Oxford Cpe Practice Tests (2010)

OxfordPracticeGrammar Withanswers

GeorgeYule

OXFORD lJNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents Introduction

VIII

25 { Sentences 3 and verbs Simplesentences 4 Subjectsand verbs o Verbsand objects Verbswith indirectobjectsand clauses 8 l0 Linking verbs t2 Compoundand comPlexsentences Tests

t4

Tenses

l6

Verbs,auxiliaryverbsandtenses Presentand presentperfect Pastand pastperfect Presentperfector pastsimple? Pastperfector pastsimPle? Future

176 l8 20 22 23 24

Tests

Tests Modals Modalsand phrasalmodals Complexmodals Prediction:will, woukl,begoingto, sh0II Willingness,habitsand preferences: will and,would Ability: can,could,beableto can,could,maY,might, Permission: belllov'/edto Possibility:may,might,can,could Necessity:fiust, haveto, havegot to, needto, needn't Deduction:must,haveto, havegot to, cln't and couldn't Obligationand advice:sftoald, to, had better oughtto, besupposed Tests Negativesand questions Word order in negativesand questions Negativequestionsand questiontags Negativewords Questionwords Other questiontypes Tests

The passive Activeand passive Passives with modals,infinitives gerunds and verbs Passive The usesof the passive and ergatrves with &y-phrases Passives with get Passives

tq

29 30 32 33 34 35 36

40

Articles and nouns Typesof articlesand nouns Arricles:al an or the Alan or one,a/d, or no article, tfteor no article Nouns:countableand uncountable Nouns:generic,pair,grouP,Plural andsingular(+ -s) and compoundnouns Possessive Articlesand nounsin discourse Tests Determiners and quantifiers Determiners Quantifiers Someandany,no and none AII and both,half and whole Eachand every,eitherand neither Many, muchand a lot (oJ), moreand most (A) few and (a) little,fewerlfewest and lesslleast Multipliers,fractionsand percentages Tests

56 )/ 58 60 62 64 65 66 68 69 70 72

75 76 78 80 82 83 84 86 88 89 90 92 93 94

4l 42

44 45 46 48 50 JZ

54

Pronouns,substitution and ellipsis genericand possessive Personal,

96

97 Pronouns Demonstrativeand indefinite Pronouns 9 8 100 Reflexiveand reciprocalpronouns 102 Empty subiectit 103 Empty subjectthere 104 Substitution:oneand.ones 105 Substitution:so and do so 106 Ellipsis Ibsts

l0E

(-()NI E\TS

110 9 Adjectivesand adverbs Adjectives: emphasizing, describing, classifing lll Adjectives: positionand punctuatron tt2 Participleadjectives, compound adjectives and ad.jectives asnouns tt4 Positionof adverbs;adverbsof place, time, frequency,expectation,focus l l 6 Adverbs:degree,manner,viewpoint, comment ll8 Equatives, comparatives and superlatives 120

Tests

lo

122

Prepositions 124 Prepositionsand prepositionalphrases t25 Prepositionsof time; dt, in, on, etc. 1,26 Prepositionsof time: during,for, since,etc. 127 Prepositionsof place:at, in, on 128 Prepositionsof place:abote,below, between,etc, t29 Prepositionsof movementand place: 130 from, across,along, etc. Prepositionsusedfor connections: of, with, by 132 Prepositionsusedfor exceptions: except(for), besides, without,etc. 133 Phrasalverbs 134 Tests

rt6

1 1 Infilitives and gerunds

138 Simpleinfinitivesand gerunds r39 Complexinfinitivesand gerunds 140 Verbswith infinitivesand gerunds t42 Adjectiveswith inlinitivesand gerunds t44 Nounsand pronounswith infinitives and gerunds 145 Tests

1 2 Reporting Directspeech Indirect speech Reportingverbs Reportingstatementsand questions Reportingorders,requests, advice andopinions Tests

146 148 149 150 152

156 158

'l3 Noun clauses That-clauses and wft-clauses Noun clausesassubjectsand objects Nounswith noun clauses Adjectiveswith noun clauses The subjunctiveor sftorldin noun clauses Usesof noun clauses Tests 14 Relativeclauses Relativeclausesand relativepronouns Definingand non-deining relative clauses Reducedrelativeclauses Possessives and pronounswith relativeclauses Prepositionsin relativeclauses Relativeclauseswith where,what, whatever,etc, Tests

l 5 Conditionals

160 161 162 r64 166 r67 168 t70 172 173 174 t76 178 t79 180 la2 184 t85 186 188

Realconditionals Unrealconditionals Mlxed conditionals Order and punctuationin conditionals 189 The usesof conditionals 190 whether,if so,etc.192 Only iJ eveni[, unless, Tests 16 Adverbial clauses Adverbialclausesand coniunctions Time clauseswith when,while,as Time clauseswith a/ter,before,until, since,etc. Mannerclauseswith as,asif, asthough,etc. Reasonclauseswith because, as, sincqetc. Purposeclauseswith so that, in order that, ;n order to, etc. Resultclauseswith so,so... that, such... that Contrastclauseswith although, though,eventhough,etc. Reducedadverbialclauses Tests

194 196 197 198 199 200 20I 202 203 204 205

( ] )\'I'I:NTS

1 7 Connectorsand focusstructures and focus Typesof connectors structur.es ancl prePositions Connectors, conjunctiOt-ts . r n t (l ( ) t lrt l s t i n g\ r ' r l n c c t o r \ AdJirrg I{esultancltirneconnectors Listingconnectors frontingand Focusstructulcs: tnverslon cleftsentences FocusstrLlctures: Tests

208 2(J.) 2t0 212 2't4 215 216 2t7 218

Answer key

220

Exit test

252

Key to the exit test

262

Appendix vetbs Regularantlitregiular

26-l

Glossary

265

Index

273

Introduction The Oxford Practice Grammarseries The Oxford PracticeGrammar rs a seriesof t h r e eb o o k s .e a c hw r i L t e na t t h e r i g h t l e r e l for you at each stagein your study of English. The seriesis intended for your use either in a classroom or when working independently in your own time. The books are divided into units, each of which coversan important grammar topic. Each unit starts with an explanation of the grammar and this is followed by a set of practice exercises.Testsat the end of each unit or section of units give the opportunity for more practice and enable you to assess how much you have learned. Answers to the exercisesand the tests are given at the back of the book. You may want to choose the order in which you study the grammar topics, perhaps going first to those giving you problems. (Topics are listed in the Contents page at the front of each book and in the Index at the back.) Alternatively you may choose to start at the beginning of each book and work through to the end. An interactive CD-ROM is included at each of the three levels.offering alternativeways to practise.You can recognize and correct written mistakes,and you can also take part in spoken dialogues; you can record and listen to your own voice and learn to speak more naturally.

Exam practice The first levelin the seriesis OxfordPractice Grammar Basic.This is suitablefor elementaryto pre-intermediatelearners,and thoseworking for the PET examand IELIS. Thesecondis OxfordPracticeGrammar Intermediate,for studentswho areno longer beginnersbut are not yet advancedin their

useof English.It is suitablefor those studyingfor the CambridgeFCE.Oxlord PracticeGrammar- Ailvancedis for those who haveprogressed beyondthe intermediateleveland who wish to rncrease their knowledgeof Englishgrammarand become m o r ec o n 6 d e nwt h e nu s i n gi t , I t helpsstudentspreparefor CAE,CPE, TOEFL,and other advanced-level exams.

OxfordPracticeGrammar- Adyanceil is for more advancedstudents who have already studied English grammar at the middle or intermediate level. It can be used by students working alone, in study groups, or while attending classes. T h e b o o k c o n ' i ' t so f s e v e n t e e n units, providing a complete review of the grammar of contemporary English. Within each unit there are separatesections on specific f e a t u r e (se . g . ' T h eu 5 e so [ t h e p a s s i v et a n d problem areas(e.g.'Present Perfect or Past Simple?'). Each section consistsof explanations of grammar points, with examples,plus a number of exerciseson the same page or the facing page.At the end of each unit there is a two-page test. Answers for all the exercisesand tests are provided in the Answer key (page 220). There is also a G i o s s a r y{ p a g e2 6 5 t e x p l a i n i n gt h e m e a n i n g of all grammatical terms used.

Using this book Thisbookcanbeusedin a numberof ways. . You can use it as a referenceguide for clear and conciseexplanations of particular points of English grammar Each explanation is followed by examplesof correct use in context, with advice on common errors to avoid, For easyreference, each separatetopic is presentedin a heading at the top of the page.All unit and section topics are listed in the Contents (pagev) and in the Index (page273).

INTRODUCTION

. You can usethe book asa workbook in which you write answersto completethe exercises. You can then checkin the Answer keyto seewhetheryour answersarecorrect. Ifyou find you havean incorrectanswer, you canlook at the relevantgrammatical point on the accompanying pagefor an explanation,with examplesof what is correct. ' You can usethe book asa textbook, beginningon the first pageand working at your own paceto the end.This allowsyou t o t r e ae l a c ht o p i ca se q u a l l iym p o r t a nitn a comprehensive reviewof Englishgrammar. The unit topicsare not presentedin order similar of difficulty,but follow a sequence to that usedin manytextbooks. . You can alsousethe book to createyour own grammarcourse,working through all or part of a sectionor unit and completing selectedexercises or tests.Youcan usethe at the bottom of eachpage cross-references of explanationto guideyou to other relevantsections.Because the grammar topicsarenot presentedin order of difficulry,you canwork on lhe lopicsin any order you choose. Special features ln additionto traditionaltlpesof exercises, therearea number of innovativegrammar exercises in this book, specificallydesigned for studentswho arebecomingmore advancedin English. . In the summary exercises, you choose grammatical appropriate formsfrom a longertext in order to completea short help summaryof that text.Theseexercises you to improveyour ability to create grammaticallyaccuratereportsof what you haveread(page2, Exercise2).

. In the dictionary exercises, you choose appropriategrammaticalforms to complete definitionsof wordsand phrases.These exercises expandyour vocabularyand help to developyour ability to createclearand grammaticallyaccuratedescriptions (page7, Exercise 8). . In the matching exercises, you add appropriategrammaticalforms to a part of a sentence, sentence, or a question, in order to createa meaningfulconnection Theseexercrses with anothersentence. improveyour ability to producemore complexspokenand written Englishwhile ensuringthat it is grammaticallyaccurate (page7, Exercise9). . In the editing exercises, you readthrough a paragraph,checkingfor grammatical mistakesand providing correctionswhere necessary. Theseexercises help to develop your ability to write longertextsin English with increasedgrammaticalaccuracy(page 9, Exercise l3). . In the numbering exercises, you complete the connectionbetweenexplanationand exampleby choosingthe number of the examplethat bestillustratesthe provide an explanation.Theseexercises opportunity to takea more interactive role in creatinga connectionbetween your ability to understandEnglishand your knowledgeof the grammatical rulesofEnglish(page12,Exercise l7). ' In the test exercises, you provide answersin a rangeof differentformats usedin examinationssuchasthe TOEFL, the Michigantst, and the Cambridge Proficiency. Theseexercises allowyou to r i l he x a m i n a t i o n ' b e c o mm e o r ef a m i l i aw at the advancedleveland to work with authentictextsby authorssuchasLewis Carroll,BruceChatwin,Nora Ephron, MagnusMills, and many others(pages 1 4 - 1 s) .

We canform simplesentenceswith a subjectand a verbin a singleclause(Jenny laughed). We can includeauxiliaryverbs(be,do,haveandmodals)as part of the verb phraseand an adverbialafterthe verb (Shewassrffrngat the table).We can use verbswith an object (She wasdrawinga picture),withoutan object(Sheglggled)or with two objects (Sheshowedme thepicture).We can also use linkingverbswith complements (lt lookedvery silly). We form compoundsentenceswithclausesjoinedby the coordinating conjunctions and, but and or (l madesomecoffee,but Jennywantedorangejuice).We form complexsentences with clausesjoinedby subordinating conjunctions suchas afier,because, ff and while (We chaftedin the kitchen whilelcooked breal
over the pedalsand I had difficulty reaching the brake.We hit a lamp post and it shattered the glasson the front door before I managed zsto bring the bus to a halt.' Policepraisedthe young teacher'squick thinking. If he hadn't reacted quickly, there could have been a terrible accident. The bus driver never regained roconsciousness. He waslater pronounceddead at East Surrey hospital. He had worked regularly with the school and was very well regardedby staff.Harvold said,'I was so relievedthat no one elsewashurt, but I hoped x the driver would survive.It was only later I heard he had died.That's a terdble tragedy.' The LanguageAcademy's principal told the Cazette that the schoolis going to send Harvold on a weekendtrip to Dublin with a * friend, as a gestureof thanks for his bravery. A local driving school has also offered him six free driving lessons.r

Using verbs and conjunctions from the newspaper report above, complete this summary. EnglishteacherGuy Harvold,24,.......t.qy9.4.... tl.relivesof30 students on abus from Gatwick t o B o u r n e m o u t h ( 1 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.h. .e.d. r i v e r ( 2. .) a h e a rat t t a c kT.h eb u sw e n t o u to f c o n t r o Il t. ( 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . .t r e e sa,b a r r i ear r . radl a m pp o s t( 4 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H a r v o l dc o u l ds t o pi t . T h ed r i v e r( s ) . . . . . . . . . ( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n o o n ee l s e h u r t . H a r v o l d ,w h o h a s n ' tp a s s e d h i s d r i v i n gt e s t ,w a s( 8 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b y ( 1 0 ) p o l i c e1 o .y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w a s f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i e ed r i v i n gl e s s o nbsy a l o c a ld r i v i n gs c h o o l .

2

1 SEN'fENCES

andverbs Simplesentences Simple sentences A simple sentenceis a single clausewith a subject and a verb. I Mary sneezed..Somebodycoughed., The train didn't come.' Peoplewere waiting. Simple sentencescan also have an ob.ject(2) and/or an adverbial, such as an adverb (3) or a prepositional phrase (4). 2 Mr Owen made lunch. . I brought some cakes.. We clrank tea. , ENeryoneenjoyedit. 3 Sudilenly the weather changed., We quickly closedthe windows. ' It often rains there. 4 Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway in 1582.He moved to London in 1588. Simple sentenceswith linking verbs, such as be or look, have complements that describe the subject. 5 Cathy is a nurse. , Shewasn't ready. . Her hoir lookedwet. . The room felt like an oven.

Verbs Most verbsareactionverbs,usedto describeactions(what we do) and events(what happens). 6 Richardeatsa lot of pasta.It giveshim energy.He runs etery night.I saw him in thepark. Someverbsare stateverbsratherthan actionverbs.They are usedto describestates:what we think (9). (7),how we feel(8) andrelationships, especially thoseconcerned with inclusionandpossession 'They . believein fate. 7 I know whatyou mean. My parefltsunderstoodeverything. 8 I appreciateaIIyour help.. Somepeoplehate cucumberin sandwiches. belongsto me. 9 Thecity guidecontainsusefulinformation.. That old suitcase Wedon'tusuallyusestateverbsinthecontinuous.(Nol+ffittgiltg+o.rtte.) of, exist,include,matter,own, prefer,realize,remember,resemble Other stateverbsinclude:cor.rsist We alsouselinking verbs(be,seem,etc.)to describestates:how things are or seemto be. 10 These are beautful., EterythingseemsJine.. Yourfriend appearsto be nervous. JTowers Wecanusesomeverbs,suchastasteorweigh,asstateverbs(11)orasactionverbs(12). II Flowersdon'tusuallytasteverygood., Theboxweighstwo kilos. 72 Haveyou tastedthissoup?. Theyweighedit at thepostoffica We usethe auxiliaryverbsbe,do and havewrthotherverbswhen we form differenttenses(13), (14)andfor emphasis (15). questions andnegatives 1,3 Theboyshate beenwaitingfor you.I think they'vegoneoutside.They'replayingfootball, - I don't think so. 1.4 What diil Joshsay?- He didn't sayanything.. Doeshe want coffee? 15 Youaren'tworkingtery hard.- Ltr't workinghard! . Youdon'tmissme.- I no missyou! We alsousebe,do and ftaveasmain verbs:He is lazy.He iloesnothing.He has no money, We usemodal auxiliaryverbs(modals)suchas can,must,shouldor willwrth other verbsto express prediction,etc. conceptssuchaspermission,obligation,necessity, 16 Can I leavenow?. Youshouldn'tgo yet. ' I must catchthe nextbusor I'll belatefor work. Find an example of each of the following in the newspaper report on page 2. I 2 a clausewith an action verb and an adverb: 3 a clausewith a modal:

CompouDd and conrplcx scntn.es 12 Linking verbs l0

Modals 28

Prepositionalphrascs 125

1 SENTENCES

Subjectsand verbs Subjects The subjectof a sentenceis usuallythe first noun phraseor pronoun identiffing who or what is performingan actionexpressed by the verb (1). It can identifywho or what is experiencing something (2). It can alsobe the focusof a description(i.e.who or what the complementis linked to) (3). 1. Tony losthis keys.. The dog ate my homework.. Youare workingtoohard thesed.ays. 2 The children hearda loud noise.. The auilienceenjoyedtheconcert.. Meg doesn'tlike cofee. 3 Lions are largeand powerful. . Her new classmatesseemfrierully. . Your hair loolcsgreat. We usuallyput the subjectbeforethe verb exceptin questions(4) and sentences usinginversion(5). . Isn't Osloin southernNorway? 4 \4herehasshebeen?. Doesthis busgo to the uniyersity? 5 In front of usand blockingthewaystooda largedog. NeyerhadI seensucha fierceanimal. The subjectcan alsobe a gerund(6), an infinitive (7) or a clause(8). 6 Readingcomicsis herfavouritething.. Stuilyingalwaysmakesmesleepy7 Just to completethe classes hasbecomemy newgoal.. Togo without you wouldn'tbeanyfun. 8 Thqt Labour woukl win the electionwasneyerin doubt.. What he saiil wasn'tyervDolite.

Subject-verbagreement It is the subjectthat determineswhetherthe verb is singularor plural (9). It is the main noun as subject,not a prepositionalphrase,that makesthe verb singular(10) or plural (11). 9 Gregory\sisterlivesin Scotland.Hisparentslive nearLondon. I0 A newpair of shoesiloesn'tcosta lot. . A womanwith threechildrenwaswaitingoutside. 11 Newshoesdon't alnaysfeel comfortable at frst. . Thechildrenwerecrying. We usesingularverbsafter indefinitepronouns(everybody, nobody,etc.)assubjects(12).We usually usesingularverbsafter subjectsbeginningwith noneof and,neitherof in formal situations(13).We sometimesuseplural verbsin informal situations(14). 12 tuerybodyin the countrywants oneof these.. Nobodyexcepthisparentswas willing to help13 Noneof thecandidotes has muchsupport.. Neitherof Kng Henry'ssonswas born in France. 'None . He'scomplainingthat neitherof themwete asked. 14 Sheshouted, of you hayea chance.' We usesingularverbsafter somesubjectsthat seemto be plural: somenounsendingin -s (15), phrasesdescribingan amount (16) and somecombinationswith and.(|7).There aresomenouns suchaspeopleandpolicewhich appearto be singular,but which are usedwith a plural verb (18). 75 Thenewswasn't too bad.. Cardsis morethan a gamefor somepeople.. Measles is a disease. 16 Fifty poundsis too much.. Twentymileswas toofar and two dayswasn'tenoughtime. 17 TomandJerryis a ratheryiolentcartoon.. Sausage and beansiloesn'tcostverymuch. 18 Thepoliceare trying to stopspeeding in thecity,butpeopleare stilldriving toofast. We can usea group noun assubjectto referto severalpeople,with a plural verb (19),or to referto the group asa singleunit, with a singularverb (20),dependingon our point of view. 19 TheWekhteamqre gettingtired., Thecommitteehavenot expressed all their yiews. 20 TheWelshteamis in secontl place.. Thecommitteehasn'treached yet. a decision Other group nounsinclude:audience,class,crowd,enemy,family,government,orchestra,staff Note that, in AmericanEnglish,a singularverb is typicallyusedaftera group noun: My wife\ family alwayshasa bigget-together with a barbecue on luly 4th. 4 Find an example of each of the following in the newspaper report on page 2. I a clausewith an indefinitepronoun 2 a c l a u sw e i t h a n o u nr e f e r r i ntgo a g r o u p -. . . . .. . . . . . . .

Group nouns 75

Indennitc pronouns 98

In6nitives and Berunds l19

InveBnrn 216

I SENTENCES

5 Add one of these verbs to each of the sentences. /does doesn't has have is isn't are aren't was wasn't won't does Example:Excuseme,butfhis train stop at Croydon? 1 To get an A in everyclassbe easy. 2 Lord of the Fliesthe nameof the book we had to readlastyear? 3 My new pair of jeanspocketson the sideof the legs. 4 What they'redoing in Parliamentinterestme. 5 Beingabsentfrom classa lot goingto improvehis chancesof passing. 'None you my friendsany more!' of 6 Jangot reallyangrywith us and screamed, 7 NeverI had to listento so manyboring people! 8 I watchedDanceswith Wolves,which about dancingat all. 9 Statisticsmore difficult than Economics? madeofglassor Plasticor anlthing like that. l0 Thesenew sunglasses 6 Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning(1-5) and add appropriateforms of the verb be. Example:The Simpsons. . . . .is. . . (.f.) I Romeoand Iuliet .. .. (. . .) 2 Lastnight'snews.. . .... ... (...) kilos.... ....... (. ..) 3 Twenry--five 4 Billyaswellasall his friends. . . . . . . . . . . (...) 5 The audience . ... . ... . .. (...)

a a lot to carry by yourself,don't you think? b usuallyin their seatsbeforethe play starts. c writtenby Shakespeare. d goingcampingthisweekend. e ratherexcitinS,Ithought. f the nameof a televisionprogramme.

7 Complete each sentence with one of these words plus has or t ave. committee darts

/ diabetes eggs everybody nobody orchestra police

teachers

mainly becauseof the way we eat' Example: . DiaLetes .has. . becomea more common disease, for the concert. had very little time to rehearse L The conductorandthe..... ............. ... 2 Securityis just somethingthat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to go through in airports nowadays. 3 . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . f r o mt h en e ws t u d e ngt r o u p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v o l u n t e e r et od h e l Pw i t h t h e 4 5 6 7 8

Christmasparty. The planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all beengivenindividualcopiesof the agendafor the meeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . alwaysbeena populargamein Englishpubs. stayafterschool, Accordingto the rules,noneof the.. . ... . ... . . .. , . .. . . . the right to makestudents T h e . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n o i d e ah o wt h er o b b e rgso ti n t ot h eb a n k . Baconand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . beenthe Sundaybreakfastin our housefor years.

I SENTENCES

Verbsand objects Verbs with objects (transitive verbs) Transitiveverbshaveobjects,usuallynoun phrasesor pronouns. I He kickeil a smallstone.lt hit me.'We iliscussedtheproblems.Theyaffectedall of us. We usea transitiveverb to describean action that affectsan object(2) or to describea feelingor experiencecausedby an object (3) 2 Are theybuililing a wall?. I'll cut thegrass.' Elizabethboughtan old Volkswagen. Othersinclude:carrS catch,fix, heat,prepare,protect,rob, scratch,sell,trim rememberedus.' I don't like onions. 3 Did you enjoy theconcertl, Oneof our old teachers Othersinclude:admire,believe,fear,hate,hear,love,need,please,prefer,receive Only transitiveverbscan be usedin the passive. 4 Someone stolemy bag.- My bagwasstolen., Theycaughtthe thief.- Thethiefwascaught. We usuallyusea prepositionalphraseafterthe objectof a transitiveverb suchaspaf. 5 He put the keysin thedrower.' Wecrammedall our boxesinto thebacko,flane'scar.

Verbs without objects (intransitive verbs) Intransitiveverbsare usedwithout an object. 6 I can'tsleep.. Eteryonewaswaiting, but he didn't care.(Not Ee4idrt't+arei€) happen,hesitate,occur,pause,rain Othersinclude:arrive,depart,disappear, We useintransitiveverbswhen we talk about simpleevents,actionsand sounds. 7 The roof collapseil. . Shesigheil and yawned. . A lot of peoplewere screaming. Othersinclude:cough,faint, fall, growl, moan,scream,shiver,sneeze Intransitiveverbsarenot usedin the passive. 8 The thief escapeil.(wtr l*t*tefuvateseape*,

W)

phrases verbsdescribingmovement(10). Weoftenuseprepositional afterintransitiveverbs(9),especially 9 Darwin ilied in 1882.. I sleptuntil noon.. Theyarekneelingon matsandpnying to God. 10 lt camefrom Argentina.. Let'sgo to betl.. Wewalk to thepark and thenwe run roundit.

Verbs usedwith and without obiects We can usesomeverbs,suchas eator read,with objects( 11) or without objects( 12). ll Shereail his note., I don'teatfsh. . Wewon the match.. Do you speakEnglish? 12 He alwaysreadswhenhe'seating.. Did you win? . Shewasso upsetshecouldn'tspeak. Othersinclude:cook,draw dress,drink, drive,hurt, paint, spread,study,write Therearesomeverbs,suchas die or smile,that we usuallyusewithout an object(13),but which can alsobe usedwith oneparticularobject(14). 13 MissReynoldssmiledand saidshewasquitecertainthat noneof uswouldeverdie. unconcerned that shemight ilie a painful death. 14 Nina smileil her brightsmile.Sheseemed Othersinclude:dance,dream,laugh,live,sigh We can usesomeverbs,suchas,fgftror meet,with objects(15).We can alsousethem without objects after plural subjectswhen eachother(16) or with eachother(17) is understood. 15 WhenI met Sergioin Madrid, he embraceilme likea brother., Johnhad tofight two thugs. 16 Wemet in Rome-. Ourfingerstoucheil.' Theold womenembraced.' Theyhuggeilantl kisseil. 17 Johnand I alwaysfight. ' fwo of eustralia'smajorwineproducershate merged.

Ench.ther l0O Passiles57

Pfcpositlonal phuses 125

I SENTENCES

8 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese definitionswith the nouns and appropriateforms of the verbs.Add the word ftrngs after any verb that needs an object. hallucin.ttion lhassb hijacker

hinge holdall hypocrite

behrve carr)r / cause

close demand / rlo

go pretentl see

seEe swing trayel

Example: A. .. ho?p19....... is something thatis annoying because it . . . . . . .qgl,!qe9. . . . . problems whenyoutry to ..4q. or difficulties . .. . . .. .. .thinse A ( r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i s a l a r g es o f b t a gi n w h i c hy o uc a n( 2 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . w h e n y o u( 3 )

A ( 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i s a s m a l l p i e c e omf e t a ol n w h i c ha d o o r( s ) . . . a si t o p e n s and (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a feelingor beliefthat you are (8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . when nothing is there. A(e).....................isapersonwho(r0).....................tohavehighvaluesthatarenot m a t c h e bd y t h ew a yh e o r s h e( t l ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n h o( 1 3. ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .c. .o n t r ool f a v e h i c l e s, p e c i aal lny A ( r 2.). . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . i s a p e r s ow aircraft,inorderto(14).....................toanewdestinationorto(ls).....................fro governmentin return for the safetyof thosein the vehicle. 9 Choose an answer (a-d) for each question (1-4) and add appropriateforms of these verbs. lf necessary,add the pronoun if and/or a preposition. believe go

hear

like

Put

shiver

toke

woit

I D i d A n d r e a. .s. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . t h ek e y ?( . . . ) 2 Do you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . old towns? (. . .) 3 C o u l d y o u . . .. . o u t s i d e (?. . . ) 4 Haveyou

a Y e s , b uI td o n ' t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b Yes,he . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . his pocket. c Y e st,h a t ' sw h yI ' m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edinburgh. the latestrumour? (.. .) d No, it's too cold and I'm

10 Add the correct pair of intransitiveverbs to each sentence.Use appropriateforms. breathe/ snore / dream/ sleep eat/ hibernate fall / lie get/ move go / sing happen/ talk flap / rest Example:\tihenyou......4fgqn......,youseeandexperiencethingswhileyou21g.....sle 1 Someonewho . . . up and. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aroundwhile asleepis calleda sleepwalker. 2 When peoplein hot countries. or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . afterlunch, it's calledhaving a siesta. 3 Animalsthat . . . . don't . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at all while they spendthe winter in a deep sleep. 4 When you . . . . . . . awakeat night and you can't. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . asleep,you have insomnia. it meansthat nothingmuch 5 lf someone ... .. . . ... .. . ... . abouta placeas'sleepy', . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . t h e r e . to sleep, you aresinginga 6 Whenyou.. .. .. .. .. . softlyto helpa child .. lullaby. 7 Peoplewho. .. . . . ... . ... . . .. . . .. . . . verynoisilywhentheyaresleeping.

] SENTENCES

Verbswithindirectobjectsand clauses Verbs with indirect obiects We usetwo objectsaftersomeverbs:an indirectobjectand a direct object.With a verb suchasse , we can put the indirect obiectafterthe verb: (1) or afterthe prepositionto (2). The indirect object (you,Joe,everyone) receivesthe direct object(postcard,note,form). I I'Il sendyou a postcqrd.. ShehandedJoethe note., Did you giveeveryonea form? 2 I'll senda postcardto you. . Shehsndedthenoteto ]oe. . Did you gite a form to everyone? Othersinclude:bring, lend,offer,pass,post,read,sell,shoq teach,tell, throw,write wedon,tputto+indirectobjectbeforeadirectobject(No.|M/ow@) With a verb suchas br.r,,we can put the indirectobjectafterthe verb (3) or afterthe preposition/or (4). The indirect object (him, me,you) benefrtsfrom the action oftheverb (buy,do,make). 3 Sheboughthim a tie. . Conyou do me a favour?' I'II makeyou a sandwich. 4 Sheboughta tiefor him. . Canyou do a farour for me?' I'Il makea sandwichfor you. Othersinclude:build, cook,cut, draw,fetch,find, get,keep,leave,order,pick, save W€ don't putfor+ indirect objectbeforea direct object(No'rl4-maleJoryatt-a:a*dx*h) pronouns,beforelongerobjects(5).When we usepronounsfor We put shorterobjects,especially both objectsafter the verb,we put the indirectobiectpronoun first (6). 5 Showme theprizeyou won.. Showit to eteryonewho saidyou couldn'tdo it. . Showit to them! 6 Showme it. (Nol Shovti+me.) , I'lI makeyou one.(Not-P4-mekeottef*) With verbssuchasdescribe or erpl4in,we put the indirect objectaftera preposition,not afterthe verb.But compare(14) below. the man to them. . He explainedtheplan to us. (Nor HtexpWplaft) 7 He described whisper Othersinclude:admit, announce,mention,murmur, report,shout,suggest, Note that theseare often verbsof speaking:He said'HeIIo'to me.(Nor Ee:aid+e:Hdl*) With a verb suchas cost,we must put the indirectobjectafterthe verb. 8 The mistakecostus a lot of money., Theyfned him L250., I betyou f.5. (Nor +**+s+eaet+) Othersinclude:deny,forgive,grudge,refuse

Verbs with clauses 'thinking' We can use /lraf-clauses asdirect objectsafter verbssuchas believeor think (9) and after 'reporting'verbssuchasexplainor say(10). 9 Theybelietedthat thesun wentroundthe eqrth.. He thinksthat thestudentsare lazy. I0 Shesoid thot shewouldbelate.. He explainedthat therewasno moneyleft. Note that the word lhaf is often omitted:He thinksthestudentsare lazy. After verbsreportingquestions,we can beginthe clausewith if, whether(11) or a th-word (12). II Thetescheraskedif anyonewasabsent.. Theyenquiredwhetherit waslegalor not. . I wonderwhenthey'llmakethedecision. 12 Weshouldaskwhot it costs. After reportingverbssuchas remindor fell,we must havean indirect objectbeforethe clause. 13 I'll remintlhim that you'rehere.. Youtold me that he wasill. (Nor yna+o+dMk Othersinclude:assure,convince,inform, notifu,persuade After a reportingverb suchasadmit,we must use to beforean indirectobjectbeforea clause. he4ad 14 He admittedto thepolice that he had stolenthe money.(Nor He+*ri*ed+hepelke 3to@) Shementionedto me that shehatedherjob. (xot @) Othersinclude:boast,confess,declare,hint, propose,reveal

Reporting questions I s4

R€ponin8 verbs I s2

T/rat dauses I 6 I

VerbsaDd objc.ts 6

1 SENTENCES

11 Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentenceor sentencesbefore it. (oR.....They.C?y.s Example: Theyhadit. Now we haveit. -....Thpygayp.it.r.q.4i.... .4J.it ....) 1 Shequietlywishedhim,'Goodluck.' 5hewhi.pered. 2 Shewasorderedby the judge to pay !500 for speeding. The iudeefined 3 The farmerwouldn't givepermissionto us to walk acrosshis field. 'l he farmerrefused 4 Iamestook Caroline'sbook. He told me. Jame:conlessed 12 Using a dictionary if necessary,complete these sentenceswith appropriateforms of these verbs. Add appropriatepronouns and prepositions if necessary. f"d keeo

offer reouire

reserve retrieve

seII / send

spread transfer

transmit '/ transDort

Example:Your boxeswill be . . .trahsPortel. . Sy 2iL \4rswill .qgd tl'g'I !9. . . you soon. I I n a r e s t a u r a ni ft ,a t a b l e i s. . . . . . . . . . . , t h a tm e a n st h er e s t a u r a n i st. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a specialpersonor group. 2 Contagiousdiseases are easily. . . . . . . Peoplewith contagiousdiseases can easily population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the restof the 3 Thosecomputerfilesthat I thought I had lost were. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by Andrew.I wasso glad t h a th e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . e. l , h e na p l a y eirs . . . . . . 4 In footbalw , i t m e a n st h a to n et e a r n . . . . . . . . . . . a n o t h e r team. s u s t a k et h o s e 5 I n a u n i v e r s i l y . i f c e r l a i n c o u r s e s a r e . . . . . . . . . . . i. t. .m. .e. .a n t' h a t a l'lt u d e n tm coursesand the universitymust ... . studentseveryyear. 13 Editing.Correctthe mistakesin this text. to us During the psychologyclass,one studentreported!d her experimen(Sheexplainedus that it was gavethe following information about communicationbetweenhusbandsand wives.The researcher 'Your half of the husbands. wife hasdescribedyou a holidaytrip to China.One of her friendstold to her about it. You think soundslike a reallygood idea,so you askto her somequestionsaboutthe 'Your you a cost.'Theother group of husbandsheardthe following information. wife hassuggested holidaytrip to China.You don't like.Youbelieveis a reallybad idea,so you asksomequestionsher aboutthe cost.'Theresearcher didn't tell to the wivesshesaidto the husbands.Sheaskedthe wivesLcr listento the taperecordingof their husbands'questionsand decidethe husbandsthought it wasa good ideaor not. A significantnumber of the wivescouldn't decide.That wasvery surprising.

i SEN'I'ENCtS

Linkingverbs Linking verbs and complements Linking verbs,suchasbeor seem,arefollowedby a complementthat describes or identifiesthe subject of the sentence. Complementscanbe adjectives(1), noun phrases(2) or prepositionalphrases(3). 7 Hisparentswere Welsh.. That isn'tfunny! , It doesn'tseempossible.. Yousounil unhappy. 2 I am a stuilent. . Anna bectmemy bestfrienil. . Despitethescandal,he remainedpresident. 3 Shesaidshewas on a diet. . He seemedin a good mood.. Sometimes I feel like an idiot. Linking verbsare alsocalledcopulasor copularverbs. We can usesesmand appearashnkrngverbswith an infinitive and a complement(4). We can also useseemwith or without to bebeforecomplements(5). Seenis lessformal than appear. 4 BiII seemsto haveno friends. . Thereappears to bea problem. (Nol +herea?Fea*a?rebkm-) 5 Theolrl mqn seemeil(to be) Iost.. Equalpayfor everyone seems(to be) the bestsolution. ln AmericanEnglish,fo beis not left out afterseem:He seemed to bea hard-workingstutlent. (feel,smell,taste)or our opinions(look,sound)as We can useverbsdescribingour senseexperiences (6) linking verbswith ad.jectives or with liftebeforenoun phrases(7). 6 I feel great!. Youlook muchbetter.. Thefood didn't smellgoodand it tastealterrible. 7 Her suggestionsounded like a goodidea. . Yourdrawing looks like a cat. (Not low**rirgleoks a+at-) With someverbs(make,fnd, call)we can usead.jectives and noun phrasesascomplementsafterthe objectsto describeor add information aboutthe objects. 8 Thot mqkesme angry., Theyfounil theexamdfficub. , Shecalledhim a fool. Note the word order Let'spaint thewaIIwhite.(Nor Lels?afu*yhi+e+he*all)

Linking verbs used to expresschange We wsebecomeandgetaslinking verbsto talk aboutthe resultof change. 9 The world is becoming/gettingmorecrowdetl.. Everythingwill get worsebeforeit gets better. We can usebecome(not get)asa linking verb with noun complements(10) and ger(not become) in many common phrasesdescribingactions(1I ). Getis lessformal th an become. I0 Trffic delayshavebecomea problem.. Webecamefriends.(Not r#e4eeame+o4e{tiendr) 71Theywon,tgetmarrier1.,HegotdressedquickIy'.Let.sgetready'(NoI@ We can usego and turn to talk about change(12).We use turn into beforea noun phrasefor a completechangeof state(13). 12 I'll go crazyif I hal)eto wait. . Our dogis going blind.. Sheturned pale.. Thelight turneil green. |3Joeturnedintoamaniac..ThecaterpiIlarturnedintoabutterfly'(NoT+@n b#t+erf+) We usecorreand growaslinking verbswith adjectivesin phrasesthat usuallyexpressslowerchange, (14).Wecan usecomeand growbefore unlessmodified by adverbssuchassuddenlyor unexpecteclly infinitivesto describegradualchange( 15). 14 Dreamscometrue. . Peoplegrow old. . Thedaysgrew warmer.. Theknotsudrlenlycameloose. 75 As we cameto know her better,wegrew to like her a lot. Wecameto seethingsasshedid. We usesomeverbs(keep,remain,stay)aslinking verbsto talk abouta situationnot changing. 16 Pleasekeepquiet.. Shekept busy.. Everythingremainedthesame., Wetried to stay warm. NotethattheseVerbsarenotusedwithtobe.(Nol|4*eep+o4enl+ie+We.)

10

A d F . r t r e .l . l

InliL're..Jo lJ.nve'srrhj.'o.'

I SENTENCES

14 Choose an answer(a-0 for each question (1-0) and add the linking verbs below.Use the appropriateform. appear 1 2 3 4 5 6

be

feel

look

soutd

taste

(...) W h a t . .. . . . . . . h e l i k e ? a Angry and impatient. W h o d o e s s h e . . . . . . l i k e ?( . . ) b I'm sure he was smiling. c No, it's more like chicken. H o wd o e si t . . . . . . . . . .?. ( . . . ) ( . . . ) d Het kind and generous. D i d h e . . . . . . . . . .t.o b eh a p p y ? H o w d i dh e . . . . . . . . . .?. ( . . . ) e Soft and comfortable. f The actressMeg Ryan. D o e si t . . . . . . . . . . . f i s h y ?( . . )

15 Completeeach paragraphwith appropriateforms of the verbs from one group. appear/ be/ look/ turn lseem / smell/ taste/ / think become / get/ make/ seem feel/ get/ stoy/ twn A The writer of the guidebook seer"rel.le. !hi,n( that the Maharanirestauranthad the best Indian food. In her description,shewrote, All the disheswerefull of fragranceand flavour.'In other words,shethought the food (r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wonderfuland (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . delicious. B In her lateteens,Dianafell in lovewith Jim Covingtonand wantedto (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . married,but that topic always(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . him uncomfortable.To her intense disappointment,he later decidedto (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a priest. like a large C Elenawasreadinga novelwith a red dragonon the cover.It(6) .... lizardwith wings.The novelwasa horror story,shesaid,full of peoplewho (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . living norrnallives,but wereactuallyvampires,and one characterwho (8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . into a werewolfduring the night of a full moon. D I d i d n 'w t a n t h eb a n a n at os ( 9 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o o r i p e a n d t h e n ( t o ) . . . . . . . . . . . .s. .o. f. t. . . or squishywhen I wantedto eatthem, so I put them in the fridge.I was.iusthoping that they w o u l d ( r t ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .f i r m ,b u t I d i d n ' rt e a l i zt eh a tt h es k i n sw o u l d( r z .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . black. 16 Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of linking verbs in this text. qettinq I wasb&ona,ii6ready One Saturdayafternoonwhen my youngersisterMona and I wereteenagers, to go to a party.Mona hadn'tbeeninvited.It appeareda big problemfor her.Shewent to be crazy becauseof it. Shefound somehair-colouringand shejust decidedto makeblondeher hair,but she didn't do it right and her hair turned into bright orange.It alsobecameorangeher face,so she lookedlike reallystrange.When my mother sawher,shesaidMona lookedan orangeballoon.After that, Mona got to be very upsetand shestartedscreamingwith her handsover her ears.I just kept to her down and we got somedarkerhair-colour be quiet during all that. My mother eventuallycaln.red to makeit look like better.

ll

I S l : Nf 1 : N ( l l l S

Compound and complexsentences 17 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Compound sentences joined by coordinatingcon.junctions: an4 A conrpoundsentencehastwo Z or more I clauses l,ut,orI Youcan takethe busor stayhereanil I'lI driveyou tomorrow,but I'm not driving tonight. 2 Dtve sleptand I read. . It wasn'tcokl,but I wasshivering.. Youmusthelpusor wewiII fail. Wc usuallyleaveout the samesubject , the samesubiect+ verb or the samesubject+ auxiliary fron later clausesin a compoundsentence. his 3 Theyplayetlwell,but ... lost.(Theyplayedwell,but theylost.)' Martin smiled,.. . shrugged and he saidnothing.) and ... saidnothing.(Mortin smiled,he shruggedhisshoulders shoulders 4 Shewill comeand . . . get thoselater.' Youcantakeit or . . . leaveit. ' I am waitingand . . . hoping. 5 Theyhavea cat or ... a clog.. l like swimming,... footballand .. . watchitrgTV. Leavinsout the subjectand/or other partsof the sentenceis calledellipsis. We usuallyleaveout the sameverb + objectafter an auxiliaryverb in later clauses , but we prefer to leitveout repeatedobjectsand/or prepositionalphrasesfrom the first clause 6 I'll wash... andpeelthepotatoes.. Mccregorshavelived... and diedin Criefffor centuries. 7 I wasr't makinga noiseand theotherswere. . . . Theymayforgetyou, but I neverwill . . . We can emphasizethe relationshipbetweentwo clausesin compoundsentences by usingdifferent combinationsof conjunctions.They can expressan addition , an alternative , a corrbination or a combinationof negatives but also do repairs,paintingand otheroddjobs. 8 Theynot only cleanhouses, 9 Youca both nu'n the TV on and chsngechannelswith theremoteconftoL it. Englishnor understands 10 I will neither sleepnor restLtntilthis is over.. He neitherspeaks ll YoLtca eithergo with usor stayherealone.. Theymusteitherpayyou or giveyou time off.

Complex sentences with subordinatingconjunctionssuchas We createcomplexsentences by.joiningtwo or more clauses before. tlnt, which, etc. bccnusc, 12 I couldn'tsleepbecauseI wasthinkingaboutall thework that I had to do beforeI couldleave. (not @ Notethatthesamesubjectis repeated. Othelsinclude:although,as,if, in orderthat,since,when,who (lonplex sentences containrelativeclauses , noun clauses , and adverbialclauses . We can put adverbialclauses, followedby a comma,at the beginningof complexsentences 13 I didn't reolizethat Brian wasn'tfeeling well. ' Did you knowthat he was matied? 14 Sheliked thewonrcnwith whom sheworked,but shehatedthedirty jobswhich they haalto do. 15 I had a showerafter I ran. . He\ stillh/orkingalthoughhe's72. ' Wewon'tplay if it ruins 16 lf it rains, thegroundwill betoo mutldy.. Although he's72, he still walksto workeveryday.

Compound-complexsentences \Vc tirrm compound complcx sentences lvith three or more clausesjoined by both coordinatingand s u b o r d i n a t i n cg o r . r j u n c t i o n s . 17 l\,tchit a lantp post and it shatteredthe glassou tltc front door before I tnnnrypd to bring tlrc busto a httlt. 18 Htrvold saitl,'l rtrs so rclicvcdthat no onc elscuus hurt, but I hopedtlrcdrivcr would vnvive.'

ll

Advcrbi,l.l.,u\r\let

l , i r l i r r l \ ' .i r l r r i i 9

ElliFis 106 Norn.lrus.s 16l

Rehti\cchu\.s ltl

| > l\ r . \ a l 5

18 Choose an ending (a-d) for each beginning(1--4)and add the conjunctions and, but or or. I 2 3 4

Youcanleavenow( .) He sayshe needsa knife ( .) Shenot only speaksArabic,(. . .) Bob usuallywashes the dishes(...)

a b c d

. . . . . . . . . . . shecanalsoread. . . . . . . . . . write it. ... ..... driesthemstraightaway. . . . . . . . . . . stay. . . . . . . . . . . help us finish the job. to openthe package. . . . . . . . . . . . scissors

19 Complete these sentenceswith a verb or subject + verb from below. cal'ne shecame

got he got

had we had

seemed stopped talked it seemed it stopped we talked

peopletrying to get inside. Policeallowedprotestsoutsidethe meeting,but . . . . . . . . . W h e n . . . . . . . . . . . . a b o u tr e l i g i o no r p o l i t i c s. ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v e r ye x c i t e d . for hours. After . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . home from her trip, we sat and j u s tm e t ,. . . . . . . . . m a r r i e da n d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e a s i ei rn t h ep a s tb e c a u spee o p l e ...... .. .. . kids. 5 I f s h eg o tu p e a r l ye n o u g ha n d. . . . . . . . . . . . d o w n s t a i r s , .... . . . . . . b r e a k f a st ot g e t h e r . 6 The dog ran over to the door where. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to be waiting for us to open lt.

1 2 3 4

20 Complete the definitions with these nouns and conjunctions. / he.trtache heartbeat heartburn heartattack heortbreok he.vt-throb

I I

and (xz) as

because or /or which(x2)

who whom

A . . .. heartache ...is a feelingof greatsorrow,anxiety .. .. .p.(.. .. .. worry. Example; Y o u r 1 t 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i s t h e a c t i o .n ( z. ) . . . . . . s o u n do f y o u rh e a r t ( 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i .t .p. u m p sb l o o dt h r o u g yho u rb o d y . (4).....................isafeelingofgreatsadness(s).....................somethingbadhas happened,suchasthe end of a loveaffair or the lossof a life. A(6).....................isafamousactororsinger(7).....................isveryattractive (s).....................with(e).....................peoplefallinlove. A(r0)...................isasuddenillnessin(rr).....................theheartbeatsviolently. . e t i m de es a t h . I t c a u s egsr e apt a i n( 1 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s. .o.m ( r 3.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . i s a b u r n i n sg e n s a t i o i nnt h ec h e s(tr 4.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. i s c a u s ebdy indigestion. 21 Add the conjunctions and appropriateforms of the verbs to this description. and who

because Iive

but not like

tf see

which tell

A Neighbourhood Watch is an arrangement by { r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. p e o p l er z , ( 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n a p a r t i c u l asrt r e eot r a r e aw a t c he a c h other'shouses(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the police 1oy. . . . . . . . . . . . . they (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . anlthing suspicious.Many people have formed local Neighbourhood Watch groups to try to prevent crime, (8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . othershaverefusedto .join them (9). . . . . .. .. .. . they ( r 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.h. e i d e ao f b e i n gw a t c h e b dy their neighbours.

I3

t )ENTENCES

Tests A Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence. I He couldn't restor sleepbecause

too much coffee.

a d r i n k i n g b b e e nd r i n k i n g c h a db e e nd r i n k i n g d h e h a db e e nd r i n k i n g 2 My brother,togetherwith hisfriends,always bonfire night. a go b goes c going d gone

round collectingwood for

3 Someofthe girls in my group teaseme becauseI don't wearmakeup,but I don't a wear

b care

c do

d like

4 The team all wantedcoffeeso I made a it them

b someit

c somethem

5 The director

a concluded

d them some

to us that there had been financial oroblems earlier in the vear.

b offered

c revealed d told

B ldentify the one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D) that must be changed in order to correct the sentence. I The tour of the palaceincludeda visit to the old kitchenwherethey werebakingbreadand the AB hugeundergroundwine cellarwhich wascontainingthousandsofbottles and ftft like a prison. CD 2 None of the childrenwantsto be in the group that !4E to stayinsidebecauseeveryoneplgfcl ABC to go outsideand play. D 3 The old ladieswerecollectingmoneyfor peoplewho neededsomehelp at Christmasso, AB after my wife and I discussedit, we decidedto pu$5_Ihcurollcedoabox. CD 4 ElainehandedDick the letterthat someonehad senther and told him to readit to me, ABC but I asked him to show it me becauseI wanted to seethe signature.

D 5 When Foxbecamepresident,this seemedto be the first thing that madehappyall the young

AB"a-_

people,especiallythosewho had felt lngr), with the old governmentleaders.

I4

I SENTENCES

C Complete this text with appropriateforms of the verbs. Add the other words in the appropriate places. begin

catch gitte

include s eeze ferer

in November it

theflu

Anyonewho hasa history of healthproblemsand peoplewho are 50 or older shouldget a flu . Flu,or influenza, is a serious vaccination every year before the flu season(t) cough, runny nose, infection of the nose, throat and lungs. Symptoms (2) , and sore throat, headacheand tiredness.Anyone can (3) to others.lt is spreadwhen an infectedpersoncoughsor {s) D Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it. 1 Nick told one ofthe detectives that he had takenthe cashbox. Nick admitted 2 The policesaidit wastoo dangerous and we were convinced. The policepersuaded 3 After the princesskissedthe frog, he suddenlybecamea prince. The frog suddenlyturned 4 Two hourswon't be enoughto finish the job, he saidto us. He told 5 The wall is white. Someonedid it yesterday. Someone painted

E Completethis text with appropriateforms of the verbs plus a complementin each spacebe(x2)

become seem stand

alone

better

clear

quitesatisfed

ready

Donald'spresence certainlymadea big differenceto the speedwe arosethat day.Therewasno for questionof Tamloungingabout in bed until the lastminute,and we (l) work by half past seven.Donald had his own map of the job, with all the fencesmarked out in red ink, and the first thing he did was go for a tour of inspection, accompanied by me. We followed the hill up to the summit, and then came down by way of the cross-fence,Donald all the time checking for wire tension and, of course, straightness.\4&renwe got to the encircling fence he (2)

'Hmm,

with what he'd seen.

quite professional,' he said. After a while we cameto the gatewaythat (3) 'Yes, moment, and then said, I alwaysthink it {+) the fencesround it.' Donald had put on some overalls, and it soon (s)

. Donald lookedat it for a to do the gate first and build that he intended to work

alongside us during his visit.

t5

Tenseis the relationship betweenthe form of the verband the time of the actionor stateir describes. We oftenusethe auxiliaryverbsbe and hayewithotherverbswhenwe form differenttenses.See page 17 for a tableof Englishverbformsand tenses. 1 Readthroughthistextandfind: 1 anothersentence withbe as a mainverb 2 a sentence withbe anda sentence withhayeas auxiliary verbs A ThisOctoberllst is a scaryclayfo. q,lan Barnes, noi i just becauseit is Halloween.but becausetr rs

a specialanniversary for hiq,] For severalfars he

will have been trying to turn a good idea into a successfulbusiness via the Internet. He won't be doing anlthing special to celebratethe occasion, mainly because his business venture won't have made any money for most of the past year.Like his two businesspartnersbelore him, he will soon need io do somethingelse. When they staried, it had seemedlike such a great idea.Qrlan and his friend, Michael Underwood,had beenwriting up theif lecturenotesas completesets, with reviewsheetsand sampletests,and sellingthem to other students.They had used that money to pay fbr complete sets of notes from other big lecture classes, which they then sold to an eagerpopulatlon of new students.They were starting to make a small steady profit when they met Terry Lloyd. Terry had b€€n creatinghome pagesfor his Iiiends, then larger websiteson the lnternet, and he showed them how to do it too. Using the initials of their last names, 5 0 E they created Bullnotes',establisheda website,and set out ln becorreenttcpr(npur\ of rre lnformalionage. They soon fbund that studentswere looking for more than lecture notes.They needed to do other things that they weren't learning in their classes.Imagine that ]ou are applying for a scholarship.You have been trying to write a ietter of application and you canl g€t it right.You needan exampleofthe kind of letteryou are trying to wite. Or maybe someonehas asked you to write a letter of recommendation. From the website you could download the basic form of the letter with spaces in it for your

. . . everyone wantsthesethings, but no onewantsto payfor them. own details.'lam writing this letter in support of . whom I have known for . . y e a r sat n o so on. Soon there were all kinds of forns available fiom Bullnotes,ftom passportapplication forms to those for making a will. Dylan was working day and night to make the material available,but he didnl ihink about what he was doing in terms ofa business.The big problem, they soon discovered,is that everyone wants thesethings,but no one wanis to pay for them. In what turned out to be a common experiencefor many peoplewho tried to createInternetbusinesses, they had a successfulwebsite,but they didn't really make any money from it. Terry quickly lound a highly paid job with an investmentcompany and Michael went off to work for a sofiwaremanufacturer.Qilan is still looking lor a way to make Bullnotes work as a business,but thesedays he is alwals counting his penniesand he is having a hard time payinghis bills. He has thought about taking a teachingjob after seeingan ad for a teachcrof bu.ine.. wri'ing wirh bu.ines'experience. He has lots of experiencenow and there really won't be a problem with the letter of application.

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the paragraphs (A-E) above. I 2 3 4 5

They rvercreaclyto becomemillionaires.( ) He also knolvswhcre to hnd some good lecturenotes.(. ) Everyoneactcd as if the information rvasfree.( ) He rvill have to find a job. (. . .) \\'riting rvasa couple of clichs,then a 6ll-in-the-blanksexercise.(. ..)

16

]

IEN\F\

Verbs,auxiliary verbsand tenses 'l'he

basefirrm of the verb is listedin the dictionary.It is usedin the inpcrirtive anclthe inFnitive. I Stop!. Pleasewait.. Don't be inpatient. ' Asksontcoreto help you.. Let'stry tofind o solt$iort. 'l'he basetbrm is alsocalledthe birre infinitive or the infinitive without ro. Most verbs are usedto describeactiousor events(2). SQmeverbsare used fbr states(3). 2 Do you play clrcss?. I'll open a window. . Soneone hastaken nty book. , The crowd is cheering. 3 Do you know Mork? . Attil seemsreally uice.. Her pLlre ts own a shop.. I believe you. We don't usuall,vuse state verbs in tltc continuous form. (xor !r*.i;e#er#67,**) We use auxiliary rio with the basefbrm to miLkcquestionsand negativesin the prescntand past simple. 4 Wlnt did Attu want ftr lunch? - Shedidn't wqnt tnrything. . Does shcfeel bettcr?- I don't know. We useauxiliary Lc with thc presentparticiple (-irgfornr) ofthc verb to mirkecontinuous forrns (5) and auxiliarv iavc rvith thc past participle (-crl) to makc perfectfornrs (6). we use auxiliary lave + lleerrrvith the prescntparticipleto ntake perfectcontiruous fornts ( 7). 5 Are yotr waiting Jbr nra?' Williorn isn't using his cotrrputer.. They were working all night. 6 Have you fnished alrendy?. The post hasn't come yet. . Andy hail forgotten to bring thc keys. 7 Havs yp11been sleeping? 'It hasn't been raining rccently.. \\/e had been studying for hours. The continuousfbrm is also calledthe progressive. We use nrodal auxiliaries(nrodals)with the bascform of the verb or rvith the auxiliaries!e and ftayc. 8 They will help us.. l'll be waiting Jbr 1'orr.' We won't have finished. (Nor ++++yord@) Complete this table with one example of each form from the text on page 16.

Imperativeor infinitive:baseform Presentsimple:baseform or baseform + s in third personsingular

play....... plavs

Presentcontinuous:presentbe+ presentparticiple

am/is/oreplaying

Presentperfect:present,44r,e + pastparticiple

has/hovc ployed

Presentperfectcontinuous:presenthave+ been

has/havebeenplaying

+ nre(Pnf

n,rri.ihlF

Pastsimple:baseform + ed

played ...

Pastcontinuous:pastbe+ presentparticiple Pastperfect;past lrale + pastparticiple Pastperfectcontinuous:pastha1/e + been+ prese\t participle

had beenplaying

Future:rvill + baseform Futurecontinuous:will + be+ presentparticiple Futureperfect:will - have+ pastparriciple

willhateplayeri....

Futureperfectcontinuous:r.vill+ have+ been

will have beenplaying

+ nrFcFnt

6"'+;.i-1.

For information about irregularverb forms seepages2lt6-7.

ll,rl.,l5 le

\'$b\ u\rd to dcs.ri|[.rdnm\ rn(] \hrs ]

t7

2 TENSES

Presentandpresentperfect Presentsimple and present continuous We usethe presentsimplefor permanentsituations(1) and thingsthat aregenerallytrue (2). 1 Girffis live in Africa.Theyhaveverylong legsaxd necks.Theyfeed on acacialearcs. 2 It rains morein winter.. Birdsdon't sing at night., Do womenlive longerthan men? We alsousethe presentsimplefor habits(3), thingsthat happenregularly(4), with verbsthat describecurrent states(5) and in informal reportsor instructions(6). with blackshoes? 3 I bite my nails.. Shesmokescigars., Doeshe usuallywear white socks 4 Theyplay bingoon Mondaynights.. Her parentsgo to Mqjorcaeverysummer. 5 Sheloveschocolate.. They don't believe us. . He owns hk J1at.(Nttt Hutewning*tsJla+-) 6 It saysherethestike is over.. Bakerpassesto Cookwho shoots.. Yougo to theendand turn left. When we perform an action by speaking,for examplewhen we promiseto do something,we usually usethe presentsimple,not the presentcontinuous. 7 I accept their decision.. I promise to be morecareful.(No't Fmpomismg+e4e-ntore+arefttL) Other verbsusedlike this include:admit, apologize,bet, deny,insist,regret We usethe presentcontinuousfor actionsin progressor to talk aboutbeingin the middle of an activity. 8 Hi. I'm calling to letyou knowI'm coming,but it's snowingand the trafic is moving slowly. We can describecurrent situationsaspermanelrtwith the presentsimple(9) or astemporarywith the presentcontinuous(10). 9 My brotherAlan livesin Londonand worksfor a magazine. He writes qbouteconomics. I0 My sisterFionais living with Alan just now.Sheisn't working yet. She'slookingfor a job. We can usebe and hate rn the presentsimplefor a typicalsituationor state( 11) and in the present continuousfor a temporaryor specialsituation(12).. 77 Wendy'snormallya quietperson.Shehas a gentletoice.(Nor Shes4aiatg-egen+leteter) ).2 Wendy'sbeing wild tonight.She'shaving a graduationParty.(Nor $hehara1x+y)

Presentperfect and present perfect continuous We use the present perfect to talk about or describe an action or situation started in the past which 'at connectsto the present(13), when we mean any point up to now' (14) and with stateverbs (15). 13Howlonghaveyouworkedhere?-I,veworkedheresince1997'(No,|M99+) 14 This is the bestcoffeeI have ercr tasteil. . I haven't been to an opera,but I've seen one on TV 15 I hove known Tony for about fve years. (Not JJetow4tm-for'fueaears, / l+e+ffit ltnotvirg+iitt furfeaetft) We use the present perfect continuous when we talk about an activity in progress up to the present (16) and to ask about or describeactionswhich go on over a period of time up to the present(17). 16 They've been repairing our streetand it's been cousing a lot of trffic problems. l7 Have you been waiting lotg? - I've been sitting herefor an hour. (Not Are7ott-+tat+inglorg?) We use the present perfect continuous to describesomething as if it is a continuous action up to the present(18) and the presentperfectto describeit as a seriesof separateactions( 19). I8 He's been calling for you. , It has been raining a lot recently. (Not 4+4+a#fug-a1e+-reea*17) 19 He has calleil four times and he has asked for you each time. (Nttt Hthx4eett+aliryJoar+ir+e*) We can describe an action as a processgoing on from earlier up to the present (present perfect continuous) (20) or as the presentresult of an earlieraction (presentperfect)(21). 20 We'ye been making chickensoup. That's why the kitchen is hot and steamy. 2l We've made chickensoup. That's what everyoneis eating. Would you like some?

18

2 TENSES

4 Completeeach paragraphwith one set of verbs, using the presentsimple or present continuous. know/ look/ notbe/ repair/ use be/be / harc/ say/ tell

be/ live/ look/ move/ resemble

A M y c o m p u t e(rl ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v e r yi r r i t a t i n gr i g h tn o w .E v e r yt i m eI ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n o s p a cien i t sm e m o r y , i t t o s a v se o m e t h i ni g t (, r ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i.t.( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . w h i c h( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r i d i c u l o u s . mammals B W h a l easn dd o l p h i n(s6 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . l i k ef i s h , b u t t h e y (. 7 . .). . . . . . . that (8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the oceanand (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . through waterin waysthat (10). . ... . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. the movements ofa dog ratherthanthoseofa shark. m e . I ( n ) nu , t s h e( 1 2. ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n C M a n :E x c u s e . . . . . . . . . . . . f o rM r sA d a m s o b herusualclassroom.(13).....................you.....................wheresheis? W o m a nO: h , t h e y ( r .4.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h. .e rc l a s s r o ocm e i l i ntgh i sw e e ks os h e ( l s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.h. el i b r a r ya sh e rc l a s s r o o m . 5 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese sentenceswith the nouns and the verbs in the present perfect. also-ran hqt-trick I has-been no-show I

buy heqr

no!com? notfnish

sov take

train win

C o l i n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h er a c ef o r t h es e c o n yde a ri n a r o wa n dh e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h a th e next year. will comebackand try to makeit a . . . '. 2 An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' is an informal expressionfor a personor a horsethat . . . . . . . . . . part in a competitionor a race,but first, secondor third, '. p e o p l ed e s c r i bhei m n e g a t i v eal ysa . . . . . . . . . . . ' , b u t 3 Wilsonsayshe. he . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hard this yearto provethat he'sstill one of the best. for someone who a ticketfor 4 A' . .. . .. .. . . ... . ..'is an informalexpression to the event. an €vent,a iourney,etc,,but who I

6 Choose an answer(a-d) for each question (1-4) and add these verbs in the present perfect or the present perfectcontinuous. be

complete do

know

read

show

swim

1 How long . . . . . . . . . . . sheand Mark . . . . . . . eachother?(.. ) 2 \\4ry is your hair all wet?(...) form?( ..) 3 . . .. . . .. . .. you . ... . . .. . .. an application 4 . . . . . . . . . . . y o u . . . . . . . . K e i t ht h er e p o ryt e t ?( . . . )

a Yes,he . . . . . . . . . it for the pasthour. b I . . .. . . .. . .. just c They .. .. .. friendssinceschool. d Y e sI ,. . . . . . . . a l r e a d y. . . . . . . t h a t .

7 Editing.Correct the mistakesin this text. My neighbouris called)eanine.Sfr. +Sffi

from Belgium.Sheis living heresince1995and she

saysshe has been going back to visit her family in Belgium only once. She'shaving an accent that is the same as people who are coming from France,but I never ask her if she is speaking French. She is really liking to go to the theatre and she is inviting me to go with her one Saturday.In the shofi time I am knowing her, we become good friends.

l9

2 TENSES

Pastand pastperfect Past simple and past continuous We usethe pastsimplefor completedactionsin the past(l) and paststates(2). I Dickenswrote OliverTwist.. Edisoninventeilthelight bulb., TheBeatlessang'Yesterday'. 2 Life seemeileasierthen.. That ring belongedto my mother.(Not l+-was4elongh+g+o-nq-nte+lrct) We usethe pastsimplefor two or more pastactionsin sequence, especiallyin narrative. 3 I trippeil and landedon my knees.. He knockeilher down,grabbeilherpurseand ran off. ' He took off his hat and cameforward. Thefloorboardsueaked under his boots. To talk about habitsin the pastor to makea strongercontrastwith the present,we can usethe form usedto (4).The negativeis didn't useto or (more formally) usednot to (5).We can alsouservouldto talk about typical actionsor activitiesduring a period in the past(6). 4 Thereused to be a shopon the corner.. He usedto smokea lot. (xol lle*as-ttsed+o:moke-a-l*) 5 Didn't theyuseto hangpeople?. Wedidn't useto havea car.. Theyusednot to be enemies. buyfreshstrawberries. 6 In summer,we woulil take trips to thecountry.Wewould sometimes We usethe pastcontinuousto describeactionsin progressat a specifictime in the past. 7 What wereyou doing at 8.30lastnight?- I t)asn't iloing anythingspecial.I wasjust reatling.' During the 1890s, manypeoplewereleavingthesouthand moing to thenorth to lookfor work. We can usethe pastcontinuouswith someverbs(wonder,hope)to makea requestmore polite. 8 I waswonderingwhenI couldtalk to you. . Wewerehopingyou might havea free moment. We can usethe pastsimplewhen we want to describea pastactivityasa seriesof separateactions(9) and the pastcontinuousto describethe pastactivity asif it wasa continuousaction (10). In many cases, the pastsimpleand pastcontinuouscanbe usedinterchangeably. 9 UsuaIIyshewent to the libraryaboutoncea weekand only studiedoccasionally for tests. l0 Beforethefnal exam,however, shewasgoing to thelibraryand stuilying everysingleday. with when- and while-clauses, we can usethe pastcontinuousto describean activityin In sentences one clausethat startsbeforean action in anotherclause(11).The activitythat startslater may interrupt the first activity ( 12). 71 While he tas driving, I fell asleep.. Wemw Henry while we were walking in thepark. 12 I wqs listening to the newsrehenshephoned.. WhenI was running, I slippeil andfell. Note the differencebetweenWhenshecamebqck,wewerewatchingTy (= We werewatchingbefore shecameback) and Whenshecameback,we watchedTV (= \y. *u,.n.O aftershecameback).

Pastperfect and past perfect continuous We usethe pastperfect(or pluperfect)whenwe aredescribingan actionwith the pastsimpleand we want to refer to an action further in the past( 13).We alsousethe pastperfectfor earliereventsafter clauseswith reportingor thinking verbsin the past( l4). shehad spent it. 13 Wewent to his offce,but he hail left. . Susandidn't havethemoneybecause 14 Joetold me our team had scoredtwice. . I thought we hail won. (Not {+hoaght-we*at-wott-) We usethe pastperfectcontinuousfor eventsin progressbeforeanothereventin the past. 15 I hail beenthinking aboutthat beforeyou mentionedit. Stateverbsare not usedin this way.(xot

i+)

We can describean action asa processgoing on beforea pastevent(pastperfectcontinuous)(16). We can alsodescribeit asthe resultof an actionbeforea pastevent(pastperfect)(17). 76 Wehail beenmaking chickensoupsothe kitchenwasstill hot and steamywhenshecamein. 17 Wehail maile chickensoupand sowe oferedhersomewhenshecamein.

20

RcDoninpverbs 152 St.te verbs 3 Wrr-

and rlile clauses198 l4/o!ld 33

2 TENSES

Completeeach paragraphwith one set of verbs, using the past simple or past continuous. miss/ notget/ wonder come/ Iisten/ make/ say

break/ see/ steal/ teach exPlain/ talk / understand

A W e ( l ) . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. t o m u s i cw h e no n eo f t h en e i g h b o u(rzs). . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . t o t h e d o o r and(r).....................shecouIdn'tsleepbecausewe(4).....................toomuchn (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . into Barbara's officeand (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . her computer B Someone yesterdayafternoonwhileshe(7).....................herhistoryclass.Noone ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .t h et h i e f . he never(s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . anythingvery clearly,none of us (10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C Because w h a tt h es c i e n ctee a c h e( rt t ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a b o u tm o s to f t h et i m e . D I ' m s o r r yI .( 1 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h. .e. r. eo n t i m ea n dI ( 1 3. ). . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . t h eb e g i n n i nogf your presentation, but I (14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . if you might havean extrahandoutleft. Complete this text with these verbs in the past perfect or past perfect continuous. be break

catch live have make

plan take remove vr'orry

The telephonecall from the policewasa shock,but not a completesurprise.Molly (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . constantlyaboutthe old houselying empty during the two months since her mother went into hospital.She(z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to go round and checkthe empty place, butshe(3).....................extrabusyatworkrecently.Accordingtothepolice,ahomele ( 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i n t ot h eh o u s eT. h e y( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h i m o n em o r n i n ga sh e w a sl e a v i n g the building with one of her motheri largepaintings.When Molly walkedinto the house,it was o b v i o utsh a tt h em a n( 6 .)- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.h. e r ef o rq u i t ea w h i l eH. e ( 7 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all over the floor. He food from the cupboardsand throwing empty tins and packages ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q u i t ea m e s sH. e ( 9 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a l s o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s e v e r apla i n t i n g s r e c a u sseh e( t 0 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a l r e a d y f r o mt h ew a l l sM . o l l yd e c i d endo t t o t e l lh e r m o t h e b enoughpain in recentweeksand reallydidn't needany more bad news. 10 Editing,Correct the mistakesin the use of tenses in this text. hitchht(r'3 A few yearsago,when my fiiend and I werehitchhikethrough France,we sometimesstop for the night in a park or a 6eld.If it wasn'train, we just sleepoutsidein our sleepingbagsunder the stars. We reallyenjoyingthat. lf it wasrain, we put up our smalltent and crawl insidefor the night. One night, while we sleepin the tent, I think that the ground moving under me. I sit up and I realizethat the tent wastry to moveand only the weightof our bodieswashold it in place.When we get outside, we discoverthat we standankle-deepin a smallstreamand our tent slowlyfloatsaway.At first, we reallysurprisedand worried,but then we think it is very funny.

2l

2'I'ENSES

Presentperfector pastsimple? We usethe presentperfectwhen we think a situationhasnot ended(l) and the pastsimplewhen we think the situationended(2). I I haveliveil in Londonfor a year.' Shehasknotn him sinceschool.' Has JasonbeeniII? 2 I lived in Londont'or a year.' Sheknew him in school' WasJasoniII? for a period up to now ( lately,sofar) (3). We use we usethe presentperfectwith time expressions (4). for a period that endedearlier(lastnight'yesterday) the pastsimplewith time expressions 3 Haveyou seenanygoodflms lately?' Sot'ar thenewteacherhasn'tgiven usany homework. 4 Diil you seethatflm lastnight?'I didn't ilo thehomeworkyesterday. @) $or aaarcTot+eer++hat-filatlast-ttight? We usethe presentperfectwhen we aretalking about actionsup to the presentwhich might happen again(5) and the pastsimplefor actionswhich we don't think will happenagain(6)' and we hopehis nextbookwill do well.' He'sbeenon TV; 5 He hqs written two bestsellers ' he'sfamous! He has oftenhad heahhproblems. 6 Shewrote severalbooksof poetryin the lastyearsof her life. ' Shewasa teacherin Zambia ' Shehqd threechildren. In clausesbeginningwith at'ter,assoonas andwfist4we can usethe Presentperfectfor completed - actionsin the future (7) and the pastsimplefor completedactionsin the past(8). I wiII do mine.(= He hasn'tmadehis copiesyet. 7 After/Assoonas/Whenhe has maile his copies, NeitherhaveI.) I did mine.(= He madehis copiesfirst, then I mademine.) 8 As soonashe maile hk copies, 11 Completeeach paragraphwith one set of verbs, using the present perfector past simple. have/ not come/ teII

become / have/ hear

know/ meet/ start

e eb o t h( z ). . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . w o r ko n t h es a m ed a y A I 0 ) . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . L a u r aP a l m esri n c w atThamesCollegeaboutfiveyearsago.Sheisoneofthesmartestpeoplel(3)................. ever...................... B (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the good newsyet?lenny and Michael ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .j .u. s t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .P. .a r e n tIse!n n y( 6 .). . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . a b a b yg i r l last night. r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m e t h i sm o r n i n g , ' I ' lbl eb a c kt o f i n i s ht h ew o r ka ss o o na s C T h ep l u m b e e I (8).. ... . .. . .. . ...... . .. somelunch.'But now it'spastthreeo'clockandhe still ( s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b. a . .c k . 12 Completethis dialoguewith these verbs in the presentperfector past simple. ask

be(x2)

have

make

not call

not eat

not know

not seem say

teI

Itt Monday afternoon.Ron is at home,phoning Sueat the of6cewherethey both work. Ron: Hi Sue,it's me. Sue: Well,hello!Where(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all day?The boss ( 2 .) . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . m et h i sm o r n i n g y o u( : ). . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ,b u th e where ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.o. .b el o o k i n fgo ry o uo r a n ) - t h i n g . Ron: What (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .? Sue: I (o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . him that I (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Are you okay? Ron: I'm sorry I (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you this morning. I (e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the flu since S a t u r d aIy(. 1 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a. .n l t h i n gf o r t w o d a y sa n di t (t r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m e f e e l reallyweak.But I'll probablybe theretomorrow.

22

Clauseswith d/ier, etc. 199 Pastsimple 20 Presentperfect 18

2 l ltNSES

Pastperfector pastsimPle? When we are talkingabout actionsin the past,with the pastsimple(wor), and we want to referto actionsevenfurther in the past,we usethe Pastperfect(had won)in pretious I lennyFisherwon herfrst goldmedalin 2004.Shehail won two silvermetJals Olympics,but thiswasherfrst gold we usethe pastperfect(had started)in the main with the pastsimple(arriyed)in a wfien-clause, (started)for a later action (3). (2) past simple and the clausefor an earlieraction worft'(= We startedwork beforehe arrived) we had starteil 2 lhen he arrivedin themorning, (= We startedwork afterhe arrived) work we statted morning, 3 Whenhearrivedin the and effect:wen I called,he came. a cause past can suggest simple Note that two verbsin the In conditionals,we usethe pastperfectfor somethingthat did not happen(4) and the pastsimplefor somethingthatmight happen(5). 4 If you hail come,you couldhate stayedwith us ' If I'il known' I certainlywouldhavehelped' 5 If you came,you couldstaywith us.' If I sawanyonedoingthat,I certainlywould try to stoPit' We usuallyusethe pastperfect,not the pastsimple,with someadverbs(already,just' still)' 6 An ambulancecamequickly,but thecrashvictim hail alreaily ilied. (Not the+rad+-rie m akeee+4ie*) 7 The booksstilt hadn't arrived whenI let't.(Nor +WilM4cf+) 8 Thestudentshail just openeiltheir bookswhenthefire alarm wentoff 13 Choose an ending (a-d) for each beginning (1-4) and add these verbs in the past perfect or past simple. come gite I 2 3 4

need

notfnish

say

talk

H e . . . . . . . . . . . t h em o n e yl a s tw e e k(,. . ) You . . . . . . . . . . . during the meeting(. . .) W h d nh e . . . . . . . . . . .b a c kl a t e r(,. . . ) Ashleycould havedonemuch better (. . .)

work a b c d

t h a t y o u . . . . . . . . . . a b o u t h a ta l r e a d y . so I . . . . . . . . . . . it to him then. i f s h e . ... .... .. h a r d e r . they still . , . . . . . . . . . writing their reports.

14 Complete this text with these verbs. was(x2) were

explained didn't eat didn't lock went

hategone haveheard

had cooked hadn'teaten hatl reached hadn'tlocked

'This is the sillieststory I One of the four-year-oldsin the readinggroup suddenlysaid' (2) in the middleof reading (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ever. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l' I . . . . . . . . Goldilocksand the ThreeBearsto the group.We (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .just. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the part in the storywhereGoldilocksgoesinto the bears'houseand eatssomeof the food from bowls on the table. " r , \ r h e(rae), . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . t h eb e a r s ? ' haes k e d . 'Maybe outsideor playingin the woods,'I suggested' 'And their housewaswide open?They (s). . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . even. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the door beforegoingout?' ' W e l li,n t h eo l d d a y sp, e o p l e( 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t h e i rd o o r s . ' And their food wason the table,but they (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it beforethey (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . outside?' ' M a y b teh e y( e ) . . . . i t b e c a u si te( t o .) . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .t o oh o t . ' 'Ifyou(lr)....................thatmeal,youwouldn't(12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .o. u . ta n dI e f ti t ,w o u l d you?' 'Probablynot,butittiustastory,'l(13).....................ratherweakly. Atrcatly,cr.. tt6

Unreal .ondition{ls 186 Pastdnd Pasl perfect 20

23

I

\\l \

Future 15 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Future: willand shall Thereis no singleform usedasthe future tense.We can usewill plus the baseform of a verb to give or askfor information about the future Z and to talk about possiblefuture actionswhen we make promises,requestsor threats . We usuallyusecontractedforms afterpronouns('ll) or in negatives (won't)unlesswe arebeingformal or emphatic. I We'llhelpyou cleanup. . I won't tell anyone.. Will you pleasego?. Stopor I'll call thepolice. 2 ChristmaswiII be on a Friday.. Themeetingwon't start until 9.30.. Whenwill you leave? We can useshallwith / or ryeto expressdetermination,or in questionsto makeoffersor suggestions. 3 Wewill forgive,but we shall neterforget. . Shall I makesometeo?. Let'stalk later,shall we? ln AmericanEnglish,will/won't(not shall/shan't)areusedwith I and we.

Future continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous We can use will + be+ presentparticiple(the future continuous)to talk about future actionsin progressat a particulartime and asa wayof expressing plansor intentions 4 I'll he senilingin my applicationtomorrow.. Wll you be using thecar lateror canI hayeit? 5 Nextweekat this time,you will be lying on thebeachand we'll all still be slavingawayhere. We can usewill + have+ pastparticiple(the future perfect)to saythat som€thingwill be completed by a particulartime . We usewill + havebeen+ presentparticiple(the future perfectcontinuous) when we look aheadto a future time and imaginean actionlastingfrom a point beforethat time up to that future time 6 On the 10thof thismonth,I'll havebeenliving herefor exactlytwoyears. . It\ 5.30.Wll Jayhaveleft work already? 7 By nextsummerI'll havefnished my degree.

WiIlor begoing to? We usewill for a predictionbasedon pastexperienceor knowledge , especiallyin predictive conditionals , and begoingto for a pledictionbasedon what we feelor think now . We can use wouldor was/were goingto whenwe describea pastpredictionaboutthe future 8 Oh, no,I think I'm going to be sick.. We'vejust heardthat Kin's going to havea baby. 9 If you eat too muchiceteam, you'll be sick.. We'llrlo okayif the testisn'ttoo difficult. l0 As soonas thevictoriousBritish teamlandsat Heathrow,thousands offans will start celebrating. ll WhenI wasa teenager, I thoughtI wasgoing to be a rcckstorand I would neyerhaveto work. We lusebe goingto for a decisionalreadymade and ryill for a decisionmadeat that noment 12 Her parentshavesaid they'regoing to pay for her tuition. , I've decidedI'm going to get a new phone. 13 I needsomeone to takethisto thepostofice.- I'll go! , That'sthephoneringing.- I'll get it!

Presentsimple and present continuous for the future We can usethe presentsimplefor future eventsin a scheduleor timetable . We alsousethe present simplefor future actionsin clausesaftersubordinatingcon.junctions . We can usethe present continuousto talk about a future action we haveplannedor arranged l 4 I'm seeing the doctoron Frirlay. . We'replaying tomorrow (Nol l+s sao*hg+o*orrow) 15 It won't matterwhat hesayslater., I'lI seeyou wheuI get back.(Not14:ee1ot-+the -wiLl getw) 16 The newcoursestarts in lanuary.. I think Kote\flight arrivestomorrowmorning.

24

l , r . l i n n r . ( n r ( l i r n i n . l sL N i 5 ul J o r d i n rirn 8 ( x r i u n r t i , N

rl

l l i / l n . r / , 1 l , f S . t , { r , ' ,r h , / l . r :

l6 married for in school

verbs, using will' be going to or 17 Compfete this text with the most appropriate forms of the the present simple. be

give

haYe

make

not start

not stoP

It said"You I was standing at the bus stop reading my horoscopein the newspaper' (l).....................goodmomentsandbadmomentstoday'Ilookedupandsawthebuscoming'

Thenlrealizedit(2).....................becauseitwasalreadyfrrll''Oh'no"Ithought''IfI (3).....................walkingfast,It1).....................lateformyfustclass!'Ihadjuststart *..irrg*h"rr"."rpulledupbesidemeandoneofmyclassmatesleanedout'Heylean'getin'we (5)'' ''''' '' '' ' ''thegood (s) . . . .:. . . . . . . . . . . ..you a lift.'Itt amazinghow the badmoments moments feel so much better.

l8 Corr€ctthemistakesin theses"n,"n"r?lt'hooorn .

Example:An imminent eveDtis one that hepperfi soon' I Pleasestop making so much noise or I report you to the suPervisor' 2Aslasabouttoleavehisoffice,Bobsaid,'Let'sgettogetherforlunchsometime'willwe?' jumped up and said"I do it!' 3 They cameand askedfor people to help immediateiy' so Jenny yearsin prison for a crime he 4 When he is releasednart week,Pat McGuire will spend almost five didn't commit' all my notes in the offrce' 5 I'm going to work on the rePort at home last night' but I had left go to bed already? 6 lt's probably too late to phone Margaret' Do you think she'll 7 I'm not certain, but I guessit's raining later this afternoon' 8 Forthcoming book are those that we think to be availablesoon' glcarltbe|ievethatyoullsitonaplanetoMaltawhilel'mdrivingtoworktomorrowmorning' l0 If I'll finish before you, I viait for you outside' I I Will Stefanto get theseboneslater or is to take then now? arrive in time for Joy'sbirthday' 12 I must get to the post offrcebefore it ll closeor the parcel doesnt

ZJ

2 TENSES

Tests A Choose the word or phrasethat best completeseach sentence. I I think Mr wilson

in this schoolsince1990or rnaybeearlier.

a teaches b is teaching

c hastaught

d taught

2 I stoppedwatchingthe gamebeforethe end,but I thoughtwe a had won

b have won

c have been winnins

3 Thati very sadnews.If a I krow

b I'll know

c I knew

4 My sister

d will have won.

sooner,I would havetried to help. d I'd known

to me once or twice since she'sbeen livine in Athens.

a was writing

b has written

c has been writing

d had written

the meetingat noon tomorrow.

5 According to the memo, we're

a h a v i n g b h a v e c g o i n gh a v e d w i l l h a v e B ldentify the one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D) that must be changed in order to correct the sentence. I My next door neighbour,who !q usuallyshyand doesn'lsaymuch,is beinevery ftiendly this

A

B-

c"

morning and !49 a big party tonight for all his friends. U

2 Martin wasusedto smokea lot whenhe wasstudvine,but sincehe hasbeenworkins in the bank, A_____B-:i________clllllllllllllllhe !4541tbeelrsmokingasmuch. 3 Peoplewereslippingon the wet floor becauseno one had cleanedup the waterthat all of us AB wereknowing had leakedfrom the coffeemachine. CD 4 When you will grakea promise,you lgll someonethat you will de6qitelygivethem somethingor that you definitelywill or won't do something. D 5 As we wereenleringthe building,I nqticeda signlhat someone hasputabovethe door ABC which said,'Be alert.' C Completethis text by choosing only one of the verbs from each pair for each space. begins had wasbeginning hashad Alice(r)

will peep reatls is thinking hadpeeped wasreading thought to getvery tired of sittingby her sisteron the bank and of having

n o t h i n g t o d o : o n c eo r t w i c es h e , z , , but it (4) is the use of a book,' 1s1

26

into the book her sister 'and no pictures or conversationsin it. what

Alice,'without picturesor conversations?'

2 TENSES

D Completeeachsentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 Wearespending !300on repairsbeforewesellthecar. By the time we sell the car,we 2 I neverhad to think about my healthbeforethis. This is the first 3 ]uliet started working here about six yearsago. Iuliet has 4 I didn t think it would be good,but it's reallybad. Itt evenworse 5 I havent talkedto my parentssinceChristmas. It wasChristmaswhen E Complete this text with these verbs. believe will keep

holds lets

beexperiencing had is happening hayebeen

hwe beenchanging havecreated

The world is gettingwarmerand the oceansare rising.Why {r) this ? Oneansweris that it couldsimplybepart of a naturalprocess. AfteralJ, there(z) ice agesand long periodsof warmth in the past,so we could iust (3) anotherwarmingtrend.Thiskind o[ answerr,l more supportersa few yearsago.What scientistsnow (s) is that human activityis thecause. For morethantwo hundredyears. humansro1 gradually the atmosphere, mainly asa resultof industrialpollution. We an atmosphere aroundthe earththat, like a giant glasscontainer, l:7) (8) heatfrom the sunthroughandthen rsr it in. (10) temperatures and sealevels rising?The general answeris unfortunatelyyes.

27

The modalsare a group of auxiliaryverbs (can,could,may,might,must,ought,shall, should,will,would)Ihat we can use with other verbsto say what is possible,permitted, necessary, etc. The phrasalmodalsare a group of verb phrases(be ableto, be allowedto, be goingto, be supposedto, haveto, havegot to) that can be used insteadof modals. R e a dt h r o u g ht h i s t e x t a n d f i n d . 1 anothernegativemodal 2 a sentencethat containsthreedifferentmodals Superstitions are beliefsthat somethings can't be explainedby reasonandthat there arecertainobjecrsor acrionsthatDringgood or bad luck.Most superstitionsare old and peopleusuallyhaveno ideawheretheycame from.We maybe told,for example, thatwe shouldneveropenan umbrella indoors becausethat will bringbad luck.We aren'ttold whyor whatkjndof badthingmighthappento us, but few of us are goingto try to find out. Everyoneknowsihat thirteenis an unlucky number. Otherthingsthatcanbringbadluck includebreaking a mirror,walkingundera ladderor spiliingsalt.At leastwhenyouspill salt,youcanavoidthe badluckby immediately throwing someof the saltover yourleftshoulder withyourrighthand. Unfortunately, the mansittingbehindyou at get a showerof salt that momentwillsuddenly all overhim,obviously, he musthavedone something earlierthat broughthimbadluck. lf youask peoplewhyit is badluckto walk undera ladde(theyusuallysaythat it's becausesomething mightfall on yourhead.lt couldbe a hammer, a brick,a pieceof wood, paintor water.lt is jnterestingthat the superstition is explained in termsof such ordinary things.Theoriginof the superstition is muchda'kerandmorescary.Accordiqg to the oxfordGuideto Britishand American Culture,'this ideamay havedevelopedout of the practice in medieval timesof hanging criminals fromladders.'

Moreconfusingare those superstitions that seemto havedifferentmeaningsfor different people.Somepeoplewilllell youthat it is bad luck if a blackcat walksin front of you. others willsaythatseeinga blackcat is supposed to be lucky.Othertokensof goodluckare a rabbit'sfoot (not luckyfor the rabbit, obviously), a specialcoin,a four,leafcloverand a horseshoe.lf you hangthe horseshoeover yourfront doorto bringluckto yourhouse,you must be carefulto havethe openend pointing upwards.lf youhangit the otherway,your goodluckwrlljusrdropout through the gap. Youcanalsowishfor goodluckby crossing yourfingers.Youdon't haveto crossall of them,onlythe middlefingeroverthe index iinger. E Thereare specialphrasesthat peopleuse to bringluck.There's'Goodluck',of course. Anotherexpressionis 'Touchwood'or 'Knock on wood'.Thisis usuallyheardwhenpeople talk abouttheirgoodluckor whentheyare hopingthattheywillbe ableto get or do something theywant.Byusingthe expression, the speakertries io avoidhavjnganybad luck that mightbe causedbytalkingabouthaving goodluck.lf there isn't anythingwoodento touch,somepeoplewilltap themselves on the headas they say 'Touchwood',However, actingas if youhavea woodenhead,touching it withyourfingerscrossedand saying'Knock on wood'all al oncewon'tnecessarily yourluck. increase

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the paragraphs A-E above. I Peoplewill just thinh you'revery superstitiousor possiblycrazy.(-..) 2 That explanationmakesthe superstitior]much easierto understancL. 1....t 3 With your fingerslike this, however,itmaybehard to nail that horseshoeover your door. (.r ) 4 We just clon'topen one until we are outside.(.i ) 5 Perhapshe l.radopenedan umbrella indoors. (. .) lq

3 NIODAI,S

Modalsand phrasalmodals Modals The modals (also called modal auxiliary verbs) are single words that alwayshave the same form. I We should wait for David. He may comesoon. (Not He-mays
)

The modals shall, will and wot d are usually contracted (5), unless they are being emphasized (6). 5 I'll bring you one, shall I? ' He'll be there,won't he?. She'd like to stay,wouldn't she? 6 Do not forget! We will leaveat I a.m. precisely.We will not wait for lqtecomers. We usually use the forms could, might and would in clausesafter past tense yerbs (7), especiallyin indirect speech(8). 7 I didn't know shecould speakSpanish.. I was hoping you might gite me some advice. 8 ('Can I helpt') Sheaskerlif shecould help.. ('I'll be latel) He said he would be late. We don't put two modals together before a verb. See( 11) below. 9 We can win this game and we will win it! (wot WemC)

Phrasalmodals Phrasal modals are verb phrasesbeginning with lre or ft,:ivewhich can be used instead of modals. lD Most old people are qble to look after themselves.(- They can look after themselves.) However.we hove to make sure that they ccr cope.(- We must oR We should make sure . . . ) Others:be allowedto (canhnay),be going to (will), be supposedto (should),have got to (must) We always use phrasal modals instead of modals in hve structures: after a nodal ( I I ), rvhere an infinitive (12) or a gerund (13) is needed,and in the perfect(14) and continuous (15) forms. ll We will be able to win this game! . They mty be going to incre.rsetuition next year. 12 He seemsto be able to do everything . I hope to be allowed to stay. 13 I love being able to sit outsile in the sun. . I hate having to repeateverything. 14 They have had to wait for hours. . They haven't been qllowed to leaw the building. 15 Sheis having to pay extra. . We aren't being allowed to take the testearly. We can use two phrasal modals together: I'm going to have to go to the shopfor more bread. Find the three sentences in the text on page 28 that contain both a modal and a phrasal modal.

Indirect ryeech 150 Inli.itives and gcrunds ll9

N.gatnrs and gucstions 45

29

3 N4ODALS

Complexmodals We form the modal perfectwith a modal beforehale plus a pastparticiple. I Nick may have taket your book.He shouldn't have done that. (nor He-sheald#+4ore+hat) . Obviously,he must havedonesomethingearlierthat broughthim badluck. We form the modal continuouswith a modal beforebeplus a presentparticiple. 2 AIexshoukln't be acting soconfident.He shouldbe stuilying. (Nor He*ottld:ttrdyhry) We form the modal perfectcontinuouswith a modalbeforehavebeenplus a presentparticiple. 3 I called,but shedidn't answer.Shemust have beensleeping.(Not She-nust$eet
l'f .qf,fg.hl1..bg..lCpKlS.fp.r. i!. ]q!ef.. . . .

Willingness,habitsand preferences: will, would 2 .... .. .. .. . Ability; ccr, could,beableto I . ... . . . . . Permission:can,could,may,might,beallowedto 4 .... . ... .. . . Possibility:may might,can,could 5

...............

Necessity:must,haveto, havegotto, needto, needn't

Deduction:must,haveto, can't,couldn't 7 ................ Obligation:shoukl,oughtto,besupposetl to,had better lhe.:|'.qit14!!.bqyg.lq(el. Tpr:.lig!tqlqr1.. R

30

Continro$

l7

Modrlpissives 58 Pastpxrliciples 220

Peraect17

J \lol'\l \

6 Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1-5) and add these forms. ableto can't

will be won't

mustbe musthaw

ought shouldbe

goingto mayhavebeen

I Y o uk n o wt h e r e. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. a t e s t tomorrow(. . .) 2 Samanthaisn't . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . study a ta l l( . . ) 3 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . find my calculator(. . .) 4 W e. . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .t o c h e c tkh e timetable(...) 5 Mark's arm

a s ot h a tw e. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . b el a t e . b so I . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . left it somewhere. c so she. . . . . feelingvery confident d s oh ep r o b a b li ys n ' .t . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. w r i t e .

7 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese sentenceswith the adjectivesand modals. advisable

inconceivable

regrettable

can't

should

hypothetical

ineyitable

reluctant

might

shouldn't wouldn't

will

I Someonewho says,'It is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that the policedidn't do somethingsooner'feelsthat the police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . haveactedsooner. 2 I f s o m e o nsea y si t i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o w a i t ,i t m e a n st h a ty o u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a c t immediately. 3 When you describesomethingas. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . ., Iou are certainthat it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . happen. 4 It wasclearthat he was. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to talk and we . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . get any information fiom him. 5 I f y o u s a yt h a ts o m e t h i nigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,y o um e a nt h a ty o u. . . . . . . . i m a g i n ei t at all. 6 Whensomethingis described as.... ... . .. . . .. . . ... , it is basedon an ideaaboutwhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h. a p p eann dn o t o n a r e a sl i t u a t i o n . Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of modals in this text. A dilemmais a situationin which you havea choiceand you are not surewhat you rhol,ld * In my dilemma,I had a goodjob asa secretaryfor a big company,but I reallywantedto becomea teacherand I didn't could do that without going to university.If I decidedto do that, I knew I will haveto quit my job and,asa student,I havemuch lessmoney.I talkedabout my dilemmawith one of the other secretaries and shewarnedme that I don't shouldgiveup sucha goodjob. Shesaidthat a youngwoman supposedto think about gettinga husband,not going to university.lt reallywasa dilemmaand I couldn'tdecidedwhat I ought do. But then I talkedto my aunt Maria. Shetold me that sheshouldgo to universitywhen shewasyounger.Shedecidednot to go and sheregrettedit. Shethought that I shouldto giveit a try. ShesaidI didn't shouldbe afraidand that shemay can help me pay for thingswith somemoneyshehad saved.That wasthe end of my dilemma.

3l

3 MODALS

Prediction:will,would,be goingto, shall We usewlll for predictions(1) and to saywhat we think is most likely (2). I It will becoldtomorrow.. I won'tJinishthisbeforeFriday-. Who do you think will winl 2 Thephone'sringing.That will beHarry. . Don't call themnow.They'llbesleeping. We uselill for a predictablesituation(3) and,woultl for a hlpotheticalsituation(4). 3 He'll lookbetterwithout that scruffybeard.(= I 16inplhut he'sgoingto shaveit off ) 4 He'd lookbetterwithout that scruffybeard.(- | don't think that he'sgoingto shaveit off.) We user.r,illplus the perfectfor a predictionabout an eventthat hasalreadyhappenedat some future time (5). We usewoaldplus the perfectfor a predictionaboutan imaginarypasteventor situation(6). 5 lt's no goodphoningat midnight.Everyone will havegone to bed. 6 Life in theMiddleAgeswasharshand cruel.Youwould haveh&teilit. We usuallyusewill for predictionsbasedon pastexperienceor knowledge(7) and begoingto for predictionsbasedon what we feelor think now (8). 7 Therewill bedelaysbecause of badweather.. Toomuchcoffeewill giveyou a headache. 8 Oh, no,I think it'sgoing to rain. . He'sgoing to get a headache from drinkingall that cffie. We Lrsebegoingto for a decisionalreadymade(9) or when somethingis startingto happen(10). 9 We'regoing to spendChristmasat home.. PaulandAngelaare going to get marriedin May. I0 Be atreful- you'regoing to dropit! . Closeyour eyes.I'm going to giveyou a big surprise. We trsewas/weregoing to (not woultl for past pLans:I wasgoing to do laq but changedmy mind. We useshallwith 1or 1eein questionswhenwe makeoffersand suggestions or when we askfor ( 11).We can useshall (or will) to expressdetermination(12). suggestions 11 Shall I closethedoor?. Let'stry again,shall we?'Were shall wegofor lunchtoday? 12 I shall (ox I'll) fnish this if it kilk me! , Welosta battle,but weshall (on we'Il) net'ergive up! 9 Completethis dialoguewith these forms. will shall

fll you'Il

I'm goingto I wasgoingto

ld won't

woull woukl have

It's 7.30 a.m. on Thursday morning. Pam and Jim are awake,but still in bed. The phone rings. Pam: Oh, that (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be for me. Hello? Mum: Hello dear. I was hoping it wasn't too early for you. I have to come into town today and I was wondering if you (2).. . . .. .. .. . .. . . .. be ableto meet me for lunch. Pam: Oh, (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . love to, Mum, but (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . get my hair done at lunchtime. I (s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . been free, but Janet called yesterdayand changed my appointmentfromFridaytotoday.(6).....................getitcutonFridaysothatitwould be nice for Dad's birthday this weekend. Mum: Ah, the birthday party! That's why I have to come to town. (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we just haveacoffeelater?Whendoyouthinklr).....................belinishedatthehairdresser's? Pam: Oh, she (e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have finished before 1.30 or 2. And then I have to get back to the ofltce. Mum: It's okay. I understand. (r0). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . talk to you later.

32

Wjll. shall ^nd begoin\ to (ftrrte) 24

Will, votld ir conditiondls I 8s 6

3 MODALS

Willingness, habitsand preferences: willand would Willingness:will andwoulil We usewill to saywe aredefinitelywilling now (l) andwouldfor willingnessin the future or in (2). We alsousewouldwhenwe mean'willing,but not ableto' (3). conditionalsentences I I will giveyou onemorechance.. Thereareadvisersherewho will helpandguideyou. 2 Mostpeoplewould pay morefor betterhealthcare.. I would staylongerif theyaskedme to. - Oh,I would helpyou, but I'te injuredmy back. 3 Canyou helpuscarrytheseboxes? We usewor't (= isn t willing to) or woukln't(- wasn'twilling to) to saythat a personrefusesto do something(4) and to talk aboutthings/machines asif they werepeoplewho are/werenot willing (5). 4 He\ i , but he won't go to thedoctor's.. Shehada lot of money,but shewouldn't lendus any. 5 Thedoorisn't locked,but it won't open., My carwouldn't start this morning.

