Mauryan Rock-cut Architecture: Column Capital With Greek And Persian Influence

The architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Among a number of architectural styles and traditions, the contrasting Hindu temple architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture are the best known historical styles. Both of these, but especially the former, have a number of regional styles within them. An early example of town planning was the Harappan architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization. People lived in cities with baked brick houses, streets in a grid layout, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, granaries, citadels and clusters of large non-residential buildings. Much other early Indian architecture was in wood, which has not survived. (Architecture of India, retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_India) The architecture of India includes present day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. These countries later on got separated by political boundaries but, still share a common cultural heritage. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from west, central Asia, and Europe. (Indian Architecture, retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/Bekark/history-of-indian-architecture) Indian architecture has influenced the surrounding regions of the world, especially eastern Asia, due to the spread of ideas with Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the stupa (temple mound), sikhara (temple spire), pagoda (temple tower), torana (and temple gate), have become famous symbols of Hindu- Buddhist culture, used extensively in East Asia and South-East Asia. Early Indian architecture is the story of how powerful and popular religions celebrated their beliefs through monumental design. 

MAURYAN ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE For the first time during the Maurya empire, monuments began to be built out of stone. The influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian culture was evident is some of the shapes and decorative forms. In the 3rd century BCE, with the reign of Ashoka and his interest in stone construction, the Buddhist school of architecture began.

ASHOKA'S BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE Many stupas were commissioned by Ashoka to hold the relics of the Buddha. These were simple in design with a hemispherical shape and a low base. The most famous of these stupas is the Sanchi Stupa or Great Stupa at Sanchi which is the oldest of the stupas. Other famous stupas include Amaravati Stupa and Gandhara Stupa. Column capital with Greek and Persian influence

Ashoka built monasteries influenced by the Gandhara architectural style, which was the style of the region during this time and characterized by sculptures of the Buddha. Typically, the main buildings were enclosed within a walled courtyard with the monastery towards the north and the stupa to the south. He also constructed palaces. The most famous was the palace near Patna. It Entry to a Barabar Cave with elephants carved over is said that a Chinese traveler thought it the lower archway was made by spirits because its carvings were so well done. (Ancient Indian Architecture: Characteristics, Evolution & Examples, retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/ancient-indian-architecture-characteristics-evolutionexamples.html)

Indian architecture is that vast tapestry of production of the Indian Subcontinent that encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to the sub-continent, sometimes destroying, but most of the time absorbing. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that none the less retains a certain amount of continuity across history.

Famous Hindu Akshardham temple in South Delhi

The Ajanta Caves in India are 29 rock-cut cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE. The caves include paintings and sculptures considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art (which depict the Jataka tales) as well as frescos which are reminiscent of the Sigiriya paintings in Sri Lanka. The caves were built in two phases starting around 200 BCE, with the second group of caves built around 600 CE. Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The caves are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra, near Jalgaon, just outside the village of Ajintha. Caves are only about 59 kilometers from Jalgaon Railway station (on Delhi - Mumbai, Rail line of the Central railways, India); and 104 kilometers from Aurangabad (from Ellora Caves 100 Kilometers).

BUDDHIST AND JAINA ARCHITECTURE Buddhism gained prominence during the reign of the emperor Ashoka. It is primarily represented by three important building types- the Chaitya Hall (place of worship), the Vihara (monastery) and the Stupa (hemispherical mound for worship/ memory)- exemplified by the magnificent caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa. The Greek influence led the Indian architecture of the time, especially the rock-cut art, to fall under one of the two categories: the Mathura school of art which was strictly Indian in spirit and did not adopt from the Greek styles, and the Gandharva school of art which incorporated influences of the Greek art. The division of Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana phases also influenced the nature of rock-cut art, the former being represented by artifacts used by the Buddha, and the latter by images of the Buddha. The Jaina temples are characterized by a richness of detail that can be seen in the Dilwara Temples in Mt. Abu. Ellora Cave Architecture World Heritage Site Other Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu Caves and Temples

THE HINDU TEMPLES The reference to temples in literature go back early with Panini (520 BC - 460 BC) and Patanjali mentioning temples which were called prasadas. Early beginnings of Hindu temple architecture have been traced to the remains at Aihole and Pattadakal in present day Karnataka, and have Vedic altars and late Vedic temples as described by Panini as models. Later, as more differentiation took place, the Dravidian/ Southern style and or the Indo-Aryan/ Northern/ Nagara style of temple architecture emerged as dominant modes, epitomized in productions such as the magnificent Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, and the Sun Temple, Konark. The older terminologies of Dravidian and Indo-Aryan are not used in current practice because of their racial and dubious origins. Buddhist elements and motifs have influenced temple architecture to a considerable extent.

Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Early temples were rock-cut, later structural temples evolved. The Kailasanatha temple at Ellora is a good example of the former, excavated from top to bottom out of a massive rock face.

The pyramid formed an essential architectonic element in any temple composition- stepped in the Dravidian style, stepped and slightly curved in the Northern style. The structural system was essentially trabeated and with stone being the basic raw material for the Indian craftsman, construction could be carried out with minimal or no mortar. Decoration was fundamental to Indian architecture and is seen in the myriad details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. The concept of fractals has been used to examine the form of the Hindu temple, both in terms of its planning and external appearance. The garba-griha or the womb chamber forms the central focus housing the deity of the temple and is provided with a circumambulation passage around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes, more particularly in the South Indian (the Dravidian style) temple. As the Hindu temple is not meant for congregational worship, the garba-griha is small in scale when compared to the whole temple complex. However, it is articulated externally by the vimana or the sikhara. Pillared halls or mandapas are found preceding the garba-griha. The spatial experience of a South Indian temple complex is considered particularly rich and meaningful. In many of them, such as the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam, the concentric enclosures or prakaras along with the series of gopurams or entrance gateways reducing in scale as they move towards the garbha-griha set up a rhythm of solids and voids as well as providing a ritual and visual axis.The principles of temple architecture were codified in treatises and canons such as Manasara, Mayamatam, and Vaastu Shastra. These offered an ordering framework yet allowed a certain latitude for contextual articulation. Today most of the ancient Hindu architecture thrives in temples of south India and south-east Asia as the subsequent forces of Islam transformed the cultural landscape of India more dominantly in the north. INFLUENCE OF ISLAM AND THE MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE With the advent of Islam, the erstwhile Indian architecture was slightly adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion, but it remained strongly Indian at its heart and character. Arches and domes began to be used and the mosque or masjid too began to form part of the landscape, adding to a new experience in form and space. The sahn or the open courtyard for congregational worship with the enclosing cloisters or liwans and the sanctuary at the Western end offered a different architectural vocabulary. The fundamental difference lay in the fact that Islam prohibited idol worship and therefore a concentrated point of focus such as the garba-griha was unnecessary. However, the mihrab on the Western wall of the sanctuary articulating the Qibla or the direction towards Mecca offered a notional focus. As idolatory was prohibited, the main means of adornment was surface decoration through the use of geometry, arabesque and calligraphy. Later, mosques began to be built with original material. The Jami masjid at Delhi is a representative example of an Indian mosque. Islamic architecture was also represented by distinct regional styles that drew a lot of inspiration from the local context.

Taj Mahal

The most famous Islamic buildings in India emerged during the Mughal period. Mughal architecture built on the traditional Hindu architecture with influences from the Persian world. Over time, Hindu and Islamic architecture produced a synthesis that is exemplified in the glorious production of Akbar- the city of Fatehpur Sikri, considered by many to be superior to the Taj Mahal (often seen as representing India) in terms of what it has to teach to civilisation- syncretism, tolerance and the best of different worlds, and the Taj itself, renowned for its beauty in white marble, its intricate engravings, its minarets and its setting. The most popular Islamic building type in India is the tomb or the mausoleum which evolved from the basic cube and hemisphere vocabulary of the early phase into a more elaborate form during the Mughal period where multiple chambers are present and tombs were set in a garden known as the char-bagh. The tomb chamber houses the cenotaph below which is the grave. Well known examples are the Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur and the Taj Mahal, Agra. (Ancient Indian Architecture, retrieved from https://www.crystalinks.com/indiarchitecture.html)

10 MASTERPIECES SHOWING DIVERSITY IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

1. Taj Mahal:

Taj Mahal- Photo:E. de Gracia Camara-Courtesy:UNESCO World Heritage Center

Taj

Mahal is without a doubt, one of the most impressive pieces of architecture not only in India but all around the world. For years, it has been the face of Indian architecture for people all over the world. Built in 1653 on the orders of the Mughal ruler Shahjahan as a resting place for his beloved queen Mumtaj Mahal, it is a symbol of love. Considered to be one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture, the white marble building comprises of a square plinth having a central structure topped by a huge dome and surrounded by four minarets at each corner. It is considered as one of the seven wonders of the world in the modern era. It attracts about 3 million tourists every year thus being a hotshot for visitors globally. 

