Steel-water-storage-tanks-design-construction-maintenance-and-repair.pdf

Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

1

Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting Ira M. Gabin, P.E. Dixon Engineering

Richard A. Horn, P.E. CB&I

The rapid development and expansion of public water supply systems at the beginning of the 20th century led to the establishment of public health standards for drinking water systems. An area of major concern for these systems was the storage facilities. Early steel reservoirs and standpipes were of riveted construction. Modern welded-steel reservoirs can be built to very large capacities with either domed or column-supported roofs. In the 1970s, it became common for smaller-capacity reservoirs and standpipes to use bolted construction technology, originally developed for industrial and agricultural uses. Prefabricated panels and bolted connections reduced erection costs and made these structures popular in rural areas. The advent of factory-applied ceramic coatings reduced future maintenance costs, adding to the tanks’ attractiveness to water supply systems with limited financial resources. Bolted tanks with diameters greater than 30 ft (9 m) are often built with low-maintenance aluminum geodesic domed roofs, a technology

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

2

Chapter One

FIGURE 1-1 Geodesic dome on bolted-steel reservoir.

commonly found on wastewater plant storage tanks as well. Figure 1-1 shows a geodesic dome on a bolted reservoir. The earliest elevated storage tanks were constructed of wood in the manner of water refilling stations for steam-powered trains. Some were built on stone or brick columns. Limitations as to size and durability, as well as public health concerns, led to steel becoming the material of choice for elevated tanks. Most steel elevated tanks constructed before 1950 were riveted, their legs consisting of opposed channels connected by latticework bracing. Roofs on most small tanks and many larger ones were the familiar cone or “witch’s hat” design (Fig. 1-2). Some larger elevated tanks had hemispherical or ellipsoidal roof designs. Welded construction became the industry norm by the early 1950s and remains the standard for most elevated tanks. Legged tanks continued to be built in great numbers; however, the lattice legs replaced tubular sections. Many larger-capacity legged tanks were of the radial arm design shown in Fig. 1-3. These have been phased out in favor of the toroelliptical legged tank style. Early prototypes of single-pedestal tanks were developed in the 1940s and became a common alternative to legged tanks by the 1950s. The more efficient shape of these structures provided the advantage of lower maintenance costs. In the 1960s, the fluted-column singlepedestal design was introduced, which provided a usable area in the column for pumping equipment, storage, offices, and other municipal uses. Legged tanks continue to be built primarily in sizes up to 1 million gallons (mil gal) (3.8 million liters [ML]) as a lower-cost alternative to single-pedestal or fluted-column tanks. Single-pedestal tanks are widely specified from very small to large capacities. Larger capacities

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g FIGURE 1-2 Witch’s hat roof design.

FIGURE 1-3 Legged tank with radial arm design.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

4

Chapter One (0.75 to 2 mil gal [2.8 to 7.6 ML] or more) are generally single-pedestal or fluted-column tanks. Some fluted-column tanks have even larger capacities. In the late 1980s, composite-tank technology combined a concrete pedestal with the steel-bowl geometry of the fluted-column tank. This addressed one of the concerns of the fluted-column design—the large steel surface area and resulting higher repainting costs. Built generally to hold 0.75 to 2 mil gal (2.8 to 7.6 ML) of water, composite tanks are now in use throughout the United States and Canada. Other materials and technologies are available for specialized applications. However, the steel, glass-lined steel, concrete, and composite tanks discussed in this chapter comprise the large majority of tanks currently in use and being specified for new construction.

Reservoirs A reservoir is a ground-supported, flat-bottom cylindrical tank with a shell height less than or equal to its diameter. Reservoirs are one of the most common types of water storage structure. They are used as a part of the distribution system as well as to hold treated water for pumping into the distribution system. Of the three types of steel water tanks, a reservoir, because of its low height, is generally the most economical to fabricate, erect, and maintain. See Figs. 1-4 and 1-5 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a welded-steel reservoir; see Figs. 1-6 and 1-7 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a bolted-steel reservoir. Table 1-1 gives typical sizes of welded-steel reservoirs, and Table 1-2 gives capacities of glass-coated, bolted-steel reservoirs and standpipes. Storage reservoirs for potable water are covered by roof structures, which may be either column supported or self-supporting. Standard tank accessories may include shell and roof manholes, screened roof vents, inside or outside ladders, and connections for pipes as required.

Standpipes Standpipes are ground-supported, flat-bottom cylindrical storage tanks that are taller than their diameter. They are usually built where there is little elevated terrain and where extra height is needed to create pressure for water distribution. See Figs. 1-8 and 1-9 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a welded-steel standpipe and Figs. 1-10 and 1-11 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a bolted-steel standpipe. Table 1-3 gives capacities and sizes of typical welded-steel standpipes. Standpipe systems are often designed so that the water in the tank, until it reaches a certain low level, maintains the system pressure. When that low level is reached, pumps come on, valving is changed,

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

FIGURE 1-4 Welded-steel reservoir. (Photo: Gay Porter DeNileon, AWWA)

Roof manholes Overflow pipe

Splash pad

Approved ladder, cage, platform, or safety devices complying with Occupational Safety and Health Act

Roof vent 12 in. (0.3 m) 3⁄4 in. (19 mm) Capacity level

Weir box (optional)

Column support

Inlet–outlet (optional) Base elbow or valve pit

Tank bottom crowned at center

Roof rafters

Column bases

Shell manholes (two required)

Sand pad Compacted backfill Crushed rock or gravel

Concrete foundation

FIGURE 1-5 Cross-sectional view of welded-steel reservoir. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

6

Chapter One

FIGURE 1-6 Bolted-steel reservoir, glass fused to steel. Approved ladder, cage, and platform complying with Occupational Safety and Health Act Roof manway

Floor sloped toward outlet pipe Inlet–outlet

24-in. (0.6-m) round access door

Gravity ventilator

Internal overflow funnel

Overflow pipe

Splash pad

Grade level

FIGURE 1-7 Cross-sectional view of bolted-steel reservoir. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Capacity (US gal) 50,000 60,000 75,000 100,000

(m3 ) 189 227 284 379

125,000

473

150,000

568

200,000

757

250,000

946

300,000

1,136

400,000

1,515

500,000

1,893

600,000

2,271

750,000

2,839

1,000,000

3,785

1,500,000

5,678

2,000,000

7,571

3,000,000 11,356 4,000,000 15,142 5,000,000 18,927 7,500,000 28,391 10,000,000 37,854

Range of Sizes Available Diameter (ft [in.]) 19 [3] 21 [0] 23 [6] 23 [6] 27 [0] 26 [0] 30 [3] 28 [6] 33 [0] 33 [0] 38 [3] 37 [0] 42 [9] 40 [6] 46 [9] 46 [6] 54 [0] 46 [6] 52 [0] 60 [6] 51 [0] 57 [0] 57 [0] 64 [0] 66 [0] 74 [0] 80 [6] 90 [6] 93 [0] 104 [6] 114 [0] 127 [6] 131 [6] 147 [6] 147 [0] 165 [0] 180 [0] 201 [6] 233 [0] 208 [0]

Height to Diameter Height to TCL (ft [in.]) (m) TCL (m) 24 [0] 5.9 7.3 24 [0] 6.4 7.3 24 [0] 7.2 7.3 32 [0] 7.2 9.8 24 [0] 8.2 7.3 32 [0] 7.9 9.8 24 [0] 9.2 7.3 32 [0] 8.7 9.8 24 [0] 10.0 7.3 32 [0] 10.0 9.8 24 [0] 11.7 7.3 32 [0] 11.3 9.8 24 [0] 13.0 7.3 32 [0] 12.3 9.8 24 [0] 14.3 7.3 32 [0] 14.2 9.8 24 [0] 16.5 7.3 40 [0] 14.2 12.2 32 [0] 15.9 9.8 24 [0] 18.4 7.3 40 [0] 15.6 12.2 32 [0] 17.4 9.8 40 [0] 17.4 12.2 32 [0] 19.5 9.8 40 [0] 20.1 12.2 32 [0] 22.6 9.8 40 [0] 24.5 12.2 32 [0] 27.6 9.8 40 [0] 28.4 12.2 32 [0] 31.9 9.8 40 [0] 34.7 12.2 32 [0] 38.9 9.8 40 [0] 40.1 12.2 32 [0] 44.9 9.8 40 [0] 44.8 12.2 32 [0] 50.3 9.8 40 [0] 54.9 12.2 32 [0] 61.4 9.8 32 [0] 71.0 9.8 40 [0] 63.5 12.2

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks. Note: TCL = top capacity level.

TABLE 1-1 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Welded-Steel Water-Storage Reservoirs

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24

28

16 22 27 32 24 31 39 47 33 43 53 64 54 71 88 105 81 107 132 158 114 149 185 220 151 199 246 294 218 286 355 423 326 326 428 530 421 553 685 816 567 744 921 1,099 691 906 1,122 1,337 874 1,147 1,420 1,247 1,637

19 37 54 74 122 183 256 341 491 632 948

44 63 86 142 212 292 388 559 734

49 70 96 159 238 327 436 628 836

54 78 106 176 263 363 483 696

59 86 117 193 289 398 531

65 93 122 210 320 434 578

70 101 137 227 340 469

75 108 148 244 365 505

TABLE 1-2

†

Capacities of Glass-Coated, Bolted-Steel Reservoirs and Standpipes

80 116 158 261 391

86 123 168 278 416

91 96 101 107 131 139 146 154 179 189 199 210 296 313 330 347 442

Capacity in Thousands of Gallons† 112 161 220 364

117 169 230

122 177 241

128 184 251

133 192 261

139 199 272

33 38 43 47 52 57 61 66 70 75 79 84 89 93 98 102 107 112 116 121

To convert feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048. Capacity in thousands of gallons. To convert gallons to cubic meters, multiply by 0.0037854. Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

∗

14 17 20 25 31 36 42 50 62 70 81 90 101 120

Nominal 15 Diameter (ft)∗

Nominal Height (ft)∗

Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

8

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g FIGURE 1-8 Welded-steel standpipe with decorative pilasters.

and water is pumped from the lower portion of the standpipe into the system. As with reservoirs, steel standpipes are covered with a roof structure and may be provided with ornamental trim. Standard accessories may include shell and roof manholes, roof vent(s), a fixed outside ladder, and connections or pipes as required. Inside ladders are not recommended in locations where freezing weather can be expected.

Roof Designs for Reservoirs and Standpipes The emphasis on making steel water reservoirs and standpipes attractive as well as functional has led to the development of a wide variety of roof designs. Alternative roof styles for welded tanks include conical, toriconical, umbrella, dome, and ellipsoidal designs. Some are column supported; others are self-supporting. Bolted-steel tanks are usually provided with conical roofs or may be furnished with an aluminum geodesic dome. Column-supported roof structures are not usually used on steel standpipes taller than 50 ft (15 m). Whichever design is selected, it is particularly important to design any rafters, trusses, columns, stiffeners, and connections to minimize potential corrosion sites. All interfaces and connections of such members should be analyzed for their corrosion potential, and protective

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

10

Chapter One Roof vent

Roof plate Roof manholes Overflow pipe Weir box (optional)

Capacity level

Painter’s trolley rail Approved ladder, cage, platform, or safety devices complying with Occupational Safety and Health Act

Tank bottom crowned at center Inlet– outlet (optional) Shell manholes (two required)

Concrete foundation

Base elbow or valve pit

Splash pad

Sand pad Crushed rock or gravel Compacted backfill or undisturbed soil

FIGURE 1-9 Cross-sectional view of typical welded-steel standpipe. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

coatings should be applied to all surfaces deemed necessary from a cost/benefit standpoint.

Column- and Rafter-Supported Cone Roofs The column- and rafter-supported roof (Fig. 1-12) is generally the most economical for a reservoir. The roof has a minimum slope for adequate drainage and provides easy access to the manhole for interior inspection. Column loads are spread to a safe limit by column bases, and concrete footings under the columns are not usually required. A modification of this design incorporates a transition from the shell plate to the roof plate that is a smooth curve rather than a sharp break. This transition, or knuckle plate, is a dished or rolled section that usually requires a stiffener at the rafter attachment point (Fig. 1-13).

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

FIGURE 1-10 Bolted-steel standpipe. Approved ladder, cage, and platform complying with Occupational Safety and Health Act Roof walkway and guard rail

Internal overflow funnel

Roof access

Gravity ventilator

Top elbow

Overflow pipe

Floor sloped toward outlet pipe

Inlet–outlet (optional)

24-in. (0.6-m) round access door

Splash pad

Grade level

FIGURE 1-11 Cross-sectional view of bolted-steel standpipe. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks) Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

12

Chapter One Capacity (US gal)

(m3 )

Range of Sizes Available Diameter (ft [in.])

Height to Diameter Height to TCL (ft [in.]) (m) TCL (m)

50,000

189

14 [9]

40 [0]

4.5

12.2

60,000

227

16 [2]

40 [0]

4.9

12.2

75,000

284

18 [0]

40 [0]

5.5

12.2

100,000

379

19 [0]

48 [0]

5.8

14.6

125,000

473

21 [3]

48 [0]

6.5

14.6

150,000

568

23 [3]

48 [0]

7.1

14.6

200,000

757

24 [10]

56 [0]

7.6

17.1

250,000

946

27 [9]

56 [0]

8.5

17.1

300,000

1,136

28 [5]

64 [0]

8.7

19.5

400,000

1,514

32 [10]

64 [0]

10.0

19.5

500,000

1,893

34 [7]

72 [0]

10.5

21.9

600,000

2,271

37 [10]

72 [0]

11.5

21.9

750,000

2,839

42 [6]

72 [0]

12.9

21.9

1,000,000

3,785

46 [4]

80 [0]

14.1

24.4

1,500,000

5,678

56 [9]

80 [0]

17.3

24.4

2,000,000

7,571

65 [6]

80 [0]

20.0

24.4

2,500,000

9,464

69 [10]

88 [0]

21.3

26.8

3,000,000 11,356

76 [6]

88 [0]

23.3

26.8

4,000,000 15,142

84 [6]

96 [0]

25.8

29.3

5,000,000 18,927

94 [6]

96 [0]

28.8

29.3

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks. Note: TCL = top capacity level.

TABLE 1-3 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Welded-Steel Standpipes

Self-Supporting Dome Roof and Umbrella Roof Steel self-supporting roofs are constructed of plates that are butt welded, lap welded, or lap bolted. They are supported directly on the top angle and shell plate. This type of roof is used where an uncluttered interior and smooth exterior appearance are desired. Domeroof sections are pressed to form a spherical shape. Umbrella roofs are formed to a radius in one direction only, forming chords like the cloth between the spines of an umbrella (Fig. 1-14). Structural stiffeners may be used internally on large-diameter roofs to avoid excessive plate thickness on welded or bolted tanks. Sometimes steel trusses may be used to support the roof, but these

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

12 in. (0.3 m)

Top angle

Vent

3⁄4 in. (19 mm)

Channel rafters

Girders are required when more than one column is used

Butt-welded tank shell Column base

3 ⁄16-in. (4.7-mm) lap-welded roof plate Capacity level One or more supporting columns

1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm) lap-welded bottom plate

FIGURE 1-12 Tank with column- and rafter-supported cone roof. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

should be avoided if possible, because they may create corrosion problems. In addition, the trusses should be kept above the water line to prevent damage by ice and accelerated rates of corrosion. A modification of the self-supporting dome is the toriconical roof. This consists of a rolled or pressed knuckle and a higher-pitched selfsupporting center. Aluminum dome roofs are sometimes erected on bolted-steel or welded-steel tanks. These aluminum domes are usually constructed

Knuckle plate

12 in. (0.3 m)

¾ in. (19 mm)

Radius

Channel rafter

Butt-welded tank shell Column base

3/16 in. (4.7-mm) lap-welded roof plate Capacity level One or more supporting columns

¼-in. (6.4-mm) lap-welded bottom plate

FIGURE 1-13 Column- and rafter-supported roof with knuckle. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

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Chapter One 3 ⁄16-in. (4.7-mm) minimum thickness lap- or butt-welded Cap plate roof plate

Vent

Top angle

Capacity level us di ra . al ax ric . m in. he D . m Sp 1.2 0 D = .8 0

Butt-welded tank shell

1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm) lap-welded bottom plate

FIGURE 1-14 Self-supporting dome roof or umbrella roof. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

of triangulated space truss (geodesic) panels. The dead weight of these domes is usually 3 lb/ft2 (143 N/m2 ) or less, compared with 3.8 lb/ft2 (181 N/m2 ) for a bolted-steel roof and 7.6 lb/ft2 (364 N/m2 ) for a welded-steel roof.

Self-Supporting Ellipsoidal Roof The self-supporting ellipsoidal roof is not a true ellipse, but it is formed with two radii yielding major- and minor-axis proportions of approximately 2:1. The transition from shell to roof is a smooth unbroken curve (Fig. 1-15). This roof design is suitable for large- and small-diameter reservoirs and standpipes. On tanks 50 ft (15 m) in diameter or less, the roof is usually free of internal structural members. Larger-diameter tanks usually have radial and circumferential stiffening members or rafters, which may be subject to corrosion problems if they are not properly designed or maintained.

Self-Supporting Cone Roof An inexpensive and very functional type of roof for small-diameter reservoirs and standpipes is the self-supporting cone roof without internal structural members. This roof is usually too steep to walk on. Access to manholes and vents by a roof ladder or steps and handrail should be provided. All means of access should be designed individually and installed to comply with current standards.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

Kn u

1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm) minimum thickness and butt welded in area filled with water

Area above capacity level may be lap welded

le ck

Butt-welded tank shell

Vent

Capacity level

1⁄4-in. (6.4-mm) lap-welded bottom plate

FIGURE 1-15 Self-supporting ellipsoidal roof. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Elevated Tanks An elevated steel water tank has two primary components: the tank itself and its supporting structure. Such tanks are ordinarily used where there is insufficient elevated terrain to ensure distribution of water at suitable pressure by gravity. These tanks are of welded construction. Elevated tanks can be categorized into several different types. The various diameters and head ranges for the tanks described in the remaining figures and tables in this chapter are only representative and may vary with individual fabricators. Specific diameter/head range combinations should be determined by the tank fabricator within the limits indicated in the tables. Height should be specified by the purchaser as the dimension between the top of the foundation and the top capacity level of the tank. Further dimensions, which are a function of the fabricator’s standard, should not be specified. To minimize cost, desired operating ranges should be specified to fall within standard available tank dimensions. However, individual operating needs may dictate nonstandard operating ranges.

Multiple-Column Elevated Tanks Small-Capacity Elevated (Double-Ellipsoidal) Tanks The small-capacity multiple-column elevated (or double-ellipsoidal) tank has a cylindrical sidewall, an ellipsoidal bottom and roof, and a

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

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Chapter One FIGURE 1-16 Double-ellipsoidal tank. (Photo: Gay Porter DeNileon, AWWA)

top capacity level (TCL) in the roof several feet or meters above the top of the cylindrical shell. Although in the past they were constructed in capacities up to 1 mil gal (3.8 ML), today, double-ellipsoidal tanks are typically constructed only in capacities of 200,000 gal (760,000 L) or less. See Figs. 1-16 and 1-17 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a small-capacity elevated (double-ellipsoidal) tank. Table 1-4 gives capacities and sizes of typical double-ellipsoidal elevated tanks.

Medium-Capacity Elevated Tanks For medium-capacity multiple-column elevated tanks, the toroellipsoidal design provides a lower initial cost by using the strength of steel most efficiently. The features used (torus bottom and ellipsoidal roof) cause the central riser to support, as well as contain, a considerable portion of the stored water, while the major portion of the steel bottom acts as a membrane in tension. These tanks usually have a capacity between 200,000 gal (760,000 L) and 500,000 gal (1.9 ML). See Figs. 1-18 and 1-19 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a mediumcapacity elevated tank. Table 1-5 gives capacities and sizes of typical medium-capacity elevated tanks.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g Diameter

Balcony or stiffening girder

As required

Purchaser to specify

Head range

6 in. (0.15 m) min.

FIGURE 1-17 Cross-sectional view of double-ellipsoidal tank. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Large-Capacity Multiple-Column Elevated Tanks Large-capacity elevated tanks (>500,000 gal [>1,893 m3 ]) provide economical service for communities that need to store a substantial volume of water. Lower operating and pumping costs are ensured because of the low head range, which achieves minimum variation of water pressure throughout the system. See Figs. 1-20 and 1-21 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a large-capacity elevated tank. Table 1-6 gives capacities and sizes of typical large-capacity elevated tanks.

Pedestal Elevated Tanks Small-Capacity Single-Pedestal Tanks The single-pedestal spherical tank is widely favored for smallercapacity tanks when appearance is a concern. The gracefully flared base contains sufficient space for pumping units and other operating equipment, a feature common to all pedestal-type vessels.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

18

Chapter One Capacity (US gal)

(m3 )

Range of Sizes Available Diameter (ft) 18–20

Head Range (ft) 12.5–15.5

Diameter (m) 5.5–6.1

Head Range (m) 3.3–4.7

25,000

95

30,000

114

18–20

15.0–16.5

5.5–6.1

4.6–5.0

40,000

151

22–23

15.0–17.0

5.7–7.0

4.6–5.2

50,000

189

22–24

18.0–20.0

6.7–7.3

5.5–6.1

60,000

227

22–25

19.0–23.0

6.7–7.6

5.3–7.0

75,000

284

26–30

16.0–24.0

7.9–9.1

4.9–7.3

100,000

379

23–30

20.0–25.0

3.5–9.1

6.1–7.6

125,000

473

30–32

23.0–28.0

9.1–9.7

7.0–8.5

150,000

568

32–34

24.5–29.5

9.7–10.4

7.5–9.0

200,000

757

36–38

28.0–29.5

11.0–11.6

8.5–9.0

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-4 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Double-Ellipsoidal Elevated Tanks

FIGURE 1-18 Medium-capacity welded-steel elevated tank. (Photo: Gay Porter DeNileon, AWWA)

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

Balcony or stiffening girder

As required

Purchaser to specify

Head Range

6 in. min.

FIGURE 1-19 Cross-sectional view of medium-capacity, torus-bottom weldedsteel elevated tank. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Ladders to the container and roof are inside to protect against unauthorized access. These tanks are usually constructed in capacities of 200,000 gal (760,000 L) or less. See Figs. 1-22 and 1-23 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a small-capacity single-pedestal tank. Table 1-7 gives capacities and sizes of typical small-capacity single-pedestal tanks. Small-capacity elevated tanks are also constructed as various combinations of cones and cylinders. An alternative design is shown in Fig. 1-24.

Large-Capacity Single-Pedestal Tanks The tubular supporting pedestal gives the large-capacity singlepedestal tank a distinctively contemporary look. Large capacities (0.2 to 2 mil gal [0.76 to 7.6 ML]) are provided by this low-head-range spheroidal tank design. See Figs. 1-25 and 1-26 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a large-capacity single-pedestal tank. Table 1-8

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

20

Chapter One Capacity (US gal)

Range of Sizes Available

Diameter (m3 ) (ft)

Height to TCL (ft [in.])

Diameter (m)

Height to TCL (m)

200,000

757

36–38

28 [30]

11.0–11.6

8.5–9.1

250,000

946

38–40

28 [33]

11.6–12.2

8.5–10.1

300,000 1,136

43–45

28 [31]

13.1–13.7

8.5–9.4

400,000 1,514

46–50

30 [36]

14.0–15.2

9.1–11.0

500,000 1,893

50–56

29 [38]

15.2–17.1

600,000 2,271

51–0 57–0

40 [0] 32 [0]

15.6 17.4

750,000 2,839

56–65

34 [45]

17.1–19.8 10.4–13.7

1,000,000 3,785

64–65

45 [46]

19.5–19.8 13.7–14.0

8.8–11.5 12.2 9.8

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-5 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Medium-Capacity Elevated Tanks

FIGURE 1-20 Large-capacity elevated tank. (Photo courtesy of Landmark Structures, Inc.)

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g Diameter

As required

Purchaser to specify

Head range

6 in. (0.15 m) min.

FIGURE 1-21 Cross-sectional view of large-capacity, multicolumn elevated tank. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Capacity

Range of Sizes Available

500,000

Diameter Head Diameter Head (ft) Range (ft) (m) Range (m) 1,893 60–65 24–25 18.3–19.8 7.3–7.9

600,000

2,271

(US gal)

(m3 )

65–70

24–25

19.8–21.3

7.3–7.9

750,000

2,839

70–76

25–30

21.3–23.2

7.6–9.1

1,000,000

3,785

75–87

25–35

22.9–25.5

7.6–10.7

1,500,000

5,678

91–98

30–35

27.7–29.9

9.1–10.7

2,000,000

7,571 105–106

34–36

32.0–32.3 10.4–11.0

2,500,000

9,464 108–117

39–41

32.9–35.7 11.9–12.5

3,000,000 11,356 119–127

35–40

36.3–38.7 10.7–12.2

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-6 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Large-Capacity Welded-Steel Elevated Tanks

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

22

Chapter One FIGURE 1-22 Spherical single-pedestal tanks give pleasant silhouette. (Photo: Walter Baas, AWWA)

gives capacities and sizes of typical large-capacity single-pedestal tanks.

Modified Single-Pedestal Tanks The attractive modified single-pedestal tank has a central support column (usually fluted to give structural rigidity) that encloses the riser pipe, overflow pipe, and access ladder to the tank roof. The support column may be constructed of steel or concrete. The space within the column can provide multistory usable floor space for pumping, storage, and office facilities. Although available in all capacities, these tanks are not usually constructed in capacities less than 500,000 gal (1.9 ML). See Figs. 1-27 and 1-28 for a photo and a cross-sectional view of a modified single-pedestal tank. Table 1-9 gives capacities and sizes of typical modified single-pedestal tanks.

Composite Elevated Tanks Composite elevated tanks are of an attractive design that uses the best design features of steel and concrete. Concrete, which is excellent for compression loads, is used as the support column for the steel bowl. The concrete has the advantage of requiring either no painting

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting Diameter

As required

Purchaser to specify

Head range

6 in. (0.15 m) min.

FIGURE 1-23 Cross-sectional view of small-capacity spherical single-pedestal tank. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Capacity (US gal)

(m3 )

Range of Sizes Available Diameter (ft)

Head Range (ft)

Diameter (m)

Head Range (m)

25,000

95

19–20

15–17

5.8–6.1

4.6–5.2

30,000

114

20–21

15–18

6.1–6.4

4.6–5.5

40,000

151

21–23

19–22

6.4–7.0

5.8–6.7

50,000

189

23–24

19–23

7.0–7.3

5.8–7.0

60,000

227

24–26

22–24

7.3–7.9

6.7–7.3

75,000

284

25–28

23–27

7.9–8.5

7.0–8.2

100,000

379

29–30

25–30

8.8–9.1

7.6–9.1

125,000

473

31–33

27–32

9.4–10.0

8.2–9.7

150,000

568

33–34

30–34

10.1–10.4

9.1–10.4

200,000

757

36–38

36–38

11.0–11.6

11.0–11.6

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-7 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Small-Capacity Single-Pedestal Tanks

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

24

Chapter One

FIGURE 1-24 Alternative single-pedestal tank design.

or a low-cost exterior coating for aesthetic purposes. The steel bowl construction is similar to that found on the fluted-column tanks; the bowl can be built with either a cone or a domed roof. The most common designs use a domed concrete floor with a steel liner. Commonly built to store between 750,000 gal and 2 mil gal (2.8 and 7.6 ML), these tanks provide many of the benefits of a fluted-column tank with significantly less area that requires painting, thereby reducing maintenance costs. The diameter of the concrete column is generally somewhat smaller (30 to 60 ft [9 to 18 m]) than for a fluted-column tank, so the area in the column for other uses is reduced. See Figs. 1-29 and 1-30 for a photo and cross-sectional view of a composite elevated tank.