Habits and preferences:wiII and would We can describepresenthabitsor t)?ical behaviourwith wlll (6). We can use wouldfor habitual actionsin the past (7). 6 Her chiklrenwill breakewrythingtheytouch.. Tim will just sitwatchingTV for hours. 7 I would try to stayawakeewry Xmasto seeSanta.. Eachsummerwe would tisit nry cousins. We sayusedto (not would) for past states:I usedto havea dog.(Not +-wottl44wea4og,) (like, Iove,prefer)(8), especiallyin We l.rsewoulrl(not will) with verbsexpressing preferences offers(9). 8 I woulil prefer an early class.. I'il lote to go on a uuise. (Not *lL1a+etoge-ex-aen*tse) 9 Woulil you like sometea or would you prefer coffee?(Not r#i4aott4kesome+ea|) We useworld (not rvill) afterthe verb wishwhenwe'retalkingabout preferredactions. 10 I wishshewouldn't smoke.. Don'tyou wish theywould makeit easierto recyclethings? We don't use woaldto describestates:I wish I had o car. (xot l-+*1-*oaH4*e-a-ear) 10 Compfete each sentencewith one pair of verbs and forms of wilr or would, where appropriate. be/hate

be/say

eat/ need gile/ go

have/ Iike

play/ stay push/ start

I Evenwhen shegetsthe flu, my friend Alice ... .. .. .. .. . to seethe doctor becauseshe's afraidthat he . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . her an injection.Sheis terrified of needles. 2 We had an old car that .. ... on cold morningsunlesswe got out and .................. it. 3 Amy: Carlawantsto know if you . . a sliceof her horne-madechocolatecake. Bob: Tell her I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . normally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two slices,but not while I'm on this strict diet. 4 \4rhenwe wereyoung,we . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . always outsideduring the j u s t s u m m ehr o l i d a y sb,u t n o w a d a ycsh i l d r e n . .... ... .. inside . ... . .. . .... . ... . ... . watchingTV or video gamesall day. t o w o r ko n a n i g h ts h i f tb e c a u sIe 5 I h o p eI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n e v e .r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a s k e d . . .... . ... . ... ... . . .. havingto go to sleepfor mostof the followingday. 6 I'm surewe to cook anlthing for them becausethey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lunch beforethey comehere. 7 When peopleaskedAnnie'sdad if he had children,his tlpical answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . And how!'Her rnotherusuallymurmured,'lwishhe .. . ... . . ... ... . ... . .. thingslikethat.'

Verbsused to d$c.ibe aclions or stares-l

33

3 MODALS

Ability:can,cotid, be abteto We usecariwhen we talk about.general ability and couldfor generalabilityin the past. ' ostrichescan run t ery 1- can you play chess? courdswim befoiehe coull watk. fast. . Their"son In the negative,can'tis more usualthan canror(written asone word), which is very format. (uor l-eaa+or6e) We often usecanand,coull with verbsfor mentalprocesses (2) and senses(3). . Can you remember her nime? (Nor Arelot+emen*erfuJter:tamd) ? !c:ud!'! lecids 3 we could hear a cat,but we courdn'tsee it. ' I can smel onions.(Not rm-sie#htg-o*ioL) We sometimesusetheseverbsin the presentsimple(I smellonions),but not in the prlsent continuous. Other verbsusedlike this include:believe,feel,guess,taste,understand we usebeableto (.notcanor cou-rd) in four of the phrasalmodal structures:in infinitives, in gerunds(4), after modals,and in the perfect(5). Theywant to be able to practise.. Shetef withour beingable to talk to the teacher. ! w.on'tbe able to fnish. , He hasn,rbeenable to studyl6or +ie4a*t+_eo4d
usetheir wingsfor

2 3 4 5

An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . personis someonewho calm in difficult situations. I t w a ss oc o l dt h a tm y f i n g e rw s ere a n dI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a n y t h i n g . W h e np e o p l ea r . , t h e y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o r w r i t e . A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p e r s o ni s s o m e o nw e h o h a s. . . . . . . . . d o w h a th e o r s h e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . t o d o . 6 I f y o u . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . t o f i n i s h do it, even though it w4s........._.. 12 Compfete this joke with appropriate forms of can or could. Did you hearabout the womanwho went fishing,but (t ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . catchanlthing?On her wayhome,shestoppedat the marketso thatshe(2) ... . .... . ... . ... . .... buy two fish.Shethen steppedbackafewpacesandaskedthefishsellerifhe(:).....................throwthemtoher. T h ep u z z l e d m a na s k e d , ' W h y ? , Twhoem a na n s w e r e d , .tShoa tI ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t e l lm y husbandthat I caughta coupleof fish todayl'

34

3 MODALS

Permission'. can,could,may,might,be allowedto We usecanand couklto askfor permission,choosingcouldto be more polite (l ). We usec4lr(not could)to giveor refusepermission(2). ' Could we leateearlytoday? 1 Can I borrowyour dictionary?' Can thedogcomeinto thehouse? you can. . No,it can't. . I'm sorry,but you can>t.(Not lm+o+y4aryen-eaal*t+) 2 Yes, In formal situations)we can userzaTwhenwe askfor (3) or give (4) permission(or not). 3 May wecomein? . May I takethischair?' May I useoneof thesephones? I needit. , Of course, you may useany of thesephones. you may. . No,you may not, because 4 Yes, Mlght can be usedto askfor, but not to give, permission: Mif t I take one?- Yes.(Not {es,-7oa 1ftidtt)

We usuallyusecar (not may)whenwe talk aboutlawsand rules (5). May (not night) is sometimes usedin formal rules(6). 5 Youcan'tpark here.- Why not?- I think only busesand taxiscanpark here. may not enterthisway. 6 No footl or drinksmay bebroughtinside.' Pedestrians gettingpermissionon a specific We usebeallowedto (nol mayor might) whenwe emphasize occasion(7) and in all the phrasalmodal structures(8). (Nor I mig!+-ffiale. .. ) 7 That daywasthefirst timeI was allowedto makemy own breakfast. 8 No onehas beenallowetl to seethe testresubs., Wearen't heing allo$,ed to go in yet. Note the combination:Youmay/mightbe alloweil to go.(= It's possibleyou'll get permissionto go.) 13 Choosean ending (a-f) foreach beginning (1-6) and add can, mayor be allowed to, not register(. .) a asif he wasinterestedin my drawing. New students. . . (. b becausethere'sno more work to do. Childrenshouldrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .) H e c a s u a l l y a s k e d , ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I s e e t h a t ?c' ( f. o. .r)m o r et h a nt h r e ec l a s s e s . go in (. .) d eator drink during a test. You might not.. (. e if you'reunder 21. You. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all leaveearlytoday . .) ( . . . ) f p l a yw i t h m a t c h e s . 6 T h e ya r eu n l i k e l yt o . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 3 4 '5

14 Editing.Correct the mistakesin this text.

coit 'Can I borrow your pen?',shealways My fiiend Danaeamot- say'No'.If anotherstudentasksher, says,'Ofcourse,you could',and handsit over,evenwhen sheonly hasone pen and it meanssheisn't beingableto do her own work. After I heardher do that one day,I told her that shecan havesaid, 'Sorry,but you cannot,becauseI only haveone pen.'In reply,shesaid,'Buthow do they could do their work without a pen?'I knew that I can havetried to answerthat question,but somehowI didn t think I'll can changehow shebehaved,no matterwhat I said.

Cdn't couldnl 40 May, night, can, could \possibiliq)

36

35

3 MODAI_S

Possibility:may,might,can,could Possibility: may and,might We can useeither mayor mightto saythat somethingis possiblenow or later (l ). We useeithermay or rui8htplus the perfectto sayit is possiblethat somethinghappenedbeforenow (2). I Thkingthesepilk may/mightcauserirowsiness. Youmight/mayfall asleepat thewheel. 2 I may/mighthavelost my key.. Tanyamight/mayhavemet Jameswhenshewasin Lontlon. In the negative,we can say:It may not/mightnot/mightn'thappen.(Nor l*ftfi++appelx) We usernay(not migftr)when we saythat a possiblesituationis commonor usual(3). We can use might (not rnaT)in descriptionsofwhat waspossiblein the past(4) and whenwe report speechand thoughtsafterverbsin the pasttense(5). 3 Peppers may begreen,yellowor red.. Measlesmay causea feverand smallredspots. 4 In thosedays,peoplemight spendtheir entirelivesin thetillage wheretheywereborn. 5 ('I may be late.')He saidhe might belate.. I waswonderingif you might havetime to readthis.

Possibility: can ^nd could We tse can/couldin generalstatementsto saythat a situationis (can)or was(corld) possible. 6 Somedogscan beverydangerous..Theold housecould bequitecold,eyenin summerWe usecould(not car) when we speculateabout things,meaning'It's possiblethat ...' (7) and to ask 'ls i t p o s s i b lteh a t. . . ? ' ( 8 ) . 7 Yourbagcoukl be in the car. . It could rain this weekend.(Not 1+-ean-rah*4is-+te*ett*) 8 Peteris late. Could he be stuckin trffic? (Not'€an4e4esta*-tn+rafi4) We usecorild(not car) plus the perfectwhenwe speculateaboutthe possibilityof an earlierevent. 9 The bank coulil have closedalready.. Youcould havefallen. (Nor 1&t
May/might or can/could? We usemay,might or could(not cdr) to saythat a specificeventis possible( l0), beforephrasal modals( 11)andbeforethe continuousor perfect(12).We can usemightor couldplusthe perfectto expressirritation at someone'snot havingdonesomething( 13). l0 Ann may arrive later. . Therecoulil bea storm tonight. (Nor there-eaa4e-a-s+ont+ottigftt) ll It may begoingto rain. , Wemight hayeto leayesoon.(Not lA/e-ean4aw+eleate-s ) , Lani might hat e borrowedthe hair-dryer. 12 Theeconomymay be showing signsof recovery. 13 Youmight havepostedmy lenerwhenyou wentout to postyours! We rrsemayor might (not canor could)when we makea concession beforea clausewith but 14 Shemay beseventy, but shestill likesto dance.. Wemight haw losta battle,but not the war. Nole that It may beold, but it worksrsvery similar in meaningto Ahhoughit'sold, it works. We usecanor coukl(not mayor might)to makesuggestions aboutpossibleactions(15) and when we askpeopleto do things( 16). 15 Wehavea simplechoice.Wecan/coulilwait herefor a busor wecould./canstart walking. 16 Can you showme whereit is?. Couldyou takethisaway?(Not tr4ay1aa+ake+his-awat') We usemay not or might not whenwe mean'possiblenot' ( l7). When we mean'not possible', we use can'fforthe presentsituationand cotrldn'r for the past( l8). 17 It moy/mightnot betue. (- Perhapsnot) . Thisbill may/mightxot beright.It seemstoo high. . 18 That storycan't be true.(= I'm sureit's not) , Thisbill can't beright. Weonly had two coffees. I knewthe rumour aboutyour accidentcouliln't be true because I'd seenyou that morning.

36

(1,'r, dt,ld (abilit)') 34 Con, .orkl, nq,, ,ti[ht l?etmission) ]s C.r',,.orid,l

(deduction) 40 Phrasalnodak 29

] MODATS

15 Using a dictionary if necessary,completeeach sentencewith an adjectiveand a modal. absurd feasible disqualified potentiql

theoretical may undecided maynot (x2)

may be mayhave

might might not

run in a marathonwhenhe wasyounger,but it's 'one him as to keep describing of the top runners'. . .... .... ... .... .... She. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . breakingthe rulesandwill possiblybe . . ... ... . ... ... . ... .. from the restof the competition. If someoneis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . about an action,they . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do it. We knewaboutthe .. . ... ... ... ... . . problemsandtheworkmenhadsaidthey f i n i s ho n t i m e . peopledon't think it's economically Your plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be approvedbecause

1 Your uncle 2 3 4 5

that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . happen,but nobodythinks it will. 6 From a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . perspective, 16 Completethis text with appropriateforms of can or courd plus these verbs. avoid

be

not imagine pick

save not send

in the world, we really Thesedays,when we (r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . up a phoneand call an1'where don t realize,and often (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , how diffrcultlong-distancecommunication (3).... . ... .... . ... .... . for peoplein the past.In the early19thcenturythe Treatyof Ghent brought an end to the War of 1812betweenBritain and the United States.But the news (4)... . ... . ... . ... ... . . acrosstheAtlanticfastenoughto stopGeneralAndrewJackson attackingand defeatingthe British forcesin New Orleansa full threeweeksafterthe treatywassigned.With bettercommunication,thebattle(s).....................andthelivesofmorethantwothousand p e o p l (e6 .) . . . . . . . . . 17 Correct the mistakes in these sentences using /nay, might, can or couldExample:It wasa bad accident.Wec*$tiravebeenkilled. I They canbe goingto increaseairport feesto pay for increasedsecurity. 2 Don't turn offthe computeryet.Someonecan still be usingit. 3 In late 18thcenturyScotland,you may be hangedfor stealinga sheep. 4 Thesepeoplecan havea lot ofmoney, but it doesnt makethem interesting. 5 By FridayI canhavefinishedthe book,but if I get too busy,I can not. 6 May someonetell me wherethe main officeis? 7 We krow he doesnt tell the truth, so we reallymight not believeany of his stories. 8 He askedme lastnight if you maybe willing to talk to Margaretfor him. 9 Accordingto the forecast,the weathercanbe a bit warmertoday. 10 This switchisn't working.May the childrenhavebrokenit?

37

] MODALS

Necessity'. must,haveto, havegot to, needto, needn't Necessity:must and mustn't (l ), especially We use flrit to saythat somethingis necessary in ordersand rules(2). We usethe negatiyemustn't/maslrxottotell peoplenot to do thingsor to saysomethingis a bad idea (3). I Plantsmust havelight. . Yourbasicneedsare the thingsyou must halteto lit e a normallife. 2 Youmust cometo classon time., Safetyhelmetsmust beworn. , AII tisitorsmust signin. 3 Youmustn't comelate., Emptyboxesmust not bestackedin front of the emergency erit. We alsouse mustto encourage someoneto do somethingwe think is important (4) or to emphasizea strongfeelingor opinion(5). 4 Wemust hayea p.trq, at theendof term., Youand I mustget together for lutch soon. 5 I must disagree with that. Wemust not acceptnetyregulations that restrictour civil rights.

Necessity:have to, don't have to and havegot to We usually use haye to rnstead,of mr6f when we are not in control of what is necessaryor required. 6 My mother has to have an operation on her knee. , I have to wear glasses for reading. We usually use hate to (with auxiliary do) instead of mrst in questions. 7 Why does eleryone have to sign?. Don't fou have to wear a seatbelt? . Do I have to do it again? We can form questions with musl, but they sound more formal: Must I do it again? We use haye to (not must) when we ask or talk about what was required or necessaryin the past (8) and in all the phrasalmodal structures(9). 8 Did you have to wear uniform in school?Colin had to wear a blazer,a cap and a tie. 9 YouwiII haye to change.. I don't want to have to fght. . Nobody likeshaving to wash dishes.. I have had to completethreeforms already. Now I'm having to completeanother one. We tse don't haye to (not mustn't) as the opposite of nasfwhen something is not necessary. 10 lt's free - you don't have to pqy. . The gate was open so we ilidn't haye to wait outside. We can use hayegot to instead,of have to rn rnformal situations, but only in the present tense (l l ). We use hrrve(not do) as an auxiliary with gor ro when we form negativesand questions (12). 77 We have got to fnd a better way to do this. . l've got to seeBen. (Not I hadgot+o-seeBen-) 12 She hasn't got to wait long. . Have we got to buy tickets? (Not Do we4*4e++o4uy+ieket*)

Necessity:needto, don't needto and.needn't We can use need to hke have to to say that something is necessary(13) or not necessary( 14). 13 Jim neerlsto/has to leat)esoon. . I'Il need to/have to take an umbrella. (Nol Nll-nee4+d<e-aa tsnbrcna-) 1.4 We don't need to/have to wait. . Becauseit rained, I won't neeclto/have to water the garden. We can also use needn'tor neednot (withot /o) to say that something is not necessaryon a particular occasion (l5). We usually use don't needto for things that are not necessaryin general (16). 15 You neeiln't pay me now. . It's still ea y so we needn't rush- (Not t#es+eed#++o-rttdt) 16 Sturientsdon't need to ptly to use the library. (Nor @) In Anrerican English, only don't needto (not needn't)is used. We use dirln't need fo when we mean it was not necessaryto do something (17), We use needn't haye plus a past participle when we mean something unnecessarywas done (18). 17 I knew there woukin't be a test,so I didn't need to study.I watched TV instead. 18 I studied aII night, then found out the testwas cancelled.I needn't hove studied at all.

38

Auxiliary verbs r7 Mun, hav to, havegot toldeduction) 40 Phrasalmodals 29

3 MODALS

18 Using a dictionary if necessary complete the sentences with these words and appropriate forms of musf or fiaye to. comtnand duty-free evil I An optional.... .

extra

fruit

obligation step

taboo

in a new car is somethingthat is available,but you

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. e. ti t . 2 An essential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a part of a procedureyou'll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do in order for it to be successfirl. 3 F o r b i d d e.n. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . i s s o m e t h i ntgh a ty o u. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o u c ho r h a v ee, v e n though you reallywant it. 4 I n t h ea r m y s, o l d i e r.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a l w a yosb e ya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g i v e nb y a s e n i o o r fficer. 5 Ifyouareunderno.....................todosomething,you..............._..-..doit. 6 When you buy thingsthat are. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . , you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. pay tax on them. 7 If a topic is . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in a particularculture,it meansthat you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . talk about it becauseit is consideredoffensive. 8 A necessary is somethingyou don't like or want,but which you may ... .. a c c e p i t n o r d e rt o a c h i e vyeo u rg o a l . ..................... 19 Complete these sentences with the verbs and adjectives. didn't haveto havingto

must mustn't

neeilto needn'thaye

allowed official signifcant impossible required unnecessary

1 I . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e a ra j a c k eat n dt i el a s tn i g h t F . o r m aal t t i r ew a sn o t . 2 Y o u. . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . .m a d es om u c hn o i s eA. l l t h a ts h o u t i n w g a sq u i t e. 3 People. . .. . .. . . _.. . . . . . . . . . havedogsin their rooms.Petsarenot . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . _.. . . in the hotel. 4 Youwon't . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fill in forms.All the . . . . .. . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . paperworkwill be complete. 5 N o t. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. .a yt o u s et h ep o o li s a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b. .e n e f o i tf b e i n ga s t u d e nhte r e . 6 E v e r y o n. e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . h a v ea v a l i dp a s s p o b r te c a u si tew i l l b e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o e n t e r the country without one. 20 Correct the mistakes in these sentences. I We havealreadywashedall the dinner dishesso you mustn't cleanthem tonight. 2 Everyonewill havegot to go through metaldetectorseverytime they enterthe building. 3 I' needget someaspirinbecauseI've got a terribleheadacheand I haveto keepworking. 4 The part that broke is a crucialcomponentand I must to find a replacementimmediately. 5 Wheneverserviceis included in a bill, custornersneedn't to leavea tip for the waiter. 6 Our train arrivedratherlate and sowe had got to takea taxi to getto our meetingon time. 7 I doft want to be the one to must haveto tell him that he failedthe entranceexamagain. 8 I'm sureyou don t needbe overtwenty-oneto go into a pub here,but we must asksomeone. 9 When we stayedwith my grandmother,we must go to church with her every Sunday. l0 we didn t know that our friendshad alreadygoneinto the theatreso we needn'thaveto wait all that time for them outsidein the cold.

39

3 MODALS

Deduction'. must,haveto, havegot to, can'tand couldn't We uselr?r6tto saythat a particularideaor deductionis very likely or certain,basedon the evidence (l ). We use masrin the modal continuousfor a deductionaboutwhat is happeningnow (2). I You'reshivering you must becold.. Lookat that car!Ali'sparentsmust hate a lot of money! 2 Listen.It must be raining outside.' I think I must hegerting theflu. (Nor +-mts+6*+hef*) We use mrst plus the perfectwhen we want to expressa deductionaboutwhat hashappenedalready (3) and when we report deductionsin clausesafterpasttenseverbs(4). 3 Someonemust have taken the key becauseit isn't here.(Not Semeone++as++a)ee+he*ey) 4 Werealizedhe must havelieil. , I thoughtat frst that someone must havemqdea misteke. We use mustin indirect speechwhen the information is still true: He saidshemust beItalian. We can alsousehaveto or havegot to insteadof mustfor a deductionin informal situations. 5 I didn't orderten books.Thishas to bea mistake., Thesearen'tmine- they'vegot to beyours. We usecan'for couldn't(not mustn't)asthe oppositeof mastin negativedeductions(6). We use can'tor couldn'tplus the perfectfor negativedeductionsaboutearlierevents(7). 6 Thebill is overL50- that can't beright. . Youcan't be21! (Nor l+a-mas+n:++eesl) 7 Youcan't havefinisheil already!, If he wasn'tthere,he couliln't havecoflmitted the murder.

21 Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1*5) and add appropriateforms of musf or can't. 1 2 3 4 5

lulia goesto Malta everysummer.(. . .) What she'saskingfor is ridiculous.(. . .) The handson the clockweren'tmoving.(.. ) Their daughterwasonly threethis year.(. .) (. ..) Thoseare two contradictorystatements.

a b c d e

S h e. . . . . . . . . . . s t a r t e sdc h o oyl e t . If one is correct,the other . . . . . . . . . . . be. lt's crazy.She.. ... ... joking. She... . ... . ... reallylike it there. I t . . . . . . . . . . s. t o p p ewdo r k i n g .

22 Completethis dialoguewith must or couldn't plus appropriateforms of the verbs. be

cary

do

lose put

take

Mum (putting on her coat): I'm goingto haveto go down to the shopfor more bread. Alan: Why? Mum: I'm not surewhat happened.I madesomesandwiches earlierand left them on the table when I went to answerthe phone.But someone(1) . . them because they'regone. Alan: Oh, it (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dad. l'm surehe wasin the kitchenearlier. Mum: No, he went offto his tennismatchbeforeI finishedmakingthem,so he (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it. An)'\,vay, he (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a plateof sandwiches aswell asall his tennisstuff,so I'm sureit wasn'thim. Alan (openingfridge door): Well,it wasn'tme.But Mum,look! Are theseyour sandwiches here on the bottom shelfof the fridge? Mum: Are theyin there?Oh, my goodness. I (s) .. ... ... ... .. themin therewhenthe phone rang.Oh, dear.I really(e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . my mind. Noq why did I put on my coat?

40

Indnect spee.h 1s0 Can,.ouL134 36

Mrst, rar. to, rdlcAdr to (necessLt))38

3 l\tot)Al.s

Obligation and advice'. should,oughtto, be supposedto, had better Obligation and advice:shoulil Weusesy'roald (2) and generally to express an obligation(1),to talkaboutwhatis expected to say whatwe think is a goodor appropriate idea(3). . At electiotttime,everyone I Thepoliceshouldcrackdownon speeding. should vote. 2 Yotirea stuclettt.Youshouldbestudying!. Nursesond doctorsshouldn'tsntoke. 'Thank 3 Teachers should getmorepay.. Childrenshoulil leanl to say'Please' aud you'. Weuseshorildwhenwe askfor andgiveadvice(4) or warnings(5). . Youshouldget to theairport early. 4 WhatshouldI do?. Youshoulil tokenotesduritg lectLtres. . 5 Youshoukln'tgo swimmingright erftereating. Youshouldn'tgo throughthepark at night. \\Ie can useshorldto saythat somethingis likely because we haveplannedit or expectit. 6Ifallgoesv,,ell,wcshouldbetherebeforeitgetsdark..Thebusshoulilcontesoon. Weuseshouldplusthe perfectwhenwe think thatsomething goodor desirable did not happen(7), oftenasa wayof expressing regret(8). 7 Theyshouldhaverehearsedbeforeplnying.. l{e shouklhavelefi a tip for our waiter. 8 Weshouldhavebeenmorecarefulwith our money.. I shouldn'thavetold atyoneabotrtit.

Obligation and advice:ought to, be supposeilto and,had better We can use ought to itlstead of should with no difference in meaning. 9 Neighboursought to/should help each other. . You really ought to/shoulil be more careful. . He should/ought to have completed the work bet'orehe left. (Nor Htoryhtha*eentpk+ed +he+tork) The negatives are oughtn't to or oLtghtnot to: Youought not to trsit. (Nor t6*or6#t-rc*-+ra#) We can also u.sebe nrpposerlto instead of s/roulrl usually in informal sitr"rations(10). We can use De supposed to (not sfiould)when we report what othersthink is true (l I ). l0 You are supposed to/shoukl be sleeping. (Nor rk*:uppesed+o4eskepfug) lI Killing a spider is supposed to be unlucky. (N<'n Ktlling-e:pider:he d4e-anlacky) We can use had betteras a strongerversionof shouldwhen we reconmend ( l2) or warn against(13) doing something. 12 Youhavefoiled two tests.Youhad better stort working harder or you tt orr't passthe course. 13 lohnny's goirrgto takeyour bike. - He'd better not do that! (No't l#M,ojhet) 23 Add these nouns and verbs to these sentences. cat Iadtler

mirror person

shoulder nnbrella

had better is suppostdto

oueht not shiuldn't

shouldbe should have

I f y o u l i s t e nt o t h e a d v i c eo f a s u p e r s t i t i o Iur s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , y o u ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be ready to pay a lot of attention to what you're doing each day. Be careful with that (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. You'll be told that yolr (4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . open it indoors.When you're walking along the street, watch out for a (s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . You (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . careftrl not to walk under one. Did you spill any salt reccntly?You know that you (7). . . . . immediatelythrown some of it over your (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ., don't you?And rememberthat you (9). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to be careless with a (ro). .. . . ... . .. . . . .. . . , becauseif you break one, you'll havesevenyearsofbadluck.Howevetifyouseeablack(rr)... . b e c a u si et ( r 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . b e l u c k y .

5/'orll in noun clausesl6t

. . . . . . , t h a t ' sg o o d ,

4l

3 MODALS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. I You're18!Youre a have b ought

to be able to look after yourselfby now. c should

d supposed

2 A permit is a document which statesthat you a are allowed

b cannot

3He a could

a Can

b May

to do something.

d shall

havehelped us if he'd reallv wanted to. c must d will

b may

4 My computer a can b could

c may

be old, but it still works really well. c may

d would

someonepleasetell me where the library is? d Should

c Must

ldentify the one underlined expression (A, B, C or D) that must be ehanged in order to correct the sentence. g!9glg! take an umbrella or you --6-" I They sayit can --be eoine to rain later so you --Tmiqht get wet. A B2 I was goirlg - A i - Bto- -ask - - -you c - if you would read over my essaybefore I havetg hand it in, but when you read it.. .vou - D oueht not be too critical or nesative. 3 His right may ha,vebeen badly iniured and he probably won't be aLle to type, so I thought - hand ---' --EA L that I will offer to do sometyping for him. D 4 Andy was so generous.If I askedhim, 'Qgg!! I borrow your car?lhe worrld alwayssay, 'Of course,you ' c Dgqsllll and he would immediately start looking for the keys. 5 I really wish I would havea car of my own so that I could go for a drive in the country and I AB would be able to go when I want to and not haveto wait for a bus or a train.

c-D

Combineone modaland one verb phraseto flll eachspaceln this text, cafl

mayfiot

will

won't

must

becharged bepaid befamiliar berquireil

beused

Note: Credit cardsare usedinsteadof cach,interest is chargedand part payment is allowed" Chargecardsare usedinsteadof cash,but no interest is chargedand frrll payment is required. As a new customerofthe bank,you (r) with the differencebetweena charge card and a credit card. Both cards (2) insteadof cashin most placesto pay for goods and sewices.I-ater,when you receiveyour chargecard bill, the total in full every time. HoweveSwhen you receiveyour monthly credit card bill, you (r) to pay the total amount. If you chooseto pay only part of the bill, you 1sy intereston the amount not paid.

42

3 MODALS

Completeeachsentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 Studentsmay not park here. Studentsare 2 It's oossiblethat his trip wascancelledat the lastminute. His trip may 3 Shehad to get up at five everymorning and shedidn't enjoyit. Shedidn't enjoy 4 It wasimpossiblefor him to havecommittedthe crime,accordingto the report. II.

5 It wasa bad ideato put this shirt in the washingmachine. This shirt E Completethis text with these words. beableto bewilling to

couldn't mtght wosableto should wasgoingto had to

would(x2)

'Hello! Mr Appleton!' The voicewassomedistancebehindhim. He stoppedrakingthe leavesand turned to seetwo womenstrugglingup the drivewaytowardshim. They werewearingidenticalwhite T-shirtswhich had MADD in largeblacklettersacrossthe front. He had a suddenstrangethought that they spell.But they didn t look (r) be crazypeoplewho rz) (:) smaller lettersunder eachof the make out came closet he crazy.As they 'MothersAgainstDrunk Driving'. big letters,spellingout the words 'I'm so gladwe found you. I'm NettieAlbright and this is AgnesMiller.' He shooktheir outstretchedhands.Agneswaswearingthin gloves. 'We talkedto your wife this morning and she'sthe onewho told us we (4) find you here.Shesaidshehadn't reallywitnessedthe accident,but you (6) testifr.'She you had.We werehoping t:7) (8) stop and takea deepbreath. 'You

mean the car crash?' 'Yes, exactly,the crash. We need witnesses.That awful man saysit wasn't his fault. He

be takenout and shot!He'sa menaceto socieryWe needyour helP to put him away.' It had happenedone earlyeveningin July.I (to) .lust crossthe streetwhen a car cameracingthrough the red light, narrowlymissingme,but smashing into anothercar in the middle of the junction. The woman in that car died.When the man who hit her turned out to be very drunk, it all changedfrom being an accidentto being a criminal case.

Negativesare usuallyformedwithan auxiliaryverb(be,do or have\or a modalplusnotln't beforethe main verb (l am not crying,you don't care,he hasn'tgone,we shouldn'twait). Questionsare usuallyformedwithan auxiliaryverb(be,do or have\or a modalbeforethe subjectand the mainverb(Has he gone?Shouldwe wait?). There are yes/noquestions(Are you crying?Do theycare?)and u/h-questions (Wherehas he gone?Why should we wait?). Readthroughthis interviewandfind: yes/noquestion 1 another 2 theonesentence thatcontains twoneqative verbs A Why did you start the 'Protect Yourself' E programme? A good friend ofminc ryasarrackecl anrl robbcd last It'ar on hcr rvavbomc from rvork. Shcl'asn t scriouslvinjLrred. bur ir realll flighrenccl t ; her rn,:lshervouldnr go our alone.1starredralkinq rs to hcl abourprorecringhersrlflnrl sherhoughrir rvotrldbc e good idea ro for-nta group. Evenrualll u'c had so nranvpeoplethar rt tulrrcdinro a regular kinclofnight class. ro 13 Who can take part? Anvonc nho lanrs ro. bur mosrlvir'sloung \rornen.\\t nrecrin an old buildins drais nexr ro the bir clrurchon \\'ilder Avenue,frorr 6 to 7 on lllondays. C Do you teach karate and stuff like that? Not C; rs lcallv.\\,'ctrie,:lsomeoltlur ar firsr,bur it uasnt vcry succt'ssftrl. Therr is a real karareclassin rhe samcbLrilclingon Thursrlevsfirl pcoplelho u'anr thar \\t'srill Lrstsomeofrhc ntovenrenrs from karaterr|cn uc ralk aboutrr'evs ro escape. but le :o focusnrorr'onnot gettinginro rharkind ol srauation. H D Whar do you mean? How don't you get into 'that kind of situation'? \\'c rrlk a ror aoournoc beconringa viccirnand rhinkingofrraysto avoid :: bein{ atreckctl.ICsreallvnrorcaboutatarenessancl .: frou not tr.rbc an easvtargct.Thcre are some statisricsaboutassaulrviccinrsdrarl e calkabotrt. For erample,lomen rlith longtr hair arenore likclv to bc atteckc,:l rhanlomen tltose hair is shorretor lo in a srylcdrar can'rbc gralrbtcl.

ls there anphing else?Clorhingis anorhelrhing. \\'omenin skirrsend dlesses areatrackcdntorerhan rhoseii€arinq icans or trousr'ls. When and where do most attacks occur? Ar night.ofcoursc.Ilur surprisingh.a hrgc nurrberof assaulrs crccutin rhe carl1, morning,bcforr 8.30. Theyhappenin isolatedareas,parks.ourside schoolsand ofhce buildings befole and afrcr regrrlar torking hours. Wc adviservomennor ro go alone ro parkingaleasanclga|agesin rhe norninq oI in the evcning.But. iIr,ou n1osr.Iou shouldcarrvan r r m b r e l l a , ' nr n r c r l r r r lgi k c t h . r ra n d .r f r o r rr , g o r n g ro vour car, havcvour kevsready. What's the umbrella for? ls it a weapon? Well, it isn'r nrtrch ofa ueapon, is it? Ilrrrle rhink it helpsvou frcl moreconfidenr.We acruaLly practiseusingthe Lrmbrclla to keepsomeoneat a distancet4rile vorrshorlrand sareanas lolld as!ou can lo discouragcanv atrackerr|ho {'anrs vou ro be an easvlictint. What should you do if you're actually attacked? Be a problcm. Grab fingersand bend therrrback\r'a(ls.llirc hlnds. Sromp vour foot dou,n hard on tht arrackcr's tor:s.Grabthe skin underrhe erm abovedrc arracker's elbo$,andsqucczteshard asvou can.Nlove,nvisr.kick.scratch.fall dorvn. screamand lell. llc hard to hold and makca lor of noise.

Choose one of the following as the final sentenceof the last five paragraphsabove (D-H) I \\t wiurl\1)uto bc a difficrrltproblerr.(. ) ( ) 2 \{aytrc thlt's \!hv thcrc arc irlsol'l'loreattilclisin wrnlel rrreatlter'. 3 \iru nmy bc frghtingfor yoLrllifc. ( ) .1 It isn t wisc to stind oLlt thcrc scarchingfbr sonrcthingin vour baii. ( ) ( .) 5 A ponv tlil cxn make \'oLlvcrv vLllltcrirblc. .1,1

,{ NEGdi]VESAND QUES.].ION.S

Wordorderin negatives and questions Negatives With auxiliaries be, have and modals, we form negativeslvith not/rit.In formal situations we use the ftrll form (We are not) (1). In informal situations,we usuallycontract uot (lfe aretr't)(2) or we contractthe auxiliary (I4/c'reiror)and the modal (fire'll rror)(3 ). I Dogsare not allowed in city parks. . GuesLsmust not eat or drirtk outside. 2 They aren't listening. . We haven't forgotten the ftrcetit1g.. Her parents won't let her go. 3 We're not readyyet. . I'ye not beellgiven otry instructiotts.. He'll not gyounlessyou oskhim. With other verbs, we form negativeswith r/o plus rorlr't before the base forn of the verb. 4 Somepeople ilo not undersland. , It does not work. ' I did not reftse to pay. . They don't remembcr.. It doesn't help us. , We didn't seeit. (NO'r1!H1M) Negative fornrs of do are not used wjth modal verbs: I csn't sl\,im.(Nttt {4oa:t+en:wint ) In sentences rvith inEnitivesand gerunds,we put rrorbeforethe infinitive or gerund. 5 He pretendednot to see us. , I enjoyednot going to schoolfor a few days. We can use ro before nouns (6), and r.regative adverbssuch as no ktngerctrireueibeforeverbs (7). 6 There werc no problens. . We'll have no moneyJbr rent. (::ctt We4-rcJa+e'motteyJet+e*) 7 She'sno longer working tlrcre.. They will never befree. (Nctt TheryAL+e teffi.free)

Questions With anxiliaries be, have and nodals, r,veforr.n questions by putting the auxiliary or modal before the subject. We put the main verb after the subject. 8 Are you coming?. Have they fnkhed? . Why must you leave?(Nor Whylett+ws+leate?) . How can I help? . Where was your watch nnde? (sol 44hae-+rer:mdeloar weteh?1 With other verbs, rve forn questions with do before the subject and the base foln of thc vcrb. 9 Do you know the answer?. Whet does she want? . Diil he break it? (Nor Did k4rckeiP) We begin yes/no questions $'ith be, do, ftnle or a modal ar.rdusually use thel.n to get Yesor No as an answer(10). We can useyes/noquestior.rs.joined by orwhen we offer a choicebetrveentlvo possible answers(l l ). l0 Am I thertrst to arrive? , Are you feeling okay?, Do you like it? . Does it work? , Have you got a minute? , Hes it stopPedraining? . May we come in? . Can you play tlrc piano? ll Do we go now or wait until later? . Would you like sontethinghot or somethingcold to drink? Wh-questions begir.rwith wft words (question rvords) and ask for specific informatior.r. 12 What\ your fiane? , How nuch doesit cost?. When ond where tlo tnost attacksocar? Other ryh-words include: which, who, whom, whose, why When we usewftct or wfto as the subject,rve usuallyput the main verb (not do) after them. |3What'smakingt|mtloise?.Whouseilmycotnpl'er?(No'l.W) Note sinrilar usesof wlioseand which wrth no:uns Whose phone is ringing? ' Which teanr won?

Find one sentencecontaining an exampleof each of the following in the interview on page 44. 2 A negativeinlinitive:.

.

3 A neg.rtivegelLrnd: . 4 A w f r - r v o r du . e d a s . u b j q c l '

rvcgarivcNo,ds.18 N. \vifi ()mlDr.rtnrs,13 Qu$tion \!oRli 5r)

4 N F L ] A T I V LA SN L ) Q U F 5 T I O N S

questions and questiontags Negative Negativequestions (l Negativeyes/noquestionsusuallybeginwith negativefo rmsof bq do,/raveor a modal )' (2)' we put the negativeforms afterth-euh-words In iegative 'Aren'twh-questions, ' ' Doesn'tie speakany English?' Diiln't shegetmarriedlast,year? mine? thosi books t ' the wind.ow? Hasn't thelecturefnished yet?' Hawi't weseenthatflm? Can't you open -tiiyor, ' only *o, inuiiedto thi party.' Wy diiln\ you go?(No'1{fu7att4idi+3o2) Thereare z ten playerson thefield' ' Who isn't hereyet?(Not Nholst+4e+ereteP) No to saythe When we answernegatlveyes/noquestions'we use Yesto saythe positiveis true and negativeis true. "3 Aren't theyFrench?Yes.(= They areFrench')No (= They aren'tFrench') wePutnesativeadverbssuchasneyerandemphaticrrotaftertl-resubject(nottheauxiliary)in negativequestions. 4Hayeyounevereatenmeat?,Didhenotunderstandthetext?(NoTM +he+ex€) (6)' We can usenegatrveyes/noquestionsto askfor confirmation(5) or to expresssurprise ' tickets? paid the already we for s Isn't July"lth a Lig'+*rriro, holiday? Haven't 6 Doesn'tshelikeany musicat all?'Haven't you eter seensnow? beginningwith Why don'tyou '..? or Why not "? areusedfor offersor suggestions' Questions z Why itir\ yoi co-e *iti us?' Wlry not hat'etheparty on Saturdayinsteadof Friday? Thereis no subjectafterWhy not...?(Not@)

Question tags addedafterstatements' Questiontags(or tag questions)areshort forms of questions (8) or a negativestatement+ positivetag (9). We usuallyise a positivestatement+ negativetag ' ' 8 We'ielote,iren't we? Mark reallylovesher'doesn'the? Shelost it' iliiln't she? glcan'twin,canl?'Thevdon'tlikeit,itothey?'Youhaven'tstudiedatall'haveyou? The full forms (arewe not?,doeshe not?)arevery formal' verb that matches ln questlontags,we usea pronoun that matchesthe subiectof the sentenceand a do' form of we use a (as or verb)' a main be (ifthere or is one) th. *uin u"rb"o.,tiliary . He wasguiyy, (Nor 314''4.1''3) you? have holiday, you on sih" *"nt since havent talkedto Mary to showeilhe wasguihy,didn't it? (t'tor*ast\Ad) wasn'the?' Theevidence Note that we usea positivetag with theyafterno oneot nobofir Nobodylikesit' do they? or proposals' for requests We usemodalsin tagsafterimperatives me that knife,coulil you?' Let'sleave'shall we? I1 Don'tsayanytiing will yiu? ' Pass WecanuseapositivetagafterapositivesentencewhenwewanttoconfiIminformation'oftenafter very rare' repeatingwhai a previois speakirsaid.A negativetag aftera negativesentenceis ' they? protest' are a planning are students So' the tZ fhit't you, i"* uu, is it? 4 Find one exampleof each of the following in the interviewon page 44' question:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I a negative 2 a sentencewith a questiontag:

46

Ncgari!. Nords 48 Subject verb rSreen*nt 4

$/lI 1v'rds 4i

4 NEGATIVES AND QUESTIONS

5 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethe sentenceswith these words. isn't aren't

doesn't won't

fio not

nondescript non-refundable non-stick non-eyent non-resident non-stop

1 Thereusually. . anyproblemscleaninga pan if itt the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kind. in a country,he or sheis a 2 Whensomeone ... . ... . .... . .... .... livingpermanently 3 If somethingis expectedto be big or dramatic,but it's 4......................

m e a ntsh em o n e yw o n ' b t er e t u r n e .d. ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i.t.? 4 whichhas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specialor 5 Theword . . ... . ... . ... . ... .. is usedfor something unusualfeatures. Ifyourjourneyis.....................,you.....................beabletovisitanyoftheplaces alongthe way. 6 Completethe questions with these words. What When I 2 3 4 5 6

Where Whose are did Who Why

do don't

isn't were

I havetwentynamesand only nineteenstudents,. . . . . heretoday? place, you with We havean extraroom in our stay us? . . ... . .... .... . .... .. you tell them he was? Everyonewaslooking for Mr Kidd Theremust be hundredsof peopleworking there.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they all do? My parentsworkedin SaudiArabiatoo... .... . ... . ... . . .. . .. theythere? S o m et h i n g sw e r eI e f ti n c l a syse s t e r d a .y... . . . . . . . . . . . . b o o k s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h e s e ?

7 Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of negativesand questions in this text. bpforea discussionof the topic:"v\rhatkind of pet is In our group,we had to write down questions ha/i[ best?'That wasdifficult becausesomeof us diCi:fever had a pet, so we didn't reallycould saymuch aboutthis topic. I askedMichel,'Whatyou think is the bestpet?'Heanswered,'Inot careabout pets.' Thenhe said,'Whywe havepets?We not needthem for an)'thing,don't we?And somepeoplethink dogsnot clean,so they not goodpets.'I askedhim, Arent somepetscleanerthan dogs?For example, Then Paolaexplained no one thinks a cat makesmore messthan a dog,doeshe?'Hedidn't answered. that shecould havenot a cat in her housebecausecatsmadeher mother sneezea lot. So shesuggest'Why do somepeoplecan'thavepets?'Iwrote down threeother ed that an important questionwas: 'Do questionsfrom our group: somepetsmore expensive to keepthan others?"Howwill be trained '\{ho the pet?' is takecareof the pet?'

.] NI' IATIVESAJ\]Q D UESTIONS

Negativewords No,none,nobody,no one and nothing Although we normally usenegativeverbs(wasn't,haven't)to expressnegativeconcepts(l ), we can alsousepositiveverbswith negativewordssuchas no, none,nobody,no oneand.nothing(2). We can usethesenegativewordsassubjectswith positiveverbs(3). yet. 7 Therewasn't anythitlgto eat in thehotelroom,sowe haven'thad breakfast 2 Therewasnothing to eat in the hotelroom,so noneof ushashad breakfast yet. 3 No one complained..Noboily told us.(Nor W+t$,llwle*-ue) We useno beforenouns and noneinsteadof nouns. 4 Didn't you bring any money?- I haveno money./Ihavenone.(Not +4*ercnems*ef) We don't normally usedouble negatives.(Not I4o# t*e-no-noaeyH4o*++ave;oae) We usenoneofbeforepronounsand determiners(the,those,our, etc.), 5 Noneof them understood it. . Noneof our friendswill come.. Noneof the lightsis working. In informal situations,nore is sometimesusedwith plural verbs:Noneof themare working. We can use ro with both singularand plural nounsor a gerundto emphasize the negative.We can 'is/are usethis structureinsteadof a negativeverb (6) or asa shorthandfor not allowed'in formal situations(7). 6 Oneclassdoesn'thave& teacher.'aOneclasshosno teacher. Camerasaren'tpermittedinsidethecourt."+ No cameras arepermittedinsidethecourt. . No talkingduring theexamlnatiotl.. No parking. 7 No dogs.No skateboards. We useDon't + verb ratherthan No + gerundin informal situations:Don'tpark there. We can use no or not/n't any with comparativeadjectives(8) and adverbs(9). 8 Theseseatsare no better than theothers./These smtsaren'tany better than the others. 9 Weshouldleaveno later thqn 8.30./Weshouldn'tleaveany later than 8.30. We use flot ratherthan ro in reducednegatives( 10),beforethe indefinitearticlea/an (ll) andbefore quantifiers suchasa or a lot ll2\. l0 Do you want to keeptheseboxesor not?lf not, I'IIjust throw themout. 11 Not a singledrop of bloodwasspih.. A whaleis q mammal,not a fsh. 12 Not all Americansare rich. . Thereis not a lot to begainedby beingrudeto people.

Inversion after negativewords and phrases We useinversionafternegativeadverbssuchas neveror nowherewhenthey are placedin front position for emphasis.We put the subjectafteran auxiliaryverb (be,do,haw) or a modal. "+ NeverhaveI heardsuchnonsense. 13 I haveneverheardsuchnonsense. - Nowherecould theyfnd a bottle-opener. Theycouldn'tfnd a bottle-opener any,vhere. We alsouseinversionafter negativephraseswith no (14) and not (15) in fiont position. 14 Thechilrlrenweren'tin dangerat any time.-'. At no timewerethe chililren in danger. "+ Underno circumstances Youshouldn'tgo underany circumstances, shouldyou go. "+ 15 I didn't realizewhat shemeantuntil later. Not until laterdiil I realizewhat shemeant. Mark is not only single,but he is olsorich.- Not only is Mark single,but he is alsorich. Inversionis typicallyusedin formal or literary English,but we can alsouseit in inforrnalreplies, after neither,nor and no way. 16 I don't understand.- Neitherdo I. . Wedidn't like thefilm. - Nor iliil mostpeople., I think Mr Atkinsshouldlet usleaveearly.- No way will he agreeto thqt.

48

Comparatives 120 DclermiDers83 Invc8ion 216 Negatile adverbs45 Quatiiliers 84

4 NEGATIVES AND QUESTIONS

8 Choosean ending (a-d) for each beginning (1-4) and add no, nore or nof. I 2 3 4

I wrote to severalpeople,(...) We neededsomeglue,(. . .) . . . . . . . . . . . food is allowedin that room, (. . .) There's.. . ... . ... . muchmoneyleft ( .)

a b c d

soyou must . . . . . . . . . . . eat in there. and we have. . . . . . . . . . . traveller'scheques. but . . . . . . . . . . of them hasrepliedyet. but therewas. . . . . . . . . . . in the house.

9 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethe sentenceswith these words. carefree indffirent mreless infallible

infrequent doesn't inyisible neyer

no no one

not nothing

If somethingis (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , it (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . happenvery often. \44renyou are 1:1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , you have(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to worry about,but the word (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . isn't the same.It means(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . payingenoughattentionto detail. An obiectis (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . if te). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . can seeit. Ifpeopleorthingsare(e)....................,they(10).....................makemistakesorgo wrong. W h e np e o p laer e( 1 1 ) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o s o m e t h i n g , t h e y h a v e ( r 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n t e r e s t i n 10 Rewritethese sentencesin a more informal style.

Example: Nowhereelsedo theymakethisbread. .fhgr .4qt'!. .r.qke.ihtp..br-gq4 .qnfphe". ? .q1.1?, ... ... 1 Never has there been a better chance to make money on the stock market. 2 Not until the next morning did we notice that she had not come home.

, ^,

"r',t-.

OtO *"r" t"r.Orr',1" ""r.". "t"Oo".f"

4 Thejanitorwill say,'Nosmokingin here,'willhenot?

11Completethis textwith thesewordsand phrases. no ilea not only flo sooner not until

nor did I nothing did we

hadI I hed

werethey theywere

Haveyou everarrivedat work thinking somethingwaswrong?It recentlyhappenedto me. On Saturdaymorning, when I arrivedat the City ConcertHall, therewerea lot of musicianswaiting (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . openedthe front door thanthe musicians outside.(l) ......... startedto comein and complain.(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . unhappythat their next concerthad beencancelled, but 1s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . alsovery angrythat they hadn't been p a i df o rw e e k sI t.r i e d t o e x p l a i n t h a t l o n l y l o o k e d a f t e r t h e C o n c e r t H a l l a n d ( s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7).....................todowithmoneyormusic.Theysaidthatalotofticketshadbeensold, but they had (8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wherethe moneyhad gone.1ry. . . . ( 1 0. ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I. k, e p t e l l i n tgh e m (.l l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t w od a y sl a t e r (12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all find out that the concertorganizerhad run off with all the money.

49

4 NECATIVF,S AND QUF,STIONS

Questionwords Whator which? We can usewhal and whichbeforenounsor aspronouns( 1).We usewhatwhenwe think thereis an unlimited number of possibleanswers(2) and whichwhenwe think thereis a limited number (3). I What bus/whichbusshouldI take?. What/\l4richdo you want? 2 What areyou doing?, What'sher homephonenumber?. What wouklyou like to drink? 3 Thereare threenumberslistedhere.Which is her homephonenumber?, Wehayebothred wine and white wine. Which wouldyou prefer? We usewhich(not what) beforeoneor ones(4).We usewhichof (not what of) befored,eterminers (the,this,my, etc.)(5) and pronouns(6) when we askaboutthingsand peoplein a limited set. 4 Therearea lot of cupsof teahere.Which onesalreadyhavesugar?Which oneis mine? 5 Which of thesebookshaven'tyou read?(Nol @) 6 Edberghadfour sons.Which (one)of themwasthefamousartist?. Which of you k first? We can userry'roto aska generalquestion:Who isfrst? (Not Whoo@rsP) 12 Choose a question (a-0 to follow each statement(1-6) and add Whator Which. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I ' m o n eo f t h eg i r l si n t h a to l d p h o t o (. . . . ) 'Flunk the test'isan Americanphrase.( .) He gaveus our examresults.(.. ) I'd like to leavesoon.(...) I got 19out of 20 correct.(. . .) I haven'treadall his books.( ..)

a . . . . . . . . . . w a sy o u rs c o r e ? b .. .. . .. onedid you getwrong? c .. . . ... ... areyou waitingfor? d . . . . . . . . . i sy o u ? e . . . . . . . . . .o f t h e mh a v ey o ur e a d ? f doesit mean?

Question words with prepositions and adverbs We can usewh questionsto askaboutthe ob.jects of prepositions.We usuallyput the prepositionat the end of a wft-question(7). In formal uses,the prepositionis sometimesput at the beginning(8). 7 He'sgoingto fill the hole with something.-'+ What is hegoingtofiII theholewith? You gaveyour old computerto someone.'-+ Who did you gite your old computerto? 8 Wth what is hegoingtofill the hole?. To whom did you gite your old computer? wemustuSewhom(notwho)afterapreposition,(tlot@ In some ,ft-questions(What ...for?,What/Who...like?), the prepositionis alwaysat the end. 9 What areyou doing that for? . Who doesshelook like? (Nor L*e-*hom4oes4dool€) Thereare someprepositionswhich we useat the beginning(not the end) of wh-questions. 10 During which periodweretheFrenchin control?. Sincewhen hayetheserecordsbeenkept? Other prepositionsusedlike this include:above,after,before,below We usuallyput adverbsafter wi words (l I ), but we can usesomeadverbsbeforeryh-words( 12). , What elsedirl he say?. When exactlydid he leaveCyprus? ll How often do you exercise? 12 Preciselywheredid you lastseethekeys?. Exactlywhen did he leaveCyprus? Wft-wordswith ever(stch aswhereter,whoever)are usedto expresssurpriseor disbelief. 13 Whereverdid youfind that?. Howeverditl shedo it? . Whoevertokl you suchnonsense? We don't usewhicheverin this way: Whateverdo you mean?(Nor Whieheter4oloa mean )

50

Adverbs ll8

Determiners 83 Or., dres 104 Ptunolns97

Prepositionsl25

I \tr'\t

\t\

\\trQl

\ t,,\.

13 Completethese quiz questions with these words and try to choose correct answers. by during

fo, .ftom(x2)

how "f

often what(x2)

where tthich(x21

wln wnotrT

O

h eF r e n cRhe v o l u t i ob ne g i n ? ( . . . ) ..... . . . . . . . c e n t u r y d ti d (A) 17th (B)18th (C)lsth

A

..... . . . . . . . d o e sa n a n n u aml e e t i ntga k ep l a c e(?. . . ) (A) everyweek (B)everymonth (C)everyyear

@ C i d eirs a t y p eo f d r i n k . . (A) apples (B)grapes (C)oranges @ .....

.. isitmade

with

...?(...)

t c c a r t n ewyr i t em a n y o f t h eB e a t t ehsi,t s o n g s ? ( . . . ) . . . . . . . d i dp a u M

(A) Mick Jagger (B) Elton John (C)John Lennon

O.....

. . . . . . . t h e s ec o u n t r i ei s n o t i n S o u t hA m e r i c a(?. . . )

(A) Bolivia (B) Nicaragua (C)Paraguay

@ f u e te i b s o ni s a w e l l - k n o wanc t o r . . . . . . . .

. . . . _i s h e

(A) Australia (B) Canada (C) Scotland

@

'War and Peace'is the title

of a famousbook.

. . . was it written

...?(...) (A) CharlesDickens (B)William Shakespeare(C)Leo Tolstoy (A) beating cattle, horses,etc. (B) playing cellos.violins, etc. (C) stirring e99s, cream, etc. 14 complete this dialogue (from an American crime thriller) with these words and phrases. how ever how lortg

what , .. about whotever

where whereexactly

where,. , Jiom which ... iu

wltwho clse

The phone rvokeme up. I automaticallyreachcdover and picked it up. 'Good morning, darling, I guessyou're not cotring to get me, are you?' 'What?(| ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is this? 'It's n t e .C h a r l e st.: ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e r ey o u e x p e c t i n g ? ' 'Sorry. l'm still asleep.Aren't you in New York?' '(3)......... . . . . . . a r ey o u t a l k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? ( 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . g a v ey o u t h a ti d e a ? ' 'You're n o t ?O h , n o , I c a n ' tt h i n k s t r a i g h t(.5 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . a r cy o u ? ' 'l'm at the airport. I just got back fron.r Glasgow' 'Oh, goodness.{at. haveyou beenwaiting?I'm so sorry.' '[t's okay.Don't panic.I'm just about to pick up my bag.' 'I'm u p . I ' l l b e t h e r e(.7 ). . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . a r e y o u ? ( 8 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r e r n l n a t a r e y o u

............ ...?'

'It's

okay. I'11catch the train into town. Can you meet nre irt the stiltion?' 'Yes. It'll be quicker that way.I'll seeyou in about forty-five n.rinutes.' 'Okay. Bye.' I startedto put tlre phone down, but there was somethingwet and sticky on it. Was it blood? ( 9 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h a d i t c o m e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? ' f h c r ew a sm o r e o f i t o n t h e s h e e t . (ro)... . .. ..... .diditgetthere?

5l

4 NEGAT]VES AND QUESTIONS

Otherquestiontypes Questions inside questions We can put a yes/noquestionaskingwhat peoplethink (l) or say(2) afterthe wh-word (what, who) insidea wfi-question. 1 Do you think somethingis wrong?"+ What do you think is wrong? (Not +/h*1oa+hi*is-'*'rot+g) - Whoiliil he saywaswaitingoutsicle? 2 Did he saysomeone waswaitingoutside? When we put a yes/noquestioninsidea wh-question,we usequestionword order in the yes/no question,not in the rvft-question. 3 Doeshe belieyethefghting will enrl?..+ Whendoeshe believethefightingwiII end? (Nor@)

Statementsused as questions We can usea statementasa yes/noquestionto askfor confirmationof something(4) or to repeat what wasjust said,usuallyto expresssurprise(5). We can usea urh-wordin a statementto askfor clarificationor to get more information aboutpart of what wasjust said (6). 4 Mondayis a holiday?, Mr. Joneswasyour teachertoo?. David iloesn'tknowaboutthis? 5 PauIwonfrst prize.- He wonfrst prize?. I hada ticket,but didn't go.- Youdkln't go? 6 Shempped it. - Sheiliil what to it? . I met Popeye.- Youmet tho? (Nor Dt4ao*ar*-tthd)

Rhetorical questions Rhetoricalquestionshavethe form of a question,but canbe usedto assertsomething(7). We can userhetoricalquestionsto establisha topic (8), or to highlight a previousquestion(9) beforegiving an answer. 7 Mike isn'thereyet. - Who cares?(= I don't care.)Isn't he alwayslate?(= He is alwayslate.) 8 Do you rememberthe oil crisis?Weweresurethenthat carswouldhaveto become smaller. 9 What do you think of it? - What ilo I think of it? I think it'sjust tooexpensive.

Reducedquestions In informal situations,yes/noquestionsaresometimesusedwithout Areyou?or Do/Did you?(10) and wh-questionscan be reducedto the wh-wordalone(l I ) or short phrases( l2). l0 Feelingokay?. Tired?. Goingout?. Needsomehelp?. Like it?. Havefun lastnight? - Who? ll Wemustbuy thatpiano.- How? - I'll fnd the money.- Where?- I knowsomeone. . , 12 Youhare to do it. Wlry me? Yourplan won'twork. Why not? Bring a knife. What for? We alsousethe phnsesHow about?(13) and Wat abouti (14) without verbsbeforenounsand gerundsto makesuggestions or to draw attentionto something, 13 How about a cup of tea?. How about watchingTV? (Nor Ho*-aboa+
Indirect questions We useindirect questionswhen we report what wasasked.We don't usequestionword order or a questionmark in indirect questions( 15).We begin indirectyes/noquestionswith ifor whether(16). 15 Wy did you start theprogramne?.a I askecl her why she(had) startedtheprogramme. What do you mean?"+ I askerlher what shemeant (sor l-a*ed4er-*h*4i4:he*e#) 16 Do you teachkarate?"+ I askedif they taught karate.(Nm 1a:ked4id+heV+eaeh*arate?) "+ I askecl Is it an umbrellaor a weapon? whetherit wasan umbrellaor a weapon.

52

Gerunds 139 lndirecl questions 154 Question word ordc.45

4 NICAI IVF\ A\D QUT\TIONs

15 Rewrite these statements as questions beginnin gwith What, When, Where and Who. Example:They think somethingis wto"g.

. !,J.hq!.49.l!,et .!hi!.k it. pr9.,1X? .

is responsible for the currentconflict. I Youbelievesomeone 2 Her fatherthoughtshemighthavegonesomewhere.

, irr. *.r,t'. r'ir..rr,., ." d ,h. ,.,n ,t'oua ,,uo,, ,"-.' ,,-. 4 Youimaginetheirnewhouseis goingto look like something.

16 Choose a question (a-e) to follow each beginning (1-5) and add these words. did I 2 3 4 5

didn't

do

does how

which

who

why

W i l li t b es u n n yt o m o r r o w( ?. . . ) Mary,you haveto crawl throughthe tunnel. (. . .) I understood nothinghe said.( ..) I d o n ' tk n o wh o wI ' l l p a s tsh ee x a m(... . ) He saysthereis a problemwith the contract.(...)

a b c d e

. . . . . . . . . . h. e ?W i t h . . . . . p a r t ? . . . . . . . . . . . about studying? . .. .. knows? Y o u . . . . . . ? N e i t h e r .. . . . . . . 1 ! . . .. . . .. . . . I haveto?. .. .. . me?

17 This dialoguetakes place in a police station betweenMrs Adams and Detective Grimshaw.Completeit with these words. hedid did he

he's is he

he was washe

I do do I

you're arevou

yoLtdon't dorr'tvou

'Can w el e a v en o wo r ( r ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g o i n gt o s t a r tp a y i n gu sf o r a l lt h et i m ew e ' r es p e n d i n g here?' 'Your s o ni s n ' tg o i n ga n p v h e r eM, r sA d a m s(.2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i n d e e pt r o u b l et h i st i m e . ' '(i) Maybeyou'rethe onewho'sin trouble,detective. My son hasdone .. . ... . .. . . .. . ... . ... realIy? nothing.This is policeharassment.' 'Iaskedyoursonwhat(4).....................doinginJohnMansfield'shouselastnightandw

do you think he said?' 'What(s) . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . think?I think (6). . . .. .. . . . makingall this up because (7).....................haveaclue.You'rejusttryingtoblamemyTommyforsomethinghedid do. He workedfor Mr Manslield.That'sall.' 'Listen. I didn't tell your son that Mansfieldwaskilled with a knife. He told me. He wasn'tjust helpingus nake this up, (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?' 'Oh, (9) I don't know what you think . . . . . . . . . . . . . . makeyou think he wasgoingto confess? ( r 0.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .O. .n et h i n g( l l ) . . k r o w f o rs u r ei s t h a th ew a sa t h o m ew i t h me all lastnight. Why t rzl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iustleavehim aloneand go find the realkiller?'

53

4 NEGATTITSAND QUXSTIONS

Tests A Ghoosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence, 1 What do you thirk a told

b they told

me? c didn't tell

Why not

d did he tell

the meeting for Monday morning?

a schedule b scheduling c you schedule d do you schedule 3 They explained that she couldn't take the course, a could she b couldn't she c did she d didn't thev

a Not a

real work was done in the office while the bosswas away. b Not any c No d None

Good morning, gentlemen. a Which b Whose c Who

of you is first in line? dWhom

ldentify the one underlined expression (A, B, C or D) that must be changed in order to correct these sentences. 'How 'Give 1 My neighbour usedto say, about helRing me carry this?' or me a hand with this, wo:rld you?',but at no time he --neededhelp with anything. 4gkgdme if I ever---il 2 I'm not trvins to work more.but cuite oflen I haveno time for lunch or I dorlt havemuch ofan BC appetite,and so I take nqlonger a whole hour for my lunch break. U

3 I told Sarahthat it wpsnt my party. I explainedthat it was my brother's party, so none of my friends had been invited. I guessshedidn't believeme becauseher first questiod was, B-C 'Why vou didn't invite me to the party?' .--.D4

'Did you seethose studentscheatingduring the exam?'-'No, but didn't tell the teacher?' Xou 'I decidednot to tell her becauseI didn't really think it was my businessand no one wants to be a B tell tale.---ddoeshe?Don't savanvthinsaboutthis to anvone.will --T-lou?'

--r

5 Nbt many people realizethat a spider is !g insect becauseinsectsdon t haveeisht less and none of them make webs.

54

4 NEGATIVES AND QUESTIONS

Fill in the missing words in this dialogue. 'Isn't window-shoppingfun? Look at theselovelyvases.1r1 they beautiful?' 'They're okay.' 'Lett buy onel' 'With (2) 'Oh, comeon, just one.' 'No, I don't think so.They're1:; nicer than the ones we alreadyhaveat home.' 'Oh, you re sucha spoilsport!' 'No, (a) . I'm simplytrying to avoidspendingmoneythat we haven'tgot!' '(s) we buy anl.thing at all?'

'No.Butyoucanenjoylooking.That,afterall,is whatwindow-shopping means.' Completeeachsentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 Theroomwasn'tonlycold,it wasalsoverydamp. Not 2 Your sistersaidshegavethe moneyto someone. \44ro 3 Andreasthinks that somethinghasbeenstolen. What 4 Shesuggested that I take the train insteadof driving.

'Why Shesaid, 'Whatt 5 his nameand wheredoeshe live?' They askedrne

Completethis text with these words and appropriateanswersto the questionnaire. did

how

neyer

no

nothing

what

where which

who

why

Your parentshavesentyou a ticket to fly to New York wherethey areplanningto celebratetheir (l) ... . .... ... rnuchis happening weddinganniversary. at work,you've(2).. . .. . ... .. beento New York and you'vehad t:l ... .... .... holidaytrips for more than a year,soyou'vequickly packeda coupleof largesuitcases and headedto the airport.You arenow sitting on board British Airways flight BA 21,non-stopfrom London to New York,waiting to takeoff. The flight attendanthands you a questionnaire. You decideto completeit. (4)-

is your flight number?

(s) -

areyou takingthis flighr?

Business -

(6J-

paid for your flight?

Mvself

(7)-

you checkin bagsfor this flight?

(8)At (e)-

or Leisure or Somebodvelse

airport did you boardthis flight? will you leavethis flight?

(10)manyflightshaveyou madein the last 12 months?

55

verb Passiveverbs,or passives, are formedwithbe plusthe pastparticipleof a transitive (My car was stolen).We use passiveverbsto say what happensto the subject(Twomen were arrested)in contrastto activeverbswhich are usedto say what the subjectdoes (Ihe police arrested two men\. Readthroughthis newsreportandfind two moreexamplesof the sameverb(frndand move)beingusedas bothan activeanda passiveverb. OR AS LONG AS people can remember, they searchthroughthe debris.'we're guessingthat smalltownslike StoneCreek and Pinevillein rothere are somepeople who may have been pinned northem Alabama have been hit by storms down under their own ceilings,'saysGreg Hayden,a every spring.They are as predictableas the apple firelighterfrom Atlanta.'Sometimeswe can't tell the blossomsthat are always shaken loose from the housesftom the stablesor the garages.It's a mess. treesand blown alongthe countryroads.Sometrees Dozens of people and animals could have been may be knockedover or the roof of a buildingmight r: buried in there.' One by one, the miraclesand the tragediesare be slightly damaged,but usually the effectsof the stormsare more inconvenientthan deadly.Thisyear comingto light. Jim Clinton,havingbeenwamed of ro wasdifferent. the approachingslorm on his radio. drove his wile Last night, a powerful storm roared into the and daughter to his local church. He thought it area, sending devastating tornadoes spinning o would be saferthere than stayingin his smallhouse. throughthe smallfarmingcommunities.It destroyed Two of the church walls collapsed,but after being farmq schoolsand churchesand buried people in trapped iuside for four hours, the Clintons were 15the ruins of their own homes.It transformedthe found alive by rescuersthis morning.Not far away, Iandscape. Herds of cattle that had beenmovedinto an old couplehad retreatedto the basementof their Tiagically,they were barns for safety are nowhere to be seen,nor are $ home asthe stormapproached. the barns. Other buildings where tractors and both killed when part of a wall crashedthrough the equipment were being stored seem to have been floor on top of them.The namesof all victims are ,o completely blown away. beinEwithheld until their familiescanbe notifiedAt least38 peoplehavedied and many more are The scenes of devastation this morning are describedby one rescueworker as'like the end of lo missing.About 100 people have been s€riously the world'. Sincelirst light, rescuecrewshave been injured and more than 1,000 have been left moving through the countryside, looking for homeless.The searchfor the missingmay last for 2' survivors.Small teams have had to be flown in to days,buttheeffectsofthisone stormare goingto be some areas by helicopter becausethe roads have felt for many years.'It's like someonedropped a been blocked by doz€ns of fallen trees.In other 55bomb,' said one shockedwoman as she searched areas.rescuersdon't know what thev will find as throughthe remainsof what usedto be her home..

2 Completethis summary using appropriateforms of verbs from the news report. A t l e a s3t 8 p e o p l eh a v ed i e d a , b o u t1 0 0( l ). . . . . . . . . . . . s e r i o u s l y. . . andmorethan l,000(2).. .. .. .. .. .. homeless in northernAlabamaafterthe area (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by a powerfulstorm lastnight. Farms,schoolsand churches ( 4 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a. n . ds o m ep e o p l(e5 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i .n. t h er u i n so f t h e i ro w nh o m e s . F a l l etnr e e (s6 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .r.o. a d isn s o m ea r e a s ,or e s c ut ee a m (s7 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b y for years.

56

5 t Hf_ PASSI\',1.1

Activeand passive We usean actiyeyerb to saywhat the subjectdoes( 1) and a passiveverb to saywhat happensto the subject(2). I After theaccident, someone calledthepoliceand theyarrestedtlrc drunk r]riyer. 2 After theaccilent,thepolicewerecalledand thedrunk driverwas arrested. We usethe objectof an activeverb asthe sub.jectof a passiveverb (3). We can'tcreatepassives from intransitiveverbs(4). 3 Weclearthe tableanti washthe dishes.- The table is cleqredond the dishesare washed. 4 lAreswametery day,. Rickcomeloter, (Nor Rielewas-eeme-late*) The passiveverb hastwo parts.We usea form of the verb beplus a pastparticiple. 5 Youhayeto rewritethelirst paragroph.- TheJirstparagraphhasto be rewritten. We can usea b1,-phrase afterthe passiveverb to saywho or what causesthe action. 6 My an wasrepairedby Andrew. . Someroadsare blockedbyfallen trees. Passivetenses: Completethis table with one exampleof each type of passivefrom the news report on page 56. Presentsirnplepassive'. am/is/are+ pastparticiple tctwr: Youplacean orrleroneday and theydeliveryour gtoceries the next, pAsslvE: An orderis placedonedayandyour groceries are deliveredthe next. 1 Presentcontinuouspassive:am/is/are+ beirg+ pastparticiple r.ctwr.:Theyare buildinga newschooland creatingtwo newroadsfor access. pAssIVE: A newschoolis beingbuilt ond two newroadsare beingcreatedfor access. a

Presentperfectpassive:. hsve/hqs + been+ pastprrticiple ACrrvE. I'vepreparedthe turkeyandpeeledthepotatoes. rnsstvr:Theturkeyhas beenprepareiland thepotatoeshavebeenpeeled. 3 Pastsimplepassive:. was/were + pastparticiple tctwe: Air Canadamncellecl ourflight and strondedusin Vancouver. vtsstvx:Ourflight wascqncelledand wewerestrandedin Vancouyer. 4 Pastcontinuouspassive'. wes/were + belng+ pastparticiple AC'ItvE. Theywerecleaningthefloor and washingthewindowsearliertoday. yxsstvr'.TheJToorwas beingcleaneiland thewindowswerebeingwashedearliertoday. 5 Past perfect passiye: had + been+ past participle AC'ItvE.Eyeryonehad warned me about the weather beforeI went to Scotland. plsstvn: I had heen warneil about the weather beforeI went to Scotland.

Pssiveswith rt plrnrs 6.1 P.n p.rriciphs220

Tr..siti\e lnd inr,rn\itive lcrbs 6

lh. uscsofrhe rrrssivc62

57

5 l'HE PASSIVE

Passives withmodals,infinitives and gerunds Modal passives We form simplemodal passives with a modal(can,may,wiII, etc.)+ be+ a pastparticiple(l ). We usecoald,might,would+ be+ a pastparticiplewhen we needto usea pasttense(2). I Thepolicewill arrestyiolentdemonstrators. So,if you arettiolent,you will be arrested. Youcan be kept in custody 24 hoursantl you may be questionedaboutyour actitities. for 2 'Thepolicecan'tstopus!' Thedemonstrators claimedthat theycouldn't bestoppeil. Theyboastedthat nlthoughtheymight be arrested,theywouliln't be silenced. We form modal perfectpassives with a modal + hayebeen+ pastparticiple. 3 Tonyrlirln'tstudyfor the test.His answersmust havebeencopiedfrom someone else. If he had beencaughtcheating,he woulil havebeenexpelledfrom school. We can form modal continuouspassives with a modal + be being+ pastparticiple(4). We rarelyuse thesepassives. Instead,we usean activeor a continuouspassivewithout a modal (5). 4 I seethat men areworkingon the roof today.I think it may be beingrepairedat last5 Perhapsthey'rerepairingit at last.. I think it's beingrepairedat last. We form phrasalmodal passives with the present(6) or past (7) of a phrasalmodal suchas begolag to ot haveto + be+ pastparticiple.We can usetwo phrasalmodalstogether(8). 6 Someone hasto teIIChrk to stopinterrupting.-1 Chrishas to be tolil to stopinterrupting. Areyou goingto needthisextrapaper?- Is thisextrapapergoing to be neeileil? 7 I had toJind a placefor aII the boxes.---+ A placehad to befounil for all the boxes. Someone wasprobablygoingto stealthem.- Theywereprobablygoing to be stolen. 8 We'regoing to haveto sell my old car.-a My old car is going to have to be sold.

Passiveinfinitives and gerunds We use /o be+ pastparticiplefor the passiveinfinitive (9) and,to hayebeen+ pastparticiplefor the perfectpassiveinfinitive (10). 9 He\ trying tofnish theworksoon.He expects mostof i to befinished beforethe weekend. l0 Theyhate chosenEmily Watsonto play thepart. She's reallyexcitedto havebeenchosen. We usebelng+ pastparticiplefor the passivegerund(11) and hating beer+ pastparticiplefor the perfectpassive gerund(12). 11 He wasaskingabouta lot of personalthings.I didn't like beingaskedaboutmy prirate life. 12 I think they'yepromotedTom,but hedirln't mentionhaving beenpromotedwhenwe tqlked. We put rorbefore passiveinfinitives( 13) and passivegerunds(14) to form negatives. 13 Theydidn't invite us.It wasstrangenot to be inviteil. (Not ... +o4e:+o+ifi+i+e*) 14 No onehad informedme aboutthat.I resented flot having heeninformed. 4 Using informationfrom the news report on page 56, completethese sentenceswith be, to be,being ot beenand decide what type of passiveeach one is. I 2 3 4 5 6

After.. . .. . .. . .. trappedfor hours,theywerefoundalive.( ..) Herdsof cattlearenowhere. . . . . . . seen.(...) ( .) Smallteamshavehadto .. .. ... flown into someareas. Otherbuildingsseemto have. . . .. . . .. . blownaway.(..) If the wind returns,moretreesmay .. .. . . . knockedover.(...) Dozensofpeoplecouldhave .. .. .. buriedin there.(...)

58

a b c d e f

Simplemodalpassive Modalperfectpassive Passive gerund Phrasalmodalpassive Passive infinitive Perfectpassive infinitive

Inlinitives and gcrunds l,l0

lvtodalsand phr.sdl modals 29

5 THE PASSIVE

5 Completethis newsreportwith theseverbsin the passive. block close riestoy expect flood injure knock leave report

ManyhomesontheislandofJamaica(l).....................byhurricaneLesteryesterday. Today,high winds (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to bring more rain and problemsfor the island'sresidents. Somepartsof the island(:) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . without electricitylastnight and many roads (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by fallentreesthat (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . down during the storm.The area aroundSavanna-La-Mar on the south coast(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and someresidentshavehad (7).....................fromtheroofsoftheirhouses.MostbusinessesandschoolsinKingsto (s). ... . ... . ... ... . .... . todayaspeopleemergefiom theirbatteredhomesto surveythe damage. More t h a n1 0 0p e o p l (ee ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. .u. ,t n o d e a t h(st 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . Completeeach sentencewith a passiveso that it has a similar meaning to the one above. 1 You can'tseethe housefrom the street. T h eh o u s .e . . . . . 2 'They won't correctyour papersbeforeFriday' He saidour papers 3 Someonemust havetakenthe towelsout ofthe dryer. The towels 4 Nobody'sgoing to stealyour booksfrom this room. Yourbooks 5 Peopleweretelling me what to do all the time and I didnl enjoyit. I didn'tenjoy Choose one passiveverb phrase for each space in these sentences(from a report on the use ot DNA testing by the police). is alsocalled hasalsobeenused canbeused is believed hayebeenshown mayhavebeenconvicted wasreleased had beensentenced wouldneyerhavebeensolyed

DNA is the chemicalin the cellsof plantsand animalswhich carriesinheritedcharacteristics, or geneticinformation.DNAtesting(t)........................................toidentifreachperso uniqueindividualonthebasisofthatgeneticinformation.it(2)............... 'genetic fingerprintinglThe resultsof DNA testingare now being acceptedasevidencein caseswhere ( 3 ) i t . . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . t h a tt h ew r o n gp e r s o (n4 .). .. . . .. . .. . of a crime. In recentyears,more than seventypeople(s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to be innocent throughDNA testing.Many of thosepeople1oy .... .... .... . . . . to life in prison. Inonecase,aman(7)........................................afternineteenyearsinprison.DNAt ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n s o m em u r d e rc a s etsh a t( 9 ). . without it.

59

5 l HIl PASSIVE

Passiveverbs Verbswith and without objects We create passivesfrom verbs which can have objects (transitive verbs) (1 ), not fron verbs which don't have objects(intransitiveverbs) (2). I He repaired the bike. Then he painted it. - The bike was rep&ired. Then it was painted. 2 Nothing happened. , We arriled early. (Nr*@ette-away)

Verbs with two obiects We can create trro passivestructures when we use those verbs which can have an indirect ob.iect (Maria) and a direct object (frst prize). 8 They awarrlerlMaria rtrst prize. -a Mqri& was awardeil frst prize. 9 They awardedfrst prize to Maria. - First prize was qwarded to Marie. Other verbs like this include: give, hand, lend, pass,sell, send, show, teach, throw, write The passivestructure we choose depends on which person or thing we want to talk about. 10 No o e taught us Englih. -- Englih wasn't taught there.oR We weren't taught English. In the passive,we put the indirect object as subject or after the preposition to, not after the verb. ll He honded Cecilia a note. --+ Cecilis was handed a note.oR A note was ha ded to Cecilis. (.Nttt 4 rc+e washanAe4leeilia.) When a verb with two objects is used in only one active structure, we can only createone passive. If we can put the indirect object after the active verb, we can use it as subject of the passive. 12 The judge fned him t250. (No\ q+c j+ad*@€+n+in ) - He was fineil t250. (NLtt *250 watfirc4+o4ht.) If we can't put the indirect object after the active verb, we can't use it as subject of the passive. 13 Then we explained our solutions to him. - Then our solutionswere explaineil to him. (xot Ne.erpleirctI4tm (Not Htwercxplainedcar:oht+iott*) eta.sol*iottr) Other verbs used like this include:demonstrate,describe,mention, present,report, suggest We can use a direct object as subject of a passive,but not another noun that classifiesit. 14 Many people consideredJohn Nash a genius. --+John Nash was considered a genius. 15 They electedClinton Presidenttwice. + Clinton was electeil Presidenttwice. (.Not Presxle*+v*s4ee*41lin+ot+wke.)

60

l , C . . . . t l e . . 6 D \ , " . , 1. h . ) i

l . r r r r r \ e, r - ' n '

, r i . .\ . , r . . r

5 THE PASS]VE

Rewriteeach sentencewith the verbs in the passive,where possible. I SomeonesawErin outsidethe theatreasshewaswaiting to go in. Shehad a new hairstyle. 2 Karenfeelssadbecausethey didn t promoteher and shehasto carry on asif nothing happened. . l f f . , f r r . * r ' , f r . i " f r , r r " " " r a " " " r , r t . r , . r r ' 0 " r , , . " " n r r , 0 , - r,,. n n n r r r , " O r ' nr r r t r " " a t

Using a dictionary if necessary,choose an adjectivefor each space and choose a, b or both as correct sentences. illegible inaudible knowledgmble reusable impossible inexplicable {returnable unspeakable Example:It saysherethat your depositisn t ..f91$f|9h!9.. ... . . a ll won t be givenback..r'- b Youwon'tbe givenback. ... I He doesnt think it's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to selliceto Eskimos. a He thinks they canbe sold ice. ... b He thinks ice canbe sold them. . .. 2 His suddendisappearance remains We haveno ideawhat happened. a We can'tbe explained... b It can'tbe explained.... 3 They think TedGreenis more . . ... . . a An expertis consideredTedGreen. ...

aboutorchidsthan anyoneelse. b TedGreenis consideredan erpert. . . .

4 Shecouldnt readus the note becauseof his . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . handwriting. a We couldn'tbe read. b It couldn'tbe read. 5 His firsttwo or threesentences were. . ... . .... ... . . ... ... , but he soongot moreconfident. a He spokeup. ... b He wasspokenup. . . . 6 None of us will everunderstandthe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sufferingof the refugees. a We can never be described. b It can neverbe described. 7 Youcan haveone of these. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . envelopes to sendMarta the magazine. a Marta can be sent the magazine...

b The magazine can be sent to Marta. . . .

10 Editing.Correctthe mistakesin this texi. The ChristmasI rememberbestfrom my childhoodwas-happened when I wasabout five,just after my youngersisterborn. Lots of peoplewerecometo our housewith presentsfor us.I gavethe job 'Thank of taking the gifts and saying you'.As eachguestwasarrived,I handedboxesor bagswhich filled with thingsthat wrappedin Christmaspaper.I told which oneswerefor me and which ones had to be placein a pile for my new sister.So manypresentsbrought for us. I will neverforget the experienceof givenso much.It reallywasa very specialChristmas.

61

i

I H L P , \ S SVI L

The usesof the passive 11 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces on this and the opposite page.

Focusingon what is done and who is affected We use passiveswhen we describe a processby talking about what is done, not who does it , and when we report events,but we don't klow, or it's not important, who performed the actions I Wine is made from grapes.. Orangesare grown in Spain. , Oil hns to be imported. 2 My bag was stolen. . Sometreeshave been cut down. . I think the okl road has been repaired. We use passivesto talk about the subject as the pelson or thing affected by the action , often when that subject is the topic of two or more sentences . We can use passivesfor severalactions that affect the sane subject in a single sentence 3 Two old people were attacked fu the park. . A tourist was robbed. . I wasn't badly injured. 4 After registration,coursescannotbe aikled, dropped or changed without permission. 5 The houseis still for sale.It was built in 1928.It was conrpletelyrenovated in 2002. The same subject can be used rvith different tens€s:It wqs built in 1928and is being renovated. In informal situations, we use indefinite pronouns such as sorreore and generic pronouns such as they or you plus activeverbs more than passives. 6 Someone stole my bag. ' They make wite from grapes.. You should washfreshfruit. We can also use ore, but it is very formal: One shotid always washfreshfruit.

Impersonal style We often use passiveswhen general infonnation is presented in an impersonal way (not intended for a particular person). For example, passivesare often used in rules and warning notices , in descriptions of procedures,especiallyin researchreports , and other types of formal written reports where personal reference(l we) is typically avoided 7 Twenty studentswere given a test in which they were asked to answer 100questions. 8 In the past yea\ two new computerswere purchased and someok1furniture was replaced, 9 Parking is prohibited. . Cars wiII be towed away. . Trespassers will be prosecuteil. We can use passiveswhen we want to avoid personal commands and to avoid implying that \,ve are only talking about ourselvesor our personal actions 10 I can't do all this work in one day. -- All thk work can't be done in one day. 11 You must remove your shoesbefore entering. -- Shoesmust be removed beloreentering. 12 Rewrite these library ru les using active verbs with you as subject. Referencebooks can only be consultedin the library. Spccialpermissionmust be obtainedto use them outsidethe library.All books should be letunred or1time or a fine will haveto be paid. If the fine is not paid, borrorving rights rvill be lost. Library books may not be borrorvedfor othersor given to others.If a book is lost,the cost of replacementmust be paid.

O,

5

'IHL

PASSI\'L

Reporting in the passive We can use reporting verbs in the passivewhen we don't know, or don't want to mention, the speaker of statementsand questions or of orders and requestsin inhnitives 12 We were instructed to wait here. . I wus &sked to work late on severoloccasions. 13 I was told that everyonehdd passetl.. Somestudents$'ere asked if they were conmrunists. We can use reporting verbs in the passiveafter enpty subtect i/ to distance ourselvesfrom the reported information . We can use this structure with verbs such as claim or impll when we are r.rotsure if the ir.rformation is reliable | 4 It is often saiil that children can learn foreign ktnguagesmore easily than adults. 15 It was claimed that Sanrly had stolensomething.It was also implied that he was lazy. Note that these passivereporting verbs are followed by a that clause.(N
rcport / dic

/rcquest / keep

say / bc

tell /

ot usc

Fixample:Dog orvners. ore..r€queete4tC. l.'g."g. . thrir Jogr undcr control ir the park. I There . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The students

more sheetr.r than peoplein sonreparts ofScotland. becauseof a vilus. . thcif computers,vesterday i n r r L r o . r t i n g . r . c i d ctnwt o y c r r \ . r 8 o .

J M r H r r n r a r r ' i. i r ' " tw i f e , 1I t . . . .

e a r l i e rb, u t s i x m o r e a p p l i c a t i o l l.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l a s tw e e k .

14 Rewrite these sentences with verbs in the passive, where possible. r'vithtreginnerleveJstudents.I designed Peoplehaveclaimedthat they cannot usetaskssuccessfully the follorving study so that I could investigirtethat clain.r.I createdtrvo groups of students, each rvith different proficiency lcvels.I gavc them a task in which I showcil thclr-ra sct of picturcs and I askecl them to tell a story. I recordedthem as tl.reyspokeand then I examinedtheir stories.

, ,,ti

'1r.

. j

., ',1r.f

-l

i

/r

.l '.

."

63

5 TtlE Pr\SSIVE

Passiveswith by-phrases and ergatives Passiveswith b7-phrases The agentis the personor thing that doesor causesthe action.In activesentences, the agentis the subject(1). In passivesentences, we don't usuallymention the agent.We can includethe agentin a &1-phrase afterthe verb when the meaningis not completewithout it (2) or for emphasisand contrast(3). We don't usuallyincludepronounsor nounswith generalmeaningsuchaspeoplein a (4). by-phrase I Shakespearewrote Hamlet. Many famous actors haw played the title role. 2 Hamlet waswritten by Shakespeare.(Not 4lanlet-was-wri*e*) The title role has beenplayed by matryfamous actors. (Nor the+i4e+ole)+e*$eettpkryed) 3 WastheMona Lisapaintedhy Michelangeloor (hy) Leonardoda Vinci? ---.Equipmentis storedin the basement. 4 We/People storeequipmentin the basement. We can usea b1,-phrase for information about causes(5) and the methodof'doing' something(6). 5 Thegirl wasbittenby a snake.. Flu is causedby a yirus and can'tbecured. by antibiotics. 6 Thetemperqture can becontrolledby adjusting the thermostat. We usea b7-phrasefor the agentof an action and a with-phrasefor the thing usedto perform that action (7). After verbssuchas coyeror decorate osedin the passivein descriptions, we typicallyusea wlrh-phraseratherthan a b1-phrase(8). 7 Therescuewasfilmed by a man with a videocamera.. Theboxwaslockedwith a goldkq'. 8 The Christmastreewqs coveredwith ornamentsand decorated. with lights. (Nor :Ihe+ree-was4eeetated4yligftts.) Other verbsusedin the passiveplus wirft include:align,associate, crowd,fill 15 Completethese sentences(from an article about Shakespeare) with appropriate forms of the verb s, plus by or with where necessary.

consider estqblish experience J1u perlorm

The tlot write

$lobe

1 2 3 4

Shakespeare wasborn in 1564and manyto be the greatestEnglishwriter. His earlyreputation.. .. . .. . ... . ... .. writingandappearing in his own plays. His plays interestingcharactersand memorablespeeches. Today,at the new GlobeTheatre,the plays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in conditionssimilar to those which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . audiencesin Shakespeare's time. 5 Somepeoplehaveclaimedthat many of the plays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shakespeare.

Ergatives Ergativesaretransitiveverbsthat areusedwithout an object(9). We useergativesto saythat an action simply happens,without an agent.We sometimesuseergativesinsteadof passives (10). 9 Thepark closesat six.. ThedoorsudtlenlyopeneilI0 Thepark is closed(by theguard)at sLr.. Thedoorwassudrlenlyopened.. We can useergativeswhen we want to describenaturalprocesses and changes(11) or to describe actions,but not mentiona cause(12). ll Thesnowis melting. . Thismaterialwon'tshrink. . Theriyer has drieil up thissummer. . I don'tknowhow it happened, 12 Exchange ratesstabilizedyesterday. but thestringbroke. We don't usereflexivepronounswith ergatives. (Not +he-s+xhg4rcke*self) Other verbsusedlike this include;burst,crack,crash,grow,increase, shake,start 8,o, wrlrl{

kcl.r.reproro.rr nn lrJll||\e\eb.o

5 THE PA55I\'F,

Passiveswithgef We canuseget+ pastparticiple(1) insteadof be+ pastparticiple(2) asa passive, usuallyin informal situations. I I'lI getpaid on Friday.. My booksgot damageilwhenthe basement got flooded lastyear. 2 I'lI bepaiil on Friday.. My booksweredamagedwhenthe basement wasflooded lastyear. We useauxiliarydo in passives with gefwhenwe form questiol.ls or negatives. 3 WhydoesSusanget askedto go to all theparties?Weilon't get iwited to any of them! (5). We often usepassives with gel for unexpectedevents(4) and difficult or-bad experiences 4 Professor Browngot stuck in trcfrc soher lecturegot movedtill later in theafternoon. 5 Did anyoneget injured?Somepeoplegot hurt. Theywereluckytheydidn't get killed. Otherslike this include:getarrested, get broken,get caught,gettlitorced,getsmashed 16 Ghoosean ending (a-d)for each beginning (1-4) and add these verbs. get beatenup get caught

reacted were defeated

were reported were smashed

were stolen were treated

I A f t e rt h e i rt e a m . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 0 b y a local rival on Wednesday night, (. . .) 2 S e v e r as lh o pw i n d o w s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( . . . ) 3

'Did

a n y o ft h et h i e v e s . . . . . . . . ? ' askedone shopowner in frustration.(. . .) 4 Somepeople in hospital for minor cuts and bruises,(. . .)

but no seriousinjuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , according to the police. 'Of 'Because coursenot,'he explained. nobody wants to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by those hooligans.' and items such as televisions, radios and cameras........._............ angry football fan' . violently.

17 Add appropriateforms of these verbs to the text. Then in the space below,write those expressions(if any) that are used in the text to identify the agents of these verbs. carry

tash

explode hand

injure

knock

open

rutl

shake stop

/ tell

W h e nI w a si n I r e l a n dp, e o p l e o f t e n. . . . . . . . 1 9 1 4 . . . . . .m e t h a tI w a sl u c k yI. r e m e m b eorn et i m e , yearsago,when I wassitting with friendsin the EmeraldArms, Belfast.The door suddenly (1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . anda voicecalledout,'Bomb!Getout!'Conversations (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n s t a n t layse v e r y o naen de v e r y t h i nsgu d d e n lm y o v e dG . l a s s easn db o t t l e s( 3 ) . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .t o the floor.As I startedto getup from my seat,I (4)......... down.I struggled to my feet andthenI (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . alongbythesurgingcrowdtowardsthe backdoor.Iwaspushed o u t o f t h ed o o rb a c k w a r dbsy t h ef o r c eo f t h e p e o p l eb e h i n dm e .T h e nl i u s t ( 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . like everyoneelseuntil I reacheda crowd at the end of the street.As I stoodtherewaiting, an old womantoldmethattherewasbloodonnycheek.Wewaited,butnobomb(7)................... no walls1a1 andno windowsshattered into a thousandpieces. I wipedthe blood ......... from my cheekwith a pieceof cloth that 1e). . . . . . . . . . . . to me by the old woman.I thanked her.'It'sjust a scratch,'she said.'You're luckyyou didn't (10).. . .. .... ... seriously : Agents: (Example) PeopJe,

65

5 lHE PASSIVE

Tests A Choose the word or phrasewhich best completeseach sentence. 1 We were told to put it where it was usually a belonged

b fit

c had

d stored

2 It wasn't the first time they had been a taught

b reported

c explained

3 DNA tests a are known

d described

acceptedin court cases. b were used

4 Something a must b nust be

have been

d will have

happened or theywould be here by now. c must have

) I nere a clain.red

how it worked.

d must have been

to be serious flaws in the design.

b reported

c were said

d were told

ldentify the one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that must be changed in orderto correct these sentences. 1 \Vhen he saidthey weren'tgoingto €src!$$d becausethey weregstLilg-nqaglgdright away,I AB assumedhe wasn'talreadygot married,but I didn't know he hadjust goll
consider cancure

experience recommend maysay

A hangoveris the unpleasantphysicalfeelingwhich 1r1

the dry after drinking 'a too much alcohol. The expression hair of the dog that bit you' refers to another drink of alcohol that you might have to help you recover from a hangover. In the past, it (2) that, if you (3) a mad dog, you (a) placir.rga hair from that dog on the wound. This treatment (s) widely doctors up to the middle of the eighteenth century, but it (6) effective.The same (7) alcohol as a cure for a hangover.

66

no longer about trying to use more

5 THE PASSIVE

Completeeach sentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentence above it. 'They 1 didn t build Romein a day' Theret a sayingthat Rome 2 They havecollectedthe testsand checkedthe answers. The tests 3 A beesting is more likely to causedeaththesedaysthan a snakebite. Death 4 It wasreportedthat therewereseriousproblemswith the new design. There 5 No one gaveus instructionsor showedus what to do. We E Choose one verb phrasefrom each pair to fill each space in the text. a arefeeding b are beingfed

c are beingcaused d havemused

i died j wasdied

k frightened I wasfrightened

beinghit hating hit m havedriven n havebeendriven

g brought h wasbrought o to take p to be taken

Thailandhasa problemwith unemployed elephants whichrt r on to the streetsby the country'seconomiccrisisand a lossof traditionalemployment.Many of them by touristswho like {3) photographsof them. \2) Major traffrcproblems(a) by homelesselephantswanderingthe streets. taffic (5) to a standstill onedayby a ragingbull elephantwhich (6) by the soundsof motorcycles andcars.Anotherelephant (s) after by a car in Bangkoklastmonth. \7)

67

Nounsare eitherproper,wrtha capitalletter(Shakespeare), or common,withouta capital letter(poef).Somecommonnounsare countableand can be singular(woman,poef)or plutal(women,poefs).Othercommonnounsare uncountable and are not usedin the plural (poetry,weather). With nouns,we can use an indefinite article(a poef,an old woman),a definitearticle (the weather,the women),or no article (We'restudying poetrywrittenby _women). Read these statements and choose what you think is the best answer. l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A personis more likely to die in a car accicientthlrn an aircraftaccident. It is sai-erto fly in a nervcrplane than in al oldcr plane. A smallerplauc is much saferthan a largct'plane. 'fhe chanccof being l
Tr uc / false True / Firlse 'll-ue / Falsc ll / lll / 80 million. 'lr.ue / False Tluc / False 8 / 1 8/ 8 0 p e r c e n t . -lrr.re / False

2 R e a dt h r o u g ht h i s t e x t a n d f i n d : 1 anotheruse of the indefinitearticlean 2 a propernoun with the definitearticle !iil'l

lying in modelnjets is one of the safest formsof transportation. lt has been estimated thattravelling by air is twentyfivetimessaferthantravelling by car.This meansthatyou are muchmorelikelyto get killeddrivingto or fromthe airportthanduring the flight. Thesafestplanesarethe largemodernjets of the majorcommercial aidinesof Europeand the UnitedStates.Onestudyshowedthatthe chanceof beingkilledin a commercial airline c r a s hw a so n l yo n ei n e i g h tm i l l i o nS. m a l l e r planes,commuterplanesandolderplanesare far morelikelyto be involved in accidents. lMostairplaneaccidents occurduringthe takeoff andlandingpartsof a flight.lt foliows that a non-stop flightwillbe saferthana llight withoneor morestops.Thedurationof the flightdoesn'tseemto lle a factor

oo

iii]

It is estimated that eightypercentof the peopleinvolved in an aircraftaccident survive. yourchancesof survivalby Youcan increase knowing whatto do beforean accidentoccurs. Keepyourseatbeltfastenedat all times. ldentify the nearestemergency exitandcount youandthe exit. the numberof seatsbetween Youmayhaveto feelyourwayto the exitin the dark.Learnhowto openthe ernergency doorin caseyouarethe firstpersonto reachit. Wear clothesmadefromnaturalfibressuchas cottonandwoolratherthansynthetic materials whichmayburnor melton the skin.Think aboutcarryinga smokehoodwithyouon the plane,lf thereis a fire,the hoodcan help protectyoJ againstsmoheand loxicgases. Aboveall,don'tpanic.

6 AR'I'ICLES AND NOUNS

Typesof articlesand nouns Articles We usethe defrnitearticle tle rvitl.rsingularand plural nouns. 'A'. 1 The nanrcsof the authors of the bookson the top shelf begin with the letter We usethe indefinitearticle a,/arwith singularnouns. Choosinga or,:irrdependson the first sound, not lettet of the next word. We use a before consonantsounds(2) and at beforevowel sounds (3 ). 'U', 'P'. 2 Have abnndna! ' Is this a one way street?, I needa holirlay. . Write a then a 'N', 'O'. , . . 3 Hove an apple! Is this an okl RollsRoyce? He has an honestface. Write an then an We sometimesuse nouns without articles. 4 Do you take milk or sugar?' I like Jish,but not chips. . Girls are quicker than boys. The articlesa/an and the aretypesof deterniners. (Seepage83.) We can use other determiners (this, those,ffiy,your, etc.)insteadof articles,but not with them. 5 These booksbelongon that shelJ.. Nora wiped her cheek.(r'tor Nerc wiPed*et+he ehe )

Nouns \\.e begin proper nouns with capitallettersnnd usethem as the namesof people,places, organizations,days,months and specialoccasions.Most of them have no article (6). But we use some proper nouns with the definitearticle in the plural (7) and some in the singular (8). 6 Elvis Presley,Shakespeare, Dernnark, Rome, NATO, Microsoft, Monday, luly, Christnns 7 the Robertsotls,the Arabs, the Alps, the Netherlsnds,the United Nqtions, the Middle Ages 8 the Queen, the United Kingdotn, the BBC, the Eifel Tower,the White House, the Gt f War We usecommon nouns to categorizeor label peopleand thir.rgs. They are countableor uncountable. We can Lrsecountable con.rmon nouns in the singular, with a/rrrrand each (9), or in the plural, with nun.rbersand ruaxy (lO) . 9 Do yotr have n blockpen or a pencil? . Each child should have a book. l0 We rlon't sellpens or pencils. . Theresre twenty chiklren. , How many books wi[[ you need? We usually use uncountable common nouns when we talk about an abstract concept, an activity, a sulrstanceor a material. Uncountable nouns are not used with a/an ctrrn the plural. We can use uncountablenouns with no article ( 1l ) and much (12). ll Her poeffi b about flying, freedom and bad luck. (Nor .. . e-$e*laele) 12 They havefood and clothing, but they don't have much wqter. (Not ... +rnteri) Uncountablenouns are alsocallednon-count nouns or massnouns. 3 Complete this table with appropriate examples from the text about flying on page 68.

