is believed to be residing in the Heaven of Jade Purity. He is described as eternal, limitless, without form, the source of everything, and the administrator of Heaven. He is the highest Taoist deity. The second is called the “Supreme Pure One” or “Lord of the Numinous Treasure” (Lingbao Tianzun). He is associated with the principle of yin and yang, and is considered the source of Taoist knowledge and scripture (the Tao Te Ching). The third is called the “Grand Pure One” or “Lord of the Way and its Virtue” (Daode Tianzun). He is believed to have been manifested or incarnated in the form of LaoTzu. He is depicted as having pure white beard, symbolizing his being an eminent, aged ruler.

T he E ight I mmortals Another popular set of Taoist deities are the so-called Eight Immortals. The Taoist Canon contains several biographical texts telling stories of various immortals, ranging from historical figures that were deified (that is, put into the status of a deity), such as noble emperors, Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu,

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to characters that are purely mythological in nature. The most popular of these immortals are the ones referred as the Eight Immortals (see Herman 2013, Chapter 14, 60-61), consisting of the following deities: (1) Chung-li Ch’uan (Zhongli Quan), a former general depicted as having a bulging belly and carrying a magic fan that can change stones into special metals that can revive the dead; (2) Chang Kuo-lao (Zhang Guo Lao), a former hermit and a wine-drinking eccentric depicted as having a long white beard and riding a donkey backward; (3) Lu Tung-pin (Lu Dongbin), a forefather of internal alchemy with skills in poetry, calligraphy, healing, and swordmanship; (4) Li T’ieh-kuai (Taiguai Li), also known as “Iron Crutch Li,” depicted as a beggar with a crippled leg and an iron crutch (it is said that his earthly body was cremated when his spirit roamed the heavens and he had to inhabit the body of a cripple); (5) Ts’ao Kuo-chiu (Cao Guo Jiu), a former emperor who (fleeing corruption) turned into a hermit and is depicted as being dressed like a government official; (6 ) Ho Hsian-ku (He Xian Gu), a female who, after becoming immortal after eating an alchemical mixture, made a promise of remaining a virgin; (7) Han Hsiang-tzu (Han Xiang Zi), a musician and magician who could make flowers grow and is depicted as holding a flute (being revered also as a patron saint of flute players); and (8 ) Lan Ts’aio-ho (Lan Caihe), a male but also depicted as a female wearing a single boot, and sleeping in snow.

O ther D eities Other Taoist deities include the following: the Jade Emperor (who rules heaven and earth and who judges people’s actions at the end of every year; like the imperial bureaucracy on earth, he has officials—also gods—who look after the spiritual and material welfare of humans and report to him at the end of every year), the Divinities in Pilgrimage, Queen Mother of the West, Four Heavenly Emperors, Three Divine Officials, and Thunder Patriarch. Taoism also has several female deities, such as Mother Li (the mother of Lord Lao); Mazu, the patroness of fishermen; and Doumou, the Mother of the Big Dipper.

SOME TAOIST PRACTICES

T aoist Meditation Like the Hindus and the Buddhists, the Taoists also use different methods of meditation. One popular method is described as embryonic breathing for

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it is like becoming an infant who breathes through the umbilical cord in its mother’s womb. This technique basically requires the practitioner to hold his/her breath for extended periods with the goal of harmoniously relating with the divinities or sacred elements of one’s body. It is believed that if one does not practice meditation, the divinities that inhabit one’s body will leave, causing one to get sick. Meditation, in this sense, promotes both spiritual and physical health. Another is called the inner alchemical meditation, which aims to calm and empty the mind and circulate chi (referring to life energy). This can be done sitting cross legged, sitting in a chair, lying down, or walking. It can be done using mantras (like repeating the word “om”), focusing on an object, or simply focusing on one’s breath.

T ai C hi Tai Chi (or T a i Chi Ch’uan) is a popular Chinese form of exercise and martial art that is closely associated with Taoism (Molioy 2010,224). It aims to harmonize the principle of the yin and yang into a sequence of slow, rhythmic, and flowing movements, with carefully prescribed stances and positions. The goal is to stimulate and harmonize chi— referring to life energy—for health, vitality and self-defense. Tai Chi has many branches which promote different styles. In practice, no two masters teach exactly the same style of Tai Chi.

F eng S hui Fung Shui is generally a system of harmonizing everyone with the surrounding environment. Fung Shui, in its popular sense, refers to the practice of choosing or configuring a structure or site in order for this structure or site to be in harmony with the spiritual forces that inhabit it. It has its roots in Taoism for emphasizing the interconnectedness of everything around us and the harmonious flow of chi. Deming (2015, 136-37) explains: One important application of qi theory is called fengshui, which literally means “wind and water.” This is the art of arranging objects and space—office furniture, houses, graves—with an awareness of the flow and movement of qi through a certain area .. . The feng shui master will give advice on how best to design a building and its landscape, or

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arrange its office furniture, so that the flow of <7/ will benefit the people living or working there.

T aoist A lchemy Alchemy generally refers to “the transmutation of one substance, or a combination of substances, into another substance, especially one that is more valuable, powerful, or imbued with paranormal properties. Historically, this often meant turning ordinary metal into gold, but it also referred to creating potions that could cure diseases, prevent aging and death, or confer supernatural powers” (Herman 2013, Chap. 15, 6-7). Alchemy has been practised in various ways in different countries in different historical periods. Alchemy was already practised in China even before the birth of Taoism, but later on became closely identified with Taoism, as a Taoist practice intended to achieve immortality and to establish spiritual harmony in the universe through the cultivation of one’s physical body (Urubshurow 2009, 451). Taoist alchemy is practiced in two ways. One is called external alchemy ( wai-tan or waidan), which involves the mixture of different physical substances outside the human body (such as minerals and herbs) and swallowing the “elixirs”—the combined substances. The other is called internal alchemy (nei-tan or neidan), which involves harmoniously cultivating key energies inside the human body. The original practice of Taoist alchemy was the external one; but because this led to serious injuries, sickness, and even deaths (due to poisoning) (the practice of external alchemy today is limited to those considered safe and that promotes health), the internal kind became the alternative way to practice alchemy—which also happens to be more in tune with Taoism as the way of harmonizing one’s self with the Tao.

Q uigong In the practice of internal alchemy—also called the practice of quigong— one taps into the three key energies in the human body; namely: (a) vital essence (ching or jing), the energy in the lower field (or the abdomen) which is concretely identified with reproductive fluids; (b) ch’i (chi or qi), the generic energy in the middle field (or the chest) which is concretely identified with air, breath, and emotional states; and (c) spirit (shen), the energy in the upper field (or the head or the brain) which is concretely identified with mind, personhood, and access to spiritual beings. These three elements correspond, respectively, to the following three forms of energy: (a) reproductive energy, (b) life-force energy, and (c) spiritual energy. The

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Taoist idea of achieving immortality, through internal alchemy, is said to have been laid down by ChuangTzu in his story wherein the Yellow Emperor met Master Kuang Ch’eng Tzu on Mount K’ung-tung thus (quoted in Urubshurow 2009, 485): See nothing; hear nothing; let your soul be wrapped in quiet, and your body will begin to take proper form. Let there be absolute repose and absolute purity; do not weary your body nor disturb your vitality— and you will live forever. . .

S ome T aoist F estivals Just like the other world religions, Taoism celebrates the birthdays of its various gods and goddesses on certain days following the lunar calendar. Some Taoist festivals are celebrated in Taoist temples. Some are generally Chinese festivals such as the Chinese New Year, the Festival of Lanterns, the Dragon Boat Festival, the Ghost Festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. Discussion Questions 1. Recall the concept of wu-wei, referring to effortless action, and described as doing without actions and teaching without words, among others. Can you identify experiences that you may have had that seem to demonstrate this concept? 2. Recall the Hindu concept of the Brahman. Do you see similarities between this concept and the Taoist concept of the Tao? Elaborate on your answer.