2. Lotus Temple:

Lotus Temple, Courtesy-Fariborz Sahba Architects

It is one of the modern buildings that have come up in recent times and has managed to achieve a status and fame that attracts tourists from all over the world. Conceptualized on the form of Lotus flower, it is a Bahai’i House of worship that is open to all religions and stands for the secularism and openness of the country. Designed by Iranian architect Fariborz Sahba, the structure is composed of 27 petals aligned in groupings of three thus forming a circular periphery that is co-aligned by the ritualistic beliefs of Baha’i community.

3. Amber Fort, Rajasthan:

Amber Palace- Photo:Maria J. Gutiérrez Conde-Courtesy-UNESCO World Heritage Center

Amber Fort is one of the hill forts in Rajasthan. A specimen of Hindu architecture in a Rajputana style, this fort is 11km away from the city of Jaipur. Made of Red-Sandstone and Marble, it is famous for its self-sustaining features. Having Moata Lake as its permanent water source and highly advanced ventilation system done by brilliant design, the whole structures is a prominent display of the royalty as well as the rich cultural heritage of Rajasthan.

4. Ajanta-Ellora Caves:

Ajanta & Ellora Caves- Courtesy:Archaeological Survey of India Built during the time period of 2nd century B.C. to 6th century A.D., these caves are the finest examples of rock-cut caves. Honed out of volcanic ballistic formations while existing in a linear pattern, there are 34 caves, containing the remnants of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain temples. These walls are equipped with engravings showing the life of Lord Buddha. The purpose of these caves was to provide a sanctuary for the monks to meditate. Ellora in particular is famous for world’s largest monolithic excavation leading to discovery of the great Kailasa temple.

5. Chand Baori: It is the deepest step-well in the world. Situated in the state of Rajasthan, it was built in 9th century as a source of water for people in the neighboring villages. The whole structure is a square construction, 100 feet deep with 3500 steps and a periphery of 140 meters. It shows the geometrical intelligence of architects and local craftsmen of that era. This step-well stands as a perfect example that shows how Vernacular architecture is of, for and by the people.

6. Sun Temple, Konark: Lying in the coast of Bay of Bengal, it is considered one of the best examples of Dravidian Architecture. Also known as the Black Pagoda, it is considered as one of the grandest temples in India. Built in 13th century, it has a form of a giant chariot with twelve intricately crafted wheels led by seven horses. A true marvel that shows the advanced craftsmanship as well as love and devotion of that era for art.

7. Sanchi Stupa: Built in 3rd century B.C., an outstanding specimen of Buddhist art & architecture, it is one of the prominent monuments from ancient India. A stupa is generally a hemispherical dome structure containing relics of Lord Buddha. In this particular stupa, Lord Buddha has been symbolically represented by footprints, thrones, wheels etc. and all of them are exquisitely ornamented.

8. Victoria Memorial: It is a memorial that was commemorated on the death of Queen Victoria by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon and opened for public in 1921. Designed by Sir William Emerson, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects, it is in a Indo-Saracenic revivalist style. According to Lord Curzon, “Let us, therefore, have a building, stately, spacious, monumental and grand, to which every newcomer in Calcutta will turn, to which all the resident population, European and Native, will flock, where all classes will learn the lessons of history, and see revived before their eyes the marvels of the past.”

Made from Makrana marbles from Rajasthan, the museum has a vast collection of remnants from the period of British Empire rule in India. Architectural elements like the great dome, clustered with four subsidiary, octagonal domed chattris, the high portals, the terrace and the domed corner towers have been used with great precision.

9. IIM Ahmedabad:

IIM Ahmedabad, Courtesy of Indian Institute of Management Designed by American architect Louis I Kahn, it is one of the best institutional buildings in the country.This building is  considered to be a great example as to how Modern architecture can seamlessly co-exist with traditional architecture, all that is needed is creativity and will. India Vernacular architecture could easily be seen in the selection of materials as well as use of geometrical compositions to give shape to something awe-inspiring. Also the stress given on not just limiting learning to classrooms therefore making spaces like hallways and plazas much more prominent. Also the use of voids in the facade of the building is one of its best features.

10. Thikse Monastery:

Thiksey Monastery- Courtesy: Vaibhav Sharma This Buddhist monastery lies in the lap of Indus valley. Blessed by nature, it is built on a hill. The whole building is subdivided into parts according to their importance. So residents live in the lower parts while shrines are at the top. Apart from that, it is located at an altitude of 3,600 meters. Having 12-storey, it is the biggest monastery in Ladakh region. One can also find some rare and precious stupas, statues, thangkas, wall paintings and swords in the monastery. Architecturally, the most amazing features are the use of vernacular techniques in every element of buildings, whether it be walls, columns or roofs thus proving to be a great source of knowledge.

Source: 10 Masterpieces showing Diversity in Indian Architecture, retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/diversity-indian-architecture/