Propernouns Comnon nouns Countable:singular

Indefinite article a Rolls-Royce 0n Audi

Definite article the UnitedKingdoffi the UnitedStates

an accident

theshelf

No article Shakespeare (t).................

(by) bus (4).................

Countable:plural

thebooks

children

Uncountable

thefood

clothing (8).................

A/t )ot th. ta i/rir,.r.,

/ir.or no dni.le 72

69

6 , \ l i l 1 ( : l l , s r \ 1 . \ LN) o t r \ s

Articles:alan or the 4 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

,Uan or the We usuallyusea,/nrto classifrpeopleor thingswhen we mention them first . We usetheto identifupeopleor thingswhen we think they arealreadykrown 7 Wereada storyabouta mnn,a younglrish girl and a priceless diamondring. 2 Do you rememberthe storyaboutthe man who tried to stealthe ringfrom the Irkh girl?

A/an: classifying When we classilysomething,we are sayingtlrat it is a n.rember of a category.We userrlanwhen we classi$, the kind of thingwe'retalkingabout oLwhenwe want to talk aboutanyexampleof the k i n do f t h i n gw e ' r et . r l k i n rgb o u t (Not Hrsf*fhr-*as+omedy) 3 What'sthat?- It'sa mol6e , Hisfrst Jilm wnsa contedy. . (Nor 4 Do yotr hsvea ruler? I'nt lookingfor a knife. Fr oo#ingprknife) We usea/an when we classifrpeopleby the work they do or the kind of beliefsthey have 5 I'm a socialist,not e comffiunist., Isn'tyourfriend Vohraa wgetarian? 6 Sheila's an architect.' Staxleytalkslike an engixeer.. I'm a studext.(Not l:m-s*de*) We canusea/ar whenwe classif thingsin definitions , in descriptions ofparticularfeatures andwith a propernoun for oneexampleof the typeof thingmentioned . Hatreyou drivena Mercedes? . Is your watcha CalvinKlein? 7 Thatpaintitlg is a Picasso. professor 8 The had a big nose,a smallmouthand an enormousnroustache. . A dolphin isn'ta 9 Is a tomatoa fruit or a vegetable? Jish,it'sa mammaL

The: identifying When we identif, something,we aretreatingit asalreadyknown.We use rhewhenwe assumethat peoplearefamiliarwith the sameordinarythingsaswe arein our dailylives andin the physical world outside don't nrettiotl the sun,the sky,the earth,the weatlrcror the env;ronmet today. l0 Please ll Where'sthe phone?I left it besidethe rodioott the tablein the conrernearthe witdow. We usetftewhen we identily peopleby theirjobs or their unique rolesin society . We alsouse tftewith professionalorganizatiorls 12 Will you waitfor theplumberl - I can't., I haveto go to the detltist.. Askthe caretaker. 13 He'sthinkingaboutjoining the policeor the arnry.. His brotherworksfor the government. 14 Wouldyott recognize the Pope,the Emperorof Japan,the Daloi Lams or the Queen? We can use fhewhen we want to talk about somethingasa generalconceptand we'renot referringto a specificexample.We do this with inventionsand musicalinstruments and with people,things and animalsin generalizations 15 The horsewasa symbolof freedonrto the Apache.. The custonrcrisn'talwaysright. (= anycustomer) . Can anyonehereplay thepiano or the organ? 16 What waslife like beforethe computer? We use fhewhen we identifr thingsor partsof thingswith descriptivephrasesafterthe noun, and relativeclauses . We alsoput lle beforesuperlative especiallyprepositionalphraseswith o/ adjectivesand emphasizingadjectivessuchas mairror frst 17 The bestpott wasbeingthefrst personto get in. That wosthe nain reason for goingmrly. 18 Can I seethe bookthatyou bought?. Thepersonwho calledyesterday sairlyou owedhim t20. 19 It\ the middleof Junealreadyand I haven'tfnkhed paintingthefront of my house.

70

.llrr,,,r',//r'(irnoirri.l.tl

l!nt,lrisiringJdje.ri!$ lll

\u|.rlirnerdir'.rn(\

l.l0

6 i \ I I T I C L E SA N D N O U \ S

5 Complete these descriptions with a, an, fhe or no article (-). . T h e C h a n n eIls l a n d as r e . o g r o u po f . . . i s l a n d isn ( r ) . . . . . . . .E n g l i s hC h a n n enl e a r ( 2 ) . . . . . . north westerncoastof(3) . . . . France.They havebelongedto (4). . . . . . . . Britain since(5). . . . . . . . N o r m a n sa r r i v e di n ( 6 ). . . . . . . . 1 l t h c e n t u r ya, l t h o u g ht h e y a r en o t p a r t o f ( 7 ). . . . . . . . U n j t e d K i n g d o m . CharlieChaplin was (8). .. . Englishfilm actor.He was also le). .. . director.He did most of his z )r o w o r k i n ( t o ). . . . . U S A . M a n y p e o p l e c o n s i d e r h i n ( l r ) . . . . . . . . g r e a t e s t c o r r i c a c( tt o . .f. . s i l e n tc i n e m a H . e appeared i n m a n y f i l m sa s 0 l ) . . . . . . . p o o r m a n w i t h ( 1 4 .). . . . . . . s m a l lr o u n d h a t , ( r s ). . . . . . . . s m a l lm o u s t a c h ea n d ( r o ) . . . . . . . . t r o u s e r s a n d ( r z ) . . . . . s h o e st h a t w e r et o o b i g f o r h i m , causinghim to walk in (rt).

..

. funnyway.

Choose an answer (a-f) for each question (1-6) and add a or fhe. 1 2 3 4 5 6

How often haveyou done this? (...) W h a t e x a c t l yi s a n o l i v e ?( . . . ) Where'syour dictionary?( ) Why is it so bright outsidetonight? (.. .) Whatkind of career does Sally want? ( ) What does Mrs Reynolds'son do? (. )

a b c d e f

It's on . . . . . . . . bottom shelf of my bookcase. l thinkhe'sin. ...... na\ry. She'dlike to be . .. journalist. I'm sure it's . .. . .. fruit. It must be . . . . . . . . moon. Yesterdaywas actually . . . . . . . . first time.

Complete this news item with a, an, fhe or no article (-). T h e r e ' s( 1 ) . . . . . . . g i a n tt o r t o i s ei n t 2 ). . . . . . . . G a l a p a g oIss l a n d sn i c k n a m e d( l ) . . . . . . . . L o n e s o m e G e o r g ew h o h a sn e v e rf o u n d ( 4 ). . . . . . . . m a t e .R e c e n st t u d i e sb y s c i e n t i s tssu g g e stth a t ( s ) . . . . . . . . lonely tortoise,now living on 1e1 . . . . . Pinto Island,actuallybelongsto (i) . . . . . . . . speciesfrom ( 8 ) . . . i s l a n d o f 1 r 1 . . . E s p a n o l a(.1 0.). . . . . . . s c i e n t i s tpsl a n t o b r i n g ( 1 r ) . . . . . . . .f e m a l ef r o m Espanolato seeif Oz)

. .. Georgewill becomeinterestedin mating.

8 Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of articles in this text. I remember/really embarrassingmoner.rt when I was starting to learn the English. My teacher'sname was Trevor |ones. He was from Cardiff in the Wales.He was alwaysmaking the jokes. One day he wrote words'English Gramer'on blackboard. He asked us if that was correct. Lnmediately I offered to answer question. I told liin the E should be changed to the A. Trevor said that was good answer and he char.rgedletter. Then he asked n.reif I was happy with nerv spelling. With the absolute confidence,I said that it was now correct. Suddenly,the other students started laughing. I looked around in the confusion.My friend whisperedthat it neededsecondM.'Oh, it should havethe M too!' I shouted out and Trevor nodded with the smile. It was correct. But I still remember terrible feelins of the embarrassmentfrom that moment.

71

6 ARTICI,ES AND NOUNS

Alan or one,alan or no article,the or no article A/an or one Wecanusea/anor onebefore a noun to talk abouta singlethingor person. 7 In someplaces,therearegrcyesthat are usedagainafterone/ayearand one/aday, We useofleto emphasizethe number (only oneor just one)(2) or to talk about a particularbut unspecified occasion, usuallyin narrative(3). . He tried to balanceon one leg,but he 2 Weonly haveroomfor onepassenger. fell over. 3 One day therewasa terriblestorm.. One time wealmosthad an occident. We useonein exactnumbers,especiallyin phraseswith largernumbers(4).We usea/an in approximateamountsand fractions(5). 4 Ourfrst car costone thousand,one hundredand twentypounds.. Add onecupof flour. 5 That trip costalmosta hundredpounds.. It tookabouta dayantl a half to complete.

A/an or no article We usea/ar when we are thinking of somethingasa singleunit (6). We useno articlewhen (7). somethingis not a singleunit or it is uncountable . Wehavestarteda newresearch 6 Wouldyou like a coffee? project.. Look!I caughta fsh! (Not llds4oing++esear* .. .) 7 Do you prefercoffeeor tea?. He'sdoingresearch onfish or shellfish. We usea/ar beforea noun to talk about a singleexampleor instanceof a more generalthing (8) and no articlewhen we are talkingabout the generalconcept(9). 8 Weboughta cheapwine.. I haw a terriblefear of heights.. Theold man hada goodlife. 9 I hatecheapwine. . Fearof rleathcanaffectanyotle., Life is beautiful,soenjoyit!

The or no article We use rhefor a specificmeaning( l0) and no articlefor a generalmeaning(l I ) beforeplural nouns suchas dogsand uncountablenounssuchas noney, lO The dogsnextdoorarefriendly.. Thechildrenhavealreadyspentthe moneywegayethem. ll My sisteris afraid of dogs.. Michelle'sboyfriendis alwaystalkingaboutmoney. We use thewith nounssuchas historyor poetrywhenthey are followedby ofphrases( 12) and no articlein othercontexts(13). 12 Thepoetry of Philip Larkin is unusual.. Westudiedthe history of Scotland. 13 Poetuyisn't theirfavouritesubject.. He taughtusScottishhistory.(Nor He+aaght-as+he

W)

We can usetftewith nounsto talk abouta specifictime (14) or place(15) and no articlewith those samenounsafter the prepositionsin or ct when we'retalking more generally(16). 14 That wasthe Christmasbeforeyou wereborn., Did you hearthat noiseduringthe night? 15 Afteryou passthe school,you'll seethe church.. Theprison is a big red building. 16 Mostpeoplewould ratherbe in schoolor in churchthan in prison. . I canneverstudyat night. Other prepositionalphraseslike this include:at Christmas,at university,in town, in winter We useno articlein many prepositionalphrasesreferringto generalconcepts,asin goingb7 bus, wherethereisn't a particularbus beingclassifiedor identified(17).We alsouseno articlewhen we talk aboutsports( l8). 17 Theycameby bus.. Let'sgo to berl.. Sendit by email.(Nor S*d++by4*-email) 18 Anwar loyescricket.. Tennisis herfavouritesport.. I don'tplay golf.(Nor {4o#+pk7+hqelf)

72

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erc. 126 A),rfl5'crc.lll

(i'lotrblc

and uncountabl€ nouns 74

o Al{ll(ll\

\ N L ,\ r ) l \ (

9 Completethis text with a/an,one or no article (-). d o r k i n gi n . . O n e .t .i m eI w e n to u t o n . . . q . . . b l i n dd a t ew i t h { r ) . . . . m a nw l r oh a di u s ts t a r t e w (]t There wasonly cocktail bar. (2) We went to Cathy'soffrce.That was . . . . . . . . big mistake! ... ... . e re' l l ' t , t ) . . . . . . . f r e e t a b l e , i n t h e d a r k e s t c o r n e r o f t h e b a r . H e a s k e d i f.I.'.d. .I .iskcerte: tw d r i vW (s) drink I'd never heard of (z) but .. . . . I know there's(6). . . . . . tool called . . . . . . . . screwdriver, thatit wasmadewith ts). . . . . . vodkaand (10). . . . . . . . orangejuice.I said calledthat.He explained I'd ratherhave(1r) . . . . . . . . glassof t t z). . . . . . whitewine'He saidhe had 1r3). .. .. verysPecial whitewine from Francein his flat and I would reallylike it. He gulpedbackhis drink and askedif I wasreadyfor anotherdrink beforewe left. I saidI could only stayfor (t+) . . . drink. When he wentto thebathroom,I quicklygrabbedmy coatandleft.Maybeit wascalledi r:l . .. . .. . .'blind' date,but I could seevery clearlywhereit wasgoing.I had to make(te). . . . . quick exit. 10 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese definitionswith a, an, the or no article (-).

wdi t h( 2 ) . . . . . . l. i.g h t sa n d . . . A . . . C h r i s t m a s t r e e i s ( t ) . . . . . . e v e l g r e e n o r atrrtei fedi cei caol r a t e homesat (5). . . . . . . Christmas. in (4). . . . . . . People's G). . . . . . . . colouredornaments . . A n . . .E a s t eer g gi s ( 6 ) . . . . . . . .e g gm a d eo f 1 2.1. . . . . . . c h o c o l a toer 1 t ) . . . . . . . h e n ' se g gw i t h ( e ) . . . . . . . . p a i n t e d s h e l l , g i v e n a s ( 1. P 0 r) e . .s. .e. n t t o ( r l.). . c h i l d r eant (I 2 ). . . . . . . . E a s t e r . ..-... Passoveris(r:).......fewishreligiousfestivalin(t4)........memoryofit')......freein ( 1 7 ) . . . . . .s l a v e r y i(nr s ) . . . . . E g y p t . o f 1 r o ; . . . . . .J. e. w s f r o m , h e n( 2 1 ) . . . . . M u s l i m sd o . . .u s l i ny. re a rw . - . . . . R a m a d ains 1 r r y . . . . . . n i n t hm o n t ho f 1 2 0 1 . . . . . M g e t w e e(n2 2 ) . . . . . . s. .u n r i s ae n d( 2 3 ). . . . s u n s e t . n o te a to r d r i n ka n y t h i n b (Day)is lz+; . . . . . . . publicholidayin 1zs) . . . . USA,on (ze). . . . . . fourth . . -. . . . Thanksgiving

Thursdayin(27)........November,andin(28)........Canada,on(ugt........secondMonda ( : o ) . .. . . O c t o b e r . 'll Completethis news report with a, an, one, the or no article (-)'

JohnMillar,wholivesneartrt......stirlingin(2)........centralScotland,thoughthehadfou (i)........bargainwhenhebought1,tl......Volkswagenforjust(s)........thousand,(6).... wasfine hundredandslrty-fivepoundsat (7).... .. auctionin ttt. . . . . APril thisyear.Everything j u s t i t t o ( r t o o k c a r s t o p p e d . ( e ) . . . . . . . . d a y , | m o n t h t , h e n f o ra b o u t John ).... ... . 1 r o 1. . . . . with . e c h a nti hc o u g ht th e r ew a s1 t + 1 . . . . .p. .r.o b l e m ( 1 2 ) . . . . . .I .o. c agl a r a gweh e r e( r l ) . . . . . . .m

tls)........petrolsupply.Hewasreallysurprisedwhenhediscovered(16)........sourceof (r7)........problem.Hehadtoremove(rs)......large,tightly-sealedplasticbagfrom(le).. p e t r otl a n k .I n s i d e1 z o. .1. . . . . . b a gw a s( z r ) . . . . . . w a d o f ( z z ) . . . . . h u n d r e dp o u n dn o t e sl t was (24). . . . . evenbigger amountedto fifteenthousandpounds.Suddenly,(z:). . . . . . . . Volkswagen bargainthanJohnhadimagined.But fohn is (zs). ... . .. .honestScotandhe rePortedhis discovery theywant to (26).. . . .. . police.Theyarenow tryingto find (21) ........ car'spreviousownerbecause waiting patiently and is (28) why it was hidden. came from and money John to krow where . . . . . (2e). he won'thaveto worry about be his.Whenthat happens, .. .. . . hopingthat it will eventually petrol for quite some time. (10). moneyfor . .. . . ..

73

( r A I II l ( ] l t sA \ t ) N o L i \ s

Nouns:countable and uncountable 'l2 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Countable nouns Countable nouns can be singular or plural and are normally used to refer to people, creaturesand objects or actions and events , which can be thought of as separateindividual things. I actor, bird, car, chikl, dog, ladder, man, monkey,mountain, telephone,etc. 2 arrival, crash,goal,Iesson,mistake,party, punch, problem, riot, theft, etc-

Uncountable nouns Uncountablenouns are usedwith singularverbs,but not to referto individualthings.They arenot typically usedwith c/nr. We useuncountablenounsto talk about substances and materials i l b s t r a ci d t e J sq. u a l i L i easn ds t a t e s . o r a c t i v i t i e s jogging,photography, 3 camping,chess, research, shopping,tennis,training,work,etc. 4 anger,bravery,education,etidence, ignorance, Iove,poverty,safety,etc. freedom,honesty, 5 alcohol,chocolate, cotton,fur, ink, meat,pai t, petrol,rice,salt,shampoo, soil,wool,etc. Thereare someuncountablenounsin Englishsuchasadviceor informationwhich may have countableequivalentsin other languages. 6 advice,applause, assistance, cash,equipment,etidence, furniture,heabh,homework,information, laughter,Ieisure,luck,machinery,money,permission, pollution,progress, rubbish,trffic, ttiolence, etc. (Nor -6rrr#,

Countable and uncountable uses Somenouns can be countableor uncountable.It dependswhetherwe'reusingthe noun to referto a singlething or to a substance or generalidea 7 Sheownsa business.. I sawa chicken.. There'sa hair in my teq., Did you heara noise? 8 Businessis booming.. Do you eatchicken?. He haslonghair. . There'stoo muchnoise. We can alsousenounssuchaspieceor dropin phraseswhich arecountable when we want to talk about separateunits or partsof nounswhich are uncountable (Nt':rShe4ada*laed oa 9 Nobodylikeshavingto movefurniture. . Shehad blooil on hersleeye. her:leew,) ).0 Therewasn'ta pieceof furniture left h thehouse.. I couklseeilrops of blood on thefloor. Otherslike this include:an act of bravery,a bit of cheese, a bottle of water,a cartonof milk, a chunk of concrete,itemsof information,sheetsof papet two slicesof bread(Nol two*rcads) 13 Using a dictionary if necessary,completeeach definition with one set of nouns (not n e c e s s a r i l yi n t h i s o r d e r )a n d a / a no r n o a r t i c l e . bredtl/ piece/ soup/ toast breakJast / cereal/ fruit / milk / mixture/ nuts courltry/ goverlurrcnt / / s)tstenl l ) e m o c r a c y i s . 9 . . ' : t 1 t 9 1 . . . . . . . . . o f ( r r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n w h i c h e v e r y o n e r n c ) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . canvote. A c r o u t o n i s t - r ). . o f t + ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o r . . s r . n aslql u a r e ( 5 t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f r i e d . . . . . . . . . , u s u a l lsye r v e w d i t l .{r6 ) . . . Muesliist;t...... o f r s ). . . . . . , ( e ). . . . ,and ( r 0 ) . . . . . . . c l r i e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...,.u s u a l l y e a t e n r v i t h o . r ). . . . . at rl 2 l

74

(, ,\tflt.t t.s\\t) NoLtNs

Nouns:generic,pair,group,pluraland singular(+s; Genericnouns We usenouns as genericnouns when we make generalstatementsabout any cxample (s/an),the generalconcept(tle) or most examples(no articlewith plural) of the thing we're talking about (1 ) mther than real or particular examples(2). I An orange haslots of ritamin C. . The telephone rules ny life. ' Women livc longer than men. is phk. I con seeabout tcn wonrcnand two men. 2 I justata.t orange.. Cindy'snew telephone

Pairnouns Weusepair nounssuchassclssors or trousers to referto things madeof two natching partsthat weuseor wear.Wc usuallyusethemwith pluralverbs(3).Whenwe put pair nounsafterthe phrase a pair 0t',we usea singularverbanda plural pronoun(them,they)(4). 3 Thesescissors sren'tverysharp,. Whitc trousersdon'tgo verywell with blackshoes. is hard tolind. . There'so nicepair of trousersor salc.Youshouklget thett 4 A goodpair of scissors because they'rcreallycheap.hr fact,you shorid buy twopairsl (Nol *ve+ettsers) jeans,pants,pliers,pyjamas, tights clippers, shoes, sunglasses, Othersincludc:binoculars,

Groupnouns Wecanusegroupnounsto talkabouta groupof peopleasa singleunit,with singularverbsand people,with pluralverbsandpronouns(6).Groupnounsarealsocalled pronouns(5),or asseveral nouns. collective in whnt thcgovernmentis doingunlessit ircreasestaxes. 5 Thepublic isn'treallyinterested 6 Thepublic are tnorelikelyto complah iJ they haveto pay morctates. band,club,committee, family,jury,majority,parlianrent, team Othersinclude:audience, In AmericanEnglish,singularverbsaretypicallyusedaftergroupnouns. \Vecanusesornepropernounsasgroupnouns,with pluralverbs,for teamsand organizations. 7 Enghndare readyto play France.. Britislt Railhaveannouncednew plarrs.

Plural and singular (+s)nouns thatarenot usedin the singular. Pluralnounsarewordswith distinctmeanings 8 He saitlthanksfor lookingafterhb belongings.' Goodmannersare important. troops clothes, congratulations, groceries, outskirts,remains, snrroundings, Othersinclucle: Pluralnounsthatdo not endwith sinclude:cattle,clergy,people,police,poultry Singular(+s) nounsarervordsthatendin -s andappearto be plural,but areusedwith singularverbs n'henrvetalk aboutareasof study,activitiesand disease. a dcatllydisease. 9 Statisticswasa diffcuh course.' Aerobicsis hord work.. Rabieshqs beconrc elcctronics, measles, physics, politics Othersinclude:athletics, billiards,cards,diabetes, with nounsin the pluraldescribing amounts. Wealsousesingularverbsaftersomephrases 70 Five iLcsis a longwalk.. IweUy_pulas istoo much!, fug-wtks isn't enoughtime. 14 Using a dictionary if necessary,choose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (1-6) and add these nouns olus is or are. binoculers clergy fornight

mathematics oLttskirts press

I The 2 The J tne 4

6 Two weeks

sometimes

Properrours 69 Srl)jccr !cfb rSrcnncnt 4

a b c d e f

to seethings far away. the scienceof numbers. in Britain. calleda for newspapersand journalists. the parts that are far frorn the centre. such as pricstsanclministers. 75

i

\ t in (

\A\t)\(,t

\\

Possessive and compoundnouns 15 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Possessive noun or compoundnoun? We usuallyusea possessive noun whensomethingbelongsto a particularpersonor thing and a compoundnoun to talk about a common combinationof things,not possession I Eachstudent'soffce hasa computer.. That red.thingon a chicken'sheail is called'a comb'. 2 Youhayeto takethese forms to thestuilent off.ce.. Do you like chickensoupl

Possessive nouns We form possessive nounsby addingan apostrophes ('s) to most nouns,or only an apostrophe(') to nounsendingin s. 3 oneman'sstory,Lee'sbirthday,children'sbooks,girls'stories,Burns'poems Note that it is possibleto write both Dickens'novelsand,Dickens's novels. We usepossessive noun phrasesto expresslhe ideaof'having' (in a very generalsense)which exists betweenthe first noun and the secondnoun. We usuallyusethem when the 6rst noun refersto peopleand otherlivingthings , groupsandorganizations , times andplaces 4 Lonrlon'snight life,China'seconomic policy,Europe'satrrency,theworld'spopulation 5 My mother'ssister,theBeatles'music,the killer'smistake,a dog'slife,bird.s'nests 6 thecompany'schangeof plan, thecommittee's decision,theBBC'snewsprogrammes 7 yestertiay's meeting,nextweek'sschedule, pay,Moru)ay'snews a week's We alsousepossessive nounsin personification,that is,when somethingabstractis treatedasif it rvasa person , or when an objectis describedas'having'something jealousy's 8 Death'scoldhanrl,Iove'spassionate embrace, dark thoughts previous 9 thecar's ow er, thecomputer's circulation faulty design,thenewspaper's Possessive nounscan sometimesbe usedwithout a following noun when that noun is treatedas known , or is presentedasone of a largernumber ratherthan a particularone , She\ a l0 It\ a flm of Hitchcock's. friend of Margarefs.(= one of Margaret'sfriends) . Westayedat Tom's.. It\ biggerthan Paul's. ll She'sat thedoctor's.' He hasAlzheimer's. 'having', We can usean ofphraseaftera noun to express especially when one thing is part of another , when describingactions,ideasor processes , or when a long phraseis usedfor the POSSeSSOT

12 thedevelopment of industry,theconcerns of students,thewithdrawalof NATOt'orces 1.3 thearm of thechair,pagesof a book,theroofof thebuilding the costof repairs 14 What wasthe narneof that girl in Amstertlan?. He'sthesonof thewonnn we met in Bonn.

Compound nouns Compound nounsconsistof two (or more) wordsusedto referto peopleor thingsmore specifically in termsofwhat they arefor , what they are madeof , what work they do , what kind they are , or whereand when they happenor are used . Hyphensare sometimesusedin compoundnouns 1.5busdriver,car mechanic, productionmanager,airlinesafetyinspector historyteacher, 16 applicationfortn, canopener, extinguisher swimmingpool,emergency exit door fre 77 detective story,horrormovie,junk food,wonlenpriests, healthfood magazine 18 chickensoup,featherpillows,glassbottle,paperplates,vegetable curryflling 19 birthdayparty,morningsickness, streetlights,wi ter coat,dining roomtable 2D a house-husband, a gertogether,a do-it-yourself store,a live-and-letJive approach

76

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6 ARTICIE5 A\D NOUNS

16 Chooseone expressionfrom eachpair for eachspacein this versefrom a greetingscard. I (Life'stroubles/ Troubles oflife) can sometimesleaveus with a frown, (eachday'sworries/ worriesof eachday) A n dt h e. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . c a ng e tu sd o w n ; (morning specialof news/ morning'sspecialnews) But this is here (world'sproblems/ worldsof the problems) To make all the (lovet woman / womarfs love) B e c a u so ef o n e . . . .

disappear;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .w, ec a ns a y

(Mother Day / Mother'sDay) Thanks and bestwishesto you on this

17 PartA.Writethesenounphrasesin the appropriate spacesin the text, appli.cationforms bonom line buy-now-pay-Iaterworld mllegestudent

consumergroups redit card ffirs teditcards / creditcardusers

uedit nting moneymatters gve-aways senseof responsibility high-risk borrowers T-shirts ;nterestntes

Part B. Findtwo possessivenoun phraseswith incorreciforms in this text and write correctversionshere:

Is your child starting school soon?Does he or shehavea credit card yet?This isrlt asstrange asit sounds.According to Cathy Yuen,director of CollegeMarketing Servicesin Los Angeles, aregettingyoungerand younger.You may be surprisedto learn that teenagers .9|1e11+ .99.14.Y1.:.9.. -havebecomeoneofthemostimportant(l).........................IntheUSA,thoseteensspen $l50billionayearandanincreasingamountofthatspendingisdonewithlz)......................... For credit card companies,it hasbecornecrucial to establisha credit relationship with consumersas early aspossible.That first credit card is the one that people are likely to keep using for the longest time.Asaresult,thetfpical(3)...........,............receivesoverforty(4)...................... year.Somelendersarenowsendingcreditcard(s)........................tohighschoolstudentswi offersof(o)........................suchasfree(7).........................Youngerteensusedto wait until they were eighteento sign a contract to get a card, but now their parents are co-signing. Credit card companieslose lessmoney with teenagersthan with adults, mainly becauseof parents willingness to help pay off their childrens credit card debt. Yuen saysthat, in terms of the (8)........................,teensarenot(9).........................Thereisalsoanadvantageto a n e a r l ys t a r ti n t h ew o r l do f c r e d i tI.f y o u e s t a b l i sahg o o d( r o ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .e a r l yo n ,y o u can get betterO| . . whenyou want to borrow moneylater for a car or a house.Teenagers maynot be famousfor tleir (12)............. . ... ... , ... whenit comesto ( 1 3. ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. , b u t i n t h i s( 1 4. ). . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , t h e ya r el e a r n i nagt a n e a r l ya g eh o w to get what t}Iey want by using plastlc.

77

6 A I L I I ( J L E SA N D N O U N S

Articlesand nounsin discourse New old and restatedinformation We usearticlesand nounsin differentwaysto help readersand listenersinterpretinformation in discourse.We introducenew information with a/an and reoeatold information with the. I A gunmantried to usea femaleemployee asa hostage it'ter a failed attemptto rob a bank this morning,The hostagewasreleased unharmedand thegunmansurrendered. 2 Therewasoncea king of a far-away country who had a beautit'uldaughter.The king had searched the wholecountrytofnd a youngprinceto marry his d.aughter3 Wereada rcportin a medicaljournal abouta newtreatmentt'or asthma.The reportsaid that the treatmenthad beeneffectiye, but was still experimental. We can use theplus a more generalnoun when old information is restated. 4 Afterpolicesurroundedthe bank,the woman wasreleased and the situationendedpmcefully. 5 The beautifulgirl wasknownthroughoutthe lanil as 'the lonelyprincess'. 6 Soonafter the report wasreleased,the news of the breakthrcugh broughta barrageof phone calls from asthmasufferersWriterssometimesbeginstoriesby presentingintroductoryinformation with rie asif it is old information and the narrativehasalreadybegun. 7 The boy with fair hair loweredhimselfdown thelastfewfeetof rockand beganto pick his way toward the lagoon.

Associatedand condensedinformation We can expressassociated information with theand a differentnoun. In most cases, the connectionis betweentwo nouns,basedon common knowledge(a houseusuallyhasa kitchen). 8 Wewerethinkingof buyinga housein Wimbledon,but the kitchen wastoosmall 9 Luckily therewasa taxi aveilablearul the driver spokeEnglish. l0 She'swritten a newbook.I can'trememberthe title. The coyetis red with sold letters. In somecases, the connectionis betweena yerb and a noun. ll I reallylikedit, but didn't buy it because theprice wastoo high. 12 He askedmeaboutyou. Therewassomethingoddaboutthe tone of the question. 13 Weweredriying throughheavyrain whenthe wintlscreenwipersstoppedworking. 14 I workeil therefor a while,but thepay wasterrible. We can alsorepeatinformation in a condensedwaywith rheplus a compoundnoun. We can combineelementsof information from one or more sentences to form the comooundnoun. 15 The curve that indicatessupplycanshift in response to manyt'actorsthat can'tbemeasured. However,the supply cume shift can be measured. 16 Youhaveto fll out a form to apply for a credit card. The cretlit caril application form actually represents a contract. 18 Add these nouns, plus a/an or fhe, to these sentences. bicycle

board fl^

1 S u z yg o t. . .. . .. . .

job

owner

pay

price

restaurant shop

teacher

p a r t - t i m.e. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .i n . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . I t a l i a n b u t. . . .. . . .- . . .. . . .. . . .w a sr e a l l lyo w . o l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n a r e p a i sr h o p s a i di t h a d

2 I f o u n d. . . . . . . . . beenhis son's. 3 I n c l a s s. ., . . . . . . . a l w a yw s r i t e st h i n g so n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Accordingto AIIiedCinemas, it will costyou moreto see.. ... . .... . . ... . . ... thissummer. increasewill takeeffecton lune lst.

A/ar ot th.?O Compound nouns 76

6 A I I I I ( ] L E SA N I ) N O U N S

19 Write appropriatearticles (a, the or no article (-)) in this introductionto a short story.

I n s i d e. . ! . h q .s. t a t i o nc a f ei t w a sw a r ma n dl i g h t .1 1 1 . . . . . .w . .o o do f ( z ) . . . . . . . t. a b l e s h o n ef r o m wipingandtherewere(3)........basketsof1+;........plgtzelsinglazedpapersacks.(s)... werecaryed, but (6)........seatswereworn andcomfortable. Therewas17) ........ carvedwooden clockon1al........walland(s)........barat(r0)........farendof1rr1........room.Outside ( r 2 , . . . . . w i n d o wi t w a ss n o w i n g . 20 Choose an ending (a-j) for each beginning (1-10) and add a, one, the or no article (-). Therewas....... doglookinglostoutside( .) She'ssper.rding . . . Christmasin hospital.(. . .) I c a n ' tu n d e r s t a n. d . . . . . . . f i n a n c ree p o r t( . . . ) Therewasonly. .. . toiletroll left (.. ) There's. .. . girl poundingthe grandpiano.(.. ) We'regoingto buy . . . . . . . . new lawnmower.(. . .) . ... . .. . youngboy hadgonemissing.(. .) Shehas. .. . . .. terriblecough.( ..) He spenthis teendge yea15 indoor5.worrying (.. about. .. .. pinples ) l0 As I told you, . . . . . . . . my computerkeeps (.. .) crashing. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

a She'sreally banging the instrument.

b Youth is really wasted on the youngl c They needed people to help with the search. so Mary stoppedto help .. . .. . .. poor animal. l ' l l g e tr i d o f t h et h i n ga n d g e r. . . . . . . . new one. f becausethe language is too technical. c s o t h e s t u f fw a st r e a t e dl i k e . . . . . . . . g o l d . h T h e o l d m a c h i n ew a : a l w a l' L r r e a k i n g down. The problem won't go away without . . .. . . .. medicaltreatment, Itisn't.. . happiesttime of her life, I'm sure.

21 The following parts of a descriptionof a car crash are not in the correct order. Write the numbers in the best order to describe how the crash happened.

! 1 There was a small white van behind the tour bus. 2 I saw a tour bus coming down the main road towards me. 3 The bus signalled that it was turning left into the side street, /4 When I was waiting to cross King street, 5 There was also a Mercedeswaiting to come out of a side street and turn right, tt

but it couldn't complete the turn becauseof the Mercedes.

7 and it crashed right into the Mercedes. 8 But the white van had already started to passthe bus 9 So the Mercedesstarted to come out and turn right. 79

5 ARTICLESAND NOUNS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. I A demonstration is an act of showing by giving proof or aa ban cthe d-

evidence.

What's in this book? Look at the a content b contents c content's d contents'

page'

Dessertis any sweetfood eatenat

end of a meal.

aa ban cthe d4 Sheworked here for a wh ile then aan bone cthe d-

afternoon shejust quit and left.

5 The policehavea new

in their searchfor the bank robbers. a assistance b clue c progress d information

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correctthe sentence. I TWometresgICabout the sizeof most doorwavs. ABCD 2 I take_ the _ _bus A - -to_ the _ _ _universiw _ B - _ - - .and _ , : meet - - ' l - Tom at the sDortscomDlexso we can plav the tennis. 3 In oneclasswe had to do a researchon the lanquaqeusedin business. g' A B D He took one pair of shpes.two shirts and two troutiers.but he forgot to take sod<s D 5 fteqagerswith credilcardslike to buy CDt and clotbing.

Completethis first paragraphof a novelwith a, an, fhe or no article(-). In my grandmother's dining room therewas(r) _

glass-fronted cabinetandin (2)

cabinet a piece of skin. It was (3)small pieceonly, but thick and leathery,with strands of 1+1 coarse,reddish hair. It was stuck to (5)_ _ card with (6)_ rusty pin. On (7)card was somewriting in (s)_ faded black ink, but I was too young then to read.

80

6 ARTICLES AND NOUNS

Rewritetheseheadlinesas sentenceswith appropriate articlesandothernecessary changes. MaskedMan RobsWomanOutsidePostOffice 1 Yesterday, Bankof EnglandRaisingInterestRatesby 1j o/o 2 In businessnews, Murder of Priestin Kent ShocksCommunity 3 Yesterdaytnewsof New Accountof ScottishHistory by EnglishWriter Criticized 4 Reviewershavecriticized E Write the correct forms, with articles,of these noun combinations in the spaces below. authors/ report earth/ health / environmental century/ middle tlbaster/ threat challenges / urgency dxtruction / enyironment

group/ Iatestreport organization / Sims populaion / world

disaster The EarthguardInstitutehasissueda report warningof the thraal of environryrental

by (r) '12)

unlesswe do somethingsoon.

facingus requiresaction nowj saidDennisSims,one

of (3)

is a watchdoggroup that regularlyissuesreports and its people.Accordingto (6) falling watersupplies , rising temperatures, and shrinkingforestsareproblemsthat will only getworseas increases \7) to 9 billion by 2050. 'People's optimism aboutthe future is blinding them to the potentialfor worldwidedisaster,' 'We Simswarned. must try to reduceglobalwarming by replacingcoaland oil with renewableenergysourcessuchaswind and solarpower.If we continue (8) , our grandchildrenwill inherit a wasteland.' (4)

on (s)

81

Determinersare words such as articles(alan, the),demonstratives(this,that,fhese,fhose) and possessives(my,your,her, his, its,our, their)whichwe can use with a noun to help identifywho or what the noun refersto (Thatman withthe beardis my uncle). are wordsand phraseswhichwe usewhenwe talkaboutquantities Quantifiers that are countable(a few,many,twenty)or uncountable(a liftle,much).We can use quantifiers beforenouns (l atea few biscuitsand dranksomemllk),insteadof nouns(Didyou want any? Therewasn'tmuch left.)and with of-phrases(l left most of the biscuitsforyou. I couldn'teat all of them.\ Readthroughthis storyandfind: '1 anotherexample of a//witha determiner 2 a//withouta determiner My grandfather always drove the cal and my grandmocher sat beside him. I sar in the back seat, my eyesjust below the level ofrhe window, seeing rhe world chrough their voices. : B My grandfather had learned to drive in the country where cherewere few people or vehicles on the road. My grandmother sometimes mencioned that there were a lot ofother cars on the road now and he should rake a litrle more care.In reply co this, my grandfather liked to sa1 'All cars have brakes.'He would slow down to turn a corner and we would hear the sound of screechingtyres behind us, followed by the loud blast ofa car horn. 'George,you have to signal sooner,'shewould suggest.'Oh,what's all the Fussabout?' he'd ask. She'd say,'That car could have hit us,' and he'd repl1 'oh, all cars have brakes.' Both oFmy grandparents had grown up on farms in this area,but during their lifetimes the whole area had changed a lot. They said it was strange that there were no farms now.In place ofchose old farms were lots ofnew houses,new streets and a big new shopping centre. There were srill a fbw old houses with large gardens and my grandparents lived in one ofthem.

The advantageofall these changes,my grandmother tried to point out) was the convenienceof shopping. Everyrhing was close now, even a new supermarket. My grandfather enjoyed the advantages,but he complained about some of rhe problemsrhar came.he said.from roo many people in too little spacetrying to do too much at once!'But he really iiked the new coffee house that sold fresh pastries.We seemedco end up there each Saturday. It was on our return from one ofrhose Saturday trips that u'e had our accident.We had eaten some strawberry tarts and my grandfatl-rer was telling me lrow lucky I was that I didn't have to ger up everymorning and pick srrawberrieson the farm as he had co.We reachedour drivewayand turned in- Perhapshis thoughts were back on the farm. Perhapshe didn't expecranyone to be there. He jusc kepc driving up our drivewayand straight into the back ofanother car. There was a terrible crunching sound and we jolted to a stop. A woman appearedbesidehis u'indow. 'Ale you okay?'she asked.'Of course not! What are you doing in my driveway?'l.redenanded. 'l was hoping to persuadeyou to sell your hous€. Couldn't you stop?' she asked.'You were in the way!'he almost shouted.'Well, a-llcars have brales, you know,'she said in avery marter-of-faccway.

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the paragraphs (A-E) above. 1 There was alwayssomeonetrying to get them to sell it. ( ..) 2 As my grandmother turned to seeif I was okay, her worried look changed to a smile. ( . ) J H e a l w a y sw i n k e da n d s a i di t w J s a r p e c i a tl r e r l f o r m e . | . . ) 4 I think they sometimes forgot I was there. ( . .) 5 The circumstanceswould change,but this answer seemedto cover every situation. ( ..)

82

7 I ) E ] . E R N I I N E RA SN . I ) Q U A N T I F I E R S

Determiners Articles The articles (a/an, the) are the most common determiners. (Seepage 70.) 7 l'm sure I reatl an essayor a story by Theroux, but I can't rememberthe title.

Demonstratives (or demonstrativedeterminers)havedifferentforms beforesingularnouns The demonstratives (this,that) and plural nouns(these,t/rose). 'These peoplewereherefrst. ' I forgot thosePapers. 2 I lovethis chair.. That car wasspeeding. We can usethe samewordsaspronouns:Hereare thefles. Thoseareolder.Theseare new. we aretalking aboutthingscloseto the speakeror closelyconnectedto here We usethis/thesewhen and now.We usethat/thosefor thingswe are treatingasfurther awayfrom hereand now.We make this distinctionwhenwe talk abouttimesandevents(3),places(4) andpeople(5). 3 I'm free this afternoon.' I'm busythesedays.' Thqt party wasgreat!' I hatedthosemeetings' is betterthan that awfulplacewe had beforewith thosetiny windows. 4 This classroom 5 Lookat thesepeoplein this photo- they'recrazy.' Do you rememberthat weirtl teacherwe had? to makea contrastbetweenwhat hasalreadyhappened(that/those) We can alsousedemonstratives (6) and what is going to happen(thi/these\ (7). with money, we wereconcerned theeconomylastweek.ln that class, 6 Wediscussed we will shift ourfocusto politicsand theuseof power. 7 ln this class, We can usethat/thoseto add,an elementof'distance'when we expressnegativefeelings. 8 Thoseidiotsin Parliamenttlo nothingbut talk. ' I neverliked that old greymrpet.

Possessives (or possessive determiners)are my,your,his,her, its,our and t eir.We usepossessive The possessives pronounssuchas mire, which are usedinstead determinersbeforenouns(my seat),unlikepossessive of nounsand noun phrases. - I think 12Ais your seatand 128is my seat.(nor r''1'1e-seat) 9 Are theseour seats? determinerits is differentfrom ir's (= it is or it has). Note that the possessive We usepossessive determinersto expressa personalconnectionto things we own (10), a Part of a (ll), a feelingor thought(12),a familymemberor friend( 13)or an event( l4). thingor a person l0 I don'tknow whereI left nry bag.CanI borrowyour dictionaryfor a minute? ll Theguardput his handon my shoulder.Theguaul dogjust stoodthere,waggingits tail. Shejust thankedthe teacher 12 Toshatried not to showher disappointment. for his advice. parents birthdayparty. and a couple of their to our son's 13 My wife hasinvitedher friends ' holiday in Spain. your he told me about his 14 Wen is birthday? ln our lastconversation, in a prepositionalphrasewhenwe'retalking about part of We usuallyuse/heratherthan a possessive the body of someonealreadyidentified.The part is treatedasa place,not asa possession. 15 Oneman wasshotin the leg-'Robin leanedforward and kissedmeon the cheek. Note that we sayHe kissedmy cheek.(Nor He*issed+he-eheek) 3 Find examplesof these determinerswith nouns in the story on page 82. I four differentdemonstratives 2 four differentpossessives

Articlcs 69

Demonstrative pronouns 98

pronouns 97 Possessive

83

7 I ) F T F R M I N E RA \ NI) QUANTIFIERS

Quantifiers Quantifiers and nouns Quantifiersarewordssuchas both,most,severaland tr,r,o and phrasessuchasa little anda lotwhich we usewhen we are talking about numbers\How maL1.y?) or amounts(How much?).Wecanwe quantifiersbeforenouns,like determiners(1), or insteadof nouns,like pronouns(2). . We'yehad seyeralcomplaints. I Thereweretwo piesleft. . Can I hate a little sugar,please? 2 'Let'sget both,'shesaid.. I don't needa lot. . Most wereabout theloud music. We usesomequantifiers(a few, many) only with plural nouns (3), some (each"every)only with singularcountablenouns (4) and some(a little, much)only with uncountablenouns (5). 3 Thereare many occasions whenseatbeltssavelives,yet o few drfuersstill won't wearthem. 4 Eachpersonhasto takea card.Everycardhasa difiereninumber.(Nor Every-ear*...) 5 I think thesoupneedsa little sah.. I hopethereisn'ttoo much trffic. (Not +oe_mrch_ears) We can usethe quantifiersall everyand no with numbersbeforenouns. 6 All elevenplayersweretired- . we get a bill etery three months.. No two peopleare the same. 4 Write these quantifiers in appropriateplaces in the chart. { all I

a few

a little

both

each

all,

2 3 all)

eyery

many

much

one

seyeral ten

are usedbeforeuncountablenouns (noney). are usedbeforesingularcountablenouns (booft). are usedbeforeplural nouns (books).

Quantifiers with ofphrases We can usequantifierswith o/ beforedeterminers(7) and pronouns(g). 7 Two of the studentswerelate.. Takeany of thesechaiis.. Someof my friends goti . 8 Two of them wereabsent.. Youcan't takeany of those., Someof usfeit really-tired. In thesestructures,theremust be a determinerbeforethe noun and ofbeforea pronoun. (Nor :{.wo-of:*dettts, W fwe+em: Some-a:j W We can alsousequantifiersplus o/beforeproper nounsasplacenames. 9 Most of Europewill havesunny weathertomorrow.(Not +ao*+tropq tv@l&rpe) We usuallyput o/betweena quantifierand a determiner,but we can omit o/after all,both,half. l0 All of thesebooksare old. . Both of his sonsplay rugby.. I spenthalf of the morningin bed.. AII thesebooksare old. . Both his sonsplay rugby.. I spenthalf the morningin bed. We can useeveryone(not every)and nonebeforeofphrases(l I ) or aspronouns( l2). ll Everyone of myfrierulshad a mobilephone,but noneof themcalledme. 12 Is thereno sugar?- There'snone.. Did you checkeverycontainer? - I checked etery one. Find four quantifierswith of-phrasesin the story on page g2 and write them in the spaces.

84

Counrablc/uncountablenouns 74 DerermineB 83

7 DEI'IiI{]\1INF,RSANI) OLTAN] 1I:I I-;RS

6 Completeeach paragraphwith one set of words (not in the order listed). a /-both/ each/ half his/ my / these/ those his/ much/ some/ the a few / our / that / this

a little /most / some/ thirty

A Igot(r).....................earrings,thesmallonesl'mwearing,from(2) ..................... grandmother.I reallydidn't like (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . greenearringsthat Andy brought backfrom (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trip to Sri Lanka. B Look at (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . photographherein the newspaper. Doesn'tit remind you of (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . strangewomanwho cameto teach(7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frenchclassfor ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e e k lsa s ty e a r ? c Peterwasn'tpaying(e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . attentionto the lecturewhenAngelaleanedover and tappedhimon(10)...................shoulder.Asheturned,shepointedto(rr)............ n o t e p aa d n dw h i s p e r e d , ' CIabno r r o w( r 2 ) . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p a p e r ? , D Althoughthereare(ri)....................mountainpeaksthatreceiveover04) ................... incheo s f r a i na n n u a l l yt r,s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o f A r i z o n ah a sa w a r m ,d r y c l i m a t e withonly { r o.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .r.a i ni n w i n t e r . E When two horsesin 1rzy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . racefinish togetherat exactlythe sametime, it,s called a deadheat.It meansthat (ls). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of themwin and (ts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of them receives (20).. ...,.. the prizemoney. 7 using a dictionary if necessary,compretethese sentenceswith the quantifiers and the other words. a few any

every many

most much

lonery majority

maximum minority

quota unanimous

i A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is the smallerpart of a group,sometimesconsistingof only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p. e o p l e . 2 The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . weightallowedper passenger is a restrictionon how luggageeachpassenger is permittedto put on board an aircraft 3 A.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . systemis one that setsa limit on how peopleare permittedto do something. 4 A . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .c h o i cies o n et h a t. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . p e r s oang r e ewsi t h . 5 In a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , peoplecan usuallychoose. . . . . number that they think will win. 6 A . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . d e c i s i oi sno n et h a ti s b a s eodn w h a t. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . e ant. . . . . p e o p lw 8 Editing.correct the mistakesin the use of determinersand quantifiers in this text. I reada newspaperarticleabout someofspanish boyswho got lost while they werehiking in scotland.one ofboys fell and twistedthe anklebadlyso he couldn't move.Most them stayedwith injured boy while two the older boysleft to find help.However,this two boysdidn't know whereto go and, afterwalkinground in big circlefor a few hour,endedup backwith his friends.Luckily,each boyshad broughtsomewaterand food with him, so all them managedto survivea cold wet night out of doors.They wererescuedthe next day.

85

; l)L l Lttl

N L _ t t sr \ N I ) Q t r A NI l t : i R 5

Some and any, no and none 9 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Someand any We usesomear.rdarrywith plural and uncountablenouns or aspronouns to talk about an indefinitenumber or amount.We can alsousesomeand any wrth of phraseswhen we are talking about somethingspecific I Somestudentsdon'tget any homework.. I wishI had somemoney..Do you haw any matches? 2 I loyeseeshells. I washopingtofnd someon thebeach,but I didn't seeany. 3 Someof the newteachers havealreadyarrived.Harc you metany of themyet? We usesomein positivesentences and in questionsor offersexpectingpositiveanswers 4 Did you getsomenewfurniture?. CanI borrowsomepaper?. Wouklyou likesometea? 5 SometreesstaygreenaII year.. Wehavesomefriendsin Rome.' Let'sgetsomeblueberries. We useanl in sentences with a negativeelement . We alsousean1,in questionswhen no specific answeris expected , in lfclauses and when we mean'it do€sn'tmatterwhich one' 6 Do Mr and Mrs Younghaveany children?. Is thereanyfood left?. Are thereany eluestions? 7 Ani can'teatqny milk products.. Weneterhaveanyfree time.. He deniedany wrongtloitg. 8 Any pieceofpaperwill do. . Any doctorknowsthat. . ColIany tinle aftereight. 9 If thereare any probleml gite mea call.. I askedher if shehad any money. We can usesonrewhen we want to talk in a vagueway abouta largeamount or number , an approximatenumber or percentage or a person,place,or thing whoseidentity is unkrown . Theyhate knownabouttheproblem someyearsnow l0 It will takesometime to recoyer. for ll He now livesin sometillage in Wales,. Therewassomewomanhereaskingaboutyou. 12 That wassometwentyyearsago.' Somelifty percentof workingwomendon'twant children.

No and none Wecanuse fio and noneto emphasize'notany' ,Weuse ro rather than not anybefote subject nouns 13 There aren't any farms left in that area. -- There are no farms left. . There are none left. 14 No explanation was giten. , No dogsare allowed. (Not No+atry4ogtaredM) We use ao before singular and plural nouns . We use noae as a pronoun and with ofphrases 15 I had sixphone messages, but none Jrom Mr Blake. None of them seemedvery urgent. 16 Wen my parents were young, they had no lelevisionand no yideo gamesso they read books.

10 Ghoose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (1-6) and add any, some or no. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I don't knorv rvhat Brian doesrvith all his money. ( ..) I J.rope vou'll be carefulrvhenyou're using the paint. (. ) D o y o u l n i n d h a v i r . rbgl a c kc o f f e et o d a y ?( . . ) You haveto pick a number betwcclrone and ten. (. . .) I think rve'll probablyr.reedpaper platesand napkins.(. ) The concertwas good, but I couldn't stayto the end. (...)

86

a b c d e f

I'll bring Ih afraid there's. . . . . . . . . . . milk. Heneverhas .. ....... So l nisscd . .. . of it. Choose. . . . . . . . . . . of them. Don't spill

Cou.r.blc^d()untable

nouns 7.1 Nir, ,o,., .t..4lj

sorrc, dr), l0,l

7 DETERMINERS AND QUANTIFIERS

11 Rewritethesesentences, addingsomeandany.Makeanyothernecessarychanges. I heardthat areaswerebadlyflooded. Example:Haveyou hadnewsfrom your family in Prague?

.Hrv:. rgL.bs.4.9s.re::. fr-or. rgrr.igrilr.lr.l:qgleL.l.i:sr4.!!,.q!..*ry.9t?.q?.v? .Lq!)s.l.tp.gk4,. 1 Therewaswomanhereyesterdayaskingif we had old clothes,but I told her we had not them. 2 Information in that newsoaoerarticlewasincorrect.Thereisrlt wolf or bearsin Scotland.

, t1".-*rg"a ," ;r; ;;;o;o.r ;; r.rr,r nr",uu,r.rr,;,,,*n,,.. o"r;,f"r nr'. -r"nt -.-... 4 I'm sureI mademistakewhen I wastyping. If you find mistake,pleasecorrectthem.

12 Complete these sentences (from an article on student life) with any (x4), no (x3) or some (x3).

Didyouknowthat(l).....................thirtypercentofstudentshavetoleaveuniversitpnot becausethey can'tcopewith their studies,but becausethey simply can'tafford it? In onesurvey, researchers foundthat students cited'(2)........ ....... .... .. money'moreoftenthan (3)................,....otherreasonsuchas'coursestoodiffrcult'forendingtheirstudies. (4). During interviewswith the researchers, ofthese former studentssaidthat they jobs after classes,but they had discoveredthat they didn t have had tried to do part-time (5)...._................timeortheyhad(6).....................energyleftforstudywhentheyfin their iobs at night. When the researchers askedthesestudentsif they had receivedfinancialsupport from their parents, (7).....................saidtheyhad,butthemajoritysaidtheyhadn'treceived(s)............. Mostofthoseinterviewed saidtheyhad (e)... ......... ........ . plansto returnto university ( 1 0. ). . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . t r m es o o n . 13 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese sentenceswith the quantifiersand adjectives. any

some(x2)

no (x2)

none(x2)

deqd

empty

extinc't smreless uninhabited

1 I went to get those. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . boxesftom the backof the bookshop,but someoneelse h a dt a k e nt h ew h o l es t a c kT. h e r ew e r e. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. l e f t. 2 Morgan Islandis . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . now.At one time therewere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . twenty fishing families who lived on the rocky island during the summer montls, but nowadaysthere 3 Theremaystill be ....... . ........ ..... red squirrels in the forestsof Scotland, but therearen't .....................leftinEngland.Theyarecertainly.....................inthesouthernpart England. 4 The last England-Swedengamehad a lot of great football, but . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . goals,ending in a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .d. .r a w . 5 L a t i ni s c o n s i d e r ead. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .l a n g u a gi n e t h es e n steh a tt h e r ei s . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . populationof speakers who learn it astheir first language.

87

7 D t s .E I R I , I 1 l . ! E RASN I ) Q U A N T I F I F I T S

All and both. half and whole Alland.both We useall beforeplural nounsand uncountablenounsto makevery generalstatements(1) and all (of beforedeterminersplus nounsto makemore specificstatements(2). I All carshayebrakes.' All studentsmustwearuniforms.. All informationis conJidential. 2 All (of) thesecarsarefor sale.. All (of) theinformationyou askedfor is on our website. We useall o/(not all) beforepronouns(3). We useereryone/ewrything ratherthan allby itself (a). - No,not all of them, (Not all+hem) 3 Dirl yott write down theirphonenumbers? 4 Everyonelaughedat hisjokes.. Eyerythingwasa mess.(Not All wese mes*) We useborhinsteadof all or both of insteadof a// o/when we talk abouttwo thingsor people. 5 Useboth hantisto hold it. . Both (of) my brothersare olderthan me.. Both of themlive in London. We can useall and bothfor emphasisafter subjectsand pronoun objects(6) or afterauxiliaryverbs andbel/l-

6 The menall agreerlto wait. . Tim explainedit all. , Weboth neetla holiday.. I like themboth. 7 Wehad all heordqboutthe two Williamssisters. Theywereboth verytalented.

Half and whole We use haf before determiners (8) or between determiners and nouns (9) to talk about measured amounts. We sometimes use half (of) whenwe are talking about approximately half (10). 8 A pint is more than half a litre. . We'II be there in half an hour. (No'r halfofanhear) 9 Get a half litre if you can. . A half hour should be long enough.(Nol a-\dfefJ+ew) 70 I'ye only answeredhalf (of) the questions.. I lost half (of) my money. . Takehalf (of) this pie. We use laf o/before pronouns: I can't eat half of it. (No't @i+) We use rylrolebetween a determiner and a singular noun (11) and the whole o/before determiners, pronouns and proper nouns for places(12) to emphasizea full or completeamount. 11 The whole area had changed., I can't eot o whole pie! ' The woman told us her whole life story. 12 I spent the Athole of this past weekendin bed. . The strike is fficting the whole of France. 14 Choose an answer (a-d) for each question (1-4) and add all, both, half or whole. 1 2 3 4

How How How How

m u c h l o n g e rw i l l t h e r a i n l a s t ?( . . . ) much is sixteenounces?(. . .) much are those two books? (.. ) much money did he lose?(. . .)

a b c d

Youcanhave.. ... .. of themfor!5. It might go on like this for the .. . . .. . ... . week. . . . . . . . . . . . of it, so he's pennilessnow. I think it's almost . . . . . . . . . . a kilo.

15 Write one of these quantifiers in each space. Add ofwhere necessary. qll (x2)

both (xZ)

half

no

flone

one (x2)

whole

Nowadays, (l) . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . young girls can play football if thel want to. When I was young, I really wanted to play football, but (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . girls were allowed to in my school. In fact, (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the girls was allowed to play any ' boys' sports'.It was iust (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the rules. I learned about the game from my father and my uncle. (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . them had been football players and they often watched games on TV. I knew that (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . teams in a match started with eleven players and 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . them had special positions. I learned thatthattherewasabreakafterforty-fiveminutes,when(8).....................thegamewasoverand t h a t ' f u l l t i m e ' m e a n tt h e ( e ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g a m ew a sf i n i s h e dI.t w a sf u n t o w a t c h ,b u t I w o u l d r a t h e rh a v eb e e n( 1 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t .h. e p l a y e r s , 88

CouDl.ble/un.ountable noLrns71 DeLerhiners8l licryolel.yerlr,t,s98

Fractions9l

7 D I T E R N ,IlN I . ] R SA N I ) Q U A N T I F I E R S

Each andevery,eitherandneither Each and every We use caclrand dveD,before s ngular countable nouns. We use eadr rvhen we're talking about two or more peopleor things separately( I ). We use rvcrylwhcn we'retalking about three or more people or things together(2). I Each day is better than the last. , He csnrc in with a atp h each hantl. (Not .. . ix-eyery4ar*) 2 Every window was broken.. The Browus go to Benidorm every year. (Nor' . .. e*ry.7ears-) We use cacfioJ$ot etery of) beforedeterminerswith plural nouns (3) and plural pronouns (4). We can put each (not every) in different positkrns (5). 3 Each of her toenailswas a different colour. (Not Eael+4ertoeadik ...) 4 Each of you must work alone. . Give a pcn to each of them. (Nor .. . elrry-fuf)+ki*) 5 We each got orrcpiece,, We were each givcn one piece,. We weregiven one pieceeach. We use elery,(not eari) rvhenwe rvantto emphasize'asmany/much as possible'(6), when we talk about somethinghappeningat regularintervals(7) and after rilmostand nearly(8). itr your new job. 6 He hnd every opportunity to contpletethe work. 'We wish you every success . (por 7 There'so bus etery ten minLttes. Tske two tsbletsevery four hours. . .. etietsF+rhen*) 8 His tcanl lost almost every game. . Wc rtm nearly every day. (Not \4e aateaAT eaehAay)

Either and neither We useeitherbeforesingularnouns(9) andeitherof beforedeterminers pluspluralnounsor pronouns(10)to talkabout'oneor the other'of two peopleor things. 9 Either porentcansigntheform.. Leftor right?- Youcango either way.(Not ... either.nalr) - I'd behappywith either of thanuthanks. l0 Either of theparentscan sign.. Cokeor Pepsi? We useneither/neitlrer o/insteadof either/citherof whenwe mean'not one and not the other' of two peopleor thirrgs.We usesingularverbsaftersubjects beginningwithneitherol in forrnalsituations (tl). Pluralverbsaresometimes usedin infornralsituations( l2). 1.7Neitherpcrenthassignetlit. . Neither of tlrcboxeswasbig enouglt, Neither of us likescoffee. 12 I'trrsorry,but neither of my kidsare up yet. - So,do neither of thetnwant to gyo with us? 16 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethe sentenceswith these words. choice couple

tloubles cnch(r2)

either every

ncither(xz) pair

quarterly twins

I Behindthe nun camefour youngwhite-faced boys,dressed in greyuniforms,walkingin pairs, holdinghands. 2 SimonWestonand JoeBarneswereactually. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . who hadbeenadoptedby differentfamilieswhen theywereborn and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of them knew about the other ur.rtilthey werealmostforty yearsold. 3 The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wasbetween a boattrip or a bustour roundthe islandand would havebeenfine with me,but Shirleywasn'tfeelingwell and didn't want to leavethe hotel. 4 fim andTracyarea young who havebeentogetherfor aboutthreeyears,but of themwantsto getmirrried. 5 Next yearyou'llhaveto sendt400 in . .. .. . . .. payments, whichis !100 threemonths. 6 ln a mixed matchin tennis,. teamconsists of a man and a womtn.

89

7 D E l ' t s R N , l I N E RASN T ] Q L A N T I I I E R S

Many,muchand a lot (of),moreand mosf Many,,much and a lot (of) \\4ren we talk about largenumbersand amountsin a vagueway,we can usernarl' beforeplural nouns(l), muchbefore uncountable nouns(2) and a lor o/beforeboth typesofnouns (3). 1 Many peoplebelievein life afterdeath.. Thereare matrywaysto improw your health. 2 How much moneydid you bring?. Pleasehurry,because thereisn'tmuch time left. 3 I usedto smokea lot of cigarettes whenI studied.I dranka lot of coffeetoo.(Not a1e+<sffce) We usuallyusemany/muchrn formal situationsand a lot of or lotsof in informal situations. When we talk about a largenumber or amount in a specificway,we we many ofbeforedeterminers plus plural nouns or plural pronouns(4) and mucho/ beforedeterminersplus uncountablenouns or singularpronouns(5). We can usemuchof (not many of) with singularcountablenounsor proper nounsfor placeswhenwe mean'alargepart of' (6). 4 Many of their customers hate complained. Many of themhavestartedgoingto othershops. - Not tnuch of it, I'm afraid. 5 How much of your time is deyotedto research? . It will bea dry sunnydayoter much of Britain. 6 Catsspendmuch of theday asleep. We can use many and rruchwithout nouns. 7 Peoplestill usebutterin cooking,but many saytheydon't useasmuch asbefore. We can alsousea lor (not a lor o/) without a noun in informal situations:Wedon't needa lot. We usuallyusemany and rrrci in questionsand negatives(8). We can usethem in positive statementsafter as,soand roo(9). We can alsousethe phrasesa good/great deal(o/) insteadof much (of), and a largenumber(of) i.nstead of many (of, in positivestatements, usuallyin formal situations( 10). 8 How many rloyou want?. How much do theycost?. Therenren'tmany left.. I don't haw much cash. 9 Takeas much time asyou need.. I hayeso much work to do! . Youboughttoo many things. peopleto run a schooL l0 It requiresa great ileal of moneyand a large numberof dedicated (11) orbeforea/an(12)in formalsituations. We canusemany(not much)afterdeterminers 11 I'm just oneof her many atlmirers., He explainedthe many rulesand regulations theyhad. 12 He had spentmany an uncomfortable night in cheaphotelroomswith thin walls. We can usemuch(not many)asan adverbafternegativeverbsor beforecomparatives. 13 I dirln't sleepmuch lastnight because I wassoworried.. I'm feelingmuch betternow. We can use alotasan adverbafterpositiveand negativeverbs:Theareahad changeda lot.

More and most We usemoreand mostrnstead. of much/matryin comparisons. We usemorefor'a largernumberor amount'(14)and flost for 'the largestnumberor amount'(15). 14 More chiklrenare beingeducated at hotne.Theyarespendingmore time with theirparents. 15 Most Americ(tnteenagers saytheyhavemostfun whentheyareshopping'atthe mall'. We alsouse moreand mostbeforeadjectives/adverbs: morequickly,the mostexpensiye ( 16),pronouns( 17)andpropernouns(18). We canusemoreof and.mosto/ beforedeterminers 16 I've alreadymten more of thecakethan I should.' Most of thosebananaswererotten. 17 I reallylikedit, but I can'teatany moreof it. . I had to throwmostof themaway. 78 I hopeto seemore of Spainduringmy next trip. . Most of Veniceis underwater. We can useother quantifiersbeforemore(not nost) with the meaning'additional'. 79 I don't needmuch more time,iust two morehours.. Is thereany more tea?' There'sno more,

90

Counhble/uncountablc nouns 74 l)ctcrmiDcrs 83 Morelzotwith

adiedives/adverbs120

-

trt .|{\lt\tt{,

\\1,')t \\lllllli

17 Rewritethese sentences,adding many and much. Makeany other necessarychanges. Example:Therewasn'tfood left,but we weren'tvery hungry so we didn't need,

Tl:'s".e.rs.:4 n$gh,. . nqgh.f9.q4 lsf!,.hl!.re.!er.s4.ve.rl.h{rgrl.:9.ne.4riit.lee4 I Therehasn'tbeendiscussionof the new road,but older villageresidentsare againstit. 2 Did you askhow thesepostcardscost?How them areyou goingto buy? i l:tt U. tu,., ,oauyO..r"r. , ir". r" Oitl"r.n,plo..' ,o go ,o

"nO

,n"r.. ,o ,rutn. n ,o*n

4 I askedmy classmates ifthey did homeworkandsaidtheydidn'tdo unlesstherewasa test.

'18Add many, many of much or much of to these sentencesfrom an article on British pubs. , I 2 3 4 5 6

Pubsareimportantin the sociallife of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Britishpeople. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. villagepubsareveryold andarethe centreof villagelife. F o r . . . . . . . . . . . t h ey e a rt h e yr e l yo n l o c a cl u s t o m e r s . In the summerthey get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . their customersfrom nearbytownsor cities. room inside. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . old pubsarequite smalland don't have In recentyears,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . them haveaddedgardenareas,with tablesoutside.

19 Choose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (1-6) and add more, more of, most or most of. I SaudiArabiais veryhot (. .) 2 I likedthosepensso much(.. ) 3 I earna lot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thanyou (. . .) t y p e so f f r u i t ,( . . . ) 4Icaneat 5 As . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you know,(. . .) 6 The pie is reallygood,(...)

a s o I h a v e. . . . . . . . . . . t o s p e n d . b I am not very good at making speeches. vegetables. c but I don't like.

d a n d .. . .. ... ... .... ... i t i sd e s e r t . e butlcan'teatany. . . .. .. . . it. f that I bought two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . them.

20 Compfete this weather forecast with many (x21,more (x3) and much (x2).

T h e r e ' sn o t ( 1 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s u n s h i n ei n t h e f o r e c a sfto r t h i s w e e l < e nadn d ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . areaswill see(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rain than usual for this time of the year.Saturday will start with some bright spells and scatteredshowers, (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of them heary, giving way to (s). .. . ... . ... ... . ... . .. persistentrain later in the afternoon.Southwestwinds will bring (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . unsettledweatherand rain to (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . of Englandand Wales on Sunday. 9I

7 D E T F R M I N L , IA I 5N D Q U A N ' ]I F I E R S

(A) few and (a) little,fewerlfewest and /ess//easf A few and,a little when we talk about smallnumbersand amountsin a vagueway,we can usea /ew beforeplural nouns ( I ) and a littlebeforeuncountablenouns (2). we can alsousea fewand a littte witiout n o u n s( 3 ) . I Theremay bea few minutesleft at theend.. I broughta of paper. fetv pieces 2 Theremay bea little time let'tat theend.. If you arlda l;ttte satt,tni ioip will tastebetter. 3 Do you want milk? - Justa little. . Did you seeany stars?- Therewerei few. (Nor +here-wenJew) when we talk about a smallnumber or amount in a specificway,we userr /ew o/ beforedeterminers or plural pronouns(4) and,a little ofbeforedeterminersor singularpronouns(!). 4 I've seena few of thosecartoonsthat GaryLarsondraws.Mary ias a few of themon her wa . 5 I usea little of this moisturizingcreamwhenmy skin feek dry. vouoily neLda little of it. we can usea little asan adverbafterverbsor beforeparticipleadjectivesand comparatives. 6 I only slepta linle. ' we werea rittre annoyedat first. . My motherk feeling aiittle betternow.

Few and.little we-use/ew (not a few) and,Iittle (not a linle) whenwe aretalkingabout'not many or much',usually in formal situations(7). We often use not (rery) many(insteadif few) andnot (viry) ^rrh iir"t ui of liffle) to emphasizea negativeview of the quantity (g) 7 Therefugees havefew possessions and rittle hopeof returninghomesoon.(Nor di+trehepe) 8 Theydon't have(very)many possessions. Theydon t have(iery) much hope. we alsouse/ew and llrle betweendeterminersand nounswhen we want to emphasizethat the small quantity is the completenumber or amount,usuallyin formal situations. 9 I quicklypackedtry few belongings and spentthe little moneyI had on a one-waytickethome.

Fewer/fewest and,lesslleast we usefewer and lessinsteadof few/litrlein comparisons. we use/ewer(for 'a smallernumber of') beforepluralnounsand less(for'a smalleramountof') beforeuncountable nouns. l0 I'ye beentrying to eatfewer snacks and lessjunk food aspart of my tliet. In informal situations,/essis alsousedwith plural nouns:Therew;re iessquestions than lasttime. We canusefewerof and lesso/ beforedeterminers( I I ) and pronouns( l2). 1l rhere arefewer of thosesma shopsnow.. I'd liketo spind ressof my time in meetings. 72 Theswansare back,but therearefewer of them thb year.. sugar isn'tgood you. Eat lessof itt for we usethefewest(13) and the least(r4) when we talk about the smallestnumber or amount. 13 Ali madethefewestmistakes.Nickis themostcheerfuland seemsto hayethe fewestworries. 14 Youcomplainthat you makethe leastmoneyhere,but that'sbecause you do the leastwork. We alsouse leastand,lessbefore adjectives/adverb s: Iessquickly,the leastixpensitte. 21 choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1-5) and add a few, few, a tittreor litfle, prus of where necessary. 1 2 3 4 5

92

(...) (. )

a a n dt h e. . . . . . . . . . w a t e rt h a tw a sl e f t . b s o l o n l y a t e .. . . . . . . i r . c andwe'vehad . ... . ... . . . sunnydaystoo. d until our car wasstolen. . . . . . . . . . daysago. e thatonly . . . ... ... . ushaddonethe work.

Comp.rativcs, /.16rlLrr 120 Countabletuncounlable74 Determinefs 8l

7 D E ' I ' E R M I N E RA SN D Q U A N T I F ] E R S

Multipliers, fractions and percentages Multipliers Multipliers arewordsand phrasessuchasonce,twiceor threetimesthat we usebeforedeterminers whenwe are talkingabout how often somethinghappens(1) or how much more somethingis (2). We can alsousemultipliersplus as... aswith manyor much,adjectives and adverbs(3). I I play tennisoneea week.. I seemy sisteraboutfour timesayear., Weeatthreetimesa day. 2 He soldit for twice the originalprice.. Thosetomatoes are two or threetimesthe awragesize. 3 Wehayetwice as many saucers as cupsleft.. She'spaid threetimeses much as I am. . He canrun twice asfast as me.. Someof theessays weretwice as long as mine,

Fractions and percentages We can usefractions(a quarter,two-thirds)with o/beforedeterminersand pronouns. 4 It takesa quarter of an hour.. I only usedtwo-thirdsof theoil, sothere'sa thiril of it left. We can usehalf wrthout o/beforedeterminers:Half (of) my answerswerewrong. (5o/o, We usepercentages Jiteper cent)beforenouns,or with o/beforedeterminersand pronouns. . Theytakethirty per cent of mypay.I getseventyper cent of it. 5 Therewasa 10o/oincrease. Percentrs sometrmes written asoneword, especiallyin AmericanEnglish. Fractionsand percentages with singularor uncountablenounshavesingularverbs.With plural nouns,they haveplural verbs. 6 Two-thirilsof thereportis written.. About twentyper cent of thestudentsare Asian. 22 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethe sentenceswith these words and phrases. Add of, as, a and the where necessary. / eighth four times

once

quarter

rwentyper cent

h,vice two fifths

E x a m p lA e :f u r l o n g i s . . . . . . q f . e i 3 t l h . p . f . q. ..m . .i l e . I The moneywasdividedequallyamongthe four brothers,so eachreceived it. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . yearwe haveour annualfamily gatheringat my grandparents'house. 3 A centimeter is about . . . . . .. . inch,or0.394inchestobe exact. 4 A l i t r eb o t t l eh o l d sa l m o s t . . . . . . . . . m u c ha sa p i n t . 5 Did you know that at least. . . . . . . . . . adult populationcan't read? 6 A t t 2 0 0 , 0 0 0t h, es e l l i n p g r i c ei s a l m o s t . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p r i c e ( t 5 1 , 0 0 0 ) t h a t D a n a n d Ginny Swisherpaid for their housejust six yearsago. 23 Add these words and phrasesto this text. a few

fewer

fewest ffty per cent

little

Although the world'spopulationis still increasing,the rateof growth hassloweddown from 640/o thirty yearsagoto about48%today.Thereis (r)........... chancethat population growth will leveloff before2050at the earliest,but thereare (2). . . . . indications that the growth ratewill probablykeepdeclining.Womenin the wealthiestcountriescontinue to havethe (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . children.However,partly becauseof bettereducation and employmentopportunities,manywomenin poorercountriesare choosingto have ' 4i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b a b i e lsn. s o m ep l a c etsh. eb i r t hr a l ei s n o w , 5 ' . . . . . Iowerthan iust thirty yearsago.

As...as120 Half (al)88

93

7 D E T E R M I N E R SA N D Q U A N T ] F I E R S

Tests A Choose the word or phrase which best completeseach sentence. 1 When Mary saidto the dog,'Stopwaggingyour tail',

tail startedwaggingfaster.

a your b hers c its d their 2 The new job provided money for expensivetoys, but not very with them. alittle bfew

cmuch dalot

3 They saidon the newsthat a each b half

time to play

c whole

of Scotlandwascoveredin snow.

d any

4 Carswereparkedon a all b both c each d every

sideof the street.

5 Sheliked to saythat shewasjust one of his a all b lots of c many d some

happycustomers.

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A,B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correctthe sentence. I ---------T-T" All their neiqhboursgggf;gavea little money and some their friends helpedtoo.

2 A third of them had blue triangles ' B and two-thirdshad greensquaresor circles,but I didn't like eithercoloursor __.-Tr: anv of the desicns.

T

3 WesDent throueh-a-lareenumberof booksto helohimfind ----_--' - - a sreatdealof time lookine " " A a few information about Bermuda,but he knew most of it already. CD 4 I talked to the studentsand ali think that both Mike and I havelots --- of money,but we reallydon't A B havevery 4eh. 5 Claireand Charlessaidthat they'dseenmost ofthe Europeon their trip and thev both -.'-___Tiiiiiiii-

mentionedthat evervcitv centrewasstartingto look the same,with only a few exceptions. ' -T'=Choose the best word from each pair to complete this text. aII / both a few / a little

any / some either/ neither

many/ a lot of that / the

lmy / mine

sisterand I spent(l) time together on our own. Our parents(2) worked and they alwaysseemedto be busy with (3) big project.One of them wasusuallytherewhenwe camehome ftom school, but sometimes(4) of them could makeit homebeforedark and they would ask our neighbour,Mrs Green,to checkif we wereokay.I rememberone time whenwe wereplaying basketball.My sistergot annoyedand threw the ball at me. I turned my back and it bouncedoff and hit her straightin 1s1 face.As her nosestartedto bleed,Mrs Greenarrivedand let out a terrible shriek.We all got a fiight, but therewasonly (5) blood.It wasn't serious.We decidednot to tell our parentsabout it. When we were young,

94

-

IIfTfR\II\FRS \\ ] T)U\\

I'IfK.

D Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentenceabove it. 't 1 There aren a l o t o f p e o p l ew h o a r e w i l l i n g t o h e l po t h e r s . Not many

2 We'vewritten fifty per centofthe report already. Half 3 We weren't given any explanation for the delay. No

4 We all want to live forever. AII E Complete this text with these words plus of where necessary. a great deal o third

few fewest

many more

most ninety per cent

twelve times two-thirrls

I read severalstudies about dating. In one American study, the researchersasked a large number of college students about arranging a date. They focused on dates arranged by women (seeTable 1). the students preferred hints. In a hint, for example, the woman mentrons

(l)

that she has noticed something about the man or seenhim somewhere.If he talks to her. she can

pay (2) c t t e n t i o nl o h i m a n d a c t a s i f h e i s v e r y i n t e r e s t i n gT.h e n r r a y b e that like to talk to him again.Thesetypesof hints werepreferredby about shecan say she'd (t)

the students.

About a third of the women said th€y wanted to wait for the man to ask. But only three per cent of the men wanted that. This means that almost (4) a5 mJny women a5 men think that this is a good idea. Such a large difference suggeststhat a lot of women are waiting m e n w i l l d o .T h i : m a yb e o n e o f t h e a n d h o p i n gf o r lhal ver' ,ql "omeLhing

reasonswhy studentsthink it is hard to get a date. Another reasonmay be their differentopinionsaboutaskingdirectly.Askingdirectly'waschosen

(6)

by the (7)

women. More men, almost (s) approach. In fact, in another study I read, (e)

them, liked this college men said that if they were

'I askeddirectly,they would say'Yes'. An exampleof askingdirectlywas: havesometicketsfor a concert.Would you like to go with me?'ln my opinion,this examplemay not providereliable evidenceabout dating.The man may want to go to the concertand say,'Yes', but he may not like the woman. Is this a date?I don't think so. I believethat we need (to) thesestudies to find out if men and womendefine'date'in the sameway. TableI If a woman is interestedin goingon a datewith a man, the bestthing for her to do is ... Men agree Womenagree 30o/o 2o/o ... askhim directly ... givehim a hint 670/o 630/o ... wait for him to askher 3o/o 35o/o

95

Pronounsare forms such as ff, someone,these,they,them,theirs,fhemse/yes and eachotherIhal we use insteadof nounsand noun phrases.(Therewasa five-pound note on the floor of the cafeteria.someone must havedropped it. The boystookedat each other.) substitution is the use of formssuchas one,ones,so and do so insteadof nounohrases. verbphrasesand clauses.('lsit a realone?'askedBarney'tthinkso,,saidMax.) Ellipsisis the processof leavingout wordsand phrasesinsteadof repeatingthem.(Max lookedround quickly,then _ reacheddown,_ grabbedthe moneyand _ huiried out of the room.) Readthroughtheseshorttextsandfind: 1 anotherexample of ft 2 a sentence withsheandan example of elliosis

A I was bornin 1939.Theotherbig eventof D that yearwasthe outbreakof the Second WorldWar,but for the momentthat did not " affectme. Sydneyin thosedayshadall of its presentattractions andfew of the drawbacks. Youcan see it glittering in the background of the few photographs in which { my father and I are together.Stockywas the wordfor me.

You know the feeling.You meet someone for the first time, and it's as ifyou've known e a c ho r h e ra l l y o u r l i v e s E . v e r y t h i nggo e s smoothly.You know just what she means; she knowsjust what you mean.You laugh at the sametime. Your sentences and hershave a perfectrhythm.You feelterrific.You're doing everythingright.

B In the 1940s. a coupleof Americansoentists E Shetook his righthandand pLaced it against tded to raisea chimpanzee hers,palmstouching.Hc didn't gct the point at namedMki in theirown home,treatingher asa human 6r't. l henhe realizcd th:rr:hc rrrs cornparing child.Theyspentliveyearstryingto getViki rs the sizeof their hands.The differenccmadeher to sayEnglishwordsby shaping her mouth laugh. 'What\ asshemadesounds. funny?' Shetold him his hand wasfunny. C Theyalwayssaythat boysarebetterat maths 'Why mine?\Vhy not 1'ours?' he said.'lf the than girls.Whenwe actuallylook at the test r,, differences great,maybeyou'rethe funny one, results, we find that girlsgenerally do better not me.' than boysduringthe primaryschoolyears,but 'You're the advantage the funny one,'Lu \{an said. shiftsto boysin highschool. Thatshift occurswhenstudentsaregiven Shematchedleft handsnow and fell sidewaysto moref?eedom to selectthe subjects theywill the bed laughing.Maybeshethought they were studyand girlstend not to go for moremaths. .!.5 two differentspecies.

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the texts A-E above. I And you think sl.rc's tcrrific too. (. ) 2 Thev are rnorc like'l,vto ch<xrse somethingelse.( 3 One ofthent wrrscxotic anclit wasn'ther. (...) 4 Handsomewas tl.rcnor
)

8 PRONOUNS, SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS

pronouns genericand possessive Personal, Personalpronouns: I, me, they, them, etc, The personalpronounsusedassubjectpronounsbeforeverbsare I, 1oa,he,she,it, we,they. Thoseusedasobjectpronounsafterverbsand prepositionsareme,you, him, her,it, us,them. 1 We likeher. . Sheloveshim. . He hatesyou. . Youtold them aboutme. . I hopethey'll listento us. we usethe ob.jectforrn (2). \4rhenwe usea personalpronoun without a verb in a short response, We usuallyusethe objectform of the pronoun after asand tftanin comparisons(3). 2 I'm feelinghungry.- Me too., l4ho wasmakingall that noise?- Them,not us. 3 Wedon'thaveasmuchasthem. . Both of my brothersare oklerthan me. Subjectpronounsaresometimesused,but they soundvery fonnal: Theyare olderthan L when we think of the animal ashavinghuman We usuallyuseit for an animal.We can useheand sy're qualitiesor a specialpersonality,for example,when it's a pet or a characterin a story. 4 Poohis a friendly bear.He enjoyseating,singingandplayingwith hisfriends. We usethe combinationhe or she(rather than he)when we are talkingabout a personwho could be maleor female(5). We often usea plural noun and rfte7insteadof he or she(6). 5 By theageof two,a child canunderstand Jivetimesasmanywordsashe or shecansay. 6 By the ageof two, children cen urulerstantlJite timesas many wordsas they can say.

Generic pronouns: ,/ou, we, one,they 'peoplein general',includingthe The genericpronounsare/ol, we,oneand they.Weuseyou for speaker(7). We uset,l,e(ratherthan I) to makea statementof opinion more generaland to include (8).The useof ore for'peoplein general'is the reader/listener veryformalandrarelyusedin modern (9). English 'self-absorbed',mea thatyou are oxly concerned aboutyourselfandyour own 7 lf you are it s interests. we don't usuallythink of sheep,but uswe sawin thelastchapter,... 8 Whenwe think of cheese, 9 lf one wishesto bea goodparent,oneshouklneverloseone'stemperwith a youngchikl. In informal situations,we can usetfte./to talk about'otherpeoplein general'or'people in authority' ( I l). ( l0), insteadof usinga passive l0 Theysaythat an applea day keepsthedoctoraway.' Theyshouklkeepcriminalsin prison. ll It is sail that an applea day keepsthedoctoraway.. Criminalsshouldbekeptin prison.

pronouns: mine, theirs, etc. Possessive The possessive pronounsare mine,yours,his,hers,oursand theirs.We usethem in placeof possessive (13). noun phrases(Mary'sroom)( 12) and in answerto questionswith Whose? 12 I couldn'twork in Mary'sroom,Hers is evensmallerthanyours or mine. ' Mary'sparentshavea computertoo,but I think theirs is diJferent from ours. 13 \\hosebagis this?- I tho ght it wasyours.It isn'tmine. (No't4tisti++he+titte) pronounsin ofphrases(of mine) afternoun phrasesbeginningwith deteruriners We usepossessive or quantifiers(a, some,etc.) (14).We can usethis structureto talk aboutnon specificexamples (a paintingof hk) ratherthan specificor uniqueexamples(hispainting) (15). 14 WasEricaa roommateof yours?. I wenthikingwith somefriendsof mine. 15 \am Piperis a successful artist.I readthat a paintingof his recentlysoldfor over[.10,000. 3 Find examplesof these types of pronouns in the texts on page 96. I two different generic pronouns in one text pronouns pronoun' in one text 2 three three different differentuossessive Dosses\ive

Determine6 83 Ofphrases 132 Po$e$ive nouns 76 QulDtilier 84

97

8 PRONOUNSS , U B S T I T U T I O NA N D E L L I P S I S

pronouns Demonstrative and indefinite Demonstrative pronouns: this, these,that, those The demonstrativepronouns,or demonstratives, are this,that, theseand,those.We usethis/these for things nearor closelyconnectedto the speaker(l) and,that/thosefor thingsfurther away(2). I (Pickingup a box and somelettersat the post office) This is quiteheaty.. Theselooklike bills. 2 (Pointingto the box and lettersacrossa room) That musthayebook in it.. Thosearejust bills. We can usethis/these whenwe introducepeople(3) and,that/thosewhenwe identifr people(4). 3 (lntroducing people)This is Ann Thomasand theseare her two sons,NickandJason. 4 (Identif,ing peoplein the distance ) That'sMrs Parker.tnd thoseare her twograndchik).ren. We alsousedemonstratives asdeterminersbeforenoansithat woman,thosechildren. We can usedemonstratives to makea contrastbetweenwhat is closein time (rhiS rhese)(5) and what is further awayin time (that, those)(6). 5 Thenextquestionis this: who will payfor it? , Theseare the bestdaysof your life,soenjoythem. 6 Jackand Sandygot married?- Whendid that happen?. Thosewerethe happiestdaysof my chilclhood.

Indefinite pronouns: someone,something,etc. Someone andsomethingareindefinitepronouns.Othersare anyone/anything, everyone/everything and no one/nothing.We usethem to talk about people(7) and things (8) in a very generalway,usually becausewe can't or don't want to identift them more specifically. 7 Someonemusthavetakenmy book,Hasanyoneseenit? - No one took it. It'soyerthere. 8 Thefre destroyetieverything. Wecouldn'tfind anything afterwards.Therewasnothing let't. We can usesomebody, nobody,etc.insteadof someone, no one,etc.wrth no changein meaning. After indefinitepronounsassubjects,we usuallyusesingularverbsand plural pronouns. . If anyone 9 Someonehas beencallingand sayingthey hayeto talk to you abouttheir schedulecalb,just taketheir numberantl sayI'll call them backassoonaspossible. We usuallyusesomeone/something in positivesentences or questionsexpectingpositiveanswers(10). We useanyone/anyffting in sentences with negativeelementsor in open questions(11) and when we mean'it doesn'tmatterwho or what'(12). 10 I waslookingfor someonewho spokeArqbic.. CanI askyou somethingaboutthehomework? . I didn't sayanything.(Not +4i*i+:ay:ome*1ng,) 11 Canyou seeanyoneoutside? 12 It isn'tdifrcult, anyonecando it. . Jerryis reallyhelpful,he'Ildo anythingyou askhim to. Somewhere, anywhere,etc.areindefiniteadverbsthat we useto talk about placesin a non-specific way. 13 Let'sgo somewhered.ffirentfor lunch.- But there'snowherewithin walkingdistance-. I've looked everywherefor my glasses, but I can'tfnd themanywhere. We can put adlectives(14) and else(15) afterindefinitepronounsand adverbs. 14 Do you hate anything smaller?. I think he'ssomeoneimportant. . There'snothing new here. 15 Do you want qnything else?. It wasn'tme,it wassomeoneelse.. There'snowhereelsenearlry. 4 Find two sentencescontaining indefinitepronouns in the texts on page 96.

98

Adjcctives!fter prononns I 12 DcooDstrative determiners83

8r.4,89

Sone,onr, na 86

8 PRONOUNS, SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS

5

Add these pronouns to the following sentences. him

his

that

lhis

they

it

yours

I E x c u s em e , G r a h a m .I s t h i s b a g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! 2 I think . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . should cut government spending rather than raise our taxes again. 3 We read a story about Winnie the Pooh and a friend of. . . .. .... calledChristopherRobin. 4 John volunteeredto takeAnn and Billt mail, so I gave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to........... 5 I know we allowed you to go away for a whole month before and now we're asking you to take onlyafortnight,but.....................waslastyearand.....................isnow.Thingshave changed. 6

Rewrite these sentences in a more informal style, using you, we and they. Example: It is said that one cannot teach an old dog new tricks.

p'4.4os.rl^.. 1r.q(,......... .I !..er. :qJ.5qv. .qsf..{.eqch..or. I A person should not use a phone while he or she is driving. Y o uk n o w t h a t 2 This old factory is going to be demolished so that a new school can be built. I heard that 3 People who are self-indulgent allow themselvesto do or have too much ofwhat they like. tf ................... 4 One should not criticize when one is not sure of one's facts. I think that

7 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese definitions with the noun phrases and Dronouns. camouflage a disguise a mirage everything no one

nothing

something(x3)

. . . . . . i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y o uu s et o c h a n gyeo u ra p p e a r a nscoet h a t . . . c a nr e c o g n i zyeo u . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . is a wayof hiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by makingit look the sameas aroundit. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is an effectcausedby hot air on roadsor in desertswhich makesyou think you see. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suchaswaterwhen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is there. I

.. ....

8 Editing.Correct the mistakesin this text. I studiedEnglishin my first school,but I don't rememberlearningso#ehiig there.We had one teacherwho alwaysbrought musictapesand sheplayedit for we to learnthe words.I think they were hersfavouritesongs,but in our classno reallyunderstoodthe words.Sheput us in groupsto discuss the songs,but everytalkedabout differentsomethingin his groups.And no onesweretrying to 'You can't practisehis Englishvery much. I only rememberthe wordsof one songthat went like that: alwaysget what your want,but if you try sometimesyou getwhat your need.'That wasinteresting words and obviouslyI did learnsomethingsfrom that teacher. 99

8 PRON.OUNS,SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS

Reflexiveand reciprocalpronouns Reflexivepronouns: myself,themselves,etc. The reflexivepronouns,or reflexives,aremyself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,oursehes, yourseh,es and themselves.We usea reflexivepronoun insteadof an objectpronoun when the objectis the same personor thing asthe subject. 1 Be carefulor you'll hurt yourself. , I'm afraid I might cut rryself. (Nor lm aftaidl-might-€.ttt-1 ) . Isn't it amazinghow the human body healsitself afteran injury?(Nor . . . . . -) @t+ Reflexives haveno possessive form. We usemy own, etc.beforenouns:He hashis own id.eas, We can alsousereflexivesaftermost prepositionswhenthe objectof the prepositionis the sameas the subject(2). We useobjectpronouns(not reflexives)afterprepositionsof placesuchasabole, below besideand rear and verbssuchas bringand takeplrc with (3). 2 Aliceneverbuysanythingfor herself., Caflosonly thinksabout himself. 3 Amy put the bagdown besideher. . Youshouldtokean umbrellawith you. (Nor . .. +vi+hlourxlf) We can alsousereflexivesfor emphasis. We can usethem afternoun phrasesand pronounsto 'without emphasizea particularpersonor thing (4) or afterverb phrasesto emphasize help'(5). . 4 Thisbookwassignedby the writer herselfl Youyourselfsaitlthat shewasa greatwriter. 5 I repairerltheJlat tfre myself.. TerrieandMarniepaintedthewholehousethemselves. We usereflexivesafter bl to emphasize'alone': Shelivesby herself.. I'II do it by myself. Thereare someactionssuchasshaveand showerthat we usuallydescribewithout reflexives(6), but which we can describewith reflexivesfor specialemphasisif, for example,the action is difficult (7). 6 Theirfather usedto get up,shaye,shower, getdressed and makebreakfast for aII of them. 7 But siflcehis acciden4he can'tshayehimselfor evendresshimselfwithout their help. 9 Choose an ending (a-d) for each beginning (1-4) and add appropriatepronouns. 1 2 3 4

He got a hammerandsomenails(...) Remember to eatwell,exercise regularly(.. ) Thanksfor offeringto help,( .) (...) The planestartedto descend

a b c d

andtakecareof andtheysawthecity below.. ......... and repairedit. but I cando it .. . . .. . . ... .

Reciprocalpronouns: eachother and one another We can usethe reciprocalpronounseachotherand oneanotherwith no differencein meaning. 8 Thecat and thedoghateeachother/oneanother.. Theyalwaysattoidoneanother/eachother. We usereciprocalpronouns(9) insteadof reflexives(10) when the sameaction or feelinggoesboth waysbetweentwo or more peopleor things. 9 Thecanrlidates described eachother. (- Eachone describedthe other one.) (- Bn.6 on. U"scribedhimselfor herself.) 10 Thecandidates described themselyes. (12). We can usereciprocalpronounsafterprepositions(11) and aspossessives 1.).Thetwo girlsneverarguedwith oneother. Theywerealwayschattingto eachother. 12 Theye1,en woreeqchother's/oneanother'sclothessometimes. We can useeachassubjectand theother(s)as objectwhen the action ofthe verb goesboth ways(13). \4rtrenthe action goesone way,we useore assubjectand theother(s)asobject (14). 13 I askedthe boysif theyhad brokenthewindowand eachblamedthe other. 14 Thereare two busesat 5.30and one alwaysfollowsthe other in casethefrst onegetsfuII.

100

Object pfoDouns 97

Prepositionsofplac€ i29

8 P R O N O U N S ,S U B S - f I T U T I O NA N D E I , I , I P S ] S

10 Add the pronouns if, they, we and you plus appropriatereflexivesto this text. T h e ys a yt h a ti f y o u w a n ts o m e t h i ndgo n er i g h t ,1 r 1 ..... .. .. .. ..havetodoit ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A n d w e a l lk n o wt h a ti f s o m e t h i nigs b r o k e n1, : ;. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c e r t a i n l y won't fix (a).. ... .. .. ... . . As a result,therearemanymoreDIY ('Do It Yourself')shopsin B r i t a i nt h e s ed a y sI.t s e e mtsh a t( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h a v ea l l s u d d e n ldye c i d e tdo d o o u r h o m e r e p a i r1se.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S o , a r e a l l t h e r e a l b u i l d e r s a n d p l u m b e r s o u t o f w o r k n o w ? Apparentlynot. They'reevenbusiernow,trying to fix the messleft by thosewho discoveredthat ( 7 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r e a l l yc o u l d n 'dt o i t ( 8 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a n dh a dt o c a l lf o r p r o f e s s i o nhael l p . 11 Compfetethese sentenceswith the prepositionsabout, by,for, near, with, plus appropriatepronouns. 1 EricaYork wasa self-taughtmathematicianwho liked to spendhours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the library. 2 The man seemed veryself-centred andonly wantedto talk .. . .. .. 3 Peoplewho are self-employed work not a company. 4 I took a smallknife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , hoping I would only haveto useit in self defence. 5 Testyour self-restraint by placingsomething you reallyliketo eat.. .. .... . . .,butdon't eatit. 12 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese descriptionswith one set of words (not necessarilyin this order). another/ each/ one/ theother

another's/ each/ one/ other's each/ other/ you / yourself

Mutual respectis a feelingof admirationthat peoplehavefor 1t1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e q u a I l y , a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t i s a f e e l i n g. o . .f.p. .r.i .d. e . .i.n. .( .3. ). . .a. .n dt h e ( a ) i s r i g h t g o o d . b e l i e f t h awth a t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .d. .o o r s a y and An exchangeis an arrangementthroughwhich two peopleor groupsfrom differentcountriesvisit ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 6 .) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h. o . m e os r d o ( 7 .t . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 8 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jobs for a short time. W r e s t l i nigs a s p o r ti n w h i c ht w o p e o p l ef i g h tb y h o l d i n go n t o( e ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( r 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w h i l e ( r r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t r i e s t o t h r o w o .r .f .o. r. c. .e. .( .1. 2 . .). . . . . t o t h e ground. 13 Completethese sentenceswith appropriateforms of the verbs plus a reflexiveor reciprocalpronoun. agreewith

blame

express hurt

meet

1 All studentsarerequiredto givea presentationon their projectsand to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . as clearlyaspossible. 2 The boy saidthat his sisterhad slippedon the wet floor and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Both driverssaidit wasn'ttheir fault.They . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for the accident. 4 My aunt and unclealwaysseemto havedifferentopinionsaboutthings and they almostnever 5 Beforethey got married,Gavinand Gwenvisitedhis parentsin Englandand then her parentsin C a l i f o r n i as ,ot h e yc o u l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f a m i l i e s .

l0t

8 P R O N O U N S .S L J R SI I U f l O N A N i ) F ] I - I , I P S I S

Emptysubjectif We useif asan empty subiectwith the verb bein expressions of time, distanceand weather. 1 lt's eleveno'clock., It's two milesto town.. Is it raining?(Nor ++ei#r6?) We useir asa personalpronounsubjectwhenwe arereferringto a thingor animal(2). We useit + bebeforean adjectiveor noun plus a noun clause(3). - It's in thedrawer.. Wesawtheir newpupp:,.It wasreallycute. 2 Where'sthe breadknife? 3 lt's sadthat she'sleavingsosoon.. It wasjust a coincidence that we wereboth in London. We can alsouseit + bebeforean adjectiveor noun plus a gerund(4) or infinitive (5). 4 It was nice talking to 1tou.. It's an advantagelglillggJjelLb&q. 5 lt.snot wiseto hikein thc mountainsbv voursclf.' It might bean exoggeration to sa),he'srich. We can usea noun clause(6), gerund (7) or infinitive (8) assubjectinsteadof ir in formal situations. We don't usea noun clause,infinitive or gerundinsteadof there(9). 6 It wasobviousthat Brazilwasgoingto win. - That Brazilwasgoingto win wosobvious. 7 lt's oftena problemfor Henry beingsotall. - Beingso tall is oftena problemfor Henry. 8 lt's a realpleasureto meetyou at last.- To meetyou at lastis a realpleasure. 9 Therewill be someoneto meetyou at the airport. (Nor To-meeryeu-a++he-dryo+wilfbe SOmeOn€:)

After it, we usuallyusea form of the verb be,but we can useverbssuchassurpriseand,frightenp\ts an objectto describe a reaction(10)andverbssuchasseemand4ppe4rto express a conclusion(11) l0 It surprisedeveryone that Marion won. , It reallyfrighteneil me to seethehorseand riderfaIL ll It seemsthat he wasunhappyin London.. lt appearcthat he hasbeenneglecting hisstudies. We canalsouseit asan emptyobiectafter'liking'(or'not liking')verbsbeforea noun clause(12) and afterverbssuchasfntl, makeand.thinkbeforean adjectiveplus a clauseor infinitive (13). After someverbssluchas regard,seeand viewusedto expressan opinion,we put as afterit (14). 12 I hate it whenthealarnrsuddenlygoesoff.. My parentslove it that we live closernow. 13 I fnil it surprisirythat you waitedsolong.. Theloud musicmadeit dfficuh to talk. . Wethought it strangethat he was still in hispyjama' (Nor I{e+heag!++*ange+hat*e-*ts . . -) 14 Theyregardit as encouraging that bothsidesare willing to continuenegotiations. 14 Rewritethese sentencesin a less formal style beginning with it 1 That Tony neverhelpswith the cleaningreallyannoyseveryone. 2 Not having a car can be a big disadvantage.