Locating, Sizing, and Selecting a Water Tank Locating, sizing, and selecting a water-storage tank involve the evaluation of several design considerations and require an awareness of zoning and other regulations. The purpose of this section is to discuss these considerations and to provide the reader with a checklist to work through in the effort to arrive at a reasonable solution. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

FIGURE 1-25 Large-capacity single-pedestal elevated tank. (Photo courtesy of Tnemec/STI/SPFA)

Locating a Water Tank Generally, locating tanks depends on where people are living now and where future neighborhoods will be built within the area served by the water system. In addition, numerous other conditions can significantly influence the choice of a suitable site and therefore the overall cost of the tank project. Answers to the following basic questions must be determined and considered when selecting a location for a new water-storage tank. Hydraulics r What are the maximum and minimum pressures that you want to provide the end users?

r Is it better to pump or use gravity flow to provide the needed pressure?

r What are the local utility costs of pumping during daily and peak demand periods? Proximity to Users r Where is the growth in the community taking place now and projected to be in the future?

r Is land available in the area of future growth?

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

26

Chapter One Diameter

Head range

As required

Purchaser to specify

Access tube

6 in. (0.15 m) min.

FIGURE 1-26 Cross-sectional view of large-capacity single-pedestal elevated tank. (Source: AWWA Manual 42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Capacity (US gal)

(m3 )

200,000 250,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 750,000 1,000,000 1,250,000 1,500,000 2,000,000

757 946 1,136 1,514 1,893 2,839 3,785 4,732 5,678 7,571

Range of Sizes Available Diameter (ft) 40–42 43–47 46–48 50–53 55–60 64–66 74–78 76–80 85–90 90–95

Head Range (ft) 27–30 25–32 30–33 30–40 30–40 38–42 35–40 40–45 45–50 50–55

Diameter (m) 12.2–12.8 13.1–14.3 14.0–14.6 15.2–16.1 16.3–18.3 19.5–20.1 22.5–23.8 22.9–24.4 25.9–27.4 27.4–29.0

Head Range (m) 8.2–9.1 7.6–9.7 9.1–10.1 9.1–12.2 9.1–12.2 11.6–12.3 10.7–12.2 12.2–13.7 13.7–15.2 15.2–16.3

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-8 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Large-Capacity Single-Pedestal Tanks

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Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

FIGURE 1-27 Folded-plate design of a modified single-pedestal tank support. (Photo courtesy of Tnemec/STI/SPFA)

Acquiring Land r What is the cost of the tank site being considered? Is the land even available?

r What is the cost of connecting water mains and permanent

electrical power at each site being considered? Zoning r Is a zoning map available, and are the potential sites zoned to allow a tank project? Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) r Would the FAA allow a tank at the required height to be built on the potential site?

r Are obstruction lights or FAA painting required on the tank at the potential site?

Size of Site Is the site large enough for r Erection equipment, steel storage, staging operations, ground assembly, and crane operations with a safe and adequate distance for items that may be dropped from the tank during erection?

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

28

Chapter One Diameter

Fluted column

Purchaser to specify

As required

Head range

FIGURE 1-28 Cross-sectional view of a modified single-pedestal tank.

Capacity (US gal)

(m3 )

250,000 946 300,000 1,136 500,000 1,893 750,000 2,839 1,000,000 3,785 1,250,000 4,732 1,500,000 5,678 2,000,000 7,571 2,500,000 9,464 3,000,000 11,356

Range of Sizes Available Diameter Head (ft) Range (ft) 41–43 29–31 43–45 29–31 49–64 30–39 63–65 37–40 73–78 35–42 76–80 40–45 85–87 39–46 97–102 38–46 107–110 43–45 109–120 40–45

Diameter (m) 12.5–13.1 13.1–13.7 14.9–19.5 19.2–19.8 22.2–23.8 22.9–24.4 25.9–26.5 29.6–31.1 32.6–33.5 33.3–36.6

Head Range (m) 8.8–9.4 8.8–9.4 9.1–11.9 11.3–12.2 10.7–12.8 12.2–13.7 11.9–14.0 11.6–14.0 13.1–13.7 12.2–13.7

Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks.

TABLE 1-9 Capacities and Sizes of Typical Modified Single-Pedestal Tanks

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

FIGURE 1-29 Composite elevated tank.

r Maintenance of the tank and piping after completion? r Abrasive blasting and painting of the tank now and in the future? Topography Does the site have—or can it be made to have—good drainage to ease construction operations and minimize standing water around the completed tank? Access to Site r Is the site accessible on public roads by concrete and large semitrailer tractor rigs?

r Is there an access road or temporary easement to the site?

Will permission be given to build a road? Who will pay for the road? Will it be a permanent or temporary road? If temporary, will it be necessary to remove it at the end of the project? Soil Conditions r Is the soil bearing strength at the bottom of the tank foundation adequate to support the tank without requiring expensive deep foundations?

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

30

Chapter One Upper roof cone

High water line

Steel bottom plate

Access tube

Low water line

Lower cone

Concrete support dome

Concrete column

Note: Not to scale.

FIGURE 1-30 Cross-sectional view of composite elevated tank.

r Where is the water table? Will the foundation need to be dewatered during construction?

r Is the earth firm enough to support construction equipment during normal weather conditions or will gravel, crane mats, and other earth-stabilizing methods be required? Hazards and Construction r Are there power lines or other obstructions above or beside the site or proposed access road that would interfere with the safety of site traffic, construction, painting, or maintenance operations? Will a power line be closer than 40 ft (12.2 m) from the tank?

r Are there underground obstructions such as gas lines, sewers, or buried electrical or telephone lines? Were there mines or burial grounds on this site?

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g r If pile driving is required, will it disturb or cause failure of or damage to neighboring foundations or other structures?

r Will pile driving, excavation, steel erection, or abrasive blasting cause noise unacceptable to a neighbor such as a school, hospital, or nursing home?

r Will the tank be in an area frequented by small children or vandals and, if so, could this be mitigated by site fencing?

Environmental Assessment r Has an environmental assessment been completed on the site?

r What agencies, forms, and permits may be required, and how long will approvals take?

NIMBY (Not in My Backyard) r Will the tank obstruct the view of historical landmarks or other items of concern to the citizens?

r How sensitive are the neighbors to having a tank in close proximity?

Determining answers to these questions can help you to better analyze and compare costs of alternate sites, so you can select the most desirable location for your new tank. Additionally, you will want to understand and consider the following criteria during your site selection.

Hydraulics Other issues that affect site selection include the required pressure at hydrants and residences, the required site elevation, compatibility with the distribution system, the geographic size and location of the demand area, and the tank’s proximity to the water supply. Rules of thumb for required water pressure are shown in Table 1-10. Check the local standards or codes for more specific requirements. One hundred sixty-two US and Canadian water utilities responded to an AWWA network modeling survey that requested the actual minimum and maximum distribution system pressures that

Location

Pressure (psi/kPa)

Comments

At hydrants during fire flow conditions

35/241

20-psi (0.138-kPa) minimum at other fire hydrants not directly serving the fire

Residential

50–75/ 0.345–0.517

Higher pressures may need to use a pressure-reducing valve

TABLE 1-10 Required Water Pressure

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32

Chapter One Min. psi 4% 10%

100

> 60 psi 50–59 psi

80

80 28%

60 55%

40

34%

30–39 psi

20

> 170 psi

10%

150–169 psi

12%

130–149 psi

25%

110–129 psi

18%

90–109 psi

15%

70–89 psi

40

20 23%

0

14%

60

Percent

62%

Max. psi

40–49 psi

Percent

100

20–29 psi

< 20 psi 1% Minimum pressure

6%

< 70 psi

0 Maximum pressure

FIGURE 1-31 Pressure ranges for utilities.

they provided. Figure 1-31 shows the percentage of utilities in each pressure range. If the pressures provided are more than 75 psi (0.517 kPa), it may be necessary to provide a pressure-reducing valve to prevent home appliances from being overpressurized. The required pressure can be provided through pumping, gravity flow, or a combination of the two. How pressure is provided depends on the sites available and the type of tank to be used.

Pumping with Ground Storage Tanks Pumping will be required if a ground storage tank is used where the topography is relatively flat throughout the service area and a higherelevation site is unavailable.

Gravity Flow with Ground Storage and Elevated Tanks The required pressure can also be obtained by building a ground storage tank on a hill or at higher elevation above the demand area so that gravity flow provides the pressure, much like a water cooler. An elevated tank provides the required pressure by raising the water storage height up to an elevation above the demand area so that gravity can provide the pressure. Costs can be lessened if the elevated tank is also constructed on a hill site or at higher elevation. This not only lessens the necessary height of the tank but also can reduce its cost.

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Gravity Flow and Pumping with a Standpipe Water could also be stored in a standpipe (a tall cylindrical tank) where the topography is relatively flat throughout the service area and a hill or higher-elevation site is unavailable. In a full standpipe, the uppermost one-third of water stored provides effective pressure for gravity flow. If the tank is two-thirds full, the upper half of the water would provide emergency pressure. In a tank only one-third full, the water provides little or no pressure (i.e., ineffective pressure) and would have to be pumped to be used. Much like with an elevated tank, costs can be saved if the standpipe is constructed on a higher-elevation site or hill. This not only lessens the necessary height of the tank but also can reduce its cost.

Gravity Flow Height Calculations Following is an example of how to calculate the minimum height at which to store water to provide an assumed minimum pressure for residential use through gravity flow. (Check your local standards or codes.) Height (for 50 psi [345 kPa] minimum) =

50 psi [345 kPa] (62.4 lb/ft3/144 sq in./sq ft)

= 115.4 ft [35.1 m] (≈ 115 ft [≈ 35 m]) or Height (for 50 psi [345 kPa] minimum) =

50 psi [345 kPa] = 115.4 ft [35.1 m] (62.4 lb/ft3/144 sq in./sq ft)

To this calculated height, add the additional height required to meet the friction loss of the water in the distribution piping. Alternatively, one can use a conversion chart to find the required height at which to store the water to provide the pressure needed. Figure 1-32 shows how various types of tanks provide this pressure using gravity flow.

Pumping Versus Gravity Flow Pumping If a site with an increased elevation of at least 115 ft (35 m) above the service area cannot be found, the only option with a ground storage tank is to use pumping to provide the required pressure. If you are going to pump, you should be aware that water demand varies throughout the day. As such, you will have to use a variable-speed pump. A typical water usage graph (Fig. 1-33) shows the filling of a tank during the night and early morning hours when demand is low. The

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

34

Chapter One

115 ft (35 m)

Reservoir

Elevated tank

Standpipe

FIGURE 1-32 Providing pressure using gravity flow.

tank is emptied during the day; water demand peaks sometime between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. Electric utilities charge more for electricity during their peak demand period (see sample rates in Fig. 1-34). By overlaying the sample electric rates on the water usage graph (Fig. 1-35), one can see that the peak demands for electricity and water occur about the same time of day. Using these data, one can make the following calculations:

r Peak demand (5 p.m. to 9 p.m.) pumping costs: $0.1175/kWh average utility cost to pump half of the daily water demand to end users.

Peak demand

Emptying tank

Constant pumping rate Filling tank Usage rate

Midnight

6:00 A.M.

Noon

6:00 P.M.

Midnight

Time

FIGURE 1-33 Typical water usage.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

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Average cost per kilowatt-hour

$0.14 $0.12 $0.10 $0.08 $0.06 $0.04 $0.02 $0.00 Midnight

3:00 A.M. 6:00 A.M.

9:00 A.M.

Noon

3:00 P.M.

6:00 P.M. 9:00 P.M. Midnight

Time

FIGURE 1-34 Sample electric rates.

r Nonpeak demand pumping costs: $0.1080/kWh average utility cost to pump the other half of the daily water demand to end users.

r Tank filling costs: $0.0675/kWh average daily utility cost to fill the tank by pumping.

In this case, utility costs during peak demand are almost 75 percent more than the cost of the average rate used to fill the tank, while even nonpeak costs are about 60 percent more. These calculations should be modified for your system using your local daily water usage and utility rates. Regardless of the local factors, pumping during peak $0.14 Average cost per kilowatt-hour

Peak demand $0.12

Emptying tank

$0.10 Constant pumping rate $0.08 Filling tank $0.06 Usage rate $0.04 $0.02 $0.00 Midnight

6:00 A.M.

Noon

6:00 P.M.

Midnight

Time

FIGURE 1-35 Higher rates during peak demand.

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36

Chapter One electricity rates to meet peak water demand is usually more expensive than gravity flow and can become quite costly over time. Additionally, if you lack sites with hills or higher elevations and choose to pump to meet the pressure and water demand, incorporate the following initial and lifetime costs into your present-value analysis as follows:

r The additional daily costs of pumping over and above gravity flow (peak and nonpeak)

r The added cost of a variable-speed pump (usually required; larger than the constant-speed pump used at night for a gravity-flow tank)

r Cost of a backup pump or pumps r Cost for additional piping and controls for the backup pump(s)

r Cost of backup generator r Expense of enlarging the pump building to house the additional pumps and piping

r Cost to maintain and replace all of these as needed. Often, when these additional costs are considered, it is most likely that the extra initial costs to provide gravity flow may actually be a more cost-effective solution over time.

Gravity flow One can save these peak-demand electricity costs by peak shaving. To peak shave, start by locating a ground storage tank on the side of a hill, or build an elevated tank or standpipe. A smaller pump can then be used to pump the water up into the tank during the night and early morning at a constant rate when electricity rates are much lower. Then, during the demand period, water can be provided at the needed pressure by using gravity flow. This avoids the much higher electricity rates during this time period and allows use of a smaller, less costly pump. Because of these advantages, gravity flow is the preferred method of providing water pressure. If possible, place the tank on a hill or elevate it to take advantage of this method. The ideal location: For any type of storage tank, the ideal location is on a hill that is in the middle of the demand area and is owned by the community.

Proximity to Users When choosing a site for a new water-storage tank, the prospective tank owner should consider the growth in residential demand (singlefamily, multifamily, and high-rise structures) and commercial demand (industry, schools, and hospitals). A new residential development on

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Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g the north side of the service area and a new tank on the south side would result in very little water pressure for residents of the new development. The ideal situation is to construct a new water-storage tank in the service area before the area experiences population growth and buildup. This way, you have a better chance to get the right piece of land at the right time and at the right price.

Acquiring Land When acquiring land, the prospective tank owner must consider the availability and suitability of the land for a tank project; the costs for the land, required support utilities, and the length of connections to the existing distribution system; and the surrounding conditions.

NIMBY (not in my back yard!) One of the biggest issues that a water utility can face when attempting to locate a new water-storage tank is the public concern of NIMBY! Despite these concerns, even the most appearance-conscious communities can agree to a mutually beneficial solution to this stumbling block. The following are some successful approaches to be used in overcoming public concern:

r Encourage community involvement: When choosing the style of the tank, let the citizens express their concerns and provide input. In some communities, citizen groups have used contests to select the color scheme of the tank exterior or the lettering and logo design.

r Educate the citizenry: Explain the reasons the new tank is

needed and the beneficial effect it will have on them personally (for example, improved water pressure and fire protection). Demonstrate how improved fire flow will affect insurance rates, assure them of the safety record of water-storage tanks, and explain the anticipated maintenance cycle.

r Help the public visualize the completed tank: Using an artist’s con-

ception, computerized renderings, and a digital photograph of the site, compile an image that shows the community what the finished water-storage tank will look like.

Zoning Regulations Once a site has been located, check on the zoning of the selected site to ensure that it is currently zoned for this use or can be rezoned. Obtaining proper zoning for a water tank is typically more difficult in a residential area than in an industrial area or in an area near public facilities such as schools, government property, and airports. Often, schools are built in the areas of population growth, and the school yard may make a good site for a tank. There are many aesthetically pleasing tank styles that limit access.

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38

Chapter One

FAA Considerations Forms must be completed and filed with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to establish whether a tank can be built on the chosen site at the required height. The FAA is concerned about any obstruction to its airspace 200 ft (61 m) above ground level and any obstruction within an approach pattern to an airport runway. Lengths of approach pattern vary depending on the size of the airport, the length of the runway, and the direction of the runway, as follows:

r Large airport: No obstruction that exceeds a 100:1 surface within 20,000 ft (6.1 km) of an airport having at least one runway >3,200 ft (>975 m).

r Small airport: No obstruction that exceeds a 50:1 surface within

10,000 ft (3 km) of an airport whose longest runway is <3,200 ft (<975 m).

r Heliport: No obstruction that exceeds a 25:1 surface within 5,000 ft (1.5 km) of a heliport. If the FAA determines that the tank will be in the approach pattern, the tank may have to be equipped with aviation lighting or painted in a special aviation warning paint scheme. The most common of the aviation paint schemes is the red-and-white checked pattern found on tanks near airports. The following circulars, forms, and information regarding obstruction evaluation and airport airspace analysis are available on the FAA Web site (https://oeaaa.faa.gov):

r For information on proposed tank construction projects, consult “Proposed Construction or Alteration of Objects that may Affect the Navigable Airspace” (Advisory Circular 70/74602K).

r Standards for marking and lighting tanks and other structures

are provided in “Obstruction Marking and Lighting” (Advisory Circular 70/7460-1K).

r “Notice of Proposed Construction or Alteration” (Form 74601) should be completed by the tank owner before the site is even purchased and certainly prior to construction. The form can now be completed and submitted online at the FAA Web site. Information required includes latitude, longitude, location marked on a US Geological Survey (USGS) map, elevation of site (mean sea level), and the greatest height of any part on the tank, including handrails or antennas upon completion. Once the FAA has reviewed the information on the form, it will make a determination on the proposed tank and location

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g and post it online. The determination may be one of the following: r A tank can be built on this site at the height requested.

r A tank cannot be built on the proposed site at all. r A tank can be built on this site but not at the height requested.

r A tank can be built on this site at the height requested, but will require an obstruction light and/or obstruction marking.

r A tank can be built on this site but not at the height re-

quested and will require an obstruction light and/or obstruction marking.

r “Supplemental Notice of Actual Construction or Alteration” (Form 7460-2) is usually completed by the tank contractor. It must be submitted 30 days prior to the start of tank erection and requires information similar to that requested on Form 7460-1, except for the following: r Indicate the start and completion dates of the construction.

r Must indicate the greatest height of the tank or equipment during construction. Often the tank contractor uses a derrick with a boom to erect the tank. The height of the derrick and boom may actually exceed the maximum height of the tank on completion. The FAA will want to know this and may actually require the tank contractor to install an obstruction light at the tip of the boom to alert pilots to the tank’s location.

Size of Site Tank constructors recommend that the distance from the edge of the tank to the site boundary be a minimum of 50 to 75 ft (15.24 to 22.86 m). A tank may be constructed on a smaller site, but it will require extra handling and planning to stage materials in a disciplined sequence. Eliminating space constraints enables the tank contractor to build the tank more efficiently and can reduce costs up to a point. Take into consideration the space needed for the following:

r Material storage during construction r Erection and painting operations r Support facilities such as pump houses, valve vaults, and parking areas

r Future maintenance and repainting r Placement of tank at safe distance from private property and utilities.

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

40

Chapter One

Topography The tank site can have a major influence on the cost of construction and on design details for the foundation. The site should allow good drainage away from the foundation(s), provide a level working surface for construction, and have some type of erosion protection. Standing or ponding water on the site can add dewatering costs to the project and may even require changes to the foundation design, leading to added costs. Consider these added costs when evaluating sites.

Access to Site Access to the tank site is an important aspect of site selection. Developers and residents often want the tank to be located in the back of the development, away from the streets or even in off-road remote locations. This poses a problem getting the large trucks and equipment required for construction to the tank site. Other things that must be considered when assessing site access are the distance from paved roads, permanent versus temporary roads, accessibility by large trucks, and securing temporary easements for site access during construction, if needed. The best site access is via a permanent road up to the tank. The most economical means of achieving this is to put the tank access road in with the original subdivision roads.

Soil Conditions A full soil investigation should be conducted before the final site is chosen and certainly before it is purchased. The soil assessment will determine whether the soil is adequate to support the tank and its contents and what type of foundation must be designed. Some sites may require deep foundations (piles or drilled piers) that could add significant costs to the design and construction of the tank. The soil investigation will provide needed information about the following issues:

r r r r r r r r

Soil bearing capacity (how much of a load the can soil support) Site classification for seismic design Excessive or uneven settlement Water table elevations Rock elevations if present Site history Substrata conditions Slope stability

The depth at which the required soil bearing is obtained to support the foundation along with the slope stability has implications for the

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Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g size of the site required. For example, with a 1:1 slope stability and a 50-ft (15.24-m)-diameter foundation with the required soil bearing 15 ft (4.57 m) down, the minimum size of the hole for the foundation would be 15 ft + 50 ft + 15 ft = 80 ft (4.57 m + 15.24 m + 4.57 m = 24.38 m). To this, one would have to add room for digging equipment and room to store the excavated material on site. The results of the soils investigation can affect the design and costs of both the foundation and tank to such an extent that one could actually save money on the overall project by paying more for a site with better soil conditions. It is prudent to make the site purchase only after you have received the results of the soil investigation.

Obstructions/Hazards Obstructions that must be avoided include overhead power lines, underground utilities, and existing structures. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and many tank contractors specify safe minimum work distances required from power lines depending on what voltage the lines carry. Construction hazards may include abrasive blasting, painting, pile-driving vibration, noise, and fire. Waves and energy produced by AM antennas comprise one of the least understood obstructions. AM antennas are typically the tall, slender, red-and-white antennas that do not have dishes or whip antennas hanging off of them; the entire structure acts as the broadcast antenna. On the electromagnetic spectrum, AM waves are the longest waves generated and can be from 656 to 1,968 ft (200 to 600 m) long. These long waves carry energy. Metal objects used in tanks or tank construction such as rebar, steel plate, and even crane lines can act as receiving antennas that collect and store the AM wave energy. If a grounded worker touches these energized metal objects, the collected energy is released, possibly shocking the worker and making the work site unsafe. Whether the AM antenna has any effect on your tank site depends on how far the antenna is from your tank, what power it is broadcasting at, and whether it is a directional or nondirectional antenna. At the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Web site (www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/amq.html), one can insert the latitude and longitude of the centerline of the tank (also used in the FCC submittal) and use the “Stations within a Radius” input. The Web site will indicate if any AM antennas are present. If so, station details will indicate whether the transmission location is directional or nondirectional. Problems can be present for distances up to 0.6 mile (1 km) for nondirectional and 1.9 miles (3 km) for directional antennas. If you encounter an AM antenna that might be a problem and are seriously considering the site in question, you may want to hire a specialist to further examine the situation.

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42

Chapter One If the expense and risks of dealing with these obstructions and hazards adds enough costs to your project, you might be better off paying more for a site that is free of such obstructions and hazards.

Environmental Issues Environmental issues that come into play during tank construction include the protection of vegetation, wildlife, wetlands, and floodplains; historical landmarks and burial sites; and local wind and snow. Most states require that a permit request be submitted to the US Environmental Protection Association (USEPA) before construction to identify any such environmental issues.

Sizing the Tank Demand Tank capacity One of the main purposes of a water-storage tank is to provide storage to meet the water demands of the area it will service. As a rule of thumb, you can determine your new water-storage tank capacity by making the following calculation: Average daily usage (peak and nonpeak) + fire flow requirements + added capacity to offset maintenance or pipe breaks + additional capacity for future demand = tank capacity

Current average daily use This is the amount of water used on average in a 24-hour period. Calculate this by determining the average water usage currently per person and multiply this by the number of people that the new area currently serves.

r Peak demand: Peak demand typically occurs between 5:00 p.m. and 9:00 p.m. and is usually half of the current average usage.

r Off-peak demand: This comprises the other half of the average current daily usage.

Fire flow demand To the current average daily usage add an additional one-half to one-third of the current average daily usage. This figure varies depending on the local codes and standards. One should also check the requirements of the Insurance Service Organization (ISO) (www.iso.com) and other local standards and codes.

r Maintenance and piping breaks: As a contingency measure, consider adding 10 percent, plus or minus, to provide extra storage if the service area distribution piping has leaks.

r For future demand, project the future population for the ser-

vice area and then multiply that by the current average daily water use in gallons (liters) per person. An alternate method

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g

Arizona

Georgia r id Flo a

Alaska

a ian uis Lo

Texas

Hawaii

Indiana M ichiga n

Utah

Ca lifor nia

Alabama

a

si n on

Nevad

i sc

Idaho

Missssippi

n

North Dakota

W

Orego

ire ampsh New H nt Vermoia ine an Ma nsylv Pen Massachusetts South ork Dakota New Y Rhode Island Wyoming Connecticut Iowa New Jersey Nebraska Ohhiioo District of Columbia O Illinois Delaware Colorado Maryland Kansas ia cky West Virgin Missouri Kentu North Virginia Carolina see nes Ten New Oklahoma South Mexico Carolina

Montana

Minnesota

ton

Ar ka ns as

Washin g

U.S.Virgin Islands

Puer to Rico

Water withdrawals in milion gallons per day 0 to 2,000 2,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 20,000 20,000 to 52,000

Source: US Geological Survey Circular 1268

FIGURE 1-36 Average daily water usage per capita.

would be to check with the US Geological Survey to learn what the average daily usage is per person by state (Fig. 1-36). Local standards and codes related to tank capacity should be consulted and complied with.

Turnover Tanks sized to meet peak demand must also have adequate turnover when demand for water is not at a peak. Unused water can become stagnant, generating unwanted tastes and odors. In cold climates, lack of turnover can cause tank icing. Water turnover problems can be solved by filling the tank to a lower capacity that matches the reduction in demand or by adding a recirculation system. Additionally, several mixing systems are available that can create a more uniform residual chlorine content, reduce stagnation, and help prevent the generation of unwanted tastes and odors. Volume/standard capacities For elevated tanks, the most economical storage is achieved by selecting a standard capacity and head range on the basis of the recommendations of the tank contractor. Typical capacity ranges of elevated tanks are given in Tables 1-8 and 1-9. The largest-capacity elevated tank built to date is 4 mil gal (15,142 m3 ). It may be possible to build larger capacity tanks, but they would be the first of their kind. Reservoirs and standpipes are more flexible in their height/ diameter limitation. It was once thought that reservoirs could only be constructed in height increments of 8 or 10 ft (2.44 or 3.05 m). Steel

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44

Chapter One is now readily available in made-to-order heights (and widths) in addition to these. An economical tank can be built to whatever diameter and height is required (Tables 1-1 and 1-3).

