Human-non Human Chimeras

HUMAN- - NON-HUMAN CHIMERAS: BREAKTHROUGH or BREAKDOWN? AFFRONTING SPECIES INTEGRITY

Overture Would a person drink milk from a cow/human hybrid that produces milk that is almost identical to human breast milk? And how would a person interact with a mouse that has a brain that is almost entirely human? These are the kinds of questions that the society has to start to address and answer as scientists create increasingly bizarre human-animal hybrids. Over the past few decades, there have been some absolutely stunning advances in the field of genetics, specifically genetic modification. These advances go hand in hand with the constant development and innovation of modern technology. Today, it is literally possible for college students to create new life forms in their mother’s basements. It is very much possible for college students to create new life forms inside test tubes and crucibles. Because of theseThese huge leaps in the field of genetics and technology, gave scientists have been ablethe ability to create extremely bizarre human-animal hybrids, or in other terms, chimera. [Chimera, in Greek mythology, is a creatureThere are countless kinds of questions that the society has the head of a lion, with a head of a goat arising from its back,to start to address and a tail that of a snake.]. answer as scientists create increasingly bizarre human – non-human chimeras. Unfortunately, laws, regarding the limits and boundaries of genetic modification, have not kept pace with the modern world’s advancements. In Human-Non-Human Chimeras: Affronting Species Integrity

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many countries, there are very few to no limits to what scientists are allowed to do and perform in laboratories. These human-animal hybrids may still look like animals, but they are certainly not animals anymore, for the reason that their genetic code has been inserted with human genes or traits. And these are just the things that are publicly admitted. What about thoseThere are sick and twisted experiments that are taking place in the dark corners of secret laboratories that nobody knows about?. Most human-animal - non-human hybrids are created and produced secretively by researchers trying to discover a wide range of medicines. And what happens when these “creatures” escape out into the wild and start mating and increase in number? At, at that point, it would be nearly impossible to revert the situation and “put the genie back into the bottle.”. Would a person eat rice tainted with human traits? Besides human-animal hybrids, amazingly, human-plant hybrids are also being created by biotechnology companies all over the world. But, as to how everything works, this biotechnology-derived product stages the threat of contamination and diseases. Scientists, geneticists, the people responsible for the creation of humananimal – non-human hybrids, seem very eager and somehow inconsiderate to test the limits and boundaries of what is possible and what is not, but what they are unleashing and letting loose may have consequences that no one of us ever dreamedthought of encountering.

Blurring Boundaries and Species Lines Human-Non-Human Chimeras: Affronting Species Integrity

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The argument against chimeras most often discussed is the Unnaturalness Argument. It is also the argument against chimeras most often rejected. Taken in its most basic form, the Unnaturalness Argument alleges that because the creation of chimeras is unnatural it is therefore wrong. The source of the alleged unnaturalness lies in the fact that creating chimeras involves violating the natural species boundaries between humans and non-humans. Most hybridization experiments are done to discover new life forms. In this case, human-non-human hybrids are created in order to discover a wide range of new medicines. It is certain that these human-non-human organisms are actual organisms, but it would be difficult to classify its scientific name, for they are combinations of organisms that are never imagined to be hybridized, unlike the liger, which is a hybrid of two species of animals that are of the same genus, a male lion (Panthera leo) and a tigress/female tiger (Panthera tigris). As Jason Robert and Françoise Baylis (2003) noted, although species can be defined in terms of reproductive isolation, genetic isolation, shared ancestry, or homeostatic property clusters, none of these definitions takes precedence over the others. Rather, “Biologists typically make do with a plurality of species concepts, invoking one or the other depending on the particular explanatory or investigative context” (Robert and Baylis 2003, 3). The contents of God’s will with regards to the manipulation of the nature and its elements are a subject of speculation regarding the ethics of genetic manipulation and hybridization.

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“If humans are made in the divine image, and if God desires that we exercise the spark of divinity within us, then it should be no surprise that inquisitiveness in science is part of our nature. . . . It is unclear why the desire to investigate and manipulate the chemical bases of life should not be considered as much a manifestation of our God-like nature as the writing of poetry and the playing of sonatas should be.” (Comstock 2000, 185)

Biotechnology Behind Chimeras, named after creatures from Greek mythology, are created artificially by combining genetic material from different species into a single embryo. The adult animals that develop have different populations of cells that reflect different contributions from the species from which they were produced. Scientists have created the geep, for example, by combining genetic material from both a goat and a sheep. Chimeras can be created with the use of different techniques in biotechnology such as genetic engineering, microinjection and borderline macroinjection. Partially human hybrid embryos have been created by fusing human cells and animal eggs, and partially human chimeric embryos have been created by injecting human embryonic stem cells into animal embryos. Most scientists want