I^A ctivit^l Read the following story. (Some members of the class may be asked to dramatize the story.) How is Taoism demonstrated in the story? In what way does the Taoist farmer embody the Taoist virtues? The Story of the Taoist Farmer One day in late summer, an old farmer was working in his field with his old sick horse. The farmer felt compassion for the horse and desired to lift its burden. So he left his horse loose to go the mountains and live out the rest of its life. Soon after, neighbors from the nearby

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village visited, offering their condolences and said, “What a shame. Now your only horse is gone. How unfortunate you are! You must be very sad. How will you live, work the land, and prosper?” The farmer replied: “Who knows? We shall see.” Two days later the old horse came back now rejuvenated after meandering in the mountainsides while eating the wild grasses. He came back with twelve new younger and healthy horses which followed the old horse into the corral. Word got out in the village of the old farmer’s good fortune and it wasn’t long before people stopped by to congratulate the farmer on his good luck. “How fortunate you are!” they exclaimed. You must be very happy!” Again, the farmer softly said, “Who knows? We shall see.” At daybreak on the next morning, the farmer’s only son set off to attempt to train the new wild horses, but the farmer’s son was thrown to the ground and broke his leg. One by one villagers arrived during the day to bemoan the farmer’s latest misfortune. “Oh, what a tragedy! Your son won’t be able to help you farm with a broken leg. You’ll have to do all the work yourself, How will you survive? You must be very sad.” They said. Calmly going about his usual business the farmer answered, “Who knows? We shall see.” Several days later a war broke out. The Emperor’s men arrived in the village demanding that young men come with them to be conscripted into the Emperor’s army. As it happened the farmer’s son was deemed unfit because of his broken leg. “What very good fortune you have!!” the villagers exclaimed as their own young sons were marched away. “You must be very happy.” “Who knows? We shall see!”, replied the old farmer as he headed off to work his field alone. As time went on the broken leg healed but the son was left with a slight limp. Again the neighbors came to pay their condolences. “Oh what bad luck. Too bad for you”! But the old farmer simply replied; “Who knows? We shall see.” As it turned out the other young village boys had died in the war and the old farmer and his son were the only able bodied men capable of working the village lands. The old farmer became wealthy and was very generous to the villagers. They said: “Oh how fortunate you are, you must be very happy,” to which the old farmer replied, “Who knows? We shall see!” — Taken from the website http://www.rainbowbody.com/newarticles/farmerson.htm with the title Who Knows? The Farmer’s Son: Fortune or Misfortune?

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DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Question What are the denominations and challenges of Taoism?

P hilosophical and R eligious T aoism Before we look into the Taoist denominations, let us first examine the distinction made by some scholars between two general forms of Taoism, namely, Philosophical Taoism (Tao-chia) and Religious Taoism (Tao-chiao) (Matthews 2010, 178; Chan 2014). (Some identify a third form based on Taoist alchemy, namely the Alchemical Taoism; but we shall follow those who treat Taoist alchemy not as a form of Taoism but as a form of Taoist practice.) Some of their main differences, which we have already touched on in relation to certain topics, are as follows. First, for Philosophical Taoism, Lao Tzu, assuming that he existed in history, was just a human being who happened to be the philosopher who wrote the Tao Te Ching; but for Religious Taoism, Lao Tzu is a god, being a divine manifestation of the Tao who forms part of the Three Pure Ones (see discussion above). Second, for Philosophical Taoism, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu (and the work of Lieh-tzu) are mere philosophical works; while for Religious Taoism these works are sacred texts, which, along with other religious texts, constitute the Taoist Canon. Third, while Religious Taoism believes in gods, Philosophical Taoism does not regard belief in gods as necessary or important to the practice of Taoism. In this connection, for Philosophical Taoism it is possible to be a Taoist and still be either an atheist or an agnostic. And fourth, while both Philosophical Taoism and Religious Taoism practice some types of meditation, it is only Religious Taoism that engages in rituals (such as the alchemy) and ceremonies. Some scholars understand these two forms of Taoism as simply referring to certain necessary aspects or features of Taoism as a world religion. Some believe that they refer to the beliefs and practices of Taoism: its beliefs constitute its philosophical aspect while its practices constitute its religious aspect. Some others believe that they correspond to the two stages in the development of Taoism. Philosophical Taoism is the period in which the main teachings of Taoism were written (referring to the period in which the works of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Leih-tzu were written;

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this period is also referred to as the Classical Period of Taoism), while Religious Taoism is the period in which the religious practices, rituals, and organizations of Taosim developed.

Major T aoist D enominations There are three majorTaoist denominations which can be classified as ancient and modern forms of Taoism. The ancient form is the Way of the Celestial Masters, while the modern forms are the Way o f Orthodox Unity and the Way of Complete Perfection. The Way of Orthodox Unity generally sees itself as a modern version of the Way of the Celestial Masters, while the Way of Complete Perfection does not. Way of the Celestial Masters

The first institutional Taoism, and thus we can say the first Taoist sect, was called the Way of the Celestial Masters {T ’ien-shih Tao—also called “Way of Orthodox Unity” and “Five Pecks of Rice Sect”), which was founded by Chang Tao-ling around the second century. While Taoism was founded by Lao Tzu, it was Chang Tao-ling who transformed Taoism into an institutional religion, as an organized religious movement. This movement regarded Lao Tzu, whom they referred to as “Lord Lao,” either as identical to the Tao or as a divine manifestation of the Tao. It is said that Chang Tao-ling, while living in a mountain, once had a vision of Lord Lao, descending from the sky riding thousands of carriages and golden chariots, accompanied by countless dragons and tigers. In this revelation, Lord Lao conferred on Chang the title “Celestial Master,” told him of the coming of a new age and to prepare for it (by making people repent for their sins and become morally pure), gave him sacred scriptures that would serve as the guide for preparing for the coming of the new age, and gave him healing powers (powers to heal the sick and exorcise evil spirits). Soon the movement required certain beliefs and practices, and bureaucratic structures such as those concerning the ordination of priests, confession of sins, and the division of the community into districts. One of the practices was the recitation of the Tao Te Ching, which they believed would produce powers to see spirits, cure illnesses, and prolong life.Those who significantly contributed to the growth of the movement included Chang Chieh (whose own movement, called Way o f Great Peace, spread Taoism in northern China) and Chang Lu (who worked for the movement to have political power).

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M ovem ents Succeeding the Way of C elestial Masters

Later on, there were other revelations that formed other Taoist sects, which introduced other features to Taoism. The three most important sects were the following: (a) the Great Purity or Great Clarity (T’ai-chi’ing), whose revelations,' among others, introduced the practice of alchemy; (b) the Highest Purity or Highest Clarity (Shang-ch’ing), whose revelations, among others, developed elaborate theories about different realms for spirits of the dead, the deities that occupy those realms, and the otherworldly processes for movement from one realm to another; and (c) the Numinous Treasure or Spiritually Efficacious Treasure (Ling-pao), whose revelations, among others, discouraged physical practices like alchemy, gymnastics, and meditation, but emphasized observance of moral codes, the use of talismans, and communal rituals. (See Herman 2013, Chapter 6 ) Way of O rthodox Unity and Way of C om plete Perfection

Taoism continued to grow after the founding of the Way of Celestial Masters. Various new sects came and went, and other newly revealed texts became part of the Taoist Canon. The culture and traditions of the regions in which Taoism was introduced added new dimensions to the religion. This growth continued until the late twentieth century when China came to be under a communist rule, which cleansed the country of forces not consistent with the communist ideology such as capitalism and religion. This led to the destruction of Taoist temples and prohibition of Taoist religious practices, which almost put Taoism into extinction. For thirty years, Taoism was almost abolished in China. Some Chinese Taoists were forced to flee China for Taiwan or Hong Kong. But after the death of Mao Tse Tung, the new leaders lifted some major restrictions to the practice of Taoism. Taoism was allowed to operate again but with government supervision. Taoism since then is still rebuilding itself in China. And currently, there are two major Taoist sects in China: the Way of Orthodox Unity, the liturgical and ritualistic branch that is more common in southern China and Taiwan; and the Way of Complete Perfection, the monastic branch that is more common in northern China. The basic differences between these two Taoist sects are summarized by Herman (2013, Chapter 6 ) as follows (see also Molloy 2010, 227-228; Urubshurow 2009, 466-468): (1) Orthodox Unity Taoism is more common in Taiwan and southern parts of China. Complete Perfection Taoism is more common in the northern parts of China. Orthodox Unity’s institutional center is