Diameter and Height Selection For a ground storage tank, three major factors influence the selection of the most economical diameter and height. Of the following three factors, soil bearing and earthquake design usually have the biggest influence.

Soil bearing The tank foundation and ultimately the soil must support the weight of both the water and the tank. Each cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 lb/ft3 . The calculation of the weight of a 1-ft2 column of water from the bottom of the tank to its top capacity height can give one an idea of the weight that must be supported. A sample calculation for a 40-ft (12-m) column of water would be 40 ft × 62.4 lb/ft3 = 2,496 lb/ft2 or about 2,500 lb/ft2 . So, if a 2,500-lb/ft2 soil bearing is not available at the tank site, various foundation types could be evaluated to support the column height of water needed. Deep foundations or large mats may increase costs to the extent that it may actually be more economical to either change the height of the tank or evaluate other sites with higher soil bearing values. Earthquake Typically, the taller and thinner the tank, the more that earthquake may affect the design. Wind The taller and wider a tank, the more wind may affect the design. Here are some examples of diameters (D) and heights (H) of ground storage tanks with typical design conditions that might make them more economical:

r D = H: For decent soil bearing values of 4,000 psf/ft2 , with low earthquake factors and typical 90-mph wind design, a tank in which diameter is equal to height may be the most economical shape for small- and medium-size tanks.

r D < H: For soil bearing values greater than 4,000 psf/ft2 , with

low earthquake factors and typical 90-mph wind design, a tank in which diameter is less than height may be the most economical shape. In these tanks, there are fewer costs in the bottom and roof and more costs in the shell.

r D > H: For soil bearing values less than 4,000 psf, with high earthquake factors and winds greater than 90 mph, a tank in which diameter is greater than height may be the most economical shape. In these tanks, there are more costs in the bottom and roof and fewer costs in the shell.

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Ta n k H i s t o r y, C o n f i g u r a t i o n s , L o c a t i n g , S i z i n g , S e l e c t i n g It is important that you call your local tank contractor to help determine the most economical diameter and height combination for the design conditions at your site.

Selecting the Tank Ground/Elevated Storage Your first decision is whether to build a ground storage tank or an elevated tank. If higher-elevation sites are available that could provide the required pressure through gravity flow without the need for running a lot of water main to reach the site, the more economical choice would probably be a ground storage reservoir. If site elevations are not available within the water system area or are not high enough to provide the required pressure through gravity flow, an elevated tank or standpipe would probably be a better choice. Using a reservoir and pumping to meet the pressure and daily water demand will add daily pumping and peak demand charges throughout the life of your tank. See the previous section on hydraulics. Again, it is important that you call your local tank contractor to provide budget pricing for various tank options to evaluate the initial and lifetime costs of your new storage tank.

Aesthetics/Appearance The aesthetic appeal of a new water-storage tank is often one of the most talked-about elements of tank selection. The public may want a tank that will blend into its surroundings, or be a highly visible landmark for the community, or match the system’s existing tanks. The tank owner and security personnel may want to place the tank on a more visible site that can be readily secured and monitored. This decision must be handled on a case-by-case basis.

Ornamental Tanks Highly stylized ornamental tanks can provide community or company identity and advertisement, be more aesthetically pleasing, or resolve NIMBY issues. Unique, decorative tanks have been constructed in many areas and, although more costly to construct, they are often landmarks in which the community takes pride.

Economics Although the initial cost of constructing a tank has a significant economic impact, the tank’s operating cost, reliability, and maintenance requirements must also be considered.

Special Needs Sometimes communities have special needs or desires; for example, a community may want to house the fire department in the base of the

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Tank History, Typical Configurations, Locating, Sizing, and Selecting

46

Chapter One tank. Multiuse tanks can be constructed to match the community’s needs.

Liability To limit liability, tank owners seek methods to control access. Some styles of tanks—such as single-pedestal spheroid, fluted-pedestal, and composite elevated tanks—do not have exterior ladders, thereby efficiently limiting access. On legged or ground tanks, ladder guards can be installed that limit access to the ladders.

Life-Cycle Costs Anticipated need for and scheduling of tank repainting and maintenance are important considerations. The style of tank, its surface area, and the type of surface all directly influence maintenance costs.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

2

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances William B. Harper, P.E., Andre Harper, and Krista L. Harper, P.E. Harper and Associates

Appurtenances, or accessories, for tanks are vital for the function, operation, and maintenance of the tank system. Appurtenances are covered in separate sections of American Water Works Association (AWWA) D100, Standard for Welded Carbon-Steel Tanks for Water Storage; AWWA D103, Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted-Steel Tanks for Water Storage; and AWWA Manual M42 Manual of Water Supply Practices, Steel Water-Storage Tanks; and in regulatory documents such as those issued by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The majority of the appurtenances and attachments described for steel water-storage tanks are required by law, code, and industry standards to make the tank a safe and functional facility. Other accessories are optional and may be specified by the owner to improve the facility’s function or appearance. Accessory items on the tank structure should generally be located where they are readily accessible from a fixed ladder or platform surface. An exception to this is the location of stub overflows, which, when used, are purposely located away from ladders to avoid ladder icing. Specific tank accessories required by AWWA standards should be shown but not detailed on the bid drawings unless a specific detail is required, because each manufacturer has proprietary components that fulfill the intent of the standards. Such details may cause problems if bidders are required to provide another constructor’s proprietary

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

48

C h a p t e r Tw o apparatus. Accessory details and orientation should be developed and included in the shop drawing submittals after the contract is awarded. The governing requirement should be that the accessories meet the minimum requirements of the regulations, referenced AWWA standards, and the intent of the specifications. If the owner elects to include components and operating systems in excess of those specified by AWWA standards, the engineer should provide specifications and details that clearly define the components required and the scope of related work.

Ground-Supported Tanks Welded-Tank Shell Manholes For safety and ease of interior access during construction activities and maintenance inspections, at least two opposing shell manholes are required on welded ground-supported tanks for ventilation during interior coating operations. On tanks more than 100 ft (30.5 m) in diameter, it may be desirable to have three or more shell manholes, keeping the maximum circumferential spacing at 100 ft (30.5 m) or less. AWWA D103 requires only one shell manhole on bolted tanks because a tank panel can be removed to provide additional ventilation, but the specifier may elect to provide additional manholes.

Sizes and Types Typically, shell manholes are 24 or 30 in. (610 or 760 mm) in diameter to accommodate ventilating equipment and allow easy egress. Manholes larger than 30 in. (760 mm) in diameter are uncommon and may require special design details for structural integrity. Single-bolt inward-opening shell manholes or outward-opening shell manholes with hinged covers are standard (Figs. 2-1 and 2-2). Outward-opening covers may require reinforcing plates on the shell, whereas inwardopening manholes usually accomplish their reinforcement through heavy plate necks. The heavy plate neck also provides the gasket surface to the cover. The inward-opening cover must be hinged to ensure proper operation. If the tank will be subject to severe icing conditions, an inward-opening manhole may not be desirable.

Welded-Tank Flush Manholes If specified by the purchaser, flush-type cleanouts (Fig. 2-3) shall be furnished for ground-supported tanks. Flush rectangular manholes (rectangular manholes mounted flush with the bottom of the tank) having a minimum length of 24 in. (610 mm) in the short direction and a maximum length of 48 in. (1,220 mm) in the long direction are also available. Such manholes are useful when a tank interior is being cleaned. Refer to AWWA D100 and American Petroleum Institute

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

3/8

A

A

Front elevation Typical

3/8

Exploded side elevation Section A–A 1/4

Typical

FIGURE 2-1 Inward-opening shell manhole detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Tank shell plate 1/4

5 in. (127 mm) min. See Detail A Machine flange face full width

m

et er

Weld before machining

ia

Detail A

B. C. d

Roll reinforcing plate to exterior tank shell radius

9 in. (229 mm)

1/4-in. (6.4-mm) hole on horizontal centerline Front elevation A Tank shell plate Floor assembly plate

A

Bolt holes 1/4 equally spaced to straddle centerline Isometric blowout

Side elevation

See Detail A Section A–A

FIGURE 2-2 Outward-opening shell manhole detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

50

C h a p t e r Tw o

Shell

Section A–A

3 ft (0.9 m)

Bottom plate

Nearest horizontal weld 15 in. (381 mm) min.

Reinforcement plate

46 each 1-in.(25.4-mm)-diameter bolts, equally spaced (see API 650, Table 3-11)

Note: Refer to API Section 650, Figure 3-8 Flush-Type Cleanout Fittings and Tables 3-11, 3-12, and 3-13

FIGURE 2-3 Flush-type cleanout.

(API) Standard 650 for details and design requirements. Although the flush-type manhole is permitted in the AWWA standards, its use is not recommended in high-seismic regions where the additional stiffness of the reinforcing may cause stress concentrations or buckling in an earthquake.

Reinforcing The shell plates where the manholes are located shall be reinforced to comply with AWWA D100 Section 3.13.2.5, and all portions of the manholes (including reinforcing of the neck, the bolting, and the cover) shall be designed to withstand the weight and pressure of the tank contents.

Bolted-Tank Shell Manholes One manhole, unless otherwise specified, shall be provided in the first ring of the tank shell at a location to be designated by the purchaser. If any manhole cover weighs more than 50 lb (23 kg), a hinge shall be provided.

Size and Shape Manholes may be either circular, 24 in. (610 mm) in diameter; square, 24 × 24 in. (610 × 610 mm); or elliptical, 18 × 22 in. (457 × 559 mm), minimum size. Flush rectangular manholes with a minimum length

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances of 24 in. (610 mm) in the short direction and a maximum length of 48 in. (1,220 mm) in the long direction are also acceptable.

Flush Manholes Flush rectangular manholes (rectangular manholes mounted flush with the bottom of the tank) having a minimum length of 24 in. (610 mm) in the short direction and a maximum length of 48 in. (1,220 mm) in the long direction are also available. Such manholes are useful when a tank interior is being cleaned. Refer to AWWA D100 and API Standard 650 for details and design requirements.

Reinforcing The shell plates where the manholes are located shall be reinforced to comply with AWWA D103 Section 3.11, and all portions of the manholes (including reinforcing of the neck, the bolting, and the cover) shall be designed to withstand the weight and pressure of the tank contents.

Pipe Connections The number of tank-bottom or shell-piping connections should be kept to a minimum. The earlier practice was to use a common inlet/outlet drain connection through the tank bottom or on the tank shell (Figs. 2-4 and 2-5). If a bottom connection is used, a removable section of pipe 6 to 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) long may extend above the outlet at floor level to serve as a silt stop. The drainpipe shall be recessed to aid in draining the tank. Recent requirements concerning minimum and maximum detention time during which the water remains in the tank may require separate inlet and outlet connections. Baffles and flow diverters are also used to control detention time.

1/4 (typ.)

FIGURE 2-4 Recessed inlet–outlet pipe bottom connection detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Plan

Elevation

FIGURE 2-5 Nonrecessed inlet–outlet bottom connection. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Piping connections through the tank bottom or shell are normally furnished in steel pipe welded or bolted to the shell or bottom. Ductileiron or cast-iron pipe connections must pass through a mechanical joint–type connection that is welded or bolted to the steel tank bottom. Pipe connections shall be of the size specified by the purchaser and are usually attached to the tank bottom. The point of attachment shall be designated by the purchaser. Connections to the tank or piping furnished by the tank constructor shall be made by the purchaser.

Silt Stop If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 4 in. (102 mm) high, and the fitting or piping connection shall be flush with the tank floor when the stop is removed. If a removable silt stop is not required, then the fitting or connecting pipe, or both, shall extend above the floor at least 4 in. (102 mm).

Drain Sump To facilitate a more efficient and expedient removal of residual water remaining on the tank bottom after draining the tank, a new drain

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances and a sump 3 ft (914 mm) in diameter by 6 in. (152 mm) deep shall be installed. The drain sump shall be covered with a slip-type or hinged, grated cover that can be easily removed or opened during maintenance intervals.

Shell Connections Shell connections are permitted as long as the purchaser makes adequate provisions to protect the pipe from freezing or vandalism and provides adequate pipe flexibility to account for shell rotation and deflections of the shell when the tank is filled and drained. These include sample taps, disinfection fittings, and fire-hose fittings for the interior and exterior.

Piping Flexibility Special piping flexibility to accommodate seismic movements and settlement in the piping system shall be provided to protect the connection to the shell. AWWA D100 defines the distance from the shell intersection that through-the-tank-bottom piping connections may be located on unanchored tanks designed for seismic conditions. Bottom connections shall comply with AWWA D100 Section 13.5.1 as a minimum. Underbottom connections are not recommended on tanks in high-seismic zones. Tank sliding or uplift may impose additional stress on the connection and tear the bottom. Sidewall connections, which can readily be inspected after a seismic event, are preferred.

Overflows A properly sized overflow is essential to protect the tank structure from excessive water levels caused by rapid variations in distribution system conditions. Exterior overflows are recommended. In colder climates, ice buildup on an internal overflow may become a problem and eventually break the overflow pipe. Overflow waters should be directed beyond the exterior perimeter of the tank to prevent damage to the tank grade or foundation during overflow. Most state standards recommend that the overflow on elevated tanks be extended down the side of the tank to within approximately 12 to 24 in. (305 to 610 mm) above grade. Extending the overflow pipe prevents water discharged from the pipe from freezing on the tower structure and damaging it. In addition, most governing agencies require an air gap between the overflow tank piping and final drainage system to protect against backflow. Figure 2-6 shows one type of overflow-pipe air gap. Most states require a screen or flap/gate arrangement over the end of the pipe connected to the tank and a removable grate on the bottom portion of the pipe. The valve shall be a flanged passive check opening with 2 in. (51 mm) of water and shall be able to withstand zero backpressure. As distribution systems and pumping capacities are increased, the vent and overflow capacities of existing tanks should be

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C h a p t e r Tw o FIGURE 2-6 Overflow air break with flap valve. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

reevaluated to ensure their adequacy to relieve potential pressure or vacuum conditions in the tank. Overflows should be easily accessible for maintenance, repair, and inspection.

Welded-Tank Overflow An overflow protects the tank from overpressure, overload, and possible catastrophic failure should the pumps or altitude valve fail to shut off when the tank is filled to capacity. A properly operated tank should not overflow during normal operation. An overflowing tank is an emergency, and the malfunction causing the overflow should be determined and corrected as soon as possible. The tank shall be equipped with an overflow of the type and size specified by the purchaser. If a stub overflow is specified, it shall project at least 12 in. (305 mm) beyond the tank shell. If an overflow to ground is specified, it shall be placed down the side of the tank shell and supported at proper intervals with suitable brackets. The overflow discharge shall be located such that it will not be obstructed by snow or ground clutter. The overflow to the ground shall discharge over a drainage inlet structure or a splash block. It shall originate at the top in a weir box or other appropriate type of intake. A top stiffener shall not be cut or partially removed. The overflow pipe and intake

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances shall have a capacity at least equal to the pumping rate as specified by the purchaser. Where a side opening–type overflow is used, the head shall be not more than 6 in. (152 mm) above the lip of the overflow and in no case more than 12 in. (305 mm) above the top capacity level. The overflow pipe shall terminate at the bottom with an elbow. Unless otherwise specified by the purchaser, the overflow pipe shall be steel pipe with screwed or welded connections if less than 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter, or flanged or welded connections if 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter or larger. The purchaser shall specify the maximum flow rate in gallons or liters per minute, for which the overflow shall be designed. Overflow pipes may be either internal or external as specified by the purchaser. Minimum external overflow pipe thickness shall be 3/16 in. (4.76 mm). Internal overflow pipes are not recommended when tank usage and climatic conditions are such that ice may damage the overflow pipe or its attachments. When specifying an internal overflow pipe, the purchaser should consider the consequences of an overflow failure, which can empty the tank of its contents. An internal overflow pipe shall be at least 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) thick. The end of the overflow pipe may be covered with a coarse, corrosion-resistant screen equivalent to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) or larger mesh. The end of the overflow pipe may also be covered with a flap valve or other protective cover as specified by the purchaser.

Bolted-Tank Overflow The tank shall be equipped with an overflow of the type and size specified by the purchaser. If a stub overflow is specified, it shall project at least 12 in. (305 mm) beyond the tank shell. If an overflow to the ground is specified, it shall be brought down the outside of the tank shell and supported at proper intervals with suitable brackets. The overflow to the ground shall discharge over a drainage inlet structure or a splash block. It shall terminate at the top in a weir box or other appropriate intake. A top stiffener shall not be cut or partially removed. The overflow pipe and intake shall have a capacity at least equal to the pumping rate as specified by the purchaser, with a water level not more than 6 in. (152 mm) above the weir. The overflow pipe shall terminate at the bottom with an elbow. Unless otherwise specified by the purchaser, the overflow pipe shall be steel pipe with screwed or welded connections if smaller than 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter, or flanged or welded connections if 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter or larger. The external overflow pipe shall have a minimum thickness of 3/16 in. (4.76 mm). The purchaser shall specify the maximum flow rate, in gallons or liters per minute, for which the overflow shall be designed. Internal overflows are not recommended but may be provided if specified by the purchaser. The internal overflow pipe shall have a minimum thickness of 0.25 in. (6.35 mm).

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Ladders Safe access must be provided for authorized personnel who need to reach upper shell areas and the top of the tank facility.

Exterior Vertical Ladders Exterior ladders, cages, and platforms designed to meet OSHA standards are recommended (Fig. 2-7). Either the ladder should terminate

Flare out to join top hoop or platform

Tank shell

1/4

1 ft (0.3 m) to tank bottom Ladder elevation

8 ft (2.4 m) to tank bottom Cage elevation

FIGURE 2-7 Exterior caged ladder details. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances at least 8 ft (2.4 m) above grade, or a solid, locking door, provided to discourage unauthorized access to the tank, should be installed on the lower 10 to 20 ft (2.4 to 6.1 m) of the exterior ladder. Certain areas will require a locking door and anti-climb screening at the bottom of the ladder cage to discourage unauthorized access. The exterior ladder, roof hatch opening, and interior ladder (if specified) should be located close together to reduce the movement necessary by a climber on the tank roof. The ladder can be specified as painted carbon steel, galvanized steel, or stainless steel. If stainless-steel ladders are used, insulation (dielectric connections) must be included that separates the stainless steel from the carbon-steel tank, and all stainless-steel components must be coated to prevent corrosion from occurring on the carbon-steel tank.

Exterior Circular Stairway When specified, the exterior stairway shall be of a semicircular design meeting API Standard 650 Section 3.8.9, Platforms, Walkways, and Stairways (Fig. 2-8). The stairway shall be at a specified location terminating at the exterior roof hatch. Minimum stair width shall be 30 in. (762 mm). An expanded metal security enclosure with a hinged gate and lock system shall be installed around specified ground-level termination. Hand rail to match roof hand rail

42 in. (1.06 m) Roof 1

2.5 in. × 2.5 in. × 3/8 in. (63.5 mm × 63.5 mm × 0.38 mm) angle, two each Tie into platform

1

1/4 in. × 6 in. × 6 in. (6.4 mm × 152 mm × 152 mm) plate

Shell

8 in. (203 mm)

Platform 1.5-in. (38-mm) pipe handrail along outer stair perimeter

30 in. (762 mm) min.

Plan view Wearpads 1/4 in. × 6 in. (1.3 mm × 152.4 mm)

9 in. (228.6 mm) Stair treads 3/16 in. (0.1875 mm) plate, shape as shown 30 in. (762 mm) wide (typ. 53) 0.25 in. × 12 in. (6.3 mm × 305 mm) FB stairway runner inside and outside Stairway brace

FIGURE 2-8 Exterior circular stairway. (Note: FB = flat bar.)

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Interior Ladders Because of accelerated rates of corrosion and the potential for ice buildup in areas where freezing temperatures occur, ladders inside the tank container are not recommended. Ice buildup on an interior ladder can impose loads on the tank wall plates that are sufficient to pierce or rupture the tank container. Even in temperate climates, corrosion can damage interior ladders, making them unsafe. The use of stainless-steel ladders must include insulation (dielectric connections) separating the stainless steel from the carbon-steel tank, and all stainless-steel components must be coated to prevent corrosion of the carbon-steel tank. Ladders are installed inside dry risers and access tubes. There they are not subjected to corrosive conditions, and the access doors may be locked to deter access. In general, all interior ladders shall meet design criteria noted herein for exterior ladders.

Minimum requirements Minimum requirements for ladders, hatches, and so forth can be found in OSHA 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910, Occupational Safety and Health Standards, General Industry Standards.

Welded-Tank Ladders Exterior tank ladder The contractor shall furnish a tank ladder on the outside of the shell beginning 8 ft (2.4 m), or as specified, above the level of the tank bottom and located to provide access to the roof manway. The minimum clear width of step surface for rungs shall be 16 in. (406 mm), and rungs shall be equally spaced 12 in. (280 mm) on center. The perpendicular distance from the centerline of the rungs to the tank wall shall not be less than 7 in. (178 mm). Rung size shall not be less than 3/4 in. (19 mm) in diameter or equivalent section. The maximum spacing of supports attaching the ladder to the tank shall not exceed 10 ft (3 m). The minimum design live load shall be two loads of 250 lb (113.6 kg) each concentrated between any two consecutive attachments to the tank. Each rung in the ladder shall be designed for a single concentrated load of 250 lb (113.6 kg) minimum. The design loads shall be considered to be concentrated at such a point or points as will cause the maximum stress in the structural ladder member being considered. Side rails may be of any shape having section properties adequate to support the design loads and providing a means of securely fastening each rung to the side rail so as to develop the full strength of the rung and to lock each rung to the side rails. Interior tank ladder Inside tank ladders are not recommended for cold climates where ice may form. If an inside ladder is required, it shall

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances comply with the requirements for exterior ladders outlined in the previous paragraph.

Roof ladder For tanks with roofs, unless otherwise specified, the manufacturer shall furnish access to roof hatches and vents. Such access shall be reached from the outside tank ladder. A roof ladder is not required on portions of standpipe or reservoir roofs having a slope less than 2 inches per 12 inches of rise (2/12). A roof ladder shall be provided on roofs having a slope greater than 2/12. For roof slopes from 2/12 to 5/12, there shall be a nonskid walkway and a single handrail. For a roof slope greater than 5/12, a ladder or stairway shall be provided.

Bolted-Tank Ladders Exterior ladders, cages, and platforms designed to meet OSHA standards are recommended. Either the ladder should terminate at least 8 ft (2.4 m) above grade, or a solid, locking door, provided to discourage unauthorized access to the tank, should be installed on the lower 8 to 20 ft (2.4 to 6.1 m) of the exterior ladder. Certain areas will require a locking door and anti-climb screening at the bottom of the ladder cage to discourage unauthorized access. The exterior ladder, roof hatch opening, and interior ladder (if specified) should be located close together to reduce the movement necessary by a climber on the tank roof.

Exterior tank ladder The constructor shall furnish a tank ladder on the outside of the shell beginning 8 ft (2.4 m), or as specified, above the level of the tank bottom and at a location to be designated by the purchaser, preferably near one of the manholes. The side rails shall not be less than 2 × 3/8 in. (51 × 9.5 mm), with a spacing between them not less than 16 in. (406 mm). The nonskid rungs shall not be less than 3/4-in. (19-mm) round or square bars spaced 12 in. (305 mm) apart on centers. Interior tank ladder Inside tank ladders are not recommended for cold climates where ice may form. If an inside ladder is required, the side rails shall not be less than 2 × 3/8 in. (51 × 9.5 mm), with a spacing between them of not less than 16 in. (406 mm). Rungs shall not be less than 3/4-in. (19-mm) round or square bars spaced 12 in. (305 mm) apart on centers. Roof ladder For standpipes and reservoirs with roofs, unless otherwise specified, the constructor shall furnish access to roof hatches and vents. Such access shall be reached from the outside tank ladder. Refer to AWWA D103 Section 5.4 for minimum requirements for roof ladders based on the slope of the roof.

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C h a p t e r Tw o Minimum requirements Minimum requirements for ladders, hatches, and so forth can be found in OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910.

Ladder Safety Devices If federal or local laws or regulations require a safety cage, rest platforms, roof-ladder handrails, or other safety devices, the purchaser shall so specify. None of these devices are advisable on the submerged portion of interior ladders in low-temperature climates.

Ladder platforms For tanks with a total height in excess of 20 ft (6.1 m) or as required by OSHA, ladders with offset rest platforms (secondary platforms) are required every 20 ft (6.1 m) or as required by OSHA for the ladder assembly. This length may be extended to 30 ft (9.1 m) if an approved safety cage is used. If the ladder extends up the exterior of the tank, the ladder should be equipped with a locked guard to prevent unauthorized access to the tank exterior and roof. Conduits, fixtures, pipes, valves, and other items should not interfere with the safety of the ladders or platforms. Roof safety railings In addition to exterior ladder safety devices, the most commonly installed safety items are safety railings at the roof where the exterior ladder terminates (Fig. 2-9). These railings protect personnel on the roof near the roof hatch. New handrailing shall be fabricated and installed to form a totally enclosed work area around the roof hatch. Existing pipe sections may be used, provided they meet current OSHA requirements. A self-closing hinged gate shall be provided at the exterior ladder opening. Handrailing layout shall be verified in the field before handrails are fabricated. All safety railings installed on the tops of tanks and ladders should comply with minimum OSHA requirements or local building codes. Consult with the applicable agency in charge of tank location to determine the latest safety requirements. Total-perimeter handrails are not recommended in areas of high snow load. Ladder safe-climbing rails or cables In lieu of intermediate platforms, approved safe-climbing rails or cables may be used. Figure 2-10 shows a typical safe-climbing rail. Some tank owners may desire supplementary rest platforms in addition to the safety rail. Climbing rails can be galvanized or stainless steel. Painted carbon-steel rails are not recommended. Safety belts and sleeves should be furnished for the ladder safety devices. Safety sleeves should be checked for proper operation along the full height of the rails or cables. Any coating, deviations, or obstructions that prevent the free operation of the sleeve should be removed. Special dismount sections are available to ensure that the

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances Exterior ladder

Interior ladder Hatch 3 ft (0.9 m)

Self-closing gate To roof

Typical handrailing layout Self-closing hinges Plan view

Typical handrail post bottom Partial 1.5-in. (38-mm) standard black pipe 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) 1/4 in. (6.3 mm)

See Detail A

Gate elevation

1.5-in. (38-mm)diameter pipe

6-in. (152-mm)-square pad 42 in. (1.06 m)

Detail A

4 in. × 1/4 in. (102 mm × 6.3 mm) plate Rail elevation

FIGURE 2-9 Safety rail enclosure. (Note: For roof slope 2/12 or less, windy or wet conditions may require additional safety lines for areas outside enclosure.)

climber does not fall from the tank when the climber is dismounting onto the roof.