3 To seepotentialproblemsin advanceis very important in my job. 4 Why sheleft so suddenlywasa completemystery. 5 To discoverthat your passportwasmissingmust havebeena shock. 6 That people can eat such unhealthy food and live so long alwaysamazesme.

102

Inhnilives and geiunds 139

Noun clauscsl6l

l,cr!'nal pronouns 97

\ PH\)NrlN l \,\L ts'lllL ll,'\ ANn I ll lP.l\

Emptysubjectthere We use t ereasan empty subjectwith the verb bebeforea noun phrase.The noun phrasedetermines whetherthe verb is singularor plural.We often includean adverbial,suchasa prepositionphraseof place(in Tratelmagazine)or time (on Friday)afterthe noun phrase. I Therewasan articlein Tiatel magazineaboutMunich., Thereare two meetingson Friday. In informal situations,there'sis often usedwith plural nounsiDon'tforgetthere'stwo meetings. We usethere+ beto say(2) or askif (3) peopleand thingsare presentor exist(or not). 2 Therewas an old man in thewaitingroom.. Thereare no snakesin lreland. 3 Afe thefe any questions?. Is there a bathroomupstairs?(Not *-a4athrooartpsta#*) We don't use ir to sayor askif things are presentor exist.(Not Js4-a*a+hroom+psta#*) We can usethere(not it) + rewith quantifiersto presentinformation about amountsand quantities. 4 There'sa lot of crimenow in thecity centre.. Therewasn't muchroominsidehis car. (Nor-+1o+-ofexiate-is:tew-in+he-ci+y-eetttre;. t+we*r+-na*-reom-hside+i:-car.) When we expressan opinion aboutthingsbeingpresentor existing,we can put modalsand/or adverbssuchascertainlyor probabf betweenthereand be(5).We can alsoput seemor appear betwee\ thereand to be(6). 5 Thereshoulil be a guardrail here.' Therecertainlyare problems.. Therewill probably be a

fisht.

. Theredidn't appearto be anyonein charge. 6 Thereseemto be a lot of unanswered questions. We can alsouse there+ bewrth adjectives suchas likelyand.surephrsfo beand a noun phraseto showhow certainwe are aboutthe information beingreported. 7 There isn't likely to bepeacefor manyyears.. Thereare sure to beprotestsaboutthedecision. We can usethe passiveforms of verbssuchasreport,sayand thinkbetweenthereand to beto report information,but we don't usuallyusea passiveafter fftere. 8 Therewerethought to be someproblemsin theoriginaldesignand indeeda numberof Jlawswere foud..(Nor...@) After there+ &e,we usuallyintroducenew information with a/an or ind.efinitepronouns(9), but we can use tfteor demonstratives whenwe treat information asfamiliar or given(10). 9 Is therea problem?- yes,I think there'ssomethingwrongbecause there'sa long queue. 10 I think weshouldgo early.There'stheproblem of parkingand whenwego laterthere'salways that long queueto get into thecarpark. 15 Correct the mistakesin the use of there and lf in these sentences. Lner'e

Example:I'm sureitwill be someoneto help you with your luggage. 1 It wassucha nice day in the valleythat it wasa surpriseto heartherewassnowingin the mountains. 2 It isn't much time left to preparefor the meetingif it's first thing tomorrow morning 3 Therecertainto be questionsabout Irelandin the history test. 4 It wassaidto be hundredsof peoplestrandedby the floods. 5 A lot of fat and sugaris in piesand cakes. 6 Everyonefound very amusingthat I'd startedtaking karatelessons. 7 They viewedit offensivethat he .justslumpedin the chair and put his feetup on the coffeetable. 8 It reallywasn'tsurprisingthat therewerefound no survivorsin the wreckageof the plane.

Demonstrarives83,98 Indelinile pronouns 98 Passiv€s 57

Quantilie6 84

103

8 PRONOUNS, SUBSTITUT]ON AND EI,I,IPSIS

Substitution'. oneand ones We can use one and.onesrnslead of repeating countable nouns ( 1). We use one instead of a singular nolun (banana) or a noun phrase (a small ripe banana) (2). We use onesinstead of a plural noun (bananas),6utnot insteadof a plural noun phrase(thesesmall bananas)(3). I We bought bananasat the local market. Would you like one? - Oh, I loye the small ones. 2 I'm not sure if there'sa small one that's ripe. - Oh, yes, there'sone in th bunch. 3 I'!e fleyer seenthesesmall ones in the supermarket.(Not 14e rcyer-seen-o ...) Instead of repeating plural noun phrases (4) or uncountable nouns (5), we use someor any4 I lole thesesmall bananas,but I'ye neyerseenany in the supermarket.I must get some. 5 I'm going to buy morefruit. Do you needany? I'll get somefor the picnic. (Not some-ettes) We use one to talk about an object in general (6) and it for a specific example of an object (7). 6 Do you haye a French dictionary?I'm lookingfor one. (= not a specific French dictionary) 7 Do you hoye the French dictionary? I'm lookingfor it. (= a specific French dictionary) We don't usually use a/anwith ore (8) or quantifiers with ones(9) unless we include an adjective. 8 I neetl a pen, preferably a red one. Do you have one?(Not Doloa4ave aat+d) 9 Most of the tomatoeswere still green, but I picked out three ripe ones. (Nor +Aree-ores) We can use each/eterywrth one I examinetl each/everyone. We don't usually use the with oae or onssunless there is an adjectivebefore them (10), or a descriptivephraseor clauseafter them (11). \0 We bought a new table, so you can haw the old one. (Not . ..yoa+afiM) II Do you mean the one in the kitchen or the one thot used to have the cotnputer on it? We usually use demonstrative pronouns or possessivepronouns (rather than determiners with oae or ones) (12) unless we include an ad.jective(13). 12 I put our booksin two piles. Theseare mine arul those are yours. (Nol ... *ose-enes-arelettr on*) 13 Computershate changeda lot. My new one is so much faster than thqt other one I usedto have. In informal situations, my orre,your or?e,etc. and that one, this one, etc.are sometimes used. 16 Choose an ending (a-d) for each beginning (1-4) and add these words: tny 1 2 3 4

it

one

ones(x2)

some

them

Sharon:I need six largebrown envelopes.(...) Rachel:We have alot of small . . . . . . . . . . . , ( . . .) Ask jack, he had earlier,(.. ) S h a r o nI: g o t . . . . . . . . . . . f r o m h i m , ( . . . )

a b c d

but .. .. wasn'tIargeenough. but he may haveused . . .. ... . already. but no large. .. . . .. .. , I'm afraid. Doyouhave .........?

17 Editing. Correct the mistakes in this text. My mother told me this story about her first fridge. After my parents got married, they rented a flat. ahe

Shesaidit wasa very smal!'with an oven,but no fridge,so they startedlooking for it in the newspaper.She said that fridges weren't as common then and some ones were really expensive.But she kept looking for it. She eventually found a second hand that wasn't too expensiveand the man said he would deliver it for free, so she bought right away.She was really happy. She waited a week, then two weeks,but she never saw the man or the fridge again. Later, she heard about some other people who had gone to seethat man and his fridge and every had fallen for the same trick.

104

Countdble/trncolntdble 74 Demonst.ativeproDouns 98 Po$esive pronouns 97 Somelar),86

8 PRONOUNS. SUBST]TUTION ANT}ELLIPSIS

Substitution: so and do so We can use50insteadof repeatinga clauseaftersomeverbsexpressing opinionsor expectations. 1 Therain wiII stopsoon.- I hopeso. (= I hopethe rain will stop soon.)(Nor {'hopei*) Other verbsusedin this way include:be afraid,believe,expect,guess,think We don't usesoafter besureand,know:It'sgettinglate.- I know.(Nor J*no*:a) To expressthe negative,we usesoafterthe negativeforms of believe,expectand,think (2).We usenot afterthe positiveforms of beafraid,guessand hope(3). 2 Perhopsit wiII beniceand sunrry.- I don't think so. (Nor Hor\thhdclt-dotrlthi*it) 3 Theweathermayactuallygetworse.- I hopenot. (Not ffipe so..lw We alsousesoaftersayard tell (someone)insteadof repeatingwhat wassaid. 4 JoneswasJired.Theysaidso on the news.(= They saidthat Joneswasfired on the news.) I thoughtit wasa mistaketofre him and I told them so.(xor .. . I+old+hen-i+) We can usefso insteadof repeatinga clausein a conditionalsentence. 5 Landasaysyou tookher book.Ifso, you mustreturnit (= Ifyou took her book, ...) We can usesoafter lessand moreinsteadof repeatingan adjective(6) or an adverb(7). 6 He usedto bereallyserious. He\ lessso now.(= He'slessseriousnow.) 7 They'reworkinghard,evenmoreso than usual.(= evenharderthan usual) We can usedifferentforms of do plus soinsteadof repeatingthe sameverb and object. 8 Theyaskedme to revisethefrst Paragraphand I iliil so.(= I revisedthe first paragraph.) , AnneElliot refusedWentworth's offerof marriage,thenregretted doing so. We usuallyusedo soin formal situations.In informal situations,we can usedo it or do that (9). When we repeatthe verb with a differentsubject,we usedo it (not do so)( 10). 9 Jumpacrossthestream.Comeon.Justdo it! - Oh, no.It's toofar. I can'tdo that. l0 Brandonforgot to takethe rubbishout and I can'tdo it. Canyou do iti (Nor €'nryen-des€?) 18 Completethese sentenceswith so or it plus appropriateforms of do where necessary" I Adam likesto drive fast,evenmore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sincehe got that new sportscar. 2 Did we missthe bus?-' I'm afraid . Will therebe anotherone?- I certainlv h o p e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! 3 Canyou completethe work today?- I don'tthink .. I'msurelcan't . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b. e . f o r Fe r i d a y . 4 WARNING. Dangerouscurrents,Anyonewho swimshere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at their own risk. 5 One of my friendshasaskedme to go snowboarding,but I've never. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . before. 6 Many teenagers want to earnmoneyin part-timejobs and areencouraged. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by their parents. 19 Completethis dialogue with one, otes, so or- (= nothing). 'Wouldyouliketohearajoke?Haveyouheardthe(l).....................aboutthefiveflies?' 'Idon'tthink(zt ... .... .... ..... .... .l 'Okay. If thereare five flieson the tableand I kill one,how many will be left?' 'I'm not sure(3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Will therebe four (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ieft?' 'Wrong! There'llonly be the dead(5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' 'What a b o u t h eo t h e r( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? ' 'Well, they'll fly away,of course!' 'Hal I shouldhaveknown 12y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'

4s Yso 192 Negativ€s

105

I PITON()UN5, SL:US I U u()N ,\Nt) t-].tti,\tS

Ellipsis 20 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Leaving words out Ellipsismeansleavingwordsout. Insteadofrepeatinga noun phrase(theguard),we canusea pronoun or we can leavethe pronoun out J . Insteadofrepeatinga verb phrase(fake),we can usea substitutionform or leavethe substitutionform out Z . 1 Theguard lookedorterandfu smiled./The guardlookedoyerand_ smiled. 2 Shecouldtakethe money,but shewon'tda i!./Shecouldtakethe money,but shewon't_ _ . We usuallyuseellipsisinsteadof repeatingwordsbeforenounsin phrasesjoinedby and,but, or. 3 You'llneeda pen or _ pencil.. Ashley'saunt and _ uncleown propertyin Franceand._ Italy. We can alsouseellipsisaftera commain a list: l'm afraidofbees, waspsand_ spiders.

Leaving out subjectsand objects After and, buf, or in compoundsentences, we usuallyleaveout a repeatedsubject , a repeated subjectand auxiliary or a repeatedsubjectand verb 4 Shewasshoutinganil _ _ throwingthings.. Shouklwe bringour bagsor _ leoyethemhere? 5 Wesat and talked. . He came,but left ea y. , They ran or _ walkedthe restof the way. 6 He lookedokay,but _ _ tired., I enjoyfilms,_ _ goingto the theatre,anil _ _ walksin thepark. We can alsoleaveout repeatedsubjectsin later clausesafterthen andyet . We don't usuallyleave out subjects(and auxiliaries)after subordinatingconjunctions 7 Wetidied up beforeys left. . He's tired becauselE! ill. (Nor IWML) 8 The bird lookedup, then _ sutldenlyJlew away.. Nella liked England,yet _ Iongedfor ltaly. We usuallyleaveout repeatedobiects or prepositionphrases from the first clause.We useair objectpronoun ratherthan leaveout the obiectfrom secondor later clauses 9 Wegatefood _ _ and waterto eteryone.. I lit'ed_ _ _ _ _ and studiedin Romefor a year. jewellery.. Weusuallyboil I0 Shemakes_ and sells or poachsomeeggs for breakfast. 11 Shemakesjewellery and sellsit. (Not $he-mdet jewelery ardseh* 1

Leaving out verb phrases After an auxiliaryverb in the secondor later clause,we usuallyleaveout a repeatedverb phrase We can leaveout repeatedadjectivesand prepositionphrasesafter beasa linking verb 12 Wethoughttheywouldbe late,but theyr)eren't_. . I'm afraidhe\ in loveand sheisn't _ _. 13 I'ye seentheflm, but Mike hasn't_ _ _. . Theboysweren'tfeelingcold,but I was_ _. . Wewouldhelpyou if wecould_ _. , Sarahwill eatbroccoli,but Jessica won't We can alsoleaveout a repeatedverb phraseafterinfinitive to or not to . After verbssuchas agreeand want,we canalsoleaveout to 11 She'llleaveunlesshe begsher not to _. . SomeboyskepttalkingafterI told theffinot to _. 15 I don'tsmokenov but I usedto _. , Wehaten'tapplietlfor a grant,but weplan to soon. 16 Theyaskedus to do thisand.you agreed(to) _ _. . Youcanstayhereif you want (to) _. After a negative,we include to: He'dlike me to stay,but I don'twant to. (Not ... batJ4otl+'wa*) In formal situations,a repeatedverb canbe left out of a secondclausewhen both clauseshavethe samestructure . We usuallyrepeatthe verb when the subjectis a pronoun 17 The girlsgofirst and the boys afterthem.. Alex choseOxfordandAlkon _ Cambridge. 18 Wegofirst and theygo after us. (Nor t4eAefrtan4+he7-af+er-+t*) We can leaveout repeatedwords afterquestionwordswhenwe ask or report qucstions 19 I haveto leoyenow - Why_? , It will costa lot of moneyto repairthedamage.- How much_? 20 Dr Fosterhassaidhe'splanningto go on holiday,but he hasn'ttold us where_ or lrhen_ yet. 106

, \ n \ i l i a r vl c r b s I 7 C o n r p o ! n ds e r r e r . c \ l 2 S u b o . d i D a t i r g r o r j u r d b D s l 2 S u b s l i t u r i o r1 0 5

8 PRONOUNSS , U B S ' I ' I I ' U T I O NA N D F , I , ] , I P S I S

21 Complete these definitions using the nouns plus they, them or - (= nothing). pollution

Iitter

rubbish

waste

(l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : small piecesof paper or containersthat peopleleave,(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . drop or 6) ...... t h r o w a w a yi n a p u b l i cp l a c e . ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : t h e a c t o f u s i n gt h i n g si n a c a r e l e sws a y ,c a u s i n g( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o b e lostor(6). . .. .. .. .. destroyed 1 7.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u n n e c e s s a r i l y . (8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : the substancesthat make air, water or soil dirty and (e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m a k e( t o ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u. .n s u i t a b lf eo r p e o p l et o u s e . ( 1 1 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : t h i n g s t h a t p e o p l e t h r o w a w a y b e c a.u. s. e ( 1.2. .) w a n to r ( 1 3.). . . . . . .

. nolonger

n e e d0 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22 Choose the best ending for each beginning and write it in the space, leaving out appropriate words. /we are hoping to leavesoon we can go by train I sat in the back

shediJn't wqnt to come with us she'sworking in Boston shewouldn't tell us what shefounrl

he didn't helpus moveit no onewascaught theothershldn't beenthere

Example: We'repackingour bagsand i'.9Pi!9 .19l9.qY9. :9.91. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

We cango to Edinburghby bus or . Elizabeth is workingin NewYorkor .. .. .. I didn'tthink anyonewouldbe caughtand .. .. L u c yl o u n ds o m e t h i n g b .u t . . . . . We had alreadybeento Athens,but . Chris could havehelpedus movethe table,but My grandparents satin front and.. I invitedMaliato comewith us,but .. . .. .. . .

. ..

23 Create the shortest possible version of this text by drawing a line through the repeated words that could be left out of each sentence. He put the money on the table and be sat down. He sat in his hot clothes and he felt healy. The woman looked over at him and she smiled. Her smile said she was in charge and she could take his money if she want€d to take his money. Of course she could take his money, he thought, but obviously she didn't want to take his money yet. The smile lingered for a moment or two longer, then it disappearedand it was replaced by a dark stare. 'l

askedyou to pay me a thousand and you agreedto pay me a thousand. This is only five hundred.'

'You'll

get your thousand. I'll give you half of your thousand now and I'11give you the other half of

your thousand later when I get the orchid.' 'I

could get the orchid and I could hnd someone elsewho'd want to buy it.'

'You

won't find someone elsewho'd want to buy it. Nobody else is even looking for this orchid.'

The dark stare wanted to stay,but it was slowly replacedby half a smile. It said she would give rne half of the smile now and the other half of the smile later.

107

8 PRONOT'NS, SUBSTITUTION AND ELLTPSIS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. a phonein here? a Is b Is it

c Is it's

d Is there

2 Billy's shoeslook really difty. Didn't he bring clean a one b ones c any d some 3 You cant carry all those boxes.I'll get someoneelseto ado b doit cdoso d do these

for you.

4 He camewith his parents and two friends of a them b their c theirs d themselves 5 I askedMeg earlier if shethought it would rain and she said,'I a hope b hope it c hope not d don't hope so

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, G or D)that must be changedin orderto correct the sentence. I Shedidn't bring a jacket or an)'thing like that with her_self, so I gaveher ogs of mjge. 2 There were two men arguing with each:ither in the car park when suddenlyole punched otler and knockedhim to the ground. D3 After ftesh tea is made,shefuts milk in the tea cup, then po;us the tea and addsa little sugar before shetastes. D 4 The couple who bqltr+"tdJtb

in Torbrex regardedasan opportunity to makegroney and

enjoy tBmselves too. 5 I'm not sure why it r ns trecessaryto evacuatethe whole airport, but there was dis€overeda knife in someone'sbag after the]' had gone through an electronic security checkwithout bejgg stopped. C Gomplete this text by writing two of these words in each space. do (x2)

else

it

myself

someone something

them

I'm not sure exactlywhy I becamea regular blood donor. Perhapsit wasbecausea few yearsago I started feeling a need to do something positive insteadofjust feeling helplessin a world fulI of disasters.Itt sort of the samefeeling I would haveif I sawsomeonedrownins. It wouldn't make any differencewhether I knew them or not. I would haveto (l) to help.If I didnt think I could save121 (3) who could , I would try to find (4) . It's the samething for me when I give blood or when I can get other people to come with me and give blood. It's just a good thing to do.

108

8 PRONOIJNS,SUBSTITUTIONAND ELUPSG

Completoeachsentencein such a way that it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceabove it. I Having wealthy parentsshould havebeen usefirl,but they didn't aaually support her.

It 2 He doesnt like her and shedoesn'tlike him.

They 3 Someonewill be at the airport to meet you, I'm sure.

I'm surethere 4 To go swimming out in the oceanby yourself would not be a good idea.

It 5 Thousandsof peoplewere said to be affectedby the rail strike. There

Completethis text with thesewords. atryofle anywhere him

hinself

it

My mum and I got a guarddog because1t; trips and didn't want to leaYe(2)

me

myself one ours she that sometimeshasto go awayon business at homeby (i) . We called

Rufus.WhenRufuswasaboutfour monthsold, he startedbarkingif (s) camenearthe cottage,especially the postman.Whenftiendsof (5) cameto visit, Rufuswouldgo to the front door andgrowl evenbeforewe knewtheywereoutside.Wedidnt train him to do (z) , he iust seemedto train (4)

to be our watchdog.However,when he was about seyenmonths old, he started growling at people in the streetand barking ferociously if 1r1 of them came parlc near our car in a car It has becomereally embarrassingand now we carit take him with us. We like tnl that het protective, but we are now aftaid that he might becomereally dangerousand evenattack someone.We're not sure what to do. (8)

109

Adjectivesare singlewords (exclfmg,new thorough)and compounds(hard-working, well-organized'1that modifynouns.We can use them beforenouns(Thenew teacherhas exciting ideas)or after linkingverbssuch as be and seem (She'shard-workingand her c/assesseem thorough and well-organized). Adverbsare words (a/y/ays,really,thoroughly,totally)that modifyverbs,adjectives,other adverbsand sentences(Shealways doeseverything really thoroughlyand seemstotally dedicatedto her job). Readthroughthismagazine articleandfind: 1 anotherexample of an adverbmodifying anadjective 2 a setof threeadjectives beforea noun HE AN(]ENT CHINESEART of l-engShui hasbeenadoptedby moderndesigners asa wayof creatingenvironmentswhich feel

:s windorv.Avoidputting the beddirectlyundera holizontalbean that seemsto cut acrossthe sleeper. Sucha positioois believedto causeheadaches and comfortable and harmonious. Originally developed evenillness. ; as a means ofplanning the perfect agricuitural Smalltableson both sides(not just one side)at system in harmony with the forces of nature, Feng lo the headof the bedhelp maintainbalance,but it is Shui has bccn used for centuries to inprcve the bestto avoidcluttedngthe roon with a lot of physical surroundings in which people live and to furniture.Let air flow easilythroughthe space. maintain balance in their lives. Thoselargehearywoodenwardrobes, oftenwith ro Those principies of Fcng Shui that are benelicial in boxesor suitcases storedon top, area reallybad idea. the organization of outdoor environments can also ]i As theytoweroverthe bed,they canmakethe be used in the design of areasinside the house such sleeperfeelvulnerableand causea restless sleep.Do as the bedroom, which is consideredto be the most not positiontablesor other furniturervith pointed important room in the house. edgesfacingthe sleeperastheir negativeenergywill r: Finding the best position for the bed is very causehealthproblems. inportant. The main rule ofbed positioning is never o The bedroomshouldbe kept asa relaxingspace to have the foot of the bed directly facing tbe door. and shouldnot be usedfbr work or asan office. That is what js known as the'death position'. Thereshouldbe a feelingoflightness,not 'liaditionally, the dead rverelaid out with their feet seriousness, in the air.Bluecurtainsand bedcovers :o pointilg towards the door to give theln better access are moresoothingthanbrown ones.Softnatural to heaven.(li also madc it easierfor the iiving to r: materialsarerecommended. With FengShuiil your carry them out.) bedroom,you cancreatea peacefulsanctuaryfrom Ideally,you should position the bed diagonally the stresses of contemporaryliving. opposite the door, with the head againsta wall, not a

2

Using adjectives and adverbs from the Feng Shuitext, complete this summary. You can use FengShuito r.nakeyour bedroom a sanctuary.Finding the 0l . . .. . . . . . . . . . position forthebedis(2) .............. 0 l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l t s h o u l db e ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . .o p p o s i t e the cloor,not (5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . untler a (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . beanr,and with the head against a \ ^ r a lY l . o u c i r nh a v e( 7 ) . . . . . . . . t a b l e so n b o l h s i d e so f t h e h e a do f t h e b e d ,b u t a v o i d { s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w a r d r o b eosr f u r n i t u r el v i t h( 9 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e. d g e fsa c i n gt h e s l e e p e r . c u r t a i n sa n c ib e d c o v e rnsr a d ef r o m ( l l ) . . . . . . . . {12)

il0

.

.

.

.

naterials are also recommended.

9 A T ) JI I I T Y I\ \ \ I T A T ) \T I I T I S

Adjectives: emphasizing, describing, classifying Emphasizingadjectives Emphasizingadjectivesarerestrictiveor intensif ing. We userestrictiveadjectiveswhen we talk about adjectives to reinforcethe meaningof the something asspecialor unique(l ). We useintensifying noun (2). We usuallyput restrictivebeforeintensif.ing (3). 1 SafetyL my chief concern.. Cturmain problemsarefnancial. , Try to givea specificreason. 2 I haven'tplayedbefore,I'm an absolutebeginner.. Themeetingh,asa completewasteof time. 3 Theboywastheonly real heroin thestory.. Maria got l00o/o,whichwasthefrst perfectscore. Find the two emphasizingadlectivesin the text on page 110 and add them to these lists of examples.(One is in the first paragraphand the other is in the third paragraph.) Restrictive

Intensiffing

chief,exact,frst, major, only,principal, sole,specifc,

absolute,complete,entire,exteme, real,sheer, t o t q lu, t t e L . . . . . . . . . .

Describing adjectives When we usemore than one adjectiveto describesomeoneor something,we usuallyput then.rin the order presented in the table below, with age (o/d) before colour (green), etc. Note that this is the normal order,but it is not the only possibleorder. 4 I loved that olil green soJawith the lovely round seatsand thc big soft cushions. We can often use describing adjectiveswith different meanings depending on the context. 5 The Stnithslive in a modesthomenear Canterbury.(='notverylarge or expensive') 'shy' or'not willing to talk about her own abilities') Jill is a very modest young woman. (= Find one example of each type of describing adjective in the text on page 110 and add it lo the correct list below. Opinion

Size

Physicalquality Age or Time

Shape

Colour

excellent, lot ely, ugly,

big huge, long, tiny,

dry, hard, hot, Iight,

circular,round, spiky,squarc,

green,pink, red,yellou

new,old, recent,young,

Classifying adjectives When we usemore than one adjectiveto classif'soneoneor something,we usuallyput them in the orderpresentedin the tablebelow,with r.naterial(r1lon) beforepurpose(nmning) etc.Note that this is the normalorder,but it is not the only possible order. 6 I hotenylon running shorls.' It'ssouthernFrenchstyle., Wefound e Victorian medical text. Find one exampleof each type of classifyingadjectivein the text on page 110 and add it to the correct list below Location

Origin or Source

Material

Typ.

Purpose

distant,indoor, southern,west,

African, French, Muslim,Victorian,

Ieather,metal, nylon,plastic,

economic, medical,scientifc,

camping,running, swimming,

Positn)n of rdjc.rivc\I l2

^djedileswirhinlinirilesl14.{dje.ti!rs$nhnoundrusrsl6a)

111

q A D J L ' ' I I \ E 5A N T ] A D \ . E f i B S

positionand punctuation Adjectives: Position We usuallyuseadjectivesbeforenouns ( I ) or afterlinking verbssuchas be andseem(2). . They . He hasa kind, honest 1 I had an amusingexperience. facedenormouschallenges. t'ace. 2 Don't besilly. , Shebecameill. . Theyfeh angry. ' lt got colil. . He seemed anxiousand upset. Note that adiectivesare called'attributive'beforenounsand 'predicative'afterIinking verbs. When we usemore than one adjectivebeforea noun, thereis a typicalorder We usuallyput emphasizingadjectivesbeforedescribingadjectives(3) and both of thesebeforeclassifing (4). ad.jectives 3 Theweatherhasbeenour principal recentconcern.. Her necklace had real red rubiesin it. . Therecenteconomicnewsisn'tencouraging. 4 KenyawasthesoleAfrican represefitatiye, Someadjectivesaretypicallyusedaftera linking verb,not beforea noun. 5 Theoki man is asleep.Thegirl seemed glail. (sor tAe*deep-net+.@) Othersinclude:afraid,alike,alive,alone,ashamed,awake,ill, well In someexpressions, we put the adiectiveafterthe noun (6) or afteran indefinitepronoun (7). 6 sixfeet tal\ two metresdeep,twoyearsold, notarypublic, the time qvailable 7 someone nice,anythingunusual,eyerythingnecessary, nothingnew (.NoHrctl,-fto*in?) 6lnthetextonpagell0,findtwoexamplesofadescribingadjectiveandaclassifying adjectiveused together.

Punctuation Thereis usuallyno punctuationbetweentwo or more differenttypesof adjectivesbeforea noun (8). We normally put a commabetweendescribingadjectivesin a setof two or more of the sametype, especiallythoserepresentingopinionswherethe order could easilybe changed(9). 8 Andersonworksin a lovelyold Victorian building.His ffice hasbig black leatherchairs. . He wasjust a normal, quiet, rather shy teenager. 9 Shelikeswilil, vivid, flashy designs. We put andbetweentwo colours(10) or betweentwo classitlingadjectivesof the sametype (l I ). l0 I lost my blue and white scarf.. He worea reil and black cap.(Nor a:malLe#*laele+ap) ll ShelikesGreekand Lebanese food.. Wediscussed fnancial and educationaltopics. We put andbetweenadjectivesafterlinking verbs:It\ smolland black.(Not ks:n+dl4l*eh) We normally put a commabetweenthe first two adjectivesand the word dnd betweenthe lasttwo adjectivesin a setof threecolours(12) or threeclassitlingadjectivesof the sametype (13). 12 Thellag had blaclggreenanil yellow stripes.Thetulipswereyellow,orangeand red. 13 In recentyears,the islandhasexperienced social,political anil economicproblems. Add commas or the word andwhere necessaryto these sentences. I The flagsofBritain and the USA both havered white blue designs. 2 He describedthe wonderfulfriendly outgoingpeoplewho workedin the little Italian cafe. 3 You immediatelynoticethe largeplasticvaseswith pink purple flowerson everytable. 4 Thereare many industrialagriculturalapplicationsofthe new chemicalcompounds. 5 What arethe cultural religioushistoric originsofthese currentregionalconflicts?

112

Adjcctiveorder before nouns i I I

Indcfinitc pronouns 98 Linking trbs

l0

9 AD]ECTIVES AND ADVEITBS

Examples: I was looking for a plastic little spoon.

1;llle plasticspoon

There are excellent indoor facilities here. 1 The German entire team played well. 2 The wine made a red small stain. 3 There's new nothing in the Christian main values. 4 You'll need hiking leather comfortable boots. 5 It has a pointed long stem with tiny pink flowers. 6 The windows are in circular wooden huge frames. 7 They are the northern industrial major nations. 8 I love those marvellous new Italian designs. 9 They found a rocking beautiful antique chair. 10 Her alone mother was in the chaos total. 11 The old public swimming pool is closed. 12 We like economic recent American policies.

Using a dictionary if necessary,add one set of adjectivesin the best order to each definition. northern/ sharp/ cool/ thin similar/ white/ rare/large/black

prickly/ juicy / Iarge/ tropical/ yellow bluish-grey / great/ hanl / shinywhite/ small

( 2 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 3 .). . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . a n d( , t ) . . . panda:a1t)... . ( s ) . animal . .. .. . ... toabear. ( 7 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 8 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o r ( e ) . . . . . . . . . . p e a r la: ( 6 ) .. . . . b a l l t h a t f o r m s i n s i d e s o m e o y s t e r s a n d i s o f l r o l ..... .... . . . . . . . . v a l u ea sa j e w e l . ( 1 2.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l e a v e s p i n e :a t r e et h a tp r o d u c ecso n e sa n dh a s( 1 1 ) . . . ( | 4 ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . P i n e s g r o w i n ( r l ) . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r e g i o n s . p i n e a p p l e : a ( r s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(.1. .6.). . . . . . f r u i tw i t h( r 7.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( l s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .f .l .e. s ha n da ( l e ) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . s k i n . 10 Completethis text with these sets of adjectivesin the best order.Add and or punctuation if necessary. Englisholder Italian Greek bigplasticsquare Europednsouthern Spanishcheap carefree crazyhappy

greatlittle outdoor sourtwisted

Somepeoplelike to talk a lot aboutfood and restaurants they go to. I havea friend calledLeewho lectur€son(r)..........................historyattheuniversiryHegetsveryexcitedwhenhe d e s c r i b eas( 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . c a f ei n R o m ea n d' a l lt h e ( r ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p e o p l e ' who work there.I alsorememberlisteningto an (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . woman,who is a professorof {s). .. . literature,complainingabout how Spanishdishesareserved s i t h ( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w i n ef r o m ( 7 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b o x e sW i n s o m ep l a c ew . h e ns h e (8) speaksabout it, her mouth becomes . . . . . . . . . . . , asif shewerereliving the terrible experlence.

113

9 A I ] ] E C T I V I , SA N D A D V I ] R B S

Participle adjectives, compound adjectives and adjectives as nouns Participle adjectives We useadjectivesderivedfrom presentparticiples(surprising)to describethe sourceor causeof an action or feeling(l ). We useadjectivesderivedfrom pastparticiples(surprised)to describethe one(s) affectedby the action or feeling(2). 1 The newswassurprising.. Theteacherdrewa rcry confusingdiagramon theboard. 2 My parentsweresurprised.. Theconfuseilstudentssaidthat theycouldn'tunderstandit. We can treat peopleand other living things asthe sourceof a feeling(He\ boring)or the ones affectedby it (I'm bored)(3). We treat nonJiving thingsasthe sourceonly (It\ boring)(4). 3 Darwin wasa fascinatingperson.. I wasdisappointed.. Why is thedoggettingsoexcited? 4 Mars is a fascinating planet. . The newswqsdisappoiflting. (No'r The+e+*was4imppoiate*) 11 Choose an ending (a-d) for each beginning (1-4) and add participleadjectivesfrom these verbs. astonish exhaust irritate 1 2 3 4

worry

I think it'svery. . . . . . . . . . . (...) Mrs Barnettseemed... ... . .. . . (. .) They werereally. . . . . . . . . . . (. . .) The . . . . . . . . . . . tricks of magicians(. . .)

a b c d

arerevealed in anewbook. aftertheyhadwalkedten miles. that shernight not hayeenoughmoney. when studentscomein late.

Compound adjectives Compoundad.jectives can consistof an adjective,adverbor noun and eithera presentparticipleor a pastparticiple(5). Compoundswith presentparticiplesare often basedon activeverbs(6). Compoundswith pastparticiplesareoften basedon passiveverbs(7). 5 I'm in slow-movingtrffic. . Wasit a well-plannedtrip?(Nor ... at+anng-**+r;fr) 'Modern 6 Maids' is the nameof a house-cleaning sertice.(- a servicewhich cleanshouses) (= I'd really 7 like a home-cookedmeqlfor a change. a mealwhich is cookedat home) Othersinclude:energy-saving, life-threatening,low-paid,urgently-needed, well-trained Thereare somecompoundadjectives which consistof combinationsof adjectivesand nouns (8) or (9). adverbsand ad.jectives . Let'stry to get ' 8 He likesfast-food restaurants. fro t-row seats. Do you havea full-time job? . 9 Abortionis a highly-sensitiveissue. Therearea lot of politically-inilependentrctert

Adjectivesas nouns We can usesomeadjectivesafter theasnounsto talk about specificgroupsof peoplein society. Thesenoun phrasesareplural,without -s. l0 The rich aren'thappierthan thepoor. . The disadvantageilshouldbecaredfor by the wealthy. Note that we can alsosaypoorpeopleor a poorperson.(Nor +heloersor epoor) We can alsousethebeforeadjectivesdescribingn ationality(Itqliqns,French)to talk aboutthe people, their governments,their nationalteams,etc.Thesenoun phrasesareplural,but we don't add -s to words endingin -ch,-sh,-se,-ss. 11 The Italians are hereand the Frenchhayealsoagreedto senda peace-keeping force.. The UnitedNationsproposalhassupportfrom the Spanish,thelapaneseand the Swiss. We usesomeadjectivesafter theto talk about an abstractidea.Thesenoun phrasesare singular. 72 The unknown isn't thesameas the impossible., In sports,the unpreilictableoftenhappens.

I l4

c t ! r J n J p J $ v c v c r b \ 5 7 P J s rp a r r i c i p l e2\ 2 0

9 , \ D J t C ] ' I V E SA N D A I ) V } . ] R t ] S

12 Add these adjectivesto the text. amazed amazing annoyed nnnoying bored

boring

interested interesting

Mondaywasa schoolholidayand, unfortunately,it rainedall day,so the childrenkept telling me t h e y w e r e( r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a n dt h e r ew a sn o t h i n g( 2 ). . . . . . . t o d o a t h o m e .I w a s trying to write up someof my reports,but they kept interruptingme everyfive minutesandjust becamevery (3). . . . I'm (a). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that their teacherscan keepthem busy a n d( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i n t h e i rl e s s o nesv e r yd a yA . f t e ro n l yo n em o r n i n gw i t h t h e m ,I w a s extremely(6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . becauseof the constantnoiseand squabbling.I wasreadyto throw them out in the rain. Instead,I decidedto takethem to the cinema.It's really(7). .. . .. toseehowcalmtheycanbecomeinadarkcinema.Thefilmseemedrather(s)................. but at leastit kept them quiet. 13 Makeappropriatecompound adjectivesfrom each pair of words and add them to the sentences. distance/ long eduute / well

end/ never funny / look

lgrow / fast home/ make

keep/ peace wash/ white

Example:Ghanahad to increasefood irnportsto meetthe needsof a . . fost-gror^linq. . population. 1 Mrs Ba-rterofferedus sconeswith creamand her . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ju-. 2 Please don'tusethisphoneto makeany... .. . . .. . ... . . .. . .. calls. 3 Soldiershaveto learnto talk ratherthan fight when they aresenton missions. 4 The president'swife seemedto havea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . supplyof new shoesand handbags. 5 We haveto investmore in schoolsand teachersif we want to havea . . . . population. 6 T h a t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p i e c eo f c l o t ha t t h ee n do f e a c hs l e e vies c a l l e da f r i l l . 7 We renteda smallcottagein Devon,with a red-tiledroof and. .. . .. .. . ..walls. 14 Editing.Correct the mistakesin this text. SometimesI wonderwhat peoplein other countriesthink about us.We are no longeramongthe rich and powerfulsof Europe,In a very short period,we seemto haveturned into the poor and weaks. The situationis appalled.You cannotwalk down a streetin our citieswithout seeinga homeless.The unemployedsstandaroundon our streetcorners.The old and sick receivesno help.Why are we no longershockingthat this is goingon?Is it like this everl.where? Doesthe Japanese and the Canadian havethe sameproblems?I doubt it. The unthinkablehavehappenedhereand we must do somethins aboutit soon.

ll5

9 ADJE(]'IIVF,A SND AI]VIRBS

Positionof adverbs;adverbsof place,time, frequency, expectation, focus Position of adverbs We usuallyput adverbsimmediatelybeforethe adjectivesand adverbsthey modif'. . k it politically correct? ' Shetlid it I It's nearly complete. fairly easity.. He spokevery quietly. When we useadverbsto modif| verbsand sentences, we canput them in front or end positionof the clauseor sentence(2). We can alsoput adverbsin mid position after beor an auxiliaryverb (3) and beforethe main verb (4). 2 UsuallyI havea pieceof toastand orangejuice in the morning.I might hat'ea snacklater. 3 Somepeopleare alwayshungrywhentheywakeup. . I'ye neverwontedto eatbreakfastin bed. 4 I reallypreferto wait a whilebeforeeating.. I sometimesdrink cofee. Note that we don't put adverbsbetweena verb and its object.(Nol I4t*dt*re+*res-eof,ce.)

Adverbs of place and time: nearby,tomorrow, etc. We useadverbsof placesuchas nearbyand upstairsto add,rnformationon locationor direction (5), usuallyin end position,and beforeadverbsof time suchas recentlyand tomorrow(6). 5 He waiteclnearbywhileshetookthemoneyand wentupstairs.. I dippedantlfell backwards. 6 Youmustleayehereimmediately,. I'Il betheretomorrow.. I hayen'tbeenabroad recently,

Adverbs of frequency: annually, usually, etc. We usuallyput adverbsof definitefrequencysuchas annually,daily and rwicein end position (7) and adverbsof indefinitefrequencysuchas ewr, oftenand,usaalf,in mid position (8). 7 Thecontractis renewedannually. . Roomsare cleaneddaily. . I'rc seenthatflm twice. 8 Weoften haveto work late.. It usually rainsin theercning.. Doesn'the everstudy?

Expectation adverbs:already, still, etc. We useexpectationadverbsto expressa connectionbetweeneventsand expectations,We usealready to indicatethat an eventis earlierthan expected,usuallyin mid or end position. 9 His plane hasalready arrired. . Mrs Black had left already. (Nor A#eadyMt&laek*ad4eft) We usestill to saythat somethingis goingon longerthan expected,usuallyin mid position. l0 Weare still waiting.. I still bite my nailswhenI'm nervous.. Ford still avoidscrowds. We useno longerand not ... any longer/more whenan eventwasexpectedto continue,but did not. We usuallyput them in mid or end position (l l). When we put flo lorgerin front position ( 12),we m u s tu s ei n v e r s i o(nt h ea u x i l i a rvye r bb e f o r et h es u b j e c t ) . ll It no longerworkl . Wecouldnot staythereany longer., Shedoesn'tlite hereany more, 12 No longerclothefshing boatscomein largegroupsto LochFynefor theherringseason. We use.,/et(meaning'up to now') to showthat an eventis or wasexpected, We usuallyp]otyet at the end of questions,negativesand expressions of uncertainty. 13 Hatteyou readit yet?. Classes hayen'tstartedyet. . I'm not sureif he'sfinkhedyet,

Focusadverbs. even,just, only We use the focus adverbs eten, just and,onlrlto draw attention to one part ofthe sentence. 1.4 Shewas only joking. . He can't even swim. . Her researchisn'tjust about English. We can change the focus and the meaning when we change the position of these adverbs. 15 Mark only works here on Fridays. (- only Fridays, not other days) Only Mark works here on Fridays. (= only Mark, not other people)

ll6

Adjectivcs Ill

Auxiliaryverbs 17 lDvesion216

Neg.li\rs and questions4s

9 ADIECTTVESAND ADVERBS

15 Rewrltethesesentenceswlth the adverbsin moreappropriatepositions' 1 Wethoughtwehadstartedearlyour hike,but alreadyotherpeoplehadleft the campsite. 2 The workers get paid usually weeHy,but they haverit beenyet paid for last week. 3 Still the studentshadn't completed all their work when they had to leaveyesterdayhe1e, 4 Alice lived recendyhere,but shedoesnl here any more live. 5 We usedto hear hardly everthem, but they've becomelately noisy really'

,|6 Add these adverbs to this text. always

erer

no longn

only

outside

recently

sometimes todq'

twice

yet

Actressand modelviviane Tavenardis (1). . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... the centreof attentionwherevershe goesand her appearancein a London boutique this morning was no exception. But her big smile isn't (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for the crowd of photographerswaiting ( 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Shetenjoyingherlifethesedaysandis(5).....................concernedaboutoldromancesorbad reviews. TavenardhaswontheBestActressaward(5).....................,butthathasntstoppedherftom workingon newand (7). . ... . .. . . ... . ... . ... unusualfilms. 'This in an interview with Celebritf Life is an orcellent time,' shesaid (a). . 'I magazine, think that my life is thebestit's (e)..................... been.' The good news for all you Viviane Tavenardfans is that you may not haveseenher best work (10).....................' '17Uslng a dictionary if necessary rewrite each of the sentences with one of these adverbs instead of ,'ust, plus any other nec€ssary changes. abnost

acactly

now

only (x2)

/ simply

very recently

peredt. attention.Jfre,g.simPlu. Example: Theyjustweredtpaying fs+ng.s!.tediqn 1 2 3 4 5 6

The couple had iust got married. The baby looks just like her mother' He isn t just an atl ete,he's a scholartoo! Wait for us, we're just coming. Lunch isjust about ready. Wear this silly hat. It's just for fun.

T17

9 AI)JU{iTIYItS ANn AI)VI:ltBS

viewpoint, Adverbs:degree,manner, comment Degreeadverbs:really, very, etc. We use degree adverbs to say to what extent something is done or felt. We use some degreeadverbs such as realll or completelyrn mrd position or end position in sentences. I He totally forgot. , Shereally hatesfish. . Wefailed completely.. Pricesincreasedmoderately, We usually use some degree adverbs such as prell,/, quiteor ratherbefore adjectivesand adverbs (2). We can also use the phrases a bit and a litfle as degreeadverbs before adjectivesand adverbs (3), but we don't use them with adjectivesbefore nouns. 2 They'repretty good. . It's quite tasty. , Isn't it rather cold in here?'We listenedvery carefully. 3 She'sfeeling a little tired. . The music is a bit loud. (Nor l+4-a4*let*n*A) We don't use lerl before verbs: I'm not enjoying it very much. (Not Pm+o+-rcry-efio7it+g-tt) We can use more/lessand most/leastas degreeadverbs in comparatives and superlatives. 4 Going by train can be more convenientthan flying in Europe and it's usually lessexpensive. We also use roo before adjectivesand adverbs and eaorgft after them. 5 lt's too rlfficuh. , He spoketoo quietly. . ls this box big enough? . You didn't leate early enough.

Manner adverbs:carefully.,quickly,,etc. We use n]anner adverbs to say how something is done. We usually put them in end position. 6 I'll read it carefully. . He writes clea y. , They searchedthe room quickly and thoroughly. Note that we put manner before time: Sheworks haril now, (Not She-workrtte+v4ar*) Manner adverbs are sometimes used, especiallyin novels, to describe how something was said. 'I 7 have a torch,just follow me,'shesaid nervously. 'l would follow you to the end of the world,' he whisperetlhoarsely in reply. Others include: angrily, anxiouslS cheerfully, gloomily, impatiently, passionately,seriously

Viewpoint adverbs:commercially,socially, etc. We useviewpoint adverbsto describethe perspective or point of view beingconsidered. We usually put them in endposition(8),or in front positionwith a comma(9). 8 It did well commercially.. They'reworkinginilividually. . It wasnot donescientifcally, Psychologically axd socially,it'sa terribleitlea. 9 Financially, theprojectmakessense.

Comment adverbs: p r obably, surpri singly, etc. We usecommentadverbsto includea commentor opinion aboutwhat is beingsaidor written. We can usesomeof them suchasprobdblyin mid position,but we usuallyput commentadverbs suchassurprisinglyor of coursein front or end positionwith commas. , Surprisingly,hefailed. , I'll refundthecost,of course. l0 It wasprobably a misunderstanding. We can usecommentadverbssuchas defnitelyandobtiouslyto sayhow surewe are (l I ) and others to sayhow we feel ( l2). srch asfortunatelyand serioasll, 11 l'll defnitely callyou tonight.. Obviously,someone forgotto lockthedoor. 12 Fortunately,flo onewqsinjuredin thecrosh.. We'reseriouslythinkingaboutmoting to the cou try. Othersinclude:actually,apparently,certainly,frankly,honestly,no doubt,presumably,sadly

lI8

r\dje.tives I I I Adverbs rs connedffs 209 Comparativesdnd srperlatives 120 ftd aDd .nd!A,i 144

9 ADIECTIVES AND ADVERBS

18 Rewriteeach sentencewith one pair of adverbs added in appropriatepositions. carefully/ tomorrow

completely/ yesterday enough/ really

too / wry much

1 I forgot my brother'sbirthday. ^_;..:.. 2 The pianois largeandour doorwayisn'twide. 3 We enjoyedthe trip, but it wasexpensive. 4 I'll readthe report.

19 Choose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (1-6) and add these adverbs. angrily msually enough mrelessly complEtely eyen 1 2 3 4 5 6

extremely indittidually

ofcourse only

traditionally very

e se r ea r r a n g e(d. ,. . ) a and everyonewantedit, .. .. . ' . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . .m , a r r i a gw ' Therewas....... oneticketleft (.. .) b he wasn't. . ... ... r";;d. H e d i dt h et e s st o. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . ., \ . . . , c b u t t h a t ' s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c h a n g endo w . d he startedcomplaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , eachplayeris good,(. . .) . .. .. Althoughhe wasdressed e b u tt h e yd o nt p l a yw e l l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. .s .. .... .... . Because he was. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . annoyed,(. . .) a team. f he didn t finish part of it.

20 Add these adverbs to this text. actually apparently

certainly nervously probably still cotnpletely of course seriously yery

uncontrollably unfortunately

'Yodve seenthe ghost?'I asked. 'More than once,'theold man replied.'(r) Wantto seeit?' .. .... .... .... .... ... , I havea photograph. This is absurd,I thought,but asked,'Youtook a photo of the ghost?' 'No, not me.Itt a photo of LadyBarnettfrom an old newspaperreport of her death.She'swearinga longwhitegown,almost(2).....................thesameoneshewearswhensheappearsatnight.' He saidall this (3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4).... .... .... .... . ... . asif it wassolidevidence for the truth of his ghostlytale.'Shewasrich and, (s). for her,shewasmurderedfor her money. It all happenedabout ten yearsago.The policethought it washer husbandwho did it. He disappeared soonafter.They found him later,lockedin a smallbasementroom. His hair had turned ( 6 .) . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .w h i t ea n dh i se y e w s e r ew i d eo p e nH . e w a sd e a d(,7 .). . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . He wasclutchingthe key to LadyBarnett'ssafedepositbox in the bank.I think her ghosthad ( 8 ). . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . f o u n dh i m a n dh a ds c a r ehdi m t o d e a t h . ' 'Oh, my god! And she-she-shetstill here?'I found myselfstuttering(e). . . . . 'Oh, yes.I think she(10)... ....... . ....... . .. walksthroughthe housein searchof his mistress. Sheonly appears whenthere'sa newwomanin the house.(11).. .... .... ... . ... ... . her husbandwasin lovewith anotherwoman and he just wantedLadyBarnett'smoneyso he could run awaywith her.' 'What happenedto the mistress?' I askedrather (12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , looking round the dark room. 'Nobody 'But knows,'he answered. if I washer,I would stayfar awayfrom this house.'

119

9 A I ) J F d T I V EA \ NII AI)VERBS

Equatives, comparatives and superlatives Equatives Equativesare markedby as ... asor not qs ... as.We usead.jectives and adverbsin equativesto say thata person( 1),thing (2),or action(3) is similar(or not) to anotherrn someway. I She'sas tall as herfather.. I'm as hungryas a horse.. He'snot asyoungas he looks. 2 Thevan wasas big as a house.. His newbookis not as interesting as his otherone. . Write as 3 I cameas soonaspossible. fast asyou ce.n.. lt didn't do as weIIas we had hoped. (Nor ShC*attall-herJather Wr+*fusaotteat IFMW@) We can usefocusadverbssuchasjust and onlybeforeequatives(4). We sometimesuse not so .. . as for the negative(5). 4 Our plan isjust asgoodas theirs.. You'reonly as old asyout'eel . He'snot eyenas tall as her. 5 Thisyear'sharvestwasn'tso badas lastyear's.. He'snot so arrogantas he usedto be. Note the useof equativeswith a singularnoun: He\ not asgooil a teacheras Mrs Marshall. (Not@H@)

Comparatives We changeadjectivesand adverbsto saythat a person(6), a thing (7) or an action (8) hasmore or lessof a quality than another.Weput moreor lessbeforelong forms and add -er to short forms. , He'sslowerthan a snail. 6 She'smore intelligentthan him. She'salsomore interesting. 7 Someideasare lesspracticalthan others.. Hisflat is smallerand cheaperthan ours. 8 I shouldpractisemore often.. Shealwaysfnishesher workfaster than me. Subjectpronounsare sometimesusedafterthan (fasterthan l),but theysoundvery formal. We can treat adiectivessuchasfriendly or quietaseitherlong forms (9) or short forms ( 10). . Theboysseemmorequiet than usual. 9 Our neighbours havebecome morefrienilly recently. l0 Everyonewasfriendlier this time.. My newoffceis quieter than theold one. Othersinclude:clever,common,crazy,likely,lonely,narrow,simple,untidy,yellow We usespecialforms for the comparativeof good./well and bad/badly(Il).We usefurther (from far) for distanceand when we mean'additional'(12). Fartier is only usedfor distance. 11 I thoughttheweatherwouldbebetterin luly, but it actuallygot worse, 12 How muchfurther/farther do we haveto walk?. Wehopeto getfurther detailsof theplan soon. We can usecomparativeforms,repeatedwith and,to emphasize that somethingis increasingor decreasing( l3). We use tre + comparative... the+ comparativeto saythat one developmentis connected to another( l4). 13 Wemeetmore antl morefrequently.. lt's lessand lesscommon . Alicegot taller and tallen 14 The soonerwe leave,thefaster we'llget there.. The oliler I get,the craziereyerythingseems.

Superlatives We can useadjectivesand adverbsto saythat people(15) or thingsand actions( 16) havethe most or leastof a quality.We prfi the mostor the leastbeforelong forms and add -estto short forms. . It'sthe leastdangerous.. She's 15 He'sthe mostlikely to succeed. oneof the clevereststudents. 16 Where'sthe most beautiful beachin theworld.?. That'sthe simplestquestionof all. . The leastpopular subjectis algebra.. I wassuremy golf ball had landednearestto thehole. Note the specialfo rms for good/well(best), bad/badly(worst)andfar (t'arthest/furthest) . After superlatives we useiz or on,not of beforesingularwords for groups( 17) or places( l8). . I'm the tallestin my 17 Alan is theyoungeststudentin the class. family. 18 He'sthe bestplayerin theworld. . I think westayedin the worst hotelon theisland. $or laes+he+estplayer-of+he-+torl*)

t20

Adj€ctiveslll

Adverbs l16 8 Focusldverbs 116 Subjecrpronouns 97

u A I I J I (l l \ l \ A \ l ' \ l ) \ | R U \

21 Write the most appropriateforms of adjectivesand adverbsfrom one set in each sentence, bad/ skillerl/ well beautiful/ dffirent /quick

early/ new/ well-behaved easy/ short/ well-known good/ likely/ Iong fast / old / tall

youaretomissthe I T h e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y o uw a i t t, h e bargainsin the sale. 2 Our . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sonis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thanhis dad,but our othertwo haven'tgrown 4s...................... J

lne

than that other group who stayed

here otners. 5 Thereareseveral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . waysto getto the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . beachon the otherside o f t h ei s l a n db,u tt h e . . . . . . . . . . . . w a y i s b y b o a t . asmostof the others,but I'm not the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . player 6 I can'tplayas o r t h e . . . . . . . . . o f a l l t h o s ew h o w a n tt o p a r t i c i p a t e . 22 Completethis first paragraphof an essay about'fast food'with these adjectivesand adverbs. moreeasily thebest better puzzled asquicklyas smaller less beneJicial more wasteful themostinportant faster

Whendidwedecidethat'moreconvenient'is(r).....................waytochoosebetweentw in containers differentthingsto eat?Why do peoplenow want food t:t. .... ... . ... . .. ... possible, ' t h r o w na w a yH ? o wd i d ' t . r t . . . . i s t s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h a ta r e( r ). . . . . . . . becomeour slogan?Don't we seethat this is tel. . . . . . . . . . . . . and much (z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thanmakingourownfood?Isitbecausewewantfoodtohaveamuchtsl.....................pla ? u t i s n ' tf o o do n eo f ( g ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h i n g sA ? m I t h eo n l yo n ew h o i s i n o u r l i v e sB (lo). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by this? 23 Editing.Correct the mistakesin this text. best In one experiment,studentswereaskedto look at photographsof peopleand choosethe 6ood words had chosenthe and phrasesto describethem.The studentsdidn't know that the researchers photographsto representtwo groups.In Group A, they put the goodlooking of all the peoplewhose photographswereused.For Group B, they chosepeoplewho (they decided)werenot attractiveas thosein GroupA. Accordingto the students, the peoplein GroupA werewarm,kind,excitingand marriages sensitivetlran thosein Group B.Also,Group A would find high paid jobs,havesuccessful and leadhappylivesthan Group B. The women in Group A wereconsideredto haveappealing personalities andto be sociallyskilledthanthe GroupB wonen,but alsoto be vain,materialistic, the studentsdecidedthat Group A snobbishand likely to getdivorcedthan them. Interestingly, would be bad parentsthan Group B.

l2l

9 ADIECTWESAND ADVERBS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. I I',m a better

b good as

a swimmer asmy sister. c not asgood d so good

Britain?

Is St Paul'sthe oldest cathedral dto cof a from bin When we heard the good news,we were a delight b delighted c delighting

d

delighttul gone.

I'm waiting up here with Tony,but Sandrahas a already b downstairs c once d ya 5 I left the book on the table. a Perfecdv b Personallv

c Presumably

someoneelsehasborrowed it. d Properly

ldentifythe one underlinedexpresslon(A,,B' C or D)that must be changedin orderto correctthe sentence. hole,six deepfea, andshuddered. ry "e!3g!* 2 After the fust realattackstarte4someafraidsoldiersdidnl wantto fight anylnore sotheyjust 1 I staredinto the b;g ABCI)

surrendered. showerfirst, thenI drink usudlysometeaand get&essedas&st asI can. Elg and othersartijuslLtoq hard. Weall vctl agreethat sometestsarenot dimcult eno-lrgh

3 I getul I

5 The Duldr areplayingft. ISao ftst, a"d thenthe Spasishandthe Portt#ueseplay.

to eachs€ntencein thls text. Add one pair of adjectlves/adverbs / etmtually further/ just longer/ readhry aheaily/ never black/ round easier short/ sufulenly I I know I'm would need glasses.

in my forties, but I

imagined that I

kept trying to read the newspaperby holding it 2I arvay. armsor a pair of 3 I reallyhadto decidewhetherto get gl""ro. solution. 4 , I chosethe wiggly lines at the top glasses, new those with my 5 , of the pageturned into words. spotsthat seemedto danceon the floor becameants. 6 And the

r22

9 ADIECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Completeeachsentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 We all thought they organizedthe event well and we were all excitedby it. Everyonethought the event 2 Youwill gettherequickerif you leavehereearlier. The earlier J Mark is a good cook, but David is a bettercook.

Mark is not as 4 Do you haveany scarves? I'm looking for one that'swoollen,greenand fairly long. I'm looking for a scarl E Choose the most appropriateword from each pair for each space. acute / acutely certain / certainly

just / only colour/ coloured far / further early/ earlier lapan / Japanese now/ yet

pleased/ pleasing young/ youngest

One eveningin the springof 1936,when I wasa boy of fourteen,my fathertook me to a dance performancein Kyoto.I rememberonly two things aboutit. The first is that he and I werethe (l) Westerners in the audience;we had come{iom our home in the Netherlandsonly a few weeks(2) , so I had not (r) adjustedto the cultural isolationand still felt it (4) . The secondis how I was,aftermonths of intensivestudyof the Japanese language,to find that I could now understandfiasmentsof the conversations I overheard.As for the (6)

women dancing on the stagebefore me, I

remembernothing of them excepta vagueimpressionofbrighdy (s) I (e) had no way of knowing that in a time and place as (10)

kimono.

away as New York City nearly fifty years in the future, one among them

would becomemy good friend and would dictateher extraordinarymemoirsto me.

r23

Prepositions are singlewordssuchas at, from,in, of and on or phrasessuchas in frontof, nextto and outof We can use prepositions with nounphraseswhenwe describepeople(a groupof ltalianstudenls)and things (the trainfrom London)or when we provideadditional information aboutan actionor situationsuchas the time or olace. (Theirtrainarrivesat 4.30in the afternoon.I toldthemthat,if l'm not on theplatform,they shouldjust walk out of the stationand wait in front of the news-standnext to the main entranceand l'll meetthemthere.) Readthroughthis reporton workingstudentsandfind anotherfour phraseswith prepositions describing time.

Contraryto popularbelief,studentsdo work c c o r d i ntgo o n e N a t r o n rIl' n i o n o f S r u d c n t . I 1 - \ . u r \ c v . 1 ,u, r u u t u l t c n \ l u d c n t . , l t l c n d i n g u n i .e r r i t r e 'i n r h c U h h . r Jr j , r h , l r r i r ' ! r . I n r r , n ( Wilh nlore luition fecsand othcr additionalcosts,it s c c m .r e r s o n i h l e1 , , . 1 \ . u mlch . r ll h i . l i g u r ei . increasing.The studcntswc talked to confirmedthat this is the case. Fbr many of the studentswe interviewed.the idea ol a part-tinlejob on top of their fulltimc studicsis no longeran option.but a necessitv. Al the sarne tin'le,sonle of thcnl saicluDivelsitiesoftcr littlc hclp rcgardingemploymentor simpiy advisestudents againslhavinga job.They expcctstudcntsto be working on their clegleesand nolhing else.One medicalstudcntreportcd:'WhenI told my director of slrldiesthal I hacla job in the Christmasbrcak.hc frorvned.He clearlydidn t think it was a good idea.' Mosl stLldents are emplovcdin part,timc or tcmporaryiobs and,as a resultof this.have no job securityand don l qualify fol sick leavcor holiday pal'.Many studentsale hired in placeol regulnr workers.but alc senerallypaid lcssthan thcm. Some studentsdon'1acluallywork foI pay.but do jobs in cxchangefor lower rent and/ormeals.These are ustally caretakerjobs.

With theexception ol thoscableto llnd work insidetheir universitiesandcolleges. the majoritvof sludents havejobsat nightor duringthe weekend. Onc studcntrcportedthat.apartfrom working.her r0 weekends werespentsleeping: I workasa securitv guarduntil3 a.m.on FridayandSaturday nights, so I endup sleeping all daySaturday andSunday.' Anotherstudenlsaidsheworks22 hoursa week in additionto her20rveeklyhoursof lectures: :r5 I wouldi'tsayit hashadanyeffectacademically. but it me.rns thatI can'tBoout much.' According to the NIJSernplovmeit study. more than10pcr centof students had issedlectulesor lailedto subrnitworkbecausc ofjob commitments. jobs.30percenthadrnissed a0Forthosewilh tenn-time rvhilc20 perccnthadnot handedin lcctulcs. assignlnents. It seems ahnostinevjtable that.dueto nnancialpressures, the universityexperience will change.lncleased coslsin education togetherwith .15prcssurcsto succecdin a competitiveworld are deiirling thecircunstances in whichtoday'sstudents strugglcto completetheir degrees. Studentlife really doesinvolvea lot morework thcsedays.

2 Completethis summary with appropriateprepositionsfrom the report. A l t h o r . r i iuhn i r . e r s i t i eosf i e n a d v i s et h e n ( l ) . . . . . . . . l.ravinga job, at lcastfour ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t e n s t u d e n t sn o r vr v o r l <1 : 1 . t c r ' 1 -tli-l t- n cS. o m cs t u d e n f sd o jobs lorl,errent, but nrostof therr $'ork 1s1 . . . . part tin.rcjobs, ( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l c s sp a 1(' 7 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .r.e g u l arrv o r k e rasn d r . r s u ; r{l sl ,).v . . n j g h to r ( 9 ) thc ncckcntlS . t u d e n t s( r 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . t e r m - t i m ej o b s a r ea I o t n r o r el i l i e 1 t1o n i s s l e c t u r c 'isr n dJ \ 5 i s r n r c n t \t,r r . . . . . . Studcntsstud\r

l]4

a N a t i o n a lU n i o n

IO PREPOSIT]ONS

phrases Prepositions and prepositional Simple prepositions Simple prepositions are single words such as at, in, of, to and.wltfu,which have a wide range of possible meanings (l). There are others, such as behind, during and past,which have a more limited range of meanings (2). There are also a few words derived from present participles, such asfollowing and.including, which can be used as simple prepositions (3 ). I At EasterI went with a friend of mine to a specialceremonyin WestminsterAbbey. Others include: as,by, for, from, ofl on 2 During the ceremony,we had to sit behind a hugepillar. We couldn't seeanything past i. Others include: above,across,against,before, between,inside, over, through, until, without 3 Following the ceremony,we went to lunch. Incluiling lunch, the whole trip took three hours. O t h e r ' i n c l u d e c: o n s i d c r i n ge.x c l u d i n gf,r c i n g ,r e g r r d i n g

Complex prepositions Complexprepositionsarephraseswhich consistof two wordssuchas next to ald. insteadof (4), or more than two wordssuchasaswellas and.in front of(5).They all end with a simplepreposition. 4 Comeand sit next to me.. CouldI hate coJfee insteadof tea?(Not .. . affee4rc+ead+ea?) Othersinclude:accordingto, apartfrom, because ol due to, out ol togetherwith 5 Thereweretwo or threemenas well as a groupof girlsin front of mewaiting to buy tickets. Othersinclude:asa resultof, in addition to, in placeof, on top of, with regardto

Prepositional phrases Prepositional phrases consistof prepositions plusob.jects. The objectsarenoun phrases(6) and can includeobjectpronouns(7) andgerunds(8). 6 Theboycut the ropewith a penknife,. I gaw thekeysto the woman who worksin your offce, 7Apartfromus,itwasempty.,Let'skeepthisbetweenyouandme,(Not,'.@L) 8 Somepeopleleft without paying. . Besidesswimming,I alsolike hockeyand basketball. We normally put a prepositionimmediatelybeforeits object,but in questions(9) and relativeclauses (10),we often put the prepositionat the end.In formal uses,the prepositionis sometimesput at the beginningof the questionor beforethe relativepronoun(l I ). 9 He cut it with something."+ What did he cut it with? 10 Janis the woman.I gavethe keysto her."+ Janis thewoman(that/who)I gaw thekeysto. 11 With what did he cut it? . Jan is thewomanto whom I gattethe tel,s.(sor +a+tho) Someprepositionsare only usedat the beginning,not the end,of questionsand relativeclauses. I2AfterwhichwafwastheTreatyofversaiIIessigned?(Notw@) Othersinclude:above,becauseof, before,beloq besides,durinq Using informationfrom the report on page 124,completethese sentencesand decide how each prepositionis being used. a with an objectpronoun b with a eerund

c at thebeginningofa relatiyeclause d at the end ofa relativeclause

I The students Students need jobs, but some employment.(.. )

confirmed that this is correct. ( .) said universities don't help with

One student said that,.

. . Higher costs are defining the circumstances degrees.(. ..)

studentstry to finish their

Cornccto6 and prepositions 210 Question words yirh preposnions50 Prcposiri()is ir rchtirc cl.n,scsl7e

125

IO PIIEPOSlTIONS

Prepositions of time:af,in, on, etc. We use ct with an exact point in time. I The morning session beginsat 8.30and endsat noox.. At that tiffieI \ras stilla student. We also use atbefore nan.resof mealtimes or general words for holidays (2) and when we talk about a person'sageas a point in time (3). 2 I'll seeyou at breakfast.. What doesyour family do at Chrktmas? (Not *lhrisatterDay) 3 Both trly parents left schoolat 16.. At your age,I was alreadl, married and had a baby. We use ia with a period of tin.re. 4 We Ltsuqllylisten to music in the evening.. They did all the repairs in one day. Note that in the night ('dur\ne a specific night') is different from ar nighr ('during any night'). We also use ln before the names of months, seasonsor years (5), and before phrasesidentifying centuriesand historicalperiods (6). 5 Sunmer time beginsin Morch. . It's wry dry here in summer . Dickens died in 1870. 6 The housewas buib in the 19th century. . lazz frst becamepopular in the 1920s. We can also use h for a period of time before something happens or is completed. 7 I'll be back in an hour. . They sairl they'dfnish the work in two or three days. We use oir with a specific day, or part of a specific day, and dates. 8 I'll seeyou on Sunday.. The neeting is on Monday morning. ' The exam is on May 30th. In informal uses,especiallyin American English, or is often left out: I'II seeyou Sunday. We also use on with special days or occaslons. 9 I'll be there on your birthday. . What do you do on ChristmasDay? (Not ott4itstntm) We dor.r'tusually use at, itl ot or before time expressionsbeginning with each,every, Isst, next. l0 We had meetings every day l.tst week. ' I'm leating next Friday. (Nol at't:+ext4riday) We can usefrom and /o for starting and end poir.rtsin time (l I ). We can also use pdst ('later than') wrth a point in time (12). ll The cldssmeetsfrom 2.30 to 4.30. . We liyed in Athensfrom 1998to 2002. 12 What tiffie is it? - It'spast eight o'clock.Actually, it's already twenty past eight. 4

Complete each sentence with one pair of words or phrases plus at, rn or on where necessary. Chrislmas Day / the pqst four o'clock/ Friday aftentoon the fourth of lubt / 1776

her birthday / next Saturday ,/ midnight / New Year'sB,e night / winter

six/ the morning sixty,fve / 2005 September/ everyyear

E x a m p l eW : e a l l h e l d h a n d sa n d \ a n g l o B e t h e ro L . T : 4 f i 3 f , 9 l l t f y . . ) g q L ! f f I I h a t e d t h e e a r l ys h i f t a t t h e f a c t o r yb e c , r u sIeh a d l o s t a r rw o r k . . 2 We'regoing to hare a big party for R.rchel 'l J h e vh l r v c s l t h e g r a p e ' 4 B e c a u s iet w a ss o c o l d i n t h e b e d r o o m ,I o f t e nd i d n ' t s l e e pv e r y w e l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 T t h d . n t J s c o r r m o n f o r p e o p r lteo g e t a h o l i d r l f r o m n o r k . o I c a n ' t l e a v ew o r k c l r l y b e c a u . eI h a r e a n t e e l i n g 7 Although he didn't think of himself as old, Frank Joneshad to retire . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Thc Amcricrn l)eclaration o f I n d e p e r r d e n cwea ' s i g n c d

126

Ar, t', d, (place) l:8

i?,,,

to,,arr ( movement lnd phcc) 130

l 0 P I i E P O SfII O N S

Prepositionsof time:during,for,srnce,etc. During for, since We can useduringor in when somethinghappensat somepoint(s) within a specificperiod of time ( 1).We usuallyuseduring(not in) whenwe'retalking aboutthe wholeperiod of time (2). I We'lIbeon holidayduring/in July.. Theold roadis sometimes closediluring/in winter. ' Therewereno closses 2 Weneedfewerworkersduring longweekends. during the wholeof May. We can useduring(not for) to saywhen somethinghappensand/or (not dlrlng) to sayhow long somethinglasts. 3 During April, I'm hopingto go to NewYorkfor a few days.(Nor *+ry aJe* days) When we'retalking about a period of time up to the present,we can use/or to sayhow long it has been(4) and slrceto saywhenit started(5). 4 We'yebeenwaitingfor hours,. I'ye beena studentherefor twoyears.(Nol shee*olears) 5 We'vebeenwaitingsinceeighto'clock.. I'ye beena studentheresince2004. We usuallyusea perfecttense,not the presentsimple,with since.(Not I4+4ere:inee2804)

Before,, by,until We usuallyusebeforeverygenerallyfor somethinghappeningearlierthan a certaintime (6). We use b1,more preciselywhenwe mean'at/onor before'a specifictime (7). We usearril for a period of time up to a specific point in time (8).We canuseaot ... r.rrlllwhenwe mean'notearlierthan'(9). 6 ]iIl: Didn't Robsayhe woukl beherebeforesix?(- at sometime earlierthan six) 7 Bev:I think he saitlhe hopetlto behereby six.(- at or before,but not later,than six) 8 JiII: I guessweshouldwaitfor him until six-ffteen.(= during the period up to six fifteen) 9 Bev:I bethe won'tgethereuntil six+hirty.(- not earlierthan sir thirty) In informal uses,till is sometimesusedinsteadof rr til: He won'tget heretill six-thirty. We don't usuallyusetwo prepositionstogether,but the combinationssincebefore('fronapointin time earlierthan') and until after('up to a point in time later than') are sometimesused. I0 They'velivedheresincebeforethewar. , Don't say'HappyNewYear'until after midnight. Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese definitions with the nouns and prepositions. curfew

deadline expirydate

after

at

by

during

( r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: .t h e e n do f a p e r i o do f t i m e

in (x2)

until

which something can be

used. (J)

: a Dolnt (.1)

tlme

. .. which something

mustbe doneor completed. (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : a law prohibiting peoplefrom going outside (7)........ a particular ( e ) t i m e ( s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . n i g h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a p a r t i c u l at ri m e ( r 0 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t .h. e morning. 6 Correct the mistakes in these sentences. I I've been waiting since an hour to have a minute with the boss till his next meeting.

2 My sisterworksasa teacherin Athenssinceafter2003. 3 Your applicationform must be receivedin this officeuntil 9 a.m.in the first of March. 4 I haveappointmentsin everymorning this week,but I can seeyou on next Mondaymorning.

Tinre clauseswitlr at..

rd&re, tntil, sifl.. r99 Drrtrgor

w/,i/d 198 Pcrfcct tcnses18,20

t27

1O PRI]POSIIONS

Prepositions of place:at,in, on At, in and on for location When somethingis at a place,it is closeto it, but not tor.rchingit (l ). We can also use rit when we talk about a point on a scaleor a.journey(2 ). I We'llmeetyou at the busstop.'I think I heardsottteone at the door. 2 Bake the pie in the oyen at 170". , I'tu sure we stoppedat York during our tip north. When something is in a place,it is inside it (3). We can also use in when we talk about a place as a generalareasuch as a region or a country (4). 3 The money was in a box in a drawer in the deskin my oflice., What's in the envelopel 4 Lily is goittgto spenda weekin Tuscanythis swruner. - Is that ifl Franceor ltaly? Note that we say: Who is the small boy in the picture? (xttt ott+he-p#tare) When somethingis or a place,it is in contactwith a surface(5). We can also useol when we talk about a placein relation to a line such as a road or a river (6). 5 I Leftthe keyson the table. ' Shereachedover atd put her hand on his. 6 You'll passStratford on the way to Birminghanr lt'sjust a small town on the riyer Avon.

Verbs and nouns with at, in and on After verbs such as shout and smile,we use .rt before an object that is the target of the action. 7 Why is that man shouting at us?, Shesmiled at me. (Nor She-smikd-me.) Others include:bark, glance,laugh,look, scream,stirre,swear,yell After verbs such as believeand.include,we lusein before objects that describe ideas and things as if they were places. 8 I don't believein life after death. . The tip is ircluded in the bill (Not kl iaeladed+he4ill\ Others include: indulge,interfere,invest,join, meddle,result,specialize, wallow After verbs such as comment and concentrate,we use on before an object. 9 We can't connuent on the test resultsyet. . I can't concentrateon my hrork.(nor le*n?fonee*+mte -lft4-"ro*) Others include:depend,focus,insist,lecture,plan, rely,remark,report After nouns such as baa and restiction, we use or before another noun, l0 Isn't there a ban on pesticides?. They have restrictionson the amount of money you can send. Others include: attack,constraint,effect,emphasis,inposition, limit, perspective. sanctions 7

Choose an ending (a-d)foreach I 2 3 4

beginning (1-4) and add at, in or on.

There are restrictions.. . .. .. . travel ( ) a rather than shouting .. .. .. eachother. b of counting the money . .. .. his wallet. Jankept staring .. .. .. the goldfish (.. ) T h e y b e l i e v e . . . . . . . . . . . n e g o t i a t i n g q u i e t l y ( .c. . )a si t s w a mr o u n d. . . . . . . . . . . i t s s m a l l g l a s s Hewasconcentrating...........thetask(..) bowl. d . . some parts ofthe country.

I Add at,in or on wherenecessaryto thesesentences. Or'r

Example:Craft shopsr(many smallvillagesrelyfour busesto bring them customers. I The meeting focusedeconomicproblemsdevelopingcountriesSouth-EastAsia. 2 You can either stand the bar or sit a table most pubs Britain. 3 We were dependingmy brother to meet us the exit door after the concert. 4 The children were Iaughingsomethingthey had seeDa cartoon. 128

IU PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions of place:above,below,between,etc. Above and,over We use aboyeand oyer to say that one thing is in a higher position than another ( 1). I There'sa full moon ebove/over the mountain. . He has a small scar aboye/over hk left eye. We can use abote (not oler) when one thing is at a higher level or point on a scalethan another (2). We can use over (not qbove)when one thing coversanother in some way (3). More figwatively, abotte can be used with the senseof'better than and overwith the senseof 'more than' (4). 2 lt's always colder aboye the snowline. , Her name is above mine on the waiting list. 3 There are thick cloudsover most of Scotlarul.. I had to wear a scarf over my head. 4 His work is above aterage. . Are you over 21? (wot Are7oa-aborc24?)

Below and,under We rse belowand.underto saythat onething is in a lowerposition than another(5). 5 Theirflat is below/underours.. I keepthe bleachbelow/underthesink in the kitchen. We usebelow(not under)when one thing is at a lowerlevelor point on a scalethan another(6). We oseunder(not below)when one thing is coveredby anotherin someway (7). More figuratively, undercanbe used.with the senseof'lessthan' (8). 6 Most of NewOrleansis belowsealeyel.. I'm surethe temperature is belowzerotonight. 7 Thepuppylikesto hile under thesofa.. Do you alwaysweara rcst under your shirt? 8 If you'reuniler 21,you cdn'tget into theclub.. Thetotal costof the trip wasunder t50. 'covered We can useunderneathto emphasize by': I keepmy moneyunderneathml mattress.

Betweenand,among We can talk about a placebetweentwo or more separatepeopleor things (9) or amongmorethan two peopleor thingstogetherasa group (10). 9 Find Luxembourg on themap. It'sbetweenBelgium,Franceand Germany. l0 Find Luxembourg on themap.It's among thecountriesof Western Europe. More figuratively,between(not among)canbeusedto talk about how things are connected(11) and among(not between)canbe usedwith the senseof includedin' (12). 11 In thestudy,theyinvestigated therelationshipbetweenetlucation,diet and heahh. 12 Among theadtantages of pritate schools aresmallclasses and moreirulividualattention. 9 Using a dictionary if necessary,completethese sentencesusing an adjectiveor a noun plus one of the prepositions. overalls overtlow oterlap above orerco.lt overhead overpopulation among

below oyer between under

1 I'm wearinga woollenpulloverand a jacket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , but I still feelcold. 2 High birth ratescombinedwith betterhealthcarefor childrenare startingto createserious problemswith . . . . someof the world'spoorestnations. 3 Theredoesseemto be quite an the subjectareasof mathsand physics. 4 The work is reallydirty so you'dbetterwear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . your cleanclothes. 5 The number of young childrenstartingschoolthis yearis well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . normal and we don't haveenoughroom for them all, so we'rehavingto usetemporarybuildingsfor the p;.ple who tive nearor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thosemassive 6 ; .;;;;; "f lines saythat they havesufferedhealthproblemsbecauseof them. 129

I0 PII]:POSIIONS

Prepositions of movement and place.from,across, along, eIc. From, to, towards We use,frorr for the origin or startingpoint and to for the goal or end point of moven-rent( I ). More figuratively,,f om and to can be used for the starting and end points of changes(2). 1 \k Jlew straight from London to Sqn Francisco.' I can walk from my Jlat to work. 2 He trdnslated the bookfrom Russianto EngLkh.. It went from quite cool to very hot it au hour. We can use towards('in the direction of') to focus on the direction of movement (3). More figuratively, towards can be used to talk about the direction of development or change (4). 3 I strrldenlysaw a car coming towards me. . If you getlost, ty to walk towards the south, 4 Tlrc trend is towards much largerfarms. , This agreementis on importollt step towards peace, Note that /owardis also used,especiallyin American English:lri a sreptuwardpeace.

Into and onto We can use lnfo rvhenwe focus on movement to a placeinsidesomething(5) and onro (or oa ro) for novement to a surfaceof some kind (6). 5 We took q bus into the city cenlre. , The waiter poured some wixe into each glass. 6 Let's moye the vvll booksonto the top shelf. ' Paiut was dripping frorn his brush onto the Jloor.

Across.,over,,through We can use across,oter and drrough for movement from one side of son.rethingto the other. 'l'he 7 carly explorershad to get across/over/through the RockyMouxtaitts to reach the coast. We usually use ccrossfor movement to the other sidc of a surface or area (8), oyer for movement to the other side of sonething that is viewed as l.righor as a line (9) and tftrorgl for movementthat entersand leavessomething( 10). B Wc speli a month tratelling acrossAmericq. , Shepushed a note across the table to him. 9 The gate was lockedso I clirnlted over the wall. ,It was a good shot, but it we t over the bar. 10 You have to go through the kichen to get to the bothroom. , The ThameslTowsthrough London. We can use acrossand orer for place ('or.rthc other side of'): There'sa cofeacross/overthe street.

Alongandpast \\re car.ruse along for moven.rentin one direction or to describethe position of sornething which is somewherein that direction (1 1). We can usepasrfor moven.rent beyond a specificpoint or to describethe position of somethingbeyond a specilicpoint (12). Ll I like walkiug along county lanes., I'here'ss cafealong the street. 12 We drovepast Stratford, but didn't sloP there.. There'sa cafejust past the church.

Offand out of \Ve can use o/'for novement away from a surface or to describethe position of something in relation to a surface(13). We use orrfoffor movementfiom the insideof somethingor to describethe position of sorrething rvhich is no longer inside ( I4). 13 Coukl yotr take that box offthe table?, The platform was dbout two feet offthe grottnd. 14 I liftc.l the kittcx out of the box. As soon os it tyesout of the box, it started crying. Note that we don't use oar (without of) as a preposition.(No1M€+eJe) More figuratively,ofcan be usedwith the senseof'not connectedto' (I5) and oat o/with the sense of'no longer having' (16). 15 This part ofyour essayis cotnpletclyoffthe main topic. . Skyei on island offthe west coast. 76 We?eout of milk, so I have to go to the shop. . A lot ol peopleare out of work now.

130

1 . n , , , n , ,t d n ( t n n ! ) 1 2 6 o r . r l 1 9

t{) PftL_Pt)stl toNS

10 Completethese directionswith the following prepositions: across along Jron

past

out of

to (x2)

towards

Tony(talkingon thephone):Hi, Angie,it's rrtcag;rin.I'm sorryto botheryou,but I'm in thepostolfce and I can't renember hol' to g e t( r ) . . . . . . . . . t h e R e d L i o n r : r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h e r e . Angie:'fhat's okay.The RedLion is on KingStreet, so when1'ou'r'e (r). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . thepostofhce,you shouldturn right and w a l k( + .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t .h ec a t h e d r G a lo. t s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PortStreetandturn left whenyou reachBakerStreet. Walk ( 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . B a k eSr t r e e( t7 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K i n gS t r e e t andturn right.The RedLion will be on your rightjr-rst ( 8 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. t. h . el i b r a r y .

1'l Using a dictionary if necessary,add one pair of prepositionsto each sentence. along/ townrtls out of / front

through/ nt

I When you go via a particularplace,yon a n o t h e rp l a c e ,

2 Whenyou'r'e goingup or downa road,yodrc going. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . it . _ . . . . . . . . . ._. . . . . .o n e er.rd of it. 3 When youi'c askedto wait outsidea room, you haveto be . . t h e r o o m ,b u t y o u mustnt nrovetuo fcr it. '12Add these prepositions to the following paragraphs from the beginning of a novel. along

front

into

ot1

over

tfuouglr

tLtwords(.x2\

Shestandsup in the gardenlvhereshe hasbeen rvorking and looks into the distancc.Shehas senseda shift in the weather.There is another gust of wird, a buckle of noise in the air, anclthc tall cypresses s w a yS. l r et u r n sa n d n o v e su p h i l l0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t h e h o u s e , c l i m b i n g.r. z )

.....a lowwall,feelingthefirstdropsofrain(.r)....................herbarearms.Shcclossestheloggiaan quickly entersthe house. I n t h e k i t c h c ns h ed o e s n ' p t a u s eb u t g o e sr + ) . . . . . . . .

i t a n d c l i m b st h c s t a i r sw h i c h a r e i r . r

darknessandthencontinues(5)....................thclonghall,attheendofwhichisirwedgeof l i g h t ( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a n o p e n d o o r . S h et u r n s( 7 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t. h e r o o m r v h i c hi s a n o t h e gr a r d e n t h i so n e m a c l cu p o f t r c e sa n d borverspainted over its walls and ceiling.Thc ruan lieson the bed, his body cx1ruscdto the brecze, and he turns his head slorvlvrsr

her as she enters.

131

IO PR.EPOSITIONS

Prepositions usedfor connections: of,with,by Of and,with We use of and with when we talk about people and things being connected.We can put o/ between two noun phrasesto showthat the fust belongsto or is part ofthe second(1).We can put lrifh betweentwo noun phraseswhen the secondis a particular feature ofthe first (2). L The roof of their houseis bright red. . Thesleevaof this shirt are too lang. 2 Theirsis the housewith the bright red roof. . I'm lookingfor a white shirt 14'ithshort slenes. We can use o/to sayhow people are related (3) and with to saythat people or things are together (4). 3 Is Briany the daughterof Alice Hawthorn? - Yes,she'sa goodfriend of mine. 4 I think Leewent shoppingwith herfriends. . Wouldyou like somewine with your meal? We use o/after some adjectives(5) and wirh after others (6). 5 Millie is aftaiil of dogs.. The report wasfull of mistakes.(xor l+*xfu11+vi+htttista*e*) . Are you aware of the risksinyolved?. I wasfonil of rny oM car,but it had too manyproblems. 6 Wewerefaceil with a ilfficub choice.. I wasn'tfamiliar with that computerprogramffie.. Thereare sideeffectsassociateilwith mostmedicifles.. He wasn'tsatisfieil with my work

Wthandbv We can use wilh plus a determiner and noun for the specificthing usedto perform an action (7). We usually use by plus a noun (no determiner) or gerund when we want to describethe action in a more generalway (8). 7 I paid with my credit card. . The thief brokethe lockwith a knife. (xor $y*lenife) 8 I paid by credit mrd. . He openedthe door by breakingthe lock,(Nor by4reak+he-1e*) Other blphrases usedwith a generalmeaning include: by air, by bus,by email byphone 13 Complete each sentence with one pair of words or phrases (not necessarily in this order) plus by, of or with where necessary. a cheque/ theyellow Inmpshade American hisnry / read.ing / any problems/ the way

the door / a suewdriyer her / taxi

the match/ scoring ours/ somefriends

Example:Wewererltawareof.......ql|..Ffqb]?$g.......untilwestartedgettingcomplaintsfrom people who clearly weredt satisfled. . . . . . pi!l'. !hg. .lgf . . . . . . their new computerswere working. I He tried to removethe old brokenhandle. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 2 I'm becomingmore familiar . . . about the Civil War. 3 We went out to dinner 4 Robertson celebratedhis return to the Scottishteam . . . . . . . the best goal ....... againstEnglandyesterday. 5 They don t allow dogson the busesso Bettyalwaysgoes. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. whenevershe w a n t st o t a k eh e rd o g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 I wantedto buy that lamp . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . but I didrit haveenoughcashand they w o u l d n 'lte t m e p a yf o r i t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

132

By ltl')r.e) 127 Bya d $tith afterpassiles64 Determin€rs83 Ofand p$s$si\€ nouns75

l0 PRFP()\ll ()\S

except(fof, Prepositions usedfor exceptions: besrdes,without,etc. Except (for), besides,apart from in a We can useexceptor exceptfor ('not including')with someoneor somethingnot ir.rcluded generalstatement, usuallyaftera quantifiersuchasetery(l).We usuallyuseexccpl for (not except) thatmakesit not completely true (2). with informationaddedto a specilicstatement likedtheJilnr exceptnte.( sor e;eeepr{) 1 lt's openeveryday except(for) Sunday.. Everyone cigarette4t d party. 2 Shesaysshe'sstoppedsmokingexceptfor on occasional We can useexcept(not exceptfor)beforeprepositionphrases(3) and clauses(4). exceptin thc north. 3 I work hereall dayexcepton Friday.. It will besunnyeverywhere 4 I've neverheardtheir babycry exceptwhenit getstirerl. with the samemeaningasexceptfor) (5). In other we canusebesides In negative sentences, sentences, bcsides usuallymeans'inadditionto' (6). (for) my tnrcLe Henry. 5 I didn't knowanyonein Londonbesides/except 6 Besiilesfootball,what othersportsdo you like?' I've talkedto a lot of peoplebesidesHenry. ('in addition to'). We can useapartfrom insteadof both exceptfor) ('not including') and besides 7 lt's openeverydsy apart from Sunday., Apart from footboll,wlnt othersportsdo you like? in AmericanEnglish. Note that asidefrom rs tsed like apartfrom, especially

Wthout and minus We useexcept(for)with somethingnot includedin a generalstatement.We usewithout fot 'not doing'something(9). somethingnot includedin the widersenses of'not having'(8) or hasbeenremovcd( l0), Wecanuserrinrrswhenwe wantto emphasize that something 8 I prefertca without nilk, don'tyou?'Romeochosedeathrcther than life without luliet. 9 Bill changedhis tratelplanswithout any explanation.Thenhe left without sayinggoodbye. publishedthercport,without/minusseveralinportant sections. l0 Theyetrentually 14 Using a dictionary if necessary,completeeach sentencewith a noun and a preposition. pizza meal bread fruit icecreant omelettes rice lith I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

\

besides except(x2)

exceptfor miruts

with without (x2)

We don'tusuallyeatmuch. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . whenwe haveIndianfood. breakingeggs. My grandfatherliked to saythat you can't make I first learnedhow to cooksalmonand now I cooka lot of other. . . . . . . . . . . . . that. duringLent. Theyusuallydrink wine with theirevening. . . . bananasat breakfastsometimes. My childrendon't eat a lot of . . Wouldyou likesome. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . your strawberries? Wewon't be ableto make. . .. .. .. . . flour. on the table hadalreadydecidedit wastime to starteatingbecause It wasobviousthatsomeone very large sltce. wasour . . . . . . . . . . . . one . ..

l j r r n t u r a sa c o n n e d o rl l l

Qulntilies84

0r.5j l9l

Ill

IO PREPOSITIONS

Phrasalverbs words suchas in or or which are usedasprepositionsbeforenoun phrases(1) can alsobe usedas particlesafterverbs(2). we can alsouseother wordssuch asaway,backor out as particles(3). Theseverb + particlecombinations(sleepin, go oar) are calledtwo-word verbsor phrasalverbs. I I usuallydrink coffeein the morning.. He saidhe left thekeyson the table. 2 I slept in this morningand missedmy bus.. Heput on his bootsand.orercoat. 3 I tried to catchthetlog but it ran away. . when will shecomeback?. Did you go out lastnight? Other phrasalverbsinclude:fall over,get through,go ahead,sit down, standup, takeoff some phrasalverbsare usedwithout an object (4) and othersare usedwith an object.when the objectis a noun phrase,we can usuallyput it before(5) or afterthe particle(6). *hen the objectis a pronoun,we put it beforethe particle(7). 4 lt's time to get up. . I wish theseflies would go away. . Watch out! (Nor Nat&-ou+*a+!) 5 Don't turn on the light. You'll wake up the baby.. He took off hisshoes. 6 Don't turn the light on- You'll wake the babyup. . He took his shoeso[f. 7 Don't turn it on. You'llwake him tp- . He took them off. (Nm l1e+o*off+hem,) After a phrasalverb we can alsousea gerund(8) or a clause(9). we don't usuallyput clausesor very Iong phrasesbetweenthe verb and the particle. 8 Haw you given up smoking?. They told us to carry on working. (Nor --. +e+any-ot++te*) 9 Andypointeil out that we didn't haveenoughtime.. youshouldreadover what you'vewritten. (Nor toa:hoaH-rced-ycha++attte-*ittten-oy*\ We can usephrasalverbswith prepositions.Thesecombinationsofverb + particle+ prepositionare sometimescalledthree-wordverbs.We put pronounsafterthe prepositions. r0 Thisbookis valuableandyou should.holil oa to it. (Nor Heaa+ lnui+-en+d . Go aheadand I'll catch up with you later. (xor lll ea+iht6aat+ IWp) Othersinclude:faceup to, get round to, go alongwith,look forward to, watchout for We often usephrasalverbssuchasput off or leaveout in informal situations(11) ratherthan other verbswith similar meaningssuchaspostpone or omit whichmay soundmore formal ( l2). 11 Let'sput the meetingoff till nextweek.. Don't leayeout theauthor'sname. 12 Weshouldpostponethe meetinguntil nextweek., you mustnot ornit theauthor'sname. 15 Using a dictionary if necessary,rewritethese sentencesin a more informal style, using appropriateforms of these phrasalverbs. cut backon do awaywith

fll in find out

giveup go alongwith

go in go up

sendback takeoff

I You shouldcompletethis form and return it with your payment. You haveto 2 My fatherhasabandonedhis attemptto get the universityto abolishtuition fees. Mydad............ 3 It wasnecessary to reduceour spendingafterwe discovered that our rent wasincreasing. We had to 4 Pleaseobservelocal customsat the templeand removeyour shoesbeforeentering, Please

t34

Gerunds ll9

verbs and objecrs6

IO PREPOSITIONS

phrasalverbsusingtheseverbsand particles. 16 Completethis textwith appropriate bend away

breathe(x2) back

go lrft down in

push raise stand out up (x3)

When you haveto spend a lot of time sitting at a desk,it is important to take short breaksand stretch your neckand back.You canusethis exercise to help you stretch. ( t ). . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . y o u rc h a i r. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . t o t h es i d ea n ds t a n du p ,m a k i n gs u r et h e r ei s somespacein front ofyou. (2). .... ......... .... ... straight,with your armshanginglooselyby your side. B r e a t hien d e e p l ya sy o u ( 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . y o u ra r m s. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . o v e ry o u rh e a dP . a u sa e moment. Then(a). .... .... ....... .... slowlyasyou swingyour armsforward,lettingthem fall asyou (s)........... .... ... . .. your wholebody until your handsarenearyour feet.Pause a moment. Then,(6).....................asyou(7).....................yourbody....,................verysIow beginningwith your hips,then your upper body,followedby your headand arrns. Repeatthe exercise at leastoncebeforeyou (s).... ........ ....... , . to your deskagain.

17 Choose A or B or both as appropriatesentencesto use each time in creating this dialogue. 'reimburse'? Ani: What'sthe meaningof I Raz: I don't know. (A) Let'slook up it in the dictionary.(B) Let'slook it up in the dictionary 2 Ani: (A) Hand overthe dictionaryand I'll do it. (B) Hand it overthe dictionaryand I'll do it. 3 Raz: (A) I left behindit at home this morning. (B) I left it behind at home this morning. (A) I think I put down besidemy computer.(B) I think I put it down besidemy computer. 4 Okay,so we can't use a dictionary. Whatt the context? Ani: It says,'Theyreimbursedhis tuition fees.' 5 Raz: (A) Maybe it meansthey worked out what his tuition was. (B) Maybeit meanstheyworkedwhat his tuition wasout. 6 Ani: (A) But then it sayshe paid off somedebts.(B) But then it sayshe paid off some. 7 Razl.(A) Maybeit meansto pay backmoneyto someone. (B) Maybeit meansto pay moneybackto someone. 8 Ani: (A) So,they gaveback him the money for his tuition. (B) So,they gavehim backthe rnoneyfor his tuition. Raz: Soundssood to me. 135

IO PREPOSITIONS

Tests Choosethe wordor phrasethat bestcompleteseachsentence. 1 I knowI don'tlooklikeeveryone else,but I don'tlikeit whenpeoplestare me. a at

b on

d - (no preposition)

c to

2 Pleasedon't call me until

eighto'clockon Saturdaymorning.

a after bat

cby

a am

c havebeen

3I

dto waitingherefor you since8.30.

b was

d will be

4 The United Nationsis drawingup an econornicplan aimedat with a strongereconornybasedon coffee. a provide b provides c to provide d providing

EastTimor

5 If you borrow somethingfrom someone,makesureyou give a them backto it

b backit to them

c it backto them

d it to them back

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correctthe sentence. I Accordine to a recentreport,morestudents arechoosing to work!4 part-timejobs---tilglgadusing

"

E'

their weekendsto studvdurins term-time. 2 lgg -F a whole week Loretta came@ classgl every day'-Dudd her hair a different colour.

B

e

3 Between1850and 1900,coalproductionqff the US roset94q 14million tons@ 100rnillion. A-BCD The ball went betweenthe lessof anotherolaver.-Eoastme ---atowardsthe soal.and rolled ---5throush the

"

A

goalline. 5 The childrenwerelaughinga! a cartoon!g which a cat olr a wobblyladderkept trying to get a ABC smallbird olt its cage. Choose one preposition from each pair for each space in the text. at

away

during

in

up

fo,

from of

of out of

to towards

Doesthe new'global economy' simply rnean that well-paid jobs will be taken (l) peoplein rich countriesand changed (3) low-paidjobs for people1+y poorer countries?Is this a bad thing?Perhaps.It may actuallymeanthat somepoor peoplewho havebeen work (e) a long time can start to havea betterlife and people work other will haveto a bit harderto maintain their comfortablelifestyle.