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the Palace of Great Purity in Kiangsi, while Complete Perfection’s institutional center is the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. (2) Orthodox Unity Taoism traces its history directly to Chang Tao-ling and sees itself as continuing the generations of Celestial Masters, with the 64th currently presiding in China (though that’s a controversial point). Complete Perfection Taoism developed much later in the twelfth century and is not interested in the line of Celestial Masters, though it does acknowledge its connection to the Chang Tao-ling and his original revelations and honors its own historical patriarchs. (3) Orthodox Unity Taoism is the more liturgical lineage. Orthodox Unity priests regularly preside over funerals, festivals, and rituals of offering and purification. Complete Perfection Taoism is the more monastic lineage, which makes it look more like Buddhism. Complete Perfection priests, monks, and nuns tend to train or live in monasteries, where they engage in personal self-cultivation. (4) Orthodox Unity priests are not usually affiliated with a specific temple; they perform their services for hire (sometimes at a local temple) by families or communities. Complete Perfection monks, nuns, and priests are usually teaching or training in a specific monastery, though they may leave and continue their work elsewhere at other temples or return to lay life (sometimes spreading their teachings to other lay students). (5) Orthodox Unity priests usually marry and have children; they live very much as “ordinary” members of society. Complete Perfection monks, nuns, and priests generally practice celibacy; they usually live as cloistered monastics. (6 ) Orthodox Unity priests generally do not follow the austerities you might associate with monastics. They may eat meat, drink alcohol, and cut their hair like a layperson. Complete Perfection monks, nuns, and priests practice traditional monastic austerities. They generally grow their hair long and tie it up in a bun under their hats. They’re supposed to refrain from meat and alcohol. C hallenges of Taoism

One challenge of Taoism concerns the practice of external alchemy, referring to the use of external substances (chemicals, minerals, and herbs) to come up with elixirs for immortality. Previous practices resulted in poisoning and eventually deaths. This prompted the shift to internal

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alchemy in which the elixirs are arrived at through the cultivation and harmony of the basic energies of the body. External alchemy is still being practiced but mostly to produce medicines (generally referred to as “Chinese medicines”). Another possible challenge concerns the recovery of Taoism in China after it was almost abolished during the early years of the communist takeover in the country. But with support from the current Chinese government and outside, Taoism is experiencing a resurgence in China, temples are being rebuilt (especially those located in the mountains), and a large statue of Lao Tzu was erected in 1999 in southeastern China. A possible worry is if there would be a change in the leadership in the Chinese government. Another challenge concerns the popularization of Taoism in the West, just like in the case of Buddhism, which deviates from the original conception of Taoism as practised in China. Gender issues are generally not a challenge to Taoism. There are goddesses in Taoist deities. The characteristics traditionally associated with women are encouraged in Taoist philosophy, like softness, flexibility, passivity, and modesty. The Taoist principle of yin and yang promotes harmony between opposing forces: in terms of gender, yin is associated with femininity and yang with masculinity. There are also Taoist nuns and women priests and teachers.

I^A ctivit^l I.

Do the following tasks. 1. Write a short paper on how Taoist ideas can be applied to the protection of the natural environment. 2. Visit a Taoist temple in the Philippines. Describe your experience inside the temple. 3. Interview a Filipino Taoist about how Taoism has helped her/him overcome the challenges of life.

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. Wu-wei Lao Tzu Orthodox

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TaoTeChing Celestial Chuang Tzu

Tai Chi Complete Dragon Boat Festival

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

8 Immortals external alchemy

Taoism

Review Q uestions Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. Lao Tzu is generally believed to be the author of the most important text of Taoism, namely: a. Chuang Tzu c. Tao Te Ching b.

I Ching

2. As an honorary title in the area of learning, “Lao Tzu” means: a. old man c. old master b.

old child

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3. The following is considered the third greatest thinker in the history of Taoism, next to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu: a. LiehTzu c. Yin Hsi b.

Sima Qian # 4. In the book Chuang Tzu, the part considered by scholars as written by the philosopher Chuang Tzu, are the: a. Inner Chapters c. Mixed Chapters b.

Outer Chapters

5. The following refers to the nameless origin of all things: a. Tao c. Te b. Wu-wei

6 . The Taoist concept of harmony among opposites is contained in the principle of: a. yin c. yin and yang b. 7.

yang

Wu-wei means: a. effortless action b.

c. intentional action

planned action

8 . The Three Jewels of Taoism are compassion, humility, and: a. generosity c. moderation or simplicity b.

decisiveness

9. Among the Three Pure Ones, he is believed to be the highest Taoist deity: a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One b.

Supreme Pure One

10. As a deity, Lao Tzu is believed to be the incarnation of the: a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One b.

Supreme Pure One

11. The Taoist female deity believed to be the mother of Lord Lao is: a. Mother Li c. Doumou b.

Mazu

12. The most popular of deities consisting of immortals (or humans who achieved immortality) are the so-called: a. Six Immortals c. Eight Immortals b.

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13. The following is a popular Chinese form of exercise and martial art that is closely associated with Taoism: a. Feng Shui c. Quigong b. Tai Chi 14. The following is the practice of choosing or configuring a structure or site in a way harmonious with the spiritual forces that inhabit it: a. Feng Shui c. Quigong b. Tai Chi 15. In the practice of this kind of alchemy, one taps into the three key energies in the human body consisting of vital essence, chi, and spirit: a. external alchemy c. middle-ground alchemy b.

internal alchemy

16. This practice of alchemy involves the mixture of different physical substances outside of the human body to come up with elixirs believed to have the power of making those who swallowed it immortal: a. external alchemy c. middle-ground alchemy b.

internal alchemy

17. The first institutional Taoism founded by Chang Tao-ling was called: a. Way of the Celestial Masters b.

Way of Orthodox Unity

c.

Way of Complete Perfection

18. The following is a modern form of Taoism that sees itself as a modern version of the Way of the Celestial Masters: a. Way of Orthodox Unity b. Teaching of the Great Unity c.

Way of Complete Perfection

19. The following is a current major Taoist sect described as liturgical and ritualistic that is more common in southern China and Taiwan: a. Way of Orthodox Unity b. Teaching of the Great Unity c.

Way of Complete Perfection

20. When China came to be under their rule, Taoism almost got extinct in China for they abolished Taoist temples and prohibited Taoist practices:

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c.

a. democrats b.

technocrats

communists

KW L C hart

w

Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson. K What 1know about Taoism

W What 1want to know about Taoism

1 •1 .

L What 1have learned about Taoism (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Lesson 10, SHINTO

Guide Question What are the basic features of Shinto?

TOPICS ♦

Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

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Section 2: Doctrines and Practices

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Section 3: Denominations and Challenges

Key Concepts

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Shinto

car- Oharai

is- Kami

«■ Misogi, Shubatsu, Harai, Imi

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«*■ State Shinto

Kojiki and Nihongi

«■ Izanami and Izanagi isis is

ra- Shrine Shinto

Amaterasu, Tsukiyomi, <s Folk Shinto Susanoo

«■ Sectarian Shinto

Jimmu The Meiji Government

er Shinto-based New Religions

EXPE CTED L EA RNI NG COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: «s Explain how the term “Shinto” originated. is

Narrate the sacred story concerning the origin of the kami, the islands of Japan, and the divine status of emperors, as based on the accounts of the Kojiki and Nihongi—the two sacred texts of Shinto,

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Explain the nature of the kami and identify some of the major kinds of kami.