Roof fall prevention cable assemblies To prevent personnel who are working or walking on the tank roof from falling over the edge of the roof, furnish and install stainless-steel cable assemblies as shown in Fig. 2-11. Cable shall be stainless-steel aircraft cable of 7 × 19 construction. Cable collar around center vent shall be 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) in diameter placed in a plastic sleeve to prevent paint damage and connected

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FIGURE 2-10 Safe-climbing rail for an outside ladder. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

with stainless-steel cable clamps. The cable shall allow a maximum of 2 in. (51 mm) greater diameter than the center vent neck at the roof level. The cable shall rest freely on the roof after installation. The stainless-steel cables that prevent personnel from falling shall be 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) in diameter and shall be fabricated with a swaged loop at the center vent attaching point and a swaged carabiner doublelocking attachment at the hold-down point adjacent to the roof hatch work area. Each personnel cable shall terminate 42 in. (1,067 mm) from the outer perimeter of the roof when attached to center vent cable. A hold-down eye shall be welded at the attachment point described previously. The size of the eye and pad shall be as determined by the civil engineer and the structural engineer.

Roof Openings At least two roof openings are required for personnel access and ventilation during maintenance and rehabilitation activities on weldedsteel tanks.

Primary Opening The first (primary) roof opening should be located near the tank sidewall close to the exterior ladder. The previous minimum size for this

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances 1/4-in. (6.3-mm) cable with a maximum 2 in. (51 mm) greater diameter than the center vent. Use swaged loop to connect the two ends of cable.

Center vent

d de en t ex lly in. ) Fu 42 06 m . (1

Attachment pad See Detail B

Provide three carabiners compatible with the 1/2-in. (12.7-mm) round bar. Pad is for attachment when not in use. Attach carabiners to cable with a swaged loop as per Detail A.

Round bar 1/2 in. × 10 in. (12.7 mm × 254 mm) with large bend as shown 4 in. (101.6 mm) 1/4 in. (6.3 mm)

Cable loop construction See Detail A

ble ca

6 in. × 6 in. × 1/4 in. (152 mm × 152 mm × 6.4 mm) carbon-steel pad for attachment 3 in. (76 mm)

Cable at center vent Swaging tool used at this point to secure the cable to itself

Existing wood roof

Safety cable attachment Detail B Install at exit to roof from enclosure area

Typical cable loop Detail A

FIGURE 2-11 Safety cable system.

roof opening was 15 × 24 in. (380 × 610 mm), but OSHA now requires a 30-in. (760-mm) square or round opening with a hinged cover and locking hasp to facilitate access to the tank interior. With the advent of diving inspections in tanks, which necessitate the use of a rubber raft for inspecting the underside of the roof, it may be prudent to use larger roof hatch assemblies. These can range in size from 48 to 60 in. (1,220 to 1,524 mm) and can be constructed of aluminum covers. A curb at least 4 in. (100 mm) high and a 2.in. (50-mm) downward cover overlap are mandatory on any roof opening to prevent rain or snowmelt from entering the tank (Fig. 2-12). Bolted and gasketed roof manways without the curb and overlap are allowed on bolted tanks.

Secondary Opening The second roof opening should be located near the tank center or 180◦ circumferentially from the primary opening. Its diameter should be at least 20 in. (500 mm). If the center vent is of adequate size, is not obstructed, and has a removable cover, the vent may suffice as the secondary opening. The secondary opening, whether the center vent or a separate opening, should be designed with a removable cover to

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3⁄16

3⁄16

Cover elevation

3⁄16 Typical

Curb elevation

3⁄16

Plan view

FIGURE 2-12 Roof manhole assembly details. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

accommodate a bolted ventilation fan. All removable covers should be secured to the roof of the tank using hinges or chains. An additional safety rail may be required between the secondary roof openings and the edge of the roof. Roof manholes should be equipped with locks to prevent unauthorized entry into the tank. Tanks that have access tubes leading to the roof should have their roof manholes properly latched to prevent them from blowing open in a strong wind, and any access doors to the tank ladders should be locked. Shell manholes should be properly sealed to prevent leakage.

Additional Roof Openings Cathodic protection handholes/covers, suspension insulators, and reference cell access Where cathodic protection is to be installed in the tank interior, access handholes with covers and suspension insulators shall be provided through the roof at locations specified by the designer of cathodic protection. A fitting shall also be provided for the cathodic-protection reference cell to be suspended into the tank. Access openings shall also be provided at designated locations to accommodate the electrical conduit for impressed-current systems. If alternate power sources are specified, they can be either wind- or solar-powered units mounted on the roof at specified locations. Liquid level indicator fittings If a gauge board consisting of a float and a target board is present, holes for designated fittings shall be provided on the roof at locations specified by the designer. Inlet stop/start controls Where a probe or transducer system controls the water level and advises operators of low water levels, probes requiring waterproof flanged entries at the top of the tank shall be installed at locations specified by the designer.

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances Sampling hatch If specified by the owner, access through the roof for a sampling hatch shall be provided at the location specified by the designer. A suitable cover shall be provided over the access entry. Overflow inspection hatch If specified by the owner, access through the roof shall be provided to enable observation and inspection of the interior overflow opening. A suitable cover shall be provided over the access entry.

Vents For closed-top tanks, venting must be provided to safeguard against excess pressure or vacuum buildup during the maximum inflow or outflow of water. Structural failures of tanks can be caused by inadequate venting. When the vents are being sized, the area to which the overflow pipe contributes should not be considered part of the ventilation area. A minimum of one vent is required; this should be located near the center of the roof. For larger-diameter tanks, several vents should be located around the periphery as well as at the center of the tank to facilitate crossflow ventilation. The most common forms of tank vents are the mushroom, pan (Fig. 2-13), and 180-degree types. Vents with pressure- and vacuumreleasing pallets are recommended. A clog-resistant vent is shown in Fig. 2-14. All vents should be screened to protect against the entry of birds, animals, and insects. The screening should be stainless steel or some other type of corrosion-resistant material. Some health authorities require that shields be installed to keep dirt and debris from blowing into the tank. In areas of snow buildup, the vents should be protected or elevated to prevent them from being clogged by snow. Special vent designs may be necessary to prevent vents from clogging or freezing over, based on local conditions and operations. (Outside diameter) 3/16

er ov C

A

Ve nt

di am .

A

er et am di

Tank ro

of

(Inside diameter) (Outside diameter) (Hole in roof)

Plan view

Section A-A

FIGURE 2-13 Pan deck vent detail. (Note: diam. = diameter.) (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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C h a p t e r Tw o

res

su

re

p Air

PTFE gaskets (typical)

1/2 - no. 13 × 15 flattened expanded metal bird screen

Pres sure

palle t Vacuum pallet Screen (brass material is normal)

Support bars

Air vacuum

Carbon–steel body Roof Install vent vertical 5 +

FIGURE 2-14 Typical clog-resistant vent detail. (Note: Pallets should be removed during coating to prevent clogging of the screens. Periodic inspection and maintenance are required to keep in proper working condition. PTFE = polytetrafluoroethylene.) (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

Many older riveted tanks do not have vents; instead, they have finial balls that provide limited or no ventilation area. These finial balls should be replaced with vents when maintenance or repair work is done on the tank. As distribution systems and pumping capacities are enlarged, the vent and overflow capacities on existing tanks should be reevaluated. Tanks have failed because of pressure or vacuum resulting from inadequately sized or improperly maintained vents and overflows. The maximum withdrawal rate is usually assumed to be either the value that occurs when the pipes at grade level break or the maximum rate pumped from low-elevation reservoir tanks.

Controls and Devices for Indicating Water Level An indicating system of some type should be provided on the tank so that operators can easily determine the water level. The most common devices used to measure water level are gauge boards and pressure transducer readouts. Each form of water-level indication has advantages and disadvantages. Cost and the need for direct or remote reading, ease of maintenance, and performance in adverse weather conditions should all be considered when selecting an indicating system.

Gauge Boards Gauge boards are normally composed of a float and target board on which water level indication is accomplished by noting the position of a target against a gauge board on the outside of the tank. The target

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances marker is controlled by a cable attached to the float. As the float rises, the target marker is lowered. At capacity or full conditions, the target will be at the low end of the gauge board, making it potentially accessible to vandalism or snow buildup. Half-travel gauge boards are recommended to protect the target and float from vandalism and high winds. Float-type systems such as these are not recommended in freezing climates.

Altitude Valves In many water distribution systems, altitude valves are used to control the water level in tanks for which the high water level is at a lower elevation than the pressure gradient of the system. Even some small one-tank systems have been designed with an altitude valve on the tank inlet/outlet line. Both of these are examples of improper use of altitude valves. Altitude-control systems can be designed and installed with timers that force the altitude valve to open, allowing water to flow into and out of the tank and ensuring more frequent turnover. Altitude valves may malfunction even in good weather. Freezing weather increases the likelihood of malfunction, with frozen pressuresensing lines giving the altitude valve false signals. This usually causes the tank to overflow, but it may also cause the valve to remain closed, keeping the water in the tank static. Putting electrical heat tape and insulation on the control piping or heating the altitude valve enclosure minimizes these problems.

Remote Readings A pressure transducer in the tank can indicate the water level at a remote readout some distance from the tank facility. The pressure transducer must be installed so that it is completely isolated from all inlet and outlet openings. Pressure transducers are sensitive enough to sense pressure changes created by water movement through a line that would cause a false reading. The pressure transducer can also control flow in and out of the tank by actuating pumps or valves.

Inlet Stop/Start Controls A water utility may install a probe or transducer system to control the water level and to advise operators of low water levels. Probes require waterproof flanged entries at the top of the tank. In addition, for radio or wired telemetry equipment, an insulated conduit from the tank top to ground level must be installed to carry the electrical signal. If probes are used in tanks that are subject to icing conditions, the probe system should be designed to prevent damage from freezing.

Pressure Gauges If freeze protection is provided, economical Bourdon pressure gauges may be connected directly to the tank or riser.

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C h a p t e r Tw o

Emergency Fill/Withdraw Connections Some tanks may require provisions for emergency filling or withdrawal. Typically, such provisions are needed when tanks are located in remote areas where firefighters may withdraw directly from the tank to fill pumper trucks or use stored water directly. Where required, the emergency valves and connections should be designed to match the emergency facilities of the agency that will use them. The design must avoid cross-connections between the emergency system and the potable water system. Connections should be protected from freezing and vandalism, and the tank venting and overflow systems should be sized for these unusual fillings and withdrawals.

Cold-Weather Operations Designing Tanks for Cold Weather Proper design of a tank will prevent most freezing problems and, if freezing does occur, will allow personnel to follow operating procedures to easily deal with it.

Inside appurtenances Tanks located in an area where the lowest oneday mean temperature (LODMT) is −5◦ F (−15◦ C) or colder should not be equipped with inside ladders or overflow pipes. As ice forms and moves up and down, it can exert tons of force on ladders and pipes, tearing them loose from their supports and possibly ripping or punching holes in the container. The resulting leak will occur at a very inopportune time. If an inside overflow pipe is broken, the tank will rapidly lose all water down to the break, creating a large icy area on the ground below. If the vent is plugged with ice or snow, the tank roof may collapse when water evacuates the tank rapidly. It is acceptable to equip a tank with inside ladders and overflow pipes if the tank is known to have a high turnover of warm water. A ladder and overflow can also be installed at the center of the tank and supported by the access tube, as in single-pedestal tanks and extremely large column-type tanks. The use of interior girders, roof bracing, painter’s rails, or virtually any other protrusion below the high water line or within an area affected by floating or suspended ice is a poor design practice for areas with an LODMT of −20◦ F (−29◦ C) or colder. Certain local conditions or tank usage patterns may cause equally severe icing problems in warmer areas. External features In addition to standard appurtenances and accessories discussed herein, several design issues for the tank exterior are significant for cold-weather operation. Roof opening location Risers or inlet pipes should be directly below roof vents or manholes, or an auxiliary opening should be provided. This arrangement will facilitate thawing the tank if required. No pipe

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances G H-max. opening

E-max. opening

B-pipe thread

U-pipe (Normal thread thread engagement)

T-pipe thread

V

D

J-lift

Screwed models have B-pipe threads Padlock (by others)

F (Normal thread engagement)

A-pipe thread

C-max. opening (normal thread engagement) Flanged models have K-150 LB ASA mounting flange L-holes; M-dia. on S bolt circle

Size

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

J

K

L

M

S

T

U

V

2 in.

1 ⁄

2

9

2 ⁄

5 ⁄

3 ⁄

4 ⁄

8 ⁄

⁄

3

4

⁄

6

1 ⁄

1 ⁄

5 ⁄

3 in.

2 ⁄

3

8 ⁄

2 ⁄

5 ⁄

4 ⁄

5 ⁄

7 ⁄

⁄

4

8

⁄

7 ⁄

2

⁄

4 ⁄

4 in.

3

4

8 ⁄

3 ⁄

6 ⁄

4 ⁄

6

7 ⁄

1 ⁄

6

8

⁄

9 ⁄

3

3 ⁄

4 ⁄

FIGURE 2-15 Double-seating, internal-closing drain valve. (Note: lb = pounds; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 lb = 0.4 kg; ASA = American Standards Association [now ANSI].) (Source: American Water Works Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

opening should have a protective discharge cap that would preclude the dropping of a probe into the inlet pipe to thaw the ice blockage. Any gratings over piping should not be so restrictive as to prevent thawing lines or pipes from being lowered into the pipe. Gratings also conduct heat and promote freezing.

Static water projections Unless it is heated and insulated, piping that extends from the tank or from other piping should not contain static water. Drain valves extending on nipples will easily freeze. Drain valves should be of the double-seating, internal-closing type (Fig. 2-15). Additional outlets Side outlets on the riser pipe for use in pumping in steam or warm water to thaw the riser may be included in the design. These outlets should be plugged at the pipe outer diameter to eliminate an unheated projection. Frostproof vents Vents should be designed to avoid freezing over or to provide for pressure or vacuum relief. Some tank manufacturers have proprietary designs for this purpose. A unique freezing problem may occur when frost freezes solid over the fine screen in the vent and overflow. This type of freezing usually occurs on the fine screen designed to keep insects out of the tank. Such freezing prevents the exchange

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C h a p t e r Tw o of air into the tank, resulting in a vacuum in the tank that can collapse (implode) the tank until there is a structural rupture to break the vacuum. Preliminary research indicates that fiberglass screen material is resistant to freezing.

Systems to Prevent Freezing Various types of systems or equipment can be used to prevent tank freezing. The following information is included as the design may include one or more of the noted items.

Heating Heating a community water supply tank is usually not economically feasible, though industrial sprinkler tanks for fire protection have been heated for many years. However, new insurance rate structures and better community water supply systems have allowed many factories either to dismantle the fire protection tank or to discontinue heating it. In many cases, the insurance savings no longer offset the heating energy costs. Air bubblers Air-bubbler systems have been used successfully in ground storage tanks and in elevated tanks with large risers. A bubbler system is shown in Fig. 2-16. Research on the use of these systems Riser Air compressor Aeration line

Aeration line

Riser Air compressor

FIGURE 2-16 Tank riser bubbler system. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances indicates that a high-pressure compressor should be used that exerts just enough pressure to overcome air-line friction, orifice friction, and the hydrostatic head related to the water depth. There must also be an influx of warmer water, because the bubbling action tends to remove all the heat from a confined volume of water. The compressor should be equipped with an air filter and water and oil traps to minimize the likelihood that contaminants will be pumped into the tank.

Circulating pumps Circulating pumps that do not heat the water have been successful on tanks with small-diameter (6 to 12 in. [150 to 300 mm]) riser pipes in Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. A circulating system is shown in Fig. 2-17. A relatively small (1.5-hp [1.1-kW]) pump draws water from the base elbow, pulling water down the insulated riser or from the connecting pipe. The pump discharges water into a line 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter that enters the

Bowl of tank

Drip ring

Insulated riser Circulating line

Foundation

1.5-hp circulating pump

FIGURE 2-17 Pumped circulation system for small riser pipes. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water-Storage Tanks)

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C h a p t e r Tw o riser at the base of the tank and discharges into the tank container. This creates circulation in the riser.

Insulation In many tank designs, it is a common practice to insulate riser pipes. Many ground storage tanks and a few elevated tanks have also had their exteriors sprayed with urethane foam to insulate them. This yields a rough appearance, however, and there may be problems maintaining adhesion between the foam and the steel. No matter how thick the insulation, the stored water will eventually freeze without heat input.

Additional Accessories and Exceptions Any additional accessories required to be furnished shall be specified by the purchaser. Exceptions to the provisions of this section may be specified by the purchaser to suit special situations.

Elevated Tanks Steel Riser In localities where freezing temperatures do not occur, the purchaser may specify a small steel riser. In other locations and unless a small pipe is specified, a steel riser not less than 36 in. (910 mm) in outside diameter (OD) shall be furnished. Where the riser pipe supports a considerable load, the riser diameter and thickness shall preferably be determined by the constructor.

Cold Climates The minimum riser diameter of 36 in. (910 mm) shall be increased in cold climates unless the riser is heated to prevent freezing. The proper diameter depends on the extent of the tank’s use and the temperature of the water supplied. In extremely cold climates, a minimum diameter of 72 in. (1,830 mm) is recommended.

Manhole Large-diameter risers shall contain a manhole about 3 ft (0.91 m) above the base of the riser. The manhole shall not be less than 12 × 18 in. (305 × 457 mm), and the opening shall be reinforced or the riser plate so designed that all stresses are provided for around the opening.

Safety Grill A safety grill is intended to prevent a person from falling down the riser and shall be exempt from the design loads specified in AWWA D100 Section 3.1.6. When a safety grill is used in the top of the riser during erection, it shall be removed if the tank is located in climates where freezing is likely to occur. When grills are left in place, they

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances shall be provided with a hinged door that is at least 18 × 18 in. (457 × 457 mm).

Expansion Joint Where the riser is not load bearing, flexibility to accommodate differential movements of the tank and riser foundation must be included. This flexibility may be provided by an expansion joint or by riser layouts that have sufficient offset to be axially deformed without overstressing the riser, tank, or foundation.

Pipe Connection The pipe connection shall be of the size specified by the purchaser, and it is usually attached to the riser bottom at a point designated by the purchaser. Connections to the tank or piping furnished by the tank constructor shall be made by the purchaser.

Silt Stop If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 6 in. (152 mm) high, and the fitting or piping connection shall be flush with the riser floor when the stop is removed. If a removable silt stop is not required, the connecting pipe shall extend at least 6 in. (152 mm), and preferably about 2.59 ft (789 mm), above the riser floor.

Inlet Protection In risers 36 in. (910 mm) in diameter or larger, the inlet pipe shall be protected against the entry of foreign materials dropping from above. This shall be done by terminating the inlet pipe or the top of the siltstop pipe with a tee, with the “run” of the tee placed horizontally, or by placing over the silt-stop or inlet pipe a circular plate 8 in. (203 mm) larger in diameter than the pipe and located horizontally above the end of the pipe or silt stop at a distance equal to the diameter of the pipe. The circular plate shall be attached to the pipe, silt stop, or riser bottom with a suitable bracket or welded bars. Adequate clearance shall be provided between the ends of the elbow or from the edge of the circular plate to the wall of the riser pipe to permit proper flow of water through the inlet pipe. Pipe connections to the riser shell are permitted, as long as adequate protection against freezing has been provided.

Overflow An overflow protects the tank from overpressure, overload, and possible catastrophic failure should the pumps or altitude valve fail to shut off when the tank is filled to capacity. A properly operated tank should not overflow during normal operation. An overflowing tank

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C h a p t e r Tw o is an emergency, and the malfunction causing the overflow should be determined and corrected as soon as possible. The tank shall be equipped with an overflow of the type and size specified by the purchaser. If a stub overflow is specified, it shall project at least 12 in. (304 mm) beyond the tank shell. For tanks equipped with balconies, the overflow shall be extended to discharge below the balcony. If an overflow to ground is specified, it shall be placed down the tank shell and supported at proper intervals with suitable brackets. The overflow shall be located such that it will not be obstructed by snow or ground clutter. It shall terminate at the top in a weir box or other appropriate type of intake. The top angle shall not be cut or partially removed. The overflow pipe and intake shall have a capacity at least equal to the inlet rate as specified by the purchaser, with a head not more than 6 in. (152 mm) above the lip of the overflow and in no case more than 12 in. (304 mm) above the top capacity level, where a side opening–type overflow is used. The overflow pipe shall terminate at the bottom with an elbow, which shall be directed away from the foundation. Unless otherwise specified by the purchaser, the overflow pipe shall be steel pipe, with screwed or welded connections if less than 4 in. (102 mm) in diameter, or with flanged or welded connections if 4 in. (102 mm) or larger in diameter. Overflows may be either internal or external as specified by the purchaser. Minimum external overflow pipe thickness shall be 3/16 in. (4.8 mm). Internal overflows are not recommended when tank usage and climatic conditions are such that ice damage may occur to the overflow or its attachments. When specifying an internal overflow, the purchaser should consider the consequences of an overflow failure, which can empty the tank of its contents. Internal overflow pipe shall be at least 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) thick. The end of the overflow may be covered with a coarse, corrosion-resistant screen equivalent to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) or larger mesh or with a flap valve, as specified by the purchaser.

Ladders Tower Ladder

A tower ladder shall be furnished with side rails no less than 2 in. × 3/8 in. (51 mm × 9.5 mm), with a spacing between side rails of not less than 16 in. (406 mm) and with nonskid rungs not less than 0.75 in. (19 mm) round or square, spaced 12 in. (305 mm) apart on centers. The tower ladder shall extend from a point 8 ft (2.4 m) above the ground up to and connecting with either the horizontal balcony girder or the tank ladder, if no balcony is used. The ladder may be vertical but shall not in any place have a backward slope.

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Outside Tank Ladder In all cases, a ladder shall be provided on the outside of the tank shell connecting either with the balcony or with the tower ladder, if no balcony is included. The outside tank ladder shall have side rails not less than 2 in. × 3/8 in. (51 mm × 9.5 mm), with a spacing between the side rails of not less than 16 in. (406 mm) and rungs not less than 0.75 in. (19 mm) round or square, spaced 12 in. (305 mm) apart on centers. The tank ladder may be attached to the roof ladder.

Roof Ladder Unless otherwise specified, the constructor shall furnish access to roof hatches and vents. Such access shall be reached from the outside tank ladder or riser ladder on pedestal tanks according to the following:

r For slopes 5/12 or greater, a ladder or stairway shall be provided.

r Slopes less than 5/12 and greater than 2/12 shall be provided with a single handrail and nonskid walkway.

r Slopes 2/12 or less do not require a handrail or nonskid surface.

Ladder Requirements Minimum requirements for ladders, hatches, and so forth can be found in OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910. Note: Regardless of the access protection provided to tank roof hatches and vents, weather conditions on tank roofs are extremely variable, and workers and their supervisors are expected to exercise good judgment in matters of safety. Among other things, this may include the use of safety lines when windy, icy, or other hazardous conditions exist.

Ladder Safety Devices If safety cages, rest platforms, roof-ladder handrails, or other safety devices in excess of OSHA requirements are stipulated by the purchaser or by state or local laws or other regulations, the purchaser shall so specify. None of these devices are advisable on the submerged portion of interior ladders in low-temperature climates.

Roof Openings Above Top Capacity Level An opening shall be provided above the top capacity level. It shall have a clear dimension of at least 24 in. (610 mm) in one direction and 15 in. (381 mm) in the other direction and shall be provided with a suitable hinged cover and a hasp to permit locking. The opening shall

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C h a p t e r Tw o have a curb of at least 4 in. (102 mm) high, and the cover shall have a downward overlap of at least 2 in. (51 mm).

Tank Center An additional opening with a removable cover having an opening dimension or diameter of at least 20 in. (500 mm) and a neck at least 4 in. (102 mm) high shall be provided at, or near, the center of the tank. This opening may also be used for the attachment of exterior paint rigging. Where conveniently accessible to an outside balcony or platform, a shell manhole may be substituted for the additional opening. If properly designed, the shell manhole may be placed below the top capacity level.

Vent If the tank roof is of tight construction, a suitable vent shall be furnished above the top capacity level, which shall have a capacity to pass air so that at the maximum flow rate of water either entering or leaving the tank, excessive pressure will not be developed. The overflow pipe shall not be considered a tank vent. Warning: An improperly vented tank may cause external pressures to act on the tank that can cause buckling even at a low-pressure differential.

Location One tank vent shall always be located near the center of the roof, even if more than one tank vent is required. For tanks with centrally located access tubes, a reasonable offset of the vent is permissible. The vent shall be designed and constructed to prevent the entrance of birds or animals.

Screening When governing health authorities require screening against insects, a pressure-vacuum screened vent or a separate pressure-vacuum relief mechanism shall be provided that will operate if the screens frost over or become clogged with foreign material. The screens or relief mechanism shall not be damaged by the occurrence and shall return automatically to operating position after the blockage is cleared. Note: The purchaser should clean the screens and check the pallets or relief mechanism for operation at least once a year, but preferably each spring and fall.

Additional Accessories and Exceptions Any additional accessories required to be furnished shall be specified by the purchaser. Exceptions to the provisions of this section may be specified by the purchaser to suit special situations.

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Tank Mixing Systems Recently, many improvements have been made to the efficiency of mixing systems that allow homogeneous mixing of all water each time there is a fill and/or draft cycle (Fig. 2-18). New designs are needed that accommodate these systems, which include appurtenances and accessories not previously used. Because of differences among systems, the following overview is offered to assist in determining appurtenances and accessories to be used on a specific tank mixing design. Placing the inlet and outlet nozzles of water-storage reservoirs on opposing sides of the tank shell was for years considered to be the optimum arrangement to achieve good water blending. Adding an interior elbow to direct the water in a circular flow pattern was considered a good practice to help avoid short-circuiting through the outlet. In recent years, the industry standard practice has included the installation of a hydraulic tank mixing system (TMS). A typical TMS consists of an arrangement of piping placed internally in the reservoir to allow a homogenous mixing of all water in the reservoir each time there is a fill and/or draft cycle. The TMS consists of a manifold system in which both inflow and outflow waters pass through two sets of properly sized and placed check valves. One set of valves is used during the fill cycle, and the other is used to drain the tank. The manifold can be a common inlet/outlet system connected to one shell nozzle designed per API Standard 650 or to a bottom-flanged nozzle

See

Note

2

Blind flange

Manifold Inlets

Plan-outlet cross

Shell Inlets

Outlet cross

Shell

Existing outlet

Manifold

Existing inlet

FIGURE 2-18 Mixing system layout. (Notes: [1] Modification to inlet reservoir may be required in order to install mixing system. Detail of existing penetration must be provided. [2] Angle to be 30 degrees for water depth 30 ft [9 m] or below. Angle to be 45 degrees for water depth above 30 ft [9 m].)