136

IO PRI))OSITIONS

Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentenceabove it. 1 This building will be closedfor renovationfrom the beginningto the end of August. D u r i n g2 What elsedid you do in additionto shoppingwhenyou werein Rome? Besides 't 3 Haven you eatenanythingelsetodaybesidesthe appleI gaveyou earlier? Apart

4 We won't be ableto do much unlesswe get more financialsupport. Without Completethis text using these prepositions. across along

at

by

into

of

past

towards under

with

WheneverI seea newspaperlying on the groundbesidea door, I think of Fred.A few yearsago, Fredhad to travelto a meetingand his flight wasdelayedfor severalhoursbecauseof bad weather. (t)

the time he got to his hotel it was r:'

midnight. Once

in his room, he felt really tired so he just undressedand got into bed. (3) some point during the night, he had to get up and go to the bathroom. He wasn't reallyawakeand it was

very dark,but he could seea light 1ny the bathroom door, so he walked (s) the light. He openedthe bathroomdoor and went in. The bright light blindedhim for a moment.As the door closedbehindhim, he vaguelywonderedwhy therewasa doormat on the bathroomfloor. Facinshim wasanotherdoor (o) a number on it. It was number 325. That was stranse. Then he realized he wasn't in the bathroom. He was in the

his room, but the door waslocked.And he wasnaked.He heardvoicescomingfrom the far end of the corridor.What washe going to do?Then he noticeda newspaperon the floor besidethe door (s) number325.He quickly grabbedthe newspaperand held it in front of him asa man and a woman in dark uniforms came (9) the corridortowardshim. The man said,'Goodmorning,sir.Havinga bit of trouble?'They weresecurityguards.Fredexplainedhis embarrassing situationand they unlockedthe door for him. He thankedthem asif thev had iust savedhis life.After thev left, he openedhis door,madesureit wouldn't closeagain,stepped(10) the corridor and put the newspaperbackon the floor outsidenumber325.Someoneelsemight needthat newsDaDer. corridor. He turned to go back 121

t37

We use the base form of the verb to create infinitives.We can use the baseform after fo (l didn'treallywantto read whenI wasyounger)or withoutto in the bare infinilive (l thoughtit was torture when the teachermade us read aloudin class). We add -lng to the baseform of the verb to creategerunds(Now/ enjoyreading morethan anythingelse).Gerundshavethe same form as the presentparticiplesof verbs,but they are used as nouns (Readingis the keyto knowledgel. 1 Readthroughthis articlefrom an advicecolumnin a magazine andfind two moreexamples of the sameverb(avoidand smoke)beingusedas bothan infinitiveand a gerund.

they know it's bad for their heart, lungs, skin :s and teeth. Encourageher to avoid stressful situationsand to find healthierways ofcoping with stress doing yoga, keepinga journal or j u s t t a l k i n gt o y o u . Q u i t t i n gi s h a r d b u t n o t i m p o s s i b l -e a s l o n g a s your friend reallywants to kick the habit. 'She Finally,physicaladdiction: when your friend has a good chance of stopping successfully if .,0doesn't have a cigarette at regular intervals, s h e r h i n k s a b o u r q u r t t i n g a s a t h r e e - p a r r does she experiencewithdrawal symptoms process:she has to deal with her social habit, r e s t l e s s n e s sa,n x i e t y , i r r i t a b i l i t y a n d s t r o n g h e r p s y c h o l o g i c adl e p e n d e n c ea n d t h e n h e r cigarettecravings?lf so, her body is addicted. p h y s i c aal d d i c t i o n ,s' a y sL o w e l lK l e i n m a nM , D, A n d t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s ,l i k e g o i n g c o l d a doctor who has helped hundreds of people r5 turkey or cutting back gradually,often aren't to stop smokingfor good. successfulin beating an addiction. Instead,Dr Let's start with the habit: when does your Kleinman recommendsNicotine Replacement friend smoke - on her way to college,after a T h e r a p y( N R T )- t h e p a t c h ,g u m o r a n i n h a l e rm e a l ,w h e n s h e ' sw i t h f r i e n d s ?H e l p h e r b r e a k which helps wean your body off nicotine by the pattern. 'Try going a different way to * s u p p l y i n g d e c r e a s i n gd o s e s . T h e i n h a l e r i s college,eatingat a differentplaceand avoiding availableonly by prescription,but the patch and social situations that will make her want to gum can be purchasedoverthe counter. smoke,'saysDr Kleinman. You can also point out that there are real As for psychologicaldependence:does your a d v a n t a g etso b e c o m i n ga n o n - s m o k e r . S h e ' l l friend smoke when she's bored or stressed?n, not only have better health, but also fresher Nicotinecan havea calmingeffect,which is why breath,clearerskin and whiter teeth. m a n y p e o p l e c o n t i n u es m o k i n g e v e n t h o u g h

Find four phrases in the article above that match the definitions listed here. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : the unpleasant state that drug addicts experiencewhen they suddenly stop taking a drug; also a way of treating addicts that makes them experiencethis state. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . : performing a system of exercisesfor your body and for controlling your breathing, used by people who want to becone fitter or nore relaxed.

3 4

138

..

. : to stop doing somethingharmful that you havedone for a long time. : without needinga prescription(written permissionfrom a doctor).

LI I N I . I N f f l V E S A N D G I ' R U N I ) S

Simpleinfinitives and gerunds Infinitives We usuallyuseinfinitives(ro + verb) and negativeinfinitives(aot fo + verb) afterverbs,adjectivesor nouns(l). We canalsousethemafterindefinitepronounsand wft-words(2). \ Weagreedto meeton Friday.. I'm happyto be here.. Youmadea promisenot to tell anyone. 2 I waslookingfor someone to help me . I wasn'tsureaboutwhat to ilo and what not to do here. We can alsouseinfinitivesto expresspurpose(- in order to): He only did it to getattention. We can useinlinitivesin clauseswith objects,prepositionalphrasesand adverbs.We don't usuallyput adverbsbetweento and the verb ('a split infinitive') unlessit is for emphasis. 3 We'replanningto take the childrento the zoo lqter. . I want to (really) unilerstandIslam. We usuallyleaveout the secondto whenwe ioin two infinitiveswith and,or with or (4). We can use to or not to alonensteadof repeatinga verb or clause(5). 4 Briatljust wantsto sit and _ wqtch videosall day.. Do theyintentlto buy a Jlat or rent one? 5 Woulrlyou like to play?- I'd loveto ,. . I washopingto go with you, but I'ye ilecideilnot to _. We don't leaveout be WasMichael happy?- He seemedto be.(Not 11e-seemed+e)

Bare infinitives We usebareinfinitives(baseform of the verb) aftermodals(6), afterperceptionverbssuchas he,rr and seewith objects(7) and afterthe verbsletand makewith objects(8). 6 I can'tstay long.. Wat wiII weilo if theytell us we mustpqy more?(Nor ... rve.ftttts++o-pal ltto?d) 7 I diln't hear Tom come in. . I'ye neverseen anyone eat as much as your friend can, 8 Pleasemake her stop! . They won't let us leare. (Not Ehey+ol+ let:*+e1e ) After the verb help,we can use an infinitive with or without to: Annie helped me (to) clean up.

Gerunds We can usegerunds(verb+ -irg) and negativegerunds(not + verb + -lrzg)afterverbsand (9).We canalsousegerundsassubjects prepositions (10). 9 I don't mind waiting. . Paulenjoysnot having a job. . ShewqtchesTV insteailof working, . My doctorsaysthat swimming is the bestkind of exercise. l0 Studyingrnakesmesleepy. Gerundsare alsocalled' ing forms'.They areoften usedafterNo in signs:No Parklag We can usegerundsin clauseswith objects,prepositionalphrasesand adverbs(l I ). Beforegerunds, we can usenouns (Tom)or ob]ectpronouns(tftem),but possessive nounsand determiners(Tomi, their) canalsobe used,typicallyin formal situations(12). 11 He deniedtakiflg the money.. Theyrecommend washingsilk shirtsgently in cold water. 12 I can'trecallTomlTom'svisitingus.. Welistenedto them/theirarguing aII night.

Gerund or present participle? We usegerundslike nouns,which canbe subjectsor objects(13).We usuallyusepresentparticiples asverbswith differentforms of be(14).We usepresentparticiples,not gerunds,in reducedversions of relativeclausesor adverbialclauses(15). 13 Talkingand actionare two quitedifferentthings.. Havetheyfnished (the) cleaningyet? 14 Weweretalking aboutmoney.. I havebeencleaningmy roomaII morning. 15 Theman (who is) talking to Liz is her dad. . \4hile (l'm) cleaning,I listento music. 3 Look at the four definitions listed in 2 at the bottom of page 138and find one exampleof: I an infinitiveafteraverb. .. . 3 a g e r u n da f t e ra n i n f i n i t i v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 abareinfinitiveafteraverb 4 a g e r u n da f t e ra p r e p o s i t i o n

Adje.tives with infinitives and gerunds 144 Nouns aDd proDouDsilith inlirjrives and gea,nds 145

139

I I INFINI'IlvES Ar'D (IEIIUNDS

Complexinfinitives and gerunds Complex infinitives Insteadof the simple infinitive (1), we can usethe perfectinfinitive (ro ftals + past participle)when we want to be clearthat we're talking about an earliertime or a completedaction (2). I Ali seemsto be ill d lot. . I'm hoping to reail the guidebookbeforewe get to Berlin. 2 Ali seemsto have been ill a Lot.. I'm hoping to hwe read the guidebookbeforewe get to Berlin. We can use tlre perfect infinitive after would plus like, hate,love or prefer when we talk about earlier events (3). We can also use the simple infir.ritive after would have liked, etc.with a similar meaning (4). We sometimes use the perfect forms of both verbs in informal situatior.rs(5). 3 I would like to haye been there. . Youwould hctteto have seen all the destructiotl. 4 | would have liked to be there. . You wottld hdye hated to seeqll the destruction. 5 I would h(rveliked to have been there.. Youwould heye hqted to have seen it. We can use the continuousinfinitive (to be + presentparticiple)for an action in progress(6) and the perfectcor.rtinuousinfinitle (to hat e bsefi+ pres€ntparticiple)for an action in progressat an earlier time (7). 6 The children will pretend to be sleeping. , The girl seemedto be waiting for someone. 7 They'll pretend to have been sleeping. . Sheseemedto have been waiting therefor hours. We can usethe passiveinfinitive (/o be + past participle)for presentor future actionshappeningto the subject (8) and the perfect passiveinfinitive (ro have been+ past participle) for earlier actions (9). 8 My computer is supposedto be repaired today. , The workerswant to be paiil in cash. 9 It was supposedto have been repaired last week.. They were hoping to have been paid alreatly.

Complex gerunds Insteadofthe simplegerund( l0), we car.r usethe perfectgerund(finvhg+ pastparticiple)whenwe wantto be clearthat the actionwasin the past(l l). lO Kirstellregretted telling usaboutthemoney.. Wethankedthemfor supporting us. 1l Sheregrettedhaving told usaboutthe money.. Wethankedthemfor having supportedus. Wecanusethe passive gerund(being+ pastparticiple)for an actionwhichhappensto the subject ( l2) and theperfectpassive gerund(havingbeen+ pastparticiple)to emphasize thatthe action (13). happened past in the 12 In her book,Annie O'Neillwroteaboutbeingpunishedasa chiklfor speaking lrish. 13 Shestill hasnightmares from having beenlockedup in a vnall rlark cupboard for hours. 4 Gompletethese sentenceswith to be,being, to haveor having. Example:I didn't mind . . . . . . !:gjnS. . . . . . . the youngestin a family of ten, but I knew I reallywanted f l . r eIng o to l d e r . . . . . . . ! q . b q Y g . . . .a. .l a r g el i v i n gs p a c ae l l t o m y s e lw I I'm supposed. studyingtoday,but I'm too tiredfrom not .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . slept at all last night. 2 Y o uw o u l d n 'lti k e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b e e nl i v i n gh e r ed u r i n gt h ew a r ,w i t hb o m b sf a l l i n ga n dp e o p l e . . . . . . . killed everyday. 3 The originaltoweris believed beenconstructed in 1810.It hasalwayshad structuralproblemsfrom not . . . . .. . beenbuilt on moresolidground. 4 The cleanerswant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . finishedtheir work in this room beforethey leavetoday because thereareanothertwo roomson the secondfloor thathave done tonlorrow.

140

Sinr c infinnnrs ind gctrlrds Ll!

P.st prrti.iples 210 Plsives s8

il lNllNlll\ Ir \NL,L,LltLNL,

5 Infinitivesand gerunds.Completethis table with appropriateexamplesof verbs from the completed sentencesin 4 at the bottom of page 140. Simpleinfinitive:to + baseform of the verb- to play,... . ..|p.\9\/?.... .. 1 Perfectinfinitive. to have+ past participle - to haw played: 2 Continuousinfinitive: to be+ presentparticiple- to beplaying. - ,o ror,r'arrm p,toyi|rgt : p.rf".,.on,inro"r r"O"U,"* ,r rr".4"., n pr.r.n,OotrrU,rrrri, 4 Passive infinitive:lo be I pastparticiple- to beplayed:

s r.rr"., pur.iu.in frirrrii*,r,,o h,oui, brr, * o"r, o"r,. f,.

,o1',orr 6rrnpllorri^

Simplegerund:baseform of theverb+ -ing- playing:... ... . bei'.rg. ... . ... 6 Perfectgerund:having+ pastparticiple- havingplayed gerund:being+ pastpafticiple- beingplayed 7 Passive

,o.,i..o",,".*,,|u,ou,|,o,,,|,,,"",,|",.o"..,.,o'.'_,",,,,,o",,o,",,o 6 Completeeach sentence,using an infinitiveor a gerund, in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentenceabove it. I You weresupposedto do your homeworkbeforeyou went out. Yourhomework 2 ShehadtakeDthe time to helpme and I wantedto thankher for that. T w J n t e .d. . 3 Theyhadn'tbeentold aboutthe changes andcomplained aboutit. T h e yc o m p l a i n eadb o u t. . 7 Completethis text with these infinitivesand gerunds. to beburning to beusing

beingheld neeting tavelling

to hayevisite(l to havebeeflbesed ot to ltaveseeu to havebeenbuih to havebeendoing

D i d M a r c oP o l ot e l lt h et r u t hw h e nh e w r o t ea b o u t( r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o C h i r ] aa n c l ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t h ee m p e r oKr u b l a K i h a n ?O r d i d t h e l 3 t h - c e n t u rIyt a l i a ne x p l o r ej u r st makeup storiesabout placeshe would like t.rt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and things he would like ( 4 t. . . . . . . . . . . . . i n s t e aodf 1 s.1. . . . ? c c o r d i ntgo s o m e c a p t i v ien p r i s o nA experts, his storiesappear(6). . .. . . . . . . . . . on thingshe hadheardaboutratherthan thingshe hadseenhimseff.In his account, the Chineseweresaidt7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. papermoneyand (8).. . .. . ... . .. . ... . ... . 'largeblackstones'(coal)for heatlongbeforeEuropeans. However, the Great W a l li s k n o w n ( e. .). . . . . . . . . . . . b e f o r he i st r a v e lyse, th ea p p e a r rso.r. . . . . . . . . . . . . i t .

l4l

I l I N f I N I T I \ / l i sA \ t ) ( i l , R t r N l ) s

Verbswithinfinitives and gerunds Verbs usedwith infinitives only We useinfinitives,not gerunds,afterverbssuchashopeandoJfer(l). Afterverbssuchas invite and rvemustincludea noun or objectpronounto identifothe subjectbeforethe inhnitive(2). 1e11, Afterverbssuchasrrskand wdrlr,we canincludethesubjectof the infinitiveor leaveit out if it'sthe s a r r ea st h c s u h j c cot f t h ev c r b( J ) . 1 I'nt hoping to get a day oJfsoon., lle offered to pay for the damage.(Not oftedaaTatg) 2 Theytolil me not to wait for them.' Dayid invited us to go with him. (uor i+r+4*ed:r4e) 3 I askedSam to stay.I wantedhim to wait, but hc wanted to leaveright oway.

Verbs used with gerunds only After verbssuchasnyoidand erjol we usegerunds,not infinitives(4). After verbssuchas inagine and nirrd,we canincludea noun or objectpronounbeforethegerund(5).We put gerundsafter verbsrvitlrprepositions suchasconcetirate on andafterphrasalverbssuchasgivcap (6). . IMeenjoy travelling by trafu.(Nor *r7o1ro+mrre/) 4 Avoid eoting cokes and styeets. 5 I imaginedJennywalking on a sunnybeach.. Wouldyou mind us waiting outside? 6 He shoukiconcentrateon studying,not singing.' Haveyou given up exercisingalready?

Verbs usedwith infinitives or gerunds After begin, contitrue, inle d and s/drf, we can usually use either infinitives or gerunds with little differencein neaning. 7 Joshstarted to drinlldrinking the soup, but it wasyery spicy.He began to cough/coughing. \{re use infinitives aftcr present participles: Is it statt'tingto raili (Nor {s-r+-s+erCng-m++fq?) After hate, /ike, /oveand prefer,we can usually use infinitives or gerunds r.ith little difference in meaning (8 ). When rveare talking about an activity in general(not performed by the subject),we use a gerund (9). Aftcr vould hatellikellovelpreferwe useinlinitives ( l0). 8 Katy loves to ploy/playing the piano. ' Don't you prefer to stuily/studying (tt l1otlrc? 9 I hate wrestling becauscit's so yiolent. It shouldn't be onTV I don't like boxing eitlrcr. l0 Would you like to come with us?' I'd love to seeyou tonight. (Not ldlo+e:eehryaot+otttglt) Note tlre use ctf would rather + bare infinitive: Iil rntlrcr stay here.(.Not P4:a+her+o++ay4ere) After advise,allow, encounge and permit,we can use a noun or object pronoun as subject of the infinitive.When there is no subject,we usethe gerund for an activity in general. ll They dotit allow us to smoke. , They don't allow smoking. (Not They4oi+allo+*ttsstn ,) After feel, lrecr, sceand vstclL we can use a noun or object pronoun as subject with a bare infinitive for a singleor com;rletedaction and with a gerund f
Sidpl.irlinirik\rddFe,u,

r lr9

R . p o . r i n gv c r b sw i t h i n n n n i v c su ( l g . , u n d \ 1 5 2 N ! a / 3 8

] I I N I : I \ ] I I ] V F ] SA N D ( ; E R U N I I S

8 Add one pair of verbs to each sentencein this table,with the first verb in an appropriate form and the second verb as an infinitiveor a gerund. enjoy/ takc

hope/ visit

imagine/ make

invite/ stay

love/ be

wont/ spend

I Verb + infinitive. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lapannext summer. Othersinclude:agree,aim, apply,decide,demand,fail, offer,plan,refuse,vote 2 Verb + noun/objectpronoun + infinitive, My friend Ryokohas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .w. .i t hh e r . Othersinclude:command,convince,force,instruct,order,persuade,remind,tell, tempt,urge 3 V e r b( + n o u n / o b j e cptr o n o u n )+ i n f i n i t i v eS, h e whole month there. Othersinclude:ask,beg,expect,wish

m e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a

me to all her favouriteplaces. 4 Verb+ gerund.Shesaysshe'll....... Othersinclude:admit, avoid,consider,deny,finish,giveup, mention,practise,recommend, suSgest 5 V e r b( + n o u n / o b j epcrto n o u n+) g e r u n dl c, a n . . . . . . . . . . . . . h e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p l a n s already. detest,dislike,involve,keep,mind, miss,prevent,recall,resent Othersinclude:celebrate, 6 Verb + infinitive or gerund.I would . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ableto go sooner. Othersinclude:begin,continue,forget,hate,like,learn,mean,regret,remember,try 9 Add appropriateforms of the verbs from each set to each sentence. allow/ take nvoid/try/tlrive I 2 3 4 5 6

force/stop/pkty forget/ sentl ntenn/ tidy

prefer/ not talk

My teachers wouldnever.. .. students . .. .. .. . . the examshome. Don't . . . . .. me a postcard whenyou go to lapan. Ii.n sorry about the ness.I up beforeyou cane back. Most people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . abouthow muchmoneytheyhaveor earn. We usually. . . . . throughthe centrecf town duringrushhour. Badweather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . us tennisearliertoday.

10 Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of infinitivesand gerunds in thistext. \^rOrKri14

I have never forgotten work ds a hotel maid one summer when I was a teenager.My aunt was an assistantmanagerat the hotel and she encouragedme take the summer'job.Shehad been a maid at one time and sheadvisedme remembercleanthe bathrooms reallyrvell.Nobody likes clean bathrooms,but I didn't nind do it as part of my summer job. That'swhen I was frrst starting learn English.Someof the visitorswere reallynice and I could practisespeakEnglishwith them. I enjoyed try improve my Englishand it helped me when I went to collegelater.I also learnedthat I didn't want work as a hotel maid forevet but I don't regretdo it for one summer. I decidedstudy harderat schoolso I could go to collegeand try get a betterjob.

143

I I I\F1\1 I l\ lls'\\D GI:lit\1)s

withinfinitives and gerunds Adjectives Adjectivesused with infinitives only We can use infinitives,not gerunds,after some adjectivesrvhenwe talk about beir.rgcertain (srrre)or to do something(1) ar.rdabout our feelingsor reactions(Slad,dcli|hted) (2\. willing (crr.ger) I The children arc sure to get up carly tomorrow. They're etger to go to the beach. 2 I'm glail to meet you. ' I was delighted to hear the good ehrsabout your scholarship. Other adjectivesused like this include:disappointed,happy,pleased,sad,sorry,surprised After some adjectives, we can use/or with a noun phraseor proltoun to identify the subjectof the infinitive (3). We can use o/(not /or) when we are evaluatingsomeone'saction (4). 3Itwasgooilforthechililrentovisittheirgrttndparerrrs.(Thechildrenhadagoodexperience) 4ltwasgoodofthechildrentovisittheirgrondpnrenrs.(Thechildrenactedinagoodway.) Other adjectivesused like this include:bad, nice,silll stupid,wrong We often use infinitives after loo + aD adjective,or an ad.iective+ c orgh. 5 Is the tea still too hot (t'oryou) to drink? ' The nnll bagsare light enough (for us) to caty.

Adjectivesusedwith infinitives or gerunds After empty subjectit + beand adjectivessuchas niceand diffcult, we can usean infinitive (6) or a Whenwc r.nake the objectof the infinitiveour topicas in meaning. gerund(7),with littledifference (8). we usean infinitiveafterthesead.iectives the subjectof the sentence, ' to 6 It u'asreallynice to talk to Mt s Anderson. lVosit verycliffcult learn Arabic? ' Wasit verydfficult learningAraltic? 7 It wasreallynice talking to Mrs Andersotr. ' 8 Mrs Andersonwosreallynice to talk to. WosArabic t'erydifficult to learn? intcresting exciting,great,hard,impossible, Otheradjectives usedlikc thisinclude:easy, (9). suchasitnportantandrtccessary beforelleplusadjectives We canusegerundsassubjects ( l0). we useir.rlinitivcs Afteremptysubjectit + lrcand theseadjectives, 9 Listeningcarefullyis important, but writing everythingdowttisn'tnecessary to write everythitlgdown. 10 lt's important to listen carefully,but it isn'tnecessary vital unnecessary, uscdlike thisinclude:crucial,essential, Otheracljcctives plusa gerundwith we canusean inlinitiveor a preposition suchasanxious, Afteran adjective ( preposition andgerund( 12). we canonly usea differentmeaningsI I ). Aftermanyadiectives, 'Iwasanxious (I (l was worried) aboutleaving. 77 | wosanxiousto leave. waseager) (Ncn t tt) ' Isn'tLucin popcorn. H€sfanots-+o 12 l3ill isfamousfor inventing nicrowave (Nttr capableof iloing it lty hersell? @) l l C o m p l e t ee a c hs e n t e n c e u, s i n ga n i n f i n i t i v eo r g e r u n d ,i n s u c h a w a y t h a t i t i s a s s i m i l a r as possible in meaningto the sentenceabove it. in my kind of job. I Planningaheadis essential Ir'<

2 Jessica didn't seeany of her friends at the shoPPingcentreand shewas disapPointed. Icssicl w.r' dirappointed . 3 Christopherwas so good to come to our rescuewhen our car broke down. ll rv.rsso good 4 It isn't easydriving thosc huge busesalong narrow winding roads. Thosc huge buses

r44

Adiecriles I | |

I:n+rt) {biecr t l0l

sinrflc in6nitivcs rnd gcrurds l.l9

ld41u'!]l

I l8

1] INF]NJTI\''ES ANI) GERUNI)S

Nounsand pronouns withinfinitives and gerunds Nounsand pronounsusedwith infinitivesonly We can use inhnitives after nouns with meanings similar to those verbs taking infinitives listed in Exercise8 on page 143 (e.g. agree- agreemenr)(1 ). We can use these nouns as subjects with be before an infinitive, or after empty subrect lt + Le before an infinitive (2). ln these structures we can also use nouns such as ambition and goalwith infinitives to talk about future actions (3). 1 We agreed to share the cost,, We had an agrcement to share the cost. 2 The qgreement was to shere the cost.. It was our qgreement to share the cost. 3 Our goal is to save L500 by next summeL ' It's his ambition to become on astrofiotner. Other nouns used like this include: aim, decision, desire,expectation, hope, offer, plan, wish We can use infinitives aftel general nouns for people and things such as personor place (4), or after indefinitepronouns and adverbssuch as someoneand nowhere(5).We do this when we talk about what we can or want to do with those people and things. After nouns and indelinite pronouns, we can use/or with a noun phrase or object pronoun to identiry the subject of tlie infinitive (6). 4 Bob'sthe person to ask about graphics., Iceland is a great plqce to visit. . I brought a book to resd. 5 He needssomeone to love. . Is there anything to eat? , They lnt e nowhere to go at night. 6lt'stimeforthekiilstogotobed.,There'snothingforustodo.,Ibroughtabookforyouto read.

Nouns and pronouns usedwith infinitives or gerunds Wedon't usuallyusegerundsdirectlyafternouns,exceptaftera few phrasessuchas havea problem and it's no use(7). Afternounssuchas interestand talent,we can usea prepositionplus a gerund (8). Weoften usea structurewith /rd + noun (the cost)and o/+ gerr.rnd(of lfuing)(9). no onecared. 7 Did you havea prohlemfnding theplace?. It wasno usecomplainingbecause 8 lulio hed a talentfor acting. , I had no interestin studying.(Not +had rc+*erest+e: ) 9 The costof living in Londonis tery high.. The thought of eating eggsmakesmefeelqueasy., He stressed the importanceof beingon time.. I don't like the idea of (you)going alone. After nounss\tchas attemptand itltentionwe canuseinfinitivesor prepositionsplus gerundswith we canusea littledifference in meaning(10).Whenwe talk aboutthe useor purposeof something, nounor indelinitepronounwith an infinitive(11)or/orwith a gerund( l2). There'sno difference in meanlng, 10 His attempt to brealJatbreakingtherecordfailetl. . I haveno intention to leave/ofleaving. 11 Theyharc a machineto cleancarpets., I needtofnd somethingto removestains. 12 Theyhate a machinefor cleaningcarpets.. I needtolind somethingfor removingstains. 1 2A d d o n e c o m b i n a t i o no f n o u n / p r o n o u np l u s a v e r b a s a n i n f i n i t i v eo r g e r u n di n e a c h sDace. cost/ rent idea/ study

information/ reserve PIan/ tske someone / ask place/ stay problem/ keep task/ call

Leilawasboth excitedandnervousaboutthe (r). . of. . . . . . in Edinburgh (u during the summer.Her ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was only two coursesat the university u p w i t h t h el e c t u r easn d b e c a u sseh ed i d n ' tw a n tt o h a v ea ( 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . (,1) assignments. Shehad heardthat the most convenient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wasjn the studenthallsof residence, but theyhadn'tsentherany(s). . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . about. . . . . . . . . ...... ( 6 ) a r o o mt h e r eS. o h , e rn e x t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w a s a n d f i n d t z. l. . . . . . . . . . . (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .of had about the kind of accommodation they and the . .... .... ... .... .. r onths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .o . .n eo f t h e i r o o m sd u r i n gt h es u m m em Irdefinite prorouns and advcrbs98 verbs uscd with in6nitnrs la2

t45

11 INFINTTIVESAND GERI'NDS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. I You know they dorit allow a eat and drink b you eat and drink 2 He never

doing that. c mentioned

a agreed b concentrated 3 Flights kept a delaying

in here. c to eat and drink

b being delayed

d eating and drinking

d persuaded

becauseof bad weather. c having delayed d having been delayed

4 In my dream, Brad Pitt offered me a ride on his motorbike and I told him I'd rather a walk

b walkins

c walked

d to walk

Mrs Jacobsonreminded us of the importance a keep b keeping c to keep d of keeping

our passportsin a safeplace.

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that must be changedin orderto correctthe sentences. I I reallydo regretnot --F-r to learnto playthepianowhenI hadsomanyopportunities lqlgn and -Toractisein school. D 2 When I askedthe studentsto help me movethe chairs,somegirls volunteeredto carry one each for me and some boys offeredjo take the others,but Mark refusedme to help at all.

c---------T.-

3 When wdre readv to leavethe house,my mother alwaystells us wait while she drecks in the AB kitchen becauseshds aftai4to go without makine sure everything is turned off -- out -------D-

c

4 I will never forget to yisit Eg)?t as a child. It was so exciting to Ltandbesidethe pyramids. When it A-B was time for us @Jq home, my parentssayI cried ald beggedthem not tq leave CD 5 lt really is better 19_4q[for help insteadof prgtctdirgla-ktE{ how --e193!qsomething when you are probablvnot capable to do it at all. --t '

B

Add these pairs of verbs to this text, with the first verb in an appropriate tense and the second verb as an infinitive or gerund. allow/ go

assume / be

hear/ sneeze remember / tell

smell/ burn

I had just arrived at the International Adventure Camp in Florida. They had spent the afternoon assigningus to our cabins and telling us all the rules. The eveningmeal waspizza.Now it was after ten o'clock and we were all (r) in bed asleep.I was still awake,stretchedout on the uncomfortable camp bed, when I 1z; someone outsidethe cabinwindow |ust once,then silence.I 1r1 the camp leader us that we weren't (4) outside after dark. Someonewas breaking that rule. Then I thought I could (s) a cigarette There was another rule againstthat. t46

I I I N F I N I T I V E SA N D G E I I U N D S

Completeeachsentence,usingan infinitiveor gerund,in sucha waythat it is as similar as possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 It's sometimeshard finding a placeto park. A placeto park 2 Is keepingall theseold filesreallynecessary? Is it reallynecessary 3 He shouldnt buy a new car now. It would be a mistakefor 4 Amy wasbitten by a dog when shewasvery youngand shestill remembersit. Amy stiJJremembers5 The boy saidthat he hadn't done anlthing wrong. The boy denied

E Add one of theseverbsas an infinitiveor gerundin eachspacein this text. go do

look put keep lose

start stop

regain try

If it's so hard to loseweight,why do peoplekeep{r) ? Because they want betteris the usualanswer.The problemis that going on a diet is likely \2) (3) more harm than good,accordingto healthexperts.Thereis a strong tendency (4) all the weightlost within one yearof {s) the diet. Only 3 per cent of thosewho takeoff weighthavebeenfound (or it off for at leastthreeyears.Moreover,the 'yo-yo'patternof (7) a diet, sorneweightand then {s) it backon may be more harmfbl to an individualthan not (10) on a diet in the first place.

t47

We can report what someone says by repeatingthe originalwords of the speaker (He sard, 'l'm sorry). This is called direct speech.When we don't need or want to repeat the actual words of the speaket we can use indirect speech (He said that he was sorry) or a summary report (He apologized\. l

Readthrough this story and find anothertwo sentencescontainingthe verb say used with: 1 directspeech 2 indirectspeech A On Sunday afternoonsmy grandmother used to take me with her to visit Mr Calum Mackenzie.My grandmotherand Mrs Mackenzie,his wife, had beengoodfriends and had goneto church togetherevery Sunday.When Mrs Mackenziedied, my grandmotherwas one of the womenwho helpedMr Mackenzieand she still liked to visit him, even on the coldestwinter days. B Mr Mackenziewas, as my grandmotherput it, 'a man of few words'.This probably wasn't obviousto everyonebecause,when we arrived, he would always call out, 'Well, hello there!' and give us a big smile like a friendly neighbourready to stop and chat. But I never saw him talking to any of the neighbours.I rememberone time my grandmothercommentedthat maybehe didn't speakmuch becausehe didn't hear as well as he used to. Mr Mackenzieturned in his chair 'Maybe I don't hear any.thingworth talking about,'he grumbled. C My grandmotherwould tell him about everything that had beengoing on in the church as she walked round the housepicking things up and putting them away.The news would be ser-vedwith the tea and cakeswe alwayshad on Sundayswith him. From the outside,it would have soundedas if we were

all having a lively conversation,punctuatedby the soundofteaspoonsclinking on saucers. D When we clearedthe tea things away and my grandmotherdisappearedinto the kitchen, a silencewould fall over the living room. I would sit quietly with Mr Mackenzieand stare into the glowing embersofthe openfire. He would cut up chunks ofblack tobaccoand put them in his pipe and light it. He'd puff away with his eyesalmost closedas the sweetsmell filled the warm room. E In my English classwe had read a story about the poetsWordsworthand Coleridge.One time Wordsworthwent to visit Coleridgeat his cottage.He walked in, greetedhis friend, and sat down. He didn't say another word for three hours. Nor did Coleridge.Then Wordsworthgot up and, as he was leaving,thanked Coleridge for a perfectevening.The teacheraskedus what we thought about the story and those who had opinionsmostly said that it was a strangestory or impossibleor that poetsmust be weird people.I didn't say anything. F When we eventually got ready to leave,my grandmotherwould give Mr Mackenzieadvice about eating and his health. He wouldjust nod and say,'Thanks for cominground,'in a voice that told us he had had a perfectafternoon.

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the paragraphs (A-F) above. I But it was reallyonly my grandmotherwho was talking. (..,) 2 We could easilyspendan hour like that. (.. ) 3 He didn't say much, but he obviouslywasn't deaf.(. .) 4 It ahvaysfelt so much colder when we left. (

) 5 Shesaid we wcre going'just to seehorv Calun is doingl (...) 6 lt didn't seemstrangeto me and I knervit wasn't impossible.(...)

148

l] RI]l()RIt\(i

Directspeech We usuallyput direct speechin quotatiol.tmarks after a reporting verb such as rcpl1or -sn1. 1 Msrk nirl,'l need you here.' Dorotlty rcplicd,'I can't come before next weekend.' Quotation ntarks (or invertedconrras) arc doutrlc in American English:He scirl,,,1ueedyou.', We can also Pul the reporting verb with its subjcctafter direct spccch(2) or ir.rthc middle of twcr partsof clirectspeech(3). 2'That'stoolate,'hesuid.'Well,that'sjusttoobad,'sheloldhimnndputtllcphonedown. 'Hi,' 3 ha bcgtn. 'lt's me again. I was wondering' he contirucd, ,if we could start oyer.' After direct spccch,the reporting verb is somctimesput before its subjectin the rcporting clause(4 ), but not when the sub.jectis a pronoun (5). 'We 4 wi nevergiye up,' shouted one of the d.emonstratorsu hc was dragget!away. 'Whera's 5 Tint?' he asksinpatietltly. 'Not harc t'et,' she replies. (Nor +eplrerslc) Directspecchis sometimesreportedin brackcts(6), or after a colon (7), without r reporting verb. \\recan alijo usc direct speecht() report thoughtsand reactionsas ii they had bccn spoken 1i). 6 BlytheDnmrcr didx't want lrcr tlaughterto be nn.lctress(,1thought shewas too bright,). 7 Gwyrtcth Poltrow never hid ony doubts:'I always knew what I wanted to do.' 8 I suddenly realized'I hate him!' Thcn I rlnught 'Oh, no!' wltcn I remetfucrcd lhat kiss. We usequotation marks ivhc'Dwc want to report exactlya spccificrvord,phraseor title (9). \\reput double quotation m.1rksaround direct speechthat is qrlt)tcdrvithin alothcr pieceof dircct . p e e c ht I o r . 9 Thert wasa sign with'No Entry' printed itt ltig retl lettcrs.. Huve you reatl ,Wor and. peace'? 'l 10 Shesal.f heardsoneotc whisper"lan" arul I turned,but rroone was there.' In American English,singlequotiltion narks ate usedaround direct speechqLrotcclwithin direct speech;"/ lrcorl soneone whispcr'lon' and I tuutcd, [)ri no one ylosthere." 3 Find an example of each of the following in the story on page 148:

I A r e p o r t i n gv e r b( n o ts a 1 b ) e t b r ed i r e c st p e e c h.:. . . . . . 2 A r e p o r t i n vge r ba f t e rd i r c c ts p e c c h. .: . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Using examples 1-3 above as a guide, complete these punctuation rules with the words 'comma' or 'ouotation mark' A f t e rt h c r c p o r t i n gv e r b ,b e f b r cc l i r e cst p e e c hw, c p u t t h e ( t ) . . . . . . . . . . . b e f o r et l . r e (r) . After dircct speech,beforethe rcporting verb plus subject,wc put the .. .. . . . . (3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b e f b r et h c ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . W h e n t h c r c p o r - t i nvge r b p l u s s u b j e c it s i n t h c middle of trvo parts of direct speech,u'e useil (5). . . . . .. to closethe 6rst part and a ( 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t o o p e n t h c s e c o n dp a r t .

5 Add appropriatepunctuationto this text. SusannaMrs Alder callcd out I'd like,you to come and nect Nlichael a gill appeared ir.r the doonvay horv do you do she sai{ nice to nl!'ct you he munttrled.plcase ckrn't call htm Michelle or Mikey or any other silly nanes wirrned Mrs Aldc'r as she swept out of the room havc you read Harry Potter Susannasuddcnly said whrt one he askcd oh no you little \ 4 i c L e y M o u i e s l r e ' . r i d r r r . l r c e r t r l e i r t o thl] reorn you nlust sa1,rvhich onc not rvhat one if you're going to survive herc.

I t d i r c . t s f c c . h l 5 0 l { e l ! t r l i r ! \ ' r ' r b \l _ )

149

l t I t L t ) o R lI N ( ;

Indirectspeech We use indirect speech (or reported speech) to report the meaning of what was said, not the exact words. We put indirect speechin a noun clausebeginr.ringwith that (1) or a wh-word, (what, where, when, etc.) (2). In informal uses,we often omit that 'It's 1 a strange storf ", They said (that) it was a strange story. 'What 2 do you think about the story?' -- The teacheraskedus what we thought about the story.

Words for places,times and peoplein indirect speech ln indirect speech,we change those words that refer to the speaker'ssituation (1, rny, thi) to words that reflect the different point of view of the person reportrng (she,her, that). 'I 't 3 don't like my hair in this style.' '' Shesairl she did like her heir in th&t style. We usuallychangewords that refer to the placeof speaking(4) and the time of speaking(5) to reflect the point of view of the personrepofting. 'Wordsworth 4 lived here, but not in this particular cottage.' -* The tour guide explained that \{ortlsworth hod liyed there, but not in that particular cottage. 'It 5 rained yesterdayand most of last week.' -' The workmanpointed out thot it had raircd the day before and most of the previous week. 'now' -' 'tomorrow' -Note also: /fter, the next day,'trvo days ago' -'. two days earlier. We also change pronouns to reflect the different point of view of the person reporting. 'We 6 fixed it ourselvesl -' The boysclainrcd that they hari fxed it themselves. 7 Tom said to Ann,'I'll give you my b ookl -. Tom said that he woukl gite her his book. 'I'll 8 Sandra said to me, give you my book.' - Sandra said that she would gfue me her book.

Tensein indirect speech After a reporting verb in the past simple,we usuallychangepresentsimple to past simple (9) and presentperfectto past perfect(10). 'It 9 is late and I have a headaclte.' -, Shecomplained that it was late and shehad a heodache. 'l've 10 heard that they have been argurng.' He said he'd heard thdt they had beenarguing. We can report a past simple as a past sin.rpleor change it to a past perfect to emphasizethat the event was earlierin the past. 'I 11 didn't see Markl -- He sqid he didn't seeMark. (ox He said he hailn't seen Mark.) We can use the presentsimple after reporting verbsin the presentsimple for current (12), future (13) or permanent ( 14) situations. After a reporting verb in the past, we sometimes use a verb in the presentfor a situation that has not changed( 15). 'Business l2 is good and profits are up.' -- Delco reportsthat businessis good and proJitsare up. 'It 13 is going to be very cold.' '' Theforecdst saysthot it is going to be wry cokl. 14'MyparentsliveinMonaco.'-'ShelikestotelleveryonethatherparentsliveinMonaco. 'l 15 love vou.' ' He said he loves me

Modals in indirect speech We usually char.rgethe modals can (-, could), mqr (4 might) and will (-" would) in indirect speech. 'You 'l'll 16 can go.' -. He said we could go. . wait.' -" Shesaid that shewoulil wait. We don't change could, might, ought to or should from direct to indirect speech. We change shall to woukl rn predictions ( 16) and to slo r.ildin offers or suggestions( 17). 'I 17 shalf do it right away.' -- I remembershesaid thqt shewould do it right away. 'Shall 18 I close the door?' ', The new student askedif he shoukl closethe door. We can use must or had ro when we report that something was necessary. 'You 19 must do morcl , He saiLlwe must do more. op.He said we had to do more.

150

Modrh 29 Noun.huses 161 Reporting verbs is2 Ten*s li

I2 REPORTING

Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it. 'I 1 left my jacket here yesterday.' He said that 'Carlin's 2 new book is the funniestthine I've everread.' The reviewer wrote that 'We 3 won't eat it now, but we may haveit for lunch tomorrow.' Shesaidthat 'You 4 should take asmuch water asvou can carrv.' He advisedus that 'l 5 must get somethingto eator I'll faint.' You told me that 'Demand 6 for new computersin the UK is declining.' C o m p C ios r e p o r t i ntgh a t. . . . . . . . . . . . . 'Shall 7 I get rid ofthese old boxesin the cupboard?' Sheaskedif 7 Complete this text with these verbs. 6fe

,s

were

was

has had

live lived

c&n could

can't won't

will would

Whenshedied at the ageof l22,leanne Calmentwasthe oldestpersonon record.This amazing woman,from Arles in France,had not exactlylived what might be describedas'a healthy lifestyle'. Familyandfriendsreportedthatshe(l).....................fondofcheese,wineandchocolate.She hadalsosmokedcigarettesuntil shewas 117.We askedseveralexpertshow a person,especiallya cigarette-smoker, average 1z).. ........ ........ ... livesolong.Theyofferedmorethan oneanswer.'The (3).. ........ ........ ... now about80 for womenand 75 for men,'observed lifeexpectancy Dr Elizabeth directorofthe Centrefor Studieson Ageing.Shesaysthat there(4). ............ ........ Jones, beena steadyrise in the maximum ageof death throughout Europe during the past century and a majorreasonfor this is improvedmedicalcare.Another researcher, Dr MichaelGlass,says,'There (5).....................notheoreticalreasonswhywe(6).....................havealifespanof2 years.'Bettermedicalcare(7).....................betheonlyfactolaccordingtoDrGlass.He explainedthatgeneticengineering(s).....................soonallowustorepairorreplacedamag cells,therealcauseofageing.Hebelievesthatwe(e).....................beabletostoptheageing process. havenotedthat attitudeis alsoan important factor in longerlife. Dr lohrr Other researchers 'Living Parkis the authorof Beyond100'.'Those who (r0)... ........ ....... ... to a ripe old age,'hesays, 'arethosewho(n).....................copewithstressandotherdifficultiesinlife.'Hewroteinhis best-selling book that peoplewho (12). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . past 100(13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . almost always optimisticand (ra)......... ........ .... a greatattitudeto life.

151

I] RLPOR'I'INC

Reporting verbs Reporting verbs with fhat-clauses We use verbs such as rrentior or sal as reporting verbs before fftal-clauseswith indirect speech. 'It's 'I've cold.' - Kara said that il wos cold. 1 been rll.' n Shementioned that she'tlbeenlll. ' After reporting verbs such as tell antl assare,we must include an object (the hearer) before a fhat clause. 'She 2 has gone honre.' * He told me that she harl gone lnme. (xttt He+old+he+sht4ecijere heffie) 'You 3 will be pard.'* I assured them that they would be pnid. (.Not1-asswecl+het*ey. ..) Other verbs used like this include: colrvince, inforn.r, notifz, persuade,remind, warn After a reporting verb such as s4./,we can use to + object before a rhar-clause(4). After a reporting verb such as ,/grss,we use wirfr + object before a tftat clause(5). 'Iir.r 4 not ready.'* g" to17 1to me) that he wosn't ready.(Nor Hesdid me+hethewa ) Other verbsused like this include:admit, confess,nention, propose,report 'You're 5 right. There is a mistake.' * He agreerl (with me) that there was a mistqke. (Not@) Other verbs used like this include:argue,check,confirm, disagree

Reporting verbs with infinitives and gerunds After reporting verbs such as invite and encourage,weincl:udean object before an infinitive. 'You dje) can go with me.' * He invited us to go with him. (sot He**i+ed=w+ha*rc+o 6 'You 7 shouldn't quitl -"+ Sheencouraged me not to quit. (No'r She'etteotffeged-rc++oatt*) Other verbs used like this include: ask, expect, order, remind, urge, warn After a reporting verb such as ojtr, we don't include an object before an infinitive. 'I'll 8 help yor"rlaterl - He offered to help us later. (Not F+eafferedttt+oJtdp +tsJ Other verbs used like this ir.rclude:apply, decide, decline, demand, refuse,volunteer

)

After a reporting verb such as pronise, we can use an infinitive or a rhar-clause. 'I'11 9 fix it.' - He promised to fx it. oR He prcmised that he woukl fx it. Other verbs used like this include: agree,claim, hope, propose, threaten, vow After reporting verbs such as deny and suggest,wecan use a gerund or a thdt-clause. 'l l0 didn't take it.' -.* Shedenied taking it. ox Sheilenied thqt she hqd taken it. 'You II should leave.'n He suggestedleaving. ox He suggesteilthat they shoukl leaw. (N
Reporting verbs in summary reports We can usesome reporting verbs to summarizewhat was said (12). Someverbs,s:uchas speak,talk and thdnk,are only used in summary reports,not with direct or indirect speech(13). 'It 'Don't was me. I did it.' n He confessed. 12 conre back or else!' - They threateneil us. . , 13 He talked to Kevin about the problent. Shespoke brieJlyto reporters.' I thqnked them. . (Nol He+ekC+e +n+:Hi-h Wle4Wtt) We can usereporting verbssuch as boristor lie with aboutro createa summary report. 'l 14 beat everyone.I'nl the best!' -'t He boasted ebout his win. , He lied sbout how he did it. C)ther verbs used like this inch.rde;complain, explain, inquire, joke, protest, speak,write

152

l n d i r e . L s p e e d1r 5 0 l n l l . i t i v e s . n d g e r u D d sl 1 9 R c p o r t i r r gi r t h c p a $ i v c 6 l

llidr.lausrs l6l

12 REPORTING

8 complete each sentence in srch a way that it is as simirar as possibre in meaning to the aentence above it, 'Mr I Brody, theret something wrong with the lights., Imentioned....... 2 'julia, you and your friends haveto tidy up after the party.' Ireminded........ 3 'Dorit touch any of the wires., H ew a m e d. . . .. . . . 'I 4 didnt do anything wrong.' H ed e n i e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Complete this text with appropriate forms of theae reporting verbs, ask

b"g

clnim

explain

mextion

shout

talk

tell

think

woniler

I was in the Arctic last summer to photograph foxes,but I had been having no ruck. I wason my way home one day when I sawa construction engineercalled Malcolm Davidson wavinq and (l).....................tomeasIdroveby.Wehadmetthepreviousweekendandhe (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . someareasfurther north whereI might find foxes.I (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . why he wastrying to stop me there. I pulled over and got out to (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to him. He ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i f I w a ss t i l l o o k i n gf o r f o : < e s . we walked over to what wasreft of someord rusted carsby the side of the road. I rooked down and sawthreeiittlefoxesasleepbesideabrokencardoor.Helo).....................methathewould haveto catch them all and move them awayfrom there. It washis next construction site, he (7)......................'I,maftaidthatwhenwe(s).....................thatweare..developing, "improving" an area,we don t alwaysmake things better for animals., ' L e t m e g e t m y c a m e r a a n d t a k e s o m e p h o t o s b e f o rwild eyou doanything,,Ite).....................him. Irantogetmycamera.Idohopethey,llsurvive,Ilro;.....................tomyself. That afternoon I usedup all the film I had wh'e the young foxesprayed among the old cars. '10Editing. Correct the mistakes in this text. The word 'biker' is usedfor people who ride motorcycles.They sometimes ride around in gangs. Somepeople sayne that bikers are dangerousffiminals, but I carit agree them that all bikers are like that' one time I had a flat tyre on the motorway and two bikers in black leather jacketsstopped and offered me to help. I explainedthem that I cant get the wheel off. one of them told that it was.no problem' and assuredthat it wo'ldn't take long. He evensuggested me to stand behind the car for safetyand warned me watch out for broken grasson the ground. They 6xed it realy quickly and joked the small wheelson my rittre car.I spokethem thanks. They refusedtake any money when I offered pay them. They werelike angels.Actua y, it said on their jackets that they were,Hell,sAngels,.

153

l] ttuPoRft\(i

Reporting statements and questions Reportingstatements In formal uses,u,e usuallyinclude rhat after reporting verbswhen we report a statement( 1), but in infororal useswe often omit rhat (2). 1 The prime rninister said that shewoukl coxsitlerit. , The police report that criue is down. 2 Shesaid _ she'dthink about it. . I told hinr I was leaving. , He agreerl it was a good idea. We usually include tftaf after verbs that describe the speaker'sintention (complain, deny, etc.) (3), the manner of speaking(4), phrasalverbs (5) and when rveinclude other information betq/eenthe reporting vcrb ar.rdthe rftalclause(6). 3 They complained that they had beenle.fiout. . He denied that he wasresponsible. 4 Shewhisperedthat shehad to go..The poor 1anshoutedthat hc wosiltnocctLt. 5 t)rc student pointed out that the date was wrong. . Shecalled out that dinner was ready. 6 He said itr last week'snrcetingthat we were wrong. , We agreewith the critics thst it's old. We can use nouns such a.san ouncemelttand rcsponse beforea lftdl-clausecontaining indirect speech to report statenents.After thesenouns, we usuallyinclude rhat 'Classes 7 are cancelrled,'", Did you heer the announcement thqt classes were concelled? 8.Iworkedhard.,.Hisresponsethqtheworkedhardisn.ttrue.(No.|@.'.) Other nouns used like this include:argument,clain, comment, explanation,report, statement We can also report statementsby using a noun with &eand a /ral clausecontainingindirect speech. 'It'll 9 cost a lot.' -' Her only comment was that it would costa lot.

Reportingquestions (or ir.rdirectquestior.rs) We begin reported questior.rs with wft words (10), ifor whether(11). 'Who 'What l0 is she?'-, He askedwho slrcwds.. does she do?' * He askedwhqt shedid. 'Is 11 she a doctor or a nurse?'-'' He wantedto know if/whetherslrcwosa doctoror arrurse. We fcrrm indirect questionswith the subjectbeforethe verb and no questionnark ( l2). We don't changethe word order rvhena wA word is the subjectofthe question(13). 'Where 12 are the keys?' -'. I asked where the keyswere. (Not +-asled-where-were+he*$) 'Wlro 13 has the keys?'-- I askerlwho had the keys.(Not Laskedwho4+elteys4e*) We can report some wh-questions with sftoald (about the right thing to do) by using an infir.ritive. '\Vtren 14 should I come and what should I do?' -- I askedthem when to come and what to do. Note that wrl is not used in this way: I askedtlrcm why I should do ir (Nor . .. trlr-+o4o-tt) \{re begin indirect yes/no questions with ifor whether. 15 Are you a nurse?' - I askedif/whether shettas q nurse.(Nttt l aske*if.was:he a nttr

)

We use wher}er (not y') after a preposition( l6), beforean inlinitive (17) and after the verb question (.18).Whethcror nof can be usetlas a phrase,but not il or not (19). 'Is 16 it okay to use a dictionary?'-"' Soueotteinquiredabout whether it wasokay to usea dictionary. (.x,-tt ) 'Should 17 I wait for him?' * She'swondering whether to wait for llrr. (Nor ...if@1ift) 18 Are they really terrorjsts?' -' The reporter questioned whether they were really terrorists. 'Did 19 he rvin or not?.''-. I askedwhether or not he lrotr. (ox I askedwhether/if he won or not.1

I54

12 REPORIING

Completeeachsentenceusingindirectspeechin sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 'I m not guilty!' calledout oneof the defendants. One It really surprised us when shesaid she'dbeen adopted. Herstatemeot..... The students'argument is that the cost of tuition has increasedtoo much and I agree. Iagree............. 'I'm He claimed. not a thiefl'. but no one believedhim. N o o n e b e l i e vheids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f2 Ghoose an ending (a-d) foreach beginning ('l-4) and add the words that, where, whether of who. I 2 3 4

Someof them werearguingabout (. . .) The teacheris kying to find out (. . .) I askedanotherstudent(. . .) We heardone report (...)

a b c d

.. . . . . . . .. . isdt here. .. . . . . . . .. . the weatherwasgoingto be bad. . . . . . . . . . . . to leaveor staythere for another day. . . . . . . . . . . . to find the library.

{3 Rewrite these sentences after correcting the mistakes. 1 One of the visitors askedabout if will there be a ftidge in the hotel room? ...'''..' 2 He askedme why to do that and I pointed out it waspart ofmyjob.

, ;;; ;;;;

;;", uf""" "ro-r..,0""," r.,,."-" -.," .* ",.,n"

..'... 4 Her explanation no one askedher if or not shehas a degreewas incredible. l

'14Changethese statementsand questionsto indirectspeechand add them to the text. 'Thereis a "moster"undermy bed.' 'Whyaren'tyousleeping?' 'Haveyouseenthemonster?' 'I

havm't,but I knowit hasbig teeth.' 'What is a'moster"?'

'Where did it comefrom?'

One time when I wasbabysitting for some ftiends, their five year-old daughter got out ofbed and cameinto the living room. I askedher (l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheclimbed on to the sofabesideme and whispered (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I s t a r t e tdo a s kh e r ( 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,t h e nI realized that shemeant'monster'. I askedher (l)...... ... Shesaid(5)......... I askedher (o).. . . . Shedidn't know but it had really big eyesand sharp teeth.We eventuallyboth fell asleepon the sofa and, luckily for us, the monster stayedin the bedrobm.

155

I2 RI]PORTINC

Reporting orders,requests, adviceand opinions Reporting orders and requests We usually report orders using tell with an object and an infinitive. 'Don't I tonch it: -a He told us not to touch i/. . 'Be quietl' --+ Shetold everyone to be qtiet. Other lesscommon verbs used to report orders include:comr.nand,direct, instruct,order We can also repoft orders in a that-clausewith the modals ht:c to t:trrlust (2). After verbssuch as dennnd aod fusisr,a subjunctiveis sometimesused in more formal situations(3). 'Stop 2 arguingl'--+ Their mother tokl them that they had to/must stop arguing. 'Do 3 it yourself!' * He insistedthat I hail to ilo it myself.ott He inskted that I do it ntyself. Wc usuallyreport requestsusing nskwith an ob.jectand an infinitive (4). When we report requestsby speakersabout their orvn actions,we don't include an object beforethe infinitive (5). 'Please 4 don't sm eke.'* I asked him not to sffioke.. 'Come in.' * He asked me to come in. 'May 5 I leave?'--r Sheasked to leaye.. 'Can I go?'--+ He askedto go.(Nor *# cs*ed;ie+rya) (lther verbs used to report requestsinclude: beg,plead with, request We can also report requestsin an fclause with the n.rodalscould or y,otrkl. 'Plcase 6 help mel -+ The old mau asked(us) if we coulil/would hclp hin.

Reporting advice We can report advice by using verbs snch as recomruendor sr;ggesrfollowed by a tftat-clausewith should(7) or a subjunctivein nore formal uses(8). We can also usea gerund for the suggested actior.rrvhenwe don't want to mention who will perform the action (9). 'You 7 should go by train.' * He recomnrcndedthat we should.go by train. 'You 8 should take the exprcsstrain.'-"+ He s&glcstedthat we tske the expresstrain. 'You 9 shoulcl drlel --+He recomnrcndeddriving. (Not Hereeomn+ett#di#*ing.) We can usc the verb adyiser,vithan object and an infinitive (10) or with a tftat-clauseor a gerund l I ll. 'Wait 10 a few daysl ---+Sheodvisedhim to w&it a few dafs. (Nor SAe*r43es*eAlrint-*o-+#) lI Sheadvised (hin) that he (should) wait ctfew days. . Sheadvked waiting a t'ew days. \t'e can use different reporting verbs such as remind and ucrn with tftdt-clausesto introduce different kinds of reported advice. 12 A taxi will be much faster.'--+ Shereminded him that a taxi would be much faster. 'You I3 must be carefil.' --+ Shewarneil them that the), must,had to be careful. We can also report a warning by using an infinitive; Shewarned them to be carefti.

Reportingopinions We use'thinking' verbswith lfi.j/ clausesto report opinions. 'Oh, l4 it's nice!''"'+Shethought that it was tice.. 'I'll win.'--+He belieyesthat he'IIwin. C)therverbsused like this include:expect,feel,imagine,reckon,suppose,suspect \\'e can use the verbs sal and /ell in the continuous to report general opinions in informal situations. 15 7'1rcstudetltswere saying tlnt the test ',yosLnlfair. . Teachersare telling us there'sa problem. We can also report opinions and fcelingswith nouns (16) and ad.jectives (17) before tftar-clauses. 'Girls 16 mature earlier thar.rboys.'* lt is her view that girls maturc earlier than boys. C)thcrnouns used like this include:beliel conclusion,diagnosis,hypothesis,opinion, theory 'It's 17 a mistake.'+ I was sure that it htasa nistuke. ot1 Slrcis certain that it is d mistake. Other adjectivesusecllike this include: arvare,cor.rvir.rced, cloutrtful, positive, sorrl worried

156

h r i i r i t n r s . r n d g e t u D d sl r 9

itlodik29

S u b j u . r i v r i , r r / r d r . l a u s c sL 6 ; T / r d l d r u r \

t6l

I2 REPORTING

15 Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentence above it. I Professorto her students:'Pleasedo not eator drink during lectures.' T h ep r o f e s saosr k e .d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'Stand 2 Guardto the prisoner: up when the judge comesin.' T h eg u a r do r d e r e .d. . . . . . . . . . . 3 Workerto his boss:'CanI leaveearlyon Friday?' The worker asked 'You 4 Scott'smother to Scott: shouldapplyto severaluniversities.' Scott'smother recommended 16 Changeeach piece of adviceto an appropriatereportedform and add it to the text. 'Placeyour napkinin your lap.' 'Don't restyour elbowson thetable.' 'Chewyour food with your mouthclosed.' 'Don't talk with your mouthfuIL'

'Don'tput a lot of food on your plateall at once.' 'Don't takemorefood until it is offered.' Ask somebody.' 'Please passthesalt.'

My friend KarenCurrie and I werehuddledbesidethe smallheaterin her room, eatingslicesof pizzafiom a cardboardPizzalandcontainer.Shewastelling me about an old book shehad been reading,called'TableMannersfor YoungLadies'.It instructedthe readel when sheis sitting at the tablebeforethe meal,(r). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and i2)...................

I t t o l dh e r w , h i l es h ei s e a t i n g( j, ..,. . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . a n d ( 4 ) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C e r t a i nt h i n g sw e r eb a dm a n n e r s . . ... a n dt h eb o o ka d v i s ehde r 1 s y . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . u . r d ( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I t a l s o s a i d t h a t ,w h e ns h en e e d e d . . .. . s o m e t h i nsgu, c ha ss a l ts. h en t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( s ) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r a t h e tr h a nr e a c ha c r o stsh e tablefor it. 'Ah, the good old days,'shesighedasshereachedinto the box for anotherslice. 17 Completeeach sentencewith an adjectiveor noun and a that-clausebased on one of the direct speech sentences. alvare positive sorry

'I 'Take diagnosis lostmy temper.' the earlyflight to Glasgow-' 'Dogs 'You belief aren'tallawedhere.' will all passtheexam.' 'You recommendation hayean earinfection.' A perfectlife can beachieved.'

I It wasour travelagent's . . . . .. 2 l d e a l i s ims t h e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Sarahhasquietened down andshe'svery. . ... .... . ... . 5 Our teacherwas 6 The visitor obviouslywasn't

157

i2 REPORTINC

Tests A Choose the word or phrase that best completeseach sentence. 1 They recommended that the windows a had to

b not be

c ought not to

2He

opened. d should not

to take part.

a advised not them

b invited not them

c offered them not

d ordered them not

3 She that sheliked cold coffee. a described b replied c spoke d talked 4 The teachersweretalking about a trip to seecastlesand the studentswerewondering a whyto go. 5 Her father a mentioned

b wherethey go?

c when it was.

d what werethey?

that Ellenhad beento Prasuebefore. b persuaded c reminded d told

B ldentify the one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D) that must be changed in order to correct the sentence. I We lhoughtflyingu{ouldbe faster, glg but whenThomassuggested shqgoby train Marlarealized Att h4d enoughtime and shewill be ableto seeall the smalltownsalongthe way. LD 2 Because I suspected that our bill wastoo high, I askedour waiter if he would checkit againand he agreedme therehad beena mistake. CD 3 Jessica wascomplainingto the coachthat shefelt tired and told him shehad to rest,but he AB encouragednot to quit and saidshedidn't havemuch fartherto go. CD 4 One studentinquiredaboutif it wasokayto askwhat wasgoingto be in the testandthe teacher's AB only commentwasthat he had alreadytold them what would be tested. CD 5 We'veuytltcd-lolLlo ealqg and he's offered us to bring extra food, but Linda has warned us that he ABC somelimes promises lo do thingsthenlorgetscompletely. D C Completethis text with appropriateforms of the verbs. ask

explain

point out

reply

not say

not speak talk

tell

In her best-sellingbook'You JustDon't Understand', DeborahTannenrecalleda joke that her father likedto rr) people.In the joke, a womanwent to court to get a divorcefrom judge (2) her husband.When the her why she wanted a divorce. she (3)

that her husband(+t

anlthing to her in two years.

The judge turned to the husbandand askedhim why he (s) to his wife in 'I two years.The husband {o) , didn't want to interruot her.'Tannen that the ioke wasbasedon an old-fashionedstereoq?eofwomen: that they \7) (s) all the time. Her researchhad shownthat it was,in fact,a falsestereotype.

158

12 REPORTING

Completeeachsentenceusing indirectspeechin such a way that it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. 1 'I will buy the flowersmyself.' Mrs Dalloway said 'Henry 2 did you leaveyour keysin the door?' Sheasked 3 An announcementwasmadethat the strikewasover. Therewas 'I 4 shall return tomorrow.' His only comment 5 It surprisedus that he said,'I worlt do it.' His statementthat 6 I rememberone time when my aunt said to me, I rememberone time when my aunt told 'You can stay at our house.' 7 They said, Theyinvited

'Don talk with your rnouth t full,'

Rewrite one of these sentences as indirect speech ora summary report in each space. 'Doyou 'I'm knowwhereRobis?' sorry,' 'I 'l'll bethere think he wentout abouthalf an hour ago.' by eighto'clock.' 'I forgot that I promisedn takemy mother into town this morning.' I wassitting in my living room, surrounded by my luggage,waiting for Rob to come and drive me to the airport. It was alreadytwenty past eight and there was still no sign of him. He had said (r) .Ihad alreadytried to call him at home. His younger sisteranswered,so I askedher Shesounded 12) sleepy,but said 1a; Normally it would only take about five minutes to drive from his placeto mine, so something hadgonewrong.Suddenlythe phonerang.It wasRob.He for being late andexplainedtsy It wast't the first time his forgetfi.rlnesshad rnade me nervous and his mother had made me take secondplace in his plans.

159

A nounclause(or nominalclause)is a clausewe can use likea nounor nounphraseas the objectof a verb.We can introducenoun clauseswith that(l'm hopingthat the weather is going to be nice this weekend),a wh-word(Do you know what the forecast is?) and ff or whether(l was wondeing iflwhether we might be able to have a picnic on Sunday\. Readthroughthis magazinearticleandfind: 1 another senlence containing twonounclausesbeginning withthaf 2 a sentence containinq a nounclausebeoinnino withif or whether CCORDINGTO ONE OLD SONG,love and marriagego togetherlike a horseand carriage.Thesedays,however,a long lasting marriagemay be almostashard to 6nd asa horse : and carriageon our busystreets.Statistically, it is now more likely that a marriagewill end in divorce than continuein a loving relationship.lt makesyou wonderif gettingmarriedis worth the effort. Is it simply the casethat marriagehasbecomea rurgamblewith lessthan a 500/o chanceof success? Not really,sayresearchers at the Newport Institute, who havediscoveredthat thereareclearcluesto what makesa successful marriage.The Newport researchers havebeenconductinga studyof r; married couplesfor the pastten years.They started with 50 pairsof newly-wedsand interviewedthem everyslx months.During that time, 1I of the couplesdroppedout of the study,15 couplessplit up and 24 couplesstayedmarried.The researchels ,o weredelightedthat so many of their couplesstayed together,but they don't think that ii wassimply a n-Iatterof luck. One clearsignof a happyrelationshipis the frequentuseof'we'by a couple.Thi: i: one ,5 indicationthat the couplespeakswith a single voiceabout their experiences. Another clueis how pastexperiences are described.The happily marriedcouplestendto focu(on theirexperience. together,evenwhen clescribingdifliculties.As an m example,two differentcouplesdescribedholidays in which their suitcases werelost. One couple(still married) reportedthat it wasone of their best memoriesbecausethey went out and boughtsome

r e a l Jdyi l T e r e cn lto t h i n a g n dh a da c r a / yt i m e . x Another couple(no longermarried) endedup goingwrong blamingeachotherfor everything during the holiday. Researchers havealsonoticedthat individualsin successful marriagestend to talk about their ro spousesin much more positiveways.They foo.rs on accomplishments. They often mention somethingnew they enjoydoing now becauseof their partner.They alsoseemto be willing to changein waysthat allow the coupleto do things rs together.In marriagesthat aren'tworking,thereis more focuson seli One of the individualstypically insiststhat he or shewill not stopdoing something despitethe fact that it is a sourceof conflict. Sometimesone of them will saythat he or she :o actuallyprefersit that the other hasseparate interests. Wlen the researchers askedcoupleswhat advice they would giveto youngerpeoplethinking about gettingmarried,theygot somerevealinganswers. ;s Among thosewho eventuallygot divorced,the man would ollen givea response that wasquite different from the woman's.It wasobviousthat these individualshad reallydifferentviewsabout marriage.Among thosewho remainedmarried,the 60answersweremore similarand often referredto the ideasof friendship,supportand 'beingon the same team'.On the basisof their study,the researchers haveconcludedthat a modernmarriagenay begin with passionate love,but its survivaldependsa lot 65on'companionatelove',a feelingthat includes affection,caringand friendship.

After reading the magazine article, decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F). 1 2 3 4 5 6

In this article,the author clains that nore than half of all marriagesend in divorce. T/F In the Newport study,more than twenty coupleswere interviewedtwice a year for ten years. TIF After ten years,the researchers found that three-quartersof the coupleswere still married. T/F Couples who get divorced frequently speak with a single voice about their experiences. T/F The researchers reported that happily married couplestypically had 5eparateinterests. Tll The researchers concludedthat passionatelove was the crucial factor in a long term marriage. T/F

160

i] NOLIN CLAUSES

Ihaf-clauses and wh-clauses that-clauses We can usenoun clausesbeginningwith tftar (tlrat clauses)after verbsusedto report thoughts (1) and feelings(2). We also use tict clausesto report statementsin indirect speech(3). I Peopleused to believethat the earth wts flat. , I didn't realizethat you were waiting for me. 2 Do you eter feel that you might be in danger? . I always worry that something coukl go wrong. 3 He mentioned that he had seen the report. . Shewhisperedthat she would have to leave early. We can also use thal clausesafter nouns and adjectives. 4 I wasJacedwith the problem that I hed no money. . Wereyou surprised that he passed the test? In informal situations, we often use noun clauseswithout lfidf, especiallyafter the verbs know, sa1 and think. 5 I knew (that) you'd fnish frst. . Dan said (that) he had a cold, , Do you thitk (that) it's OK? \\re usuallyinclude /ftrrtin formal uses(6), after nouns (7), and rvhena phrase(8) or a clause(9) comesbetrveenthe verb and the that-clause. 6 A recentgovenlnlent study has concludedthat drug useanong adolesccntsis declining. 7 A contract is a writtelt agreetrc t that you and/or otherswill do something. 8 They discoteredduring the investigationthat some nortey was nissittg. 9 Sheilaforgot wlrcn tlrc tneetingwas and that she wr.ssupposetlto unlock the door for us. We must include lfial (-'the fact that') whcr.rwe usea ffuafclauseas subject. 10 That luliet loved him was never itr doubt. . That he said nothing doesn'tsurprise me.

wft-clauses We can use noun clausesbeginnir.rgwith rvft words such as wftal, whcre and /row (rvh-clauses)after verbsusedto report thoughts and questions(11). Like indirect questions,wh-clauseshave the subject beforethe verb and no questionmark (12). ll I wonder whqt it means. , They don't knott where he went. . He askedhow often we studied. 12 I can't undentand what she is saying. (Ncn @ We can use wh clauses, but not tft.rt-clauses, after prepositions. 13 He disagreedwith what we said. . I reari about how he did it. (Not J +eadalte*+hethe ) 'not We can also begin noun clauseswith if and whether aftet verbs used to report knowing' or an indirectyes/noquestion( l4). We use iJ/whetherwhenwe are not sure (15) about the information expressed in the noun clauseand /lalwhen we are sure (16). 't 74 I ca renember iflwhether I locked the door.. He askedus if/whether we were students. l5 Was he married? Mary didn't know. a Mar)t didtl't know if/whether he was married. 16 He was rrrarried. But Mary didn't know. - Mery didn't know th&t he wss married. 3 Find examples of the following in the magazine article on page 1 60. 1 A fftaf clausereporting a statement: 2 A t h a tc l a u s rcf l c r l r r o u n :. . . . J A t h a t c l a u s el f i e r a r rl d j e c t i r e :

h'J,.

. p , .1

',

'J

, rrr.

-i

lt -\,r.

:

l6l

1 3 N O L J N( ] I , A L J S I S

Nounclausesas subjectsand objects Noun clausesassubjectsor after empty subjectif Wecanusea noun clausebeginningwith that(- 'thefactthat') (1) or a wft-word(2) asthe subject beforea verb,but usuallvonlv in formal situations. . That the other teampleyed badly reallyhelpedus. 7 That we won the match surprisedever),one. 2 How the thievesbrokein is obviotts,but wlry they only took oneold computeris a lnystery Insteadof puttingthe noun clausein subjectposition,we usuallyusel/ asan emptysubjectandput (3) or the wh-clause (4) at the end. the rhar-clause 3 It surprisetleveryoe that we won the match.. It rcollyhelpedusthat the other teamplayed bailly. 4 It's obvioushow the thievesbrokein, but it's a mysterywhy they only took oneold computer. We canusewhetheror fin a noun clauseat the endafterir assubject(5),but only ryretfrer in a noun clausein subjectposition(6). 5 It doesn'treallymatterwhether/ifyottgo now or Later. 6Whetheryougottowor|0terdoesn,trealIynntter.(sot@)

Noun clausesas objects or after empty object if We can usea noun clauseas an object after a verb to expressfacts(7) or ideas(8), and in indirect speech(9). 7 We leanted thot pineapples don't grow on trees.. No one noticed thqt the keys were missing. 8 Shecould never onticipate what he might want' Ewax suggestedthat we should leave early. 9 He screemedthat he hated school. , Shessid that shefelt that everyone was against her, After verbs such as sfroryand tell, rve include an indirect oblect (1,0r, rre) betbre a noun clause as direct object. 10 I'll show you how it works. . He told me that he loved me. (Not He+ol4+hd+lrclated ) Other verbsused like this inclucle:assure,convince,infbrm, notify, persuade,remind, warn 'not After verbs of'liking' (or liking'), we use it as an empty object beforea noun clause. II He rloesn'tlike it thqt shestill smoke; , I hate it tlnt nobody ever cleansup after the meetittgs. 'thinking' After verbs such as consider and think, we can use lt as an er.r.rpty object plus a noun ( 12) or adjective ( 13) before a noun clause.After verbs such as regrrrd,seeor rrle4 we use i/ + ,:isbefore a noun or adjectiveand a noun clause(14). 12 They considerit an offence when women go out in public without coveringtheir lrcads. 13wetlnughtitodr]thatfioonecal|edus'(N
(fear,sense, 1 'Feeling'verbs 'yory,):lff f:]! .!bg!.:.y:ft9lg.:g:.glqtl:11..9f .l?

'Learning' verbs (discoter,Jind, realize):. .. . . .. . . .. . J Noticirrg rcrh. Iolrseryc, pcrreiv(,rc tniIi\'. 'Predicting' (.expec1 4 verbs forecast,hope):. . . .. . .. . . .. . 5'Showing' verbs (denonstrate,indicate,reveal): 'Spcaking'verbs(explain, 6 mention,whisper'1: . . 'Suggesting' verbs (adtise, propose,recomntendl: 7 2

162

|'1

'li('11

..'1 "

|

_n

!,

".l

Jr,r

,...lJrr,....

13 NOUN CLAUSES

Rewritethese sentences in a less formal style beginning with it 1 That they don't haveany money left doesnt surprise me at all. 2 That children would rather sit watching TV insteadof playing outside just astonishesme.

, ;; ;. ;";;,;".;;; ;.;;;.;; explained.

;,;; ;. -",.-."1.i "",-i,n","""..0.." "

4 Whether Nicole'sfather had been for or againsther marriage wasn't clear,but he did paqticipatein

"::i.::*::-::"

Add one set of words to each paragraph (not necessarily in this order). it/that / that

it / that / what

that / where/ whether

A He wantedto know (r) . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . we weredoing,but (z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wasobvious (3).....................hedidn'treallyseemveryinterestedinouranswer. B Sometimesone of them will say{r) . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . he or she actually prefers (s).....................(6).....................theotherhasseparateinterests. C (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . Robert'snew schedulewill be an improvementremainsto be seen,but no onelikedit(e).....................hejustdecided(s).....................thechangeswouldb without consulting anyone. Correct the mistakes in these sentences. 1 Mr Bakercomplained about the noisewaspredictable,but we assuredit wouldn't happen again. 2 The headmasterwarned dwing our meeting someteacherswouldn t like their classroomshad suddenlybeen changed. 3 Theytold me about Geoff had saidin the meeting,but I thought strangehe hadn't mentioned money. 4 The police regardedsuspiciousthe deadwomant husbandhad recently taken out a life insurance policy in her name. 5 The prosecutor showedthe jury how could the crime havebeen committed by Feldman,but he

*::*lo ":: i-:'":l':: :"0-*

r63

I] \I)LIN (]1,\L:SLS

Nounswith nounclauses Noun clausesafter nouns \Ve often use noun clausesafter nouns dcriycd from thoseverbslisteclin exercise4 oo page 162 (conclude L'onclusion, indicLtte iLklicatiol).We usuallvinclude rlar after thesenouns. 7 Her conclusion that boystrc fast ' is wrong. ). Thcra lnve becn sotnerecc t indicqtions that lhe econonryis slowingdown. Others include:belief,discoverl',cxpcctation,1-cclir.rg, obselvation,proposal,reirlizatiorr \{e can also use noun cliruscslftcr nouns cxpressingpossibility,often ornitting r/ratin infbrnral (3). After nouns such as is-.r.rc situatior.rs and 4leslion,rveincludc o/bcforc a l,l clause(4). 'lherc's 3 a possibility (that) I'll be in towtr next wcck.Is therc otty chance (that) we can neet? 4 We consideredtlrc issue of what n'e nrctut by.frccdotn., It's n question of how we can suryiye. C)thcrnouns used i,vithtfinclucle: consideration,tliscnssion,exan.rplc, knorvlcdgc,mattcr,problen, review Parentheticalnoun clausesare sometiDrc's uscd aftcr nouns as a lvay of ploviding extra infornation or irsa ren.rinder. Thcy arc scparaledby conrrnas(5), clashes(6) or brackets(7). 5 His cxcuse,that he haclfallen asleep on the bus, wqshqrd to believc. 6 One idcs - thst Elvis is still alive keepscotning Ltpin i terviewswith fans. 7 Tlrcy were Lluestiotrittg lrcr tbLtut Ircrfrst explanntiou (that there had been a burglar) when she suddenly clnngct[ lrcr story conrylctcly.

Noun clausesafter nouns plus linking verbs (be,seem,appear) We can use the rerb bebctl'ccn a noun and the noun clauseusedto talk lrbout it (8). In infornal tuscs, wc often leavcout rlat after bc (9). B One theory is that grtl/ily Lrovelstl thc spccdoJ light. Our concern is how we catt tcst the thcary. 'l 9 MaLL'sba:ic problem was (that) he lud foilctl tto tests. he truth is (thst) he neyersLudies. We can use a noul plus seelror cpperrrlrelble to bc ard a noun clause(10). \\'e can also use enpty s u b j c c t t p l u s s c e u
Thefact that ... \\rc can use tlrcJdct that (1'atllerthirn rlaf) to introduce a noun clausc'as subjcctor object (12). Alier verbs such as discrr-.s, rve nust usc tlletr.rt /lrdt (not tl.J/) to introduce a noun clause( 13). 12 The fact that he u,dsnnrrieri didn't bother hcr. Slrcalso iguorcd the fact that he hod children. 13)\/ediscusscdthef0ctth0the]ndbeenttllsentalot.(xo.rW i1e*) C)thcrverbs Lrsecl like tl.risinclucle:conceal,dispute,disregard,hide, overlook,support t'\t also usc the fitct tllot (not tlrat) after prepositions(14) and phrasalverbs (15).\{e can useother nouns with more specificnreaningssuch as lrTeaor nerysir.rstcad of/acr in thesestructures(16). 11HepoinledtothefactthatBritoinisanislond'(Ntl.l.W). Despite the fqct thot slrc'sstn:,ll, she'svery strong.(No t +esp*e +*c+:Jr*+ .. . ) 15,l'IleycoveredupthefqctthotPeopleharldied.(rlot@) 'l 16 I dotl'l tgree t,ilt the itlea that oklcr is wiser., hcy ploycd dowu the news that priceslud risetr.

Noun clauseswilh that or relative clauseswith tftal3 \{c citr.tusc lhe rvorcltlrlt after a noLrnto introducea noun clause( l7) or a rcjativcclause( 18). In a relativeclause(not !r noun clause),/Lal is a pronotLnand can be replacedbv whichor tvho. 17 The story that lrc v,os ht a L:ntshiyt't tnte. (Not 1Jrc:+e+y-+rhkhl+e-+a . . .) 18 Tht stoty that/which he told us istil lruc. . I stw a boy that/who looked just likc Hnrry. 164

lfrplvjutrjf.li/ ll)l.l6l

l-i.kir!red\10 Phrnil\cib\ll.1 ltdrrneJra.sqirh/]Ji'Lil

1

13 NOUI,!CLAUSES

Rewritethese sentencesas a single sentenceusing a noun derivedfrom the verb in the sentenceabove it, plus other appropriatechanges. Example: I expected thatthe taskwouldbe simple.Thatwasobviouslytoo optimistic.

qpliry,lplie. My.slPec!q!iqn.Lhq1 ihe!q:k.nqul4 be sinple e.q:.qbyiqq:L.!qq I He explained that he had been stuck in traffic for over an hour. It didn't sound right. Hi. ... .. 2 They discoveredthe boy suffered from asthma. It changed their attitude. Their . .. 3 Peoplebelieve there are aliens from outer spaceliving among us. It's quite widespread. The..

I Completethis report with these phrasesplus fhaf where necessary. belief conclusion was

exampleof againstthe idea in agreement despitethefact

to thefacl with the view

ln our group we discussedthe death penalty. Two people agreed 1r1

the death penaltywas necessaryfor serious crimes. They pointed (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it was still used in the USA as punishment for murder and their (3). . . . . . . . . . . it acted as a deterrent, stoppil.lg people from comrnitting crimes. One woman argued 1,r1 the death penalty could .. . s t o po r r e d u c ec r i m e .S h es a i dt h a t t h e U S A p r o v i d e da n ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w h a t h a p p e n sw h e n a societyis basedon violence.1r1. . . . they had the death penalty,the USA continued to havethe worst and most violent crime lates.It was her 1zy.. . . .. . no governmentshould be allowed to kill its own people, even if they are criminals. The others in our group were generally l h c r c s h o u l dn u t b e a d e . r t hp e n a l t y .

10Usinga dictionary if necessary,completethe following definitionswith these nouns plus thaf(= noun clausel or which (= relativeclause). riejavu premonition sccpticism supttstitiotr 1A.

... . . . . . . . . . . . is a feeling. . is unpleasant. 2........ m e a nhs a v i n d g o u b t .s. . . ... something will happen.

somethingis goingto happen,oftensomething .

.

.

. s t a t e m e natrset r u eo r

JA....

. . i. abclicf be explainedby reason.

cannot

4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is the sense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you have already experienced something is happeningnow. 11 Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of noun clauses in this text.

According to onedefinition,thewomen's movement is a socialandpolitical-.t""r"".

otXii;tX#^t

men and women should have equal rights in society.It tries to raise issueshow equality can be accomplishedby first getting people to recognizethe fact which women don't have equal opportunity.It is basedon the belief people'sattitudescan be changedand the assumptionother peacefulchangescan be made through the legal system,in spite of it is largely controlled by men.

165

13 NOUN (JLAUSES

Adjectives withnounclauses (1) and wft-clauses (2) afteradjectives. We can usethaf-clauses After someadjectives, suchassorrl (3). and happy,weinchrdeprepositionsbeforewh-clauses, but not beforerhat-clauses I Mark wassurprisedthat you askedabouthim. , It isn'tsutprising that theweatherwasbad. 2 Wewerefl'tcertain when hewouldarriye,, Isn't it amazinghow much teenagers canest? 3 I'm sorry about whqt I said.. I'm sorry that I waslate.(Not'lmsory a$e+tt*atJ va ). ' (Not We'rehappy with how it looks. We'rehappy that it looksOK. 4lerheppy4o"r i+lo ) We can useempty subiectlr beforea linking vetb (be,seem)and an adjectiveplus a noun clause(4). In formalsituations, the noun clauseis sometimes usedassubject(5). 4 It's ilisgracefulthat childrencait spelltheir own names!. It seemsodd that he didn't call. . That he didn't call seemsodd. 5 That children can't spell their own namesis tlisgraceful! In informal situations,we often usenoun clauseswithout ihar afteradjectives. 6 I'm sure (that) it'sa mistake.. We'reglad (that) you'rehere.. He\ lucky (thet) hewssn'thurt. We can useadjectivesfor personalfeelings(a/rcid,worried)beforenoun clausesdescribingthe cause of thosefeelings(7). We can alsouseadjectivesexpressing degreeof certainty(positirze, srre) before noun clauses describing the informationwe aremoreor lesscertainabout(8). 7 Wewereafraid (that) you wouldn'tcome.. Aren'tyou worrieil (thqt) Tessmightget injured? Other adjectivesusedlike this include:amazed,angry,disappointed,happy,proud, sad 8 He waspositive (that) he had chosentheright answer.. I'm ot sureif I hearrlhim correctly. Other adjectivesusedlike this include:certain,confident,convinced,doubtful,unsure 12 Rewritethese pairs of sentencesas a single sentencecontaining a noun clause. ExamplH e :e m a d es u c ha m e \ \ .l w i r s d n g r y r b o iur r. . l y . 9 . . 9 1 3 1 . j . \ . ! l S ! . . . 1 9 . f 9 4 9 . . : Y i l . 9 . . T : . . I Our old car might breakdowlr.We wereafraidof that. 2 Karensuddenlydecidedto quit her job. I wasconpletelysurprisedby that. I 3 The test would be easy.Seanwas absolutely sure of it. Sean

13 Choose an adjectiveor an adjectivewith a prepositionfor each space.Add that, how, what or when where necessary. awareof

embarrassed by

Skd

amazed surprising unlikely

Our teacher always encouraged us to try to guesswhat new words and phrasesmeant becauseit was ( l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e w o u l d a l w a y sb e a b l et o u s eo u r d i c t i o n a r i e sI t. w a s g o o d a d v i c eb, u t I w a s very(2) . . . ... . .. .wrongmyguessescouldbesometimes.Forexample,Ihadguessedthat the phrase'kick the bucket'must mean that you are very happy and you show that you are happy by kicking a bucket. You just give it a good kick. That made senseto ne. So, it was rather (i)...

. . . . . . . I d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i t m e a n t t h e s a m e a s ' d i e ' .I w a sr e a l l yt + ) . . . . . . . . . . . I h a d n ' tt r i e d t o u s et h e p h r a s eI.w o u l d b e s o ( s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . p e o p l ew o u l d t h i n k i f t h e yh a dt o l d r.r.re that they had good nervs and I had said,'Great! Now you'lI kick the bucket!'They would be t o t a l l y( 6 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. .h a d s a i ds u c ha n i n a p p r o p r i a tt he i n g .

166

Adtednrs lll

L14 lmplysubjednl02

L i n k n r gl e r b s 1 0 T l ' a r . l d r s e s i n d r , d d r s 1 6 l

Re

ri \oL\(.t_,\LisFts

Thesubjunctive or shouldin nounclauses '14Writethe numbers of appropriate examplesin the spaces. Wecanusethc presentsubjunctive,which hasthe sameform asthe baseform of the verb,in thct clauses . We put rotbefore the verb in the negativesubjunctive . We only usethe subjunctive in folmal situations.We can uses,hoald beforethe baseform of the verb insteadof the presentsubjunctive I Dr Evqtlsspecifcallyrequested that no onehave access to patietts'fles Lnlessuuthorized. 2 \4rehaw alreadyrecommended thatyoungchildrennot be left alonein parkedcars. 3 Thedoctorrequested that no oneshouldhaye access to the liles.. Wehaw alreadyrecommenderl thatchildrenshouldn'the left alone. Thepastsubjunctive(r,ere)is alsousedin noun clausesafter l,isft: I wish (that)I weretaller. Wecanusethe presentsubjunctiveor shouldin that-clauses afterverbsexpressing orders , rules or suggestions 4 Thecommitteehessuggested that thecostof admission(should)be increosed. 5 Thejob description stipulqtesthat theapplicant(should)havea degreein Englkh. 6 Thejudgeinsistedthat the boy(shoulil)bepunishedand that he (should)pay for thetlamage. Otherverbsusedwith the subjunctiveinclude;advise,ask,demand,order,propose,require Wecanusethe subjunctleor shouldina reportedorder , but not in a reportedstatement 'He 7 hasto be over eighteen.'^t Theyinsistthat he (shoulil)be overeighteen. 'I 8 er"rovereighteenl'-. He insiststhat he is overeighteen. Wecanalsousethe subjunctiveor shouklrn /ftrrl clausesafternouns expressing orders , rules or suggestions and afteradjectivesexpressing what is necessary 9 It is our recomTnendation that he (should)not sayanythingLtntilthein,estigationis otter. I0 kt1'ttherea !!k that safetyequipment(should)be worn wheneyermachineryis running? 11 Theygayeinstructionsthat all passengers (shoulcl)havepassports readyfor inspection. 72 It is essential that no one(shoukl)feel excluded. It isyjful that everyvoice(shoulil) be heard. Otheladjectives usedlike this include;crucial,imperative,important, necessary

1 5G h o o s ea n e n d i n g ( a - f ) f o r e a c h b e g i n n i n g ( 1 - O )a n d a d d a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s o f t h e s e words, using the su bjunctive or shourd where appropriate. arresf gtye crucinl ltave

insist ot disturb

reconunewl requirenent

1 The nursesa,vs it's . . ...... ( ) 'lhe 2 i r d v e r t i s e m e. .n. t. . . . . . . . . . . . . .( . . . ) 3 T h e t r a v e la g e n t . . . . . . . . ( . ) 4 Someono e f f - e r etdh e . . ...... ( ) 5 T h es c h o ohl a d a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( . . . ) 6 T h ep r i s o n c r . .. (...)

spcnd slipuhte

Jtlggesliori wear

a that the winner a car as the prizc. b t h a tu n i f o r m s a t a l lt i n . r e s . c t l . r atth e a p p l i c a n t . . . . . . . . t w o y e a r s ' experience. d t h l r t h cp a t i e n t e t h a tt h e y . . . . . thewrong person. f that we a rveek in Paris.

R i l l { l u g \ t i t c f r c r t s 1 5 . 1 S / r . r i r l . 1 1 l i . r s t! r L r j L r r . r i ! ek r 1 i . ! . r d i r n r f i L j l f 6

t67

l-l NOUN C).AUSltS

Usesof nounclauses Complex information in noun clauses \{e can use noLrn clausesin a seriesto present conplex inlbrmation. We include tltat when lve want ir.rthe examplebelow) or we can onit to avoid ambiguity (e.g.,to avoid'We haveseenresearchers' ...'). ttar to avoid repcatingit too often (e.g.'peoplewill believethey witr.rcssed 1 \{e hove seenthat researchers lnve beenqblc to show that peoplc will believe(that) they witnesset) presenledin policequestions. certain thingsbccauseof inJbrrnation We can also useseveralnoun clausesin a list for a seriesoflinked ideas(2) or alternatives(3). 2 Bleck has argued that tlrc long lurnnx chiLdhoodis neededfor learning complex skilk, that it allo\^/s children tinte to grohtinto many tasksantl that it k actunlLybeneJicialfor parertts. 3 ll is cleLrrlytrct trut that snlde ts learn everything tlrcy are taught or that they kno.|',only hthal thcl ore taught or that they can rentenrbercverything tlrcy are taughl. after that io a noun clause.\{'e put We can include a phrase(,1)or clause(5), separatedby cot.t.u.nas, the first conr.na after /14l, not before it. We don't pr.lt commas round a wh clauseused as a subject aftet that (6 ). 4 Al inportant discoverywas that, in both 4rpesof envirollmctlts, the chiklren's language . ..) developedat the same rate. (Not @ 5 Sorneteachersbelicvethat, if sntdentsseeor hear errors, they will learn those erors. 6 The itlee thqt what ),ou eat affectsyour long-term health shouldn't really be a big su prke.

The position of noun clauses \Ve usually put noun clausesat thc end of sentenceswhen they ara obr".,r, especiallywhen they are long and contain a lot of infbrnlatioll. 7lt'susuallyassumetlthatgovernmentolficialsspeakingonimportentmsttersofnational security are telling the truth. We can usenoun clausesin fiont position as a connectiortto information alreadygiven (8) or to repeator repbraseold information bcfore presentingnew information (9). 8 Five days after tlrc earthElake, a wotnan wttsfountl alive under the ruins ofher house,That she had survived was describedas q miracle.How she did it no onc kxew. dbout what llrcir on the basisof assutnptiolls 9 Speakers continuallydesigtttheir linguisticmessages hearersalready know. What a speaker assumesis true or is known by the hearer cat be describetl 0s d prcstlppostttotl. \AIecan use Thefact tlnl... with a noun clausein front position whcn we want to present information (inch.rdingnew information) as an establishedf-act. 70 Jitis early years were spent with ltis deaf parents. His only contact with spokenlangudgewas through television.The fact that he couldn't speak English by the age of four is evidencethat children nccd nrorc than sinplc exposureIo language. We can Lrsenoun clausesin mid positiolr to spellout detaiLsof a fact or idea (11).We can showthat information is additional (and could be on.ritted)by putting it in a parentheticalnoun clause separatcdby commas,dashesor brackets(12). 11 It isn't hard to workouthow the widespread asxrmptio that womefi talk more than men cotneta be one ol our socialnryths. presc t,'fton: 12 The idea behind'SecretSantas'is for eachpersortin a fautily or grouPlo buy 01rc (that present person. you one instead of ten or only orrc other This soluLion buy SantLt', for twenty) hclps to rc.lucethe strcssof Clrristtnasqs well os tlrc cost,

168

l : n r p t l s u b j c . ti r l 0 2 . l a J 2 h f . n l h . t i c . l n o u r

clirscs !6.r //r. /i.r.ll,r 161

13 NOUN CI-{USES

one set of clausesto eachparagraph(not necessarilyin this order). what happenedthat day / what they'rethinking / who their bestfriends are if womenand men talk equally/ peoplethink / the womentalkedmore that men think / that they hear women/ womentalk a lot that menget the impression/ that womenare lesslikely than men / that womennevertell jokes A For women,the essence of fiiendshipis talk, telling eachother (r)...,..., a n df e e l i n g a ,n d1 z.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .W h e na s k e d (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........., mostwomennameotherwomentheyregularly talk to. B Women can and do tell jokes.However,it is true (4). . . . to tell jokes in large groups, especiallygroups including men, so it's not surprising ( 5 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......... (6).........

C S t u d i ehsa v es h o w nt h a t ,( 7 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i n a g r o u p , ( 8 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (. e ) . . . . . . . . . D T h ef i n d i n g0 0 ) . . . . . . (1I ) . . . . . , _. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m a y b ed u et o t h ef a c t( 1 2.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t a l k i n gi n s o c i a l situationswhere men havelittle to sav. Write one of these clauses in each space in the following sentences (from a magazine article) and add ftatwhere it is appropriate. Columbuswasn't theftst European therewasanotherworld ColumbusrmchedIcelnnd he could reachChina Columbus'syisit to Icelandgavehim the confidence therewould eventuallybea place to hnd Wasit ftom the Vikings in Iceland that Christopher Columbus learned the crucial information (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . further to the west? Columbus'sson describeda voyagehis father had made to the northern edgeof Europe in 1477. Manyscholars now believe(2).......... .. duringthat voyage. Sevenyearslater, in 1484,Columbus proposedto the king of Portugal that, by crossingthe Atlantic, ( 3 ) .... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . The idea (l)........

.... to reachAmerica may come as a surprise to some, but scholars in northern Europe have always suspected (5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ....... to set sail acrossthe Atlantic, knowing that, if he kept going, (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . on the other side.

r69

L3 NOUN CLAUSES

Tests A Choose the word or phrase that best completeseach sentence. I Can you understand

a sheis saying

b what is saying

c what sheis saying

d what is shesaying

you wait or come back later is up to you.

a If

b That

c When

d Whether

3 They will recommend that she a leave

b is leaving

c left

d will leave

4 Elizabeth explained during the meeting that it was a prlorlty. a belief

b fact

c possibility

5 The regulations a assure

b require

of what should have

questron that a la*7er alwaysbe present during any interrogations.

c seem

state

ldentify the one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D) that must be changedto correct the sentence. 1 -----Sandrastaved -*-_r -A with lohn wasn'tsurprising,but it wasobviousto everyonethat lbglbadlqgidgl

-they - - - were - - - - iust - - Tfriends ' - _ ' - _and - | )that _ marriasewasn'tin their ulans. [ y t h e yd i d it, but there must have been 2 H e d i d n t k n o w y l h g i l w a sa n d c o u l d nt i m r g i n cg -E-

"

s o m e b o d' -vt-h a t 5 t a r l e dt h e r u m o u r n h i c h h e w a " I r o m L o n d o nand very wealthy. D 3 I heard about that the director said to them that he didn'E1!lq[!1 necessarythat he should have ABC proposed. to acreewith ever!.1hine --D- thev 4 It became obvious that a lot of British people considered it ----^ didn't .!!9 that their government " B essentialthat they should join the European Community. U 5 Martin told me that he wanted to remind that what was important was not the cost, but AFC how well th%iob was done. In the original version of this paragraph there were six conjunctions (five fhats and one how) introducing noun clauses. One example is shown. Add the others in appropriate places. Categorization plays a crucial role in human cognition, yet we give little thought to this process. thal Indeed, it seems4fnostof us have a very simple idea of categorization works: we take it for granted categorieshave clear boundaries, and all members of a given category must have something in common. If we considerthe purposeof categorization, we seeit is not surprisingwe hold such a vlew.

170

13 NOIJN CLAUSES

eachsentencewlth a noun clausein such a way that it is as similaras possible meanlngto the sentence(s)abovelt. His parentswerent English. He didn't concealit.

He Why anyonewould want to jump out of a plane and put their trust in a parachutehas alwaysbeen a big mysteryto me. Weexpectedthat no one would be there.

Our 4 Her commentshad upset Mark's mother. Bridget wassorry about that. Bridget 5 Theseapplesdorlt look very nice, but they're delicious. Despite

Ineachspace,write an appropriateform ot one of thesewords or phrasesand,where ngcessaryone of theseconlunctionsithat,if of when, notice argue feel mncede know rule out

emotion reasofito

flew

unfair

Kanziis an adult bonobo, or pygmy chimp, kept at GeorgiaStateUniversity in Atlanta. He has grown up among humans,and is adept at communicating with symbols.He understandssome spoken 'do you 'go want a banana?' English,and can respondto phrasessudr as out of the cage'and (l) he was who work with Kanzi, ]aredTaglialatelaand SueSavage-Rumbaugh, 'We there wanted to (2) making gendenoisesduring his interactions with them. produced,' Taglialatela. says they were wasany rhyme or 1:y Sohis team studied 100hours of videotapeshowing Kanzi's day-to-day interactions and anallzed the soundshe made at various times. They picked situations in which the bonobo's actions were 'grapes', or unambiguous:for example,while he was eating a banana,pointing to the symbol for respondingto a requestto go outside the cage. they identified four soundsKanzi made in different contexts:banana,grapes,juice and yes.In each 'He's doing it on context,Kanzi made the samesound.lV'e haverit taught him this,' saysTaglialatela.

hisown.' Somewill (l)

the soundsare simply the result of differencesin Kanzit ernotions may play a part, but saysthey are not emotional state.Thglialatela(5) the whole story. For instance,Kanzi'ssound for'yes' stayedthe sameacrossvery different emotional states. Primatologist Frans de Waal of Emory University in Adanta, Georgia,agrees. '(6) he'sfollowing rules that have is involved doesnt 1z; sornesort of cognitive component.' animals have no language Karzi is just the latestprimate to dlallenge the (s) ability. Languageusedto be popularly defined assymbolic communication until Washoe,a drimpanzee,stumpedeveryoneby learningto communicatein AmericanSignLanguage.'The linguists then cameup with a definition that emphasizedsyntax much more than symbols,'saysde it's a bit lroy they move the Waal.'Sometirneswe 1r1 goalpostsas soon aswe g€t near.'