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■a? Explain Shinto ethical values based on harmony and purification, os- Explain how the Japanese emperors derived their divine status. ■s- Identify some practices associated with Shinto, especially the purification rituals. ■s- Identify and distinguish the major forms of Shinto: Shrine Shinto, State Shinto, Sect Shinto, Folk Shinto, and Shinto-based New Religions

lA c t iv it ^ l Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be done individually or as a class.

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CULTIVATING Knowledge and Shills

ORIGINSAND SACREDTEXTS Guide Questions How did Shinto begin? What are its sacred texts? M. U r

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Shinto (or Shintoism) is a religion indigenous y / to Japan. The term “Shinto” was derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese term shen \ dao, which means “the way of the gods,” and which in * Jj Japanese is pronounced as “shin-to.” The term shen dao or shin-to, as the name of a particular religion, came about out of the need to distinguish it from foreign religions that have established themselves in Japan, referring to the religions brought to Japan by the Koreans and Chinese in the sixth century, namely, Buddhism and Confucianism. Prior to the coming of these foreign religions to Japan, the Japanese did not feel the need to name their indigenous religion for the simple reason that everybody was into it or engaged in its practices.

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This particular religion has been called “the way of the gods” or “the way of the kamf’ for two reasons. First, it is because central to this religion is the ideal of living a life in harmony with what the Japanese call kami. The kami, translated as “gods,” generally refer to spiritual beings responsible for the mysterious forces of nature. Second, which concerns the use of the expression “way,” it is because the religion, namely Buddhism, which this religion (Shinto) was specifically distinguished from was then called in Japanese as Butsu-do, which meant “the way of the Buddha.” Given this, it was natural for this religion to be called also in terms of being a “way”; thus, to distinguish it from Butsu-do or “the way of the Buddha,” it was called “kami-no-michi” in Japanese, which meant “the way of the gods” (see Picken 1994, xxii). Now, during this time (when this religion was being named), Chinese culture was looked up to as an advanced culture and the Japanese where importing various aspects of this culture (such as in the areas of writing, architecture, poetry, ceramics, arts, and others) to improve theirs. Accordingly, the Japanese thought it proper to give “kami-no-michi” an equivalent Japanese expression that was patterned after its Chinese translation, which was shen-dao (shen means “gods” while dao means way). “Shen-dao” was pronounced “shin-to” in Japanese, thus the religion called “kami-no-michi” in Japanese has been formally called “Shinto.” In short, the early Japanese called Buddhism “the way of the Buddha” or “Butsu-do” in Japanese.To distinguish their indigenous religion from Buddhism, the Japanese called it “the way of the gods” or “kami-no-michi” in Japanese. The Chinese translated “kami-no-michi” as “shen-dao,” which was pronounced in Japanese as “shin-to.” Because of their high regard for Chinese culture at that time, the Japanese adopted “Shinto” as the official name of their indigenous religion. Nowadays, however, the names “Shinto” and “Kami-no-michi” are used interchangeably to refer to the same religious tradition. While the religious tradition of Shinto has been existing long before the foreign religions came to Japan, the need to distinguish it from the foreign religions came at a later time. This was because for a long period of time the religious beliefs and practices of Shinto blended harmoniously with those of the foreign religions, especially those of Buddhism. When (Mahayana) Buddhism came to Japan (through the Chinese and the Koreans), Buddhism tried to accommodate Shinto beliefs and practices into its own. Buddhists, for instance, explained that the Shinto kami were actually boddhisattvas and buddhas. At the same time, Shinto reacted to this encounter with Buddhism also by accommodating Buddhist beliefs and practices into its own. Shintoists, for their part, explained that the Buddhist boddhisattvas and buddhas were actually kinds of kami. UNIT II

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The mutual accommodation between these two religions resulted in most Japanese practicing both Shinto and Buddhism at the same time. Consequently, it is said that Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines contained elements of one another, from rituals to architectural designs. Those who regarded themselves as Buddhists were also engaging in Shinto practices; while those who regarded themselves as Shintoists were also engaging in Buddhist practices. And there were those who did not feel the need to regard themselves as either Buddhists or Shintoists; they just engaged in the practices of both religions. This went on smoothly until the late nineteenth century when the Meiji government assumed power in Japan. The Meiji government started a movement, called the Meiji Restoration, of restoring the national roots of Japan. And central to this movement was the use of Shinto, being the religion indigenous to the Japanese, as a way to instil nationalism (or patriotism) among the Japanese. This required that Shinto be made pure by separating from it elements that were foreign to it— referring to Buddhist (and Confucianism) influences on its beliefs and practices. And for the government to have greater control over the people, it began to assert and propagate the Shinto teaching about the divine status of emperors—that they were descendants of a principal kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu (Molloy 2010, 264-69).

T he K ojiki m N ihongi When Shinto had to define its identity to distinguish itself from the foreign religions, along with giving it a distinct name was the writing down of the creation story or mythology which served as the basis of its rituals and practices.This story, which was previously preserved orally over generations, was mainly about the origins of the kami, the islands of Japan, and the divine status of emperors. Thus, upon the initiation of the government, this story was recorded; and the result was the Kojiki (Chronicle of Ancient Events, or Record of Ancient Matters), compiled in 712 CE; and the Nihongi (Chronicle/History of Japan), which came out in the eighth century CE (see Molloy 2010, 271). In addition to the creation story, these texts also contain some accounts of the historical events that occurred after 400 CE (Urubshurow 2009, 502). Both were written in a Chinese style of writing making them difficult to read (Picken 1994,54); but it is said that the Nihongi is relatively easier to read being more influenced by Chinese thought and literary conventions (Williams 2004, 46).

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As the creation story recorded in the Kojiki and Nihongi is sacred in Shinto, these texts thus constitute the sacred texts of Shinto. These texts, however, do not function in the same way, or on the same level, as the sacred scriptures of other religions. For one, while other religions rely heavily on the doctrines as articulated in their sacred scriptures to justify their existence, Shinto relies heavily on practices and rituals in justifying its existence. As Picken (1994, 54) writes: “Shinto has no official holy writings because its survival has been guaranteed almost entirely by the preservation and perpetuation of its rituals. Nevertheless, the origins of Shinto... are recorded in a compilation of Japanese mythology that dates to around 682 CE. This is the Kojiki, the records of ancient matters.... Another version of essentially the same material, known as the Nihongi (or Nihon Shdki), dates to around 720 CE.” That being the case, the creation story of the Kojiki and Nihongi has nonetheless become the bases of central Shinto beliefs and practices. As Williams (2004, 47), referring to the Kojiki and Nihongi as the “Classics” (of Shinto), notes: “.. . the Classics did not become sacred scripture, yet their central idea (rule by a divine descendant of the Sun Goddess) became an unquestioned belief in all later types of Shinto, as well as in later state ideology.” The writers of the Kojiki and Nihongi only recorded the Shinto creation story. They were not its authors. Who came up with this story and how the story was formed, nobody knows. While some forms of Shinto (like the Shinto sects that we shall later on discuss) have known founders, Shinto has no known founder or founders (Molloy 2010, 264).