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C h a p t e r Tw o connected to a 90-degree elbow. Alternate designs may include separate inlet and outlet manifolds positioned either horizontally or vertically depending on the physical height and diameter of the reservoir. The size of the manifold piping and the placement, number, and size of the inlet and outlet valves can be determined through calculations resulting from hydraulic studies and/or computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling. The types of materials used to construct the TMS manifolds is largely a function of budget limitations. Materials may include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), fusionbonded epoxy, liquid epoxy, or cement-mortar-lined (CML) and epoxy-coated carbon- or ductile-steel pipe and fittings. At the upper end of the scale, 316-grade stainless-steel pipe and fabricated fittings can give a lifetime of maintenance-free service. The choice of materials also depends on whether the TMS is being installed in a new tank (in which case the parts can be placed inside the shell before the roof goes on) or whether the project involves retrofitting an existing reservoir with limited access.

Water Sampling Stations As with TMSs, water sampling stations have become more sophisticated in recent years. Because systems differ, the following overview is offered to assist in determining appurtenances and accessories to be used for a specific sampling design. Testing the quality of the water in water-storage reservoirs is becoming increasingly important. The use of chloramines for disinfection requires that the chlorine residuals in the water reservoir be checked far more often. Placing water sampling points at various locations and levels in the reservoir enables the sampling technician to also check the water for possible problems resulting from stagnation and/or thermal stratification. These problems usually result from periods of low water usage—that is, in the off-peak season or when there are rapid changes in the weather. They can also result from incomplete mixing of the reservoir contents when fresh water is introduced to water that has been in the tank for an extended period of time. It is also important for the system operator to regulate the fill/ draw cycle to match periods of high and low consumption. Numerous variables enter into the formulations that keep these ratios at optimum conditions, and by sampling the water for pH, chlorine residual, and bacteriological levels, the operator gains valuable information to help monitor and control proper conditions. The size of the reservoir determines the quantity, size, and location of the sampling points. Small reservoirs with high turnover rates may only require one sampling port, while in most reservoirs with a single center roof-support column, it is suggested that at least three collection

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Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances

Selecting and Specifying Appurtenances points be positioned vertically in a fixed position near the shell. This usually provides sufficient sampling data. The sampling points should be set at elevations within the lower, middle, and upper-third of the content levels. Direct sunshine on the tank shell, especially during summer months, can raise the temperature of the water near the shell, thus making the water sample misleading. Therefore, it is suggested that the sampling points be placed at least 3 ft (0.9 m) away from the shell, preferably on the north side of the reservoir. Water samples taken at these points yield consistent levels and are more representative of the tank water. For larger reservoirs, additional sampling points from the middle and intermediate points should be considered. It is possible to locate sampling points at variable levels through lines that are attached to brackets connected to the intermediate roof-support columns. The final number, size, and location of sampling points must be carefully planned to allow sampling from all points within the reservoir. Lastly, in some cases it might also be beneficial to locate a sampling point directly in front of the inlet water nozzle to collect data from the incoming water. This allows the operator to compare data from the fresh water with data from the stored water. Generally, lines 0.75 in. (19 mm) in diameter permit sufficient sampling from all points within the reservoir. It is imperative that the lines be constructed of noncorrosive materials such as PVC or 316-grade stainless steel. For the convenience of the system operator, it is best to have all sampling lines pass through the shell and into one secured enclosure that is mounted to the shell at chest height. Samples can be taken by opening control valves that are also made of 316-grade stainless steel. These valves should be conveniently located within the enclosure and positioned such that there is ample room beneath them for the collection bottles. For security purposes, the enclosure should be locked when not in use.

Antennas The AWWA Steel Tank Committee has noted that the wireless communication industry has been installing antennas on ground and elevated tanks at an ever-increasing rate. The major tank contractors have all but forfeited these installations to non-tank constructors. Guidelines were added to the commentary for AWWA D100–05 (see Appendix A) to provide the owners and their consultants with additional information when addressing these accessories. The guidelines consider functional, structural, future maintenance, and safety issues having to do with antenna and communication installations.

Health and Safety Recommended safety precautions for radio frequency (RF) exposure of personnel maintaining the tank should be reviewed with the wireless carriers.

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C h a p t e r Tw o Precautions shall be taken to prevent water contamination. Access to the tank interior water compartment should not be permitted. The paint system should be checked for hazardous metals. Where hazardous metals are found in the paint system, the environment, potable water, and workers must be protected from contamination. Fall protection should be provided for workers. This may consist of a safety rail around the installation or anchor points on the tank roof where safety lines can be attached. The addition of auxiliary ladders or safety lines for access to new equipment should be considered. Antenna cables should be supported at regular intervals (about 4 ft [1.2 m] on center) in exposed locations. Cables should be attached to ladders, as they present a safety hazard. Cable ladders or other commercially available cable support systems are available and should be installed separately on the tank. Manholes and other access ports should not be obstructed by the cable routing. Where space is limited (e.g., small-diameter 36-in. [915-mm] access tubes in pedestal tanks), cables should be fitted to the access tube well to maximize clearance. Cables routed along balconies and platforms should be routed so as not to obstruct access. Consideration should be given to provide auxiliary painters-scaffold supports if the antenna installation renders the existing system unusable. Antenna cables should be raised off the tank surface to permit painting behind them.

Bibliography Harper, W. B. 1986. Designing a More Corrosion-Free Water Storage Tank. In Proc. 1986 AWWA Annual Conference, Washington, D.C.; Denver, CO.: AWWA. Matchett, B. 2006. Introduction to Improved Water Sampling Stations for Steel Water Storage Tanks. NACE International, Channel Islands Section seminar “Build a Tank in a Day,” Oxnard, CA. Matchett, B. 2007. Introduction to Improved Tank Mixing Systems for Water Storage Tanks. NACE International, Channel Islands Section seminar “Build a Tank in a Day,” Oxnard, CA.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

3

Controlling Corrosion Mike Bauer and Joe Davis Tnemec

Anthony D. Ippoliti Sherwin Williams

Jeff Rog Corrpro

The Nature of Corrosion The corrosion of steel in aqueous solutions is an electrochemical process in which a current flows and a chemical reaction occurs. Corrosion is a natural process that follows the laws of science. All metals possess inherent levels of electrical energy. They must maintain those levels to remain stable and thus not be subject to the degradation process of corrosion. These levels of electrical energy are measurable, and metals can be either more or less reactive in various environments on the basis of their inherent levels of energy or electrical potentials. Metals with higher levels of electrical energy tend to be more reactive, and metals with lower levels of electrical energy tend to be less reactive (more noble). Figure 3-1 illustrates how the various metals’ electrical potentials compare. The corrosion cell comprises four basic elements: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and closure path (Fig. 3-2). The anode is the metal that corrodes—that is, metal ions leave its surface and enter the electrolyte solution. The cathode is a metal from which no metal ions enter the solution. The electrolyte may be any solution, such as drinking water, that is capable of conducting

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Chapter Three FIGURE 3-1 How electrical potentials of various metals compare.

Active • Magnesium alloy • Zinc • Aluminum alloy • Cadmium • Mild steel (new) • Mild steel (old) • Cast iron • Stainless steel • Copper, brass, bronze • Titanium • Gold Noble

electricity. The closure path, also called the return current path, is the electrical conductor (usually metal) that connects the anode and the cathode. If any one of these elements is missing, corrosion does not occur. For example, coating stops corrosion from occurring by providing a barrier to the current that flows between the metal and the electrolyte. A dry-cell battery is a corrosion cell. When the battery’s anode (zinc) and cathode (carbon) are connected through a closure path (the lightbulb), the potential difference between the zinc and the carbon Metallic path

Anode Cathode

H

+

OH +

Electrolyte

FIGURE 3-2 Elements of the corrosion cell.

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion

Tank wall (conductor)

Water (electrolyte)

Anodic area (corrodes)

Cathodic area (protected)

FIGURE 3-3 Anode and cathode in a steel water-storage tank.

produces a current flow. The current continues to flow until the zinc anode is consumed by the corrosion process. It is important to consider why the current flows in the direction it does. The direction of flow is determined by the metals selected for the dry-cell battery’s case and center post. If the center post was magnesium instead of carbon, the current flow would be reversed: The magnesium center post would be the anode (which corrodes), and the zinc base would be the cathode (which does not corrode). The current can also be forced to flow in the opposite direction if the standard carbon/zinc battery is connected to an outside current source instead of the lightbulb. In this situation, the anode and the cathode would also be reversed—that is, the battery case would become the cathode and would be protected from corrosion. In a steel water-storage tank, some portion of the metal will be the anode and some portion will be the cathode (Fig. 3-3). Which area takes on which function depends on impurities in the metal; surface conditions; oxygen concentrations in the water; the presence of any dissimilar metals; stresses caused by manufacturing, heat, or concentrated structural loads; and/or several other factors. At the anode, metal ions leave the surface, enter the water, and combine with oxygen to form rust. Electrons released from the anode travel through the metal to the cathode. At the cathode, an ion exchange occurs, but no metal is lost and no corrosion occurs. The presence of ladders, mixing systems, baffling systems, floats, or other accessories made of stainless steel that are electrically

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Chapter Three continuous with the carbon-steel tank causes accelerated corrosion in steel exposed at holidays (voids) in the coating. In such cases, the stainless-steel components are the cathodes and the exposed-steel portions of the tank are the anodes. Care must be taken when designing such accessories to eliminate the galvanic or dissimilar metal corrosion between the metals of different electrical potentials. Methods for addressing the corrosion caused by dissimilar metals are cathodic protection, using a homogenous metal (coated carbon steel), using a nonmetallic material such as fiberglass-reinforced plastic, coating the stainless steel to minimize the cathodic surface areas the carbon steel is reacting with, and/or electrical isolation of the dissimilar metals. A corrosion engineer should review situations in which dissimilar metals are used in steel water tank fabrication to determine the most effective solution(s) for controlling corrosion.

Principles of Cathodic Protection Cathodic protection systems are used to prevent or retard the corrosion that would naturally occur in a steel water tank. These systems prevent or slow corrosion by altering the electrochemical environment so that the submerged tank shell becomes the cathode of a corrosion cell. Since the cathode of a cell does not corrode, the submerged metallic tank shell is protected. There are two basic types of cathodic protection systems: impressed-current systems and galvanic systems.

Impressed-Current Systems In an impressed-current system of cathodic protection, an outside source of electrical power forces current into anodes submerged in the storage tank’s water. The current flows from the anodes through the water (electrolyte) and onto the submerged walls of the tank, making the tank itself the cathode of the corrosion cell. An impressed-current cathodic protection system (Fig. 3-4) consists of a manual or automatic alternating current/direct current (AC/DC) converter (i.e., a rectifier), feeder wires, and anodes inside the tank. The DC output voltage is typically adjusted and controlled automatically to account for a wide range of variables. To prevent damage to the coating, care must be exercised to ensure that the polarized voltage does not exceed a maximum value as noted in the industry standards; otherwise the coating may be damaged. Because excessive current output may damage the coating, manually controlled rectifiers without automatic adjustment and potential limiting capabilities are typically not recommended for coated steel. The precise maximum negative voltage is dependent on the characteristics of the coating and other factors.

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion FIGURE 3-4 Impressed-current system.

Galvanic Systems In a galvanic system (Fig. 3-5), a block of specially selected metal called a sacrificial anode is immersed in the electrolyte and electrically connected to the metal of the tank. The metal of the sacrificial anode is selected so that it will become the anode of the corrosion cell, with the steel tank being the cathode. Magnesium is the most common anode material employed for corrosion control in potable water. The anodes are typically of an extruded-rod type that are either suspended in the water from the roof of the tank or suspended in the lower portion of the tank supported from the sidewalls or by supports on the tank floor. These anodes are fabricated with a copper lead wire connected to the core of the anode and then attached to the steel tank. When the connection is made and the anodes are submerged in the water, the current flow from anode to cathode (steel tank) begins; thus, the magnesium corrodes and the steel is protected. Galvanic systems have become increasingly popular because no electrical current is required. Output of the sacrificial anodes may be monitored by using reference electrodes permanently installed in the tank below the surface of the water. The anode lead wires and reference electrode lead wires may be run into a test station installed at ground level to facilitate routine

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Chapter Three

FIGURE 3-5 Galvanic system.

monitoring. A test station may also be equipped with a rheostat to control the output of the anodes by altering the circuit resistance. In the absence of a test station, routing testing is accomplished with a portable reference cell.

Protective Coatings Cathodic protection is normally used in conjunction with a wellcoated tank surface. The coating reduces the rate of anode consumption and power use. Coatings typically have microscopic voids that expose the metal to the water and allow metal loss if cathodic protection is also not in place. The ideal corrosion control system combines a good dielectric coating (metallic coatings are not dielectric) and a properly designed, installed, and maintained cathodic protection system.

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion

Exterior Corrosion of Tank Bottom Cathodic protection systems are usually designed to protect the interior wetted surfaces of a water-storage tank. In some cases, however, the exterior of a tank bottom or shell is in contact with corrosive soils. This is typically the case for flat-bottom tank styles such as reservoirs and standpipes. In those situations, proper selection of the tank base material or backfill may reduce corrosion, or a separate cathodic protection system can be designed to protect exterior surfaces in contact with soil (refer to American Water Works Association [AWWA] Manual M27, External Corrosion: Introduction to Chemistry and Control, for details). In cases where cathodic protection will be used to protect such surfaces, impressed-current systems are generally recommended. Sacrificial anodes can also be used, depending on factors including the size of the tank floor to be protected, soil or sand resistivity, and whether the surface to be protected is coated or bare.

Cathodic Protection Design In designing a cathodic protection system, the engineer must consider the quality of the protective coating, tank geometry, surface area, obstructions, geographic location, temperature, turbulence, and the chemical composition of the water stored in the tank. Among items to be specified in the design are the AC/DC converter or alternative power source, the anode materials, and the anode configuration and suspension.

Automatically Controlled AC/DC Converter (Rectifier) The protective-current demands in a water-storage tank continuously change because of variations in water chemistry and temperature, fluctuations in water level, coating deterioration, and polarization effects. Automatically controlled impressed-current cathodic protection systems (Fig. 3-6) are typically used in water-storage tanks to adjust for these variations. Reference electrodes are used to continuously monitor the protective level and control the cathodic protection current delivered to the structure by the system. Separate control circuits are used for riser pipes and other areas of the tank that may have different localized conditions.

Anode Materials and Design Life Impressed-current anodes are typically made of mixed-metal oxide or platinum that can provide a nominal minimum 10- to 20-year life. The design life of the anode system is based on the anticipated protectivecurrent requirements, condition of the coating, percentage of bare steel to be protected, and the known consumption rates for the selected

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Chapter Three

FIGURE 3-6 Automatically controlled AC/DC converter (rectifier).

anode material. The approximate consumption rate is 17 to 20 lb/amp year for magnesium anodes. For platinized niobium, platinized titanium, or mixed-metal oxides on titanium, the approximate consumption rate is 0.00008 to 0.0013 lb/amp year (0.036 to 0.59 g/amp year).

Anode Configuration and Suspension Distribution of current from any anode configuration is affected by the geometric shape of the tank, obstructions within the tank, interior coating, and chemical characteristics of the water. The anode system may be installed vertically or horizontally. Vertically suspended anodes (Fig. 3-7a ) are installed by hanging the anode from an electrically insulated device at the tank roof adjacent to holes cut in the roof. Horizontally suspended anodes (Fig. 3-7b) are positioned below the normal water level attached to the tank shell or access tube. In elevated tanks with an inlet/outlet riser pipe 30 in. (76 cm) in diameter or larger, a vertically suspended anode is used to provide protection within the riser. When holes are cut in the roof, the finished installation must be watertight to eliminate openings for insects and runoff to enter the tank. For tanks subject to icing, either vertical anode systems with extensible elements or horizontal suspension systems designed to minimize

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion

A FIGURE 3-7a Vertical system reservoir tank.

ice damage to the anodes should be considered. These suspension systems can provide year-round protection and may eliminate the need for annual anode replacement due to ice damage.

Maintenance of Cathodic Protection System Following the installation of a cathodic protection system, a tankto-water potential profile is performed to ensure that the system is providing optimal corrosion control. The level of corrosion control achieved by the cathodic protection system can be determined through electrical testing. Corrosion is under control when a copper/ copper sulfate reference electrode is placed adjacent to, but not touching, the submerged tank surface and a polarized tank-to-water potential of −0.850 V or less is measured. Automatic rectifiers continuously monitor the tank-to-water potential being maintained by the system and make adjustments to

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Chapter Three

B FIGURE 3-7b Horizontal system reservoir tank.

control corrosion. Personnel responsible for operating and maintaining the cathodic protection system should refer to the designer’s instructions to fully understand their responsibilities. They should consult with the manufacturer if necessary regarding the equipment’s operation and make certain that all responsible personnel are familiar with its operation. A successful cathodic protection corrosion control system will continuously operate according to established criteria. Annual inspection of the cathodic protection system by the manufacturer or by a qualified corrosion engineer is recommended. At a minimum, this inspection should include an overall examination of the entire cathodic protection system, replacement of all defective parts, a potential profile survey, a physical check of the anode placement, and a written report. Various annual service plans are available from the cathodic protection companies or other service organizations. Cathodic protection systems should be regularly tested and inspected to ensure that they provide the maximum level of corrosion control to the surfaces of the submerged steel tank.

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion

Paint (Coating) Basics Paint is a generic term used to describe a protective or decorative coating that can be applied to a surface. Protective coatings and linings applied to potable water tanks are formulated to protect the substrate from corrosion on tank interiors as well as for corrosion protection and aesthetic value on tank exteriors. The many types of protective coatings available vary in their intended use, formulations, methods of application, and in how they dry or cure.

Components of Paint Most paints are made up of three primary components—the solvent, which is incorporated into the formula to lower viscosity and allow the painter to get the paint out of its container and onto the substrate; the resin or binder, which binds the material together and, more than any other component, determines the physical properties and performance of the cured film; and the pigment, which can provide color, hiding, or any number of other desirable properties in the film (e.g., gloss control, sag resistance, or added film strength). The combination of the solvent and the resin is called the vehicle (Fig. 3-8). The resin binder and the pigments make up the protective dried film after the solvent evaporates. Most paints also contain additives, which will also be covered in this section.

Vehicle

Volatile solvents

Resins (binders)

Pigments

FIGURE 3-8 Primary components of paint: solvent, resin, and pigment.

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Chapter Three

Organic Solvents Most paints contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These organic solvents are incorporated into paint formulas to lower viscosity and allow the painter to get the paint out of its container and onto the substrate. Water acts as a solvent for some types of paint, but it is not an organic solvent and therefore is not considered a VOC. Organic paint solvents generally fall into one or more of the following classifications: Active solvent: An active solvent is a true solvent for the resin (binder) portion of the formula. It dissolves the resin and keeps it in solution. Diluent: Although not a solvent for the resin portion of a particular paint formula, a diluent can still be used in conjunction with a true (active) solvent, without causing precipitation or incompatibility (“kick-out”). Latent (auxiliary) solvent: This is not a true solvent, but combined with an active solvent, it increases the strength (solvency power) of the active solvent.

Solvent Properties That Determine Use Before deciding what solvent or combination of solvents can be used in a particular paint formula, two important solvent properties must be considered:

Evaporation rate Some solvents are more volatile than others: The greater the volatility, the faster the evaporation rate. Because of its effect on application properties, it is important to consider the evaporation rate when selecting a solvent or solvent blend for a coating formula. For example, the use of a “fast” solvent may be appropriate if the coating is typically spray applied, but the result may not be a smooth, continuous film if the coating is applied by brush or roller. Flash point Flash point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor directly above a liquid will ignite when exposed to a spark or an open flame. The faster the evaporation rate of the solvent, the lower the flash point. The U.S. Department of Transportation defines paints with a flash point below 100◦ F (38◦ C) as flammable and paints with a flash point above 100◦ F (38◦ C) as combustible. A label picturing a red flame must be affixed to containers holding flammable liquids with a flash point below 100◦ F (38◦ C).

Solvent Types or Families Aliphatic hydrocarbons Derived from the distillation of crude oil, aliphatic hydrocarbons are considered weak solvents for most resin types. In a limited number of paint formulas, however, they can be active or true solvents. Examples are oil-based paints, or alkyds. Naphtha and mineral spirits are the most commonly used aliphatic hydrocarbons. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion Aromatic hydrocarbons Aromatic hydrocarbons are also derived from distillation of crude oil, but they are considered stronger solvents for a wider range of generic paints than the aliphatic hydrocarbons. All aromatic hydrocarbons contain a benzene-ring molecular structure. In fact, benzene is a solvent and the base molecule for this family of solvents. Aromatic hydrocarbons are active solvents for generic paints including alkyd, oil-based, chlorinated-rubber, certain epoxies, and a few others. They are also used extensively as diluents. Aromatic hydrocarbons most widely used in paint formulations are toluene, xylene, #100 solvent, and #150 solvent. Ketones This family of organic solvents has very high solvency power for most generic paints. Acetone, often used for cleanup in organic chemistry labs, is the base molecule for this family. Ketones most often used in paint formulas are MEK (methyl ethyl ketone), MIBK (methyl isobutyl ketone), MNPK (methyl normal propyl ketone), and MAK (methyl amyl ketone). Esters Esters, like ketones, have high solvency power for most generic paints and are used most often in lacquers and furniture finishes. They have limited use in industrial coatings because of their high cost and reactivity with certain resins. Ester solvents most often used in paints are ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, and amyl acetate. Alcohols Alcohols are not true (active) solvents for most generic paints. Exceptions are found in vinyl wash primers and ethyl silicate inorganic zinc–rich primers. Certain water-soluble alcohols are also used as co-solvents in water-based paints and in water-emulsion paints. Alcohol solvents found in paints include ethyl alcohol (drinking alcohol), isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol), butyl alcohol, and amyl alcohol. Glycol ethers and glycol-ether acetates Glycol ethers are unusual in that several are water soluble yet also have high solvency power. Because of their water solubility, they are often used as co-solvents in waterbased paints. Glycol-ether acetates are strong solvents that are often used in urethane paint formulations.

Pigments and Their Functions Nearly all paints contain pigments. Exceptions are certain high-gloss clear coatings. Unlike dyes, pigments used in protective coatings are essentially insoluble in water and organic solvents. Their chemical structure can be either organic or inorganic depending on the pigment type. Most inorganic pigments are derived from minerals that are mined from the earth. Organic pigments are made synthetically and are typically much more expensive than inorganic pigments. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Three Paint manufacturing would be a fast, simple process if it was not for the need to include one or more pigments in most paint formulas. Considerable energy and time are required to disperse pigments into the liquid components of any paint formula. During initial manufacturing, the pigment suppliers grind pigments to a very small particle size. Regrettably, these small pigment particles agglomerate before they are added to protective coatings. When dispersing pigments during paint manufacture, the intent is to break apart the pigment agglomerates into the individual particles originally produced by the pigment manufacturer. The amount of energy and time required to accomplish this depends on the type of pigment. In general, organic pigment agglomerates are much more difficult to disperse than inorganic. Most inorganic pigments can be dispersed using high-speed dispersion equipment, which is generally the fastest and the most economical method of pigmented paint manufacture. More time and energy are required to disperse most organic pigments; other manufacturing methods such as sand milling or ball milling are required. To understand the important functions of pigment in paint, we need to examine the three major classifications of pigments: prime pigments, extender pigments, and corrosion-inhibiting pigments.

Prime pigments Prime pigments provide color and hiding power and can be either organic or inorganic. Red iron oxide, yellow iron oxide, titanium dioxide (TiO2 ), lead molybdate (toxic), and lead chromate (toxic) are examples of inorganic prime pigments. Carbon black, phthalocyanine blue, phthalocyanine green, and quinacridone violet are examples of the more expensive organic prime pigments. Extender pigments Most extender pigments provide little, if any, color and hiding. All extender pigments are inorganic minerals that are mined from the earth. These pigments are used in paint formulas to provide a variety of desirable properties including gloss reduction, primer surface roughness for better topcoat adhesion, higher solids, film reinforcement, lower moisture vapor transmission (MVT), and thixotropy (sag resistance). Magnesium silicate (talc), barium sulfate (barytes), mica, aluminum silicate (clay), calcium silicate (wollastonite), and silica (sand) are examples of extender pigments used in paint. Corrosion-inhibiting pigments Also known as active pigments, corrosion-inhibiting pigments are typically inorganic and have very low solubility in water. They help control corrosion of steel when used in certain generic primers (primarily alkyd or oil based). Their low reactivity with water produces an alkaline condition and/or passivating ions that interfere with the electrochemical process that causes corrosion of steel. Lead tetroxide (red lead), zinc chromate, zinc phosphate,

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Controlling Corrosion calcium borosilicate, zinc molybdate, barium metaborate, and cement are examples of corrosion-inhibiting pigments used in paint. Over the years, red lead and zinc chromate have served as excellent corrosioninhibiting pigments for specific primer formulations, but they have been virtually eliminated because of their toxicity.

Resins With only a few exceptions, resins (binders) are organic polymers. Depending on molecular weight and resin type, these paint constituents can be either liquid or solid before they are added to the batch. The physical properties and performance of a cured paint film are related more to the types of resins used in the paint than to any of the other ingredients. This is why most paints are classified according to the resins (binders) they contain. Single-component paints can sometimes contain more than one type of resin, but these paints are usually classified by the resin that is present in the formula at the higher percentage, with the other resin identified as a modifier. For example, a paint that contains 80 percent alkyd resin solids and 20 percent acrylic resin solids would be classified as an acrylic-modified alkyd. Twocomponent paints are generally classified using both types of resins. For example, a two-component paint that consists of epoxy resin in one component and polyamide resin in the second component would be identified as a polyamide epoxy.

Curing Mechanisms Versus Resin Types To gain a basic understanding of the performance properties of the many generic paints available today, we will discuss the most common curing mechanisms—that is, the various methods by which a paint transforms from a liquid to a solid.

Lacquer cure Lacquer cure—the drying of a paint film by solvent evaporation only—is the simplest curing mechanism. As raw materials, resins that fall into this category are usually high-molecularweight resins. Since no further polymerization takes place when the dried paint film is formed, the performance properties are already exhibited by the resin as a raw material. In general, the advantages of paints that exhibit this curing mechanism include fast dry, complete cure at low temperatures, and fast recoat times. With the exception of coal tar pitch solutions, the major disadvantage is low solids (high VOC content), which requires application of multiple coats. In addition, use of these paints is limited because of air pollution regulations. Another disadvantage for all of the generic paints that fall into this category is poor solvent resistance. Vinyls: Organic solvent-based vinyl paints are made from vinylchloride and vinyl-acetate polymers. They are characterized

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Chapter Three by excellent acid resistance, good alkali resistance, and low MVT. Historically, they have been used on the interior and exterior of steel potable water tanks and in applications where good chemical resistance is desired. Their use today, however, has become almost nonexistent because of air pollution regulations. Chlorinated rubbers: These resins are formed by a reaction of rubber with chlorine. Like the vinyls, they have good chemical resistance and low MVT. In the past, chlorinated-rubber coatings were used on the interiors of potable water tanks. They also have excellent adhesion to concrete and have been used for swimming pools. Coal tar pitch solution: Coal tar pitch is produced from the destructive distillation of bituminous coal. A protective coating can be made by simply dissolving hot pitch in xylene. The cured film has low MVT and good chemical resistance. Coal tar pitch solutions can be formulated with a higher solids content (lower VOC) than the other lacquer coatings. These coatings have excellent adhesion to steel and concrete and are typically used for sewage and wastewater immersion service. They are only available in black and have poor resistance to direct sunlight. Nitrocellulose: This resin is produced by treating cellulose with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Nitrocellulose lacquers are widely used as clear and pigmented furniture finishes. Nitrocellulose is also used as a film-forming material in flexographic and gravure inks. Sunlight resistance is poor, so these coatings are most often used for interior applications.