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to produce such embryos only for research, and oppose experiments that would allow human-animal chimeras to be brought to term. Chimeras can be created with the use of different techniques in biotechnology such as genetic engineering, microinjection and borderline macroinjection. Chimeras among Us "In Minnesota, Minnesota, pigs pigsare arebeing beingborn born with human blood in their veins. In with human blood in their veins. In Nevada, Nevada, arewhose sheeplivers whose livers andare hearts are largely In California, there arethere sheep and hearts largely human.human. In California, mice peer mice withbrain human brain cells firingtheir inside their But skulls. from peer their from cagestheir withcages human cells firing inside skulls. withBut nowith federal no federal in guidelines place, anquestion awkwardhovers question hovers aboveHow the work: guidelines place, aninawkward above the work: humanHow must a human a chimera be beforeresearch more stringent research rules(Washington should kickPost, chimera must be before more stringent rules should kick in?" in?" (Washington Post, 2004) 2004) "In Minnesota, pigs are being born with human blood in their veins. In Nevada, there are sheep whose livers and hearts are largely human. In California, mice peer from their cages with human brain cells firing inside their skulls. But with no federal guidelines in place, an awkward question hovers above the work: How human must a chimera be before more stringent research rules should kick in?" (Washington Post, 2004)

Today, transgenic organisms are used for a number of purposes, from toxicology and the improvement of plants and livestock to the creation of animals that simulate human diseases. They can be divided into three major functions:

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To obtain information on gene function and regulation as well as on human diseases

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To obtain high value products (recombinant pharmaceutical proteins and xeno-organs and xeno-tissues for humans) to be used for human therapy

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To improve animal products for human consumption.

Over the last few years, many different chimeras have been created in laboratories all over the world, hand on hand with the continuous advancement of modern technology and techniques. Examples of them are as follows: 

Rabbit Eggs with Human Cells

Biologists in China have reprogrammed human cells by fusing them with rabbit eggs emptied of their genetic material. And they have extracted stem cells, which have the potential to form a wide array of different cell types, from the resulting embryos. The researchers, led by Huizhen Sheng of Shanghai Second Medical University, think that these 'derived' stem cells could provide scientists in the field with an alternative to stem-cell lines extracted from human embryos. But some researchers who have seen the work point out that the derived cells don't seem to have the same ability as human 

embryonic stem cells to grow indefinitely in culture. Sheep with Human Liver

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A group of Indian researchers led by has successfully created a sheep liver that is composed of a large amount of human cells. The overall goal behind the research is to be able to use animal organs as a viable option when humans need an organ transplant. Ultimately, stem cells would be taken from the donor and injected into a sheep's fetus. After a lamb is born in about two months, the heart, lungs, liver and brain could all be compatible with the donor. Their research on this particular project has undergone trials for years, with the first proposals initiated in 2000. His original paper published seven years ago is still publically available. 

Mice with Human Brain

The scientists are now considering a research project to grow a mouse whose brain is populated almost entirely with human cells -although there would have to be a thorough ethical review before this step is taken. It conjures up the horrifying scenario of a human brain trapped inside an animal's body. The original study involved isolating human stem cells - the 'mother cells' that can develop into any other type of cell - and then introducing them into mice. As the mice matured, the stem cells grew into a full range of specialized cells throughout each mouse brain. 

Rice tainted with Human Traits

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The threat of contamination and wild spread, Ventria's GM rice, which is purportedly being grown to help third-world children overcome chronic diarrhea, may conversely cause other chronic diseases. "These genetically engineered drugs could exacerbate certain infections, or cause dangerous allergic or immune system reactions," said Bill Freese, Science Policy Analyst at the Center for Food Safety (CFS), who published a report back in 2007 about the dangers of Ventria's GM rice.

The researchers believe that these mice could be used to test treatments for brain diseases such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and stroke.

Bioethics

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“We

They believe, too, that wethey are God's partners in the work of

creation, both as innovators and as protectors, and that this partnership obliges us to be guided by ethical principles.” Office of the Chief Rabbi, “...the creation of an animal-human being represents a natural border that has been violated, the most grave of violations.”

Bishop Elio Sgreccia,

president of Pontifical Academy for Life, May 2007

Memorandum to Select Committee on Science and Technology November 2004. “...the creation of an animal-human being represents a natural border that has been violated, the most grave of violations.” Bishop Elio Sgreccia, president of Pontifical Academy for Life, May 2007 There are bioethical guidelines that the creation of human-nonhuman chimeras violates: 

It blurs the distinction between human beings and other animals.

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It's a repulsive thing to do.

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It's unnatural.

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It's playing God.

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It violates human dignity.

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Human embryos have a special (moral) status from the moment of fertilization that should be respected and this makes any research using human embryos wrong and a violation of their human rights.