T he S acred S tory Let us now examine the Shinto creation story. Our account of the story is based on the narrations of some scholars (Molloy 2010, 266; Matthews 2010,197-98; Williams 2004, 47-50; Picken 1994, 61-63; and Urubshurow 2009, 521-24). Though the general story is the same in these narrations, they, however, differ in some details. As much as possible, our account tries to combine these details in a complementary way (filling in the gaps of one narration by the details of the other narrations). To begin with, though the Kojiki and Nihongi more or less have the same account of the events involving the principal kami, they differ in their account of the origin of the cosmos or the universe (Urubshurow 2009, 521). For the Kojiki, the universe emerged from a plant with seven branches growing out of steaming mud and water. Two kami, who were brother and sister, were held by each branch; thus

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forming seven pairs in total. These seven pairs of kami were then scattered throughout the universe; and after some time, a brother-sister pair of kami was born: the brother was called “Izanagi” (Izanagi-no-mikoto, which meant “He-who-invites”); the sister was called “Izanami” (tzanami-no-mikoto, which meant “She-who-invites”). On the other hand, for the Nihongi, the universe emerged from an egg-like mass that divided into two portions: a male portion (yang) and a female portion (yin). The early generations of kami were all residing in the High Plain of Heaven, and were thus sometimes referred to as the Sky-Kami. It is said that the Sky-Kami gave the couple Izanagi and Izanami the task of creating the islands of Japan. To do this, the couple were given a heavenly jewelled spear by means of which they were to stir the ocean while standing upon a floating (rainbow-shaped) bridge of heaven. The brine (the salted water of the ocean) that dripped down from the end of the spear piled up and formed an island. Soon the islands of Japan were produced. Izanagi and Izanami then proceeded to the task of producing further kami. At first, they failed to perform the right ritual for this task: for at a certain point in the ritual the woman (Izanami) spoke first when it should be the male (Izanagi) who should have spoken first. The consequence of this mistake was that the kami that were produced displeased them (one kami, for instance, was deformed). But after taking the advice of the Sky-Kami, they were able to do the ritual the right way the second time around. The creation of further kami then went well until a great disaster occurred. In giving birth to the fire kami, Izanami was burned, got seriously sick, and eventually died. Izanagi, so saddened by this incident, cried. As he cried, his tears gave birth to a kami (described as the “Crying-Weeping-Female kami”). Izanagi then buried Izanami on Mount Hiba near Izumo. Consumed by his anger towards the fire-child that killed Izanami, Izanagi drew his sword and killed his fire-child. The blood of the fire-child gave birth to eight kami. When his anger and grief receded, Izanagi missed Izanami so much that he resolved to look for her in the underworld (the place of the dead called Yomi-no-kum). Once in the underworld, he was not allowed to see Izanami but he found a way to do so. He then saw Izanami, who looked so ugly because of the burn and decay, and the maggots crawling all over her body. Izanagi was shocked and dismayed, and decided to return to the living world alone. Finding himself dirty after his contact with the underworld, Izanagi washed himself with water in a small river. Further kami were born as he threw off his garments and washed his body. When he washed certain parts of his face, three kami were born. The sun goddess, Amaterasu (Amaterasu-omi-kami, which meant “shining in heaven”), was born as he washed his left eye; the moon god, Tsukiyomo ( Tsuki-yomi-no-mikoto, which meant “moon

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night possessor”), was born as he washed his right eye; and the god of wind, storms and thunder, Susanoo (Susanoo-no-mikoto, which means “impetuous male”), was born as he washed his nose. Among these three kami, it was Amaterasu who was the most important, as she would later on become the ruler of the High Plain of Heaven. Meanwhile, Susanoo did a lot of bad things that especially displeased Amaterasu, such as ruining the land through his storms, and destroying Amaterasu’s rice fields and silk weaving looms. Amaterasu was so upset that she decided to hide in a cave (the rock-cave). Amaterasu, in so doing, deprived the world of her light, and consequently plunged the world into darkness. The Sky-Kami were so concerned that they sent various kami to persuade Amaterasu to come out of the rock-cave. To this end, the kami performed a series of acts that included bringing roosters to the cave to call each other, ornamenting branches of a tree they put in the cave with mirrors and strings of jewels, and bringing a troupe of kami to dance and make music. But all these failed. Then the kami Uzume (Ame-no-uzumeno-mikoto, or the “Heavenly-alarming woman”) danced that made the other kami laughed (in another account, Uzume recites a liturgy while dancing). Amaterasu became curious why the kami were laughing when the world was in darkness. She then came out of the cave, and the world was no longer in darkness. This cave was later on sealed (by a rope) so that the world would never again be in darkness. Meanwhile, Uzume, for her successful effort to entice Amaterasu to come of out of the cave, became the kami of dance, culture, and literature. Discussion Questions 1. Look at the Japanese flag. What do you think is the symbolism of the sun in the Japanese flag? How do you think is the design of the Japanese flag influenced by the Shinto creation story? 2. What do you think is the symbolism of each of the three objects constituting the Shinto Imperial Regalia, namely, a mirror, a jewel, and a sword?

Make an artistic interpretation of the Shinto creation story. This can be done by doing making illustrations of the story or of a major event in the story, or doing a skit about the story (students may be allowed to introduce some variations to make the story modern).

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DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES Guide Question What are the major doctrines and practices of Shinto?

K ami The kami, as noted, generally refer to sacred, spiritual beings, which are also thought of as gods and goddesses. The word “kami” is used in both singular and plural; we can thus say “this particular kami” or “this group of kami.” It literally means “high,” “above” and “lifted up” (Urubshurow 2009, 502), but it is often translated as “god” or “gods.” Furthermore, while the word is naturally understood as referring to the entities with divine character, the deities, it is also used to refer to the divine character itself, the essence of all divine beings (Picken 1994, xxii; Williams 2004, 32). While being mindful of these two senses of the word “kami,” we shall, in our discussion, assume the standard understanding of the word “kami” as referring to divine entities. We have already identified some of the major kami (those who play significant roles in the creation story of Japan), such as Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyoma, and Susanowo. Shinto believes in many more kami. Anything that evokes striking emotions and attitudes in humans such as awe, fear, and the feeling of reverence is believed to be inhabited by some kami. The kami are the forces or powers in things responsible for evoking such emotions and attitudes. Typical examples of these things are places of natural beauty, like a mountain, a waterfall, and a lake, and natural power, like the blow of the wind, the heat of the sun, earthquakes, and volcanoes spewing lava. In relation to the last, kami are also the energies that make things in nature move. And thus there are, among others, fire, ocean, mountain, trees, rivers, and waterfalls kami. The kami also include the spirits of some ancestors and animals thought to have mysterious skills and intelligence like the fox and the snake. One unique feature of the kami is that though they are spiritual beings they do not reside in a world distant from the humans. Their presence can be readily felt as they are powers in the world of humans. The kami, in short, are everywhere in the human world. They are treated as persons, as co-inhabitants of this world, and are given names (Molloy 2010, 271).

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Some scholars classify the various kami into some basic types for a better view of their diversity. One such classification (Urubshurow 2009, 503-505) distinguishes four general types of kami; thus: 1. Nature Kami: they include the kami of trees, animals, mountains, geological entities (such as clay, stones, lightning, metals, stars, sun, moon, minerals, and gemstones), food (especially agricultural foods), and forms of water (such as wells, rivers, oceans, springs, storms, and rain). 2. Mythic Kami: they consist of all the kami mentioned in the Shinto myth or creation story which include Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyoma, and Susanowo. 3. Clan Kami: they include all the kami that serve as protectors of divine clans, foremost of which is the kami Amaterasu, of whom the members of the imperial family, the primary divine clan, are believed to be descendants through the first divine emperor Jimmu. They also include the kami of other (secondary) divine clans, such as the descendants of Jimmu’s companions and the noble families who ruled Japan prior to the reign of Jimmu. As regards the Imperial Family, Urubshurow (2009, 506) notes that, the members of the Imperial Family, being descendants of Amaterasu, are all divine in nature; but only the member of this family who becomes the emperor acquires the status of a kami. 4.

Guild Kami: they consist of all the kami worshipped by various guilds (associations of craftsmen and artists), foremost of which are the kami worshipped by the guild of mirror makers (referring to the kami believed to have made the mirror that enticed Amaterasu to get out of the cave she hid in for some time), the kami worshipped by the guild of jewellers (referring to the kami believed to have made the eight-foot long string of 500 jewels worn by Amaterasu), and the kami worshipped by the guild of dancers and geisha (referring to the kami Uzume who danced to entertain Amaterasu).