Oxidation and polymerization Generic paints that exhibit the oxidation and polymerization curing mechanism include oil-based paints, alkyds, and epoxy esters. Following application of the wet paint film and evaporation of the solvent, oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere facilitates the linking together (polymerization) of the resin molecules. Paints that cure by this process have been available for many years. Oil-based paints At the turn of the 20th century, the choice of generic paints was very limited. Most paints were based on vegetable oils such as linseed oil. These “oil-based” paints exhibited excellent wetting and adhesion to marginally prepared steel substrates and provided long-term weathering and corrosion resistance when exposed to many atmospheric conditions. The biggest disadvantage was very slow dry time. Alkyds Alkyd technology was developed in the late 1920s. It was discovered through laboratory testing that by combining a trifunctional

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion alcohol with an acid salt and reacting them at high temperature, an ester-type resin could be formed that had very fast dry time. However, the film was too brittle to be considered as a paint binder. It was then discovered that by incorporating a vegetable oil such as linseed oil in the same reaction, resins could be produced that dried more quickly than straight linseed oil, yet had good enough film properties to be considered as paint binders. This development revolutionized the paint industry at that time. Further testing revealed that film properties and dry times could be adjusted depending on the type and amount of oil included in the reaction. Terminology that came out of this discovery included alkyd, which stands for an alcohol/acid reaction, and short-oil, medium-oil, or long-oil alkyd resins. The short–medium–long terminology designates the amount of oil the alkyd resin contains. Short-oil alkyds dry more quickly than medium- or long-oil alkyds, but are generally less flexible and do not produce paints with as good weatherability and corrosion resistance. In general, paints that exhibit this curing mechanism produce paint films with a wide variety of properties depending on the type and amount of oil in the resin. Overall, alkyd and oil-based paints are less expensive than other generic types and can provide long-term corrosion protection of steel as long as the exposure environment is not too severe. Chemical resistance and color and gloss retention are considered fair to good, depending on the formulation. Alkyd paint formulations can be modified with other resins, such as acrylics and silicones, to upgrade color- and gloss-retention properties.

Epoxy esters Epoxy esters are epoxy resins that have been “esterified” with fatty acids, resin, and so on. Epoxy-ester paints have better chemical resistance than oil-based or alkyd paints, but they chalk more readily when exposed to direct sunlight. The co-reacting curing mechanism Paints that exhibit the co-reacting (chemical cross-linking) curing mechanism usually have two or more components. Examples are two-component epoxies, two-component aliphatic urethanes, two-component fluorourethanes, and two-component polyureas. In this mechanism, a chemical reaction between two differing resin types is involved. In general, paints that cure by this mechanism produce cured films with high cross-linked density, excellent hardness, abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, low MVT, and excellent chemical and solvent resistance. One disadvantage is limited pot life. Two-component epoxies One component of two-component epoxy contains an epoxy resin with one or more chemically reactive sites known as epoxide rings. The second component (a curing agent)

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Chapter Three contains an amine or amide-functional resin. When the two paint components are combined in the proper ratio and applied to a substrate, they chemically react with each other to form the cured paint film. Performance properties vary depending primarily on the type of curing agent used. In general, polyamide-cured epoxies have slightly better adhesion characteristics, better flexibility, longer pot life, and less acid resistance than the amine-cured epoxies. It is also more difficult to develop protective coatings with ultra-high solids (90 to 100 percent) using polyamide-cured epoxies than it is for those using amine-cured epoxies. With few exceptions, two-component epoxies chalk readily when exposed to direct sunlight. Two-component epoxies can be modified with coal tar pitch, producing coal tar epoxy coatings. The coal tar pitch is usually added to the polyamide or polyamine curing agent. Properly formulated, these coatings can be applied up to 20 mil (508 m) dry film thickness (DFT) in a single coat. They typically cost less than unmodified twocomponent epoxies and have low MVT and good chemical resistance. They are most often used for protecting steel and concrete substrates from immersion in sewage and wastewater.

Two-component polyurethanes Urethane coatings are generally divided into aromatic and aliphatic types. They are noted for their overall balance of high-performance properties. These include excellent toughness, chemical and solvent resistance, hardness, and abrasion resistance. One component typically contains a hydroxyl-functional polyol resin that cross-links with a second component containing an isocyanate-functional polyisocyanate resin. Aliphatic polyurethanes usually contain an acrylic or polyester polyol portion. When cross-linked with an aliphatic isocyanate, they exhibit excellent color and gloss retention when exposed to direct sunlight. They are expensive and are most often used as thin-film topcoats over two-component epoxies. Aromatic polyurethanes generally have better adhesion to steel and are less expensive, but they tend to yellow when exposed to direct sunlight. They are often used as direct-to-steel or direct-to-concrete stand-alone coating systems. Some formulations can be used for immersion service. Two-component fluorourethanes Fluoropolymer-based coatings are known for their outstanding color and gloss retention when exposed to direct sunlight. Kynarr -based coatings have been around for many years but require baking at high temperature for proper film formation. Two-component fluorourethane coatings are a relatively new technology. These coatings exhibit the co-reacting curing mechanism at ambient conditions. One component typically contains hydroxyl- and

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion carboxyl-functional fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE) resin. Fluorourethane coatings generally exhibit the same performance properties as two-component aliphatic polyurethanes, but they have much better long-term color- and gloss-retention properties.

Two-component polyureas These coatings are usually 100 percent solids, cure extremely quickly (sometimes within seconds of application), and have extremely short pot life. Specialized plural-component spray equipment is required. One component contains either aromatic or aliphatic isocyanate-functional polyisocyanate resin; the other component contains an amine-functional resin that cross-links with the polyisocyanate resin when the two components are mixed together in the proper ratio. Because they are 100 percent solids and exhibit an extremely fast cure response, these coatings can be spray applied in one coat at very high film thickness. Depending on formulation, a wide range of performance properties can be achieved using this technology. Rigid or elastomeric (greater than 100 percent elongation) formulas are possible. Chemical resistance is generally very good, and some formulations are suitable for immersion service. One hundred percent solids, two-component polyurethane coatings are also available. Although their properties are generally similar to those of the polyureas, they are less flexible and have better chemical resistance. Baking enamels These are coatings with two co-reacting resins packaged in the same container. One resin is typically a polyester or acrylic containing one or more hydroxyl groups. The other resin is usually a melamine or urea formaldehyde. Cross-linking of the resin molecules only takes place at high temperatures (generally above 250◦ F [121◦ C]). Home appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, washers, and dryers have metal substrates that are protected with baking enamels. Components are painted in the shop and then sent through ovens, where the coating cures (usually in 10 to 15 minutes) at high temperature. Pot life is not a concern, since cure (co-reacting) will not take place at ambient temperatures. Moisture cure Polyurethanes Some aromatic and aliphatic urethane resins are designed to react with atmospheric moisture to form a cured film. These resins are usually based on toluene diisocyanate (TDI) or dephenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI). In the presence of atmospheric moisture (humidity), the resin molecules react with each other to form cured films. Single-package aromatic urethane primers, intermediate coats, and topcoats containing aluminum or micaceous iron oxide pigments are available that cure by this mechanism. The aromatic urethane types typically have excellent wetting and adhesion

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Chapter Three characteristics, even to marginally prepared surfaces, and offer excellent barrier-protection properties. For better color and gloss retention, single-package aliphatic urethane topcoats are also available that cure by this mechanism.

Coalescence Emulsion (latex paints) Water-based paints such as acrylic and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsions exhibit the coalescence curing mechanism. Acrylic emulsion resin (acrylic latex), for example, consists of small droplets of acrylic resin emulsified in water. The applied wet paint film cures through solvent evaporation (mostly water) and coalescence. As the water evaporates, the emulsified acrylic resin droplets get closer together. When most of the water is evaporated, an organic solvent known as a coalescing agent causes the resin droplets to flow together, forming a smooth, continuous paint film. Waterbased emulsions are often used as interior (PVA) and exterior (acrylic) house paints. They are also used for other architectural applications. Substrates that are coated with emulsion paints include masonry (concrete, concrete block, plaster, and so on.), wood, and drywall. Specially formulated acrylic emulsion paints are also available for direct-tometal applications. Free-radical polymerization Polyesters and vinyl esters have been used extensively for specialty applications since the 1960s. They are based on unsaturated prepolymer resins that are dissolved in an unsaturated monomer such as styrene. By addition of peroxide catalyst, carbonto-carbon double-bond sites react with each other to form the cured film. Although the monomer (styrene) is volatile in the liquid state, it acts as a cross-linking agent and is incorporated into the film. The polyesters form hard, dense, chemical- and water-resistant films. They are used primarily as laminating resins and gel coats for the manufacture of fiberglass boats, shower stalls, bathtubs, bowling balls, and so on. The vinyl esters have excellent acid resistance and are used primarily as fiberglass-reinforced and nonreinforced linings for steel and concrete substrates that come in contact with strong acids. Because of their reactive nature, vinyl esters have poor package stability, resulting in short shelf life, especially at high storage temperatures. Hydrolysis The primary use of ethyl silicates and polysilicates, which are among the few resins that are not based on organic polymers, is in the formulation of inorganic zinc-rich primers. The curing mechanism is similar to the curing mechanism for concrete (cement). An inorganic zinc-rich primer contains considerable metallic zinc dust, typically more than 70 percent by weight in the cured film. When the liquid paint is applied and the solvent evaporates, moisture from the

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion surrounding air is absorbed into the film, setting up the hydrolysis process. In the case of ethyl silicates, complex chemical reactions occur, forming a silicon oxide (SiO) matrix in which a small amount of resin binder holds together a large amount of metallic-zinc pigment. Upon complete hydrolysis (curing), the applied film is very hard, dense, and resistant to abrasion and solvents. Inorganic zinc-rich primers protect steel from corrosion by galvanic action. The zinc becomes the anode in the corrosion battery and the steel becomes the cathode. The zinc sacrifices itself to protect the steel in a process that is similar to that exhibited by galvanized-steel substrates. Inorganic zinc-rich primers are resistant to high temperatures (up to 750◦ F [399◦ C]), are difficult to topcoat, and have poor acid resistance.

Additives In addition to the primary paint ingredients (resin, pigment, and solvent), most paint formulations contain one or more additives. Although they comprise a minor portion of the liquid paint (usually less than 2 percent by weight), additives play an essential role. Most are rheology agents that positively affect the properties of the paint in the can and during application. Following are a few of the additives used to enhance paint properties. Antisettling agents: There is probably more of this additive used each year than any other paint additive. Since pigment is the heaviest paint ingredient, gravity causes it to settle to the bottom of the container. Antisettling agents do not actually prevent pigment from settling, but they keep it from hard packing in the bottom of the container. This makes it much easier to stir the pigment into a homogeneous mixture with the other ingredients. The most widely used antisettling agent is hydrogenated castor oil (trade name: MPA). Thixotropic agents: These additives are used to incorporate the property known as false body or high viscosity at rest. This property is essential to paints that are to be applied without runs or sags to vertical surfaces at high dry film thickness. Defoamers: Defoamers are essential additives for water-based paints and certain solvent-based paints to prevent bubbles during manufacture and/or in the applied film. They are normally silicone based and change the surface tension of water and organic solvents. Driers: For driers, metallic soaps are added to oil-based or alkyd paints to accelerate the oxidation and polymerization process. Mildewcides: Paint films that contain natural (nonsynthetic) ingredients promote mildew growth when they are exposed to warm, damp conditions. Mildewcides are used as additives in these types of paints to prevent mildew growth. Most alkyd and latex paints contain mildewcides.

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Chapter Three Anti-skinning agents: These are antioxidants used in oil-based or alkyd paints to prevent skinning (drying at the surface) in the can. Pigment wetting agents: These additives are usually silicone based and are incorporated into paint formulas to assist the resin in surrounding and wetting out each of the dispersed pigment particles.

Coating Calculations The spreading rate (coverage) of any gallon of paint depends on its nonvolatile (solids) content. One gallon occupies a volume of 231 in.3 (0.0038 m3 ) or 0.1337 ft3 (0.0038 m3 ). If a gallon or liter of paint contained no volatile (solvent) and it could be applied without any losses, the spreading rate obtained applied at 1.0 mil (25.4 m) would be 1,604 ft2 (149 m2 ). This figure is expressed as the theoretical spreading rate per gallon or liter. If a gallon or liter of paint contains volatile and its percentage of total volume solids is known, its spreading rate, wet-to-dry film ratio, and cost per applied mil per square foot (per applied micron per square meter) can be calculated as follows: Theoretical spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT = Percent of volume solids × 1,604 ft2 Spread rate @ DFTs other than 1.0 mil = Percent of volume solids × 1,604 ft2 /specified DFT Wet film thickness = DFT/percent volume solids Cost per mil per sq ft = Cost per gallon/spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT

Example Let us assume we have one gallon of paint that is 50 percent volume solids. The specified DFT is 5 mil and the cost per gallon is $22. With this information, we can make the following calculations: Theoretical spread rate @ 1.0 mil DFT = 0.50 × 1,604 ft2 = 802 ft2 /gal Spread rate at specified 5.0 mil DFT = 0.50 × 1,604 ft2 /5 = 160 ft2 /gal Wet film thickness = 5.0/0.50 = 10 mil Cost per mil per sq ft = $22/gal/802 = 2.74 cents/ft2

Corrosion Protection of Steel Water Tanks with Liquid-Applied Coatings A protective coating is a material that, when applied to a structure, isolates the structure from its environment. Properly applied protective

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion coatings are a cost-effective way to protect both exterior and interior tank surfaces. A coating applied to the interior wet surfaces of a tank is also called a lining. Both exterior and interior coating systems must be carefully selected to provide the best protection value for the money based on coating life, effectiveness of protection, ease of application, and ease of adding coats in future years. Many protective coating systems have become much more complex than the single-component materials that were prevalent before 1970. D102 is the AWWA standard for painting the interior and exterior of steel water tanks. The objective of this standard is to provide information about various coating systems for coating and recoating the interior and exterior of steel tanks used for potable water storage. Coating systems for new bolted-steel tanks are not covered by this standard. AWWA D102 is not a specification. AWWA standards describe minimum requirements and do not contain all of the engineering and administration information normally contained in specifications. Specifying engineers often reference specific interior and exterior coating systems contained in D102 when writing detailed specifications for a steel water tank painting project.

D102—Past, Present, and Future The first edition of this standard was approved by the AWWA Board of Directors on February 11, 1964. The second edition was approved on January 28, 1978, and subsequently withdrawn on June 23, 1991. The standard was reissued and subsequently approved by the AWWA Board of Directors on February 2, 1997. The third edition was approved in 2003. Inside and outside coating systems contained in D102 have changed substantially from one edition to the next (Table 3-1). Following are the primary reasons that substantial changes have been made to inside and outside coating systems over the years:

r Advances in coatings technology r State and federal regulations limiting the amount of organic solvent contained in protective coatings (VOC regulations); these regulations essentially eliminated the use of chlorinated rubber and vinyl coating systems

r Restrictions placed on certain coating ingredients such as red lead and zinc chromate

r Introduction of National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)/ANSI Standard 61 Drinking Water System Components–Health Effects in the late 1980s, which virtually eliminated some inside coating systems because of potential extraction of high levels of harmful ingredients into drinking water.

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Chapter Three

Standard

Outside Coating Systems

Inside Coating Systems

AWWA Alkyd D102–64 Vinyl Red lead/linseed oil, alkyd Metallic aluminum

Red lead/aluminum phenolic Vinyl Zinc/phenolic High-solids vinyl Cold-applied wax Hot-applied wax Metallic zinc Hot coal tar enamel Cold-applied coal tar Cold taste-and-odor tar

AWWA Alkyd D102–78 Vinyl Alkyd/silicone alkyd Alkyd (two primer coats) Chlorinated rubber/alkyd

Two-component epoxy Vinyl Chlorinated rubber High-solids vinyl Hot-applied coat tar Cold-applied coal tar Metallic sprayed zinc

ANSI/AWWA Alkyd D102–97 Alkyd (two primer coats) Alkyd/silicone alkyd Vinyl Epoxy/epoxy/aliphatic urethane Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/ aliphatic urethane

Two-component epoxy (two coats) Two-component epoxy (three coats) Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/epoxy Vinyl Hot-applied coal tar Cold-applied coal tar

ANSI/AWWA Alkyd D102–03 Moisture-cured polyurethane Water-based acrylic emulsion Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/ fluorourethane Epoxy/epoxy/aliphatic polyurethane Zinc-rich primer/epoxy/ aliphatic urethane

Two-component epoxy (two coats) Two-component epoxy (three coats) Inorganic zinc/epoxy/epoxy 100 percent solids polyurethane Organic zinc/epoxy/epoxy

Sources: AWWA standards D102–64, D102–78, ANSI/AWWA D102–97, ANSI/ AWWA D102–03. Note: ANSI = American National Standards Institute.

TABLE 3-1 Changes in Inside and Outside Coating Systems Specified in Various Editions of AWWA D102

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion Inside and outside coating systems contained in future editions of D102 will be further restricted by the continued implementation of more stringent VOC regulations for both shop- and field-applied protective coatings. Future editions of D102 will most likely only contain inside and outside coating systems that are very high solids based or water based.

Surface Preparation Before a protective coating system can be applied to a steel or concrete water storage tank, appropriate surface preparation must be undertaken. The purpose of surface preparation is twofold: to clean the substrate of contaminants and to roughen or “profile” smooth surfaces to ensure mechanical adhesion of the first (primer) coat. Welds may be ground, corners and edges may be smoothed, and voids may be filled so that the applied coating system does not fail prematurely. The Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC), established in 1950 and headquartered in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, assesses and advances surface preparation and its understanding by conducting research and “developing standards, specifications, and guides covering techniques and materials of surface preparation.” NACE International is a professional technical society that provides education and communicates information to protect people, assets, and the environment from the effects of corrosion. It, too, develops surface preparation and other standards, provides education and certification, and publishes numerous books and journals. Founded in 1943, NACE is the largest organization in the world committed to the study of corrosion, with a membership consisting of 15,000 engineers, scientists, and researchers in 91 countries. Together, these two organizations have issued joint standards that are commonly referenced by those who need to specify proven surface preparation methods. For example, AWWA D102–03 Standard for Coating Steel Water-Storage Tanks cites four SSPC/NACE surface preparation standards (SP10/NACE 2 Near White Blast Cleaning, SP6/NACE 3 Commercial Blast Cleaning, SP7/NACE 4 BrushOff Blast Cleaning, and SP11 Power Tool Cleaning to White Metal). Surface preparation methods vary and may not be appropriate for all materials of construction. Methods may use abrasive blast cleaning (SP10/NACE 2, SP6/NACE 3, and SP7/NACE 4, for example), hand or power tools (SP2, SP3, SP11, and SP15, for example), or water under pressure (SP12/NACE 5, for example). The surface preparation standards listed previously are primarily used for steel surfaces. Methods such as SP13/NACE 6 Surface Preparation of Concrete exist for cementitious substrates. In addition, SP13/NACE 6 further identifies surface preparation practices

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Chapter Three

FIGURE 3-9 Surface preparation under controlled conditions.

developed by ASTM International, formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials. Organized in 1898, ASTM International is one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world. ASTM International is a not-for-profit organization that provides a forum for the development and publication of voluntary consensus standards for materials, products, systems, and services. Surface preparation is so important to the successful completion of a water tank project that members of AWWA, ASTM, and other organizations donate time to review and update industry standards and methods and to develop new standards and methods as to surface preparation equipment improves and changes.

Surface Preparation—Steel For welded-steel water-storage tanks, surface preparation completed in a fabrication shop before the first (primer) coats are applied is understandably faster and easier than surface preparation that must be carried out after erection. Shop conditions are controlled, in that operations can be continued regardless of outside weather. Lighting and access to all areas of the structure being fabricated are generally superior to field lighting and access (Fig. 3-9). After cleaning, steel plate surfaces are abrasive blasted to remove mill scale and/or create a surface profile to which the applied coating will adhere. Abrasive blasting Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion

FIGURE 3-10 Open-nozzle blasting.

operations may be performed within an enclosed chamber or booth or by an operator using an open nozzle. Speed and efficiency are two of the advantages of centrifugal blasting machines; open-nozzle blasting (Fig. 3-10) may allow an operator more time to prepare difficult-toaccess areas. AWWA D102–03 Section 1.2, Surface Preparation, paragraph 4.5.2.1 states for outside surfaces of new tanks: Exterior surfaces shall be cleaned in accordance with SSPC SP6/NACE 3. If specified, tanks located in coastal areas or industrial environments shall be blast cleaned to SSPC SP10/NACE 2. Blast cleaned surfaces shall have a surface profile that is appropriate for the specific primer and coating system as recommended by the manufacturer of the coating.

For outside surfaces of existing tanks, AWWA D102–03 Section 1.2, paragraph 4.5.2.2, states: When the. . . coating system will adhere to the existing coating, all corrosion products and deteriorated coatings shall be removed by spot cleaning to SSPC SP11 or SSPC SP6/NACE 3 and the remainder of the exterior surfaces shall be cleaned by SSPC SP7/NACE 4 or by washing with an alkaline cleaner. . . to remove all dirt, dust, coating/paint chalk, and foreign

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Chapter Three matter. When the new coating system is not compatible with the existing coating, all existing coatings shall be removed and the surfaces blast cleaned to SSPC SP6/NACE 3 or, if specified, to SSPC SP10/NACE 2.

For interior surfaces of new tanks, AWWA D102–03 Section 1.2, paragraph 4.5.3.1, states: The interior surfaces of new tanks shall be cleaned in accordance with SSPC SP10/NACE 2, excluding interior surfaces of dry risers and dry pedestals. Interior surfaces of dry risers and dry pedestals shall be cleaned in accordance with SSPC-SP6/NACE 3. Blast-cleaned surfaces shall have a surface profile that is appropriate for the specific primer and coating system as recommended by the manufacturer of the coating.

Finally, for interior surfaces of existing tanks, paragraph 4.5.3.2 states: When existing coatings have not deteriorated extensively and the new coating system will adhere to and is compatible with the existing coating, all corrosion products and deteriorated coatings shall be removed by spot blasting to SSPC SP10/NACE 2 and the remainder of the interior surfaces shall be cleaned by SSPC SP7/NACE 4. When existing coatings have deteriorated extensively or the new coating system is not compatible with the existing coating, all existing coatings shall be removed and the surfaces cleaned to SSPC SP10/NACE 2. Blast-cleaned surfaces shall have a surface profile that is appropriate for the specific primer and coating system in accordance with the coating manufacturer’s recommendations.

Steel plate for bolted tanks may be prepared by first cleaning and rinsing in a hot alkaline solution followed immediately by hotair drying. This process removes not only dirt but also hydrocarbon contaminants that will prevent future coating adhesion. Thereafter, these plates are sent through a centrifugal blast machine where an approximately 2-mil-deep (51-m-deep) profile is made on the surface in accordance with SSPC SP10 Near White Blast Cleaning procedures. AWWA D103 Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage recommends that tank components to be protected with glass coatings receive either Near White Blast Cleaning (SSPC SP10) or, as an alternative, Pickling (SSPC SP8).

Surface Preparation—Concrete Surface preparation for concrete water-storage tanks is different from surface preparation for steel. Most surfaces of concrete tanks are already rough due to the way these vessels are constructed, so there is little need to add a profile. This coarse surface characteristic allows for good adhesion of paints and coatings. That does not mean, however,

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Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion that water tanks constructed of concrete are without their own surface preparation requirements. What needs to be accomplished is the removal of areas of poorly adhered concrete—flake-shaped fragments that detach from the surface of concrete in a process known as spalling. Laitance, a poorly adhered layer of concrete, may also be found on concrete surfaces and must be removed. Although less severe and less damaging than spalling, laitance comprises cement and tiny particles called fines that may be caused by improper vibration of concrete within forms. Left unrepaired, spalling may continue and expose reinforcing bars to corrosion, causing damage to the water tank that is difficult to repair. One way to remove spalling and laitance is by mechanical means, in accordance with ASTM D4259. Roughening of concrete surfaces may be desired on cast-in-place concrete surfaces, such as composite tank columns. These smooth, ascast surfaces may not be of uniform appearance, so abrasive blasting— again in accordance with ASTM D4259—helps to regulate the appearance of the completed pedestal tower. “Bugholes,” small irregular cavities uncovered by surface preparation procedures, should be filled with an appropriate material so they will not trap airborne contaminants and mold spores. Occasionally, bolted tanks without bottoms are constructed and placed on concrete slabs. These concrete slabs act as the floor and must be constructed of materials that will not leach out into the potable water supply and thereby contaminate it. NSF International, founded in 1944 as the National Sanitation Foundation, created ANSI/NSF Standard 61, a certification protocol that addresses these concerns. Regarding “bottomless” tanks resting on a concrete base, NSF may recommend that these concrete surfaces be constructed of ANSI/NSF 61-certified cements and admixtures, for example, or coated with an ANSI/NSF 61-certified coating before being placed in service. These concrete floor surfaces would also require surface preparation prior to the application of ANSI/NSF 61-approved paints and coatings. Once again, preparation routines in accordance with ASTM D4259 may be used. Even though most concrete tank surfaces may need little to no roughening, they do require cleaning. The SSPC SP12 standard for low-pressure water cleaning, WJ4, will accomplish this. This procedure usually removes loose shotcrete clusters and may remove debris left behind by, or concrete escaping through, placement forms. Placement forms are coated with release agents or compounds to prevent adhesion of concrete to these forms and thereby allow placement forms to be removed cleanly. These compounds may act as contaminants, however, and prevent adhesion of paints and coatings. WJ4 may be specified for this purpose. If non–water soluble or non–water dispersible form-release compounds are used, low-pressure water

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Chapter Three cleaning will not remove them, and abrasive blast cleaning through the use of ASTM D4259 may be required. Concrete surfaces, because they are porous, also absorb moisture. Whether because of rain or the use of water when cleaning equipment for surface preparation, these surfaces must be allowed to dry before coating. The length of, and need for, time to dry are influenced both by the temperature and humidity at the tank site and by the type of coating to be applied to the tank.