171

Relativeclausesare usuallyintroduced by relativepronounssuchas thaf,whoor whichand just mentioned. We can use are usedto provideinformation aboutsomeoneor something relativeclausesto identifypeople(/'velust seenthe womanwho lives upstairs),describe things (She'scfirnbingup a ladder that wobbles with every gust of wind) and add comments (l think she'sgoing to clean her windows,which seems rather dangerous in the circumstances\.We can sometimesuse a relativeclausewith no relativepronoun( 1,4/ifh everystep_ she takes,watersplashesout of the bucket_ she's carrying). 'l Readthroughthis textandfind one relativeclausein eachparagraph. A The recenr discovery ofrhe wreck ofan old ship on zr tire ocean floor near the coast of North Carolina has revived interescin che colourful character u ho u . r . r h , . h r f ' l . ' . rc : f r . r i r rT . h e . h r p 1 . b < l r e v c rdo

:

'u

large French ship, which rhey renamed'Queen Anre's Revenge',Blackbeald and his crew 6nall1, had a true pirate ship,80 Foot long, with chree

masts and more than three dozen cannons, be the'Queen Anne's Revenge',which sank in D Blackbeard soon learned that a fearsorlre l - 1 8 . H e f c a p l r i n . , , r h ou a . t h e m o \ r n o r o r i o u s" reputationJ a pirate flag and some warning shots pirare ofhis day, rras called Blackbeard. from his cannons were ali rhat he needed to stop B Blackbeard, whose real nane rvas Edg,ard Teach, most ships u'ithout a fight. In contemporary had beena sailor on Bricishshipsin cheCaribbean clul.ing Queen Anne's War (1702 1713). These ships rvereoften involved in actackson F'renchand rs

accouncs, Blackbeard is described as a demon from hell', whose huge black beard was twisred into long tails and who carried ser'eralguns and

Spanish ships in che region and were allorved co keep a percentageofrvhatever chey captured fronl theseenenies ofthe qucen. rs C All chis changed in 1713 when Ehe European powers declared peace and che war ended. Teach .roE and hundreds of other sailors had to choose

swords in belcs slung across boch shoulders. Sricking our from the sides of his cap were long smouldering fuses that he could use to ignire

berween returning ro unemploymenc in Brirain or coltinuirg to do whar they knew best, only as pirares.They starcedas small bands in small boats,

rvhich had been sent ro put an end co piracy in dre region. After his death, Blackbeard became a romantic figure and stories about his daring

artacking and robbing merchanc ships, and r: eventually took control of larger ships which had the speed and porver to doninate the trade routes

adventures and tales oF secret buried treasufe helped to create rhe popular irrage of pirates u'e still have today.

zo

Biackbeard'sreign ofterror lasted unrii 1718 when he was killed in a sea battle with two Blitish ships

in and near rhe Caribbean. When they capcured a

Complete this description using relative pronouns, or no relative pronoun where appropriate. Betr'veen 1713and 1718,a pirate,(l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . real name was Edward Teach,but ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w in and . a sk n o w na sB l a c k b e a radt,t a c k esdh i p s( 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s a i l e d near the Caribbean.This pirate,(41 some describedas a'demon from l.rell', had a l a r g eb l a c kb e a r d{ s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w a st w i s t e di n t o l o n g t a i l s .H e w o r e b c l t sa c r o s sb o t h shouldersin (6) . . . . he carriedguns and swords.His pirate dayscame to an end in l7l8 (7). . . . . . he was killed in a seabattle,but the stories(8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . spread a b o u th i s a d v e n t u r ehse l p e dt o c r e a t et h e r o m a n t i ci m a g eo f p i r a t e s( 9 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ { e h a v e today.

172

i.1 ltLl.r\llVl: ( ll.;\LlSlS

Relative clausesand relativepronouns Relativeclauses We usea relativeclauseto give nore information about a noun phrascin a precedingclause.Instcad of repeatingthe subjectrroun phr ase,we can usea relativepronoun (yvln, wlich). I I have a friend. The friend or Hc lives in London. - I hove o i icnd who lives in London. 2 We found a shop. The shop or ! solcl olcl rccords. * WeJbund a sltop which sokl okl records. When we usea relativepronoun insteadof an objcct noun or pronoun, wc put the relativepronoun at the beginningof the relativeclause.We don't repeatthe noun or proIloLln. 3 I loved the card. You sent il. - I loved tht curd that you sefit.(xrrr ... +fie tarl+/m+yori+e ) ,l He's one man. I irdmire [|11. - He's ont untr whom I adnrirc, (xtr , .. *hofl]J rlcli*iftlnnx) \{e usuallytry to put relativeclausesimmediatelyafter the noun phrirscsthey describe(5), but rvc can include a prepositionphrasebetweenthe rroun phr aseand the relativeclause(6). 5 The food came in pJasticbags.We had b eat the food. - Thefootl that we had to eat Ltltnc in plastic bdgs.(Not Thefood eamein plastie bagstlmt *e had to eat,) 6 A pirate is o personon o ship who atlacksontl steals from other ships.

Relativepronouns:who,whom,which,that We usewfto and rr4roirr when rveare talking about people.We can use rv,lro as the subjectof a rclrtivc clause(7) and ryhorr as thc object (8). hrlolr is formal. In informal situirtions,we can use rvlrols the objector, more usually,we leaveout the relativcpronoun (9). 7 Michael is a teacher.![g works in Dr.rblin. -'+ Michael is a teacherwho works in Dublin. 'l'he personwhom you nrct wosn'tMichael. 8 The personwasn't Michael.You met him. -+ 9 The persot who )rou net wosrt'tMichael./The person_ yoLtmet wdstit Michael. We can use vhorn after prepositionsat the begir.rning of a relativeclauscin formal situations. In informal situations,\{e can put the prepositionafter the verb and usc u,lroat the beginning or, r r o r e t r s u a l l yr .' e l e l e , t u t t l r c r e l . - r t i rper o n o u l . l0 The man is loe Nash.You should talk to him . "a The matl to whom you shouldtalk is loc Nash./ The man who you sllould talk to is Joe Nnsh./Thetnan you should tolk to is ]oe Nash. We use wlich and rharfor things or animals ( I I ) anclafter group noi.rnssuch as recnrfor argroup of peoplerveare thinking of as a singleunit ( 12). l,V/rlcfr is more formal. In informal situations,rvc (13). sometimesuse th4t instcadof rtho/whomf
( ; o r t ) r o r n s 7 5 N o l n c l a u \ c s w i r h/ / / 1 6 4 I t r p o s i t i o n s1 2 5 l 1 / r d n . l 7 r l

t73

r.1 Rf l.AtI\'l.tct.ALislts

Definingand non-defining relativeclauses Defining relative clauses In a clelininplrelativeclause,u,e inclucleinformation that iclentifiesor classi6es people (1) and things (2). The meaning of the sentenceis not completewithout the defining relativeclause. 7 Do yoLt rentemberthe wonan who used to work in the bookshop?She'sa teachernow. 2 Do yoLthdt e a thing that measurestemperature? - You necnr a thcr lometer?Sorry,I dofi't. We often use (tftar)at the beginnir.rg of a defining relativeclauseinsteadof the object (3) or the object of a preposition(4). We usuallyuse (tirit) after noun phrasescontainingsuperlatives(5) or q u a n t i 6 c r s( 6 ) . 3 I brought the dictionary. lvlaria wanted it. - I In'oughtthe riictiolnry (that) Mnria h,alted. 'l'he 'fhe 'lwinsl 'Twini. 4 film is He's talking irbout it . n fln (that) hes talkingabout is 5 lt's the bestflnr (that) I've seenin years. . He was the worst teacher(thtt) I had at school. 6 There'sa lot (thot) I don't krrow about conputcrs. . Every person(that) v,e rnet lutd a cold. We can also begin defining relativeclauseswith l,lo, vthom and which. 'l 7 I don't kww anyone who/whom I cqn trust. , here re two rules which you ntust alwaysobey,

Non-defining relatiYe clauses \\hcn wc want to includc csscntialinformatior.r,wc rLsca dcfining rclativeclausc(8). Whcn we are sirnply adclir.rSl extra inforr.nation,we usea non defir.ringrelativeclause(9). We usuallyput a comma beforea non-defining clauseand a comma after it, unlessit is the end of the sentence. 8 The first caller who can give the correct answer will win the prce. 'l 9 hc frst caller, who was from the London area, didn't gite the correctcrtswer. We can also use brackets or dashes:The secondcaller (who sounded Scottish) got it right. We usuallyuse wln, whont or rvfticftat the beginningof non-dehning relativeclauses( l0). We don't usually begin non-de6nir.rg relative clauseswith thal or without a relative pronoun ( I I ). 70 Our tttw boss,who seemsto be nice, has said nothing dbotLtMr Bell, whom he replaced. '1he l1 Mini, which somepeople initially laughedst, soonbecomethe mostpopularcqr. (.xtllTheMini,@soonbecamethemostPopularcar') \Vc can usc non defir.ringrelativcclauseswith which to atld commentsabout prccedingstatements ( 12). \\te also use which in pleposition ph rasessuch as in which ccseat the beginningof non -defining relativeclausesused to add conrments(l3). 12 They said Colherine lnd beenin prison, which simply wasn't true. 13 There tnay be a strike,in which case the olfce will relnain closed. In non-defining relativeclausesu.ecan use of niicl ancl ofrvy'ronl after quantifierssuch as solre (14) or superlativessuch as the mostlamors ( l5). We do this when we want to add information about part of somethingor about an individual from a group alreadymentioned. 'l 14 he last lecture,some of which I .iustdidn't tntderstand,wasobout osnosis. 'l'heroux, 15 At the conJirence,therc weresewral writers, the most famous of whom was Pdul \\rc can also put superlativesafter the relativepronoun: ... wrilers,oJvrhontthe most.farnouswt:ls... 4

I n t h e a r t i c l e a b o u t B l a c k b e a r d o n p a g e 1 7 2 ,f i n d t h e f o u r r e l a t i v ec l a u s e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h which, and decide whether they are defining or non-defining. D e hn i r r g : \ , r rr- d r f ir ri rr g :

t71

lthtir!

Jiuscsind ,clrrn! f.onouns 1tr Qnrntihdr 8.l su|dhti\'.s ll0

I 4 I t F , I , A T I V IC] I , A T ] S E S

Add one set of relative pronouns (not necessarily in this order) to each description. Which one could be left out? that / which / who (x2) / whom

that (x2) / which / who (x2)

Laureland Hardy were a pair of comedyactors(1)

. .. . .. . .. made over 100films from 1926 to 1940.Stan Laurel, 121. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was born in Britain, and Oliver Hardy, an American, were first successfulin silent hlms and were famous for their slapstick style of comedy. In their films, L a u r eol f t e nc a u s e dt h e m a n y a c c i d e n t(s3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h a p p e n e dt o t h e m b o t h , a f t e r ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H a r d y w o u l d g e t a n g r y a n d s a y , ' T h i s i s a n o t h e r f i n e.m . . e. .s. s. .(.5. .) . . . . . . . . . . you'vegotten me into.' A lekyll and Hyde is a person (6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . has two personalities,one of (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is bad and the other good. The expressioncomes from a novel about Dr lekyll, (s).....................investigatesthegoodandevilpartsofhumannatureandinventsadrug (9).....................canseparatethem.Whenhetakesthedrug,hebecomesanevilversionof himself,lroy. .. . .. . .

he callsMr Hyde.

Add one of these clauses to each of the sentences below. Use relative pronouns and make other appropriate changes. Add commas where necessary. he or shecontrolsa sportsgame

most peoPlektlow him as Mark Twain

someof themarepoisonous it consists of nine isl,tntis yourenta roomor Jlatfrom him /he hasneverbeenmarried

it usesexaggeratetl actions,ofteniwobing accidents thelargestpart of it is belowthesurfaceof thewater part in threedffirent sportsin it eachcompetitor takes

Example:A bachelol i5 3 1131.who ha?..\?y9.l.k?.1\.'9..1.i9.41 I S l a p " t i c iks a t y p e o f c o m e d y 2 A relereeis an official J A t r i a t h l o ni i a \ p o r l \ e v e n .l . . . . . 4 A l a n d l o r di s a p e r s o r r 5 A n i c e b e r.g. . . . . massof ice floating in the ocean. 6 Snakes. . . 7 Tuvalu. .. . 8 S a m u eC l lemens

.. .......isasolid a r e l o n g r e p t i l e .w' i t h o u t l e g s . s a country in the south Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w a sa m a i o r A m e r i c a nw r i t e r .

Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of relativeclauses in this text.

that A strangething(happened to me once was getting a letter said I had been

'terminated:

The letter, that

'the camefrom the university, was an official notice of termination (means end') of employment. It waslike being hred from my job, which it felt really weird. I didn't have ajob at the university that I could be fired from it! I was just a student didn't have a job. \{4ren I called the office, they said it was an error had been causedby a new computer. I wasn't the only one had been terminated by that computer.A lot of other people didn't have jobs at the university lost them that day.

175

1 . 1I i l i l . r \ 1I Y I : ( l l - ] \ u S E S

Reducedrelativeclauses A relativcclauseformed u.ith a participleand no relativepronoun is carlleda reducedrelativeclausc. Wc use presentparticiples( I ) and past particiPles(2). w&iting outside, I There are two studentswho are waiting outside.' Theresre two stu.lcttts 'fhe strarvberries which had beendipped in chocolateu'erereallydeliciousl- The strawltcrrias 2 dippeil in chocolate were really delicious! Wc usea presentparticiplc in placeof an activevcrb (3) and a past participle in placeof a passive v e r b ( 4) . 3 There rvereteachcrswho rvereshouting and children who werc running out of the building. - There were tenchersshouting and chiLlrcu running out of the buildirg. 4 Debbie only drinks iuice that is made from freshfruit that is growD organically.* Debbiconly dritks juice made ft'ont freshJiuit grown organically. \{c can use participlesinstcaclof verbsreferring to the past,Presentor future. scorethe most Poillts in the ganle. 5 The winner is the personwho scored/scores/will * The winner is lhe personscoring the nrcsl poitttsin the game. 6 First prize is for the nrost points which werc scored/arescored/willbe scoredin the gamc. - First prize is Jbr tht ttosl points scored it tlrc gone. We cirn use a participle from a simple passiveto dcscribea generalsituirtion(7), a continuouspassive to enphasizethat a situation is continuing (8) or a;rerfectpassiveto emphasizethat a situation has c o n t i r t r e t fl r o m a n c l r J i c rt i r n L( a ) . 7 \(e are concerned aboutpeopleheld in priso wilhout a rricl. (= who are held) aboutpcoplebeingheld in prison without a frral. (- who are being held) 8 Waare concerned .) lMeare concernetlabtnLtpeoplehaving been held h prison for years.(= who have been held) Participlescan also be used in non-defining relativcclauses,usuallyin written descriptionsancl narratives. l0 Tha old car, trailing black smoke, drove o.[f lowartlsrowri. (- rvhich rvas trailing smoke) ' l?.obcrtBall, nicknamed'Big Bob', was ny favouritc teacher.(= rvho rvas nicknamed) We put /rotbeforethe participle in negativereduccdrelativeclauses. l1 My parents, not having much mofley, nevcr want on holiday. (= who didn't have) ' I'd prefu shirtsnot made with polyester if you have atty. (- which aret.t'tmacle) Wc can usesome adjectivcsand adjectivePhrasesirfter rouns in a way that is similar to reduced relativeclauses. 12 There tvasone seatavailable on theJlight. 1- onc seatrvhich rvas available) ' Mercury is a rtrctol, silver in colour, often fouud it litluid fornt. (- rvhich is silver in colour) responsible, suitable possible,present,r-eady, Others include: necessary, We clon't usea participle instcadof a verb that describesa singleor sudclenaction (13) or a velb with a subjectthat is diffcrcnt fron the relativepronoun (14). 13.[|rcrewasasuddenbangthatwokemeup.(No'|'@) irrgsneedin6 . . . ) ' 14 Thereare severalthittgsthat we neeil fron the shop.(t{or +here atq'eve T|tisislt,ttheinfortnntionthatIwasgivenbeforc.(Nor@) lVe usuallyusean infinitive, not a participle,after a noun precededby the adjectives frst, Jccond,etc (moon) 15 NeilAnnstrongwas thc frst personto walk ortlhe moon. who walkedon the (ror )

176

A c t i v cn n d t n \ \ i t . 5 7

N , n - d c f i t i n g r c l a r i v c . h u s e s1 7 4 l t l l t i t i v c s l r 9

P i \ t P x r l i . i l ) l c l\ l l )

14 REI.ATNT CL{USES

Usinga dictionaryif necessarycompletethesedefinitionswith the nouns and appropriateforms of the verbs in reducedrelativeclauses. jigsaw mermaid cause have send work rnemo shadow cut Drint stand in the I A . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . is a written note . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. betweenpeople sameorganization. the body of a woman but a fistls 2 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i s. a ni m a g i n a rcyr e a t u r e tail insteadof legs. 3 A . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . is a picture . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . on cardboardor wood and . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . into various shapesthat haveto be fitted together again. 4 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. s. a d a r ka r e ao n a s u r f a c. e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b y a n o b j e c.t. . . . . . . . . . .... . . . .. . betweendirect light and that surface. Change each of these clauses to a reduced relative clause and write it in one of the spaces below. it wasstandingon the bed. it is basedon a true story it is parked outsile it wascoveredwith feathers it startsat 8 p.ffi.

they are sitting in it they didn't havechildren they weflt out to concertsand the theate they wereaccusedof tima they werecommittediluring the war . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .w. i t ht w op o l i c e m e n

I T h e r e a' sb l a c kc a r. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . ' ^-; :. z r rouno ure DuDDv

t -.r. rippedopen. J rne rum

"f,ft.

and pillowsthat it had

is a drama

n t"", O""nf" witnessescould be found to testifr againstthem.

no .... ........ ... hadto be setfreebecause

5 We envied the Andersons.Paul and Mariorie Anderson, theirtime .

.. . .. .

.. ....

..

.................:*"refreetospendmoreof

Makethis text shorter by creating reduced relative clauses where possible, For all you foodJoversrr"'hor,rrillbesitting at home and who will be looking for something that is 'The Asian Kitchen', interesting on TV this afternoon, there'sa fabulous new show which is called which has been createdand which hasbeen produced by Mary Sah,which begins at 4.30 this afternoon.Among the disheswhich will be featuredwill be SaucyTofu, which consistsof tofu squareswhich havebeen dipped in a specialbatter, whidr havebeen deep-fried and which havebeen coveredin a creamypeanut sauce,and Evil Shrimp, which is made with hot pepperswhich havebeen sauteedwith other vegetables,and which are servedwith shrimp which are sizzling in a shallow pool of red curry. It's the most delicious thing on TV today! t77

r . 1l | , t , \ \ I ( : t A t r sst

Possessives withrelativeclauses and pronouns 1 1 W r i t et h e n u m b e r so f a p p r o p r i a t ee x a m p l e si n t h e s p a c e s .

Possessives with relative clauses determinerssuch as ft/sbeforc nouns.We usuallyuse wioseto Wc use n ftoseinsteadof possessive refel to people , but it can alsobe usedafter nouns for organizations and places I [s he the boy? $5 bag was stolen. * Is he the boy whose bag was stolen?(Nor-rv'!o*ir&cg) 2 Napa is in a region whose wines are famous. , Conre to Jamsictt, whosepeople welcorneyou, 3 Delco is n contpanywhose products are everywhcrc,. That's tlrc club whose coach wasfred. other things. We can also use wlroseto talk about things that are part of or belong to n q rodius Draw circlewhose is one inch. 4 Draw a circle. ft5 radius is one lnch. 'lhey 5 li,e in a snall town whose name I've forgotlen. (Not *:malL+ow+-vrhlch+a+te) Instead of ryftosebef
Pronouns with relative clauses We cirn use relativeclausesafter personalpronouns and indefinitepronouns 8 l)o you know anyone who has a yan? . There trust be something (that) we can do about the cold. 9 Sheinsiststhat it'syou who must apologize.- But it wasn't me who broke thc window. The trseof subject pronouns sounds very forma|. It wasn't I who brokc tlrc window. We can also use the pronoun tfiose(not rhese)rvith wln, which, rlnt or reduced relative clauses. l0 Those who know him well say ha will Jtght. ' Ask those (who are) wniting outside to come in. ' His ideasare similor to those (which/that) we've heard before.(Nctt sit+ihr+o-+vhitHl ' Organic vegetablesare those (whichlthat have been)grown without the useof chemicals. We can usequantiliersas pronouns followedby whoor that . We can also leaveout the relatiyc pronoun or usea reducedrelativeclauseafter quantifiers 11 We sawsome (thet) we liked in ltaly. , I didu't fnd alot (that was) written about leJfreys. 12 There aren't many who like lrcr. , There isn't much that lrc misscs.(Nol rt+e'ltlt.A#ft)

1 2 A d d t h e s e c l a u s e s , w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e c h a n g e s ,t o t h e s e n t e n c e s b e l o w ltisor ltcr parotts rtrt tlcod tltc vool of it is stronuond riurublt' t i t i sp c r ' , , , ri /r, ' c ) ,/i ( i I / i , L | , , I I///I/ r , , /' ,

ittttttotres t Ircy I uu,ccon p Itt ttl thair r1uL'st lorgeJlagsv,crclnnging lron its rrppcrwittdows nnuy o.fltis pairttirtglooft/rftclrirgecontics!ri1t:

I '\n orphan is a chilcl J Il.rtr yotr e\er nr(t .lt\'(,ne 3 lhe ork is a kincl oi tlec

4 \Vc passecl an olci palircc 'l 5 hosc

shoLrltlhand thenrin. cstal)lishpop xrl.

l Tli

lnidl. r. fr,f!,on. rf

P . , n n u lf , L r r , u , \ ' r ; P o $ r s i \ . d . r . , f ! f . r ' s r

Qoifliln,'s!

14 RELAIIVE CLAUSES

Prepositions in relative clauses .T y: p:.ponlons at the beginning or the end of relative clauses.we usually put prepositions at Y. the end in informal situations. 1 This is the room. Iworkinit.-+ Thisis the roomin which I work op.theroomthat I work in. Whenwe put prepositions at the end, we usually use that (2) or no rclativepronoun (3) at the beginning.In formal situations, we can include which, who and.whornat thi beginning (4). 2 cook'swasthe shopthat everybodywent to for shoes,. Therewerebunk bedi that ie sieotin. 3 YourWo.nent is theperson_ you play against. . The day _ I'd beenwaiting for soonaiived. 4 camden is the area (uhich) I gew rp in. . k he the boy (who/whom) you-iere telling us about? Wealwaysput the preposition at the end after a phrasal verb in a relative clause. 5 Thereare things(which) he'shad to cutbaci on. (No'r... @). He is a pernn (whohvhom) I've alwayshoked up to. (nor ...-aaan**+*on+ae+okeap) when we put prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause,we use rvhich (nor that) (6) or whom (not who)(7). 6 A clatheshorseis a frame on thich clothesare hung to dry. $ot . .. tf,ameot+**
you mustcotnplete soffiethingbeforeit you havepromised.to be responsible for hb or her moral education

I A deadlineis a poht in time 2 Y o ug r o d c h i lids a c h i l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 A r o l em o d e il s a p e r s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A telescope is a pieceofequiprnent... that are far away.

. ...... .. to seethings

14 Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of relative clauses in this text. r^rhich The sayingfor+hat I had to find the meaning was:'people who live in glasshousesshouldn't throw stones'.My first guesswasthat it was about a situation which those want to fight should first think aboutdefending themselvesfrom attack. obviously, a person who the horxe is made of glass,it's somethingis easilybroken, should be carefirl. If you throw a stone,the person you threw the stone at him could throw it back and smashyour house.However,this saying,the meaning of it I looked up in the oxford Dictionary of English ldioms, is not really about fighting. It meansthat you should not criticize others for faults similar to you haveyourself. I think this is good advicefor anyone is critical of other people.

Iidslve|bs

I34 PEpositions125 Rllarivt cl.usrs od rcl.tbe Dmnouns173

179

l1 l(ti,\ Vhct AL'strs

Relativeclauseswith where,what,whatever,etc. Relativeclauseswith where,when, why and how Wc can use rl,lrereinstead of itt which, s! which, etc. after nouns for places (1) and aftcr nouns such aspoirt and slage(2). More figuratively,rvecan use wftereafter nouns like situation(3), I Therc's a snrall box. I keep keys !11. * There'sa snall box where/in which I keep keys. 2 \{e have reacheda s|a€lewhere we now have nore people applying thdn we hate space for. 3 \\Ionrcn sre better in situtltions where strategyis nore importa t thatr strCngth. Other nouns usecllike this includc: activity,case,example,experience,socicty We can use ry,teninstead of tt which, cluring which, etc. after nouns referring to time. 4 Do you hqye o mornent when we ca talk? ' Thdt was q period when eterything u,ast'ine. We don't use when after each/etery time: That happenseach/eyerytitne (tlnt) it rains. After the noun reasofijwecan use ry/r/ or no relativepronoun. 5 There ntay be goctdressons(why) hc couldit coie. . Tlrcrc'sno reason(why) you can't r1o it. We can use where,when,why and how rn placeof a noun and relativepronoun combined. 6 That's where hk car n asparked. . He pointed to where he usedto lrre, (= 16. place rvhere) ' 'l'hot's 'l when I start. . hey were talking about when they were children. (- the time rvhen) . Thdt\ why I'u here! . Shenever told anyone why shelnd to leqve.(= the reason why) ' Thctt'show it's done. . We showedhim how we make rice pudding. (- the way in whicl.r) We don't use how after the wdy. the way (that) we uoke it. (No't +he*ay4o+v-we+ake it)

Relativeclauseswith what \Ve can use wfuit,meaning'the thing(s) thatl at the beginningof relativeclausesused as objects(7) or subjects(8). 7 Shegavcthem the things that she had. - Shegavethem whot shehad. 8 What they're doing seentswrong. (Nor r4ha++heytre4eixglt-seeffis+rerc,) \{'e don't use w,harafter quantifiers(9) or after nouns or pronouns (Iu1. 9SomepeopIe|ostalI(that)theyhadiwested.(xtll@) 10 We'll buy the food and everything (that) we needlater. on We'll buy what ,,ate necd later. (Nor +hefeed-what+e ree$ ffiery*ffiS nha#e+eed)

Relative clauses with whatever, whoever, etc, We can use whatever,meaning'any thing(s) that' (1 1), and whocrer,meaning'any person(s)that' (12), at the beginning of relativeclausesused as objectsor subiects.We use wftlcfteyer lvhen l,e're 'an). talking about thing(s) that' from a linited nurrber or set of choices(13). 11 If you take the big boxes,I'll tqke whateyer is leJi.. Whatever shedid nade then happy. 12 We will nork with whoever they send. . Whoever said tlxtsethings is ltistakcn. 13 Writc it pen or pexcil, whichever you prefer. . I'll go by bus or train, whichever is cheaper. We can use whateyer,whoeyer ancl whicheverto say'it doesn't matter what, who or whichl 14 I'll always loveyoL!,whatever )tou clo.' I'nt not wailing all day for her, whoeyer she is. . He'll be in trouble, whichever he chooses.. Whichever way they go,we'Il catch them. We can also use whereyer,y,henevera:ndhoweyerwitir'ttlre meanings 'ir.ror at any place, time or way 'it that . . .' (15) and doesn'tnatter where,when or how .. .' ( 16). 15 He always keepsin touch wherever he is. . Wenever I seePenny,she askst1e aboli yoLt. 16 Pleasesit wherever you like. . Cnl[ whenever you cdx. , Just buy it, howeyer much it costs.

180

R c l a t n ct m D o r n s l 7 l

N o n d c l i n i r g r d i t i v e c l . u r s l t . 1 Q n a n t i h d s8 . 1 i t l ! , r o r r / r i . , r 0

1

I I kLL-\TIIL CLAI SLi

15 Complete this email message with how (x2), what, when, where and why. D o y o u h a v ea m i n u t e o r t w o t h i s m o r n i n g ( l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e c a n t a l k ?I ' m J t a p o i n t (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I need to check with you about (3) . . . . . . . . . . . I should organize the reportand (4)......

I should include or leaveout. Ifyou agreervith (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . planning I'm to organizeit, then there'sno reason(6). . . . . . we can't have it finished by Friday. 16 Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these definitions with the following words. crime motive

prison quarantine

revenge

that what

when where

which why

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a place. . .. . . . peopleare kept as punishment for crimes. 2 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is an explanation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . someone acts in a particular way. 3 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is an offence for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you nay be punished by law. I

4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is deliberate punishment or injury . someone has suffered.

is inflicted in return for

5 .. ... .. .. .. isaperiod an animal or personis kept awayfrom othersin order to prevent the possible spread of disease. 17 Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1-5) and add these words: howeyer whateyer I 2 3 4 5

wheneyer

You can dress (. . .) We lived on potatoes(...) The girls can get up (. ) W e ' l lg o t h e r e( . . ) They said we could invite (. . .)

whichever

whoever

a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they want to on Sunday norning. b. .. . . . . we think would enjoy the party. c and .. .. ... . . . . . . . elsewas available. d.....................youlikebecauseit'sreallycasual. e on Monday or Tuesday,. . . . . . . dayyou're free.

18 Complete this email message with the following words: how thqt

whctt whatever

when where

which whichever

why

Thanks for your email and the good news about the report. I've tried severaltimes to think about the report, but then the phone rings and I have to pay attention to (r) . . . is going on right a t t h a t m o m e n t ,I c a n a s s u r ey o u t h a t t h i s w o n ' t h a p p e ne v e r yt i m e ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e h a v et o do one of these quarterly reports, but right now l'm in a position (l) . . . . every problem in the office seemsto land on my desk, 1+;. . .. . . .. is partly my own fault, I know. An1.way, that's not (s) . . you wanted to hear about, I'm sure. I don't think there's a slot in my schedulethis morning (6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we can talk. How about late this afternoon around three . . . . . . i s b e s t f o r y o u .I f y o u a l r e a d yh a v es o m ei d e a( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we should put the report together, then I agreewith you that there shouldn't be any reason (e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . we can't complete it before the deadline. I'll talk to you later. o r f o u r ,1 r 1. . .

181

14 RELATIVECLAUSES

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. has been demolishedand replacedby an office

I The houseI grewup ain

b init

c inthat

d in which

2 Fieldwork is practical work a doing b done c which do

outside the school or office, d that does mail is delivered.

3 A letterboxis a narrow openingin a door through a it b that c which d where 4 I didnt recognizethe man who shewastalking to a him b her c his wife d 5 Could you ask those a wait b waiting

c waited

outsideto makelessnoise? d to wait

ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that must be changedin orderto correct the sentence. Her newboyftiend, seemsnicerthan Jordy,who wasfrom Soain.or . A - , , - .who's - . - - -fiom - E - l Denmark _ Graham, '____------e--____________Dlbalhad-rcalLlstrglaL, andwhomnobodvreallvliked. A slot is a narrow opening through whigh something can be put or a channel ori alonc solnething slidesor a position for somethine in a timetable, _into . - -which - - - - -somethine - E - - c _ _fits _D I havefiiends w.bohad a baby a few yearsago wben we were neighboursin Wimbledon and,

--r

-e- "

time wbe! I go back to visit them, their child, wllose name is Sam,seemsto havegrown anotho ten centlmetres.

We had about ten peoplelglpi4g us carry our belongingsto a van pa4F
D

sudden crash m4ing us turn round to find the big mirror lyiJrgin pieceson the ground. cL) Everyonewho was on tre committee agreedthat we should set asidesome of the money we hadlollected to paywhoeverstill had to be paid for their work and then we shouldput all BU which wasleft into a savinssaccount. ------D-

C Completethis text. Useapproprlatewordsto beginthe relativeclauses. success storiesincludecrops(z) Geneticengineers,(r) they havenever grown before,haveproduced their first will grow in areas1:1 geneticallyengineeredinsect. (a) is being called the'biotech moth' is a version of a small moth known to attack and destroy cotton plants. This new version will be sterilg so it will produceno offspring.The Departmentof Agricultureis planningan experimentin some 3,600of thesebiotech moths will be set fiee under large screened cagesin a cotton field. The goal is to havea moth-free field in one generation.

t82

14 RELATIW CLAUSES

Completeeachof the sentencesusing a relativeclauseso that it is as similaras possible in meaningto the sentenceaboveit. I Bettyis derivedfrom the nameElizabeth. Elizabethis the name 2 Her Darentswere born in India. India is 3 I liked Hemingway'sshort storiesbest. Hemingway is the author Her parentswill never like me, no matter what I do. Whatever 5 He talked about humanisrn durins the first lecture. I wasat the first lecture,

Add one of thesesentences,changedto an appropriaterelativeclause,to eachspace. it is calleda beanstalk hesuspects somethingis wrong hestenksomethingsfrom him it k often nll to children hediscotersa giant there

theygrow very qubkly he then cutsit down his mother thinks they are worthless he is chasinghim heselka cow

Jackand the Beanstalkis a traditional tale or fairy story . lack is a boy tz) for three magic beans1r; , but (4) into a really tall plant (5) . Jackclimbs up the beanstalkinto the clouds (5)

giant,(8)

\7)

The tries to find Jackand recitesthe famous lines:

'Fee, fi, fo, fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Behe alive or be he dead,I'll grind his bonesto make my bread.' down the beanstalk,rg) lackescapes 00)

so that the giant, , falls to the ground and is killed.

183

Conditional sentencespresentone event,typicallyin a clausebeginningwithif (lf I don't leavethe housebefore7.30),as a conditionfor anotherevent,expressedjn a mainclause(i usuallymissthe busto town).In real conditionals,the eventshappen,havehappenedor are likelyto happen(/f / m/.ssthe bus,I haveto walkallthewayto town).Inunrealconditionals, the eventshavenot happened,are not likelyto happenor are imaginary (lf I lived in town, I wouldn'thave thisproblem\. Readthroughtheseparagraphs andfind two if-clauseswith verbsin the pastsimple: 1 anotherexpressing a realcondition 2 oneexpressing an unreal condition I put a hugeswimmingpool in frontof my house, peoplewouldthink I was crazy.Plus,I wouldn't She startedwhenshe was fourteen.Shewanted want lots of peoplecomingto my pool.lf I wentto just to be likethe boys.In thosedays,if she had a cigarettein her hand,she was cool.That'swhat h all that trouble,I wouldput the poolat the back0f my house. theyall thoughtbackthen. But it's easierto start than to stop. She is tryingto quit, but it isn't simple.lf she has a cup of coffee,she always 'lf I wereyou,I wouldsell it.' Thatwas his sistels wantsto smokea cigarette, advicein responseto his requestfor help.She was puttingon her coat and getting readyto leave. She had alwaysknownthat she wasn'tthe fastest lf he had wantedto sell his car,he wouldhave donethat already.But he didn't havea job, so he or the most talented.Hermotherhad oncetold 'lf couldn'treallyaffordto keepthe car. lt was his her, you are successful, it will be becauseof hardwork.'Andthat was how she had approached own fault, he knewthat. lf he had workedharder her tennis.Likegoingto work.She saw the other ,!) at school,he wouldhavehad some kindof career 'lf you by now.Thatobviously wasn'thappening. kidsjust hangingaroundwhileshe ran to tennis were in my you situation, lwould heip out!'he practice.She had spenther wholelife on tennis courts.Nowshe had won her firstchamplonship. calledout to his sisler. She heardher mother'swords,'lf you don't havea struggle,youwon't experience the triumph.' Whenshe was younger,she didn'tcareabout anything.Shethoughtshe was reallytough.lf she caughta cold,she didn't stop. Nothingcouldget Theteacherwas describing a film abouta farmer her downor makeher stayat home.Butthese who had turnedone of his fieldsinto a baseball daysshe gets sick reallyeasily,so she hasto pay park.Thefarmerhad hearda voicetellinghim, 'lf you buildit, theywill come.' Shewantedus to '" moreattention.lf she calchesa cold,shegoesto bed immediately. She doesn'ttry to be tough writeaboutthat as our topic.I couldn'timagine becauseshe's not as stronAas she usedto be. that happening whereI live.I like swimming,but if

2 Choose one of the following as the final sentenceof each paragraph(Anna-Erin). I And I would builcl a hjgh lenceround it. ( 2 Ilut sh€ isr.r'tconplirining. ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) 3 She has had to avoiclorrc so that shecar.ravoiclthc othcr. (.. 4 l l u t s h el . r a ca l r e a d lvc f t .( . . . . . . . . . . ) 5 N o u s h ek n e r vr v h i rttl t c yn l e a t t ,( . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . )

I ll4

15 CONDITIONALS

Realconditionals Factual conditionals We use a factual conditional to expressa fixed connection that existsbetweentwo eventsnow or always(lf+ presenttense+ presenttense).It is alsocalledthe'zero conditional', I lf I riash the dishes,he ilies them. . If thefruit feets soft, ils readyto eat. We can also usefactual conditionals to expressa connection that existedbefore now (r/+ past tense+ pasttense). 2 lf it raineil, we went by bus.. If my unclecaughtfuh, he alwaysgarc us some. 'when'. Note that it is only in factual conditionals that i/is usedwith a meaning similar to

Predictiveconditionals We usea predictiveconditionalto expressa likely connectionbetweenone event(i/+ presenttense) and anotherpossibleevent(rvill ). It is alsocalledthe'first conditional'. 3 If your fiends ilon't arrive byfve, we'll leavewithout them. . If I seeEva,I'll tell her. The most common modal usedin the main clauseis rryil| but we also use other modals and phrasal modals such as can and begoing to. 4 If weget thercearly,we can sit at thefront. . If he mys that again, I'm going to scrmm! 'if We don t usually put rryillin the f-clause unlesswe are using the firll emphatic form to mean you insist'(5) or when it is part ofl polite invitation or request(6). you'll get badmarl<s, 5 If you will put off doingyour homauork,thenof course 6 If you'Il just follow me,I'll takeyou to your room. . If you'll openthe door I'll bring thesein. 3 Find an example of each of the following In the paragraphs on page 184, I' a Dresenttensefactualconditional

::rl.!j;-.U;;.3i.."...*.etg,.V.^r

-1T',"L*r;;^'""

'a.

a pasttensefactualconditional '''''I

a predictive conditional ^\4

le.,

{t^,C'

*

U

|

rr

'r'. r'rl'5r'e 1q",$r1 s :l:noIQ c Cv/a-14!

J' ,,ollp ,, . iur )r-,'r,.'d .r/"q ..1'oL c-,rv( ,r

t"o,-l

. . . . - . . "' .r. .4f '

qt''rr C

Choose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (14). Choose the correct verb. I 2 3 4 5 6

If If If If If If

thereid@ a lot to do, (...) the studentsgelqetkatqgto us, (. . .) the testis/will be difficult, (. . .) thereiq@ a lot to carry,(. . .) you don\/didn't want to study,(.. .) it is/wascold and wet, (...)

Mi&d condidonals 188 Modals ad ph.6al nodals 29 will321

a b c d e f

shewon't do well. we carlt makeyou do it. shegoesby bus. we can usuallyhelp them. we askthe porter to help us. everyonehelped.

185

15 (I)NUI'

ONAI_S

Unrealconditionals Hypothetical conditionals We usea h)?otheticalconditionalto expressa distantand unlikelyconnectionbetweenone inaginaryevent(f+ pasttense)andanotherimaginaryevent(would).Itrs alsocalledthe'second conditional'. 1 If I got thejob, I'd moveto London., If you lived closer,we'd tisit you moreoften. (were)is alsousedin a hypotheticalconditional:If I wereyou,I'd go. The pastsub.junctive The most common modal in the rnain clauseis would,but we alsouseother modalssuchas corld and might. 2 If you camein thesummer,you coulil stay with usandyou might evenget your own room. We don't usuallyput woukJrn the fclause unlesswe are usingit to expressa desiredoutcome(3). 3 If he would only behate himself,I'il takehim with me.. If it woulil stopraining,we'dgo.

Counterfactual conditionals We usea counterfactualconditionalto expressan imaginaryconnectionbetweenone eventthat neverhappened(r/+ pastperfect)and anothereventthat alsoneverhappened(wouldhave+ past participle). It is alsocalledthe'third conditionall 4 He didn't call me. I didn't help him. * If he had calleil me,I would havehelpeilhim. The most common modal in the main clauseis wouldhaye,butwe alsouseother modalssuchas might haw and couklhave. 5 If shehail askeilus,we might haveknown how toJix it, or wecould havetried at least. The contractedform you'dcanbe you iad in the if-clauseor you worlldin the main clause. 6 If you'd seenhim,you'd havelaughed.(- Ifyou had seenhim, you would havelaughed)' We'dhavebeenreallydisappointed if they'dlost.(= We would have... if they had) 5 Find an exampleof each of the following in the paragraphson page 184. I a h y p o t h e t i ccaol n d i t i o n a l ...............:......

' ''"":':o:1" "": :'"o l' 6 Completeeach sentencewith an unrealconditional using informationfrom the sentences above it. Example:I don't haveextrapens.I won't giveyou one.-

If I.hsd.el!rg. I .!g[14 3!ye. tq$ q!e... Fens, I I don't know Jason's phonenumber.I can'ttell him what happened. II 2 Shedidn't preparefor the test.Shedidn't pass.

rt. . . . . . 3 You didn't warn us about the bad weather. I didn't bring a raincoat.

rf . . .

.

4 I'm not in your situation.I'll start looking for anotherjob. If

186

Modak 29 Modalpcrfcd 30 Subjunctivc 167 ub,U for prcfc.cnccs33

]5 CONDIIIoNALS

Chooseone of these verbs for each space in this text (aboutsaving money for retirement)-

decirled were stqrted had started wanted coukl do

would contribute would cost would end up

would start would heve contributed could hat e paid

H o w m a n yt i m e sh a v ey o u h e a r d , ' IIf ( l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y o u ,I ( 2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s a v i n gn o w f o r r e t i r e m e n t I. f' ? you 1:1 t o h a v e! 1 0 0 , 0 0 0a t a g e6 5 , y o u ( 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

i t f o r a sl i t t l e a s! 3 1 p e r m o n t h .

The earlier you start, the lower your monthly payments will be and the lower your total payment (the amount you contribute) will be. Look at Sandra. She's24 now. Beginning next year, if she (5) . . i n v e s t i n g! 3 1 e v e r ym o n t h , s h e1 6 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o n l y ! 1 4 , 8 8 0i n t o t a lo v e r f o r t y years.So, she'd invest lessthan t15,000 in total and receive1100,000 from her investment. N o w l o o k a t D a v i d .H e ' s5 5 .I f h e ( 7 ) . . . . . . i n v e s t i n ga t 3 0 ,h e ( 8 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o n l yt 4 6 e v e r ym o n t h a n d ( e ) . . . . . . . . . B u ti f h e ( 1 0 ) t552 everymonth and he (rz)....

f19,320.

.tostartinvestingnow,it(lt).............. . payinga total of L66,240.Doesn'tit

make senseto start early? 8

Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of conditionals in this text. My mother keepstrying to give me a big old armchair that used to belong to my grandparents. I remember that, when I was a child, if -y g."ndfrthe, i$\n that chair after dinner, he always fall asleep.He snored too. lf his feet are near the fire, his slippers start to smoke and my grandmother has to rush over and wake him up. I have also noticed recently that if my father sit in that chair, he immediately go to sleep and start snoring. My mother get really annoyed if that happen. It's like a chair with a curse. I am worried that if I take the chair, the same thing happen to me. I don't have this dilemma if my older brother didn't move away two years ago. It he stays, he is given the chair first and I am not faced with the problem. But it is a really nice-looking chair and n.raybeI could make room for it. If I move a small table, the chair fit in my living room next to the fire. Do I really have a problem if I settle into its comfortable embrace after dinner and give in to its seductivecharms? But who wake n.reup if my slippers catch fire? 187

15 CONDITIONAIS

Mixedconditionals Mixed real conditionals In factual conditionals, we usually use the sametensein both clauses(1), but we sometimesusea mixture of past and presenttensesin the clauses(2) . I If it snoweil heavily,we iliiltt go to school.. If sheworlcshte. I u,ait for her. 2 If you saw thefilm, you know how it ends.. lf they iloit unilerstand what to do, theyprobably weren't listening mrlier. Somefactual conditionals are usedto describehabits in the pastwith would ('d). It has the same meaning as ,sed ,o. It makesthe sentencelook like a hlpothetical conditional, but it isn1. 3 When we werekids, if it raineil a lot, we'il stay indoors.But if it was sunny,we'il oftengo down to the lake. In predictive conditionals, we usually usethe presentsimple in the fclause (4), but we can alsouse the pastsimple(5) or presentperfect(6) . 4 If we ilon't eat now, we'll get hungry later during the concert. 5 If you stutlieil for the test,you uon't have anyproblems, 6 If they'vefinisheil already,we'll gite them somethingeheto do. When we usepredictive conditionals to expressa preference,we can include would with verbsof 'liking'or'not liking'in the main clause(7). We can alsorse wouldratherplusthe baseform ofa verb when we expressa preferencebetweenalternativeswhich havebeen suggested(8). 7 If it isn't too late, we'alrike to watch the newson TY. 8 If ifs OK with you, lil rathn stay here.(You suggestedgoing somewhereelse.)

Mixed unreal conditionals In hypothetical conditionals, insteadof connecting an imaginary event to a possiblepresentor future event r:sing woull (9), we can connectit to a possiblepast eventwith would have(10). 9 If we were rich, we woulil offer to help thosepoor peoplewho are suffering. l0 If we were rich. we would have offereil to help thosepoor peoplewho wne suffering. In counterfactual conditionals, instead of connecting an imaginary past event to another past event usingwouldhaw (11),we can connectit to a presenteventor situationusingwoald(12). ll If your parentshadn't me| you tt'ouliblt hat'e beenborn. 12 If your parentshadn't me6 you woukltt be sitting herenow Add tte or fe?and the following words to this extract from the poem The Rum Tum Tirggerby T. S. Eliot. chase haye

prefer

rather

wants

The Rum Tirm Tuggeris a Curious Cat. havegrouse. I f y o up u t h i m i n a f l a t ,t h e n( r ). . . . . . . . . . .r a t h e .r . . . . . .. . . . a h o u s e . I f y o u s e th i m o n a m o u s et,h e n1 a.). . . . . . . .. . o n l y. . . . . . . . . . . a r a t , I f y o u s e th i m o n a r a t ,t h e n( s ). . . . . . . . . . .r a t h e r a mouse. Yes,the Rum Tum Tuggeris a Curious Cat.

188

R€al conditionals 185 Unreal conditionals 186 Wolld for habitual actions in the Fst

15 CONDITIONAIJ

in conditionals Orderandpunctuation We can put the fclause beforeor afterthe main clause(1). When we put the ifclause first, it's clearerto separate the two clauses with a comma(2). I If yott ftel ilizzy, you shouldn'tgo to work. . Youshoulln't go to work if you f""l dio/,. 2 If I hail someeggs,I couMmakea cake.- If I go and get someeggs,ttill you makeone? We can also emphasizethe fact that the main clauseis a consequenceof the fclause by putting rher at the beginning of the main clause. 3 The bussenice is limited. If you hire a car, then you'll beable to go whereveryou choose.. If the key bn't in the drawer,rten Catlry must havetaken i.t, Note that we dorit use soin this way. (xm W) When we add an f-clause after a main clauseasan additional comment, we can use a comma to show that the fclause is separate. 4 IH like n get a ticlcel if theystill havesome.. Kate alwaysgoesto work, evenif shefeek bad. 10 Add theword iffourtimes to the following d€scription.Put in the missing full stops and commas' -tv A number of idioms havecome from the gameof crickel^somethingis describedas not $hket it

,tL

meansthatit is not fair or honourable'scjmeone is ona stickywicketthey arein a difficultsituation,, this is because ballsdo not bounceverywell the grounliYearthe wicketis stickr (wetand muddy),li is saidthat someonehada goodinnings,itmeanstheyhada long life or career. 11 Chooseone verb from eachpairto completethe clausesbelow Add the completed clausesto the sentences(l-8), with appropriatepunctuatlon, mmpletes hascompleteil

ilon't watch didn't watch

isn't wasn't

lhavepaid arepaying

ilidn't eat hadn't eaten

will stay woulil stay

would arive woul.ilhaveaniyeil

woukln'tbe wouldn'thavebeen

take took

Erampleif you......|CVS.8qi4...... th. menalready i f I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s. .om u c ha tl u n c h i f i t . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .g o i n gt o b e a p r o b l e m I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s ot i r e dn o w i f y o u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t e l e v i s i o n a s a c hw i l de. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n b e du n t i ln o o n i f t h e y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t.h. et e s e t a r l i et o r d a y i t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .b. y. n o w ,I ' m s u r e

Examplq. If .59I .hg.".g. ngi4.!h9..Tg!.gl.,.gglt'. theyprobablyworit comebackto work afterlunch. I . . . theywon't getthe resultsuntil tomorrow. rdliketoleavemvbikeinthehallwavtonight' " " " " J il*#:;;;;;#;;h,,;; If it wasa terriblv colddavoutside 5 If the neighbourt dog hadrit started barking at 4 a.m. 6 I wouldn'tfeelsofull now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8

Ewn ifr92 Th.nad e2r1

189

l 5 C () N l ) l I l o N r \ t . s

The usesof conditionals 12 Write the numbers of appropriateexamplesin the spaces.

Factualconditionals:What happensif ... ? What happenedif ... ? We usefactualconditionalsto describetypical patternsin the present i or the past . . pricesusuallygo up. I What happensif there'sa lot of demand?If denand increases, 2 What happenedif therewasbadweather? If it wasreallybad,cropsfailed andpeoplestarved. We can usefactualconditionalsto expressrules , habits and correlations,suchasscientific observations . We can alsousethem with imperativeforms in the main clausewhenwe are e x p J a i n i nhgo w 1 od o . o r n e t h i n g 3 If peopleearnmore,theyspendmore.. If thepaperturnsred,thesolutionis acid. 4 If it wasa niceSundaymorning,wealwayswalkedto church. 5 If rheballtouches theline.it s in, notout. 6 If you needcustomerservice,press1. If you want to placean order,press 2.

Predictive conditionals: What wiII happen if ... ? We usepredictiveconditionalsto describepossibilities. 7 \\hat will happenif thesituationgetsworse? If thingsgetworse,we'll leayethecountry. We can usepredictiveconditionalsfor plans and predictions . We can alsousethen with questionsin the main clauseto askabout liture events or to makerequests 8 If we havetime later,we'llgo to the theatreandget ticketsfor theconcert. 9 If Williamsis mentallyready,she'llwin easily. l0 If you hate a moment,wiII you checkthisfor me? ll Ifthe campsare closed, wherewill thesepeoPlego?

Hl2othetical conditionals:What would happenif ... ? We usehypotheticalconditionalsto describeimaginaryor fictionalsituations. 12 What wouldhappenif a t olcanoeruptedunderneaththeocean? If a dcano eruptedunderneath the ocean,therewouldbea hugetidal wave, We can usehypotheticalconditionalsto talk aboutcompletelyimaginarysi ou1i61srl , or to describethe potentialoutcomesof a courseof action . We can alsousethem when we want to expresswillingnessto do something,despitelack of ability 13 lf I werefeelingbetter,I wouldhelpyou moveyour boxes. 14 If Englandwasa communistcoutltry,therewoukln'tbea queen. 15 lf theyagreedto makeclasses smoller,wecouklgiveeachstudefitmoreattention.

Counterfactual conditionals; What woulil have happenedif ... ? We use counterfactual conditionals to imagine past events happening in a different way and having different outcomes. 'Yes'?. 16 What would have happenedif shehadn't said I she had said'No', I would haye been del,astated. We can use counterfactual conditionals when we expressregret or assignblame l,:-. 17 If I had told her that I loyed her more often, she might not hate left ma 18 If you had listened to his odvice,we wouldn't have lost all our money.

t90

[

( o N t ] t l t o N A Is

13 Each of these questions can be answeredby one of the examplesentences(1-18) on page 190.Decidewhich type of conditionaleach answerwill be and choose the most

I

appropriate sentence. Example:Can you rememberyour childhood?What happenedif the weatherwasnice?

( l.sql.!.gl,.4 . .. ..) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

What do you think will happenif there'sa Carrera-Williams final?( .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .) Whathappensin the economyif realwagesrise?(... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . .) What would happenifyour ideasabout classsizewereadopted? Canyou remember whatthe ruleis if the ballhitsthe line?(. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . : . . . . . .) What would you havefelt if Helenhad givena negativeanswer?(. . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .) ( . . .... . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .) Whatdo I do if I wantto ordersomething? W h a td i d h ea c t u a l lsya yw o u l dh a p p e ni f h ed i d n ' th a v et h ef l u ?( . . ' . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) What would havehappenedif I had paid betterattentionto what your fathersaid? \........................../

14 Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1-5) and add these verbs: don'twant

had asked hadn'tforgotten need was

(...) I If you . . . . . . . . . . . . for directions, 2 If this . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . your car,(. . .) 3 If I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . to orderthe bookyet,(.. ) 4Ifwe........................thebread,(...) 5 I f y o u . . . . . . . . . . . . t o t a l kt o t h eo p e r a t o(r.,. . )

a b c d e

wouldyou lendit to otherpeople? lunch would havebeenmuch better. we wouldn'thavegot lost. p r e s3s . c a nI i u s te x a m i n o e n ec o p y ?

15 In this extractfrom his book 'l Can't Accept Not Trying',basketballstar MichaelJordan explains his approachto any task as a process of concentratingon taking one step at a time. Put these if-clausesback where MichaelJordan put them. if not ifit's complete if that'syour goal

if you tried ashardasyou could ifyou'rc doneyour best if theonly measure of success wasbecoming a doctor

I think I could haveappliedthat approachto anythingI might havechosento do. It's no differentfrom the personwhoseultimategoalis to becomea doctor. g)................... e e t t i nC g si n b i o l o g tyh e n . . . . . a n dy o u ' r g the first thing you haveto do is get Bsin biology and then As.You haveto perfectthe first stepand then moveon to chemistryor physics. Takethosesmallsteps.Otherwiseyou'reopeningyourselfup to all kinds of frustration.Wherewould your confidence comefrom (2)... ... . ... .... .... .... ..? and didn't become a doctor,would 13). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. that meanyour wholelife wasa failure?Of coursenot. All thosestepsare like piecesof a puzzle.They all cometogetherto form a picture. (41 ... .... ... .... .... . . . . . . . . , t h e ny o u ' v er e a c h eydo u rg o a l , ( s ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,d o n ' tg e td o w no n y o u r s e l f . ( 6 .). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,t h e ny o uw i l lh a v eh a ds o m e alongthe way accomplishments

l9l

r 5 | ( ) N L r l ' f l ( ) N A L5

Onlyif, evenif, unless,whether,rf so, etc. OnIyif, if only We useonly if to emphasizea specialcondition ( 1).We sometimesput the word orly beforethe verbin the main clause(2).The phraseif andonlyifis a moreemphaticversion,meaning'onone conditiononly' (3). . He'IIcomeonly if he'sorderedto. I Thesecanbe usedonly if thereis an emergency. 2 My childrenwill only eata breakfast cerealif they'teseenit on TV frst. 3 Youbrokethelaw if awl only if theagreement formeda legalcontract. We can use if onlyrn unrealconditionalswhen we expresswishes(4) or regrets(5). 4 If only I had an extracopy,I'd gladlygiveit to yoa. (Iwish I had an extracopy.) 5 If only shehati beenwearinga seatbeb,shecouldhovesuryiyedthecrosh.

Even if, even though We use ever f ('despite the possibility that') to say that a condition may exist, but it won't affect the future or possible situation described in the main clause (6). We use eten though ('despite the fact that') to talk about the existenceof a condition that won't affect the past or present situation in the main clause(7). 6 We'll have a gredt time even if it rains. (lt may rain, but it won't stop trs.) . Even if British History wasn't a required subject,I'r1enjoy learning about it. 7 We harl a great time even though it rained. (lt rained, but it didn't stop ls.) . Even though Matthew neler studies,he passes all the tests,

Unless 'except 'except We use trlesito say under the following circumstances'or ifl It is used to draw attention to the condition as an exception and sometimes means the same as if ,, , not. 8 He wofl't come unlessyou askhim. (He won't come if you don't ask him.) . Unlessthere'sa mirscle, I'II have to askfor extra time to completeffiy report. Unlessis more limited than f . .. not We don't use rrless in counterfactual conditionals (9), when there is a negativecauseor reason(10) or when we begin the main clausewith rften(l I ). 9 lf we harln't worked so hqrd, we would never hovefnished the project on time. l0 If he didn't have such a big xose,he'd be handsome.(Nol Enkss4e4adsrh a*ig ttos6 .. .) ll If they cannot agreeon the terms of the contract, then a strike is ineyitable.

Whether(or not) We can usewhetherinsteadof ifwhen thereareoptions (two or more possibilities)( 12).We canuse whetheror notwhenoneof the optionsis the negative of the other(13).We oftenput or notat the end of the clause,especially when we beginthe sentence with wftether( l4). 12 Whetherwe win or lose,we alwaysenjoyplaying.' I lovesoLtp, whether it'shot or cokl. 13 Theyaregoingto sendreliefsupplieswhetheror not thefghting hasendetl. 14 Whether it's rainingor not, they'redeterminedto playgolf tomorrow. Note that we can alsosay:If it's rainingor not .. . . (so't lfanto+11*rci#+g; ...)

If so,if not, etc. When we want to referbackto somethingwhich hasalreadybeenmentioned,we can reducethe fclause. Thereare severalwaysof doing this. 15 Somebooksmay havemissingpages.If so,theycanbeexchanged. 16 Rulesreallymustbeenforced. If not, theycaneasilybeignored.(Ifthe rulesaren'tenforced...) (lf youdotakethejob...) 17 I thinkyoushouldtakethejob.Ifyoudo, I'll helpyougetstarred.

192

Coun terhctual .ondirbnrls t86 Ertn iflhDrlh1t)4

Unredl .ondir iordk 186 ll1.rr./and

t L51,l6l

15 CONDITIONALS

16 Completeeachsentencein sucha waythat it is as similaras possiblein meaningto the sentenceaboveit. I We'llhaveto leavewithoutyourfiiendif shedoesn'tcomesoon. Unless 2 We'regoingto startplayingif Andy'sreadyor if he'snot ready. Whether Ifyou aren'ta registeredstudent,theywon t let you takebooksout of the library. T h e y ' lol n l y. . . . . Our teamplayedreallywell,but we didn't win the game. Even 17 Completeeach sentencewith one of these words or phrases(from an article on teaching). only if

unless eyenthough

if it isn't

if only

whetheror not

I The styleof teachingat universitieshashardly changedin the past 1,000years you count the inventionof the blackboard200yearsago. 2 Too many studentsleavethe systemthinking,'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I'd takenmore practicalcourses.' 3 Colleges still relyon exams... . .... .... . .... ... . it is well-knownthat examsmeasure a verysmall part of a person'sabilities. 4 Lecturesare still the preferredteachingmedium of professors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they areof any realbenefitto moststudents. 5 The systemwill change. ... . . ... .... . ...... forcesfrom the outsidemakeit change. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a requiredcourse,then it haslittle chanceof attractinghigh enrolment. 18 We can mark a condition without using an if-clause.Using a dictionary if necessary,put the conditional expressionsfrom these sentencesinto one of the three categories below. I Assumingthe information is correct,we haveto reconsiderour plans. 2 Giyen clearweatherand goodwinds,the flight may arriveearly. 3 Proyiding (that)/provided (that) everyoneis available,the next meetingwill be on Monday. 4 Startslowly;otherwise,you won't be ableto makeit to the end. 5 Supposeyour computercrashes, how will you getyour filesout of it? 6 Supposingyou won the lottery,what would you do? 7 You can keepplayingyour musicaslong as/solong as no,one complains. 8 What if I sentthe file by email- couldyou look at it beforetomorrow'smeeting? 9 With a little help,we could makethis schoola much betterplace. 10 Without your advice,I wouldn t haveknown how to do it. A Simplecondition ('if this is the cas"')' i.l).A:.:+ntl3r B Exclusive condition('only if this is thecase'): C Exceptional condition('ifthis is not thecase'):

193

15 CONDITIONATS

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasewhich best completeseachsentence, 1 What s a miracle?Well, popcorn's a miracle if you adidnt bdont c won't d wouldn't

know how it's made.

2 Someof you may havealreadycompleted section one. sectrontwo. a Ifso b Ifyou do c Ifyou may d Ifnot 3 In summer,if my dad finishedwork early,he a is b was c will d would If you don t mind, I a would b would have

5Ifthey'd a grve b giving

c given

, you can go on to

sometimestake us swimming.

finish my coffeebefore we leave. c would like

d would rather

Justin more time, he'd havebeen able to do a better job. d gave

ldentifytheone underlinedexpression(A,B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correctthe sentence. 1 IlIf II Were late, ulev they usually uqde me g16yafter school and I had to do extrahomework. -T- late. B c D 2 We 4gE! maintain maintaina systemof law,and supfort a policeforce.If wedsnI, the criminalswould C D soon be in charge. 3 I'm not the kind of personwho goJsaround thinfdngifonJy I hare donethis or that. I just fgel l".kf. 4 Thinss will be betterif I --B"* will set a iob and CAItrsomemonev '--T' -so i t -I don t haveto live with mv

c

pirents.

5 The CzedrRepublic'stop generalhaswarnedstaffofficers------thev will losetheir iobs--eifpgly they

A

don'tlearnEndish,accordins to a storvin theDailvTelesraoh. -----lCompletethis paragraph,adaptedfrom a novel,with one suitableword in eachspace. I looked at the pie sitting right there in front of me. (r) I throw this pie at him, I thought to myself,he {zr never love me. And then it hit me: he doesrt'tlove me. It hit me with a shimmering clarity: that was all there wasto it. It (i) matter (4) he was crazy.It didn't matter if I (s) innocent guilty. (r) or Nothing mattered exceptthat he didrlt love me. If I this pie at him, he will never love me. But he doesn't love me anyway.So I can throw the pie I want to. I pi&ed up the pie, thanked God for the linoleum floor, and \7) threw it.

194

i5 CONDITIONALS

D Completeeach of the sentencesin such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentenceabove it. 1 The party is not likely to happenbecauseno one is willing to help. Unless 2 Shedidn't escapeinjury; shewasn'twearinga crashhelmet. If only 3 I still lovedher despitethe fact that shecouldbe very diffrcult. Even though

4 We'releavingtomorrow ifyou like the ideaor ifyou don't like the idea. Whether 5 I arrivedlate;the traffrcwasso bad. I'm sorry,but if E Completethis text with the following clauses. if he loses if anyoneaskedme if he wins if he doesthat

if he doesn'trealf fight if that is theresult

unlesshe'san idiot if that happensto him

Boxing, men and women don't make a good combination. 1r; , I would say that there are threereasonswhy a man should neverget into a boxing match with a woman.

The first is that, (2)

peoplewill saythat he beatup a woman. he mustbe a bully.The secondis that, they will sayhe wasbeatenup by a woman. , he mustbe veryweak.The only otherpossible outcomeis a draw. (6) they will say that he must have been only pretending to fight and , not reallyusinghis physicalstrength.1z; he must be a cheat and someone who cannot be trusted. Given these three good reasons,a man,

(8) must realizethat he shouldneverget into a boxing matchwith a woman.A woman alreadyknowsthat boxing is a stupid,primitive activity.Shedoesn'tneedother reasons.

195

Adverbialclausesusuallybeginwithconjunctions suchas a/fhough , becauseor when.The conjunction showsthe relationship betweenthe adverbialclauseand the restof the sentence.(Although the sun's shining, it'sfreezingoutsidethismorning.I'm not goingout because,1'sso cold) We can use adverbialclauses(/ mrghlgo out when it gets warmer) to provideadditional information aboutan actionor situationin a waythat is similarto advetbs(l mightgo out Iater)and prepositionalphrases(l mightgo out in the afternoon). 1 Readthroughthefollowingtextandfind one adverbialclausein eachparagraph. A

fterherhu,orndpa*rd rrrrr.Lmily (ontinued Armstrong to takecareof the I I.pecial garden hehadcreared in fronrof theirsmallhouse.SheimaginedthatHarrywas'up : there'andlookingdownliom time to time,soshe triedto takegoodcareofhis proudcreation. B Beforehebeganhis careerwith thenationalweather service, Harryhadstudiedgeography andart. Althoughhed hadto giveup his artisticambitions, 'o Harrystill managed to lind waysto becreative in his sparetime.He haddesigned andcreated something uniquein theirfront garden. C It wasnta gardenin the usualsense. Therewereno plants.Enily hadtriedto put in someflowers rs aroundtheedges, but theyalwaysdied.Her neighbour, Mrs Blair,saidit wasprobablybecause therewasall thatcementin thesoil.Harryhadn't known,whenhewasmixingthecement, sandand water,thenpouringit out into thewoodenfiame, ,o that hisconcrete mapwouldendup astheonlything in thegarderr, rparl fuomtheweeds thatgrer.in smallcracksin the river valleys. D Whentherewasa spellof warmsummer weathettheweedswouldspreacl out . ll [ ,1{

'

BeforeErnilycouidgetto them,theywouldalmost bein Wales, a wild patchofgreenin thepalegrey expanse ofthe restofthe country. Thebusiesttime wasautumn,whenEmilyhadto go out andsweepthewholecountryeverymorning.If it wasi'twet,shecouldjust usea brushto pushthe leaves downthroughEnglandandsweepthemaway in thegeneraldirectionofFrance.Whenit raineda lot, shewouldstandinside,watchingtheleaves pile up in a soggymessovermostofScotland. Eventhoughit wasn'treallycoldduringmostofthe winter,therewouldoccasionally belieezingdaysof snowandsleet,afterwhichHarry'sconcrete map wouldbetransformed into a shiningsculptureof pLrreice.TheroughedgesofBritain wouldchange into smoothglistening linesandthecountrywould becomean abstractshape,asif it hadbeencarved from a largel1atslabof marbleby an experthand. On a coldclearDecember morning,Emilywould look out at thesculpturein her gardenwith a strong that,at thatverymoment,Harrywasalso . sense t , lookingdownandenjoyingthe scene. He

I l"

n"o*"0Y::lf"i-1",-:':i:: -' from geography.

)' frorn lhc (r,rcl.. especially in rhe

southaroundthe Londonarea.

2

After reading the text above, decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F). 1 Harry Arnstrong had studiedart beforehe worked for th€ national weatherservice. 2 Wher.rHarry died, his wife crcateda concreten.rapof Britain in their front garden. 3 Wl.rile he was mixing the concrete, Harry decided that his map would be the only thing in the garden. 4 Weeds grew in the cracks becausethe flowers En-rilyplanted alwaysdied. 5 If the weather was dry, Emily could brush the leavesoff the map. 6 r'Arhenthe weather was freezins in wintel the map looked like ar.rice sculpture. 196

T/F T/F T IF T IF TIF T/F

I6 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverbial clausesand conjunctions Adverbial clauses We can usean adverbialclause(beforehe left)aspart of a sentencein a way that is similar to an adverb(earlier)or a prepositionalphrase(at ten o'clock). 1 I talked to Bill beforehe left. = I talked to Bill earlier. = I talked to BiII at ten o'clock. We usuallyput an adverbialclauseafterthe main clausein the sentence(2). If we put an adverbial clausebeforethe main clause,we includea commabetweenthem (3). 2 Youwon'tpassthe testif you ilot't study.. Wehad to turn on theheatingbecauseit wascold. 3 If you ilon't study,you won't passthe test.. Becauseit wascold,we had to turn on the heatin1. We sometimesusemore than one adverbialclausein a sentence. 4 Don't touchthepaint beforeit hasdried + becausebubblesmayform + if anything touchesit.

Conjunctions We usea subordinatingconjunctionsuchasa_fter oruhile to connectan adverbialclauseto another clauseand to showhow the meaningsof the two clausesare related. 5 After you havea rest,you'llprob.tblyfeel better.. I can'tlistento musicwhile I'm stuilying. Other subordinatingconjunctionsinclude:as,asif, assoonas,if, in order to, since,so,so that When we connectan adverbialclauseto anotherclause,we usea singleconjunction(6). We don t use an adverbialclauseasa separatesentence(7). 6 Becausetherewereno lights,I couldn'tseeanything.It wasdork soI couldn't ilo any work. (Nor ) 7 Wecouldn'tuseour computers becausetherewas no electricitythis morning. (Nor ) We can usesomewords,suchasafter,beforeand fhaa,asconjunctionswith adverbialclausesor as prepositionswith noun phrases(8). After conjunctions,we usesubjectpronouns(we, they)plus verbs(9). After prepositions,we useobjectpronouns(us,them)(J0). 8 I'Il talk to you after I get out of nry next meeting.= I'll talk to you after the meeting, 9 Tonyharlarrit ed beforewe got there.. Wehad moremoneythan they hail. l0 Tonyhad arriterl beforeus.. Wehad moremoneythan them. Someconjunctionswe usewith adverbialclauses(because, although,while)havesimilar meaningsto prepositionsusedwith noun phrases(because of, despite,during). 11 Thereweredelaysbecausetheweatherwasbad.= Thereweredelaysbecauseof badweather. 12 Although she'sold,Agnesstillplaysteflnis.= Despiteher age,Agnesstillplaystennis. 13 He got injuredwhile we wereplaying.- He got injuredduring thegame. 3 F i n d a d v e r b i acl l a u s e si n t h e t e x t o n p a g e1 9 6 w i t hm e a n i n g ss i m i l a r t o t h e s ep h r a s e s . I After her husband'sdeath: 2 Because of the cement: 4 Despitethe usuallymild winter weather; 5 L i k ea c a r v i n g :

Adverbs l16 8 ly'clarses 185-6 Prcpositions l2s

Subordinaringconjunctions 12

197

l 6 A D \ r t s l t B L \ LC L i \ U S L S

Timeclauseswlth when.while.as We can use wler at the beginning of an adverbial clause describing a period of time ( 1) or a point in time (2). I When I was young, we didn't watch TV . Most peopledon't haye cqrs when they're students. 2 When we heard the news, we were delighterl.. I'lI checkmy email when I get to work. Notethatwedon'tuseu,lllinthewhen-c|ause'(r.lo,t@) We also use clausesbeginning with wften to describe son.rethingthat happens soon after sonething elsein another clause (3) or that interrupts something in another clause (4). We can use when \ke if in a factualconditional to talk about'everytime'something happens(5). 3 We had just reachedthe sheberwhen the rain started pouring down. 4 I was deeping like a baby when the alarm went off. 5 When demand increases,prices rise. . The roof used to leak when we had heaty rain. We can use a clausewith w,tlle ('during the period that') or when to describe a period of time with another clauseto describe what happens at some point in that period of time (6). We often use while to connect clausesin which two things happen at the same time for the whole period of time (7). 6 While / When you were out, your mother celled. . I fell asleepwhile/when I was reading. 7 There was nowhere to park, so I just drot e round in the car while Tim was in the bank. We can use as hke when and while for a period of time during which something happens (8). We can use as or jrsl as (not ,rhile) to focus on the precisemoment that somethinghappens(9). We alsouse di to show a connectionbetweenone type of changeover time and another (10). 8 As / When / While I was getting ready to leave, I heard that my Jlight had beencancelled. 9 As I walked out of the hotel, a gust of wind blew my hat of. It happenedjust as I steppeil outside. l0 As I get olde5 I care lessabout what other people think. (Nrn l4hilcJjet elder;f eare}css. . .) 4

Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it. 1 I watched Maurice drive by in his new car while I was standing at the bus stop in the rain. When

2 You'll know that the fruit is g€ttingripe when the skin startsto turn yellow. AS

3 We shouldn'ttalk aboutanythingto do with work during lunch. While 4 I was getting out of the shower when the phone rang in the other room.

5 Using information from the text on page 196,draw a circle round the appropriate conjunction(s)in the following sentences.More than one conjunction may be appropriate. 1 When / While Harry startedworking for the nationalweatherservice,he'd givenup his artistic ambitions. 2 When / While it waswet during the autumn months,Emily couldn'tbrushthe leavesaway. 3 As / While the weathergot warmet weedswould spreadout from the cracks. 4 As / \A&en/ \A4iile Emily lookedat the sculptureon a cold clearDecembermorning, shehad a sensethat Harry wasdoing the samething.

198

q . . , 0 0 - l . . r J l . . r . d r r r o n ' 1 ./.r8, < ,a200l^1,,.r,,,, r180l,r,r, ' 2ul

t6 J\t)\'It{rL\L cLAL]stis

Time clauseswith after,before,until,since,etc. we used/tel ('at a point later than') in the adverbialclausewhen the other clausedescribes something ('at a point earlierthan')in the adverbial thathappenslater(t). Weusebet'ore clauservhen the otherclausedescribes something thathappensat anytime earlier(2).We oftenuseafterwith the presentsimpleor presentperfect(not will) for a completed action(l). t After they left, we cleanedup and went to bed.' What will you do after you graduate? 2 Beforehe leaves,I'll sskhim aboutthe money.Theyhad eatenbreakfastbeforewe gotup. 3 I'll helpyou after I write / have written ,ny report. (Not af+eA-*ilt w;*-ny-repo*7 We useanril('up to the time that')to focuson theendpoint or outcomeof something(4).We use sirce('from the time that')to talkabouta startingpoint for somethingin anotherclausethat happenslateror that is still true (5). 4 We'll wait until you're ready. . Heat the wax until it melts. (Not Hea+i+4efore::+-neks.) 5 How longis it sinceyou'vebeenthere?' I've livedheresinceI was ten. (No-rafM,en) We usethe presentperfector pastsimple(not presentsimple)after sirce(Nor sirce*in+en). We canuseorlceto introducea clausethatdescribes a startingpoint for anotheractionor situation. We often useoncehke afterwith the presentsimpleor presentperfectin a clausedescribing ' o m e t h i n gu : c o m p l e t e d . 6 Onceyou'veseenAni, you wotl'tforgether.. Everyone likesit hereoncetheyget usedto it. when we want to saythat one thing happensveryquickly afteranother,we can useassoozasand immediatelyto introducethe clausewith the first action (7). Phrasessuchas the instant/minute/ (that) are usedin the sameway (8). moment/second 7 I cane as soonas I heard the news.. ImmediatelyI saw him, I recognized hisface. 8 Therearesomestudentswho rushout of theroomthe minute (that) classends. 6 using a dictionary if necessary,completethese descriptionswith the following words. blender postscript prediction skewer after

before until

while

1 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i s a s t a t e m eanbt o u at n e v e n t . . . ithappens. 2 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a woodenor metalstickpushedthroughpiecesof meator vegetables to hold them theyarecooking. 3A is extrainformationadded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a letteror story is complete. 4 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a machinefor choppingor mixingbits of food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they becomea liquid.

Compfete these sentenceswith have('vel beenor wilt ('ll) be. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Wherewill the refugees go afterthe camps .. . . ... . ... ... .. . closed? I'm sorryaboutthe delay,but I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. backassoonasI havechecked this. My backstill hurts and it will soonbe two weekssinceI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at work. I'm surewe in London in Augustbeforewe go to the EdinburghFestival,so we can visit your new housethen. The momentwe hearthatthe airportis open,reliefsupplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . loadedon to the waitingaircraft. Newstudents shouldnot register for classes until they giventheir registration numbers. Onceyou herefor a few weeks,you won't want to leave. The children . .. hungrywhentheycomebackfrom swimmingthismorning.

AJiet.before,sitlc, urtil t27, 197 S;rL?201

t99

16 ADVERBIALCI-{USES

Mannerclauseswithas,as 4 as though,etc. We can usemannerclausesbeginningwith as('in the form or way that') ( 1) andjasr as('in exactly the form or way that') (2) when we are describinghow somethingwasor how somethingwasdone. I ThefiIm depictslife as it was in 1900.. Completeeachexerciseas I showedyou. 2 I wrote the notejust asyou told me to. . Everythinghappenedjust as my mother hail preilicteil. We useasi/and as thoughwith the samemeaningin mannerclausesafterverbssuchas look,seem, sound,taste,etc. (3). We can also use as if/though after verbs such as act, behaveand talk when we are describingbehaviour(4). 3 Can I helpyou?Youlook as if you're lost. , He soundsas though he might be getting a colil. 4 Shealwaystries to act as if she'smy boss.. They talked about it as though it was x,orthless. Subjunctive wereis sometimesused.after as if/though'.He treatsme as if I werea chikl. In informal situations,likeis sometimesusedinsteadof asor asif 5 No onewill everlote you like I do. . It feelslike winter hossuddenlyarrived. Note that likeis often usedasa preposition:It feelslike winter.(Nor l+Ns-et-wift+efr) We useas .. . as('in the samewaythat') to saythat two actionsor situationsaresimilar or different in someway (6). Betweenthe first and secondaswe can put adjectives and adverbs(7) or quantifiers suchas matryand.much(8). 6 Is Max still funny in the sameway that he usedto be?-t Is Max still asfunny as he used to be? 7 Theweatherisn'tas hot as it waslastyear.. Weditln't play as well as we did againstFrance. . It didn't costas much qs hesaid. 8 Werethereos matryproblemsasyou anticipated? We sometimesform the negativewith not so . .. as'.Benis not sonatueasyou think. 8 Choose the best answer (a-d) for each question (1-4) and add as or as 1 2 3 4

Did sheseemafraid?(. ..) Had shechangedmuch?(. ..) Did shefit in well?(. ..) Did shewrite it correctly?(.. .)

a b c d

No, shewasjust . . . . . . . . . . . you had describedher. Yes,shedid it . .... .... .. shewassupposed to. Yes,shelooked.... ... . ... shehadseena ghost. Not really,becausesheacted ... . ... .. shewasbetterthan us.

Add one of these clauses,introduced by as though,justas or as.. . as, to the following sentences.Makeany other necessarychanges. / eteryonehasbeensaying I remembered it nothinghad happened

it reallyis theguidebookhatl desribel it it wasmadeyesterday theyhavedone

Example:Is the new Italian r".,u,rrun$tood . . . . . .qF.gye1xr'41e.\g?. .been..sqrj,:,S ... ...? I No one talkedaboutit. Theyall behaved 2 I went to seemy old schooland it hadn't changed.It wasstill .. ....

; ir,ir,.uir,.rritt..t, ,ur,., 4 W h e ny o u e m u l a t seo m e o nseu c c e s s fyuol ,ut r y t o d o w e l l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 We found the little churchhidden in the forest,. .... . . 6 If you underestimate the costof something,you think it isn't much . . . . . . .

200

A, l08.r0l

a N o , )d r

. a, l)O Maa)hu.he0

Lt d, Lq8 sLb,ur( ivel07. l80

I6 ADVI]RDIAI, CI,AUSES

Reasonclauseswith because. as.srnce.etc. We usebecause at lhe beginningof a clauseto givea reasonor explanationfor something( I ) or to supporta statement in an earlierclause(2). I Becausetherehad beenan accident,weall arrivedlate.. I didn't eatbecauseI wasn'thungry. 2 He sayshe didn't drivethrougha red light, but he\ Iying becauseI saw him do it. We sometimesuseasor sinceinsteadof because in reasonclauses(3). We can useasor wftileto talk about time and reasontogether('while and because')(4). We can usesinceto talk about a starting point and a reasontogether('from that time and because')(5). 3 As it was late, we decidedto stopworking., Sincesheknew Latin, I askerlher to translateit. 4 As / While we'reon the subjectof money,I'd like to askaboutnextyear'sbudget. , Sinceit's beensnowing,we'yestayedindoors. 5 Sincehis wife left him, he'sbeendepressed. We can usenow (that) like sizce('fiom that time and because')to introducea clauseexplaininga presentsituation.We usuallyusethe presentsimpleor presentperfectafter now (that). 6 Now (that) we'rematied, we nevergo out. , I enjoyopercnow (that) I've learnedmore about it. In formal situations,other conjunctionssuchaspr (7) and in that (8) are sometimesusedinsteadof becausetoadda reasonor explanationfor a precedingstatement. 7 It wouldbewiseto savesomeof the money,for theremay be unexpectedexpenses later8 Wedefinitelyhavea problemin that thereare ffiorestuilentsthan we haveroomfor. 10 Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to the pair of sentencesabove it. 1 All the bankswill be closedon Monday.It's a holiday. As 2 She has had to use crutches. She had an operation on her foot. Since

3 We'reall togethertoday.We shoulddecideon a datefor the Christmasparty. While 4 I wonderwhat he'll do next.He hasfinishedhis exams. Now that 11 Match a sentencefrom the first group (1-4) with one from the second group (a-d) with a similar meaningand add as ifor because. Example:I'd love to go out more,but I haven'thad much freetime lately.(.e ) I lt's more expensive to eat in a restaurant,but I don't like to cook.(. . ) 2 If I wantedto avoiddoing something,I pretendedto be ill. (. . .) 3 The costof meatis highernow,but I don't eat it, so my food bill hasn'tincreased.(. . .) (...) 4 No matterwhat the discussionis about,no one everpaysattentionto my suggestions. a b c d e

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I'm a vegetarian,I'm spendinglessthan other peoplethesedays. I acted I wasn'tfeelingwell when I didn't want to do things. I spendmore moneyon meals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I don't makethem myselfat home. Theyalwaystreatme ... . ... . .... .... .... I havenothingusefulto say. I haven'tbeento a film or a play in ages. . . . . . h999S:9. . . . . I've beenbusyat work.

A 4 o r s l n l t t e i s r r c cl 2 ? .1 9 7l,e e l v r , / . l e 7 8

20r

ib AIr\ fllLll.\l t l,\L \l:S

Purposeclauseswith so that,in orderthat, in orderfo, etc. We usepurposeclausesto describegoalsor the intendedoutcomesof actions.We can usesothat (l) or in orderthat (2) to introducepurposeclauses, often with modalssuchascar (aftera clausewith a presenttense)or coukl(aftera pasttense). We usuallyusesowithout rftarin informalsituations(3). 7 I'm goingearlyso that I canfnd a goodseat.. I'll takemy umbrellaso that I won't get wet. 2 Her father had workedhardfor manyyearsin order that they couhl havea betterlife. 3 I'm going early so I don't haye to stand in a queue.(Nor ia orderl4o#+4*e+o-stand) We often expresspurposewith a simpleinfinitive (to clean)(4).In formal situations,we alsousethe phrasesin orderto (5) or in ordernot to (6).Purposeclauses aresometimes usedat the beginningof (7). sentences 4 Justusesoapand woterto cleanit. . I think theboyfell whenhe wasrunningto catchthe bus. 5 Theyrecommend usingbleachin order to cleanit thoroughly.. Youmustlight in order to win. 6 I'll cleanthe grill outsidein order not to make a messin here. (xor ht-order+o-tto+-mak) 7 In order tolToprevent vandalism,all doorsand windowsmustbelockedsecurely. We sometimesform purposeclauseswith soas to andsoasnot to, 8 lt's designed that wayso as to let in morelight. . I'll put it nearthedoorso qs not to forget it. When we want to includea subjectbeforethe infinitiveverb,we can begina purposeclausewith in orderfor anda noun phrase(9) or a pronoun ( l0). (N<'nla-order+o
202

l.liniriv.s.nd

gdunds l19

Mod.ls 29 So frlrdt 203

l 6 A D V L R B I A IC L i \ L T S E S

Resultclauseswithso.so ... that.such... that We use result clausesbeginning with so to describe effectsor unintended outcomes, We put result clausesafter n.rainclauses(1), often separatedby a comma in formal uses(2). 1 I'm tired so I'm going to bed. . He missedthe bus this morning so he was late for work again. 2 There has beena retiuction in the oil supply antl increaseddemand, so prices have risen. In formal situations, so tftat is sometimes used instead of so to introduce a result clause.In a result clause,so that ('as a result') doesn't nean the sarneas so that ('in order that') in a purpose clause. 3 A tree had fallen during the storm, so that the road was blockedand we coultln't go anywhere. (Nothtarder+hd++he+oad*as4 d) We can use an adjective (4), an adverb (5) or a quantifier (few,Iittle. many or much) (6) between so and tlat to form a result clause.We often leaveout rhal in informal uses. 4 It was so nice (thst) we ate lunch outside. . The puppy was so cute (that) shepicked it up. 5 The lecturer talked so fast (that) none of us could understand him. 6 There were so mnny people (that) we had to wait. . I ate so much (that) I could hardly move. We can also usea noun phrase(niceweather)betweensachand /rdfto introduce a result clause(7). We often leaveout tfiat in informal situations, but not from certain fixed expressions(in such a way thrt) (8). 7 It was such nice weather (that) we ate lunch outsitle. . I gotsuch a shock (that) I was speechless. 8 Try to think about theseproblems in such a way that you don't exaggerate their importance. We can say: It's so nice that ,., or lt's such nice weather that ... (Not lt3so+ke-weathc++ha+ .. .) 14 Rewrite each pair of sentences as a single sentence, using so in a result clause. I They were feeling really tired. They went to bed early last night. 2 I wasn't able to do the homework. I forqot to take my textbook home with me.

3 Marjorie is in a popularTV show.Peoplerecognizeher when she'sout shopping. 4 We had to drink bottledwater.They saidthe tap waterwasn'tsafeto drink.

15 Add one of these clauses,changedto include so ... thator such ... thaf,to each of the following sentences. That classwasearly TheJirespreadrapitllythroughtheir cabin / Thefog wasthick

Wehad a wonderfultime on holiday Wendys childrenhatl badcoklsthismorning Youand I don'thavemuchmoney

Example:.The..fog .!9.S.99.!hig.( (!h.qf).. you couldn't seeyour hand in front of your face. 1 ............... a n y o f t h e ibr e l o n g i n g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t h e yc o u l d ns' ta v e 2 ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . s h ec o u l d nl'et tt h e mg ot o s c h o o l . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .w . e c a ni u s tt h r o wi t a w a yc a r e l e s s l y . 4 we didn't want to come home. 5

ter',1i111e92Mdn),/ntuh90

Sd ds a.csult conDector214 Sa thfi2A2

203

- I-AUSI]S I 6 A I ) \ ' 1 : R I ] I A IC

Contrastclauseswith although,though, eventhough,etc. We use alr,hougli('despitethe fact that') at the beginningof a clausewhich containsinformation that contrasts in an unexpected or surprising way with infor mation in another clause. I (The sur.rwas shining. I expectedit to be warm.) Although the sun was shining it was cokl. (lim is ilt. I expect he doesn't have to go to work .) Jim has to go to work olthough he's ill. We can also use ,rt to expresscontrast, but not with although:.Jinr is ill, but he hasto go to work.

(sot@)

We often use tioagl insteadof althoughin informal situations(2). We can ttsetlnugh (not although) afteradjectives or adverbsmovedto the beginningof theclause(3). 2 ThoughKate'sclever,sheisn'tdoingverywellat school..He hasto go to work thoughhe's ill. - Difrcult though the testh,as,we all passed. 3 Thoughthe testwasdfficult, weall passed. In formal situations,cs is alsousedin this structure:Dificult asthe testwas,weall passed, Whenwe want to emphasize a contrast, we canusecvertiorigftwhenwe aretalkingaboutpastor presentsituations(4) and evearf for futureor possible situations(5).We don'tuseeyenwith ahhoughot asa conjunctionby itseli 4 Bill keptplaying golfeventhough it was raining. (Nol ... aettakho+6d-*+va*+{a{mg,) 5 Bill wouldplaygolf evenif it wassnowing (Nor'... #ei.:nbr6s:fto1tittg) Subjunctiveryereis sometimesusedafter evenif: He wouldplay eten if it weresnowing. (6) and while(7) are sometimesusedto ln formal situatior.rs, other conjunctionssuchas whereas express a contrastbetwecntwo clauses. The phrasenlacftasis alsousedin contrastclauses with verbs suchaslikq hateor want(8). 6 Boyswereexcouraged to beadyenturous whereasgirls werealwaystold to stay clean. 7 While no oneiloubtshis ability, hisarrogo t attitudehasbeendiffa t to accept. 8 Much as I like music,I can'tlistento operafor long.. Much as I want to, I cau'thelpyou. We can usedespitethefact that insteadof 4ltiorgfi to introducea contrastclause(9). We can alsouse the prepositionsdespiteor in spiteofplus gerundsinsteadof a clausewith although(10)9 Despitethefact that he had lots of friends, he stillfelt reallylonelysotnetimes. l0 Despitestudyinghard, I failed the test.. Shewasn'tsatisJied in spiteof beingpaid extm. (Nor DesptteJ:u4iedJwd;Ifuik* $he*asn't satisfedin spiteof she*es paid extra.) 10 Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentenceabove it. I I disagreervith his point ofview, but I understandwhy he thinks that way. A l t h ou g h 2 Jackis still ur.remployed in spiteofapplying for abouta dozendifferentjobs. Though . .. . .. 3 Whilemostpeopleagreedthat the carwasa bargain,noneofthem wantedto buy it. Even 4 Thoughit seensunlikely,the childrenmaynot wantto go to thezoo on Saturday. U n l i k e l y. . 5 The old peopledidn'thaveverymuchmoney,but theywerereallygenerous. D e s p i t e .. .

204

l t r t t 2 l \ r \ t i r l t o r s h t 9 2 S u b j u n c l n1r 6 7 , 1 8 61 h . t i n l

t t 6 1 t r / , o , S / , I 0 l t / , r / c1 9 78

I 6 A I ) V I . ] I t B I A IC, I , A U S E S

Reducedadverbial clauses An adverbialclauseformedwith a presentparticipleis calleda reducedadverbialclause(1). We put rlofbeforethe presentparticiplein the negative(2). Reducedadverbialclausesare alsocalled participleclausesand aretypicallyusedin formal situations. I When he lookedoutside,he sawthe policecar.- Lookingoutside,hesawthepolicecar. 2 Because shedidn't feelvery well,shesat down. "a Notfeeling very well, shesat down. We can form reducedadverbialclauseswith having+ pastparticiplefor an earlieraction,usually insteadofa pastperfect(3). We usebeing+ pastparticipleinsteadofa passive(4). 3 After he had retired,Cecildecidedto travel."+ Having retired, Cecildecitledto travel. 4 I wasreallyquite flatteredat first,becauseI wasaskedto work with one of the professors. - I wasreallyquiteJlatteredat first, beingaskeilto work with one of theprofessors. We usuallyonly usereducedadverbialclauseswhen the subjectsof the main clauseand the adverbial clauseare the same(5). We avoidusingreducedadverbialclauseswhen the subjectsare different(6) 5 Because i! wasbarkingloudly,the dog scaredus. -- Barking louilly, thedogscaredus. 6 BecauseiI wasbarking loudly, 1ggwere scared.(Not Barkinglott*y-we-+ere:eere*) We can alsoform reducedadverbialclausesby usingsubordinatingconjunctionssuchas beforeand asfwith a presentparticiple. 7 Beforeyou leave,switchoff all the lights."+ Beforeleat ing, switchoff all thelights. 8 He stoodthere,asif he waswaitingfor someone."'+He stoodthere,as if waiting for someone. Note that becarseis not usedin this way.(Not @) When we usea subordinatingconjunctionsuchas although,though,whenor whilewith an adjective or a prepositionalphrase(9), or with the pastparticipleof a passive(10), we can leaveout the subject+ be. 9 Although (theyare) small, terriersare tough.. ArnoldstudiedGreekwhile (he was) at Oxforil. l0 Though(it had been)broken,it still worked.. When (it is) seenfrom space,theearthis blue. The pastparticipleis sometimesusedwithout a coniunction'.Seenfrom space,the earthis blue. 17 Add reducedversions of these adverbialclausesto the following sentences(adapted from a newspaperarticle about problems in London's Undergroundrailwaysystem). akhoughit manages ahhoughtheywerefrustrated

until theymakesure asif theyweretrying onceit hasbeenbroken sinceit opened

/ whiletheywaited

Example:.Uhijg..-',ql!inS. .... ... in line for busesduringa recentone-daytrain strike,London's commutersdisplayedremarkablepatiencewith their strugglingUnderground. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , most peoplejust shruggedand went backto their newspapers, . to ignorethislatestinconvenience. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i n 1 8 6 3t,h eU n d e r g r o u nhda sg r o w ni n t oa s p r a w l i nnge t w o r ko f t r a c k s , needof repair. someof which arein desperate 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to coverits operatingcostsfrom fares,the Undergroundneverseemsto have enoughmoneyfor long-terminvestmentand maintenance. 4 The government'sargumentis that, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . into severalprivatecompanies,eachof the system's smallerpartswill be betterableto attractnew investment. 5 Opponentsof the government'splan to sellpartsof the Undergroundsaythat they shouldnot be allowedto proceed . .. that all existinglinesare safefor passengers.

Be.?tu.201

Plssivess7 Presentp. rticiple or Benurd? l19

Reducedrehlivc dauscs lT6

205

16 ADVERBIALCLAUSES

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completeseachsentence. 1 Playersmay not leavethe areawithout permission a despite

b during

c much as

d while

2 Rernemberto weara helmet a in order that

b so as

the gameis beingplayed.

your head is protected. c that

d to

they had beenwaiting in line all night, I wassurethey'dgettickets. a asthoush

b becauseof

c since

4 Sylvia said it was aas

b asif

d until

lovely weatherthey all went swimming. cso

5 Onceyou

d such into a routine, you'll find the work is quite easy.

a aresettling b havesetded c setded d will settle B ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A,B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correct the sentence. I Theydidn't think he -r hadbeen-eto visithisbirthplacesincehe j5 a smallchild.

D

2 SomeBritish peopleput a 'GB' plateon the backof their car so tlat to showft41 the car is ftom AB GreatBritain Wh€! they drive to other countries,eventhoueh it seemsrather odd.

c

3 When cooking previously frozen vegetables,use about half asmuch time asvou would for fresh AB vegetables because becominssofterafter they havebeenkeot in a lieezer.

"________e-________-__D-

4 For it waslate,they stoppedneara streamin order to restthe horsesand sg3siolllo get lost while D riding through the forest. 5 Much asI liked her paintings,I couldn't act 4SshewasPicassoor someonelike that whcl she A^-B--clearlywasa beginner,--Tthoush very good for a beginner,of course.

C Completethis text with the following words. after as

bemuse to

when(x2)

In Britain,1r1 you needlegaladvice,you go to seea solicitor.Solicitorsspend (z) most of the time in their offices their work mostly involvespreparing legal documents,especiallythoseinvolvedin buying a house.They can,(r) go to court with you, but, (4) necessary, taking down details of a seriouslegal matter,they will often contacta barrister(s) representyou in court. you rnay haveseenin films or on TV, barristers wear white curly wigs and black robesin court.