Another classification (Picken 1994, 94-96) divides the kami into two categories; thus: 1. Kami of the Japanese mythology, which consist of the following: a. Kami of Heaven (Amatsu-no-kami) b. Kami of Earth (Kunitsu-no-kami) 2. Kami not named in the mythology, which consist of the following: a. Kami associated with natural phenomena

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b. Kami derived from historical personalities c.

Kami traceable to political origins

d. Kami associated with commerce and prosperity *

Ethics of H armony and P urification Shinto does not have a clearly defined code of morality or a formalized set of moral rules, just like the commandments of the Jews. A kind of morality, however, naturally follows from the Shinto system of values and general attitude towards life. For instance, as Shinto worships the natural forces that give life, Shinto has a positive attitude towards those that enhance or promote life, like fertility and health, and a negative attitude toward those that do otherwise, like the acts of killing and inflicting pain, and the state of sickness. As Shinto worships nature in its natural beauty, it gives value to purity or freedom from pollutants. This includes our own bodies, houses, clothes, and environment; and extends to our character (especially honor) and spiritual life. If they become dirty or contaminated, we must cleanse them to regain their purity. In this connection, it is said that in Shinto, the acts of washing, sweeping, and cleaning have a religious and ethical value. As regards human character, it is polluted when one has done misdeeds; and so one needs to restore its purity by fulfilling his/her responsibilities, making amends like repaying debts, and sincerely apologizing for these misdeeds. And since the kami are sacred, then humans ought to show them reverence. This is done, among others, by visiting their shrines and showing respect to nature by refraining from doing anything that may damage or pollute nature (Molloy 2010, 271-72). Purity is a central concept in Shinto ethics. Humans become unclean when they are separated (or alienated) from the kami, family, ancestors, community, or emperor through misdeeds or failure to perform what has been expected from them. The solution is reconciliation through the process of purification (Matthews 2010, 204). Generally, Shinto ethics can thus be described as an ethics of harmony and purification.

D ivinity of the E mperors “All forms of Shinto share the belief that the ruler of Japan, the land of the kami, is divine” (Williams 2004, 114). As earlier noted, it is believed that the first human Japanese emperor, Jimmu, was a descendant of Amaterasu, the sun goddess. The succeeding emperors inherited the divinity of the first emperor. The divinity of Japanese emperors was highlighted during the time when the Japanese government wanted to instil patriotism among the

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Japanese people and to have greater control over them—specifically, for the Japanese people to serve their emperor in the same way that they worship the kami. As Shinto became an instrument in building up Japanese nationalism, Shinto was made a national religion in 1882. This form of Shinto has been called State Shinto. Shinto then received support from the government. Many Shinto shrines were built and priests received financial support from the government in return for maintaining traditional values. The other religions in Japan, especially Buddhism, suffered during this time. The divinity of the emperor was officially taught in schools. State Shinto was, however, also used to build the military power of Japan and to justify its expansion (conquest of other countries) through military means. This happened during the Japanese war with the Russians in 1905, which the Japanese won. And this continued during World War II. But after its defeat in World War II, Japan was forced to make changes in its government. Consequently, State Shinto was abolished and the emperor (Emperor Hirohito), in 1945, gave up his divinity. Shinto became a private, non-governmental religion again, with equal status as the other religions in Japan. (Molloy 2010, 269-270).

O ther D ivine H umans Aside from the emperors, there are other humans who are considered divine either by their association with the kami or by being kami themselves. Shinto tradition does not have a clear distinction between humans who are divine and humans who are themselves kami (Urubshurow 2009, 506). In any case, these divine humans include: (a) the ritual specialists or the female shamans (miko) who can be possessed by the kami when seeking protection, praying for fruitful harvests, and communication with the dead, among others; (b) the shrine priestesses {saio), referring to the young women of the Yamoto ruling families who for generations have served as shrine priestesses (who could communicate with the kami) in Amaterasu’s shrine at Ise; and (c) the spirits of the dead, referring to the war heroes who, because of their unusual loyalty and commitment to the emperor and heroic service to Japan, have been recognized as kami.

L ife after D eath With regard to what happens after death, Shinjo follows traditional Japanese views that the body should be cremated and that the dead person joins his or her ancestors. And as discussed above, some dead people, the remarkable ones, are believed to have become kami. Some forms of Shinto

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incorporate Buddhist beliefs about death such as reincarnation (Matthews 2010, 206).

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S ome P ractices and R ituals

Worship Worship of the kami is done at the shrines, public shrines or personal ones (those set up at homes). People visit shrines to pray to the kami (prayers to the kami are called norito) to give praises to them and to request for health, success in their endeavors (school, career, business, etc.), safety in travels, Shinto Shrine and well-being of their loved ones. A Shinto shrine is called jinja in Japanese (jinja literally means “place of the kami”), in contrast to the Buddhist temples which are called tera in Japanese. Picken (1994, xxxi) estimates that Shinto, in 1994, “comprises a loose agglomeration of approximately 800,000 shrines. Among these are 200 that are central shrines of various kami, cults, or districts; and over 2,000 that could be called major shrines.” There are certain ceremonies one goes through during a visit to a public shrine, like washing one’s hands and mouth at a water basin located at the entrance to the shrine, climbing the stairs leading to the haiden (the space in front of the place where the kami is enshrined), giving respect to the kami by bowing in front of them, donating money, ringing a bell and clapping several times (allegedly to get the attention of the kami), and praying either silently or by chanting. Sometimes devotees leave their prayer requests written on a piece of paper or on small wooden plaques which they tie to the fences or branches of a sacred tree near the kami’s shrine. During festival days, there are processions which people may join and booths where they can buy souvenirs and amulets. Worship can also be done daily at home. Shinto devotees set up a small Shinto shrine, called kamidana, at their houses, sometimes in the garden area. Prayers and food offerings, like rice and water, are done at the kamidana. Shinto priests officiate the worship ceremonies at public shrines. They give their blessings on various occasions, such as when children are brought to a shrine a month after birth and when they reach a certain age. The priests also perform ceremonies outside the shrines like during weddings held at

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homes or hotels. The emperor has been traditionally considered as a high priest in Shinto (this is despite the renunciation of the emperor of his divinity after the Second World War) and thus performs certain ceremonies too. He, for instance, participates every spring in rice-planting ceremonies done in the palace to guarantee a good rice harvest for the entire nation. Another, he and his family annually visit the shrine of Ise to pray for the country. The shrine at Ise, Mie, Japan is known as the Ise Grand Shrine, which is dedicated to sun goddess Amaterasu and is considered the holiest among the Shinto shrines, for it is believed that the sacred mirror of Amaterasu, one of three Imperial Regalia, is preserved there. The emperor’s reign is inaugurated with Shinto rites; and when he dies, he is buried with Shinto rites (which is unlike most Japanese, including devotees of Shinto, who are usually buried with Buddhist rites). Purification Rituals Shinto rituals are mainly purification rituals. Purification (oharai) is the process of removing an impurity (tsuml). Picken (2004, 176) explains that the state of purity is a necessary condition to be in communion or harmony with the kami. Impurities take various forms. There can be physical impurities, Ritual Misogi like sickness, injury, and death. There can be moral impurities, like the acts of inflicting pain on other people, stealing properties of other persons, killing, and others. Purification likewise takes various forms. The following are basic forms of Shinto purification rituals (Picken 2004, 172, 174). Misogi. This is a form of purification that uses water. Worshippers, for instance, wash their hands with water at the entrance of a shrine. A form of misogi is called misogi shuho, a ritual in which one stands under a flowing waterfall. The devotee stands for some period of time while the water of the waterfall falls full-force on his or her shoulders. Before the ritual, the devotee does some stretching and deep-breathing exercises and is cleansed with a bit of salt. After the ritual, the devotee may drink sake (rice wine) with other practitioners usually before a meal. Misogi is primarily based on Izanagi’s act of washing himself when he found himself dirty after going to the underworld to see Izanami.