Coating Selection To the residents of the community or neighborhood closest to a waterstorage tank, how the tank looks—its exterior color and design—may be the most important characteristic. The city name or the name and mascot of the local high school may be emblazoned on the elevated steel tank for all to see. In contrast, residents living near ground concrete storage tanks may not want them visible at all, desiring them to blend into the background landscape. Enhancements are made to both steel and concrete tanks to increase their visual impact. Such enhancements may be from fabrications such as pilasters or simply from the allure of carefully chosen and illustrated paints and coatings. Understandably, residents want the exterior surfaces of water storage tanks to remain colorfast and appealing. But the interior surfaces, which few see, are in fact more important, because it is there where bacteria can grow and corrosion can occur undetected. Coating systems for both interior and exterior surfaces can be selected based on information provided by tank fabricators, by coating manufacturers and their representatives, by the owner’s or specifier’s preference, or by reviewing applicable AWWA standards.

Interior Surfaces—Welded-Steel Tanks An interior coating system in the wetted areas of the tank must withstand constant immersion; it must be able to resist alternate wetting and drying in the upper portion of the operating range and high humidity above the top capacity level; it must be resistant to the actions of ice abrasion in cold climates; and, in some geographic areas, it must be able to withstand extreme temperature fluctuations. In addition, interior coating systems must be able to be both shop-applied and field-applied, must be cost-effective, and must meet the minimum requirements of ANSI/NSF 61 Standard for Drinking Water System Components. For interior surfaces of tanks, ANSI/AWWA D102 lists five interior coating systems (Table 3-2). Such coatings “shall have been evaluated for long-term fresh water resistance and the system shall have demonstrated satisfactory service in fresh water for at least 18 months. Any coating that cannot meet these requirements, whether or not included in this standard, shall not be used.” Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Controlling Corrosion

Controlling Corrosion ICS Number 1

Description Two-coat, two-component epoxy

2

Three-coat, two-component epoxy

3

Three-coat, zinc/epoxy/epoxy, interior nonimmersed surfaces above TCL

4

One-coat polyurethane or polyureas

5

Three-coat zinc/epoxy/epoxy, interior surfaces above and below TCL

Note: ICS = interior coating system; TCL = top capacity level.

TABLE 3-2 Five Interior Coating Systems

Interior Surfaces—Bolted-Steel Tanks Interior surfaces of bolted-steel tanks are subjected to the same conditions as are welded-steel tanks and must also be protected by specially designed coating systems. ANSI/AWWA D103 Section 10.3–10.6 allows four protective coating systems to be used: galvanized coatings, glass coatings, thermoset liquid (epoxy) coatings, and thermoset powder (epoxy) coatings. Glass coating systems may begin with a primer coat of catalytic nickel oxide prior to the application of 6 to 19 mil (152 to 482 m) of the glass coating, firing, and fusion of the glass coating to the substrate in a furnace operating at temperatures above 1,200◦ F (649◦ C). Thermoset liquid (epoxy) coating systems are generally applied in two coats. The first coating is applied and heated to create a tacky, partially cured first coat followed by additional coating to achieve a minimum 5-mil (127-m) DFT. It is subsequently baked at 425 to 525◦ F (218 to 274◦ C), to thermally cross-link the complete coating system. Thermoset powder (epoxy) coating systems are electrostatically applied to achieve a minimum 3-mil (76-m) DFT prior to oven curing and baking. According to ANSI/AWWA D103, when galvanized coatings are to be supplied, “zinc metal suitable for immersion in drinking water shall be applied to the tank parts after fabrication in accordance with the recommended practice of the American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association in compliance with ASTM A123 and ASTM A153.”

Exterior Surfaces—Welded-Steel Tanks As mentioned earlier, the exterior coating attracts more attention and may cause more concern than any other aspect of a tank project because it is all that the neighboring community sees. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Three OCS Number

Description

1

Three-coat (optional four-coat) alkyd

2

Three-coat moisture-cured urethane

3

Three-coat water-based acrylic

4

Three-coat zinc primer/urethane/fluorourethane

5

Three-coat epoxy primer/epoxy/urethane

6

Three-coat zinc primer/epoxy/urethane

Note: OCS = outside coating system.

TABLE 3-3 Six Outside Coating Systems

For exterior surfaces of tanks, ANSI/AWWA D102–03 lists six outside coating systems (Table 3-3). According to the standard, “[p]roprietary formulations will be acceptable provided the coating is of the same generic type and that the performance of the formulation offered meets or exceeds the performance of the formulation defined in the referenced coating standard and also is suitable for the specified service conditions.”

Exterior Surfaces—Bolted-Steel Tanks Tanks fabricated in compliance with ANSI/AWWA D103 and protected with thermoset liquid or thermoset powder coatings are topcoated with acrylic or urethane baking enamels to yield a minimum of 3-mil (76-m) DFT. Regarding the occasional repair and touch-up of welded- and bolted-steel tank coating systems, it is very important to remember that such activity does not require the full removal and replacement of the coating system. Repair and touch-up are only required in areas that have been damaged, and it is only after many years of service that welded- and bolted-steel tanks require overcoating and/or complete repainting. Table 3-4 describes common water tank coating characteristics.

Application Techniques and Equipment By definition, a protective coating is a material that is applied to the exterior of the tank that acts as an insulator between the tank and its environment. A protective lining has a similar definition, the major difference being that the protective lining system is applied to the interior of the tank and acts as a barrier between the tank and its cargo.

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Fluorourethanes

Glass coatings

Zinc-rich primers

Epoxies Excellent

¶

¶

Excellent

Excellent

Very good to excellent

Very good

N/A

Very good

Good to very good

Corrosion Resistance† Fair to good

Excellent

Very good

Excellent

Excellent

Very good to excellent

Very good to excellent

Very good

Adhesion‡ Good

Excellent

Excellent (as part of system)

Excellent (topcoat outside)

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Very good

Long-Term Durability§ Good

TABLE 3-4

†

Common Water Tank Coating Characteristics

Some generic classifications are not used as topcoats. Some generic classifications do not include primers. ‡ Each generic classification is rated for its adhesion to primer or existing coating. § Some generic classifications should not be used as topcoats. ¶ Polyureas, epoxies, and zinc-rich primers are interior coatings or are topcoated. They do not have color and gloss exterior “expectations.”

∗

Excellent Outstanding

Urethanes ¶

Very good

Acrylics

Polyureas

Color and Gloss Retention∗ Fair to good

Generic Type Alkyds

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Chapter Three Many considerations need to be taken into account when selecting the proper interior and exterior protective systems, including governmental regulations, various environmental considerations, the effectiveness of the protection, the ease (or difficulty) of application, and the anticipated service life of both the coating and the structure. For instance, an interior lining must be able to withstand constant immersion in water, varying water temperatures, alternate cycles of wet and dry periods, ice abrasion, high humidity and heat, and varying levels of chlorine and mineral contact. The lining materials must not pose a health risk to the general public and must be approved for such use by the appropriate state or federal regulatory agency. Alternately, an exterior coating system should take into consideration the type of atmosphere to which it will be subjected, the expected ambient temperatures, the areas surrounding the tank, and the desired overall appearance and aesthetic value of the coating. In some cases, the entire coating system may be applied in a shop environment; in other cases, the coating system may be applied entirely in the field. Quite often, though, it is in a combination of these two settings. Each method will be examined individually.

Shop Application The two major advantages in applying a protective coating in a shop environment are control and accessibility. Often the interior and exterior sections receive just a primer coating in anticipation of field application of the subsequent coatings specified. This is done to allow fabricators to quickly clean, prepare, and prime the surface in accordance with specifications while still allowing them the ability to continue working the plate and shipping it without compromising the surface preparation. When this approach is taken, an area is generally left uncoated around the perimeter of each plate, commonly referred to as the margin. The margin area can vary by specification but is usually between 4 and 6 in. (102 and 152 mm) wide. This allows for field welding to be performed during the erection in the field. Of course, these areas will not meet the surface cleanliness requirements of the specification, and they will need to be addressed in the field prior to the continued application of the coating system. This will be covered in more detail in the following section on field painting. In some instances, the entire protective coating system is applied in the shop—for example, with bolted tanks. The steel panels are generally coated following roll forming and bolt-hole punching. In this situation, a thermoset liquid coating may be applied and then baked at a prescribed temperature, or a thermoset powder coating may be applied and then baked according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Depending on the type of interior lining system, the bake temperatures can vary between 425◦ F (218◦ C) and (in the case of a glass lining)

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Controlling Corrosion 1,600◦ F (870◦ C). Factory-applied lining systems are discussed in more detail in AWWA D103. The factory-applied liquid baked-on exterior coating systems generally combine epoxy primer with an acrylic enamel topcoat or an acrylic polyurethane topcoat. The basic premise of a shop application of the protective coating system, whether it be the primer or the entire system, is that since application is all performed on the ground and under controlled shop conditions, the result will be (and most often is) a very uniformly applied and fully cured protective coating system. However, the coating system is often damaged during loading, transporting, unloading, and erection of the plates. Depending on the extent of the damage, major field work may be needed for repair. Anticipating this situation, a combination of shop priming and field painting is often employed.

Field Painting Although coating and/or lining systems applied in the field share many of the considerations we reviewed under shop-applied coatings, other factors specific to field painting need to be evaluated. Among these items are the type of lining that is environmentally compliant, tank heating and ventilating, dehumidification requirements, the landscape surrounding the tank, and the type of environment that the tank is subject to during the preparation, application, and cure of the lining and coating systems (e.g., chloride sources in a marine environment). Generally speaking, the interior of the tank requires the highest degree of surface cleanliness and preparation. Many of the protective lining systems require a minimum surface cleanliness equaling an SSPC SP-10/NACE 2 Near White Metal Blast. In an effort to achieve this, painting contractors typically blast the bottom of the tank first and then begin to blast the wall section by section. Each section (called a drop) is blasted and coated during the work shift unless an environmental control such as dehumidification is needed. The abrasive used in the cleaning process is allowed to fall to the floor of the tank and accumulate there. This abrasive provides an insulation of sorts from the environment so that the initial blast on the floor is held or maintained. If the blast is lost, the contractor reblasts the floor area and coats it as he is finishing the interior of the tank. Special care needs to be taken to ensure that spent blast media is not billowed and deposited into the freshly coated surface. Although this is a common approach to lining the inside of storage tanks, it is not the only correct way to perform this task. When a primer has been applied in the shop and the contractor is only applying finish coats to the tank in the field, the surface preparation specification is usually a bit different than that just described. Two concerns must be addressed: (1) the condition of the shop primer

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Chapter Three and its preparation before receiving any topcoats and (2) the weld seam preparation. Typically, the shop primer is swept blast according to SSPC SP7/NACE 4 Brush-Off Blast Cleaning, while the weld seams are prepared according to SP10/NACE 2 Near White Metal Blast. In some cases the primer is reapplied, while in others only the finish coat(s) are applied. Proper ventilation of the tank’s interior is critical to ensure a thoroughly cured lining. When coating the outside of the tank, the consequences of overspray, dry spray, and ambient conditions must be considered. Adverse conditions during surface preparation, coating application, and curing can (and most often do) lead to premature catastrophic failure of the coating system. Specifiers and contractors should also be aware of the areas surrounding the tank and the environment to which the coating system will be subjected. For example, an elevated water tank in a congested urban area may require coating materials that can only be roller applied or that tend to “dryfall” if applied by a sprayer. By way of environmental considerations, coastal regions may require a coating system that has a higher film build and more barrier protection to protect the tank from a chloride-rich environment. Depending on the tank and the contractor, the coating process is completed in different ways, but completing drops is still the most common way to ensure that a properly cleaned surface is maintained. Typically, the specified cleanliness for the exterior of the tank would be an SSPC SP6/NACE 3 Commercial Blast. For a shop-applied primer, the primer is swept blast according to SP7/NACE 4, while the weld seams require SP6/NACE 3. Again, a primer may be reapplied if specified or the finish coats may be applied over the prepared existing primer.

Equipment and Techniques Many shops that use liquid coatings apply them with spray equipment, which has undergone many improvements since the introduction of conventional spray units. This section briefly describes methods and equipment for applying protective coating and lining systems in both shop and field. In the field, paint contractors typically use rollers or airless spray systems. However, because of new coating technology and new environmental concerns and legislation, plural-component spray equipment is increasingly showing up on tank coating projects. The use of brushes and rollers in a shop environment is mostly limited. Brushes and rollers are typically used for touch-up or to coat difficult or complexly designed areas.

Brushes Brushes are not as high tech as sprayers, and many consider them an outdated way to apply paint. However, many situations still require their use. A “stripe coat,” often specified for added protection of edges,

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Controlling Corrosion rivets, corners, bolts, and welds, is best applied by a brush, because it improves the wetting capabilities of the coating by forcing the coating into areas that would be problematic if sprayed or roller applied. A worker applying a coating by brush should hold the brush at an angle of approximately 45 degrees and, using the wrist and arm, spread the coating evenly and quickly onto the substrate. Once the coating is evenly spread, it should be smoothed by light brush strokes to eliminate any irregularities. When the next brushload of coating is applied, the final smoothing strokes should extend from the newly applied coating into the previous brush-applied adjacent area. This spreads the coating over the overlap between the two areas and provides a smooth, uniform coating over the whole surface while maintaining the wet edge (the end of the stroke of the previous applied coating). As the next brushload of coating is applied, the painter should sweep the coating from the substrate back into the wet edge of the previous application to help prevent lap marks. It is also important to brush out over an edge, not against it. Brushing against an edge creates an action that pulls the coating away, causing a thin area on the edge.

Rollers Rollers have earned a bit more respect than brushes, but their production results still pale in comparison with results of spray application. Application by roller is faster than application by brush, but is not quite as fast as application by spraying. Because the roller cover holds considerably more coating than a brush, a much larger area can be covered with one load. Rollers are excellent for large, flat areas—for example, the tops or sidewalls of tanks. Rollers can be used wherever the skill of a brush or spray application is not called for. Rollers can also be used if spray applications are prohibited due to overspray concerns. The procedure for using the roller is to immerse it in the coating tray or bucket and roll it back and forth on either a tray ramp or bucket grid on the inside of the bucket. This removes the excess coating from the roller and prevents excessive drip and spatter. Continue spreading the liquid coating onto the surface in the form of a W or an M over an area that one roller’s worth of coating will cover. After initially spreading the coating by this method, fill in the area by rolling the roller back and forth over the entire surface being covered. Finish by rolling the coating in one direction. This is called laying off, and it aids in developing a uniform finished appearance. Spraying and backrolling is another example where the roller is used to ensure a uniform application and finish.

Conventional Spray Equipment Many shops apply the protective coatings with what is termed conventional air spray equipment. This method uses compressed air to

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Chapter Three Fluid pressure regulator

Regulator and moisture separator

Regulated air

Fluid

Regulated air Pressure container

FIGURE 3-11 Components needed to apply paint by air spray. (Courtesy of Spray-Quip, Inc., Houston, TX.)

atomize the paint as it exits the spray gun. In other words, air is injected into a stream of paint through the air nozzle in front of the gun, creating the mist that is propelled out. The basic components needed to apply paint by air spray are an air compressor, paint pot or cup, oil and moisture separators, air supply hoses, material hose, regulators, and air spray paint gun (Fig. 3-11). The most important element in air spray painting, as in other application methods, is the person operating the gun. Conventional air spray equipment affords the applicator a great level of control and results in a high-quality finish. The applicator is responsible for applying the paint correctly, using the best technique, and keeping the equipment in good working order. Generally, coating manufacturers list the optimum pressures for applying their coatings. They also list the type of gun and the correct sizes of paint nozzle, air cap, and needle to produce the best-quality applied film. Typically, externalmix air caps are used. The space between the fluid nozzle and the air nozzle is called the annular ring. It provides a column of air around the fluid stream. As the fluid and air leave the air cap, they begin to expand and mix. As this mixed stream leaves the center of the nozzle, it is further atomized with additional force from the holes on the horns of the external-mix air cap. The biggest advantage of a conventional air spray system is the control the applicator has over the finish; relatively easy adjustments to the fluid pressure and air pressure give the applicator tremendous flexibility and versatility. The biggest drawback is probably low transfer efficiency; conventional air spray equipment has a transfer efficiency of approximately 25 to 30 percent.

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FIGURE 3-12 Standard setup of an airless spray system. (Source: Graco)

Airless Spray Equipment Because of the low transfer efficiency and slow production time associated with conventional spray equipment, airless spray equipment was developed and introduced (Fig. 3-12). Airless sprayers work by pressurizing paint fluid. The paint travels through a supply hose to an airless spray gun tip, and the coating atomizes into fine droplets as it exits the tip. In airless spray, as the name suggests, air is not used to atomize the paint. The basic components of an airless spray system are a power source, a pressure pump, a paint container, high-pressure fluid hose, an airless spray gun, and an airless spray tip. The paint is pressurized by the pump and forced through high-pressure hose to the airless spray gun. When the stream of high-pressure coating

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Chapter Three

FIGURE 3-13 Standard setup of an air-assisted airless spray system. (Source: Graco)

reaches the airless tip, it is atomized and shaped by the specific size of the tip. The only adjustment to an airless spray gun is to change the tip. Coating manufacturers specify the correct tip size and proper atomizing pressures needed to produce the best-quality applied film. Although the airless spray applicator does not have the control that a conventional spray system affords, the trade-off is that greater speed and greater transfer efficiency value (35 to 50 percent) are possible. Some have found a way to combine the best features of conventional air spray with airless spray equipment and have created a new spray finishing capability. The process has been termed as air-assisted airless spray. This equipment (Fig. 3-13) uses a standard airless pump and an airless spray tip to atomize the coating and shape it into a fan pattern. However, in contrast to normal airless operations, the fluid pressure in an air-assisted airless spray system is relatively low. As expected, a low fluid pressure (usually below 1,000 psi [6,894 kPa])

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Controlling Corrosion fails to produce an acceptable spray pattern, and the resulting pattern has heavy edges called tails. To eliminate the tails and assist in the atomization process, air is added at a low volume, typically 1 to 3 cfm (0.47 to 1.41 L/s), and at a low pressure between 10 and 20 psi (69 and 138 kPa). To this coating stream, assisting air is directed into the airless pattern through horns on a special air cap. This results in a good appearance, very good transfer efficiency (50 to 65 percent), reduced overspray, less tip wear, and longer pump life due to the lower pressures. Because of new VOC regulations as well as owners seeking “solvent-free” coating solutions in order to reduce or eliminate extractables, manufacturers have begun formulating coatings with much higher percentages of solids. Fabrication shops and field painters have had to comply with tougher emission laws and have begun looking for equipment that provides higher transfer efficiency and higher solids protective coating material application capability. These concerns have led to the development and refining of equipment known as electrostatic and plural-component spray equipment. The main advantages of electrostatic spraying are the savings in materials and labor and the high transfer efficiencies of material to the surface. In electrostatic spraying, a high-voltage electrical charge is imparted to the atomized paint particles via an electrode on the gun, causing the paint particles to be attracted to the substrate, which is grounded. This virtually eliminates all overspray. Paint particles that would normally be lost because of overspray are instead attracted to the edges and even the back of the substrate. Transfer efficiencies obtained with electrostatic spray painting range between 65 and 98 percent. The equipment typically used for electrostatic spraying is the same as that used with conventional air spray equipment and with airless equipment. However, airless and/or conventional electrostatic systems have electric power supplies to give the paint the negative charge needed to draw it to all sides of the substrate being painted. An electrode at the tip of the gun adds a high-voltage electrostatic charge to the atomized paint particles (Fig. 3-14). This technology lends itself to the application of both liquid-applied coatings and powder coatings. In plural-component spray painting, two-component (or more) catalyzed coatings are proportioned, mixed, and applied by the spray equipment. This method is generally for use with coatings that have a very short pot life (from a few seconds to a few minutes) and a very high solids content (typically 100 percent). The base resin and converter are mixed at the spray gun, or at a mixing manifold preceding the spray gun. The two components are then immediately sprayed onto the substrate being coated. There are two basic types of plural-component systems: fixed ratio and variable ratio. A fixed-ratio

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FIGURE 3-14 Standard setup of an electrostatic spray system. (Source: ITW Ransburg)

system provides only one ratio of volume for the multiple components of the coating. A variable-ratio system can be adjusted for different component ratios (e.g., 1:1, 2:1, 3:1). The equipment consists of two or three airless pumps (feed pumps) attached to an air motor. The pumps move the coating components individually from their containers in separate lines to a proportioning pump. The materials are then normally heated and directed either to the spray gun tip or to a mixing manifold assembly fitted with one or more in-line static mixers. From the manifold, the mixed material travels through a whip hose to the spray gun. Heaters play an important role with plural-component systems. They are used to reduce the coating viscosity, improve fluid flow, and optimize the reactivity of the materials. Heaters are often installed in-line and are placed on the material containers. The material hoses are often heat traced and insulated, as well help maintain the desired temperature. Plural-component systems also use a solvent-fed purge pump that connects the container of solvent with the back of the mixing manifold. When an applicator shuts down the equipment, the valve for the purge pump is opened, and a solvent flush is delivered to flush out any material that could set up in the mixing manifold (Fig. 3-15). The mixing manifold, when required, is critical for properly blending and mixing the materials before they leave the spray gun. The manifold usually contains a static in-line mixer that works by splitting the coating stream and rotating it to 90 degrees. This is done numerous times so that the components are mixed thoroughly when they exit the spray gun.

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Mixer/manifold

Solvent supply and pump

Base supply and pump

Proportioning pump

Spray gun

Catalyst supply and pump

FIGURE 3-15 Standard setup of a plural-component spray system. (Source: JPCL, October 1989)

Inspection of Linings Independent Inspector’s Duties Coating contracts usually involve a significant investment of both time and money. The owner has a well-written job specification completed and conducts some type of bid process to select the coating contractor. The inspector provides the owner with written assurance that the project has met the specifications and that the coating system will perform for its intended full life. The coating inspector is also viewed as providing additional assurance that the risk of catastrophic failure is significantly decreased or altogether eliminated. The inspector most often becomes the eyes through which the owner observes the finished work and determines whether the contract has been fully satisfied. Many tests can be performed after the coating has been applied. It is often difficult to find deficiencies in the coating system, however. Once the job is finished, a poor job may look the same as a high-quality job. Therefore, it is important that inspections occur not only at the conclusion of a project, but also during coating operations. This will help determine that the coating specification was met.

During Application During the application, the inspector may need to conduct a wide array of key tests and observations:

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Chapter Three r Ensure that the proper environmental conditions exist. With the emergence of new coating technologies, the temperatures and relative humidity constraints change from product to product, and it is always best to refer to the manufacturer’s data pages. A good rule of thumb is to ensure that the steel surface temperature is at least 5◦ F (3◦ C) above the dew point and rising.

r Ensure that the surface is free of dust, dirt, or any abrasive residue from the blast cleaning operation.

r Ensure that coatings have been properly thinned ahead of time. This includes being certain that the recommended thinner has been used in the recommended amount.

r Ensure that the wet film is of the proper thickness. This can

be determined by conducting mathematical calculations of the surface area coated and/or by periodically taking direct readings while the coating is being applied.

r Ensure that the coating is applied evenly, that the passes are overlapped, and that there are no thin spots, discontinuities, dry spray, and so on. The more often problems during application are addressed immediately, the greater the likelihood that runs, sags, and discontinuities can easily be brushed out and corrected.

After Installation Once the coating installation is complete, the inspector should check that the proper curing and drying conditions are being maintained. The inspector should also make certain that there has been no condensation on the surface or that any type of contamination has been deposited on the coating during the curing process. Overspray, pinholes, runs, or any other imperfections not uncovered at the time of application should be marked now and repaired before another coat is applied. In many cases, other tests may be required once the coating application is complete, including the following points:

r Discontinuity (holiday) testing: low- or high-voltage type r Dry film thickness measurements: Type I, Type II, or Tooke Gage method

r Adhesion testing: tape test or tensile adhesion tests r Degree of cure using durometers or the solvent-resistance method

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Inspection Tools Individuals responsible for quality control should be familiar with basic inspection tools including those listed here. This is not to be construed as an exhaustive list. WFT gauge: The wet film thickness gauge is used to measure the thickness of paint being applied at the point of application. Two common gauges used are the interchemical gauge and a notch-type gauge. DFT gauge: The dry film thickness gauge is used to measure the thickness of paint after it has been applied and, preferably, cured. Type 1A magnetic DFT gauge: Commonly called a banana gauge, this is a single-point lift-off gauge (Fig. 3-16). It measures nonmagnetic coatings over a magnetic surface. It operates by magnetic contact and resistance of the magnetic force to the surface by the coating thickness. Calibration assurance in the field is strongly recommended. Type 1B magnetic DFT gauge: Commonly called a pencil pull-off gauge, this is a single-point lift-off gauge. It measures nonmagnetic coatings over a magnetic surface. It operates by magnetic contact and resistance of the magnetic force to the surface by the coating thickness. Calibration assurance in the field is strongly recommended. Type 2 electromagnetic DFT gauge: This gauge measures nonconductive coatings over a ferrous metal surface. It operates by electromagnetic contact and resistance of the electromagnetic force to the surface by the coating thickness. Calibration assurance in the field is strongly recommended. Eddy current gauge: The eddy current gauge (Fig. 3-17) measures nonconductive coatings over a nonferrous surface. It operates by emitting an eddy current and measuring the difference between the emitted signal and the return signal. This difference in time is affected by the coating thickness. Calibration

FIGURE 3-16 Type 1A magnetic DFT gauge (banana gauge). (Source: KTA-Tator)

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Chapter Three FIGURE 3-17 Type 2 electromagnetic DFT gauge. (Source: KTA-Tator)

assurance in the field according to the gauge manufacturer’s instructions is strongly recommended. Probing knife: This knife is useful in determining adhesion of coatings. It can be used in conjunction with adhesive tape. Magnifiers/magnified light scopes: These are useful for closer examination of substrates and evaluation of pits, contamination, pinholes, etc. Mirrors and telescoping mirrors: Mirrors are helpful when the applicator needs to check behind hard-to-reach areas such as nuts and bolts—wherever direct viewing is impossible. Surface comparators: These are effective in evaluating various surface profiles obtained using various abrasive materials. Replica tape and spring micrometers: Replica tape and micrometers are often used to determine surface profiles. Sling psychrometer and U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables: These are used in conjunction to determine relative humidity values and dew point temperatures. Surface temperature gauges and infrared noncontact temperature gauges: These gauges aid in determining when the surface is approaching the dew point and when surface temperature is

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Controlling Corrosion excessive. Either situation may be problematic and can lead to blistering. NACE/SP0178 Design, Fabrication, and Surface Finish Practices for Tanks and Vessels to Be Lined for Immersion Service (also known as the weld replica standard): This is quite effective in determining if the welds have been prepared properly and are in a condition to receive a protective coating or lining. Holiday detectors: Both wet-sponge low-voltage and high-voltage DC units are effective in examining a lining to ascertain the number of discontinuities (holidays) within it. The low-voltage unit is effective if the lining is less than 20 mil (508 m) DFT. The delimiters on the high-voltage equipment are the coating’s thickness and its dielectric strengths; voltages can range from 500 to 200,000 V. Neither unit is recommended for coatings that contain conductive pigments (e.g., aluminum, zinc, and graphite). Adhesion testers: These reveal possible problems with adhesion by defining a numerical adhesion value in pounds per square inch or kilopascals and revealing where the break has occurred. Tooke Gage: Commonly called a paint inspection gauge, the Tooke Gage is known as “the referee,” so named for its ability to examine individual coatings within a multicoat system as well as the system in its entirety. It is highly accurate in determining film thicknesses up to coating films of 50 mil (1,270 m). Testing with the Tooke Gage is destructive, so repairs will be required. Soluble-salt testing (chloride and ferrous): Wide arrays of tests can be performed to obtain information determining the presence of invisible contaminants that will be detrimental to the lining. Two common extraction methods are the swabbing method and the Bresle patch method:

r In the swabbing method, the salts are extracted by using distilled water and medicinal-grade wool or cotton swabs. A defined surface area is then swabbed with the cotton swabs that have been saturated with the distilled water solution and dried with additional dry cotton swabs. The wet and dry swabs are then placed back into the beaker containing the distilled water and stirred for several minutes.

r In the Bresle patch method, the salts are extracted by using distilled water in conjunction with a plastic patch selfadhesive cell and syringe. Distilled water is injected into the cell, allowed to dwell for 20 seconds, and then drawn back into the syringe. The same solution is then reintroduced into the cell, and the process is repeated. This process is conducted a total of three times.