206

16 ADVERBIALCLAUSES

Gompleteeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentence above it. 1 It waslateand I wasexhausted, so I went straightto bed. Because 2 Therewill haveto be a changein his attitudeor he won't continueto work here. In order for 3 From the way he talked,I thought he ownedthe restaurant. He talked 4 Finishyour homework,then you can go out. You can't 5 I know he'syour friend,but he can'tsleephere. Even 6 We left half an hour earlierthan necessary because we didn't want to be late. So as E Choose one word or phrasefrom each pair to completethe text. abhough and so

as easyas soeasy

as if tf

just just as

asmuch asmuchas

despite despitethefact

sothat though whereas even

a lot hasbeenwritten and saidabout classdifferencesin British society, they no longer mean 1.21 they usedto. Traditionally,the upper classes were wealthy and powerfi,rl1:; the lower or working classes werepoor. Nowadays, someo[ the upperclasses maystill seemto behave andspeakr+r their social statuscontinuesto be (5) it wasfor their aristocraticancestors, but it is no longerbasedon exclusivewealthand power.Maintaininglargehouseswith lots of seryantsis not (6) it usedto be and,strange(7) it may seem, the new ownersof thoselargehousesmay speakwith distinctlyworking-classor evenforeignaccents. that their parentsmay havebeenmiddle or working class,many of today's wealthyBritonsachievedsuccess basedon educationand enterprise,not birth and inheritance. (l)

207

Connectors are words such as consequently, howeverand so and phrasessuch as n addition,in fact and for examplewhich are usedto link clausesand sentences.(Ihe Japaneseeconomy hasbeen very strong and consequently the yen has risenin value. In addition, the dollar hascontinuedto show weakness.Thepound,however, hasremained steady.) Focus structuresare also usedto linksentences. One typeof focusstructureis called fronting.ln fronting, one part of a sentence(l can'teat asparagus) is movedto front positionin orderto focus attentionon that part. (l can eat broccoliand carrots.AsparagusI can'teat.) Anothertype of focusstructureis a cleft sentence.In a cleftsentence, we focusattention on one part of a sentenceand put the otherpart of the sentencein a separateclause. We can begin a cleft sentencewith fi (rf'sasparagusI can't eal or what(WhatI can'teat is asBarag!{s) . 1 Readthroughthis textandfind one connectorin eachparagraph. A ALL THOSE PEOPLE WHO say that the weather hasn't been normal recently are right. Howevcr. sincethere is really no such thing as normal weather,they probablymean r something else. If they mean that average summer temperatures have been getting warmer, then they are certainly correct. ln fact, it is not just the summer temperature,but the general averagetemperature ol the whole r o w o r l d t h a t h a sb e c ns t e a t l i l ym o v i n gu p . B The signs are everywhere. There are small signs. For example, butterflies in North America have moved about 60 milesnorth of where they used to live. There are also very r: large signs.Huge massesof ice in mountain glaciers and the Arctic are melting. The famous snow cap on Africa's Mount Kiliminjaro has almostdisappeared. Actually, ice or snow doesn't really disappear,it turns ro into water, flows into the ocean and causessea levelsto rise. C Why is this happening?One answeris that it could simply be part of a natural process. After all, there have been long periods of ,' warmth in the past. So we could just be

experiencing another warming trend. This kind of answer had more supporters a few yearsago.What scientistsnow believeis that human activity is the cause.For more than two hundred years, humans have been gradually ", changingthe atmosphere,mainly as a result of industrial pollution. We have created an atmospherearoundthe earth that,like a giant glasscontainer,letsheat from the sun through .;r and holds it inside. D Will temperaturesand sea levels keep rising? Should we just move to higher ground and throw away our winter coats? The answer dependson where you live. If you live on the a0 coast of Flodda, the answer is a definite yes. However, if you live in northern Europe, your temperatures may soon be on the way down. All that freshwater pou ng into the Atlantic will change the circulation pattems in the rs ocean. As a consequence,the current of air that flows towards Europe will become much cooler.According to one prediction, winter in London is going to become much more Iike winter in Copenhagen

Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the paragraphs (A-D) above. 1 It mav be a good idea to hold on to your coat. (...) 2 It's knorvn as the greenhouseeffect.( ..) 3 It's calledglobal warming. ( .) 4 As a result,small islandsin the Pacificare going under. (. ..) 208

I7 CONNE(]'IORS ANI) I:(X]USSTRUCTURES

Typesof connectorsand focusstructures Adverbs as connectors The most commonconnectorsareadverbssuchashoweveror tftenwhich we can useto link a sentence( I ) or clause(2) to a precedingsentenceor clause.They arealsocalledlinking words. However,theywereall too expensive. 1 Wewantedto rent a Jlat nearthe university, 2 Theold womanpouredtwo cupsof tea,then I askedher if sheremembered my grandparents. Othersinclude:actually,also,finally,instead,later,meanwhile,secondly,so,therefore We usuallyput adverbsusedasconnectorsat the front of the sentenceor clause(3). The only connectorswe don't usein front position are aswell and too.We can usethem and other connectors in endposition(4).We canalsouseconnectors in mid position,afterbeor auxiliaryverbs(5) and canbe usedin all possible positions. beforethe mainverb(6).Not all connectors 3 I've beento Moroccoseveraltimes.Actually, I'vejust comebackfrom there. 4 I spenta few daysin Casabkuca.I visitedRabatarul Tangieras well. 5 Don'tforgetyour raincoat.Youarealsogoingto needan umbrellcr. 6 DaveanrlAliceatived with steaminghot cofee.Theyalso broughtfresh rolls. We don't usuallyput a connectorbetweena verb and its object.(Not Ehey4m+gh+akeJ+esh-rollx)

Phrasesas connectors We usesomeprepositionalphrasesasconnectors,usuallyin front position (7), but sometimesin mid (8) or endposition(9).Not all prepositional phrases usedasconnectors canbe put in all possible positions.We usuallyseparatephrasesusedasconnectorswith commas. 7 Therloctorwill seeyou sootl.In the meantime,couldyou pleasecompletethese forms? 8 Wehaveyour application,but it's incomplete. Youdidn't,for example,includea photograph. in fact. 9 Oneman lied abouthavinga degreein English.He had neverbeento Ltniversity, Othersinclude:asa result,for a start,in addition,in conclusion,in other words,on the other hand We can alsouseinfinitive phrasessuchas to beginwith as connectors, usuallyin front position. l0 I had a summerjob in a factory,but I rlidn't enjoyit. To heginwith, I had to start at six,which mea t I wasalwaystired. Othersinclude:to conclude,to start with, to summarize,to sum up

Focusstructures We can usefocusstructuresto link sentences. We can moveone part of a sentenceto front position This is calledfronting. to link that sentencemore closelyto the precedingsentence. I I I'd rathervisit Paristhan London thesedays.(I don't like London asmuch asI usedto.) - LonrlonI don't like osmuchasI usedto. We can alsousefocusstructuresto emphasize one part of a sentence, usuallywhen we are makinga like this, which begin contrastwith, or addingto, information in a precedingsentence. Sentences with it ( l2) or what (13), arecalledcleft sentences. (Jackieatethem.) - It wasIsekigwho ate them. 12 I didn't eatthe strawberries. 13 We didn't like the wayhe spoke.(We reallydidn't like his rude behaviov.) - What wereally didn't like washisrudebehaviour. 3 Find examplesof the following in the text on page 208: I a sentencewith a connectorin mid nosition:

2 a focusstructurebeginningwith wftat

A d v e r b sl l 6

A u x i l i a r y ! $ b s l 7 C l e f t s e n i e n c e s 2 l TF i o n t i n g 2 l 6 P r c p o s i l i ( D r l p h r i s e ls2 s

209

17 (I]NNE']TORS AN]I IOCUS STRUCTUIIES

prepositions Connectors, and conjunctions Connectorsor prepositions? Someconnectors(osa result,in afulition)aresimilar to complexprepositions(asa resuhof, in addition to).Insteadof a connector(1), we sometimesusea complexprepositionplus a noun phrase (2) or a pronoun(3) at the beginningof a sentence. I As a result,sealewls are rising.In qdilition, theydiscussed thesituationin thePaciJic. 2 As a result of thesechanges,sealevelsare rising. (Not k-a+e*1+efsealetels ,) 3 Ifl addition to that, theydiscussed thesituqtionin thePacilic.(Nor In addi+iea+hat,.. .) Other complexprepositionsinclude:asan exampleof, in comparisonto/with, in contrastto We can alsousea complexprepositionplus a noun phraseor pronoun (4), or a similar connector (5),in endposition. 4 Malcolmwentto Cambridge. SarahchoseOxfordinsteailof Cambriilge5 He went to Cambridge.ShechoseOford insfead.(Nor ... e@)

Connectorsor coniunctions? We can use connectors such as also and howeyerin a way that is similar to the coordinating conjunctior.rsand and but,We use the connectors when we want to emphasizethe type of connection,such as adding (6) or contrasting(7). 6 Suzy'sdoing great thesedays. She'sliting in the country. Shealso has s new boyfriend. . She'sliving in the country and she hasa new boyfriend. 7 I sometimesrirink coffeein a restaurant However, I prefer tea most of the time. . I sometimesdrink coffeein a restaurant,but I prefer tea most of the time. We sometimes use coordinating conjunctions before connectors in the same clausewhen we want to emphasize the type of relationship, such as result (8) or contrast (9), between the clauses. 8 Shedidn't sign the contract and consequentf it isn't legal.(Not eoaseqaentlT a#) 9 They were trapped for two day5 but neyertheless they suntited. (Not n*erthekss4*) We sometimes reduce clausesafter coordinating coniunctions, but not after connectors. l0 The show was supposedto start early, but didn't. (NoT ... M+) Although comectors and conjunctions can both link clausesinside sentences,we usually use conjunctionsto join clauseswithin the samesentence(11) ar.rdconnectorsto link sentences(12). ll You can stay here and help me or you can go inside,but you can't just sit watching TV 12 We were working outsirleall day.Meanwhile, he was sitting inside watching TV. We can use so and thoagft as connectors or as subordinating coniunctions. When used as conjunctions, so and rioagi introduce an adverbial clause as part of a sentence( 13). When used as connectors,they link one sentenceto another (14). 13 It wos an interestingoffeL though I couldn't acceptit, so I said nothing. 14 |m sure it was her car outsirie.So she must haye beenat home. . We reallv liked their new flat, It was lotely. It was wry expensive,though. 4

Using information from the text on page 208, complete these sentences with connectors, prepositions or conjunctions. I 2

..

. ......

.. industrial pollution, the atmospherehas graduallychanged.

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . small changessuch as butterflies moving north, there are large changessuch as glaciersmelting . .. . . . . . . . . . flowing into the ocean.Sealevelsare rising . . . .. .. .. ...

210

Advcrbial clauscs197 Complex prepositions 12s Coordinating and $rbordinating conjun.ti()ns l2

I7 CONNECTORS AND FOCUS STRUCTURES

Chooseone phrasefromeachpairto completethesesentencesfrom a historytext. in addition in addition to

in contrs in contrastto

for example as an eximple of

asa resuh asa resubof

The Spanish-American war wasfought betweenSpainand the United Statesin lg9g. Therewereseveral reasons for US involvement. (l) . -.... ............ ... , Americaninvestors werelosing moneybecauseofSpanishpoliciesinCuba.(2).....................theSpanishforces,the very modern and powerful.(j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the war,Cubabecameindependentfrom Spain. ( 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t,h eU n i t e dS t a t egsa i n e d c o n t r ool f p u e r t oR i c o . Completethis descriptionwith these words. also

and

asa result

but

howeyer so

The Titanic wasconsideredto be the fastestand most modernpassenger ship of its day.It was (r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . believedto be unsinkable.During its first yoFge in t912,lzl .. .. . . . . . the shiphit an iceberg(3)........ .... ......... sank.Whilethe shipwasslowlysinking,therewas time for the passengers to escape, (4).. therewerenot enoughlifeboats, ( 5 ) . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . .. h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e d r o w n e d i n t h e d i s a s t e r . ( 6 ) . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , t o u g h lawswereintroducedto makeshipsmuch safer. choose a sentenceor clause (a-d) to fotow each sentence or crause(1-4) and add these words. and

but

instead or

so (x2)

thouph

I We lovedplayingin the snow.(. ..) 2 I likedthe car...... . ... . my wifelovedit. (.. .) 3 I didn't think the t"rt *u. iong difficult, (. . .) 4 Therewasn'ta flight available.(.. .)

someof the studentsdid. b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .w. .ew e n tb y t r a i n c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ .w . . e. b o u g hitt . d It wasreallycold,.

Editing.Correct the mistakesin the use of connectors in this text. My fiiend Kazukosometimeshelpsme with my Englishwriting. Shewasborn in fapan,hewever,but shespentpart of her childhoodin Americaconsequently her Englishis reallygood.she isn,t rikean American,although.Americansseemto be very direct,in contrast this Kazukois very indirect.As example,shenevertellsme that I havemadea mistake.Insteadthat, shepoints to a line and takesa 'tsss' deepbreath.she mal<es alsoa sma sound.Alternatively,or shemay saysomepart needs.special attention'.For her,nothing is everwrong;it is simply'not finished yetl As a resultthis, I havenot only learnedEnglishfrom her,but I havealsolearnedhow to be helpful and patient.Nevertheless that, I think that shewill haveto takea few deepbreathswhen shereads this. In other word, it is not finishedyet.

2ll

I 7 C O N N I C T O I I S A N I ) I J O C U SS T I I U C l ' U R E S

Addingand contrasting connectors Adding connectors:a/so,as well" too, etc. When we want to showthat we areaddinginformation,we can usealsoin front (l ) or mid position (2), but not usuallyin end position.We useaswellor tooin end position (3). I Youmustn'tforgetto includethepostcode. Also,makesureyou provitlea returnaddress. 2 Carl is goodat French.He'salso studyingFrenchcooking.I think he alsospeaks ltalian. 3 He speaksa little Spanishas welUtoo,(No:tHespeaks-a4tde$penld+-elso,) In formal situations,we can useother connectors,typicallyin front position,to showthat we are addingto (4) or supporting{5 ) ideaspresented earlier. 4 Wearesendingfood and water.In aildition, theywill needthingslike tentsand blankets. 5 If you'reready,you shouldgo aheadwithout me.Besides,I'd ratherstayat hometonight. Othersusedformally include:ftrrthermore,indeed,likewise,moreover,similarly We can usein otherwords(6) and,that is (to say)(7) in front positionwhen we want to showthat information is beingstatedin anotherway. 6 It's described asdownsizing. In other words,peopleare losingtheirjobs. 7 He told me he wantedtojoin thearmy.That is (to say),he wantedto weara unifurmand carry a gun, We can useconnectorssuchas in particular(8), or for exampleand.for instance(9), rn front, mid and end positionswhen we want to showthat we areaddingmore specificinformation. 8 I enjoyerlthe book.In particular, I likedthedetaik of life in lapan asit usedto be. 9 William doesn'thelpwith thehousework. He has,for examplo neverwashedthedishes.. Thisstudyof smokinghabitsis incomplete. There'sno mentionof teenagers, for instance.

Contrasting connectors:however,instead,etc. We can usehoweverand insteadwhenwe want to showthat we are creatinga contrastand introducing information which is unexpectedor contradictory.We usuallyput however(10) and instead(II) in front position,but they can alsobe usedin mid and end positions( l2). l0 Shehad hopedDanielwouldstayall weekend. Howeyer,he had to leaveon Saturday. ll He wassupposed to stayhereand helpus mote things.Insteail,he wentoff to play golf. 12 Extra securityprecautionshad beenproposedearlier.Theywere,however,considered toocostlyat the time.A tighteningof existingsecuritymeasures wasundertakeninstead. Othersusedformally include:in contrast,nevertheless, on the other hand,rathe6yet

Connectors used for adding or contrastingl actually, in fact, after all We can useactuallyand in /ac when we introduceinformationthat addssomething,often in support of a previousstatement(13), or when the information contrastswith what wasexpected(14). We usuallyput both forms in front position,but they can alsobe usedin end or mid position ( 15). 13 I've knownHenryMartin for years.Actually, we wentto thesameschool. 14 Everyonethoughtthe examwouldbedfficult. ln fact, it turnedout to bequiteeasy. 15 Wewent to thesameschool,in fact.. It actually turnedout to bequiteeasy. We can useafteraII ('don't forget')in front or end positionwhen we add information asa reminder ( 16).We can alsouseafterall ('d.espite what wasexpected'),usuallyin end position,when we include information that contrastswith what wasexpected(17). 16 I don't hayeto teIImy parentset)erything. After all,I am over21./I qm an adub after all. 17 WhenI sawthe rain, I didn't think wecouldgofor a walk.Tonycontincedme to go with him and wesawa beautifulrainbow.I'm soglad wedecidedto do it after all.

2r2

In ad.litiot(to) t25,2to Insteotl(ol) t25,2t0

I7 CONNECTOIIS ANI) FOCUS STRUC'I'URES

Using a dictionary if necessary,add the following words and phrasesto the definitions in this paragraph. facelift(x2)

forklift

lift (x2)

abo (x2)

for example similarly

that is

A ( l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , w h i c hi s ( z ). . k r o w n a sa n e l e v a t oi n r t h eU S A ,i s a m a c h i n e that you standin to go up and down insidea building.This word is 1:1. .... . usedfor the a c t i o no f t a k i n gs o m e o nseo m e w h e irne a c a r ,d e s c r i b eads ' g i v i nsgo m e o nae( 4 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . Somethingratherdifferentis meantby a (5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , which is an operationto make s o m e o nleo o ky o u n g ebr y ,( 6 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,r e m o v i n fga t o r p u l l i n gt h es k i nt i g h t e r . (7)......,..,...........,theprocessofimprovingtheappearanceoftheoutsideofabuildingc 'giving describedas it a (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'.A (e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a vehiclewith special e q u i p m e n t , ( r 0 ) . . .......... . . . . . . . . , t w o l o n g m e t a l p r o n g s s t i c k i n g o u t i n f r o n t , w h i c h i s u s e d f o r lifting and moving hearythhgs. 10 Add one group of connectors (not necessarilyin this order) to each of these paragraphs (adaptedfrom a magazinearticle). / ako / however/ in otherwords

intleed/ in fact / too

actually/ also/ in particular

also A RogerGoodmanwasreallyfit when he playedrugby in school.Hdtayed in good shapethrough university.Oncehe startedworking,thingschanged.He beganeatinga lot more and exercisinga lot less.After a fewyears,his clotheswerefeelingtight and he wasbreathingreallyhard after 'out running up stairs.He was of shape'. B Rogerdidn't think he had time for outdoor activities,so he decidedto join a healthclub. Like a lot more men thesedays,he startedthinking about cosmeticsurgeryto improvehis appearance. He wantedto get rid of someof the wrinklesaround his eyes.CosmeticsurgeonDr Khalid Idris of Body Imagein Highbury says,'Ourclientsusedto be mostlywomen.Now we havemore men than womencomingin for certaint)?es of surgery.' C The number of men seekinghelp from surgeonslike Dr Idris hasincreaseddramaticallyin recent years.It's a trend that startedin the USA wherecosmeticsurgeryis a $500million business.The emphasison looking young isn't limited to facelifts,but hascreateda hugedemandfor dental improvementsand hair transplants. 11 Correct the mistakesin the use of connectors in these sentences. I I'm still studyingEuropeanHistory.I'm hoping aswell to takea British History class. 2 I'd ratherhavechickenthan fish ifthat's okay.I don't like actuallyfish very much. 3 I don't mind correctingstudents'homework.It's part of my job afterall that. 4 I wouldn't saythat Adam is the beststudent.In addition,he'scertainlynot the worst. 5 Recyclinghasbeensuccessfi.rl in schools.On the other hand,young childrennow automaticallyput their empty bottlesin the recyclingbin, not the dustbin. 213

17 CONNECTOITSANI) IJOCUSSTRUCTURES

Resultandtimeconnectors Result connectors:so,therefore,etc. We can usesoin front positionto showthat what followsis a resultof, or is causedby, earlier events(l). We sornetimesuse therefore whenwe want to emphasizea logicalor necessary result(2). Therefore is more formal than so, 1 Weweremovingsomethingsout of thehousewhenit startedpouringwith rain. So everything got very wet, 2 Thewomankilledher husbandand sheintendedto do it. Thereforesheis guilry of munler. In formal situations,we can useasa result,lsrally in ftont position,to showthat somethingis a direct resultof earlierevents. 3 Therehasbeenan increase in populationand a shortage of housing.As a result,rentshavegoneup andfewerstudentscanffird to liyewithin walkingdistanceof thecollegeOthersusedformally include:accordingly,asa consequence, consequently, hence,thus

Time connectorsi then, afterwards, etc. We can use thenasa connector,usuallyin front position,to showthat one action or situationis later than another(4) or followslogicallyfrom another(5). We sometimesuserhenat the beginningof a clauseemphasizingwhat followslogicallyfrom a precedingifclause (6). 4 Wehad unpackedeverything for thepicnicand hadjust sat down.Then it startedto rain. 5 Perhaps you couldhire a carfor a few dayl Thenyou'dbeableto go wherever you wantetl. 6 If we allow the teroriststo succeed, then no onewiII eyerfeelsafeagainary,where. We can useother connectorssuchasafterwards, in front or end position,when we'retalkingabout the time relationshipbetweenone sentenceand another. 7 Theflm was basedon Harris' frst notel. Afterwards, the bookbecamea bestseller. Othersinclude:earlier,later,previously,subsequently We can usemeanwhile('d.u'ringthat time') to showthat tlvo thingsarehappeningduring the same period of time (8). We can alsouse meanwhile('beforethat time') to talk about somethinghappening betweentwo points in time (9). We usuallyput meanwhilein front posttiot. 8 My sister finishedhighschoolandgot a goodjob. Mennwhile,I remainetla poor student. 9 Let'smeetagaintomorrow.Meanwhile,I'lI getin touchwith Craigaboutyour proposal. Othersinclude:in the meantime('beforethat time'), simultaneously('during the sametime') 12 Choose a sentenceor clause (a-0 to follow each sentenceor clause (1-6) and add so o( then. I We got stuckin a badtrafhcjam on the wayto the concert.(. . .) 2 I know you don't like greenpeppers.(. . .) 3 If our operatingbudgetis cut by 10%,(. . .) 4 It wasa terrible morning, with a lot of problemsin the office.(. . .) 5 A lot more peoplecameto the meeting than they expected,so (. . .) 6 The childrenhaveto do their homework everyafternoonwhen they comehome,(. . .)

2t4

a . .... .... .. at lunchtimeI spilledsometomato soupdown the liont of my white shirt. b . . . . . . . . . they can play or watchTV. c . . . . . . . . . . . whenwe arrived,it had alreadystarted. d . . . . . . . . . . . we reallywill haveto reduceservices. e . . . . . . . . . . . I didn't put any in the salad. f . . . . . . . . . . . the room wasvery crowded.

Resultclauses203 So2O2 3,210

Then^ftet i{
I7 CONNECTORS AND FOCUSS1'RUC'I'URES

Listingconnectors We can use75rst(or frstly), second(or seconrlly), etc.in front positionto showthe order of things in a list or a sequence. We sometimesusethenor nextrnsteadof second(ly), third(ly), etc. I Wermlly hate to cleanthehouse.First,we hayeto takeout the rubbish. piled up in thekitchensink. Then/Second, we'IIhoven washaII thedishes ThirillyNext we really needto scrubthefloor becauseit's so dirty. We canusefor a start insteadof frst(ly) in front positionto showthat we arebeginninga sequence of reasonsto supportor erplain a precedingstatement(2). We can use-fnally in front position to show that we areat the end of a list (3). 2 I hatedworkingthere.For a start, everyone elsewasmucholderthan me, Othersinclude:first of all, in the first place,to beginwith, to start with 3 Finally, I mustthank my parentsfor theiryearsof patienceanrisupport. We can usea phrasesuchas to sum up whenwe are goingto providea summaryof points already made(4). 4 Tosum up, theylikedour ideas,but thq/ want to knowmoreaboutthecostsinvolved. Othersinclude:in briei in conclusion,in short,in summary,to conclude,to summarize 13 Add these connectorsto the following recipe. finally

first

second then(x2)

To makehot-bakedchipsfor two, you'll needfour largepotatoes,the white of one egg,a quarter teaspoonof cayennepepperand a pinch of salt.Sliceeachpotatolengthwise,cut eachslicelengthwise into long sticks.Mix the eggwhite, cayenneand saltin a bowl. Stir the potato sticksround in the mixture.Spreadthe coatedpotatostickson a greasedbakingsheetand bakethem in the ovenat 170' for 35 minutes. 14 Write one of these connectors,or no connector,where appropriate,at the beginning of each of these sentences(adaptedfrom a textbook). asa result

/for a start

in short

secondly so

then

Example:. ... . ..;. ... . .. Anim^al communication is differentfrom humancommunication in two ways. Example:. F.qf..q.:!qf!, . . . Limal signalsare alwaysrestrictedto what is happeninghereandnow. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . When your dog comesto you and says,'Woofl',it alwaysmeans,'I'm woofing now.'It doesn'tmean,'I woofedlastnight.' 2 .. .. .. .. . .. ... . However, humanscaneasilytalk aboutlastnightandthingsthat happened yearsago. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . They can go on to talk aboutwhat they'll be doing tomorrow or nextyear 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Humansare alsocapableof talking aboutwhat doesn'tevenexist. 5 .. ... . ... ... . ... . ... . Theycanreferto thingslike heavenandhellwithout everhavingseenthem. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Animal communicationconsistsof a fixed number of signalsand eachsignalis usedfor oneparticularthlngor occasion. 7 , ... .. ... ... .. . Humancommunication, on the otherhand,is verycreative andhumansareable to invent new words,asillustratedby'woofing' in the lastparagraph. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .H u m a nc o m m u n i c a t i ohna ss p e c i aplr o p e r t i enso t f o u n di n a n i m a l communication.

215

I

CO\Nf'

I \ ) , {
Focusstructures: frontingand inversion We can focusattentionon (or emphasize)one part of a sentence, suchasthe object,by moving it to front position.This is calledfronting.We can useftonting, usuallyin formal situations,to link a sentencemore closelyto the precedingsentence(1) and to highlighta contrast(2). 1 Shewascoughing,sneezingand shivering.(He recognizedthesesymptomsimmediately.) + Theses!,mp!oms he recognized immediately. 2 We met the Greens.(We liked Mrs Green,but we reallydidn't carefor her husband.) "+ Mrs Greenwe liked,but her husbandwe reallyditln't carefor. After fronting,we often put the verb or auxiliaryverb beforethe subject.This is calledinversion. We usuallyuseinversionwith verbsdescribingplaceor movementafterprepositionalphrases(3) or after adverbssuchas hereand,fhere(4) in front position. 3 I wastold to sit on a chair in the middle of the room. (An old woman stoodbehindthe chair.) - Behindthechairstoodan olil woman. . lnto theroomwolkedtwo men wearingsunglasses. 4 figp comesthe briile. . !!919 goesmy bus (Nor Ehere+ny4as6e*) We alsouseinversionafter negativewords (neither,nor) (5), phrasesbeginningwith ror (6), and after adverbssuchasscarcely or seldom(7) in front position. 5 I don't like it. Neitherilo nryparents.Nudoes anyoneelsethat I'ye asked. 6 Not until loterdid we noticethe brokenglass.. Not onlywas the car old, it had no windows. 7 Smrce4thad he sat downwhenthephonerong.' SeldomhqveI heardsuchnonsense. We useinversionafter orf, with prepositionalphrases(8) or time expressions (9) in front position. 8 I've lookedlor it in otherplaces.On[v in ltalv canyou fncl thk specialkind of icecream. 9 Onll/ afterthe testwill we knowif it worked.Onbtthencan we decidewhat to do next. Inversionis alsousedafterparticiplesmovedto ftont position,usuallyin narratives. 70 The bedroomwasempry.Atng lnJhr_bed was a parcel. Attachedto it was a small note. 15 Completethis text by adding one of these expressionsin each space. did she hod she

is it it is

it wos shewos herecomes wosshe

shewould wouldshe

wassomethinp waspart

Only occasionally{1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . find herselfreadingsomeoneelse'snewspaper, overtheir shoulder,asshesat in the stationwaiting room. Mostly (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . just not very interested, nor (3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . willing to risk gettingcaught.Why (4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . so embarrassing to get caughtdoing that, shewonderedto hersell It isn't againstthe law or anlthing. But facingher today (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that reallycaughther attention.One of our greatestfearsin modern life, the headlinesaid,washavingto speakin public.The articleofferedwaysto developyour confidence. Seldom(e) everhad to speakto an audience,but (7). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . her turn to givea ten minute presentationin her Spanishclassthat afternoon.Not only (s). . ... . . havetospeaktoanaudience,(9).....................havetodoitinaforeignlanguage.Shefeltth room gettinghotter assheleanedforward to get a closerlook. Suddenlyblockingher view (r0). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of a largeblackbeardand the big noseof the newspaper's owner.'Oops.Oh, (u) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . my train,' shesaidquickly,asshestoodup and stumbledtowardsthe door. Publicspeakingisn't scary,shethought to herself,(r2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . public readingthat makes me reallynervous.

216

IDvesion aiter negdtivewords 48

AND FOCUSSTRUCTURES ]7 CONNECTORS

cleftsentences Focusstructures: we can usespecial When we want to focusattentionon (or emphasize)one part of a sentence, ('divided') we divide the sentenceinto tlvo Parts sentence, ln a cleft structurescalledcleil sentences. begin Some cleft sentences in speech. and focusattentionon one part. This part is usuallystressed (2). (l wh-clefts with it and are calledit-clefts ). Othersbeginwirh what and,arc called 1 Martin + ateyour pizza."'. It wasMattin who ateyour pizzo. Martin ate+ your pizza.-1 It wasygu2kzL that Martin ate. iceqeqm. 2 Anna reallylikes+ chocolateice cream.--+What Anna reallylikesis chocolate

It-clefts part + a relativeclausebeginningwith who We usuallyform it-cleftswith it + be+ an emphasized (3), that(4) or no relativepronoun(5). 3 SomeonesaidAli phonedearlier.(Ali didn't phone.Alex phoned.)"+ No,it wasn't&who phoned.It wasAIex. 4 I'm not interestedin anyoneelse.(I loveyou!) -'+ It'syp! that I love! - No, I like most of them. (I hateonions-)"+ It'sonionsI hate. 5 Don't you like vegetables? We usuallyuseit-cleftswhenwe want to focusattentionon a noun or Pronoun,but we can also focuson other partsof a sentencesuchasan adverb(6) or an adverbialclause(7). to behere' 6 Youweresupposedto be hereyesterday.'aIt waslesterdavthatyou weresupposed 7 Thingsgot worseafterElaineleft. -+ lt wasafterElaineleft that thingsgot worse.

Wh-clefts part can part. The emphasized + be+ an emphasized We usuallyform rvh-cleftswith a what-claase (9). be a noun phrase(8) or a noun clause 8 I can'tstopyawning.(I needa cup of coffee.)"+ What I needis a cupof coffee. 9 They don't know if Richard'splanningto stayhere.(They'rehoping that he'll leavesoon.) - What they'rehopingis that he'IIleavesoon We can alsousewi-cleftsto focusattentionon verb phrases.We usuallyusea form of the verb do in verb phrase(10).We sometimesuse and the baseform of the verb in the ernphasized the wftat-clause (ll). verb phraseafter to dointhe whar-clause an infinitive in the emphasized 10 Alison hasan unusualjob. (Sherepairsold clocks-)---+What shedoesis 19pgi3!fu199fu. 1l David is ambitious.(He wantsto studylaw.) -a what he wantsto do is (to) studylnw We sometimesuseall ('the only thing') insteadof what at the beBinning. 12 I'll stopyawningsoon.(I iust needa cup of coffee.)'-+All I needis a cup of coffee. 16 Completeeach cleft sentence,emphasizingthe underlinedPart, in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentenceabove it. smokeis irritatingmy eyes. I The cigarette I1................... 2 X& had to cleanup all the mess. 3 JimmywatchesTV in his room insteadof studying' W h a t. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 4 Scientistsnow believethat human activiw is the cause.

Adverbial dauses 197 lnnnitives 139 Noun clauses16l

RelativecLalses173

217

I7 CONNECTORS AND FOCUSSTRUCTURES

Tests A Choosethe word or phrasethat best completesthesesentences. won't if thereis fiost.

I Theseplantsusuallyflower in spring, a but b however c nevertheless d otherwise 2 I enjoyedreadingthe story.It wasrathersad, a also b but c so d though

people'steeth.

Wlat shedoesis 3 Jasmineis working asa dentalassistant. a clean b cleans c cleanins d to clean 4 Ticketsare recuiredfor admission. 8et rn. a Consequently b Rather c Similarly

thosewho don't havea ticket won'r

d Subsequently

5 Desertflowerscan be invisiblefor years

a actually, but

b alternatively or

appearsuddenlyafterhear.yrain.

c consequently and

so d nevertheless,

B ldentifythe one underlinedexpression(A, B, C or D)that mustbe changedin orderto correctthese sentences. I To beein with, sheinsistedthat, in additionto her children,sheshouldbe allowedto bring their NB pets; a!-Wgllto bring a dog and two cats. ' that is,she wanted --D--

c

other but it was4!sgverycheapin comparison 2 For many ' Ayears, B C coalwasnot onl),readilyavailable, tvoesof fuelandconsecuentlv it wasusedin all the factories. U

3 As a matter of fact,we had just heardabout the problemand,becausqof that, we didn't stay AB actqallyin London very long afteLwards. CD workerswho Previgusl)' with our agreement, 4 In conclusion,the new rulesstatethat, in accordance ABC did extrawork without extrapay must now teceiveovertimepay.As a requltthat thosewho are askedto do extrawork will receiveadditionalpavment. 5 In the rry:antime,someof us had to stayin the old building,thorrghit wasrather Primitive. Igr-as!a{, there wasno hot water.ln-a(klilie!-le there were cockroacheseverywhere. CB C Choose the most appropriatephrase for each space in this text. afteraII

for example in addition

in themeantime so

The difficulty of gettingpeopleto pay attentionto the problemof rising sealevelsis that it often has to compete with, (1) violent crime. (2)

, newsof rising food pricesor an increasetn

, you are unlikelyto worry aboutflooding in the future if, you can'tafford to eator you'reaboutto be shot.(a) whv shouldwe worry about it? most of us don't live anywhere near the sea.(s) (3)

218

I7 CONNECTORS AND FOCUSSTRUCTURES

D Completeeach sentencein such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaningto the sentence(s)above it. 1 Therewasn'tany butter.We usedmargarineinstead. Instead 2 Youcanonly getdishesand bowlswith thisdesignin Poland. Only 3 We didn't discoverthe mistakeuntil much later. Not 4 Floodingcausesmost of the damagein spring. trs

5 Sheleft becausehe wasso unpleasant. It was 6 I krow that the main road is blocked. AI 7 He went to the party by himsell rrVhathe 8 Doris is hoping to travel acrossCanada by train. What

E Completethis paragraphusing only one word or phrasefrom each pair. afterwards asa resubof next the resubis

in contrast in particular

similarly it's thesame

that that is

in thebeginning whot to beginwith why

I'd like to do todayis introducesomeimportant termsthat you will 'greenhouse becomefamiliar with during this class.(z) , thereis the term effect'.A greenhouse is a building with glasssidesand a glassroof which trap heatfrom the sun andhold it insidethe building.or , the pollutedatmospheresurroundingthe earthis now trapping and holding the heatof the sun,causingtemperaturesto rise. (l)

(4)

. the polluted atmosphereis havingthe same kind of effectas a

(s) greenhouse.

, thereis the term

which are polluting the atmosphere. (6)

'greenhouse gases'. Thesearethe gases , one qas called carbon dioxide, which

is producedwhen thingslike coal and oil areburned,accumulates in the atmosphereand is a direct causeof the greenhouseeffect. (7)

the greenhouseeffect, we are now

experiencinga phenomenonkr.rownas'globalwarming',which is a more generalterm for increased world temperatures.

219

I 3 5 7

Answer key I

I holdall 3 travel (or are travelling) 5 swings 7 hallucination t hypocrite ll behaves 13 seizes 15 demand things

Unit1 Sentences (line 18) I He wasunconscious. ot Policepraisedthe young teacher'squick thinking. (line 25) on The bus driver never regained (line 29) consciousness. oR He was later pronounced dead at East Surreyhospital.(line 30) oR'That'sa terribletragedy.(line 36) ott A local driving school hasalso offered (line 41) him six freedriving lessons. 2 A young English teachersavedthe lives of 30 studentswhen he took control of a bus after its driver suffereda fatal heart attack. (line I ) ott Harvold,who hasnot passedhis driving test,said,'l realized(that) the bus was out of control when I was speakingto the studentson the microphone.'(line l2)

I

2

I 3 5 7 9

afler (on when) hit (on collidedwith) died was and

2 4 6 8 l0

suffered(on had) before but praised offered

(line 18) I He was unconscious. on That's a terrible tragedy.(line 36) 2 If he hadn'treactedquickly (line 26) oR He was later pronounced dead at East Surreyhospital(line 30) ttt He had worked regularly with the school(line 31) 3 thcre could have been a terrible accident (line 27) oR I hoped the driver would survrve (line 34)

3

4

I I was so relievedthat no one elsewas hurt ( l i n e3 3 ) 2 (he) was very well regardedby staff. (line 1?l

oR He had worked regularlywith the school ( l i n e3 1 ) 5I 3 5 7 9 5l

won't be easy 2 Was Lord ofthe Flies has pockets 4 doesn't interestme isn't goingto 6 None ofyou are h a v eI h a d 8 w a s u ' ltb o u t d a n c i n g Is Statistics 10 aren't made

was(c) 2 was(e) 3 is (a) + is (d) 5 a r e( b )

220

orchestrahave 2 everybodyhas Nobody ... has 4 committee have Darts has 6 teachershas/have police have 8 eggshas

I tike fb) put it in 3 wait (d) shivering

l 0 I gets,moves 3 hibernate,eat 5 talks,happens 7 snore,breathe ll

2 carry things 4 hinge 6 closes 8 seeingthings I0 pretends 12 hijacker 14 go

2 like (c) going to 4 heard (a) believeit

2 rest,nap (or nap, rest) 4 lie, fall 6 sing, go

I S h ew h i s p e r e d ' C o ol d uck'lohim. 2 The judge fined her !500 for speeding. 3 The farmer refusedus permissionto walk acrosshis field (otr reftrsedto give us permissionott refusedto give permission to us) 4 |amesconfessed(to me) that he took (oR had taken) Caroline'sbook.

l 2 I reserved... keepingit for 2 transmitted... spreadthem to (or spread ... transmitthem to) 3 retrieved... found them for (ot found ... retrievedthem for) 4 transferred... sellshirn to (or sold ... transfershim to) 5 required... offer them to 13 Sheexplainedts rel="nofollow"> Sheexplainedto us (on Sheexplained) gave the following infermatie+half of the husbands> information to half Your wi fe has deseribedyet++Selid+1+rip+e €hi+a > describeda holiday trip to China to you One of her friends +eld+e*e+ > told her you thi+leseundslike a really good idea > think (that) it sounds you ai,k+el+ersome questions> ask her some questions(on asksomequestions) Your wife has suggestc4Teutlelidal+dp+e €hiaa > suggesteda holiday trip to China to you You de+ ike > You don't like it You believei++ really bad idea > You believe (that) it is a reallybad idea

youask*emequestiens*el> askhersome questions(oR ask some questions) The researcherdidn't telfte+hei+ilr€s > tell the

3 ( a )b u t . . . a n d 4 ( b ) a n d

t 9 I stopped

WIYCS

the lrives+h€-E+id to the husbands > the wives what shesaid d€€,id€-tMs thought it was a good idea > decideif (or whether) the

I heartbeat 3as 5 because

h r r < h e n d
/ wno

* -2look and5 sound can be etchangetl

I 3 5 7 9 1l

smelledoR tasted 2 tastedoR smelled get 4 seemedto make become 6 looked appearedto be 8 tumed get l0 feel stay 12 tum

16 It appea+ed-a big problem > appearedto be a big problem (oR seemed(to be) a big problem) She*enf+e$e-erazy > went crazy she just decided to make$l,endeler$+i+ > make her hair blonde her hair +iff+e+in+ebright orange> turned bright orange I+-ds€+€€am€-€+a%e+€+ > Her face also turned orange (or It also made her face orangeORHer faceal looked really strang€ Mona leeked an orangeballoon > looked like an orangeballoon Mona ge+-+ebevery upset > got very upset I just kepr+eSe quiet > kept quiet make it lee* like better ) look beuer 17 the samesubject l3l the samesubject and verb [5] the samesub.iectand auxiliary [4] the sameverb and ob.jectafter an auxiliary verb in later clauses17] repeatedobiectsand/or prepositionalphrases from the first clause[6] an addition [8] an alternative[11] a combination [9] a combination of negativesll0] relativeclauses[14] noun clauses[13] adverbialclauses[15] adverbialclausesat the beginning of complex sentences [16]

2 or 4 Heartbreak 6 heart throb tl and 1 0 heart attack 12 and 14 which

9whom I I which 13 heartburn

14 I is (d) 2 look*(f) 3 feel(e) 4 appear (b) 5 sound* (a) 6 taste(c) 15

2 we talked,he got 4 lt seemed,got, had 6 it stopped,seemed

3 shecame,talked 5 came,we had

21

1 4 7 10

which and see don't like

2 who 5 tell 8 but

3 live 6 if 9 because

Tests I d

2b

3b

4d

5c

B I C (contained) 2 3 4 5

C D D C

(prefers) (put 15 in) (show it to me on show me it) (made all the young people happy)

I beginsin November 3 catch the flu 5 sneezes

2 include fever 4 give it

I Nick admitted to one ofthe detectivesthat he had taken the cashbox. 2 The police persuadedus that it was too dangerousand we were convinced. 3 The fiog suddenlyturned into a prince after the princesskissedhim. 4 He told us that two hours wouldn't (oR won't) be enough to finish the job. 5 Someonepainted the wall white yesterday. 1 were ready 3 stood alone 5 becameclear

2 seemedquite satisfied 4 is better

Unit2 Tenses I I Soon there were all kinds of forms available from Bullnotes ... (line 39) on The big problem, they soon discovered, is that everyonewants thesethings . ,. (line 43) oR In what turned out to be a common experience ... (line 46) on ... and there really won't be a problem with the letter of application. (line 58)

1 8 I ( c )o r . . . a n d . 2 ( d ) o r ( o r a n d )

22r

2 Choose one: For severalyearshe will have beentrying to turn a good idea... (line 3) oR He won't be doing anything special... (line 5) oR They were starting to make a small steadyprofit when they met Terry Lloyd. ( l i n e1 8 ) oR Terry had been creatinghome pagesfor his friends... (line 19) oR They soon found that studentswere looking for more than lecture notes. (line 25) oR They neededto do other things that they weren't learning in their classes.(line 26) oR Imagine that you are applying for a (line 27) scholarship. oR You have been trying to write a letter of a p p i i c a t i oann d y o u c a n ' tg e ti t r i g h t (line 28) ot You need an exampleof the kind of letter you are tfying to write. (line 30) 'I oR am writing this letter ...' (line 35) oR Dylan was working day and night ... (line 4l ) oR ... he didn't think about what he was doing in terms of a business(line 42) on Dylan is still looking for a way to make Bullnoteswork as a business,but these d r y s h e i s a l w a y sc o u n t i n gh i sp e n n i e s and he is having a hard time paying his bills. (line 52) Choose one For severalyearshe will have beentrying... (line 3) ot ... his businessventure won't have made any money for most of the pastyear. (line 7) oR Vvhenthey started,it had seemedlike such a greatidea.(line 11) oR Dylan and his friend, Michael Underwood, had been writing up their lecture notes ... (line l2) oR They had used that money to pay ... (line ls) or Terryhad been creatinghome pagesfor his friends... (line t9) oR You have been trying to write a letter of application and you can't get it right. (line 28) ot Or maybe someonehas askedyou to write a letter of recommendation.(line 3l) on ... whom I haveknown for ... (line 36) o R H e h a s l h o u g h td b o u tt a k i n ga t e a c h i n g J o D. . . m e 5 5 )

222

In the following examples,ftole is a main verb, not an auxiliaryverb: they had a successfulwebsite ... (line 48) on ... he is having a hard time paying his bills. (line 54) oR He has lots of experiencenow ... (line 58)

2

IB

)

Chooseone from eachlist. Imperative or infinitiye: turn (A), celebrate (A), do (A, B, C), pay (B, D), make (B, D, E), become(B), Imagine(C), write (C), get (C), download(C), be (D), create(D), work (E) Present simple: need (C) Presentsimple +s in third person singular: is (A), wants(D), has(E) Presentcontinuous: are applying (C), am writing (C), is (always)counting (E), is having (E) Presentperfect: has asked(C), haveknown (C), has thought (E) Presentperfect continuous: havebeen trying (C) Pastsimple:started(B), sold (B), met (B), showed (B), created(B), established(B), set (B), found (C), needed(C), were (D), didn't think (D), discovered(D), turned (D), tried (D), had (D), didn't (really)make (D), went (E),was(3D) Past continuous: were starting (B), were looking (C), weren't learning (C), was working (D), was doing (D) Pastperfect: had seemed(B), had used (B) Pastperfectcontinuous:had beenwriting (B), (had been) selling (B), had been creating (B) Future: will (soon) need (A), won't be (E), will have (A) Future continuous: won't be doing (A) Future perfect: won't havemade (A) Future perfect continuous: will havebeen trying (A)

2E

3D

4A

5C

A I is being 2 tell 3 says 4 has 5 is B 6look 7 are 8live 9 move l0 resemble 'm (orare) C 11 looking 12 isn't ' r e( o r lJ Do ... know l4 a r e )r e p a i r i n g 's 15 (on is) using t 2 3 4

haswon ... hassaid ... hat-trick also-ran... hastaken ... hasnot finished hasheard... has-been... hastrained no-show... hasbought ... hasn'tcome

6 I 2 3 4

have ... known (c) 've (orr have)been (b) 've (or have) ... beenswimming Have... completed(d)'ve (on have)done Have... shown (a) 's (or has)beenreading

7 Sheisliviag here since 1995> She's(or. She has) lived on She's(on Shehas) beenliving shehasSeea-6ein6back > she's(on shehas) gone back SheS4avin6an accent> Shehas an accent peoplewho areeeni+g from France> people who come fiom France I neverask her > I've (on I have)never asked her if shei+speaking French> if shespeaksFrench Sheis-rcallfliking to go to the theatre > She really likes to go sheis in+ithg me > shet (on she has) invited me or sheinvited me In the short time Ih=kier+ing her > I've (on I have) known her we beeemegood friends > we've (on we have) becomegood friends 8 A I were listening 2 came 3 said 4 were making B 5 broke 6 stole 7 was teaching 8 saw C 9 explained l0 understooc I I was talking D 12 I didn't get 13 missed 14 waswondering (on wondered) 9

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t l0

had beenworrying (or had worried) had planned (on had beenplanning) had been had broken had caught had beenliving (on had livec, had been taking (or removing) had made had ... remoyed(or taken) h a d . . .h a d

l0 we sometimesstep > we sometimesstopped (or we would sometimesstop) If it wasn't +ai+r> raining we just sleepoutside > we just slept (on we would just sleep) We really e+jelng that > enioyed If it r+as-rain> was raining (or rained) and e+arvlinside > crawled while we sleepin the tent > were sleeping I t$ink > thought the ground me+ingunder me > wasmoving (or moved) I sit up > sat andl+ealize>realized

the tent was+ry to move > wastrying it€s+€lC it in place > was holding When we 6e+outside > got we diseever > discovered that we starid > were standing our tent slowly €eats away> was slowly floating we +eall1.su+p+ised> we were really surprised then we rlink > thought it is very funny > was 've (or A I have) known 2 started 've (oR 3 have)... met B 4 Have... heard 5 have... become 6 had C 7 told 8 've (on have)had t hasn'tcome

ll

12

I 3 5 7 9 II

have... been were did... say didn't know 've (ot have) had 's (ot has) made

2 4 6 8 l0

asked didn't seem told didn't call haven'teaten

needed(b) gave said (a) had talked came (d) hadn't finished (c) had worked 14 I 've (on have)... heard 2 was 3 had .,. reached 4 were 5 hadn't...locked 6 didn't lock 7 hadn't eaten. 8 went 9 didn't eat* l0 was l l had cooked 12 havegone 13 explained *7 and9 canbeexchnnged 13 I 2 3 4

15 to give or ask for information about the

tuture[2] when we make promises,requestsor threatsIl] future actions in progressat a particular timel5l expressingplans or intentions l4] somethingwill be completedby a particular U m eL / l lasting from a point before that time up to that future time [6] a prediction basedon past experienceor knowledge[10] in predictive conditionals [9] a prediction basedon what we feel or think now [81 a pastpredictionaboutthe future Il ll a decisionalreadymade [12] a decisionmade at that moment I 13] future eyentsin a scheduleor timetable [16]

223

future actions in clausesafter subordinating coniunctionsIl5l a future action we haveplanned or arrangedIl4l 'll 16 I will be (b) (on will) havebeen 2 will (d)will ... be 'll 3 will be (a) (otrwill) havebeen 'll 4 will be (c) (ott will) havebeen

3 |uliet hasbeen working (or hasworked) here for about six years. 4 It's evenworsethan I thought it would be. 5 It was Christmaswhen I (last) talked to my Parents. E

17 I will have 2 wasn'tgoing to stop (oRwouldn'tstop) 3 don't start 'll 4 be (or'm going)to be 'll 5 give 6 make 18

I or I reper+you > or I'll (or I will) rePort you 2 Let'sget together for lunch sometime,r+ill we?> shall we? 'l 'I'll 3 do itl' > do it!' 4 Pat Mccuire rvil@ five years> will havespent 5 I-m going to work I wasgoing 6 Do you think she'll ge to bed already?> she'll havegone 7 I guessit+rai*ing later > it'll rain (oR it's going to rain) 8 those that we think abeu+-+ebe available> are about to (or will on are going to) 9 you'll si+on a plane > you'll be sitting l0 If l:llSqish before you > If I finish before you I w+i+for you out:ide l'll wait I I \ar'+€#e-Cefthese boxes later > Is Stefanto gcl ton Will Stefanget) these boxeslater is+e+akethem now? > is he to take them (or will he takethem on is he takingthem) now? 12 before it:lklese > before it closes or the parceld€€sn+arrive > or the parcel won't arnve

Tests Alc

2a

3d

4b

5coRa

B I D(ishaving) 2 A(usedto) 3 C (knew) 4 A(make) 5 C(hadput) C I wasbeginning 2 had peeped 3 was reading 4 had 5 thought D I By the time we sell the car,we will have spentt300 on repairs. 2 This is the lirst time I have (ever) had to think about my health. 224

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t l0

is ... happening havebeen be experiencing had believe have... beenchangingor havebeen... changing havecreated lets holds Will ... keep

Unit3 Modals I we shouldnever(line 6) on don't haveto (line 48) oR won't (line 64) 2 We rnay be told, for example,that we should never open an umbrella indoors because that will bring bad luck. (line 6)

2

IE

2C

3D

4A

5B

3 We aren't told why or what kind of bad thing might happento us, but few of us are going to try to find out. (line 10) Others will saythat seeinga black cat is supposedto be lucky. (line 37) This is usually heard when people talk about their good luck or when they are hoping that they will be able to get or do somethingthey want.(line 54) I be...have 2 be...be 3 be ... have 4 have... havebeerr Prediction:But we would probably have been askedto stop. Willingness,habits and preferences:I would havehatedto haveto buy a new one. Ability: We could easilyhavechatted for anotherhour. Permission:Children may not be left alone in the playground. Possibility:I wasglad that my old conputer could be repaired. N e c e s . i t yT:h e ym u 5 tb e a ( c o m p d n i el d) ya n adult. Deduction: I guesshe must haveforgotten about it. Obligation: He should be helping you clear out the garage.

6 1 2 3 4 5

will be (e) should be going to (c) must be can't (b) must have ought (a) wont may havebeen (d) able to

7 I 2 3 4 5 6

regrettable,should advisable,shouldn't inevitable,will reluctant,wouldn't inconceivable,can't h)?othetical, might

8 I didn:teeuld do that > I couldn't do that I knew I r+ill have to quit my iob > would have to I have much lessmoney > would have much lessmoney I Ce#+shenld give up such a good job > I shouldn't a young woman suplt€sed to think ) was (ol is) supposedto think I eer:ldC+deeidC > I couldn't decide what I eu6h+4e > ought to do shesheul4ge to university > sheshould have gone I sh€ukk€€ive it a try > I should give it a try I di4d++henld be afiaid > I shouldn't be afraid shemalean help me pay > shemight be able to help me pay 9 I will 2 would 3 I'd 4 I'm goingto 5 would have 6 I was going to 7 Shall 8 you'll 9 won't 10 I'll l0 I won't (oR will not) go ... 'll (on will) give 2 wouldn't start ... pushed 'd (on 3 would) Iike ... 'd (or would)... have 'd (or 4 would) ...play... will ... stay 5 ' l l ( o r w i l l ) . . . b e . . . ' d ( o Rw o u l d )h a t e 6 won't (on will not) need ... 'll (on will) have eaten(oR eat) 7 would be ... wouldn't say ll

I can't (oRcannotol aren'tableto) fly... can (or are able to); swimming 2 unflappable... can (ot is able to) stay 3 numb ... couldn't (oR wasn't able to) feel 4 illiterate ,.. can't (ot cannot on aren't able to) read 5 successfirl ... beenableto ,.. tried on hastried 6 managed... were able to ... difficult

t 2 I couldn't 2 could 3 could 4 can

r3

I may (c) 3 Can (a) 5 can (or may) (b)

2 be allowed to (f) 4 b€ allowed to (e) 6 be allowedto (d)

14 Of course,you eeuld > you can she isn+beirg able to do her own work > she isn't able to (on she can't do) sheear havesaid > she could have said (on she can say) SorrS but you eaa-+et > can't oR cannot how de+hefeer+l4de+heir*erk? > how could they do their work? (on how can they do their work?) I knew that I €afi havetried > could havetried I didn't think l:llcaa changehow she behaved> I didn't think I could change 15 I 2 3 4 5 6

may have... absurd may be ... disqualified undecided... may ... may not potential... might not may not ... feasible theoretical... might

16 I 2 3 4 5 6

can pick can't imagine could be couldn't be sent could havebeen ayoided could havebeen saved

17

I They ean be going to > may / might / could 2 Someone€ar still be using > may / might / could 3 You may be hanged> might / could 4 Thesepeopleean have> may / might 5 I ean havefinished > may / might / could ... I €ar not > may / might 6 May someonetell me > Can / Could 7 we really mi6ht not believe> can,t / cannot / could not / couldn't 8 if you may be willing > might 9 the weather€an be > may / might / could 10 May the children > Could

l8 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

extra ... don't haveto step.,, haveto fruit ... mustn't must / have to ... command obligation ... don't have to duty-free ... don't have to taboo ... mustn't eyil ... haveto

19 I 2 3 4 5 6

didnt have to ... required needn't have ... unnecessary mustn't . ,, allowed needto ... official having to ... signilicant must ... impossible

225

20

2lI

1 so you mes{++ cleanthem > don't have ro clean 2 Everyone will ha+ege+ te go ) will have ro go 3 I'll needge+some aspirin > I'll need to get (or. I'll haveto get) 4 I mr+stto find a replacement> I must find (oR I haveto find) 5 customersfieedilt-+eleave> don't need to leave(ORneedn't leave) o we ha+€etr€ take a taxi > we had to take 7 the one tefiustM€ll him > the one to have to tell him (orr the one who must (oRhasto) tell him) 8 you denltneed$e over twenty,one > you don't need to (on haveto) be 9 we musfge > we had to go l 0 we fieeda+haye+e-wait > we needn't have waited (ot we didn't need to wait) (d) must 2 (c) must be 3 (e) must have 4 (a) can'thave 5 (b) can't

22 I 2 3 4 5 6 23

must havetaken must havebeen couldn't havedone couldn'thavecarried(ol couldn'tcarry) must haveput must be losing

I 3 5 7 9 II

person umbrella ladder should have ought not cat

5 This shirt shouldn't havebeen (or ought nor to havebeen) put in the washing machine, E I 3 5 7 9

d

2 a

3a

Unit4 Negatives and questions I

C I 2 3 4 5

may not be familiar can be used must be paid won't be required will be charged

D I Studentsare not allowed to park here. (oR Studentsare not permitted to park here.) 2 His trip may havebeen cancelledat the last minute , 3 Shedidn't enjoy having to get up at five every mornrng. 4 He couldn'thavecommiltedthe crjme, accordingto the report.

226

5D

3

1 Shewasn't seriouslyinjured, but it really frightened her and shewouldn't go out alone. (line 4) on For example,women with longer hair are more likely to be attackedthan women whosehair is shorter or in a style that cant be grabbed.(line 23) 2 It's really more about awarenessand how not to be an easytarget. (line 25) on We advisewomen not to go alone to parkingareasand garages... (line 39) 3 ...we focus more on not getting into that kind of situation.(line l9) or We talk a lot aboutnot becominga v i c t i m . . . ( l i n e2 3 ) 4 Who can takepart?(line 10)

4

I How don't you get into'that kind of situation'?(line 22) 2 it isn't much of a weapon,is it? (line 45)

5

I 2 3 4 5 6

6

I Who isn't 2 Why don't 3 Where did 4 What do 5 When were 6 Whose ... are

7

we diCalt-rcallfeer,rld say much > we really couldn't say (or we couldn't really say) What y€u{hiik is the bestpet?> What do you think

5a

B I A (may) 2 D (ought not ro be) 3 D (would) 4 C(can) 5 A(had)

I Is thereanlthing else?(line 3l) Is it a weapon?(line 44) 2 Shewasn't seriouslyinjured, but it really frightened her and shewouldn't go out alone.(line 4)

2 | G't 2 E 3H+ 4F 'G atulH canlteexchanged

2 had better 4 shouldn'r 6 should be 8 shoulder l0 mirror 12 is supposedto

4c

2 couldn't 4 would 6 would* 8 had to l0 was ... goingto

* I and 6 cot ba exchanged.

Tests Al

might* was able to be able to be willing to should

aren't... non-stick isn't ... non-resident not ... non-event Non-refundable... doesn't nondescript...no non-stop... won't

I fier€are about pets > I don't care Why $'e&aye pets? > Why do we have pets? We net-need them for anlthing > We don't need them deCr+re? > do we? some people think dogs ne|elea* > dogs aren't clean so they net good pets > so they're not good pets (oR so they aren't good pets) deeshe > do they? He didn't aaslverC > He didn't answer. she €eul+baveffet a cat > she couldn't have a cat (or shecould not havea cat) Why de+emepeeple-ean+ have pets > Why can't some people havepets? De some pets more expensiveto keep?> Are somePets How rvillbe+raiaed+he?et? > How will the pet b€ trained? Who is-+akeea+eof the pet > Who takes care of the pet? (on Who will take careof the pet?) 8 9

I (c) none 3 No (a) not I 3 5 7 9 ll

2 (d) none 4 not (b) no

infrequent carefree careless invisible infallible indifferent

I 4 7 r0

No sooner were they nothing did I

2 doesn't 4 nothing 6 not 8 no one l0 never 12 no

2 5 8 II

had I they were no idea Not until

12 I (d) Which 2 (f) what 4 (c) What

s (b) Which

1 3 I During which (B) 3 What ... from (A) 5 Which of (B) 7 Who ... by (C)

2 4 6 8

Who What... about Where Where exactly Where... liom

2 Who else 4 Whatever 6 How long 8 Which ... in l0 How ever

I Wlo do you believeis responsiblefor the current conflict? 2 Where did her father think she might have gone? 3 When did the weather forecastersaythe rain should stop? 4 What do you imaginetheir new houseis going to look like?

t 6 I (c) Who 3 (d) didn't...did 5 (a) Does... which l7

I 4 7 l0

are you he was you don't he did

2 5 8 1l

2 (e) Do ... Why 4 (b) How

He's dol was he I do

3 Is he 6 you're 9 did he 12 don't you

Tests Alb

2a

3d

B I C (did he ask) 3 D (didn't you) 5 B (not an)

l0 I There has (or. There's)neverbeen a better chanceto make money on the stock market. 2 We didn't notice until the next morning that she hadn't come home. (ot We didn't notice that shehadn't come home until the next morning.) 3 No one (or Nobody) warned us at any time about polluted water. (or No one / Nobody warned us about polluted water at any ume./ 4 The janitor will say,'Don't smoke in here,' won't he? l1

l4 I 3 5 7 9

3 6 9 12

Not only I had Nor did we

4c

5a 2 D (no longertake) 4 C(dothey)

C I Aren't 2 what 3no 4 I'm not 5 Can't D I Not only was the room cold, but it was also very damp. Who did your sistersayshe gavethe money to? 3 What doesAndreasthink has been stolen? 4 Shesaid,'Why don't you (oR Why not) take the train insteadof driving?' 5 They askedme what his name was and where he lived. I 4 6 8 l0

Nothing 2 never 3no What ... BA 21 5 Why ... Leisure Who ... Somebodyelse 7 Did ... Yes which... London 9 Where... New York How ... None

3 (a) What 6 (e) Which

How often (C) With whom (C) Where... from (A) What ... for (C)

227

Unit5 The passive will find (line 28); were found (line 42) have beenmoving (line 23); had beenmoved (line l6) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

havebeen... injured have been left was hit were (on havebeen) destroyed were (on havebeen) buried/trapped haveblocked have had to be flown in are going to be felt

I the apple blossomsthat are alwaysshaken loosefrom the trees(line 4) on and (are) blown along the country roads (line 6) on The scenesof devaslalionthis morning are described by one rescueworker as 'like the end of the world'(line 2l) 2 The namesof all victims are being withheld until their families can be notified (line 47) 3 For as long as people can remember,small towns .,. haye been hit by storms every spring (line I ) oR ... the roadshave been blocked by dozensof fallentrees(line 26) oR About 100 people have been seriously injured (line 50) olt more thaD 1,000have been left homeless (line 5l ) 4 the Clintons were found alive by rescuers this morning (line 42) oR Tragically,they were both killed when part of a wall crashedthrough the floor on top of them (line 45) 5 Other buildings where tractors and equipment were being stored seemto have beencompletelyblown away(line l8) 6 Herds of cattle that had been moved into barns for safetyare nowhere to be seen,nor are the barns(line l6) I being (c) 2 to be (e) 3 be (d) 4 been(f) 5 be (a) 6 been(b) I 2 3 4

were destroyed are expected were left are blocked (or were blocked on have been blocked) 5 were knocked 6 was flooded (ott is flooded)

228

7 to be rescued 8 are closed 9 were injured (or havebeen injured or are injured) l0 were reported (or havebeen reported) I The housecan't be seenfrom the street 2 He said our paperswouldn't (orr won't) be correctedbefore Friday, 3 The towelsmust havebeen taken out of the dryer. 4 Your books aren't going to be stolen from tnls room. 5 I didn't enjoybeingtold what to do all the Ilme. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

can be used is also called is believed may havebeen convicted havebeen shown had been sentenced was released has also been used would neverhavebeen solved

I Erin was seenoutside the theatreas shewas waiting to go in. Shehad a new hairstyle. 2 Karen feelssadbecauseshe wasn't promoted (oR hasn't beenpromoted) and she has to carry on as if nothing happened. 3 The ball is thrown to Evans(on Evansrs thrown the ball). Evanstries to go past but he is stopped(by |ennings). Jennings, It's a foul. I 3 5 7

impossible(a) knowledgeable(b) inaudible(a) reusable(a), (b)

2 inexplicable(b) 4 illegible (b) (b) 6 unspeakable

l 0 just after my younger sisterbera > was born Lots of peopler+e+e-eene> came I gavethe job > was given As eachguestrvasa;rived > arrived I handed boxes> was handed which 6lled with things > were filled that ffrapped in Christmaspaper > were wrapped I +eldwhich ones > was told and which oneshad+e$ealaee > had to be placed(ot I had to place) So many presentsb+erght for us > were brought the experience of 6i+e+so much> beinggiven

l1 what is done,not who doesit ll] we don't know . . who Performedthe actions[2] the person or thing affectedby the action [3] that subjectis the topic of two or more sentences [5] severalactions that affect the samesubjectin a singlesentence[4] rulesand warningnotices[9] procedures,especiallyin researchrePorts l7l formal written rePorts [8] to avoidpersonalcommands[11] to avoid implying that we are only talking aboutourselves l10l and questions[13] the speakerof statements inlinitives in requests [12] of ordersand to distanceourselvesfrom the reported information [14] not sureif the informationis reliableIl5l a currentrePort[17] a reportof somethingin the past [18] 12 You can only consult referencebooks in the library. You must obtain sPecialpermissionto use them outside the librarY. Youshouldreturn all bookson lime or you will haveto pay a fine. If you do not pay the fine, you will lose borrowing rights. You may not borrow library books for others or give them to others. If you lose a book, you must Paythe cost of replacement. 13 I 2 3 4

are (oR were) said to be were told not to use is (oRwas) rePortedto havedied wasn't mentioned ... were received

14 It hasbeen claimed that taskscannot be used successfullywith beginner level students. The following study was designedso that that claim could be investigated. Two groups of studentswere created,each with different ProficiencYlevels. They were given a task in which they were shown a set of picturesand askedto tell a a set of story, (oR A task was given to them were pictureswas shown to them ... they asked) They were recordedas they spokeand then their storieswere examined. 15 I is consideredbY 2 was establishedbY 3 are filled with

4 are performed ... were experiencedby 5 were not written bY 16 I 2 3 4

were defeated(d) reacted were smashed(c) were stolen get caught (b) get beatenuP were treated (a) were rePorted

2 stopped 17 I opened 4 was knocked 3 crashed 6 ran 5 was carried 8 shook 7 exploded get ... injured l0 9 washanded (5) the surgingcrowd' (6) I' (9)the Agents: old woman

Tests d

Al

2a

3c

4c

5c

C (married) D (crashed) B (with a specialkeY) C (being repairedoa which were being repairedot which had been repaired) 5 B (wason is located)

B I 2 3 4

C I 2 3 4 5 6 7

is experienced was believed(on considered) were bitten by (on had been bitten by) could be cured bY bY was ... recommended (ot believed) is ... considered may (orrmight) be said

D I There'sa sayingthat Rome wasn't built in a d"y. 2 The testshavebeen collectedand the answers(havebeen) checked 3 Death is more likely to be causedby a bee sting than a snakebite thesedaYs 4 There were reported to be seriousproblems with the new design. 5 We weren't Siveninstructions or shown what to do. (on We were given no instructions . . oR We weren't given any instructions... ) Etn

2b

3o

4c

5h

6l7i

8e

Unit6 Articlesand nouns ll

True 2 True 3 False 4 8 million

5 False 6 True 7 80 Percent 8 True 2l 3I

an accident(line 23) 2 the UnitedStates(line 10) Europe(line 9)

229

2 a ... crash(line 1l), a flight (lines16,17),a factor(line 19),a smokehood (line 33), a fire (line 34).

I (f) the 2 (d) a 3 (a) the 4 (e) the s (c) a 6 (b) the la 7a

3 the airyort (line 6), the flight (lines 7, l9), the chance(line l0), the ... exit (lines25, 26),the number (line 26), the ... door (line 28), the ... person(line 29),the plane (line 33),the hood (line 34) 4 car (line 4) 5 the ... forms (line 1), the ... planes(line 8), the ... jets (line 8), the ... airlines(line 9), the ... parts (line l5), the people(line 21) 6 . . . i e t s( l i n e l ) , . . . p l a n e s( l i n e s1 2 ,l 3 ) , accidents(line 14), seats(line 26), clothes (line 30), ... fibres(line 30), ... materials (line 3l ), ... gases(line 35) 7 The duration (line l8), the dark (line 27), the skin (line 32) 8 Flying (line l), transportation(line 2), travelling (line 3), air (line 3), survival (line 22), cotton (line 31),wool (line 31), smoke(line 35). when we mention them first Il] when we think they are alreadyknown [2] when we classift the kind of thing we're talking about [3] any exampleof the kind of thing we're talking about [4] the work they do [6] the kind ofbeliefs they have [5] in definitions[9] in descriptionsof particular features[8] the type of thing mentioned I7l the sameordinary things aswe are in our daily l i v e s[ 1 1 ] in the physicalworld outside [10] identifr people by their jobs [12] their unique roles in society [14] with professionalorganizations[13] inventions and musical instruments [16] in opncreliz:tinnc

1 4 7 l0 l3 l6

the th€ the a

2 the 5 the 8 an 1 l the t4 a 17-

36 the 9a 12 the 15 a l8 a

7a 2a 3a 4 one 5a 6a 7a 8a 9l0lla 1,2 13a 14 one 15 a 1 6 a

10 I a n 710 a 13 a (oRthe) 16 the (oR-) 19 the 22 z:t rne 281l

l4a 7 an (oR-) l0 one 13 the (oRa) 16 the 19 the 22 one (on - ) 25 an 28 the

230

4a 5 rhe 6l0 The lla 12-

I was starting to learn tie4nglish > learn English He was from Cardiff in tlerd&ks > in Wales He was always making tle-idkes > making jokes One day he r*e+e-+ve+ds> wrote the words e+b+ad6eard > on the blackboard I offered to ansre+€uestie+ > answer the questron changedto the-4 > changedto A (oR an A) that rfa$€oe+an$!€f > that was a good answer he eha+ge*letter > changed the letter happy rvith aew+pelling-> happy with the new spelling +ith+he-absel*e-cen€Cenee > with absolute confidence I looked round in the-eea€*sien > irr confusion it neede&seeenC+4 > needed a second M it should have +h€+4 too > an M nodded with the-smile > with a smile I still reraenrbe++e++ible{eeling> I still rememberthe terrible feeling feeling ef theembatassmen+ > of embarrassment

t Isl

prepositionalphraseswith o/ [19] relativeclausesl18l superlativeadjectivesand emphasizing adjectivessuch as rnain ot rtrst Il7)

2 the 3 8 the 9-

58 a tI t4t720 the 26 the 29 the 25 one 8tl the 14a 17 the 20 the 23 the 26 the 29-

6an 9a 12IJ

INC

182l24a 27 306 one 9 a (oRone) 12 a (on the) t5 the

l8 a 2la 24 an 2/ tne 30-

12 people,creaturesand objects 11] drrrurrJ

drru

cvcr rrJ lzl

substancesand materials [5] abstractideas,qualitiesand states[4] activities [3] a singlething [7] a substanceor generalidea [8] in phraseswhich are countable [10] separateunits or parts of nouns which are uncountable[9] 13

1 government 2 3 a ... piece 4 5 ... bread 6 7 a mixture 8 I nurs' l0 1I milk 12 *8 aal 9 canbeexchanged 14 I outskirts... are (e) 3 clergyare (f) 5 Binocularsare (a)

c hish - ricL horrowcr(

l0 credit rating I I lnterestrates 12 senseof responsibility l3 money matters 14 buy-now pay later world Part B parents'willingness;children'scredit card debt

acountry toast soup cereal* ...fruit breakfast 2 pressis (d) 4 Mathematicsis (b) 6 is (c) fortnight

15 a particularpersonor thing [1] a common combination ofthings, not possession [2] people and other living things [5] groups and organizations[6] times [7] places[4] as if it was a person [8] 'having' when an obiect is describedas something [9] that noun is treatedasknown ll ll one of a larger number rather than a particularone [10] when one thing is part of anotherl13l w h e nd e s c r i b i nagc t i o n si ,d e a so r processes [12] when a long phraseis used for the [14] Possessor what they are for [16] what they aremadeof l18l what work they do [15] what kind they are I l7l where and when they happen or are used 119] in compound nouns [20] 16 I 2 3 4 5 6

17 Part A I consumergroups 2 credit cards 3 collegestudent 4 credit card offers 5 application forms 6 give aways / 1-Snlrts 8 bottom Iine

Life'stroubles worries of eachday morning's specialnews world's problems woman'slove Mother's Day

18 I 2 3 4

a . . . j o b . . . a n . . . r e s t a u r a n. t. , t h e p a y an ... bicycle... The shop owner the teacher... the board a film ... The price

19

I The 4 7a l0 the

20

1 a (d) the 4 one(g)7 a(c) 10- (e)a

2 5 8 lt

21 4-2-1-5

the The the the

36 the 9a l2the

2 - (j) the 5 a(a) 8 a(i)-

3 the (f) 6 a(h) 9 (b)

3-6-9-8-7

Tests A 1d

2b

3c

4b

B I B(are>is) 3 B (a research) s C(€Di>CDs) Cla 5a

2the 6a

5b 2 D (th€ tennis) 4 C (pairs of trousers)

3a 7 the

48-

D I Yesterday, a maskedman robbed a woman outside a (oR the) post offrce. 2 In businessnews,the Bank ofEngland is raising (oRwill raise) interestratesby one and a half per cent. 3 Yesterday's news ofthe murder ofa priest in Kent (has) shockedthe community. 4 Reviewershavecriticized a new account of Scottishhistory by an English writer. E I the middle ofthe century 2 The urgency ofthe challenges 3 the authors of the report (oR the report's authors)

231

4 Sims' (oR Sims'sor The Sims) organization 5 the health ofthe earth (oR the earth and the health of) 6 the group's latestreport 7 the world's population (on the population of the world) 8 the destruction ofthe environment

Unit7 Determiners and quantifiers I

I all thesechanges(line 27) 2 all cars(linesl l, 17,53)

2

tc

3

I that car (line t6) this area (line 20) those old farms (line 22) thesechanges(line 27) or those Saturdaytrips (line 37) 2 Choose one fiom four ofthese sets: My grandfather (lines l, 5, 30, 39) oR my grandmother (.lines2,7,27) oR my eyes (line 3) on my grandparents (lines19,25) or my driveway (line 50) their voices(line 4) or their lifetimes (line 20) our return (line 37) on our accident(line 38) or our driveway (lines 42, 45) his thoughts (line 43) on his window (line 48) your house(line 5l)

4

I a little, much 2 each,every,one 3 a few, both, many, several,ten

2 E

3D

4A

5B

5

Choose four: a lot of other cars (line 8) Both of my grandparents(line 19) lots of new houses(line 23) one of them (line 26) someof the problems(line 3l) one of those Saturdaytrips (line 37)

6

A l these 2my 3 those 4his B 5 this 6 that 7 our 8 afew C 9 much t0 the 1l his 12 some D 13 some 14 thirty 15 most 16 a little E 17 a 18 both 19 each 20 half

7

I 2 3 4 5 6

232

minority ... a few maximum ... much quota ... many unanimous... every lottery ... any maiority ... most

One ef beys fell > One of the boys F#is+e4+heanl4e badly > twisted his ankle Mes++h€ra stayed > Most of them rvithi+juted boy > with the injured boy while e+e+he-elde+$eys left > two of the older boys this+,,rc$eys didn't know > these two boys walkinground in$i6 a few hours back with his*ie+ds > their friends eaeh$eyshad brought some water > eachboy (ot eachof the boys) all+hern managedto survive > all of them (or. they all) managed with plural and uncountablenouns [1] aspronouns[2] talking about somethingspecific[3] in positive sentences[5] in quertionror offersexpectingpositive answersl4l in sentenceswith a negativeelement [7] in questionswhen no specificanswerrs expected16l in l/ clauses[9] 'it doesn'tmatter which one' [8] a largeamountor number [10] an approximatenumber or percentagelt2l a person,place,or thing whoseidentity is unknown [11] 'not to emphasize any' [13] before subjectnouns [14] before singular and plural nouns [16] as a pronoun and with o/-phrases[15]

1 0 1 (c) any 2 (f) any 3 (b) no 4 (e) any 5 (a) some 6 (d) some I I I There was some woman here yesterday askingif we had any old clothes,but I told her we didn't (haveany). 2 Some (or Someof the) information in that newspaperarticle was incorrect. There aren't any wolvesor bearsin Scotland, 3 I've managedto find some dry paper to start a fire, but I can't light it. Don't you 4 I'm sure I made some mistakeswhen I was typing. If you find any mistakes,please correct them. I some 2 no 3 any 4 some 5 any 6 no 7 some 8 any 9 no 10 any I 2 3 4 5

empty .,. none uninhabited... some,.. none s o m e. . . a n y . . , e x t i n c t no ... scoreless dead... no

1 4 I (b) whole 2 (d) half 3 (a) both 4 (c) All

3 No explanationwas given (to us) for the delay. 4 All ofus want to live forever.

1 5 1 all 2 no 3 none of 4 one of 5 Both of 6 both 7 all of 8 half 9 whole 10 one of 1 6 1 eachpair 3 choice... either 5 quarterly... every

2 twins ... neither 4 couple... neither 6 doubles... each

17 1, There hasn't been much discussionof the new road, but (many (ofthe)) older village residentsare againstit. 2 Did you ask how much thesepostcardscost? How many (of them) are you going to buy? 3 l'll be (much) later today becauseI haveso many different placesto go to and there'sso much traffic in town. 4 I askedmy classmatesif they did much (of the) homework and many (of them) said they didn't do much (of it) unlessthere was a test. 18 1 many 2 Many 3 much of 5 Many .. . much 6 many of 19 I (d) most of 3 more (a) more 5 most of (b)

2 (f) more of 4 most (c) most 6 (e) more of

2l I few (d) a few 2 a litde (e) a few of (b) 3 a little of 4 few (a) little 5 a little (c) a few 22 I a quarter of 3 trvo-fifths ofan 5 twenty per cent ofthe

2 Once a 4 twrce as 6 four times the

23 1 little 2 afew 3 fewest 4 fewer 5 fifty per cent

Tests 2c

3b

4c

5c

B 1 D (some oftheir friends) 2 C (either colour on either of the colours) 3 C (a little information oR some information) 4 A (all of them oR they all) 5 A (most of Europe) Cl

alotof 2 both 3 some 4 neither 5 the 6 a litde

D 1 Not many people are willing to help others. 2 Half the report (on Half of the report) has h..-

-'";rr..

"

l'..,1-

6 many 7 fewest 8 a third of 9 ninety per cent of l0 more of (oR a great deal of)

Unit8 Pronouns, substitution andellipsis I

I it's as ifyouve klown eachother all your lives (line 25) 2 She took his right hand and placedit againsthers,palms touching (line 32)

2

rD

4 many of

20 l much 2 many 3 more 4 many 5 more 6 more 7 much

Alc

E I Most of 2 a great deal of (or more) 3 two-thirds of 4 twelve times

2 C

3E

4A

5B

I They,we (C) 2 hers,mine, yours* (E) *Notethathisin his right hand(E) is a determiner, nota

3

4

5l

You meet someone for the first time, and it's as if you'veknown eachother all your lives. (line 24) Everything goessmoothly. (line 26) yours 4 it... him

2 they 5 that... this

3 his

6 1 You know that you shouldn't use a phone while you re driving. 2 I heard that they're going to demolish this old factory so (that) they can build a new school. 3 If you're self-indulgent,you allow yourself to do or havetoo much ofwhat you like. 4 I think that we shouldn't criticize when we're not sure of our facts.(oR I think that you shouldn't criticize when you're not sure of your facts.) 7 1 A disguise... something... no one 2 Camouflage... something.,. everything 3 A mirage... something... nothing 8 she playedj+ (on she-plal.edit)> played them f€+-+veto learn the words > for us hers favourite songs > her

233

ne really understood the words > no one (ol nobody) but e+eFytalked > everyone(ot everybody) about ditrren*enetling > about something different in his groups > their And reenes--rve+e> no one (ol nobody) was lf€f€ trying > was to practisehis English > their one song that went like tla+ > this what f€s+ want > you what yetr need > you +haf.ivas interestingwords > Thosewere I did learn semethi+gs> something (or some things) I (c) himself 2 (a) yourself (or yourselves) 3 (d) myself 4 (b) them 10 l you 2 yourself 3it 4 itself 5we 6 ourselves 7 they 8 themselves 1l I 2 3 4 5

l 6 I (d) any 3 some(b) them

I each 2 other 3 yourself 4 you 5 each* 6 other's* 7 one* 8 another's* 9 one l0 another ll each 12 the other .the.oDtbi dtio'ls5 plus6 and 7 plusI cattbeexchangtl

l3 I expressthemselves 2 hurt herself 3 blamedeachother (on blamedone another oa eachblamedthe other) 4 agreewith eachother (on agreewith one anoth€r) 5 meet eachother's (or. meet one another's) 14 I It really annoyseveryonethat Tony never helps with the cleaning. 2 It can be a big disadvantagenot having a car. 3 [t's very important in my iob to see potentialproblemsin advance. 4 It was a completemysterywhy she Ieft so suddenly. 5 It must havebeen a shock to discoverthat your passportwas missing. 6 It alwaysamazesme that people can eat suchur,healthyfood and live so long. 15 I +her€-erfts-sftei*i > it was snowing (or there was snow) 2 k isn't much time left .Therr

2 ones(c) ones 4 one (a) it

t 7 they startedlooking for it > one serri€rl€s wer€ really expensive > some were But shekept looking for it > one She eventually found a+eeend-Aand > a second-handone so she beugh+-+igh+.way> bought it right away every had fallen for the sametrick > every one (or everyoneon eachone)

by herself about himself for themselves with me near you

12

234

3 Th€Ie €ert+ii to be questions > There are certain 4 {t-r^'assaid to be hundreds ofpeople stranded> There were said to be hundreds of people stranded(or Hundreds of people were said to be stranded) 5 n-le|ef fa,#ft€aFis irrpi.es > There's a lot of fat and sugarin pies 6 Everyone {ennd very-amusing-> found it very amusing 7 They +ier+e4i+effensive> viewed it as offensive 8 there+vere{eun4nesu*ivers > no survivorswere found (on there were no survivors found)

18 I so 4 doesso

2 so... so 5 done it

19 I one 2so 35 one 6 ones 7

3 so ... do it 6 to do so

4-

20 a repeatedsubject [5] a repeatedsubjectand auxiliary f4l a repeatedsubjectand verb [6] after then ar.d yet l8l after subordinating conjunctions l7l repeatedobjects [10] or prepositionphrases[91 the object from secondor later clausesI I I ] a repeated verb phrase[13] after be asa linking verb [12] afterinfinitiveto [15] or not to ll4l we can also leaveout to [16] whenboth clauses havethe samc structure[17] when the subjectis a pronoun [18] when we ask [19] or reportquestions[20] 2l

I litter 4 waste 710 them 13-

5 8 ll 14

them pollution rubbish them

69 12 they

22 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

trair' Boston no one was wouldn't tell us what the others hadn't didn't I sat in the back shedidn't want to

5 There were said to be thousandsofpeople affectedby the rail strike. El

23 He put the money on the table and he sat down. He sat in his hot clothesand he felt hear,y.The woman looked over at him and she smiled, Her smile said shewas in chargeand she could take his money if shewanted +e+ake his-ne+ey. Of course she could takelk nre+ey, he thought, but obviously shedidn't want to +a*e+is fi€i€I yet. The smile lingered for a moment or tlvo longer,then i+ disappearedand it was replacedby a dark stare. 'I askedyou to pay me a thousand and you agreed tepayrne-a+heusand. This is only five hundred.' 'You'll get your thousand.I'll give you halfef ye$t:tletlsaftd now and I'll give you the other hall'e+)eu++h€$5+t# later when I get the orchid.' 'I could get the orchid and keCd find someoneelsewho'd want to buy lt.' 'You won't €+4semeeaeehs.who buli+. Nobody elseis evenlooking for this orchid.' The dark starewanted to stay,but it was slowly replacedby half a smile.It said shewould give me half of the smile now and the other halfef tlesmi+e later.

Tests Ald B I 2 3 4 5

2b

3b

4c

5c

B (withher) C (the other) D (shetastesit) B (regardedit as an opportunity) B (a knife was discovered)

C I do something 3 someoneelse

2 them myself 4 do it

D I It should havebeen useful having wealthy parents,but they didn't actually support her. 2 They don't like eachother. (or. They don't like one another.) 3 I'm sure there will be someoneat the arrPort to meet you. 4 l t w o u l dn o l b e a g o o di d e at o g o s w i m m i n g out in the oceanby yourself.

she 2me 3 myself 4 him 5 anyone 6 ours 7 that 8 himself 9 one 10 an)'where 11 it

Unit9 Adjectives and adverbs I

I very important (line 15) on reallybad (line 34) 2 largeheary wooden wardrobes(line 33)

2

1 4 7 9

3

Restrictive:main (line 16) Intensifting: perfect (line 5)

4

Choose one example of each qpe. Opinion: comfortable,harmonious, beneficial, important, best,better,easier,bad, r,.ulnerable, restless,negative,soothing,peaceful Size:small, large Physicalquality: heary,soft Age/Time:ancient,modern, contemporary Shape:pointed, horizontal Colour: blue, brown

5

Chooseone example ofeach t1pe. Location: outdoor Origin/Course: Chinese Material: wooden Tlpe: agricultural, physical,horizontal, natural Purpose:relaxing

6

ancient Chinese(on large wooden on hear,1' wooden on soft natural)

7

I The flagsof Britain and the USA both have red, white and blue designs. 2 He describedthe wonderful, friendly, outgoing people who worked in the little Italian cafe. 3 You immediately notice the large plastic vaseswith pink and purple flowers on every table. 4 There are many industrial and agricultural applicationsof the new chemical compounds. 5 \\rhat are the cultural, religious and historic origins of thesecurrent regional conflicts?

best 2 very (or really) 3 important diagonally 5 directly 6 horizontal small 8 large (on hear.yon wooden) pointed 10 Blue 1l soft 12 natural

235

I The entire German team playedwell, 2 The wine madea smallred stain. 3 There'snothing new in the main Christian values. 4 You'llneedcomlortableIeatherhikin" boots. 5 It has a long pointed stem with tiny pink flowers. 6 The windows are in huge circular wooden frames. 7 They are the major northern industrial nations, 8/ 9 They found a beautiful antique rocking chair 10 Her mother was alone in the total chaos. tl / l2 We iike recent Americaneconomic policies. 9

1 3 5 /

large black similar na(o

2 4 white 6 small 8 shiny whitex l 0 great t 2 sharp* t 4 northern 1 6 tropical l 8 yellow

c hl',i(h-srcv+

1l thin* 13 cool 15 large 17 jujcy 19 prickly *8 antl9 canbeerchanged; +11and 12canbeexchanged l0 I Italian and Greek* 2 great little outdoor 3 carefiee,crazy,happy (in any order) 4 older English 5 southern European* 6 cheapSpanish 7 big squareplastic 8 sour and hvisted(oR twistedand sourJ * I aru|5 canbeexchanged 11 1 2 3 4

irdtating (d) worried (c) exhausted(b) astonishing(a)

12 l bored 4 amazed 7 amazing 13 I 3 5 7

236

2 interesting 5 interested 8 boring

home-made peace-keeping well educated white-washed

3 annoying 6 annoyed

2long-distance 4 never-ending 6 funny-looking

t 4 the poor and r,,*eaks> weak The situation is appalled> appalling without seeinga*emeless ) a homeless person (or. the homeless) The uaemgleyeds stand around > unemployed The old and sick reeei+e no help ' 1qqqir. \44ry are we no longer sheeking > shocked Dees the Japanese> Do and the €anadian havethe sameproblems ) Canadians The unthinkable have happenedhere > has 1 We thought we had startedour hike early, but other people had alreadyleft the campsite(oR had left the campsitealready). 2 The workersuruallyget paid weekly,bul they haven'tbeen paid for last week yet (or' they havent yet been paid for last week). 3 The studentsstill hadn't completedall their work when they had to leavehere yesterday. 4 Alice lived here recently,but shedoesn'tlive here any more. 5 We used to hardly ever hear them (or. We hardly everused to hear them), but they've becomereallynoisylately(or but lately they'vebecomereally noisy). 16

1 4 7 l0

always loday sometimes yet

2 only 5 no longer 8 recently

3 outside 6 twice 9 ever

17 I The couple had got married very recently (oR had very recentlygot married). 2 The baby looks exactlylike her mother. 3 He isn't only an athlete,he'sa scholartoo! 4 Wait for us, we're coming now, 5 Lunch is almost ready. 6 Wear this silly hat. It's only for fun. l8 I I completelyforgot my brother's birthday yesterday.(oRYesterdayI completelyforgot my brother':birthday.oR I forgormy brother'sbirthday completelyyesterday.) 2 The piano is really large and our doorway isn't wide enough. 3 We enjoyedthe trip very much, but it was too expensive.(or We very much enjoyed the trip.) 4 I'll read the report carefullytomorrow. (ot I'll carefullyread the report tomorrow. oR Tomorrow I'll read the report carefully. oR Tomorrow I'll carefullyread the report.)

19 I 2 3 4 5

Traditionally (c) completely only (a) of course carelessly(f) even Individually (e) enough casually(b) very

^ .*r..--1,.

Tests

r; ' ,--.i1.,

20

I Actually 2 certainly 3 very* 4 seriously 5 unfortunately 6 completely* 7 of course 8 probably 10 still 9 uncontrollably 11 Apparently 12 neNously *3 and6 canbeexchanget)

2 as quickly as 4 faster 6 lessbeneficial* 8 smaller 10 puzzled

23 they put the ge€C-H€int of all the people > best-looking were not attractiveas those > not as attractive the people in Group A were warm > warmer kind > kinder prritino

> morc

c

B I 2 3 4 5

D (six feet deep) B (some soldierswho were afraid) C (l usually drink) A (remove'very') B (ltalians)

3 b

4 a

5 c

2 just , .. further 4 Eventually... easier 6 round black

D I Everyonethought the event was wellorganizedand exciting. 2 The earlieryou leavehere,the quicker you'll get there. 3 Mark is not as good a cook as David. 4 I'm looking for a fairly long greenwoollen scarf. E

I 4 7 l0

only acutely Japanese far

2 earlier 5 pleased 8 coloured

3 yet 6 young 9 certainly

Unit10 Prepositions I

Choose four: At the sametime (line 10) in the Christmasbreak (line 16) at night (line 28) during the weekend(line 28) until 3 a.m. (line 3l ) on Fridayand Saturdaynights(line 31)

2

1 against 2 out of 3 during 4 in exchangefor (on for) 5in 6 for / tnan 8at 9 during 10 with 1l accordingto 12 of

3

I 2 3 4

4

I at six in the morning 2 on her birthday next Saturday

cvritino

and sensitivethan those in Group B > more sensitive Group A would find high paidjobs > higher paid have successfulmarriages> more successful and lead happy lives than Group B > happier to have appealingpersonalities> more appealing and to be sociallyskilled than the Group B women > more (oRbetter) sociallyskilled but also to be vain > vainer (or more vain) materialistic> more materialistic snobbish> more snobbish and likely to get divorcedthan them > more likely Group A would be bad parentsthan Group B > worse

2 b

C I already... never 3 longer .. . reading 5 Suddenly...short

2l I longer ... more likely (or likelier)... best 2 oldest(or eldest)... taller ... fast 3 new ... better-behaved(or more wellbehaved)... earlier 4 best-known.. . shorter. .. easier(on most beautiful... more different... quicker) 5 different... most beautiful... quickest(oR short .. , well-known... easiest OReasy... well known ... shortest) 6 well .. . worst ... leastskilled 22 I the best 3 more easily 5 better 7 more wasteful* 9 the most important *6 ancl7 car beexchanged

Al

I

we talkedto (d) of them (a) apart from working (b) in which today'sstudentsstruggle (c)

i.

qp-r"-h"'

.-.'-

."".

237

4 5 6 7 8

at night in winter on Christmas Day in the past at four o'clock on Friday afternoon at sixty-liYein 2005 on the fourth of J:u]yin 1776(oRonthe fourth of luly, 7776oR in 1776on the fourth of July)

I expiry date 4in / aner 10 in

2 during 5by d at

3 deadline 6 curfew 9 until

1 waiting siaeean hour > for (ot waiting an hour) till his next meeting > before 2 My sisterrverk > has worked (or has been working) sincea€e+200J > \ince 200J (oRsince before 2003) 3 receivedin this office untd 9 a.m. > by (on before) i* the lirst of March > on 4 a p p o i n l m e n li"l +e v e r ym o r n i n g appointments eYerymoming seeyou ofi next Monday morning > seeyou next Monday moming I on (d) in 2 at (c) in 3 in (a) at 4 on (b) in 8 I The meeting focusedon economic problems in developingcountriesin South-EastAsia. 2 You can either stand at the bar or sit at a table in most pubs in Britain. 3 We were dependingon my brother to meet us at the exit door after the concert. 4 The children were laughing at something they had seenin a cartoon. 9 1 2 3 4 5 6

under ... overcoat overpopulation among overlap between overallsover above . . . overflow below ... overhead

l0 I to 2 fiom 3 out of 4 towards 5 across* 6 along* 7 to* 8 past * 5, 6 and7 canbeexchattger) 1 1 I t h r o u g h . . .t o 2 a l o n g . . .t o w a r d s 3 out of ... from 12 1 towards 2 over 3 on 4 through 5 along 6 from 7 into 8 towards

238

13 1 2 3 4 5

of the door with a screwdriver with American history by reading with some friends of ours by scoring... of the match with the yellow lampshade... with a cheque

14 I 3 5 7

rice except 2 omeletteswithout lish besides 4 meal except fruit exceptfor 6 ice creamwith bread without 8 pizza,minus

15 I You haveto fill in this form and send it back with your payment. 2 My dad has given up his attempt to get the university to do awaywith tuition fees. 3 We had to cut back on our spendingafter we found out that our rent was going up. 4 Pleasego along with local customsat the temple and take off your shoes(on take your shoesoff) before going in. 16 1 Push away 2 Stand up 3 raise.., up* 4 breatheout 5 bend... down 6 breathein 7 lift ... up* 8 go back * 3 and 7 canbeexchangetl 17 IB 6 A

2 A 3B 4B 7 AorB 8 B

5A

Tests Al

a 2a

3c

4d

B I C (insteadof) 3 B(in) 5 D (out ofoR in) C I away 4in

2 from 5 outof

5c 2 C (e* every day) 4 D (over) 3to 6for

D 1 During August this building will be closed for renovation. 2 Besidesshopping,what elsedid you do when you were in Rome?(otr Besides shoppingwhen you were in Rome,what elsedid you do?) 3 Apart ftom the apple I gaveyou earlier, haven'tyou eatenanlthing elsetoday? 4 Without more financial support we won't be able to do much. E

1By 4 under 7 into 10 across

2 past 5 towards 8 of

3 At 6 with 9 along

Unit11 lnfinitives and gerunds I

helped hundreds ofpeople to stop smoking ( l i n el l ) and avoiding socialsituations (line 17) situationsthat will make her want to smoke (line l8) many people continue smoking (line 23) Encourageher to avoid stressfulsituations (line 25)

2

1 2 3 4

kick the habit (line 5) doing yoga (line 27) (going) cold turkey (line 34) over the counter (line 42)

3

1 2 3 4

want to become(2) makesthem experience(1) to stopdoing (3) of treating (1) (or for controlling (2) on without needing (4))

4

I lo be ... having 3 to have ... having

5

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6

7

8

9

2 t o h a v e. . . b e i n g 4 to have ... to be

to have linished (4) to be studying (1) to havebeen living (2) to be done (4) to haYebeen constructed(3) havingslept(1) being killed (2) having been built (3)

1 Your homework was supposedto havebeen (on to be) done beforeyou went out. 2 I wanted to thank her for having taken (on for taking) the time to help me. 3 They complainedabout not having been (oR not being) told about the changes. I 3 5 7 9

travelling to havevisited being held to be using to havebeen built

2 4 6 8 l0

meeting to havebeen doing to havebeen based to be burning not to have seen

I 2 3 4 5 6

hope (or am hoping) to visit invited . .. to stay wants ... to spend enjoy taking imagine... making love to be

I 2 3 4

allow... to take forget to send meant to tidy prefer not to talk (or prefer not talking)

5 avoid trying to drive 6 forced ... to stop playing l0 encouragedme +al(e> to take advisedme remember > to remember rememberehaa the bathrooms > to clean likes eleanbathrooms > cleaning (oR to clean) I didn't mind de it > doing I was first starting l€a+E> to learn I could practisespeakEnglish > speaking I enioyedtIf > trlng tryimpreve my English > trying to improve I didn't want werk > to work I don't regretde it > doing I decideds+r*dyharder > to study and try get a better job > to get 1l I It's essentialto plan aheadin my kind of job. (oR It's essentialin my kind ofjob to plan ahead.) 2 Jessicawas disappointednot to seeany of her friends at the shopping centre. 3 It was so good of Christopher to come to our rescuewhen our car broke down. 4 Thosehuge busesaren't easyto drive along narrow winding roads. 12 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

idea... studying plan ... to take problem keeping placeto stay information ... reserving t a s k . . .t o p h o n e someoneto ask cost ... renting

Tests Al

d

2c

3b

B I A(learning) 3 B (towait) 5 D (of doing) C I 2 3 4 5

4a

5d

2 D ( r e f u s e tdo h e l p l 4 A (visiting)

assumedto be heard... sneeze(on sneezing) remembered... telling allowed to go smell... burning.

D I A placeto park is sometimeshard to lind. 2 Is it really necessaryto keep all theseold

frles? 3 lt would be a mistake for him to buy a new cal now. 4 Amy still remembersbeing bitten by a dog when shewas very young. 5 T h eb o y d e n i e dh a v i n gd o n ea n y t h i n g

239

wrong. (oR The boy denied doing anything wrong.) _El

3 5 7 9

trying to do stopprng starting PurnnS

2 4 6 8 l0

to look to regain to keep (or. to havekept) losing going

Unit12 Reporting 'Thanks I He would iust nod and say, for coming round,' (line 56) 2 those who had opinions mostly said that it was a strangestory (line 49)

2

1C

2D

3B

4F

5A

6E

1 put (line l0) (on callout (line 13)) 2 grumbled (line 22) I comma 2 quotation mark 3 comma 4 quotation mark 5 quotation mark 6 quotation mark 'Susanna,'Mrs Alder calledout,'I'd Iike you to come and meet Michael.'A girl appearedin 'How 'Nice the doorway. do you do?' shesaid. 'Please to meet you; he mumbled. don't call him "Michelle" or "Mikey" or any other silly names,'warned Mrs Alder as she sweptout of the room.'Have you read "Harry Potter"?' 'What Susannasuddenly said. one?'he asked. 'Oh, no, you little Mickey Mouse,'shesaid as she came into the room,'you must say"Which one?",not "What onei'l if you're going to survive here.'(oR ... into the room. 'You m u s t . . .) 1 He said that he left (or had left) his jacket there the day before (or the previous day). 2 The reviewerwrote that Carlin'snew book was the funniest thing he or shehad ever read. 3 Shesaid that they wouldn't eat it then, but they might have it for lunch the next day (or the following day). 4 He advisedus that we should take as much water aswe could carry. 5 You told me that you had to (oR must) get something to eat or you would faint. 6 CompCo is reporting that demand for new computersin the UK is declining. 7 Sheaskedif she should get rid of those old boxesin the cupboard.

240

I was 4 nas

7 won't 10 live 13 were

2 could 5 are 8 would 11 can 14 had

3 6 9 12

is can't will lived

1 I mentioned to Mr Brody that there was somethingwrong with the lights. 2 I reminded julia that she and her friends had to tidy up after the party. 3 He warned me (or you/him/her/us/them) not to touch any of the wires. 4 He denied doing anything wrong. (ol He denied that he had done anything wrong. oR He denied that he did anything wrong. on He denied having done anything wrong.) 9 I shouting 2 had mentioned (on mentioned) 3 wondered 4 talk 5 asked 6 told 7 explained 8 claim 9 begged l0 thought.

1 0 I can't agree+hem > agree with them and offered nre+e$elp > to help me I explaiaed+hem > explained to them that I €an+get the wheel off > couldn't One of them teld+hat > told me that (or said that) and asfl*te+-tsat > assuredme that He evensuggestedIIret€-€M > standing (ol that I (should) stand) *a+r+ed.+etva1'€b-ottt > warned me to watch out (oR warned me that I should watch out) ieked the small wheels> joked about > I thanked them. (or I @b€rn+hail€ 'Thanks.' told them, on I said,'Thanks'to them.) They refi*se4+ake > refused to take I etrcredaay+hem > offered to pay them 1 l 1 One ofthe defendantscalledout that he (or she) was not guilty. 2 Her statementthat she'dbeen adopted really surprisedus. 3 I agreewith the students'argument that the cost of tuition has increasedtoo much. 4 No one believedhis claim that he was not a thiel (on his claim not to be a thief.)

1 2 1 (c) whether 2 (a) who 3 (d) where 4 (b) that t 3 1 One of the visitors askedabout whether there would be a fridge in the hotel room. (or ... askedif therewould be ... or ... askedwhether there would be ...) He askedme why I did that (oRwhy I was doing that oR why I had done that oR why I had to do that) and I pointed out that it was part of my job.) Sheaskedme what to do next (or what she should do next) and my responsewas that sheshould (or could) get some chairs. Her explanationthat no one askedher (on had askedher) whether or not shehad a degreewas incredible.(on if shehad a degreeor not oR whether she had a degree or not) why shewasn't sleeping 'moster' that there was a under her bed, 'moster' what a was if (on whether) shehad seenthe monster (that) shehadn't, but (that) sheknew it had big teeth. 6 where it had come from

shenot put a lot of food on her plate all at once) not to take more food until it is offered (ol that sheshouldn't / mustn't take more food until it is offered oR that she not take more food until it is offered) 7 should / must ask somebody 8 if they would (please)passthe salt (oR to (please)passthe salt) t 7 l recommendationthat we (should) take the early flight to Glasgow. 2 belief that a perfectlife can be achieved. 3 diagnosis... that I had an ear infectron. 4 sorry that shelost her temper, 5 positive that we would all passthe exam. 6 awarethat dogs weren't allowedthere.