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Shubatsu. This is a form of purification using salt. Salt is sprinkled by Shinto priests on the objects, humans, or places to be purified. Harai. This form of purification uses a harai-gushi, a wand consisting of a stick and streams of paper attached to the stick. A Shinto priest waves a harai-gushi over the person, place, or object to be purified. Imi. This is a form of purification that one does to oneself by refraining from saying inappropriate words and avoiding doing inappropriate actions. For instance, the word “cut” (kiru) is taboo in a wedding ceremony. On the other hand, attending a party or a celebration is inappropriate when a loved one has just died.

A nnual Events and F estivals The following are some of the major annual events and festivals celebrated in Shinto (see Picken 2004, 181) New Year Celebration (Oshogatsu). This is the biggest celebration of the year. Before the holiday, the house is thoroughly cleaned for the kami who are invited to visit. They have their own decorations (kadomatsu, a special arrangement consisting of pieces of cut green bamboo, small branches of pine, and leaves of plum) and kind of food—mochi, a soft dough made of pounded rice; ozone, a special soup of vegetables and mocha. Men and women dress in kimono and make offerings to Shinto shrines; they pray for blessings for the coming year. They also visit relatives and friends. The overall spirit of celebrating the New Year is cleansing and the renewal of life. Spring Festival (Haru Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is to guarantee the safety of rice planting. Summer Festival (Natsu Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is to protect the crops from pests and diseases during the hot seasons. Autumn Festival (Aki Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is to express gratitude to the kami for the gathered harvest. This is a ritual of thanksgiving. Setsubun-sai. The purpose of holding this festival is to drive away bad luck and invite good luck. This is done by throwing beans and a Shinto high priest firing an arrow. Worshippers later on take the beans home for good luck. D isc us si on Q u e s t i o n s 1. Do you think belief in nature spirits still useful today? Explain your answer. 2. Can a belief in nature spirits be used to promote environmental protection? Flow?

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I^A ctivit^l Write a research paper on early Filipino belief in nature spirits. Compare this system of belief with the Shinto belief in the kami.

DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES Guide Questions What are the different forms of Shinto? And what are its major challenges?

Shinto’s flexibility as a religion enables it to adapt to social conditions and to intermingle with the beliefs and practices of other religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and even Christianity.This resulted in the emergence of many forms of Shinto. For our purposes, we shall examine the following major forms of Shinto: (1) Shrine Shinto (Jinja Shinto), (2) State Shinto (Kokka Shinto), (3) Folk Shinto (Tsuzoka Shinto), (4) Sect Shinto (Kyoha Shinto), and (5) Shinto-based New Religions (Shinko Shukyo). Let us begin with what we have already touched on, namely, State Shinto. It is, of course, not the earliest form of Shinto, but it serves as a convenient point of reference for describing the other forms of Shinto.

S tate S hinto As already noted above, State Shinto (Kokka Shinto) was the form of Shinto that was made the national religion of Japan in 1882 when the Japanese government (the Meiji government) was instilling patriotism among its citizens and establishing powerful control over them by presenting the emperor as a divine being, with a status of a kami, being a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Previous to the Meiji government, Buddhism was the state religion of Japan (under the Tokugawa government where Japan was under the military rule of the shogun). When the Meiji government took over, they started the process of nationalizing Japan known as the “Meiji Restoration” (Williams 2004, 120). One key element in this nationalizing process was the institution of Shinto as the state religion of Japan. Shinto was separated from Buddhism to return to its pure form, and to serve as Japan’s “unifying national ideology” (Pickens 1994, xxxi). Under State Shinto, the shrines were put under the control of the government (shrines were declared national institutions), the rituals to UNIT II

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be performed were listed, and a system of ranking priests was formalized (the system of hereditary priesthood was abolished). Shinto priests were treated as governmental officials (see Picken 1994, 36). State Shinto, however, was abolished after the defeat of Japan in the Second World War in 1945, when the Japanese surrendered to the Allies. The Allies demanded the separation of Shinto and the government. After this event, State Shinto became known as “ Imperial Household Shinto” (Williams 2005, 119), which still performs the “special Shinto practices at the three shrines within the grounds of the imperial palace” (Williams 2005,17,119).

S ect S hinto Under State Shinto, several Shinto shrines (most of which were run by different Shinto organizations) were put under government control. There were, however, Shinto shrines or forms of Shinto that were not put under government control and were considered not part of State Shinto, but which nevertheless were recognized by the government. These forms of Shinto which were not considered to be part of State Shinto were collectively called by the government Sect Shinto or Sectarian Shinto. As Molloy (2010, 270) states: “All other nongovernmental Shinto shrines and organizations were treated as independent, self-supporting institutions and together were called Sect Shinto.” Sectarian Shinto thus were forms of Shinto that “did not receive state support” (Matthews 2010, 200). As State Shinto is mainly a political form of Shinto, Sect Shinto, in contrast, is seen as a purely religious form of Shinto. In this connection, Sect Shinto is often also called “Religious Shinto” (Williams 2005, 20). This means that Sect Shinto has features that cannot be reconciled with or accommodated by the political objectives of State Shinto. During the Meiji government (around 1868), there were 13 forms or organizations of Shinto that were classified under Sect Shinto or Kyoha Shinto (Picken 1994, 37).

S hrine S hinto Generally, Shrine Shinto refers to all forms of Shinto in which the shrines, regarded as the homes of the kami, are the centers of Shinto religious activities. During the time when Shinto was flourishing in Japan and building its places of worship, there were also many Buddhist temples that were established.To distinguish Shinto places of worship from Buddhist places of worship called temples, the Shinto places of worship were called shrines. As there are many kinds of kami and forms of Shinto, there are

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also many forms of shrines. There are, for instance, public shrines (the public places of worship) and private shrines (the shrines put up by families at their homes). From the varying accounts of scholars on the nature of Shrine Shinto, we can distinguish between two senses of Shrine Shinto. In one sense, Shrine Shinto simply refers to traditional Shinto, for traditionally Shinto religious activities center around shrine worship. In another sense, Shrine Shinto is identified with State Shinto, and it refers to the kind of Shinto in which the government-recognized shrines are the centers of religious activities. We may call the first sense the “apolitical account” while the second the “political account.” Under the apolitical account, even the forms of Shinto not under government control of the Meiji government fall under Shrine Shinto. On the other hand, only the government-controlled forms of Shinto fall under Shrine Shinto (Urubshurow 2009, 517-18). What happened was the Meiji government also called State Shinto “Shrine Shinto” to contrast it with Sect Shinto. In this connection, the government called the shrines of Sect Shinto “churches” (kyokai) to distinguish them from the shrines (jinja) of State Shinto (Urubshurow 2010, 517). When State Shinto, however, was abolished after Japan’s defeat in World War II, Shrine Shinto became apolitical, that is, no longer under government control.

F olk S hinto Folk Shinto and Sect Shinto are forms of Shinto that were not put under government control; the difference is that while Sect Shinto was recognized by the government, Folk Shinto was not. Another difference between Sect Shinto and Folk Shinto is that while Sect Shinto is organized, systematized, and institutionalized, Folk Shinto is not. For unlike in Folk Shinto, in Sect Shinto one “could identify a founder and a formal set of teachings, and may even have produced sacred writings” (Picken 2004, 212). For instance, rituals in Folk Shinto can be performed in the absence of Shinto priests. Furthermore, Folk Shinto is called such because it blended with folk culture and local beliefs, which have influences from Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. On some accounts, Folk Shinto is equated with Shamanic Shinto (see Williams (2004,20-21). The shamans (and shamanesses) were people who could communicate with the spirits (the kami); they “became possessed, and gave guidance in oracles about all of life’s concerns—crops, health, war, pestilence, and death” (Williams 2004, 115).