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It's wrong to create beings (embryos) that are solely at the disposal of scientists; it says that it is acceptable to create motherless beings and could open the way to the creation of beings that are effectively owned by whoever controls the medium in which the embryo develops. Due to mixing of human and animal genetic material, the humananimal hybrids may still look like animals but they are certainly not animals anymore, for the reason that their genetic code has been inserted with human genes. However, the same situation, happens to humans; due to the insertion of animals’ genetic material to them, it will be hard to distinguish which organisms are pure human or pure animal.

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Even if using human embryos for research is sometimes acceptable, creating animal/human hybrid embryos is a step too far.

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It's the start of a slippery slope that could lead to creating hybrid human/animal creatures capable of independent life.

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It's wrong to use animals in this sort of research. The process skips several steps that makes it unacceptable for some time because of the people who have great faith in God.

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The research will be of little scientific value - no new treatments have been produced by embryonic stem cell research. 

Mixing human and animal genetic material risks creating new diseases.The human and animal hybridization has no value for it

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does not value the rights of animals and human embryo which is used in embryonic stem cell researches. Politics Due to the increasing number of cases of human-non-human chimeras created in laboratories, both legal and illegal, laws concerned in the rights of animals and humans were consolidated and implemented. 

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S. 659 Human Chimera Prohibition Act of 2005 Sec. 302. Prohibition on human chimeras (a)S. 659 Human Chimera Prohibition Act of 2005 which, on Section 302 states that: in General- It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly, in or otherwise affecting interstate commerce-- create or attempt to create a human chimera; transfer or attempt to transfer a human embryo into a non-human womb; transfer or attempt to transfer a non-human embryo into a human womb; or transport or receive for any purpose a human

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chimera. S. 1435 Human Animal Hybrid Prohibition Act of 2009 which, on Sec. 1132 states that: In General- It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly, in or otherwise affecting interstate commerce-- create or attempt to create a human-animal hybrid; transfer or attempt to transfer a human embryo into a non-human womb; transfer or attempt to transfer a non-human embryo into a human womb; or transport or receive for any purpose a humananimal hybrid. (1) create or attempt to create a human chimera;

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(2) transfer or attempt to transfer a human embryo into a non-human womb; (3) transfer or attempt to transfer a non-human embryo into a human womb; or (4) transport or receive for any purpose a human chimera. 

S. 1435 Human Animal Hybrid Prohibition Act of 2009 Sec. 1132. Prohibition on human-animal hybrids (a) In General- It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly, in or otherwise affecting interstate commerce-(1) create or attempt to create a human-animal hybrid; (2) transfer or attempt to transfer a human embryo into a non-human womb; (3) transfer or attempt to transfer a non-human embryo into a human womb; or (4) transport or receive for any purpose a humananimal hybrid.

Parking Statement

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Consequently, in as much as society wants to oppose to chimeric hybridization, problems are still uppermost and prevailing. These problems can be addressed if and only if scientists and geneticists abide and conform to laws concerned with the rights of non-human organisms and to laws aspiring primarily in the obstruction and the prohibition of the creation of human-non-human chimeras. Human-non-human chimeras: Breakthrough or Breakdown?Affronting Species Integrity Breakthrough, if and only if their creation is prohibited. Breakthrough, if society is intelligent enough to stop the genetic manipulation just to have those chimeras. Breakthrough, if the genie is to be put back into the bottle. Breakdown, if their creation is continued. Breakdown, if society is chuckleheaded and does not act. Breakdown, if the genie is still let loose out into the wild. After all, we are humans, smart enough to make the right decisions and brave enough to face the consequences led to us by our inconsiderate actions.

References Billington, J. H. (2001). http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:S.659 Retrieved: August 9, 2015.

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Borjesson, K. and Burks, F. (2002). http://www.wanttoknow.info/008/080930_chimeras_human_animal_hybrids Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Chakravartty, A. (1985). http://reilly.nd.edu/outreach/emerging-ethicaldilemmas-and-policy-issues-in-science-and-technology/human-animal-hybrids/ Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Coeytaux, F. (2000). Hybrids and Chimeras. http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/section.php?id=112 Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Hill, B. (1998). http://www.dailytech.com/Scientist+Creates+First+HumanSheep+Chimera/article 6680.htm Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Inchcoombe, S. (2007). http://www.nature.com/drugdisc/news/articles/424711a.html Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Zalta, E. N. (1997). Human-Non-human Chimeras. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chimeras/#UnnArg Retrieved: August 9, 2015. Huff, E. A. (2012,May). GM 'pharmaceutical' rice could cause more disease, suggests report http://www.naturalnews.com/035745_GMO_rice_human_genes_Kansas.html#ixz z3ihTRxE3O Retrieved: August 13, 2015

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