Tests

t4 1 2 3 4 5

AI b 2d

1 5 I The professoraskedher studentsnot to eat or drink during lectures.(ot The professor askedher studentsif they would not eat or drink during lectures.) The guard ordered the prisoner to stand up when the judge came in. The worker askedto leaveearly on Friday. (on The worker asked(his boss) if he could leaveearly on Friday.) Scott'smother recommendedapplying to severaluniversities,(oR Scott'smother recommended(that) he (should) apply to severaluniversities,)

C I tell 2 asked 3 explainedx 4 hadn't said 5 hadn't spoken 6 replied* 7 pointed out 8 talk (oR talked)

1 6 I to placeher napkin in her lap (oR that she should / must placeher napkin in her lap on that she placeher napkin in her lap) 2 not to rest her elbowson the table (oR that she should / must not rest her elbowson the table oR that shenot rest her elbowson the table) to chew her food with her mouth closed(or (that) she should / must chew her food with her mouth closed) n o t t o t a l kw i t h h e r m o u t h t u l l ( o r ( t h a t ) sheshouldn't / mustn't talk with her mouth

tulr) not to put a lot of food on her plate all at once (oR that sheshouldn't / mustn't put a lot of food on her plate all at once oR that

BI 2 3 4 5

3 b

4c

5a

D (would be able) C (agreedwith me) C (encouragedher not to quit) A (inquired about whether) B (offeredto bring on offered to bring us)

*j and 6 can be exchanged

D I Mrs Dalloway said shewould buy the flowers herself. SheaskedHenry if he had left (on left) his keysin the door. There was an announcementthat the strike was over. His only comment was that he would return the following day (oR the next day oR the day after). His statementthat he wouldn't do it surprisedus. I remember one time when my aunt told me not to talk with my mouth full. (ot ... my aunt told me that I mustn't (or shouldn't) talk with my mouth tull.) 7 They invitedme for u,') to \tay al their house. EI

(that) he would be here by eight o'clock 2 if sheknew where Rob was 3 (that) she thought he had gone out about half an hour earlier 4 apologized(ot said that he was sorry) 5 that he had forgotten that he had promised t o t a k eh i s m o l h e ri n l o l o \ ^n l h a l m o r n i n g

241

Unit13 Nounclauses I One ofthe individuals qpically insiststhat he or shewill not stop doing something despitethe fact that it is a sourceof conflict. (line 46) oR Sometimesone of them will saythat he or she actually prefersit that the other has separateinterests.(line 49) *Nor: On+he$asi+e€ +heir+*dil +he researehers-ha+eee+elud a=sederr+ maffia€e may+€giriryith=pa bu+i+s-*u++i+aldepends€l€+-€n +empa+ieaat€l€ver a+eling+ha+jn€ludes afee+ie+ earhg-an+#ie+dshitr (line 62) *-fheseconrl protroutt rhar(= which) is a relative introducirlg a reldtivealause, nota nounclausc. Seepoge164. 2 It makesyou wonder ifgetting married is worth the effort. (line 7)

He screamedthat he hated school. (9) (or Shesaid shefelt thal everyonewasagainsl her. (9) on He told me that he loved me. (l0)) Ewan suggestedthat we should leaveearly. (8) They consider it an offencewhen women go out in public without coveringtheir heads. ( 12) (oR We thought it odd that no one calledus. ( l3) or Many people regard it as a really bad idea that the police have started carrying guns. (14))

I

IT

3

I that it wasone of their bestmemories (line 32) oR that he or shewill not stop doing something (line 47) oR that he or sheactually prefersit that the other has separateinterests.(line 49) 2 the cas€that marriage hasbecomea gamble (line 9) oR one indication that the couple speaks with a singlevoice (line 24) oR ... the fact that it is a sourceof conflict (line 48) 3 likely that a marriagewill end in divorce (line 6) oR delighted that so many of their couples stayedtogether (line 20) oR obvious that theseindividuals had really different views about marriage (line 57) 4 what advicethey would give to younger people thinking about getting married (line s2) 5 to what makesa successful marriage (line l2)

4

2 T

3 F 4 F

5 F

2

6 F

2 We learned that pineapplesdon't grow on trees.(7) 3 No one noticed that the keyswere missing.

t7) 4 Shecould neveranticipate what he might want. (8) 5 l'll showyou how it works.(10)

242

5l

6I

It doesn'tsurpriseme at all that they don't have any money left. 2 It just astonishesme that children would rather sit watching TV insteadof playing outside. 3 It has neverbeen explainedwhy the governmentdidn't act immediately to stop the movement of all animals, 4 It wasn't clear whether Nicole'sfather had been for or againsther marriage,but he did participatein the wedding ceremony. what 4 that 7 Whether

2it 5it 8 that

3 that 6 that 9 where

7l

That Mr Bakercomplainedabout the noise was predictable,but we assuredhim (that) it wouldn't happen again.(or It was predictable that Mr Bakercomplained about the noise,but we assuredhim (that) it wouldn't happen again.) The headmasterwarned us (on me or you) during our meeting that some teachers wouldn't like it that (oR the fact that) their classroomshad suddenlybeen changed. They told me about what Geoff had said, but I thought it strange(that) he didn't mention money. The police regardedit as suspiciousthat the deadwoman'shusbandhad recentlytaken out a life insurancepolicy in her name. The prosecutorshowedthe jury how the crime could havebeen committed by Feldman,but he didn't convincethem (on the iury) that Feldmanwas guilty.

8l

His explanationthat he had beenstuck in traf6c for over an hour didn't sound right. Their discoverythat the boy sufferedfiom asthmachangedtheir attitude. The belief that there are aliensfrom outer spaceliving among us is quite widespread.

9 I 2 3 4 5

with the view that to the fact that conclusionwas (that) againstthe idea that evrmnle

nf

6 Despitethe fact that 7 beliefthat 8 in agreementthat

l 0 I premonition... that ... which/that 2 S c e p t i c i s .m. . t h a t . . . t h a t 3 S u p e r s t i t i o.n. , t h d l . . . w h i c h / t h a t 4 D6.idvu ... that ... which/that 1 l raiseissue+hev*equality can be > issuesof (or about or with regardto) how the{ae|l*hieh women don't have > the fact that based on rhe-beliefpeeples attitudes can be changed> the belief that people's th€{ss,t]fiptien-€+h€r peaceful changes> the assumptionthat other i+.spi+eeFi+is largely controlled by men > in spite of the fact that it is I We were afraid (that) our old car might break down. 2 [ was completelysurprisedthat (oR when oR by the fact that) Karen suddenlydecidedto quit her job. 3 Seanwas absolutelysure (that) the test would be easy.

1 3 I unlikely (that) 3 surprising when 5 embarrassedby what

2 awareofhow 4 glad that 6 amazed(that)

(1) l 4 in riar-clauses the negativesubjunctive (2) insteadof the presentsubjunctive(3) after verbs expressingorders (6) rules(5) suggestions(4) in a reported order (7) not in a reported statement(8) after nouns expressingorders (l l ) rules( l0) suggestions(9) after adjectivesexpressingwhat is necessary

(r2) 15 I crucial (d) (should) not be disturbed 2 stipulates(oR stipulated) (c ) (should) have 3 recommends(or recommended)(f) (should) spend 4 suggestion(a) (should) be given 5 requirement (b) (should) be worn 6 insists(on insisted)(e) (had) arrested

16 A I what they're thinking 2 what happenedthat day 3 who their best friends are B 4 that women are lesslikely than men 5 that men get the impression 6 that women never tell jokes C 7 if men and women talk equally 8 people think 9 the women talked more D l0 that men think I I women talk a lot 12 that they hear women that there was another world (that) Columbus reachedIceland he could reachChina that Columbus wasnl the first European (that) Columbus'svisit to lceland gavehim the confidence 6 there would eventuallybe a placeto land

17 I 2 3 4 5

Tests A I c

2 d

3 a 4 d

5 b

B I A (That Sandra... ort The fact that Sandra ...) 2 D (+vh*> that) 3 A (I heard abeu+that) 4 B (like > like the fact oR like it) 5 B (*erain4+ha+ > remind us on me ot you, etc.that) C I idea of how categorizationworks 2 we take it for granted that categorieshave 3 and that all membersofa given category 4 we seethat it is 5 it is not surprising that we hold D I He didn't concealthe fact that his parents weren't English, 2 It has alwaysbeen a big mystery to me why anyonewould want to jump out of a plane and put their trust in a parachute. 3 Our expectationwas that no one would be there. 4 Bridget was sorry that her commentshad upset Mark's mother. 5 Despitethe fact that theseapplesdon't look very nice, they're delicious, E I 3 5 7 9

noticed (that) reasonto when concedes thal rule out that feel (that)

2 know if 4 argue (that) 6 Thdt emotion 8 view that l0 unfair that

243

Unit14 Relativeclauses which sankin l7l8 (line 5) oR who was the most notorious pirate of his day (line 6) whosereal name was Edward Teach(line 8) oR whaleverlhey capturedfrom lheseenemies of the queen(line 13) when the Europeanpowersdeclaredpeace (line ls) oR what they knew best (line l9) on which had the speedand power (line 22) 'Queen or which they renamed Anne's Revenge'(line 25) that he needed(line 3l) on whosehuge black beard was twisted into long tails (line 34) or who carried severalguns and swordsin belts(line 35) on (which were) slung acrossboth shoulders (line 36) oR that he could use (line 38) when he was killed in a seabattle with two Britishships(line 4l) on which had been sent (line 42) oR (that) we still havetoday (line 46) I 3 5 7 9

whose that (on which) that (oRwhich) when - (oRthat oR which)

2 4 6 8

who who (or whom) which that (oR which)

... all (that) he needed(line 3l) ... fuses(that) he could useto ignite cannons during an attack(line 38) Defining: which had the speedand power (line 22) which had beensent (line 42) Non-defining:which sankin 1718.(line 5) 'Queen which they renamed Anne's Revenge' ( l r n ez ) ) I who 4 which / wnlcn l0 whom

2 who 5 (that) 8 who

3 that 6 who 9 that

I that (oR which) usesexaggeratedactions, often involving accidents 2 who controls a sports game 3 in which eachcompetitor takespart in three different sports 4 from whom you rent a room or flat (oR that (or who) you rent a room or flat from)

244

5 , the largestpart ofwhich is below the surfaceof the water, 6 , some of which are poisonous, 7 , which consistsofnine islands, $ , whom (oR who) most people know as Mark Twain, a-le+ters+id I had been terminated > a letter that (on which) said 2 the lelter,{H camefrom lhe university, which termination (means'the end') > which means whieFi+kk really weird > which felt that I could be fired from it > that I could be fired from (on from which I could be fired) I was just astuden+-did++ have a job > a student who (oR that) didn't it was an-e++e+$adbeen caused > an error that (or which) had I wasn t t$e-enly-eaelad been terminated > the only one who (otr that) had A lot of e+her?eep],edidCt have jobs > other peoplewho (on tha| didnt I 2 3 4

m e m o . . . s e n t . . .w o r k i n g mermaid ,.. having j i g s a w . . .p r i n t e d. . . c u t shadow... caused...standing

I parked outside ... sitting in it 2 standingon the bed ... coveredwith feathers 3 startingat 8 p.m. ... basedon a true story 4 accusedof crimescommitted during the war 5 not having children ... going out to concerts and the theatre

t 0 For all you food loversr+he++illbe sitting at home and rvhe.wi.llbelooking for something t}at-is interestingon TV this afternoon, there's 'The a fabulous new TV show whkFis called Asian Kitchen', whietshas-been created and rvhieh$as$eer produced by Mary Sah,r,*hkh beginsbeginning at 4.30 this afternoon. Among the disheswhietswillbe-featuredwill be SaucyTofu, l'hietseensists consisting of tofi.r squares#hi€h+av€+€en dipped in a special batter, *'hktshavebeen deep-fried and +,hieh4ave$eeo covered in a creamy peanut sauce,and Evil Shrimp, r+hietsis-madewith hot peppers, r,rli€h+aveb€ei sauteed with other vegetablesand r+hieh++eservedwith shrimp whietsaresizzlingin a shallowpool of red curry. It's the most deliciousthing on TV today!

I t to refer to people ll l for organizations[3] and places12l things that are part of [4] or belongto [5] of which after a no.;tn when we talk about things [7] the noun plus o/at the end [6] after personalpronouns [9] and indefinite pronouns [8] followed by who or that ll2l elip' n,':nti6p'<

tl I I

t 2 I whoseparentsare dead 2 who doesn'tcareabout money 3 whosewood (on the wood ofwhich on of which the wood) is strong and durable 4 ftom whose upper windows (on from the upper windows ofwhich) largeflagswere hanging 5 who have completedtheir questionnares 6 many of whosepaintings look like large comic strips 1 before which you must completesomething 2 for whosemoral educationyou have promised to be responsible(or whosemoral educationyou have promised to be responsiblefor) 3 whom (or who) you look up to 4 through which you look (or which you look through oR that you look through on - you look through)

t 4 about a si+t+ati.en.whiehthose > a situation in which (or a situation where) tl€se+san+ to fight > those who want a person{,rhe{he house > whose houseis made of glas+i++ something> glass, which is semethingjs easily broken > something which (oR that) is the personyou threw the stonea+iffi > the pelson at whom you threw the stone (or the person whom you threw the stone at oR the person (who) you threw the stone at) +h€-rneani€€-€{ + | looked up the meaning of which or. whose meaning similar teleu$ave > to thoseyou have (oR to those that you haveoR to thosewhich you nave.l for aqene is critical > anyone who is l 5 I when 2 where 3 how 4 what 5 how 6 why l 6 I Prison... where 2 m o t i v e . . .w h y

3 crime ... which 4 Revenge. . . that... what 5 Quarantine... when 17 I (d) however 2 (c) whatever 3 (a) whenever 4 (e) whichever 5 (b) whoever l8 I whatever 4 which 7 whichever

2 that 5 what 8 how

3 where 6 when 9 why

Tests Ala

2b

3c

4d

5b

B l c (who, because/hat is not usedin a non defining clausedescribinga person)

2 C (along which something slides) 3 C (that oR no relativepronoun, because

'every wher is not used after time') 4 C (which made,becausereducedrelatives are not used for sudden actions) 5 D (all that, becausea quantifier used as a pronoun takesthat, not which) C I whose 3 where ot in which

2 that oR which 4 What

D 1 Elizabethis the name from which Betty is derived. (or. Elizabethis the name (thatiwhich) Betty is derived ftom.) 2 India is where her parentswere born. (oa India is the place/countrywhere/in which her parentswere born.) 3 Hemingway is the author whose short storiesI liked best. 4 WhateverI do, her parentswill never like me. 5 I was at the first lecture during which he talked about humanism. (oR I was at the first lecture,when/where/in which he talked about humanism,) E

I (that is/which is) often told to children 2 who sellsa cow 3 (which/that) his mother thinks are worthless 4 which grow very quickly 5 (that is/which is) called a beanstalk 6 where (on in which or abovewhich) he discoversa giant 7 from whom he stealssome things (on that/who he stealssome things from) 8 suspecting(ot who suspects)something is wrong 9 which he then cuts down l0 who is chasinghim

Unit15 Conditionals I

I ifshe caughta cold (line 46) 2 if I put a huge swimming pool in front of my house(line 26) oR If I went to all that trouble (line 29) on If you werein my situation(line 41) 2 (Erin) 5 (Belinda)

1(Cathy) 4 (Dave)

3

1 If shehas a cup of coffee,shealwayswants to smoke a cigarette(line 7) on If she catchesa cold, she goesto bed immediately (line 50) 2 If shehad a cigarettein her hand, shewas cool.(line 3) 3 Ifyou are successful,it will be becauseof hard work. (line 12) or lf you don't have a struggle,you won't experiencethe triumph. (line 18) oR Ifyou build it, they will come. (line 24)

4

t was (f) 4 is (e)

5

I if I put a huge swimming pool in front of my house,people would think I was crazy, (line 26) oR If I went to all that trouble, I'd put the pool at the back of my house. (line 29) on If I were you, I'd sell it. (line 33) oR If you were in my situation, I would help you out. (line 41) 2 Ifhe had wanted to sell his car,he would have done that already.(line 36) or. If he had worked harder at school,he would have had some kind of careerby now. (lines 39)

6

I IfI knew Jason'sphone number, I could tell him what happened. 2 If she had preparedfor the test,shewould (or could on might) have passed. 3 If you had warned us about the bad weather,I would (on could on might) have brought a raincoat. 4 If I was in your situation, I would (or might) start looking for another job.

7

246

1 were 2 would start 3 wanted* 4 could do 5 started 6 would contribute 7 had started

8

3 (Anna)

2

2 come (d) 5 don't (b)

8 could havepaid* 9 would have contributed* l0 decided* l1 would cost 12 would end up *3 and 10canbeexchanged. *8 antl9 canbeexchanged.

3 is (a) 6 is (c)

he always#l asleep> always fell (ot would always fall on always used to fall) his feet a+enear the fire > were his slippersusuallys+a++ to smoke > started (or would start) my grandmother haste rush over > had to (on would haveto) my father si{ in that chair > sits he immediatelyge to sleep> goes and staft snoring > starts My mother get really annoyed> gets if that happen > happens if I take ... happen to me > if I take ... will happen(or if I took ... would happenon if I were to take ... would happen) I de#+ have this dilemma > wouldn't my older brother dees#+nere away > hadn't moved If he s+ays> had stayed he i+givea the chair > would have been given and I ar+fl€+{aeed with the problem > wouldn't be faced (ot wouldn't havebeen faced) Iflmeve>moved the chair fi+ > would (on could) fit De I really havea problem > Would ifl set+le> setded and give in > gave But who rmke me ... if my slippersea+eh> would wake ... caught (on will wake ... catch)

9 t he... rather 3 he'd ... have 4 he ... wants 5 he'd ... chase

1 0 A number of idioms havecome from the game of cricket,If somethingis describedas not crictet,it meansthat it is not fat or honourable,If someonei.son a stickywicket, t h e ya r ei n a d i l f c u l t s i t u a t i o n{.o RS o m e o n iei on a stickywicketif they are in a difficult situation.) This is becauseballs do not bounce very well if the ground near the wicket is sticky (wet and muddy). If it is said that someonehad a goodinnings,it meansthey had a long life or career. ll

I If they took the test earlier today,they won't get the resultsuntil tomorrow.

2 If it isn't going to be a problem, I d like to leavemy bike in the hallwaytonight. 3 If William sent the letter last week,it would havearrived by now, I'm sure. 4 If it was a terribly cold day outside,we would stayin bed until noon. 5 Ifthe neighbour'sdog hadn't started barking at 4 a.m., I wouldn't be so tired now. 6 I wouldn't feel so full now if I hadn't eaten so much at lunch. 7 IfSarah has completedall her work already, we can let her leaveearly today. 8 If you didn't watch televisionas a child, you probably won't know why some of these people ftom old TV programmesare famous. 12 typical patternsin the present(1) the past(2) to expressrules (5) habits (4) correlations,such asscientificobservations(3) when we are explaining how to do something (6) for plans(8) predictions (9) to ask about future events( I l) to make requests(10) completelyimaginary situations ( t4) potential outcomesof a courseof action ( 15) willingnessto do something,despitelack of ability ( 13) expressregret ( 17) assignblame ( l8) 13 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

(predictive,9) (factual,3) (hypothetical, 15) (factual,5) (counterfactual,16) (factual,6) (hypothetical, 13) (counterfactual,18)

14 I had asked(c) 3 don't want (e) 5 need(d)

2 was (a) 4 hadn't forgotten (b)

15 I lfthat's your goal 2 if the only measureof successwas becoming a doctor 3 Ifyou tried as hard asyou could 4 If it's complete 5 If not 6 If you've done your best

16 I Unlessshecomessoon, we'll have to leave without your friend. (on Unlessyour friend comessoon, we'll have to leavewithout her.) 2 Whether Andyt ready or not, we're going to start playing. (or Whether or not Andy's ready,we're going to start playing.) 3 They'll only let you take books out of the library ifyou're a registeredstudent. 4 Eyenthough our team playedreally well, we didn't win the game. 17 I unless 3 even though 5 only if

2 If only 4 whetheror not 6 If it isn't

18 A Simple:2 Given, 5 Suppose, 6 Supposing, 8 What if, 9 With B Exclusive:3 Providing that/provided that, 7 as long as/solong as C Exceptional:4 otherwise, l0 Without

Tests Alb

2a

3d

4d

5c

B 1A(was) 2 D(will) 3 C(had) 4 B (rvilget) 5 C (if€ity) CIIf 2 will 3 didn't 4if 5 was 6 throw 7 if D I Unlesssomeoneis willing to help, the party is not likely to (on will not) happen. 2 If only shehad been wearing (on had worn) a crash helmet, shewould (on might on could) have escapedinjury. 3 Even though she could be very difficult, I still loved her. 4 Whether you like the idea or not, we're Ieavingtomorrow. oR Whether or not you like the idea,we're leaving tomorrow. 5 I'm sorry,but if the traffic hadn't been so bad, I wouldn't have arrived late. E I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

If anyoneaskedme if he wins If he doesthat if he loses If that happensto him If that is the result Ifhe doesn't really fight unlesshe'san idiot

247

clauses Unit16 Adverbial A so shetried to take good careof his proud creation (line 5) B Beforehe beganhis careerwith the national weatherservice(line 7) or Although he'd had to give up his artistic ambitions (line 9) C becausethere was all that cement in the soil (line 16) on when he was mixing the cement,sand and water (line 18) D When there was a spell of warm summer weather (line 23) or BeforeEmily could get to them (line 27) E when Emily had to go out and sweepthe whole country every morning (line 30) oR If it wasn't wet (line 31) or When it rained a lot (line 34) F Eventhough it wasn't really cold during most of the winter (line 37) on as if it had been carvedfrom a large flat slab of marble by an expert hand (line 43)

I

2

IT

2F

3F

4F

5T

6T

1 After her husband passedaway (line l) 2 becausethere was all that cement in the soil (line l6) When 3 there was a spell of warm summer weather (line 23) 4 Eventhough it wasn't really cold during most of the winter (line 37) 5 as if it had been carved from a largeflat slab of marble by an expert hand (line 43)

J

I When I was standing at the bus stop in the rain, I watched Maurice drive by in his new car. 2 As the skin starts to turn yelloq you'll know that the fruit is getting ripe. 3 While we're eating (on having ot at) lunch, we shouldn't talk about anything to do with work. 4 Justas I was getting out ofthe shower,the phone rang in the other room. I When 3 As

7 8

2 When on While 4 As oR when oR While

I prediction... before 2 skewer...while 4 blender... until 3 postscript... after 'll 've 'll been 4 be I havebeen 2 be 3 've 've been 7 been 8 will be 5 will be 6 I (c)asif 2 (a)as 3 (d)asif a (b)as

248

9l 2 3 4 5 6

They all behavedas though nothing had happened. It was still just as I rememberedit. It tastesasthough it was made yesterday. you try to do aswell as they have done. hidden in the forest,just as the guidebook had describedit. you thin-kit isn'tas much as it realJyis

l 0 I As it's a holiday,all the banks will be closed on Monday.

2 Sinceshehad an operation on her foot, she hashad to usecrutches.

3 While we're all togethertodaS we should decideon a date for the Christmasparty.

4 Now that he has finished his exams,I wonder what he'll do next.

l l I (c) because 2 (b ) as if 3 (a) Because 4 (d) as if t 2 l In order to avoid traffic iams on the way to the airport, you should plan to leaveearly tomorrow. 2 ln order that no money (would) be wasted, we had to accountfor every penny we sPent. 3 In order for plants to grow indoors, there must be a good sourceof light. 4 So as not to get wet, we waited a few minutes until the rain stopped.

1 3 I that nobody would notice her > so (or in order) that

2 fer kill insects > to 3 I*€C€r+e-€afe"eeple

about another person > In order for people to care 4 seaste+et get him in trouble > so as not to 5 i*€rd€r-it can stand > in order that it can stand (or. in order for it to stand) 6 in erder net eur eempetiters6nd > in order that (oR so that) our competitors don't find

1 4 I They were feeling really tired, so they went to bed early last night.

2 I forgot to take my textbook home with me, so I wasn't able to do the homework.

3 Marjorie is in a popular TV show,so people recognizeher when she'sout shopping.

4 They said the tap water wasn't safeto drink, so we had to drink bottled water.

15 I The fire spreadso rapidly through their cabin (that) 2 Wendy'schildren had such bad coldsthis morning (that) 3 You and I don't haveso much money (that) 4 We had such a wonderful time on holiday (that) 5 That classwas so early (that) f6 I Although I understandwhy he thinks that way,I disagreewith his point of view. (on Although I disagreewith his point of view, I understandwhy he thinks that way.) 2 Though he has applied for about a dozen jobs, |ack is still unemployed. 3 Eventhough most people agreedthat the car was a bargain,none ofthem wanted to buy it. (on Eventhough none of them wanted to buy it, most peopleagreedthat the car was a bargain.) 4 Unlikely though it seems,the children may not want to go to the zoo on Saturday. 5 Despitethe fact that the old peopledidn't havevery much money,they were really generous.(on Despitenot having very much money, the old peoplewere really generous.) l7 | 2 3 4 5

Althoughfrustrated... as iftrying Sinceopening dthough managing once broken until making sure

Tests A1d B I 2 3 4 5

2 a

3 c

4 d

5 b

D (was) 'in A (s€+hat oR replace'sot\at' with order') C (becausethey become) A (Because) B (as if or as though)

C I when 4 after

2 because 5 to

3 when 6 As

D I Becauseit was late and I was exhausted,I went straight to bed. 2 In order for him to continue to work here, there will haveto be a changein his attitude. 3 He talked as if (on as though) he owned the restaurant. 4 You can't go out until you finish (oR have finished) your homework. 5 Eventhough he'syour friend (or Even though I know he'syour friend), he can't sleephere.

6 So as not to be late,we left halfan hour earlierthan necessary. E I Although 2 as much as 3 whereas 4 as if 5 'ust as 6 as easyas 7 though 8 Despitethe fact

Unit17 Connectors and

focusstructures A then (line 7) or In fact (line 7) B For example(line 12) or also(line 14) or. Actually (line l8) C After all (line 24) oR So (line 25) D However (line 4l ) oR As a consequence(line 45)

2

l (D)

2 (c)

3 (A) 4 (B)

5

I There are also very large signs.(line 14) 2 What scientistsnow believeis that human activity is the cause.(line 29) I As a result of (oR Becauseof or As a consequenceof) 2 In additionto (on As well as) ... and ... asa result (on as a consequenceot as well ot too) I For example 3 As a result of I also 4 but

2 In contrast to 4 In addition

2 however 5so

I (d) though 3 or (a) but

3 and 6 As a result

2 and (c) so 4 (b) so ... instead

in America eensequentlT her English > in America. Consequently,her English (or in America and consequentlyher English ot though seem to be very direct, i*re*trast+his Kazuko > seemto be very direct. In contrast,Kazuko (oR seemto be very direct. In contrast to this, I(azu.koon seemto be very direct, but in contrast,Kazuko) a&€xanpfe > For example, h€ad+hat > Instead(on Insteadof (doing) that) Shenakesrko a small > also makes 'tsss' a small sound. ,{keraa+ivel5 er she may 'tsss' say > a small sound or she may say (on 'tsss' a small sound,Alternatively,she may say 'tsss' on a small sound. Or she may say) 249

,A,&++efi ftH€ > As a result (oR As a result of this) Nevertleless+h++ > Nevertheless (or Despite that oR In spite of that) I*etherweC > In other words I lift 4 lift 7 Similarly 10 that is

2 also 5 facelift 8 facelift

3 also 6 for example 9 forklift

10 A However, once he startedworking, things changed.(ot Once he startedworking, however,things changed.or Once he started working, things changed,however.) 'out In other words, he was of shape'.(or He 'out was,in other words, of shape'.or. He was 'out of shapelin other words.) B AIso,like a lot more men thesedays,he startedthinking about cosmeticsurgery.(oR Like a lot more men thesedays,he also started thinking about cosmeticsurgery.) In particular, he wanted to get rid of some of the wrinkles around his eyes.(on He wanted, in particular, to get rid of some of the wrinkles around his eyes.oR He wanted to get rid of some of the wrinkles around his eyes,in particular.) Actually, now we have more men than women coming in for certain types of surgery.(on Now we actually have more men than women coming in for certain qpes of surgery.on Now we have more men than women coming in for certain types of surgery,actually.) C *Indeed, the number of men seekinghelp from surgeonslike Dr ldris has increased dramaticallyin recentyears.(or The number of men seekinghelp from surgeonslike Dr Idris has *indeed increaseddramaticallyin recentyears.) *In fact, the emphasison looking young isn't Iimited to facelifts,but has createda huge demand.(on The emphasison looking young isn't limited to facelifts,but *in fact has createda huge demand.or The emphasis on looking young isn't limited to facelifts, but has *in fact createda huge demand but has createda huge demand for dental improvementsand hair transplantstoo.) *lndeedandin factcanbeexchanged

ll

1 I'm hoping as.wC to take a British History class.> I'm hoping to take a British History classaswell. 2 I don't like ae+ual17fish very much. > Actually,I don't like fish very much. (or I don't actuallylike fish very much. or I don't like fish very much, actually.) 3 It's part of my job a*e+alf+hi+. > after all 4 l+addi+iea, he'scertainly not the worst. > However,(oR Nevertheless, oR On the other hand, oR Yet) 5 On+he ether*and, young children now automaticallyput their empty bottles in the recyclingbin, not the dustbin. > For example(or. For instanceoR In particular oR In fact)

12 I (c) So 4 (a) Then

2 (e) So s (f) So

13 To make hot-baked chips for two, youll need four large potatoes,the white of one egg,a quarter teaspoonof cayennepepper and a pinch of salt.First, sliceeachpotato lengthwise,then cut eachslicelengthwiseinto long sticks.Second,mix the eggwhite, cayenneand salt in a bowl. Then stir the potato sticksround in the mixture. Finalln spreadthe coatedpotato stickson a greased baking sheetand bake them in the oven at 170'for 35 minutes. 14 1-(oRSo) 23 Then(,) they can go on to talk about what they'll be doing tomorrow or next year. 45 As a result,they can refer to things like heavenand hell ... 6 Secondly,animal communication consistsof a flxed number of signals... 78 In short, human communication has special propertres... 15 1*didshe 3 was she 5 was something 7 it was 9 shewould l1 herecomes nl afid I can be exchaflged

250

3 (d) then 6 (b) Then

2 shewa" 4 is it 6 had she 8 *would she 10 was part 12 it is

I

I tU 1 lt's the cigarette smoke that's iritating my eyes. 2 It was us who (on that) had to cleanup all the mess. 3 What Jimmy does is watch TV in his room insteadof studying. 4 What scientistsnow believeis that human activity is the cause.

Tests A.1a

2d

3a

4a

5a

B I D (a dog and two catsaswell.) 2 C (in comparisonto oR in comparison with) 3 C (actually stay in London) 4 D (As a result,oR As a result of that,) 5 D (In addition to that, oR In addition,) C I for example 3 in the meantime 5So

2 After all 4 In addition

D I Insteadof (using) butter, we used margarrne. 2 Only in Poland can you get dishesand bowls with this design. 3 Not until much later did we discover the mistake. 4 lt's flooding that causesmost ofthe damage in spring. (on It's in spring that flooding causesmost of t}te damage.) 5 It was becausehe was so unpleasantthat she left. 6 AII I know is that the main road is blocked. 7 What he did was go to the party by himself. 8 What Doris is hoping to do is to travel acrossCanadaby train. E 1 3 5 7

What Similarly Next As a result of

2 To begin with 4 That is 6 In particular

251

Thereare four spacesin eachof the followingparagraphs. Choosethe bestanswer(a, b, c or d) for eachspace.

I After police arresteda man for breaking into a supermarket,they discoveredthat the thief was actuallya teenagegirl dressedas a man. Although they informed (1) shedidn't (2) haveto them anything, the girl confessed(3) she had done it (4) her family becausethey had no money and they werehungry. 'I a) her that 2 a) admit 4 a) by

2 I t w a s( l )

b) lhat b) explain b) thatto them b) for

c) thather c) report c) them that c) that

late and I wasbeginning to (2)

d) to her that d) tell d) themto that d) to

tired, so I asked

Rachelto finish her drawing and tidy up. Sheheld the drawing up for me to see.It (3) a big black dog that (4) sitting at a table. '1 a) becoming b) being c) getting d) going 2 a, leel b) feel as c) feel it d) feel to be 3 a) looked b) lookedas c) looked for d) looked like 4 a) seemed b) seemedlike c) seemed to be d) seemed was

3 The residentsof Montclair vallev are ( I ) only upset about some recent changes,but they're alsovery angry because(2) consulted.Somefamilies have lived and (3) crops in the valley for many years,(4) now their way of life is being threatenedby developerswho plan to build hundredsof new houses in the area. 'l a) both b) either c) neither d) not 2 a) wasn't b) weren't c) it wasn't d) they weren't 3 a) grew b) grow c) growrng o) grown 4 a) after b) before c) but d) or

252

EXITTEST

4 Because it (1) you will havebeen (3 ) silence,but I (4)

a lot recently,I (2) out asmuch and I suspect why I haven'tbeenin touch.I'm sorry aboutthe long to phoneyou this weekand maybewe can arrangelo meel

for lunch on Friday or Saturday. 1 2 3 4

a) has beenraining a) am not going a) believing a) am promising

b) is raining b) don'tgo b) knowing b) havebeenpromising

c) rain c) haven'tgone c) realizing c) havepromised

d) rains d) nevergo d) wondering d) promise

5 My grandfathersaid that when he (1) up, he lived on a farm. During the (2) summer,he to get up early everymorning and work all day on the farm. He said that most people (3) to go awayon holiday as they do now. But he (4) feelingunhappy or deprivedor anything like that becauseall of his fiiends were in the samesituation. c) was growing d) was grown c) was having d) wouldhave b) haven'tused c) wasn'tused d) weren'tused b) hadn'tbeenrememberingc) hadn'trememberedd) wasn'tremembering

1 a) had been growing

b) had grown

.

u/ | rdr

ot I tau eaat I

3 a) didn'tuse 4 a) didn'tremember

6 As soon asthe war was over,the refugees(1) to go back to the villagesthey about five yearsearlier.When they arrived,they (3) that \2) other groups from the easthad moved into the ruined hsu5sssncl ta t rebuildine them. 1 a) havetried 2 a) haveleft 3 a) havefound

b) had tried b) had left b) had found

c) tried c) leave c) found

4 a) are

b) have

c) had

d) were tried d) were left d) werefound o) were

7 Paul and Iack meet in the corridor as Jackis locking his office door. put this report in your mailbox, but perhapsyou'd rather Paul:Oh, hello. I (1) take it now. havelunch right now, but ifyou put it in my Iack Oh, thanks.Actually,I (2) mailbox,I (3) it assoonasI (4) back. 1 a)'ll 2 a\ 'll 'll 3 a) be reading

b)'m goingto b ) ' m g o i n gt o 'll b) haveread

4 a) get

b)

'll

be getting

c) shall c)shall c) 'll read c)

'll get

d) was goingto d)would d) read d) ll have got

2s3

EXITTEST

8 I'm not sure where Karen is. She(l ) havebeenwaiting outside her house this morning so that we (2) give her a lift to work, but shewasn,t there. ---of course, she might (3) --.----------.-- sleeping and aiant n.ur r.. iirie had decided to take the bus, she (4) ----.----._ -arrived by now. I hope she isn,t sick. 1 a) may D)must c) ought d) shoutd 2 a) can b) can be c) could d) couldhave 3 a) be b) been c) have d) havebeen 4 a) wi be b) will have c) wouldbe d) wouldhave

rike,Letr becarefur, (r) ___.___ _ we?,? rtarways

.:::l:J:::illlTfi:[;r,hinss

o"'"-*;:.[ffj|;:;H::,?;,0,,T.",,n ___ __ o.i,;;;*tr,) _" ryr11(:) should be careful',becausethatt what they really mean.

1 a) will 2 a) are going 3 a) won't 4 a) I'd

b) would b) will D)won't be

b)r'rl

c) shall c) will be c) won't have c) I'm

d) should d) would d) won't to d) l've

l0 ThebestsummerholidayI (l) ----.-------waswhenI wasten andI wentto stay with my grandparents for a fewweeks. At that ti_e th.f *... tiuingin the country and (2) ---.-----.----.---still go for long walksthroughthe w""ar. , frl to climb trees and run aroundwith their dog.I (4) ---..----.----.---go n"u. ,i. ,uL. Uymyself, but my grandfathersometimes took me fishingthere. 1 2 3 4

a) am remembering a, can a) coutd a) can't

b) can remember b) could b) couldbe b) may not

c) mustremember c) may c) couldhave c) mightnot

d) was remembering d) might d) was able d) wasn'tallowedto

l1 Tommy, (1) ..----..----._better slow down and wait for the rest of us. I,m sure we havelots of time, so we (2) .---=---to run. We don,t (3) --stop and buy ticketsand there are still lot, of p.ople on the platform, so the train (4) __come yet. 1 a) you'd b) you, c) you,re o) you,ve 2 a) aren'tneed b) don,tneed c) needn,t d) needn,thave 3 a) haveto b) havegot to c) must d) must haveto 4 a) can't b) can,tbe c) can,thave d) couldn,t

254

EXIT TEST

12 Joehasjust returned to the computer lab where Sam works. beenusingmy computer? Joe:Who (1) Sam:I have (2) idea.But thesecomputersare for any student who wants

to usethem,(3) you seeme doing my work on that machine before Joe:Of course.But (4) lunch? I hope it hasn't all been lost. 1 2 3 4

a) has a) no a) aren'tthey a) aren't

b) has he b) no longer b) can'tit b) didn't

c) nave c) not c) don'tthey c) don't

d) havethey d) not an d) isn'tit d) haven't

13 Liz is helpingSuecleanout her flat. Liz: Did you want to keepall theseold books or (1) Sue:I'm not sure.They look interesting, but (2) worth anything. Liz: So,(3)

of them would be

ofthem do you think (4)

1a)no 2 a) none 3 a) for what 4 a) are

D)none D)no one b) for which o) are you

c) not c) notany c) what c) you

going to keep? d) nothing d) nothing d) which d) you are

14 The Star Treehotel chain is in financial trouble and some oftheir smallerhotels are going to have(l) Risingcosts(2) for recentlossesand many smaller

hotels(3) (4) 1 2 3 4

to havebeenlosing money for many years.No buyer hasyet

for the properties.

a) beensold a) are beingblamed a) are reported a) beenfound

b) beingsold b) blamed b) are reporting b) beingfound

c) sold c) haveblamed c) been reported c) found

d) to be sold d) to be blamed d) havereported d) to be found

255

EXITTEST

15

'The

WasteLand' is ( 1)

title of (2) poemby T.S.Eliot,first styleof the poemhashad a greatinfluenceon

published in 1922.(3) (4)

modern poetry.

1a)a 2 a)a 3 a)a 4 a)a

l6

'I

b) an b) an b) an b) an

d) d) -

c) the c) the c) the c) the

d)-

don't call this (1)

progress,' saysBobHarding,ownerof (2) smallbusinessin the city centre.He complainsthat an hour and fifteenminutes (3) becomehis typical commutingtime everymorning. 'It usedto takeonly twenty minutes. There'sjust too much (4)

1a)a 2 ala 3 a) are 4 a) cal

b) one b) an b) has D)Cars

now.' c) the c) the c) have c) motor

d)d)d) is d) trafflc

17 I'm reallyenjoyingmy newjob.AII of (l) peopleI work with arefriendly and I haven'thad (2) problemsso far.The bestpart is that I get paid (3) two weeks instead of waiting (4) month between pay days like in my last job. 1 2 3 4

a) that a) any a) all a) a whole

b) the b) much b) both b) the wholeof

c) them c) some c) each c) whole

d)o) no d) every d) wholeof

18 Last year we had ( I )

morerain in theearlyspringand it made (2) in the gardengrow better.We probablyhad threeor four (3) strawberriesaswe'regettingthis year.I checkedthe strawberriesin the gardenthis morning,

but there (4)

1 2 3 4

a) a largenumber of at all a) timeas many a)wasonlya little

256

that were ripe. b) a lot of b) each b) timeas much b) was onlylittle

c) many c) every c) timesas many c) wereonlya few

d) much d) everything d) timesas much d) were only few

EXITTEST

19 I was sitting at my deskwhen there was a loud crashas somethingcame flying through the window. At first I thought it was a rock, but then I realizedit was a cricket ball. I picked up the ball and put it on the deskbeside( I ) . Two young boys appearedoutside the broken window. They said they were sorry,but then they started arguing,with each blaming(2) for causingthe accident.Then suddenlyone of them askedif (3) could havethe ball back. I said,'l don't think (4) . Not until you pay for this broken window.'They looked at me, then at eachother, and then they both startedrunning. 'l a) me b) mine 2 a) another b) oneother 3 a) it b) then 4 a) it o) so

c) my c) other c) they c) that

d) myself d) the other d)d)-

20 Although they were describedasthe (1)

designsin many years,there isn't about the latestline of shoesfrom Santorelli.As one of the most famous designers(3) Italy, SalvatoreSantorelliis expectedto do (4) simply repeatthe previousyearh successfulforrnula of 'smart, but casual'sandalsin a range of pastels.

(2)

1 a) firstltaliannew 2 a) anythingnewvery 3a) by 4 a) as muchas

b) flrstnew ltalian b) anythingverynew b)in b) morethan

c) newfirstltalian c) newanythingvery c)of c) the best

d) ltalianfirslnew d) very new anything d)to d) the most

21 I rememberwhen we stayed( I )

(3)

New York (2) last summer.It was really hot, even (4)

a few days night, and I just

felt miserable. 1a)at 2 a\ by 3 a) at 4 a) al

b) in b) during o) on b) by

c) into c) for c) In c) during

o)d) in old) in

257

EXITTEST

the mountains 22 When we were students,my friends and I rented a cabin ( 1) so that we could go hiking. It only cost us t25 for the whole week,not (2) food, of course.One day,my friend Daniel got tired and stoPpedto rest,sayinghe'd catch (l) later,but when he still hadn't returned to the cabin (4) late afternoon, we startedgetting worried. LuckilS he met some men who werehunting in the areaand they brought hirn back to the cabin before it got dark. 1 2 3 4

b) in b) included b) up with us b) during

a) above a) include a)upus a) by

c) on c) includes c) us up c) rn

d) over

d) including d) withus uP d) since

to the most famous places 23 When I visit big citieslike Paris,I usuallyavoid (l ) that to my friend Tatjana becauseI really hate crowds.But it was no use (2) the Mona Lisa in the Louvre and she refused becauseshewas really eager(3) (4) 1 2 3 4

outside while shewent in.

a) go a) tryingexplain a) for see a) lettingme to wait

b) going b) tryingto explain b) to see b) lettingme wait

c) gone c) to try explaining c) in seeing c) to let me to wait

d) to go d) to try to explain d) seeing d) to let me wait

in school,we shouldn't be 24 At a time when it hasbecomeso important ( I ) (2) to learn that more studentsare cheatingthan ever before.With so many , studentsalso now seemto believethat thosewho of them anxiousabout (3) cheatare unlikely(4) 1 2 3 4

a) succeed a) surprise a) fail a) to catch

b) succeeding b) surprised

c) success c) surprises

d) to succeed d) surprising

b) failed

c) failing

d) to fail

b) to be catching

c) to be caught

d) to havecaught

it wasokayto usea dictionary 25 There was one student who askedabout ( I ) it. Then shestartedarguing durins the examand I had to tell her (2) (3) me that her teacheralwaysallowedher to useit in class'I had to remind (4) 1a) if 2 a) don'tuse 3 a) about 4 a) her it

258

was an exam,not a classroomexerclse. b) that

b) no use b) for b) that

c) whether c) no using c) ro c) that it

d) why d) notto use d) with d) -

L\n

5T

26 Andrew Murphy, former managingdirector of Delco Electronics,has pleaded'Not Guilty' !5 million from the comoanv He claims not to know where to charges(1) (2) the money. He has suggestedthat an accountant(3) Investigatorsconsider(4)

anyoneelsein the company could have

committed the crime. 1 2 3 4

a) stealing a) did go the money a) is taking a) it unlikelythat

b) that he stole b) did the moneygo b) shouldtake b) thatit unlikely

c) to havestolen c) the moneywent c) takes c) thatunlikely

d) whichhe stole d) wentthe money d) took

d) unlikelythat

made in Norway,but 27 I've been looking for a specialkind of brown cheese(1) (2) name I can't remember.There was one woman I talked (3) in the Gourmet Experienceshop on King Street(4) said they could order it for me if I could sive her more information about it. 1a) it 2 a) what 3 a) to 4 a) what

28 The term

'organic'

(2)

b) that's b) which b) to her b) who

c) was c) where c) to whom c) whom

d) which d) whose d) d) -

in situations can only be usedto describefood ( 1) (3) no artilicial chemicalshavebeen used.Ar.ryone containing chemicalsto make tomatoesgrow bigger,for

fertilizer (4) example,is certainly not growing them organically. 1 2 3 4

a) grown a) how a) use a) what

b) thatgrowing b) that b) used b) when

c) wheregrowing

d) whichgrown

c) where

d) which

c) uses

d) using

c) which

d) -

259

EXITTEST

29 (1)

their hair wasn't actuallyvery long, rock groups such asthe Beatlesand

the Rolling Stoneswere often criticized as'long-haired' or'needing haircuts'when they 6rst becamepopular during the early 1960s.At that time men were also consideredeffeminateif long hair.The oppositewastrue for menwho grewa beard they (2)

(3)

, of course,it was allowed to grow too long. Beardsgrow fasterthan hair and need more care.In fact, if the averageman nevertrimmed his beard,it (4) to nearly ten metresin his lifetime. Now, that's a lot of hair! 1 2 3 4

a) Eventhough a) had a) if a) grew

b) lf only b) have b) if not b) has grown

c) Unless

d) Whether

c) will have

d) would have

c) onlyif c) willgrow

d) unless d) wouldgrow

30 I know you're anxiouslywaiting to find out if I passedmy exams,but I haven'theard an1'thingyet. PerhapsI'll get the newstoday when the post ( I ) . I promiseI you as soon as I get the news.It's three weeks(3) I took t2) the exams,but my teacherwarned me that they sometimesdon't announcethe resultsuntil more than a monlh (4) 1 a) comes

b) came

c) is coming 'll

2 a) call

b) called

c)

3 a) later

o) once b) is passing

c) since c) passed

4 a) has passed

call

d) willcome d)

'm

calling

d) when d) will pass

3l (1) points (2)

in most other sports playersare usually trying to get the most goalsor win, the opposite is true in golf. In a gameof golf, it is the Iowest scorethat wins. Eachplayer must try to get his or her ball in the hole (3) as few 'parl (4) possible. For each hole is a given number of shotsas there shotscalled a player usesone shot lessthan pa1 it's calleda'birdie'and one more than par is called a 'bogey'. 1 2 3 4

a) Evenalthough a) fol a) use a) As

260

b) In spiteof b) in orderto b) uses b) Since

c) Insteadof c) so that c) used c) When

d) Whereas d) suchthat d) using d) While

EXITTEST

32 (1)

our flight from London to Toronto was delayedbecause(2) bad weather,we missedour connectionto Vancouverand had to spendsix hours in the airport (3) for the next flight. (4) being delayed,we still had a good trip and didn't feel too jetJaggedwhen we arrived. 1 2 3 4

a) After a) it a) havewaited a) Although

b) Although

c) lf

d) So that

b) of

c) the

d)-

b) waited b) As

c) waiting

d) were waiting

^\ nac^ita

.l\ llnlace

33 What the recentuse of DNA testinghas shown ( I ) eyewitnesstestimony may (2) not alwaysbe reliable. , an eyewitnesstestifiedthat he saw Gilbert Medeiros with AngelaAnderson shortly before the young woman was murdered and, (3) that testimonv,Medeiroswas convictedand sent to Drison.Not until much later (4) discoveredthrough DNA testingthat someoneother than Medeiroshad been responsiblefor Andersont death. 1a)isit 2 a) Forexample 3 a) afterwards 4 a) it was

b) is that

c) it is

d) that is

b) In addition c) On the otherhand d) Therefore b) as a consequence c) as a resultof d) subsequently b) they c) was d) was it

34 Do you sometimesfeel anxious or irritable when you're driving? It may be the smell inside yourcar(l) is determining how you feel.A recentstudy of American drivers

found that the smellofpeppermintor cinnamonimprovedtheir performance by reducing anxiety more than 20 per cent.Alertness(2)

increasedby almost 30 per cent. (3) . the smell of cakesor fast food made drivers more irritable and caused them to speed,probably becausethose smellsstimulate hunger (4) make drivers more anxious to get where they're going sooner. 1a) it 2 a) also 3 a) In conclusion 4 a) and

b) that

c) what

d) which

b) as well

c) besides

o) moreover

b) In contrast b) as a resultof

c) In otherwords c) consequently and

d) In particular d) howeverdidn't

261

Key to the exit test Followingthe answersare page numbersin bracketswhereyou can find information on the grammarpointsbeingtested. 11a(8) 2d(8) 3a(8) 4b(8)

10 I b (34) 2 b (34) 3 d (34) 4 d (35)

19 1a(100) 2 d (100) 3 c (106) 4 b (105)

2 1c(10) 2 a (14) 3 d (10) 4 c (10)

'l'l 1 a (41\ 2 b (38) 3 a (38) 4 c (40)

20 1b ('112\ , 18t 2 b (1121 3 b (120) 4 b (12o)

1 a (192\ 2 a (185) 3 d (192) 4 d (186)

31d(12\ 2 d (12\ 3 d (12) 4 c (12)

1 2 1 a( 4 5 \ 2 a (451 3 a (46) 4 b (46)

2 1 1 b ( 1 2 8 ,1 3 0 ) 2 c (126,127) 3 d (126) 4 a (126,127\

30 1 a ( 1 9 8 )

41a(18) 2 c (18) 3 d ( 1 7 ,1 8 ) 4 d (18)

13 1 c (48) 2 a (48) 3 d (50) 4 d (52\

2 2 1 b ( 1 2 8 ,1 2 9 ) 2 d (125) 3 b (134) 4 a (126,'127)

1 d (202) 2 b (2O2,203) 3 d (205) , 01) 4 c (1982

5 1c(20) 2 d (2o) 3 a (20) 4 a (2o)

14 1 d (58) 2a(57,58) 3 a (57,63) 4 a (57,58)

23 1b (142\ 2 b (142,145\ 3 b (144) 4 d ( 1 3 9 ,1 4 3 )

1 a ( 1 9 7 ,1 9 9 ) 2 b (1e7) 3 c (205) 4 c (204)

6 1c(22,23) 2 b (22, 23\ 3 c (22,23) 4 d (22,23\

15 1 c (78) 2 a (701 3 c (70) 4 d (72t

24 1 d (144) 2 b (144\ 3 c (144) 4 c (140,144)

1 b (217\ 2 a (2091 3 c ( 2 1 0 ,2 1 4 ) 4 d (216)

7 1d(24) 2 b (24) 3 c (24\ 4 a (24)

16 1 d (74) 2 a (74) 3 b (75) 4 d (74)

25 I c (154\ 2 d (1s6) 3 d (152) 4 a (152\

't b (217\

81d(30) 2 c (2s) 3 d (30) 4 d (30)

1 7 1 b (83,84) 2 a (86,90) 3 d (84) 4 a (88)

26 1 b (164) 2 c (161) 3 d ( 1 6 1 1, 6 7 ) 4 a (162)

9 1c(32) 2 a (32) 3 b (32) 4 a (33)

18 1d (e0) 2 d (88,8e) 3 c (93) a c (92)

27 1b (173) 2 d (178\ 3 a ( 1 7 3 ,1 7 9 ) 4 b (173)

262

2 8 1 a (176) 2 c (180) 3 d ( 1 7 6 ,1 7 8 ) 4 d (176)

2 c (199) 3 c ( 1 9 8 ,1 9 9 ) 4 a (199)

2 a (212\ 3 b ( 2 1 2 ,2 1 5 \ 4 a (21o)

EXITTEST

Appendix regularand irregularverbs Regularverbs We add -ed (l ) or simply -d (2) to the baseform of regularverbsto makethe pastsimpleand past participleforms. I I askedhim, but he hasn'tanswered yet.. Wewantedto know.. I hayewaitedpatiently. 2 Theyagreedthat it wasa goodidea.. That'swhy we hayecontinued.. Shehasn'tsmileclmuch. Beforeadding-ed to someverbs,we doublethe final consonant(aftera singlewritten vowel,in stressed syllables). 3 Shehadplannedto visit usand regretted thatpoor healthhad stoppedher. Others include: dragged,occurred,permitted,preferred,ripped, robberl,slipped,trimmed. Note that mncelled,travelled, etc.in British Englishare canceled, traveled,etc.in AmericanEnglish. We changethe final -y (aftera consonant)to -i- before-ed in someverbs. - I appliedfor one,but theyhaven'trepliedyet. 4 Haw you trierl to geta scholnrship? Othersinclude:carcied,copied,tied, hurried,identifed,implietl,studietl,testiferl,worried.

Irregular verbs We usespecialforms for the pastsimpleof someverbs. . I forgotI hadyour keys.. Theyunderstood 5 WesawJackBrownyesterday. what I taughtthem. -en -n (6) (7) We add or to the baseform of someverbsto makethe pastparticiple. 6 Wherehayeyou been?. Haveyou eatenanything?. I hqd hiddenit, but it hadfallen out. 7 I hayen'tseetthatflm. . Haveyou knownhim a longtime?. They'rcdrivenupfrom London. We usethe baseform of someverbsfor the pastsimpleand pastparticiple. I hit myforeheadon theshelfand cut it, but it hasn'thurt too badlytoday. 8 Yesterday Othersinclude:bet,burst,cost,forecast,let,put, quit, ride,set,shut, split,spread,thrust. Someverbsare usedwith both regularand irregularforms. 9 Haw you burnedlburntthetoast?. I dreamedl dreamtaboutyou. . He spilledlspilt somemilk. Othersinclude:kneeledlkneh, Ieapedlleapt, learnedllearnt,Iightedllit, speededlsped. Note that the -ed forms arebecomingmore common,especiallyin AmericanEnglish.

263

APPENDIX:REGULARAND ]RREGULAR VERBS

Common irregular verbs basicform

past simple

past participle

basic form

be become begin bend bet bite blow break

was,were became

been become begun bent bet bitten blown broken brought built burst bought

light Iose make mean meet pay put read ride rrng nse run say see sell send set shake shine shoot show shut smg sinl sit sleep slide speak spend sprt

build burst buy catch choose come cost cut dig do draw drink drive eat fall feed feel 6oht

frnd fly forget forgive freeze get grve go grow have hear hide hit hold keep kneel know luY lead leave lend let lie 264

bent bet bit blew broke brought built burst bought caught chose came cost cut d.rg did drew drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found flew foryot forgave froze got gave went grew had heard hid hit held kept knelt knew laid led left lent let luY

chosen came cost cut dog done drawn drunk driven ealen fallen fed felt found flown forgotten forgiven ftozen got given gone grown had heard hidden hit held kept knelt known laid led left lent let lain


spread stand steal stick strike swear sweep swim take teach tear tell think throw understand wake wear win wdte

past simple lit Iost made meant met paid put read rode ranS , rose ran said saw sold sent set shook shone shot showed shut sang sank sat slept slid spoke spent spat split spread stood stole stuck struck swole swept ' swarn took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore won wrote

past participle lit lost made meant m€r paid Put read ridden rung Iisen run said seen sold sent set shaken shone shot shown shut sung sunk sat slept stid spoken spent sPat split stood stolen stuck struck sworn swept swum taken torn told thought thrown understood woken worn won wrrtten

Glossarv a

of what they mean.Wordsprinted in blue in the This is a list of grammartermswith explanations grammartermsand canbe found in their own placein the glossary. explanations arethemselves arenumbersof the pagesin the text whereyou will find more Numbersfollowingthe explanations information. action verb: a verb usedto describewhat we do or what happens(l ate lunch.).Cornparestate verb.3 active: a form of the verb usedto saywhat the subjectdoes(A thiefstolemy car.).Compare passive.5T usedto modi$' a noun (Jill'snew bolfriend is goodadjective: a word suchas newor good-loo&ing Iooking.).lll-14 adverb: a word suchas reallyor recentlyused,to modift a verb, adjective,adverbor sentence(I t et him recentlyand he'sreallygootl-lookir&).I l6-18 adverbiaf: an adverb(larer),prepositionalphrase(in rown)or adverbialclause(afterI finish work) usedto provideadditionalinformation in a clauseor a sentence(I'll meetyou in town later after l've fnished work.). 3 adverbial clause: a clausetypicallyintroducedby a subordinatingconjunctionsuchas because and providing information suchaswhen or why somethinghappens(I can'tgo out becauseI haveto stutly.).197 agent: the personor thing that doesor causesthe action,tlpically the subjectin activesentences ( Dickens wrote Oliver Twist.). 64 article: a word usedasa determinerbeforea noun, eitherasthe definitearticle (the) or the indefinitearticle(a/an)(Thecarhada flat tyre.).69-70 attributive adjective: an adjectiveusedbeforea noun (Shehad reil hair andgreeneyes.). Comparepredicatiyeadiective.I 12 auxiliary verb: a form of be,do, haveor a modal usedwith a main verb to form differenttenses, negativesand questions(Haveyou eatenyet?).3,17 bare infinitive = baseforrn 17 base form: the form of a verb suchas beor ear,aslistedin a dictionary.17 clause: a group of wordsincludinga subjectand a verb that forms a simplesentence(Sfrelelr yeierday.)or is part of a complexsentence(SfieIeftbeforeyou came.)or compotnd sentence (SheleftandI'm glad.).3,11 to drink coffee.)is divided into cfeft sentence: a structurein which a sentence(l'm not supposed two partsand attentionis focusedon one part, usingan it-cleft (lt\ coffeethat I'm not supposed to drink is coffee.). 217 to drink.) or a wh-cleft(Whot I'm not supposed collectivenoqn = group noun 75 common noun: a noun which is not the nameof anyoneor anything(The cat had a flnt tyre.). Compareproper noun. 69

265

(Iessexpensir.,e), often followed comparative: an adjectiveor adverbwith er (healthier)or more/Iess by rlrar, usedto saythat somethinghasmore or lessof a qualitythan another(Fisftis heqlthier and lessexpensivethan meat.)Comparesuperlative.120 complement: a word or phraseusedaftera linking verb, typicallydescribingthe subject(Sheis a studentsosheisn'trich.).l0 compfex preposition: a prepositionthat consistsof two or more words (In aildition to me,there Comparesimplepreposition. 125 werethreeotherpeoplewaitingin front of theentrance.). joinedby a subordinating con.iunction with two or moreclauses complex sentence: a sentence suchas beceuse, before,etc.(I wentto bedbecauseI wostired.).Comparecompoundsentence.12 compound adjective: an adjectivethat consistsof two wordsjoined by a hyphen(a good-looking person,a home-cookedmeal).ll4 compound noun: two or morewordsusedtogetherasa noun to referto a personor thing (a bas rlriver, an qpplicetionform) . 78 joinedby a coordinatingconjunction with two or moreclauses compound sentence: a sentence (and, but, or) (Davereqda magazineand I wentto bed.).Comparecomplexsentence.12 compound-complex sentence: a sentence with threeor moreclauses .joinedby both a coordinatingconjunctionand a subordinatingconjunction (Date reada magazineand I wentto bedbecauseI wastlred,).Comparecornplexsentenceand compoundsentence,l2 conditional: a structurein which oneclause,typicallybeginningwith f; is presentedasa condition for somethingin anotherclause(If I havetime,I'lI helpyou.).185-6 (It's lateand I want conjunction: a word suchas and,but, or that links words,phrasesor sentences t og o h o m e . ) . 2 . 1 9 7 , 2 1 0 and or phrase(in addition)typicallyusedto link sentences connector: aword(however) sometin.res clauses(Theydidn't win. However,theyplayedbetterthan lastweek.In addition, thel twogoals.).209I0 scored 17 continuous: a form of the verbusingbe+ presentparticiple(Thebabyis sleeping.). contracted form: a short form of a word (l've, he's,she'd,we'll, theywon't).24,29 coordinating conjunction: and, but, or (I'lI write or I'll callyou.).Comparesubordinating coniunction.12 copula or copular verb = linking verb 10 andusedto cftildren) countable noun: a noun that canbe singular(book,child)or plural(books, refer to peopleor things asseparateindividuals.Compareuncountablenoun. 74 counterfactual conditional: a tlpe ofunrealconditionalusedto talk aboutan imaginary you d (l you had beexborn in theMiddle Ages, connectionbetweentwo eventsthat neverhappene wouldhavehad a harshlife). l8o defining relative clause: a relativeclauseusedto identii, or classif'peopleor things(Do yoa know theman who livesupstairs?).Comparenon-defining relativeclause.174 definite articfe: the (Canyou seethe moon?).Compareindefinite article. 69-70 demonstrative pronoun: one of the words this,that, these,/hoseusedinsteadof a noun phrase (l like thesebetlerthon those.).83,98

266

demonstratives: the words this,that, theseor thoseusedasa determinerbeforea noun (this book) or asa pronoun insteadof a noun phrase(I don'tlike that.). 83,98 determiner: a word usedbeforea noun suchasan article (a/an, the),a demonstrative(this,that, (ru1 your,his,her,its,our, their) (A friend sentme thisfunny cardfor these,those)or a possessive my birthrlay.).83 direct object: a word or phraseidentiffing the one(s)affectedby the action of the verb (l dropped the ball.). Compareindirect object, 8 direct speech: the originalwords ofa speaker, usuallypresentedin quotation marks,in a report of what wassaid (He said,'I'm tireil.'). Compareindirect speech.149 (Suecamein and satdown.).106 effipsis: Ieavingout wordsor phrases insteadof repeatingthem empty object it the word it in direct objectposition,not usedto referto anlthing (I hateit whenI missthebus.).102.162 empty subject if: the word ir in subjectposition,not usedto referto anything(It wasniceto gofor a walk eyenthoughit wasraining.).102,162 empty subject fhere: the word therein subjectposition,not usedto referto anything(Thereisn't anyfood left.).L03 equative: an adjectiveor adverbin the structure(not) as... as,usedto saythat somethingis similar (or not) to anotherin someway (Yourjacketis as big as my coat.).120 ergative: a transitiveyerb usedwithout an object,typicallyusedto saythat an eventsimply happens,without an agent(The doorsuddenlyopened.).64 factual conditional: a type ofreal conditionalusedto expressa fixed connectionbetweentwo eventsnow,in the pastor always(If thefruit is soft,it'sreadyto eat.).185 first conditional = predictiveconditional 185 focus structure: a structuresuchasfronting or a cleft sentenceusedto focusattentionon one part of a sentence(TeaI candrink. It\ coffeeI'm not supposed to drink.).216-17 fraction: a word or phrasesuchas hafor two-thirdsused,asa quantifierwith ofbeforea determineror pronoun to describea part of something(Twoahirdsof thestudentsarefrom Europe.).93 fronting: a structurein which one part of a sentence(I can'tdrink coffee)is movedto front position (CoffeeI can'tdrink because it givesmea headache.).216 generic noun: a noun usedin makinga generalstatementaboutsomething,not about a specific exarnple(Womenlive longerthan men.). 75 generic pronoun: a pronoun suchas one,they,weor you usedwrth the meaning'peoplein general' (They sayyou can'tteachan old dognew tricks.).97 gerund: a word with the sameform asthe presentparticiple,but usedasa noun (I enjoywalking.). 139 group noun: a noun suchas committee or te4musedto talk abouta group ofpeople asa single wnit (The Olympiccommitteechooses the nationalteam.).75 hypothetical conditional: a t)?e ofunreal conditionalusedto expressa distantand unlikely connectionbetweenone imaginaryeventand another(If I harla lot of money,I'd buy a Mercedes.). 186 267

imperative: the baseform of the verb, typicallyusedto giveorders(Stop!).17 indefinite adverb: an adverbsuchasanlnvhere or everyvhereusedro talk about placesin a very generalway (I've looketleverywhere,but I can'tfind my notebook anywhere.).98 indefinite afticle: a/an (Wouldyou like an appleor a banana?). Comparedeffnite article. 69-70. indefinite pronoun: a pronoun suchassomeofle or anythingvsedto talk about peopleand things in a very generalway (Someonecalledearlier,but theydidn't sayanything.).98 indirect object: a word or phraseusedaftera verb suchasgiveor send,id.enti8/ingthe one(s) receivingsomething.(l gaveBob somemoney.I senta lenertu theffi.).Comparedirect object. 8 indirect question: a versionof a previousquestion,not the exactwords,presentedin a noun clauseasa report of a wi-question (He askedwhat we tere tloing.)or a yes/noquestion(He askedif we werefrom Sweden.) . 52, 154 indirect speech: a versionof a previousutterance,not the exactwords,presentedin a noun clause asa report ofwhat wassaid(He saidthat he was tired.). Comparedirect speech.150 infinitive: roplusthebaseform of averb (l'm hopingto win.).139 -ingform = gerund 139 intransitive verb: a verb that neverhasan object (I can'tsleep.).Comparetransitive verb. 6 inversion: a structurein which a verb or auxiliary verb is put beforethe subiect(Into the room walked two men.).216 invertedcommas= quotation marks 149 it-cfeft: a structurein which a sentence(I'm not supposed to drink coffee.)is divided into two parts, the first part with ir + be+ an emphasized elementand the secondpart asa relativeclause(It's coffee(that) I'm not supposed to drink.).Comparewh-cleft.2l7 finking verb: a verb suchas be,become, seem,usedwith a complement,typicallydescribingthe subject(Sheis/seems unhappy.).I0 linking word = connector209 main verb: the verb in a clause(Did youfollow that?I unilerstoodwhat shesaid.).Compare auxiliaryverb. 45-6 massnoun = uncountablenoun 74 mixed conditional: a type ofconditional in which thereis an unusualcombinationof tensesin the two clauses(lf you sawthelilm, you'll rememberthebanlescene.). 188 modaf : an auxiliary verb suchascan,could,must,usedwith the baseform of a verb to saywhat is possible,permitted,necessaryetc.(Youmust leavenow.).Comparephrasalmodal. 29 muftipfier: a word or phrases]u.ch as twiceor five tines usedasa quantifierbeforea determinerto sayhow often or how much more somethingis (Theyprayfive timesa day.).93 negative: a sentenceor clausewith an auxiliary verb plus not or n't anda main verb (I don't care.). 45 negative adverb: a word or phrasesuchas neveror no longerusedasan advetb(He never 48 studies.).

268

nominalclause- noun clausel6l non-count noun = uncountablenoun 74 non-defining relative clause: a relativeclauseusedto provideextrainformation,typically by commas(My friend lohn, who lh'esupstairs,hasa cat.).Comparedefining relative separated clause.174 non-finite form = baseform l7 noun: a word usedfor someoneor something,eitherasa commonnoun (book,courage)or a proper Denmark).69 noun (Shakespeare, (I knowthat it's late.) or a wh-clause(1 didn't knowwhat you were noun clause: a th&t-clause doizg) usedlike a noun phrase.161-2 noun phrase: a phrasein which the main word is a noun and which is usedasa subjector an object(Their newflat is reallybig sothey'rehavinga party for sixty peopleon Saturilay night.). 96 object: a noun, noun phraseor pronoun usedasthe direct object (He tookthe mone1.),indirect object(I gavehim themoney.)or aftera preposition(He tookit with him.). 8,125 gave object pronoun: a personalpronoun (me,you, him, her,it, us,them)]usedasan object(James thern to ffiq not her.).97 pair nou n: a noun usedfor somethingmadeof two matchingpartssuchasscissors or trousers, 75 parenthetical noun clause: a noun clauseusedaftera noun to provideextrainformation, that we shoulilgo to typicallyseparated by commas,dashesor brackets(Hisfirst suggestion, Manchester,wasn'tverypopular.).164 participfe: a form of the verb,eitherthe presentparticiple (breaking,repairing)or the past participle(broken,repaired) . 17, 220 participfe adjective: an adjectivederivedfrom a presentpaftlciple (swprising)or a pastparticiple (shocked(Sheseemed shockeilby thesurprisingnews.).lI4 participle clause= reducedadverbialclause205 particfe: a preposition(on) or adverb(away)combinedwith a verb asa phrasalverb (He put on hk jacketand walkedaway.).134 passive: a form of the verb with beplus the pastparticipleof a transitiveverb,usedto saywhat happensto the subject(My carwasstolea.).Compareactive.57 past continuous: a form of the verb using wasor were+ presentparticiple (The babywas sleeping.).17,20 past participfe: the form of a verb suchasbroken,repaired,wed.in the perfect(I had broken my watch.)and the passive(It wasrepaireil.).17, 220 past perfect: a form of the verb usinghad+ pastparticiple(Ilad youforgotten anything?).17,20 percentage: a phrasesuchas tenper cent(10o/o) usedasa quantifierwith o/before a determineror pronoun to describea part of something(Tenper cent of thepopulationis living in poverty.).93 perfect: a form of the verb usinghave+ pastparticiple(Ilcve youforgotten anything?).17 personaf pronoun: one ofthe subjectpronouns(l yor, he,she,it, we,they)or objectpronouns (me,you,him,her,it, us,them).97 269

personification: the treatmentof an abstractideaor a thing asif it wasa person(Death'scokl hand touchedhisshoukler.) . 76 phrasaf modaf : a phrasesuchasbeableto, begoingto or haveto usedinsteadof a modal (Wehave to waitfor Cathy.).Comparemodal. 28 phrasal verb: a verb + particlecombinationsuchassleepin or put on (He put on hisshoes.). 134 pluperfect = past perfect 20 possessive determiner: my,your, his,her,its,our, ty'reir. pronoun. 83 Comparepossessive possessive noun: a nounplusan apostrophe with s (Lee's car)or withouts (Jones' house).78 possessive pronoun: mine,yours,his,hers,ours,theirs.Comparepossessive determiner.83, 97 possessive: a word suchas my,your,their usedasa determinerbeforea nou.n(my chair,your money)and,mine,yours,theirsusedasa pronoun insteadof a noun phrase(I found mine, but I couldn'tJindyours.).83,97 predicative adjective: an adjectiveusedaftera linking verb (Her hair wasred and her eyeswere green.).Compareattributive adjective.112 predictive conditional: a type ofreal conditionalusedto expressa likely connectionbetweenone eventand anotherpossibleevent(If I hate time,I'll helpyou.).I85 preposition: a word suchas at and on,or a phrasesuchas in front of, ]osedbeforea noun, noun phraseor pronoun in a prepositionalphrase(I'II meetyou at noonon Fridayin front of the Iibrary.).125 prepositionaf phrase: a prepositionplus a noun, noun phraseor pronoun (on the table,in front o r t n e ) r, l ) present continuous: a form of the verb usingam, is or are+ presentparticiple (The babyis sleeping.).17, 18 present participfe: the form of a verb suchassleepingusedin the continuous(Is hesleeping?). Comparepast participle. 17 present perfect: a form of the verb using hasor have+ pastparti.ciple(Haveyouforgotten 17, r8 anything?). progressive= continuous 17 pronoun: a word suchasshe.anythingor hersefusedinsteadof a noun or noun phrase(Molly is wry okl anrl shecan'tdo anything by herself.).97 8, I00 proper noun: a noun with a capitalletterusedasthe nameof someoneor something(Elsaisfrom Switzerland.).Comparecommon noun. 69 quantifier: a word suchas many and.someor a phrasesuchasa few and a lot (o, usedto talk about quantities(Somepeoplehavea lot of money.).84 question: a sentencewith an auxiliary verb beforethe subjectand main verb,usedasa or a yes/noquestion (Did he leave?).45 wh-question (Whendid he leave?) question tag: an auxiliary verb plus a subjectpronoun usedasa short form of a questionadded aftera statement(He hasn't@t yet, has he?He'sstillhere,isn't he?).46 quotation marks: a pair of marks ('...'or "...")insidewhich we put direct speech,specialwords or phrases,and titles ('I'm tired,'he said.)(Haveyou readAnimal Farm'?).149 270

real conditional: a t)?e ofconditional.inwhich the events happen,havehappenedor arelikelv to happen.(If I openthedoor,thecat wi run out.).compa.e ,r'n'rear conditiorrar.rsi reciprocaf pronoun: eachother,oneanother.l0O reduced adverbiar crause: an adverbial formedwith a participleor a subordinating ,clause conjunctionplus a participle((Before)Ieaing the house,heiwitchid o11thelights.).205 reduced negative: a short form of a negative,typically formed with a conjunctionplus nor (Do you want thisor not?If not,canI haveit?).4g reduced relative crause: a rerativeclauseformedwith participle a and no relativepronoun (l Jaw somepeoplewaiting outsiile.).176 reffexive pronoun: myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselyes.100 relative clause: a clausetvoicallyintroducedby a relativepronoun and usedto provideadditional information about a noun phrasein aprecedingclause(l .a, in o buswhich waspackedwith children who weremaking a lot of no*e.). vZ\, refative pronoun: the words who,whom,which,that used,to introducea relativeclarrse Q havea friendwho canfix computers.).173 rhetoricaf question: a sentencein the form of a question usedto makea statemen t. (who cares?). 52 reported speech= indirect speecht50 reporting verb: a verb suchas sayor replyused,with direct speech(He said, ,He o.,)or indirect speech(l replieil that I wasbusy.).149_52 secondconditional = hypotheticalconditional 186 simpf e preposition: a prepositionthat is a singleword stch as at,during in, without.Compare complexpreposition. 125 simpf e,sentence: a singleclausewith a subjectand a verb(Mary sneezed)which may arsoinclude an objectand an adverbial(Weate lunchin a cafd.).Co.pu* Jo_po,rrrd sentenceand complex sentence,3 split infinitive: an infinitive with an adverbbetween,o and the verb(r want to reary understand him.).139 state verb: a verb usedto describea state,not an action(I know that he hasa lotof money). Compareaction verb. 3 subjecl: a noun, noun phraseor,pronountypicallyused beforea verb to id€ntig/who or what performsthe action of the verb (Tony lost'h;skiys and t founi them.1.+ subject pronoun: a personalpronoun (1,you, he,she, it, we,they) usedas svbject(He wantsto get marriedandshedoesn't.).97 subject-verb agreement: the relationshipof singurarsubject with singularverb (He is eating lunch.)or pltral subjectwith plural urri 1Th"for" ,oti"g t"",ri'.j. I subjunctive: a specialuseof the baseform of a verb in noun a clause,sometrmescalledthe presentsubjunctive(Theyhaveproposed. that taxesbe in*eased.).Arsothe useof werein a noun clauseafterthe verb wkh (I wislh.Iwer" otd."r)unaii u iyp.ii.ii*l conditionaief:i;;;, y;;,' I'd complain\,sometimes calledthe pustrubl.,n.tiue.iOZ,iSJ'

27r

subordinating conjunction: a word or phraseusedto introducean adverbialclause( because), a noun clause( rfiat) or a relativeclause(who) (I didn't knowthat you werethepersonwho called me because you didn't leaveyour name.). Comparecoordinaringconjunction. 12,Igz substitution: the useof wordssuch asone,ones, so anddd soinsteadof repeatinga word, phraseor clause(l havea blackpen,but I needa red one.\. 104 summary report: a short report usinga verb that summarizeswhat wassaid (He apotogized.). 152 superlative: an adjectiveor adverbwith -est(fastest)or most/least (mostexpensive) after tlg used to saythat somethinghasthe most or the leastof a quality (He wantsto get the fastestand most expensivecar in theworld.).Comparecomparative.120 tag question = questiontag 46 tense: the relationshipbetweenthe form of the verb and the time of the action or stateit describes. that-clause: a type ofnoun clausebeginningwith that (l thoughtthat I had madea mktake-).161 third conditional = counterfactualconditional 186 three-word verb: a phrasalverb plus a preposition (you shouldholil on to that book.).134 transitive verb: a verb usedwith an object (I ilroppeil the ba .). compare intransitive verb. 6 Two-wordverb = phrasalverb 134 uncountable noun: a noun that can only be singularand usedto referto thingssuchasactivities (resmrch),ideas(fionesry)and substances (rice),but not separateindividuals.compare countable noun. 74 unreal conditional: a type ofconditional in which the eventshavenot happened,are not likely to happenor are imaginary(lf you had qskedme eqrlier,I wouldhavehelped'you.) . Comparereal conditional. 186 verb: a word usedin a clauseto describethe action (eat, steal)or state(belong,understand) of the subject(He sfolesomethingthqt belongeilto me.).3,tl verb with object = transitive verb 6 verb without object = intransitive verb 6 wh'clause: a type ofnoun clausebeginningwith a wh-wordsuchas whator whether(l tlon't know ryhat shevants.) (l can'tremember whethershe likestea or coffee.).161 wh'cfeft: a structurein which a sentence(I'm not supposed. to d.rinkcoffee.)is divided into two parts, one part asa clausetypicallybeginningwith What (Wat I'm not supposed to drinft) and thJ other part be+ an emphasizedelement(Wat I'm not supposed to drink is coffee.). Compare it-cleft. 2t7 wh-question: a questionbeginningwith What, Whq When,How much,etc.(Whendid he leaye?\. Compareyes/noquestion.45 wh-word: a word suchas what,who,where,how much,etc.usedat the beginningof a wh_question or a wh-clause( Wlrerehaveyou been?)(Idon'tknowwhat'swrong.).45,16l yes/no question: a questionbeginningwith an auxiliary verb or be typicallyansweredwith lesor No.(Di.dhe leave?). Comparewh-question.45 zero conditional = factual conditional 185

272

Index References in this index are to pagenumbers.Those in bold are the main entries. a bit tt8 o few 84,92 a few of 92 a little 84,92,ll8 a little of 92 a lot (of) 90 a/an 68,69 or the 70 classiSing 70 in discourse 78 or no article 72 or one 72 ability 34 above 100,129 acrossl3O actionverbs 3,265 acllveverDs),/, zo) actually 212 adding connectors 212 adjectives I 10-15, l2O-1, 265 + gerunds 1,14 + infinitives 1,14 + noun clauses 166 and adverbs110 attributiYeadjectives 112,265 classifuingad.jectiveslll comparatives 120,266 compound adjectives 114,266 describingadjectiveslll emphasizingad.jectivesll I equatives 120,267 intensifing ad.jectivesll I asnouns ll4 participle adiectives 114,269 positionof adjectivesll l,l12 predicativeadjectives 112,270 punctuation 112 restrictiveadjectives lll superlatives120,272 adverbialclauses 196-205,265

conjunctions 196, 197 contrastclauses204 manner clauses200 position 197 purposeclauses202 reasonclauses201 reducedadverbialclauses205, 294 result clauses203 time clausesl9&-9 adverbials 3,265 adverbs ll0, 116-21, 265 and adjectivesll0 adverbsof fiequency 116 adverbsof place 116 adverbsof time 116 commentadverbsl18 comparatives120,266 as connectors 209 degreeadverbs ll8 equatives 120,267 expectationadverbs 116 focus adverbs 116 indefinite adverbs 98, 268 manner adverbs ll8 negativeadverbs 48, 268 positionof adverbs116,209 superlatives120,272 viewpoint adverbs 118 advice 4l reporting 156 after 22, 197, 199 after all 212 afterwards 214 agents64,265 all 84, 88 all (of) 88 along 130 abeady 23, 116 also 210,212 although 197,204,205 amo g 129 qnd 112,120,210 qny 86,104

anyone 98 anything 98 anywhere98 apart frotn 133 apostrophe(') 76 appear l0 articles 68-73, 78-9, 83, 265 a/an or no article 72 a/on or one 72 a/on ot the 70 associatedinformation 78 condensedinformation78 definite article 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, rr4,120,266 in discourse 78 indefinite articles 68, 69, 70, 72,78,268 new old and restated information 78 or no article 72 as 198,200,201 as a rcsult 214 as... as 93,l2O,2OO as if 200,205 assoonos 22,199 as though 2OO os well 209,212 at 126,128 attributive adjectives 112,265 auxiliary verbs 3, 17, 265 seealso modals badly 120 bare infinitives 17, 139 Daserorm I /, zo) be 10,17,18 beableto 28,29,34 beallowedto 28,29,35 begoing to 28,29 prediction 32 or will? 24 be supposedto 28,41 bemusel97,2Ol becomel0

273

before 127, 197, 199,205 beirg + past participle 205 below 100,129 besides100,133,212 between 129 a bit 118 both 88 bring 100 but 36,210 by 100,127,132 &lphrases+ passive57,64 can 28 ability 34 permission 35 possibility 36 cafl'l deduction 40 classifringadjectives 111 clauses4, 8,288 cleft sentences208, 209, 217,265 collectivenouns seegroup nouns colne 70 commentadverbs118 common nouns 68,69,266 comparatives120,266 complements10,266 completely 118 complex gerunds 140 complex infinitives 140 complex modals 30 complex prepositions 125,266 complexsentences2,12,266 compound adjectives 1.14,266 compound nouns 76, 266 compound sentences2, 12, 266 compound-complex sentences 12,289 conditionals 184-93, 266 counterfactualconditionals 186, 190,266 eyenif, eventhough 192 factual conditionals 185, 190, 267 hlpothetical conditionals 186, 190.267 if so,if not etc. 192 mixed conditionals 188,268

274

only if, if only r92 order and punctuation 189 predictive conditionals 185, r90,270 realconditionalsf85, 188,271 unless I92 unreal conditionals 186, 188, 272 uses 190 whether(or not) 192 conjunctions and adverbialclauses 196, 197 or connectors?210 coordinating conjunctions 2t0,266 subordinating conjunctions

2r0,272 connections(of, with, by) 132 connectors 208-15,266 adding connectors 212 adverbsas connectors 209 or conjunctions?210 contrastingconnectors 212 listing connectors 215 phrasesas connectors 209 or prepositions?210 result connectors 214 time connectors 214 consequently210 continuous forms of verb 17, 266 continuous infinitives 140 contractedforms 266 contmst clauses204 contrastlngconnectors 212 coordinating conjunctions 210, 266 copula seelinking verbs copular verbs seelinking verbs could 28.29 ability 34 permrssron 35 Possibility 36 couldn't deducti.oD 40 countablenouns 68, 69, 74, 266 counterfactualconditionals 186, 190,266

'd

29 deduction 40 defining relativeclauses 174,266 definite article 68, 69, 70, 72, 78, ll4, r20,266 degreeadverbs 118 demonstrativepronouns 98, 266 demonstratives(demonstrative determiners)83,267 describingadjectiveslll despite 2o4 despitethefact that 2o4 determiners 69,82-3, 267 articles 68-73, 78-9, 83 demonstratives83, 267 possessives 83,270 directobjects8,267 directspeechI48, \49,267 distance 102 do it t05 do so lO4 do that 105 don't haveto 38 don't needto 38 during 127 each 84,89 eachof 89 eachother l0O -ed form of verb seepast participle either 89 eitherof 89 ellipsis96, 106,267 emphasizingadjectives 111 empty objectit 102,\62,267 empty subjects tt 32,1O2,162,267 there 103,267 enough 118 equatiYes120,267 -er 120 eryatiyes 64,267 est 120 even 116 evenif 192,204 eren though 192,204

every 84,89 eyeryone 84 everyone88,98 everythitlg 88,98 everywhere98 excePt(for) 133 exceptions( except,beside s, without) 133 expectationadverbs 116 thefact that 164, 168 factual conditionals 185, 190, 267 farther 120 few 92 a few 84,92 a few of 92 fewer 92 fewer of 92 fewest 92 fnally 215 frst 215 first conditional seepredictive conditionals focus adverbs 116 focus structures 208, 209, 216-17,267 cleft sentences208,209,217, 265 fr onting 208, 209,216, 267 inversion216,268 for 127,2Ol for a start 215 for example 212 for instance212 fractions93,267 frequency,adverbsof l16 from 126,130 ft onting 208, 209,216, 267 further 120 frt]ure l7,24 future continuous 17, 24 future perfect 17,24 future pefect continuous 17, 24 presentcontinuous 24 presentsimple 24

will and shall 24 will or begoing to? 24 geneflcnouns /5, tol genericpronouns 97, 267 gerunds 4, 13845,267 adjectiveswith gerunds 144 complex gerunds 140 negatjvegerunds 139 nouns with gerunds 145 passivegerunds 58, 140 nprfp.t

opnrn,l(

l4n

perfect passivegerunds 58, 140 or presentparticiples? 139 pronouns with gerunds 145 with reporting verbs 152 verbswith gerunds 142 get 10,65 go l0 group nouns 4,75,267 grow l0 habits 33 had better 4l half 88 half (of) 88 h a v e1 7 , 1 8 naveoeetl | / havegot to 28 deduction 40 necessity38 hayeto 28,29 deduction 40 necessity38 having + past participle 205 he 97 her 83,97 hers 97 herself l0O him 97 himself 100 his 83,97 hope 20 how 180 howeyer 18O,210,212 hypotheticalconditionals 186, 190,267

197 if not 192 if only 192 if so 105,192 if clauses 184-92 imnediately 199 imperatives 17, 268 impersonal style 62 in 126,127,128 in ad.dition 212 in fact 212 in orderfor 202 in order not to 2O2 in order that 2O2 in order to 2O2 in other words 212 in particular 212 in spiteof 204 in that 2Ol indefinite adverbs 98, 268 indefinite articles 68, 69, 70, 72, 78,268 indefinite pronouns 98, 268 indirect obiects 8, 268 indirect questions 52, 268 indirect speech 148, 150,268 infinitives 4, 13U45, 202, 268 without to seebare infinitives ad.iectives with infinitives 144 bare infinitives 17, 139 complex infinitives 140 continuous infinitives 140 negativeinfinitives 139 nouns with infinitives 145 passiveinfinitives 58, 140 pefect continuous infinitives 140 pefect infinitiv€s 140 perfect passiveinfinitives 58, 140 pronouns with infinitives 145 with reporting verbs 152 split infinitives 139,271 verbs with infinitives 142 -ing form seegerunds;present participles iflstead 212

275

intensi!'ing adjectives I ll into l3O intransitive verbs 6, 268 inversion48,216,268 inYertedcommas i€e quotation marks irregular verbs 263--4 it 32,97,102, t04, 162 it-clefts 2t7,268 its 83 itself IOO Just 23, 116, 120 just as 200 keep lO Iastnight 22 lately 22 lenst 92,118 the kast l2O less92,ll8 lex of 92 tess50 lu5 Iess... than 120 Iike 33,2OO linking verbs 3, 10, 268 linking words seeconnectors listing connectors 215 Iittle 92 a little 84,92, ll8 a little of 92 'Il 24, 29 a lot (of) 9O lots of 9O IOVC JJ

main verbs 268 manner adverbs 118 manner clauses200 many 84,90 not (yery) many 92 massnouns seeuncountable nouns may 28 permission 35 possibility 36

276

me 97 meanwhik 2lo,2l4 might 28,29 permission 35 possibility 36 mine 97 mtnus 133 mixed conditionals 188,268 modal auxiliary verbs see modals modals 3,28-41,268 complex modals 30 in indirect sp€ech 150 modal continuous 30 modal passives30, 58 modal perfect 30 modal perfect continuous 30 phrasalmodals 28, 29, 270 in questiontagsafter imperatives 46 mod.entelyll8 more 90,ll8 more of 9O moreso lO5 more... tha\ 12O n ost 90, ll8 the most 12O most of 90 movemenl prepositions 130 much 84,90 not (very) much 92 much as 204 much of 90 multipliers 93,268 flust 28 deduction 40 necessity38 mustn't 38 my 83 myself IOO near 100 necessity38 need to 38 needn't 38 negatives 17,44-9,268 inversion after negativewords and phrases48, 216

negativeadverbs 48, 268 negativegerunds 139 negativeinfinitives 139 negativequestions 46 negativewords 48 reducednegatives48, 271 word order 45 neither 48,89 neitherof 89 never 45,46,48 nevertheless 2lO next 215 no 45,48,84 and none 86 no longer 45,116 no one 48,98 no way 48 nobody 48 nominal clausesseenoun clauses non-count nouns see uncountablenouns non-defining relativeclauses 174,269 none 48,84 and no 86 noneof 48 non-finite form seebaseform nor 48 not 46,48,58,105 not any/-n't any 48 not .., any longer 116 not... q.nymore 116 not as,., as 120 not so,..as l20,2OO not ... until 127 nothing 48,98 noun clauses 160-9,269 after adjectives 166 complex information in noun clauses168 after empty obiect it 162 after empty subiect it 162 thefact that 164,168 after nouns 164 after nouns + Iinking verbs 164 asobjects 162

parentheticalnoun clauses t64,269 position of noun clauses16g or relatiyeclauses?164 as subiects 162 subjunctive 167 tlcr-clauses 152, l6t, 164 w&-clauses16l noun phrases 269 nouns 68-9,7rt_9,269 + gerunds 145 + infinitives 145 + noun clauses 164 + prepositions l2g adjectives asnouns ll4 associatedinformation 7g common nouns 69,69,266 compound nouns 76, 266 condensedinformation 7g countableand uncountable uses 74 countablenouns 69, 69, 74, 266 in discourse 7g genericnouns 75,267 group nouns 4,75,267 new, old and restated information 7g parr nouns 75,269 plural nouns 25 possessive nouns 76, 270 propernouns 68,69,270 singular (+s) nouns 75 uncountablenouns 6g, 69, 74, 272 now (that) 2Ol nowhere48 object pronouns 97, lOO,269 objects 269 directobjects8,267 empty objects 102,162, 267 indirect obiects 8, 268 noun clausesas obiects 162 passiveverbs 60 verbs with objects 6 verbs without objects 6, 64 word order 8

obligation 4l of 76, t32 ofphrases 84

of r3o on 126,128 once 93,199 one 97,104 or o/an Z2 oneanother l0O ones 104 only 116, t20 only if 192 onto 13O opinions: reporting 156 orders:reporting 156 the other(, t}O ought 28 ought to 4l our 83 ours 97 ourselveslO0 out of 130 oyer 129,130 own 100 pair nouns 75,269 parentheticalnoun clauses 164, 269 participle adiectives I 14, 269 participle clausesseereduced adverbialclauses participles 269 seealso past participles;presentparticiples particles134,269 passivegerunds 58, 140 passiveinfinitives 58, 140 passrves5G{5, 269 and activeverbs 57 with g€r 65 impersonalstyle 62 modal continuous passives5g modal passives5g modal perfectpassives5g passivegerunds 5g, l4O passiveinfinitives 5g, 140 passiveverbs + objects 60 perfectpassivegerunds 5g, 140

perfect passiveinfinitives 5g, 140 phrasalmodal passives5g with b1-phrases57, 64 reporting 63 simple modal passives58 uses 62 past 126, l3O pastcontinuous 17, 20,269 past participles 17, 269 past perfect 17,20,269 or past simple? 23 pastpefect continuous 17,20 past simple 17, 20 or past perfect? 23 or presentperfect? 22 93,269 Percentages perfect 269 perfect continuous infi nitives 140 perfect gerunds 140 perfect infinitiyes t40 pefect passivegerunds 5g, 140 pefect passiveinfinitives 58, 140 permission 35 personalpronouns 97, IO2,269 personification 76,270 phrasalmodals 2g, 29,270 passives58 phrasalverbs 134,270 phrases as connectors 209 prepositionalphrases 125,270 place adverbsl16 prepositions 100, 128_30 pluperfect je€ past perfect plural nouns 75 possessive nouns 76, 270 possessive pronouns 97, 220 (possessive POSSeSSlves determiners)83,270 + relativeclauses I7g possibility 36 predicativeadjectives | 12, 270 prediction 32 predictive conditionals 185, 190, 270

277

prefer 33 preferences33 prepositional phrases 125,270 prepositions 12+-35,270 complex prepositions 125'266 or connectors?210 of movement 130 phrasalverbs 134,270 ofplace 100,128-30 position ofprepositions 125 in relativeclauses 179 simple prepositions 125,271 oftime 126-7 used for connections 132 used for exceptions 133 presentcontinuous 17,18,270 for the future 24 presentparticiples 17, 270 or gerunds? 139 presentpefect 17,18,270 or past simple? 22 presentpefect continuous 17, 18 presentsimple 17, l8 for the future 24 prctty ll8 progressrvesescontinuous pronouns 96-104,270 + gerunds 145 + relativeclauses 178 demonstrativepronouns 98, 266 empty subject it 32,102,162, 267 empty subject there 103,267 genericpronouns 97,267 indefinitepronouns 98,268 with infinitives 145 object pronouns 97,100,269 personalpronouns 97, 102, 269 possessive pronouns 97,270 reciprocalpronouns 100,271 reflexivepronouns 100,271 relativepronouns 173,271 subrectpronouns 97,271

278

proper nouns 68,69,270 punctuation adiectives ll2 conditionals 189 purpose clauses202 quantifiers 82,84-93,270 + nouns 84 + ofphrases 84 aspronouns 86,88,90,92,93, 178 question tags 46,270 questions 17,,14-7,50-3,270 indirectquestions52,268 negativequestions 4d questionwords 50 questionwords + adverbs 50 questionwords + prepositions 50 questionsinside questions 52 reducedquestions 52 reporting 8, 154 rhetorical questions 52,271 statementsused as questions 52 wh-questions 44,45,46,50, 52,154,272 word order 45 yes/noquestions 44,45,46, 52,154,272 quite ll8 quotation marks 149,270 rather ll8 realconditionals185,188,271 really ll8 reasonclauses201 reciprocalpronouns 100,271 reducedadverbialclauses205, 271 reducednegative 48,271 reducedquestions 52 reducedrelativeclauses 176,271 reflexivepronouns 100,271 regularverbs 263 relativeclauses 172--Bl,27I defining relativeclauses 174,

non-defining relativeclauses 174,269 or noun clauses?l& after possessivesl7g prepositionsin relativeclauses 179 after pronouns l7g reducedrelativeclauses 176, 271 and relativepronouns 173 with what lg| with whatever,whoeveretc. 180 with where,when,why, how 180 relativepronouns 173,271 remain 10 reported speech seeindirect speech reporting 148-57 advice 156 direct speech 1,4a,149,267 indirect speech l4g, 150,26g opinions 156 orders 156 in the passive63 questions g, 154 requests 156 statements 154 reporting verbs 8,152,271 requests:reporting 156 restrictiyeadiectives ll I result clauses203 resultconnectors214 rhetorical questions 52,271 's

76 second215 secondconditional see hlpothetical conditionals seem l0 sentences2-13 cleft sentences209,209,217, 265 complex sentencesZ,12,266 compound sentences2, 12,

compound-complexsentences tag questions seequestiontags take...with 100 12,266 simple sentences2,3,271 tenses 16-25.272 in indirect speech 150 shall 28,29 future 24 thatl 197 prediction 32 that 83,98,168,173,174 that is (to say) 212 she 97 fhat-clauses8, 161, 164, 166, should 28 272 advice 41 in reporting 152, 154 in noun clauses 167 the 68,69,114 obligation 4l + comparative120 simpleprepositions125,271 2,3,271 or a/a1170 simplesentences in discourse 78 since 127,199.2O1 identirying 70 singular (+s) nouns 75 or no article 72 so 104,203,210,214 thefact that 164,168 so as not to 202 so as to 2O2 their 83 sofar 22 theirs 97 so that 202,203 them 97 ... that 2O3 themselvesl0O so then 214,215 some 86,lO4 there 103 someone98 thereare 32 soffiething98 therefore214 somewhere98 these83,98 split infinitives 139,271 they 97 stateverbs 3, 18,271 third conditional see statements reporting 154 counterfactualconditionals thirdly 215 used as questions 52 this 83,98 stay I0 those83,98,178 still 23,L16 pronouns 97, 271 though 204,205,210 subiect threetiffies 93 subtects 4, 271 three-word verbs 134,272 empty subjects 32,102,103, through l3O 162,267 noun clausesas subjects 162 time adverbialclauses 198-9 subject-verbagreemenl 4,27I adverbs 116 subjunctive 167,271 connectors 214 subordinating conjunctions 210, 272 expressions102 prepositions 126-7 substitution 96,104-5,272 to 126,1.30 such...that 203 to sumup 21.5 tosumup 125 too 1L8,209,212 summary reports 152,272 totally ll8 superlatives120,272 toward 130 towards 130

transitiveverbs 6.64,272 turn l0 turn into 10 twice 93 two word verbs seephrasalverbs uncountablenouns 68,69,74, 272 under 129 unless192 unreal conditionals 186, 188, 272 until 127,199 us 97 usedto 20 vert>s3,272 + clauses8 + gerunds 142 + indirect objects 8 + infinitives 142 + obl'ects6,60 + prepositions 128 action verbs 3,265 activeverbs 57, 265 auxiliary verbs 3, 17,265 baseform 17,265 continuousforms 17,266 ergatives64,267 imperatives 17,268 intransitive verbs 6,268 irregular verbs 263-4 linking verbs 3, 10,268 main verbs 268 modal auxiliary verbs see modals with objectsseetransitive verbs without objects seeintransitive verbs passiveverbs 56-65 phrasalverbs 134,270 regular verbs 263 reporting verbs 8,152,271 stateverbs 3, 18,271 sub.ject-verbagreemeft 4,271 three-word verbs 134,272 transitive verbs 6,64,272 very 118 viewpoint adverbs 118

279

warnings41,62 we 97 weather102 well 120 wh-clauses 161,166,272 wh-clefts217,272 wl-questions44,45,M,50,52, 154,272 wh-words 272 x,hat l8O or whih? 50 whateyerl8O when 20,22,23,la0,f9E,205 wheneyer180 where l8O whereas204 whercverIEO flhether (or not) 192

conditionals189 fronttng 208,209,216,267 inversion4E,216,268 negatives45 noun clauses168 objectsand indirect objects 8 prepositions125 questions45 relativeclauses173.179 would 28,29 habits 33 prediction 32 preferences 33 willingness 33 wouldn't 3! yes/noquestions 44, 45,6, 52, 154,272

which 173

yesterday 22

or whafl 50 of which 178 whicheyerlEO whik 20,197,l!n,2O1,2O4,2O5 who 173 whoevn l8O whole I thewholeof 88 whom 173 !,,hose178 why l8O l'lill 28,29 or begoingm? 24 future 24 habits 33 prediction 32 preferences33 willingness 33 willingness 33 wish 33 '^,ith 132 without 133 wonder 2O won't 24,29,33 word order 4, l0 adiectiv€slll, 112 adverbialclauses197 adverbs116,209

yet 116 you 97 youf 83 yours97 yourself100 yourselveslO0

280

zeroconditionals seefactval conditionals

OXFORDENCLISH tsBN 978-0-19,430916-5

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