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S hinto - based N ew R eligions Sect Shinto traditionally only included 13 Shinto sects when they were recognized and distinguished from State Shinto. But after World War II, new religious forms, called New Religions, emerged. Some of these new religions were Buddhist-based while some were Shinto-based. The Shinto-based New Religions developed from some of the original 13 sects of Sect Shinto. The Shinto-based New Religions were then included in Sect Shinto (Williams 2005, 123). Based on the account of Matthews (2010, 201-202), Shinto sects are generally divided by Japan’s Agency of Cultural Affairs into three groups, based on their history and unique practices. These are: traditional sects, mountain worship sects, and sects based on revelation. Let us examine two prominent sects based on revelation: Tenrikyo (“heavenly reason teaching”) and Omoto-kyo (“great origin teaching”)— or simply Omoto (Matthews 2010, 201-02; Molloy 2010, 282-283). As these two Shinto forms are generally classified under Sect Shinto, they are also sometimes classified under Shinto-based New Religions. Tenrikyo, founded by Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), is a spiritual healing group. It teaches that physical health is a consequence of mental or spiritual health. In this connection, it practices healing by faith. Its sacred texts consist of the poetry composed by Nakayama Miki that speaks of her revelations. It is said that Nakayama Miki received her revelations accidentally. She sought the help of a shaman (to talk to the kami) to help her deal with her problems—among others, it is said that her eldest son was unable to work because of suffering extreme pain in his leg. In one session, she assisted the shaman; and what happened was that she went into a trance for several days. When she came out of the trance, she reported that she received a message from a kami, Tenri-o-no-mikoto (“lord of divine wisdom”), that she was to spread the “Teaching of the Heavenly Reason” that whoever lives according to the Heavenly Reason will have health and long life.Tenrikyo has established a strong institutional structure that enables it to spread outside Japan. Omoto was founded by Deguchi Nao (1836-1918). One striking teaching of Omoto is that all art is religious. It sees the creative process leading to an artwork as an essential manifestation of religion. In this connection, it runs a school near Kyoto teaching traditional Japanese art to non-Japanese. Another is its promotion of world peace through the study and adoption of a universal language (a language all nationalities can understand)—the language of Esperanto—and through sponsored

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dialogues among members of other religions such as the Christians and Muslims. It is said that Deguchi Nao, like Nakayami Miki, lived a very miserable life— extreme poverty, death of her husband and three of her eight children, mental illness of her two children, among others. In her moment of hopelessness, she had a vision urging her to lead the creation of a new, perfect world.

S ome C hallenges Shinto has managed to survive despite the challenges that it has faced. Some of these challenges are as follows. First, its growth has been threatened by thfe growth of Buddhism in Japan and its association with military build-up of Japan during World War II. Many have thought that Shinto would not survive after the Second World War; but it did and it continues to flourish. In 2007, it was estimated that there were 2,797,700 in the world; 2,729, 000 in Asia; and 61,200 in North America (Matthews 2010,171). Second, part of the appeal of Shinto is the importance it gives to nature. Shinto, in this regard, is presenting itself as a religion of ecology. One challenge in this area is how to reconcile the seeming conflict between this ecological ideal of Shinto and the pervasive Japanese commercial and business goals that resulted in the decimation of the forests of Japan and other countries (Williams 2004, 140). Third, Shinto still generally lacks a strong institutional structure to enable it to spread outside of Japan or to do missionary work. This is, however, compensated by the fact that the Japanese bring their religious practices with them wherever they settle in (see Molloy 2010, 283-284). And fourth, because of Shinto’s association with the Japanese government during World War II, how to deal with questions concerning the divine status of the Japanese emperor remains as a challenge to Shinto. Williams (2004, 136) articulates such questions as follows: “First, what does it mean for modern Japan, no longer culturally or militarily imperial, to have a divine emperor? Second, can Shinto and Japan take responsibility for mistakes made and atrocities committed in the name of a divine emperor? . . . Third, can the symbol of the divine emperor guide the Japanese people toward acceptance of the responsibilities and possibilities of being human?” D i sc us si on Q u e s t i o n s 1. Are you for the total separation of religion and state? Should religion completely stay away from political concerns or activities? Explain your answer. UNIT II

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I^Activityl I.

Watch the movie “Spirited Away” and write a reflection paper on it afterwards focusing on how Shinto is depicted in the movie. (“Spirited Away,” a 2001 Japanese animated fantasy film, was written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki.)

II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept map. Misogi Buddhism Emperors animists

Nihongi World War II

Purification State

Kojiki Sect

Review Questions Encircle the letter of the correct answer. 1. The term Shinto, which is equivalent to “kami-no-michi,” means: a. the way of the truth

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b.

the way of the gods

c.

the way of the heaven

2. The sun goddess in Shinto creation story, considered to be the most important kami, is: a. Izanami b. Amaterasu c. Susanoo 3. After his travel to the underworld, he found himself unclean and so he washed himself with water: a. Izanagi b. Tsukiyomi c. JimmuTenno 4. He was the first human emperor of Japan who was a descendant of Amaterasu: a. Izanagi b. Tsukiyomi c. JimmuTenno 5. The three Im perial R egalia are a m irror, a sword, and a a.

shield

b.

crown

c.

jewel

6. Because of his mischief, Amaterasu hid herself in a cave: a. Tsukiyomi b. Susanoo c. Ninigi 7. In one classification of the kami, the kami worshipped by mirror makers belong to: a. nature kami c. mythic kami b.

guild kami

d.

clan kami

8. In the same classification of the kami, the kami that protects the members of the imperial family belong to: a. nature kami c. mythic kami b.

guild kami

d.

clan kami

9. The Imperial Regalia that is preserved at the Ise Grand Shrine is the: a. mirror b. sword c. jewel 10. This form of purification uses salt: a. misogi b. shubatsu

c. harai

11. This form of purification uses a wand, consisting of a stick and paper streamers, waived by Shinto priest: a. mosogi b. shubatsu c. harai 12. This a festival of thanksgiving, expressing gratitude to the kami for the gathered harvest: a. Summer Festival b. Autumn Festival c. Spring Festival

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13. It was during the reign of this government that Shinto was made into a national religion: a. Tokugawa b, Edo c. Meiji 14. This form of Shinto was controlled by the government: a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto b.

Shrine Shinto

d. Folk Shinto

15. This form of Shinto is also regarded as purely religious: a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto b.

Shrine Shinto

d. Folk Shinto

KW L Chart

Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column after the lesson. K What 1know about Shinto

W What 1want to know about Shinto

L What 1have learned about Shinto (Write at least the five most important ones.)

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( f Q i , REFERENCE? Alldritt, Leslie. 2005. Buddhism. Philadelphia: Chelsea House. Allinson, Robert. 1989. Chuang-tzu for spiritual transformation: An analysis of the inner chapters. New York: State University of New York Press. Altman, Ruth. 1985. The Jewish way of life. Jerusalem: Nezer David. Breen, John and Mark Teeuwen. 2010. A new history of Shinto. Oxford: WileyBlackwell. Chan, Alan. 2014. Laozi. The Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).Online: . Chang, Chung-yuan. 2014. Tao: A new way of thinking: A translation of the Tao Te Ching with an introduction and commentaries. London: Singing Dragon. Clarke, Peter and Stewart Sutherland, eds. 1991. The world’s religions: The study of religion, traditional and new religions. London: Routledge. De Lange, Nicholas. 2000. An introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Deming, Will. ed. 2015. Understanding the religions of the world: An introduction. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Durkheim, Emile. 2008. The elementary forms of religious life. In A reader in the anthropology of religion. Edited by Michael Lambek. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Fielding, Julien. 2008. Discovering world religions at 24 frames per second. Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Fraser, Chris. 2015. Mohism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Online: . Harap, Louis. 1987. Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature. Greenwood Publishing Group. Harvey, Peter. 1990. Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Herman, Jonathan. 2013. Taoism for dummies. Mississauga: John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Hill, Peter C., et al. 2000. Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour (30)1:51-77. Hinnnells, John R. ed. 2005. The Routledge companion to the study of religion. New York: Routledge.

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