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Chapter Three It is generally accepted by the industry that neither extraction method removes all of the soluble salts, but only up to a maximum of approximately 45 to 50 percent. Once you have obtained your solution, there are several methods for measuring the amount of soluble salts obtained, including the following:

r r r r r

Potassium ferricyanide test Conductivity test Kitagawa tube test Quantab strip test QuantoFix test

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Controlling Corrosion O’Donoghue, M., R. Garrett, and V. J. Datta. 1998. Optimizing Performance of Fast-Cure Epoxies for Pipe and Tank Linings: Chemistry, Selection, and Application. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 15(3):36–51. O’Toole, D. 1997. Overcoating: An Effective and Economical Solution for Water Storage Tank Exteriors. In Proc. 1997 SSPC Technologies for a Diverse Industry, San Diego, Calif.; Pittsburgh, PA.: SSPC. Preparation of Protective Coating Specifications for Atmospheric Service. 2000. Joint Technology Report SSPC-TR 4/NACE 80200. In Proc. Planning and Specifying Industrial Protective Coating Projects (2004). Pittsburgh, PA.: SSPC. Public Works. January 1995. Specifications for Coating Water Storage Tanks are Evolving. Roetter, S. P. 1993. Liability Enormous for Lead-Based Paint Removal. Opflow (March). Schubert, R. 1999. Construction and Operation of Water Storage Tanks in Rural Alaska. In Proc. 1999 AWWA Engineering and Construction Conference, Orlando, Fla. Denver, Colo: AWWA. Shannon, G. B. 2003. Selecting Coatings for an Elevated Water Tank in a Densely Populated Business Park. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 20(7):85–7. Smith, L. M., ed. Generic Coating Types: An Introduction to Industrial Maintenance Coating Materials. SSPC 95–08. Pittsburgh, PA.: Technology Publishing Company. SSPC Painting Manual Volume 1: Good Painting Practice. 4th ed. 2004. Pittsburgh, PA.: Society for Protective Coatings. SSPC Painting Manual Volume 2: Systems and Specifications. 8th ed. 2000. Pittsburgh, PA.: Society for Protective Coatings. Stein, G. R. 1994. Community Acceptance of Lead Paint Removal Projects. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 11(5):119–25. Zienty, D. 2002. Tanks Pull Double Duty. WATER/Engineering & Management 149(2):9–13. Zienty, D., and L. Dornbusch. 2002. Painting for Antenna Installations on Water Storage Facilities. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) 19(9): 73–9.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

4

Contractual Considerations William J. Dixon, P.E. Dixon Engineering, Inc.

This chapter includes general discussions of the most important topics to be investigated and detailed in preparing the specifications for a new steel water-storage tank. Some topics are common to steel water tank repair and/or repaint. Repair and repaint comments are made following the new-tank comment in some cases. This chapter describes the content and purpose of each of the documents involved in bidding, and it notes the duties of owner, engineer, and constructor with respect to specifications, bidding, design, construction, and inspection.

Competitive Bidding The water industry in the United States has been serving municipal clients for more than 200 years. In that time, the industry has developed competitive bidding practices, which are required by law in most states and by governmental subdivisions. Many variations to the standard construction project (designed and bid by the engineer) and some old practices such as maintenance contracts have resurfaced with new twists. Different methods of contract administration have been developed, the most common of which is usually called design/build. Newer practices include computer bidding and what is called a reverse or negative auction. These alternative methods have different benefits depending on the project and on whether you are a public owner or a private owner. It is necessary to fully understand the benefits of the selected method. The closed competitive bid process was developed to eliminate fraud and political influence in the awarding of contracts and

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Chapter Four generally led to the project being awarded to the lowest responsible and responsive bidder. Responsible refers to the company’s ability to successfully complete the project within the required time frame, and responsive refers to the thoroughness of the bid submittal—that is, whether the bidder properly completed the bid, included all bid documents (e.g., noncollusion of contractor with other contractors; minority and/or women and/or disadvantaged participation forms), and submitted the required bonding.

Negative Bidding/Reverse Auction In the negative or reverse auction, the bidder submits the bid on an open auction Web site. The bid is open for a set time, generally a couple of days. Other bidders then submit lower bids. The first bidder is free to resubmit his or her bid, undercutting successive bidders. If bidding is active, the owner can extend the bid time in his or her interest. In theory, this procedure may work well for industry or private firms—but a low bidder, in a common industry joke, is the bidder who made the biggest mistake. It is in everyone’s interest that the constructor make a fair profit. When a constructor, after submitting what he calculates is his best competitive price, is squeezed to cut his bid further, he enters the project in makeup mode: During the project, he will either be looking to cut corners or looking for extras to increase the scope of the project. Negative bidding, therefore, requires a very thorough set of contract documents and full-time third-party inspection. The closed or sealed public bid process was designed to eliminate the awarding of projects under political influence, and, in general, it has worked. Remember, the issue is more than a fair and open public bid process; it is also the appearance of a fair and open public bid process. With the ability to extend the closing time, it is possible to close bids after the preferred bidder has submitted his bid. His price is the lowest, but if a significant change order develops, at least the appearance of favoritism is there.

Roles of the Owner, Constructor, and Engineer in Standard Municipal Contracting There are usually two contracts—the construction project contract and the contract between the engineer and the owner. Figure 4-1a best exemplifies the standard roles of the owner, constructor, and engineer in the competitive bid process. In the construction project contract, the constructor and the owner have vertical privity of contract that is extended downward to subconstructors, suppliers, and subcontractors’ suppliers (Fig. 4-1b). It is important to insulate the owner from subcontractors and suppliers through contract protective clauses (safety, indemnification, insurances, etc.). In the second contract, that between the engineer

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations

Owner

Horizontal privity

Engineer

Vertical privity

(a)

Constructor Owner

Engineer

Constructor

Supplier Subcontractor

Subcontractor supplier

(b) Tier-2 subcontractor

Owner

Horizontal privity

Engineer

Vertical privity Lawsuits Constructor

(c)

Lawsuits

FIGURE 4-1 Roles of owner, constructor, and engineer in the competitive bid process. (a) Privity means a direct relation throughout the contract. (b) In this situation, there is still no privity between the constructor and the engineer. There is vertical privity from the second-tier subcontractor all the way up to the owner. Contract clauses and performance and payment bonds insulate the owners as much as possible from lawsuits by subcontractors and suppliers. (c) Because the engineer and the constructor are not third-party beneficiaries of each other’s contract, neither can sue the other. The owner is under privity both ways, so if he or she is sued by the constructor, the owner can bring the engineer in by filing a claim against the engineer.

and the owner, the engineer is hired to prepare specifications and complete project management and inspection services. This is known as horizontal privity of contract between the engineer and the owner. On a repaint or rehabilitation, the engineer is hired to also do a preliminary bid inspection to establish the scope of the project. The owner does not intend the constructor to be a third-party beneficiary of this contract. The owner is the sole beneficiary of the services performed.

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Chapter Four That is why in Fig. 4-1b there is no connection to the constructor in the horizontal privity line. The lack of contractual privity and the owner’s intention that no third-party beneficiaries are to be part of the owner/engineer contract are represented in Fig. 4-1c by the jagged lines between the engineer and the constructor. The arrows indicate that the engineer does not control the constructor and that the constructor cannot rely on (and, in most cases, cannot sue) the engineer. The arrows further indicate that the engineer cannot interfere with the constructor’s “ways and means” or “means and methods.” If the engineer, who might be more experienced, starts giving directions or advice to the constructor, he or she has crossed the line. The engineer assumes the risk for this advice, which has broken down the wall between vertical and horizontal privity. The engineer’s job is to review, report, and interpret the contract documents. Sometimes the owner’s staff members provide their own specifications and inspection services. In this situation, a definition is needed so that the owner’s inspections do not substitute for the constructor’s own quality control responsibilities.

Design/Build The design/build procedure puts the responsibility of engineering design on the constructor. This procedure works well in new-tank projects but has conflicts with rehabilitation projects. The benefit of design/build lies primarily in expediting the project. On new-tank or new-tower projects, the owner supplies the bidder with soil investigations, establishes capacity and high water level, and designs standards and a time schedule to follow. The bidder can properly prepare costs and submit the bid. If the procedure is followed properly, there should be no unknowns and no cost increases. Third-party inspection is still necessary. On tank repair/repaints, the extent of repairs and the condition of interior coatings and corrosion may not be known to the tank owner because of the complexities of removing the tank from service for inspection. It is not recommended that the party completing the work be allowed to establish the scope of the work. New construction with no unknowns and larger budgets may be competitively bid as design/build. Design/build is not practical on lower-budget rehabilitation projects, because the unknowns cannot be competitively bid. A pre-bid independent tank inspection can eliminate the unknowns on repair/repaints. But to ensure competent work and competitive bidding, a full set of specifications is still necessary, because the constructor’s idea of what constitutes a proper repair and coating system would be different than what the owner expects. Third-party inspection would be necessary for quality assurance, but without specifications and a contract, what would the inspector inspect?

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations

Project Administration For a further discussion of all of the major methods of project administration, see American Water Works Association Manual M47, Construction Contract Administration.

Pre-Bid Inspections—Existing Tanks Sealed competitive bids are only as accurate as the bidding documents that all bidders review. For rehabilitation projects, the bidding documents are only as good as the pre-bid inspection report they are based on. Pre-bid inspections are discussed in Chap. 10. The pre-bid inspection report is intended to provide the owner with a thorough understanding of existing conditions and repaint options. The pre-bid inspection report is not intended for use as the bid document. If the owner permits the pre-bid inspection to be performed by a constructor instead of an inspection firm with no vested interest, that inspection should be the total scope of the constructor’s contract. The constructor should never be awarded an emergency repair or repaint change order based on his or her inspection. With the exception of vent screens and open cathodic protection holes, most repairs can wait to be completed through the competitive bidding process. The practice of some inspection/paint firms to sell emergency repairs has led some state regulatory agencies to develop or expand permit requirements. Most states require permits for all work on a tank’s interior; some states also require permits for exterior work to verify compliance with air quality laws. Permits are issued on the basis of specifications submitted to the regulatory agency and on the condition that work is to be completed according to those submitted specifications. New or relocated tanks require location and elevation review and may require a permit from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). If, in the tank owner’s opinion, the emergency repairs detailed by the constructor’s pre-bid inspection are truly emergencies, contact the regulatory agencies to determine whether an emergency permit is needed and whether proposed repairs meet state standards or codes. The pre-bid inspection report can be included in the bidding documents. It is important that it be labeled an “appendix for information only” so that its language does not conflict with the specifications. The appendix report should state that it is a service only and that field verification by site visit is required.

Contract Documents The terms contract document and bidding document are often incorrectly thought to be interchangeable. Bidding documents used to solicit project bids traditionally include all the information needed to

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Chapter Four prepare and submit a bid, including the advertisement, information for bidders, general conditions, supplementary general conditions, addendums, technical specifications, drawings, and proposal pages. Contract documents include all the bidding documents as well as signed contract or agreement forms, bonds, insurance certificates, notice of award, notice to proceed, and submittals. As the project progresses, change orders and field orders are added. Most contracts permit the inclusion of minutes from preconstruction and progress meetings.

Design Standards Incorporation of Standards Standards prepared by national associations have been incorporated into technical specifications for decades. Standards are beneficial because the bidder is using the same terminology as used by the owner/ engineer and for the most part knows what is expected. The American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards incorporate other nationally recognized standards—American Welding Society (AWS), Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC), National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), American Petroleum Institute (API), and concrete standards, to name a few. The benefits are obvious, but there are pitfalls. Using standards requires the engineer’s understanding of the included standards. He or she must decide whether to include the entire standard or just portions of it. An example would be the use of AWWA D100 Standard for Welded Carbon-Steel Tanks for Water Storage. D-100 defines how many X-rays are to be taken. If you want more X-rays or a different selection process for X-ray locations, the specifications must detail the variance. The potential for a conflict may occur more in the incorporation of other standards within the specified standards (i.e., when a second tier of standards is incorporated by reference within the specified standard). Most standards are submitted to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for certification. One condition for ANSI certification is that the standard be reviewed and formally updated at least every 5 years. Because of the constant updating and the long bid process, specifications must identify which standard is being incorporated, either by date or by clause in the section that outlines general conditions. This also applies to standards incorporated within the standard specified. Industry standards recognize the standard in use when bids are opened. If a standard is updated during a nonbid situation, a negotiated contract, the negotiating parties should define which standard is to be used.

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations

Policy Changes of AWWA Standards After review by AWWA attorneys and officers and by the AWWA Standards Council, AWWA has made two major changes to the standards. First, they are to be minimal standards that establish the minimal acceptable level of performance. Second, all contractual language is to be removed from all AWWA standards. These significantly change both the content of the standards and the effect of incorporating them into the specifications.

Minimal Acceptable Level of Performance AWWA D100, AWWA D103 Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted-Steel Tanks for Water Storage, and the proposed standard for composite elevated tanks assign specific responsibilities to the owner (or to the owner’s agent), the engineer, and the constructor for the construction of steel tanks. AWWA D102 Standard for Coating Steel WaterStorage Tanks is the painting standard used for both new and existing tanks. AWWA D104 Standard for Automatically Controlled, Impressed-Current Cathodic Protection for the Interior of Steel Water Tanks is the cathodic protection design standard for new and existing tanks. The design requirements for water, snow, wind, and live loads in D100, D103, and future composite-tank standards are the minimum allowable values. The design methodology has changed, permitting thinner steel. D100 and the proposed composite-tank standard have changed the approach to design of allowable loads for the buckling of conical and dished sections. The owner/engineer must choose one of three methods for the design. All three are safe, but the owner/engineer must select the level of conservatism preferred. When specifying according to these minimal standards, construction tolerances are more critical. These standards do not carry a default design for this particular choice if the specifier fails to select the design methodology. The result may be a less conservative design than the owner would prefer. The owner and the engineer are expected to be aware of all local codes and ordinances and should provide the required loading information, design information, or both to the constructor if local requirements are more stringent than those found in the applicable AWWA standard. Note: Contractual language often shifts the responsibility for knowing local codes to the constructor. This change to a minimal standard is not in itself a bad practice. The new tank still will be designed per the International Building Code and will perform as needed. The trade-off in connection with the new minimal standard is the higher degree of attention to maintenance, which is still the responsibility of the owner. The same level and cost of maintenance exist, regardless of the change in the standard: The difference is that there is no time cushion and so no opportunity to delay that maintenance.

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Chapter Four The old tanks were behemoths and used more steel than the tanks designed today. Water towers were once designed by engineers using slide rules, and steel thicknesses were rounded up to the next one-eighth of an inch (0.125 in. [0.3 cm]). To this, the early engineers added another 0.125 in. (0.3 cm) for corrosion allowance. When welding replaced riveting, welds had to have only 66 percent penetration. Whereas earlier, steel was one size going down the stem until the next fraction was needed, now every stem section could be different, because current steel manufacturing allows steel with differences in size, measured by 10 mil (254 m), to be purchased. Computerassisted design, cutting, and rolling permit the new thinner design methodologies for conical and dished sections. Welding requirements have increased to 100 percent penetration welds. Corrosion allowances are still the option of the design engineer, but they are seldom specified. The excess steel—not maintenance or the coating systems—is the reason some of those older towers are still standing. The interior coating of old towers was two coats of red lead primer protected by a wax (grease) coating. Lead was good from a durability standpoint but obviously now is out of favor because of health effects. The grease coating had a very short life, particularly in cold climates. Pit welding was standard in maintenance projects, whether it was needed or not. The modern epoxy, urethanes, and polyureas, as well as cathodic protection, offer a far superior and cleaner method of protection. Maintenance painting and cathodic protection are more critical now that new designs have no corrosion allowance. There is a safety factor in design calculation, but that is not the same thing as a cushion factor for steel loss.

Removal of Contractual Language in the D100 Standard The second change was the removal of contractual language from AWWA standards. It used to be that the specifier would incorporate the D100 standard, which would then speak for itself (“the constructor shall design . . . , shall fabricate . . . , shall erect . . . , shall test welds,” and so on). It is still necessary to incorporate the various sections of the standard or the whole standard, but the contractual language must now be in the specifications. Failure to use contractual language could make complying with the incorporated standard optional for the constructor. Contractual language has also been removed from the D102 standard for painting projects. D102, however, always required the selection of an interior or exterior coating system. The new standard does require input by the specifier (questions found in the appendix) defining some responsibilities.

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations

Assignment of Responsibilities of the Engineer, Owner, and Constructor In standards, a foreword poses a series of questions that need to be answered by the owner and the engineer. Their answers will define the responsibilities of the owner, engineer, and constructor on the project. The constructor needs this information to prepare the bid.

Rebuilt Tanks—Going Where No Standards Have Gone Before The other pitfall of design by standard is specifying the building of, or a repair to, a product to which no standard applies. Examples are specifying structural repairs according to D102 or rebuilding a tank according to D100. D102 concerns painting only; D100 covers the design loads of and construction methods for new tanks, not the design of rebuilt tanks. Rebuilt tanks were built earlier according, it is hoped, to some standard in existence at that time. It would be the exception, not the rule, if a rebuilt tank met current D100 requirements for new tanks. The D100 committee had struggled with the concept of whether to establish a subcommittee to develop a standard for rebuilt tanks, but the complexities involved and potential liabilities may prevent any effort to establish a standard for rebuilt tanks. If you live in seismic zone 0, for example, it does not matter where the rebuilt tank came from. If you live in seismic zone 2, you must know what zone the tank was originally built in, what the code required when the tank was bid, and preferably the original design calculations and as-builts (original construction drawing revised to reflect any construction changes). Without this information, you have to do reverse engineering—measuring every section of steel, accounting for corrosion losses, and then designing according to current standards and codes to see whether the old tank meets them. Remember, older tanks may have been built under a standard that required only 66 percent weld penetration. Old riveted tanks should never be rebuilt. A rebuilt tank should be built from only one tank, not from a collection of parts from more than one tank. If you choose to allow a rebuilt tank, your specifications should be very thorough. Specify only the pertinent sections of D100 and D102. Exercise caution in evaluating a used tank that is bid as an alternative to a new tank. The initial cost should not be the only consideration; total-life-cycle maintenance costs should also be projected. An owner considering a used tank should require the following:

r A copy of an up-to-date inspection report of the structure provided by a qualified, registered professional engineer.

r A signed document from the present owner stating that the tank is available for sale.

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Chapter Four r A detailed proposal of any remedial coating or repair work that will be done to bring the structure to the equivalent state of the proposed new tank. It is also important to know the specifications and standards under which the tank was originally built, as well as the wind and seismic loadings for which it was designed and constructed. An additional caution is the possibility that lead or other hazardous materials are in the coating of the tank being considered for reuse. Tanks that were designed and used for fuel oil or a liquid other than nonpotable water may not have the desired wall thickness for water storage, having been designed to contain a liquid with a different specific gravity. Additional problems in converting a tank from hydrocarbon storage to potable water storage have to do with how clean the steel that contacts the water can be made, and how that affects adhesion and the purity of interior coatings.

New-Tank Designs New-tank designs are another example of industry outpacing the speed at which standards are developed. For example, the composite tank (concrete pedestal/steel tank) was built without an AWWA standard for more than 15 years before a standard was developed. Other smaller associations, including the Steel Plate Fabricators, were able to develop standards more quickly, permitting the compositetank industry to grow until the more comprehensive AWWA standard could be developed. A hybrid—a glass-lined bolted-steel tank on a pedestal—was developed and applied for inclusion in AWWA’s proposed composite-tank standard, but it failed to make the standard because of timing. The caution is not to avoid new products but to understand the standards before you specify something that is not included in them.

Factors in Competitive Bidding Construction Time Frame The time frame during which you expect a constructor to build an elevated tank is inversely proportional to the amount of money you hope to spend. A tower can be designed, fabricated, and erected in 6 months, but it would be expensive. A year and a half—540 days—is a reasonable time frame. (In the northern half of the country, because of the shorter painting season, the tank can be constructed over the winter, but painting will be delayed for a few months; allowing 540 days enables painting to take place during warm weather.)

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations The construction process involves design by the constructor and submittal of design to the engineer for review. Sixty days may elapse before the engineer turns it around. After the design drawings are accepted, steel is ordered, cut, rolled, and fabricated in the shop. After shop drawings are approved and before foundation work is even scheduled, the constructor prioritizes the project (based on completion schedule and the schedule of other projects). The foundation is constructed and allowed to cure for 28 days. Steel is usually delivered during this cure time. The start of concrete work is dependent on timely review of submittals. Actual time to erect steel in the field ranges from 6 to 20 weeks, depending on weather, site conditions, and tank size. The painters need 30 to 60 days, again, depending on tank size, containment requirements, and, particularly, weather. Including a break for winter, it is not hard to see why 540 days and scheduling flexibility are needed. On new-tank projects, the existing tank or operating system is not removed until the new tank is operational. On repair and repaint projects, time restrictions are critical as there may be no backup system. Again, the shorter the project time, the more the project may cost, but conditions may justify the cost. Weather, summer demands on the water supply, extra time for containment projects, and even the start of the owner’s budget year may delay the project start. Money can be saved by specifying a maximum out-of-service time and the latest completion date. This way, the constructor knows that it is a 60-day job and can schedule on the basis of the crew’s availability. The days can be scheduled anytime, as long as work starts 2 months before the specified latest completion date.

Pre-Bid Meeting A pre-bid meeting is beneficial and useful for discussing specific nontechnical portions of the project, the timing of subcontracting requirements, and forms in the bid documents (e.g., noncollusion, minority, affidavits, subcontractor lists, lien waivers, etc.). This meeting can be mandatory or optional. If it is mandatory, interest in the project can be gauged by how many constructors are present, which could affect the contract price. As a minimum, job-site visits should be required. On repaint projects, if the tank is empty, it should be made available to the painter for inspection. If the tank is elevated, prospective bidders should provide proof of insurance before they climb it. To limit time infringements on the owner, limit the days the site is available for inspection.

Prequalification of Bidders To shorten the time between bidding and awarding of the contract, prequalify the constructors. Tank constructors specialize in the design,

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Chapter Four fabrication, and erection of welded-steel, bolted-steel, or composite concrete/steel tanks. Tank painters are also very specialized. Constructors and painters rely on extensive safety training, specialized equipment (some that they have manufactured themselves), and ways and means procedures developed during years of experience. Tank constructors and tank painters should be prequalified on the basis of their experience, ability to supply bonds, financial condition, and safety and environmental record. For future discussion, see Chap. 4 of AWWA Manual M47, Construction Contract Administration. Caution: Competitive bidding laws in some states restrict prequalification.

Constructor Assistance Generally, tank constructors and manufacturers are more than willing to discuss individual tank needs and to assist the owner and the engineer by providing standard design information for a project. For an elevated tank of a given capacity, each manufacturer has different geometric parameters. These dimensions normally do not vary enough to cause difficulty if one constructor is selected for a project on the basis of the information supplied by another constructor. To become familiar with current industry standards and practices, the owner is advised to contact prospective bidders and discuss a project before issuing an invitation to bid. Most manufacturers are willing to provide copies of preliminary specifications developed for tanks of varying styles and capacities. The owner must be careful to make every effort to write a specification that is open and does not exclude bidding by any qualified manufacturer or supplier. In particular, a given manufacturer’s proprietary design details should not be included in a project’s contract document; this would create an inequitable bidding situation for other qualified suppliers or manufacturers.

Forced Use of Subcontractors Some communities have requirements to hire a set percentage of minority or disadvantaged subcontractors. Some communities call for hiring of local employees or subcontracting of local firms in the bid package. Although these are laudable goals, care must be taken for tank constructing and painting on how and by what part of the contract these provisions are enforced. Concrete foundations are a good example. Many firms are capable of forming and placing the concrete, but the foundation is just that—a foundation that supports millions of gallons or liters of water. The AWWA standard requires the constructor’s engineer to design the foundation. For liability reasons, the constructor should design and be responsible for the foundation and all structural items.

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations Painting projects consist primarily of abrasive blast cleaning, painting, and containment construction, some metal repairs, but not a lot of subcontract work. Also, remember that these constructors and painters have had extensive safety training and that they are responsible for every worker, including subcontractors and forced hires, on that tank. Elements of tank construction, for example, electrical controls, site restoration, and waste disposal, can be separated and bid locally. In fact, it is good practice for the local firm or employees responsible for future maintenance and controls to be familiar with their installation. Telemetry must interface with the owner’s master system. If the mechanical system requires piping and several valves inside the tank, this work can be bid to local mechanical constructors. On paint projects, it may be possible to tie another project into the paint work to accommodate the subcontracting.

Bid Security Bonds are required on most publicly funded projects over a minimum dollar amount. This dollar amount under the Miller Act is $50,000; many states have a “Little Miller Act” that may have lower limits. Some municipalities have lower limits yet. The Miller Act requires performance and payment bonds. Bid bonds are generally required by state or local statute. The bidding process is time-consuming and involves significant expense for both owner and constructor. In a tank-painting contract in the northern states, a bidder failing to honor his or her bid could delay the project into the next season. In that case, the second constructor would still have to honor his or her bid but, thinking the job had been lost, may have taken another project. Painting constructors usually bid and complete all of their contracts within the same weather-restricted season. They traditionally fill their season and do not leave openings for jobs for which they came in second. Fairness may require adjusting the project schedule into the next year if the first bidder cannot meet the agreement. The bid bond, intended to cover the increased cost of rebidding or awarding to the higher bidder, has been traditionally set at 5 percent of the bid. This amount should be sufficient on a $500,000 newtank contract ($25,000), but it may not be sufficient for a $50,000 paint project ($2,500). If the constructor defaults and the bond is collected, the constructor could lose the ability to purchase bonds. In the coating industry, with its limited number of qualified constructors, limited seasons, and wide range of bids, a painter who has received a more lucrative contract may buy his or her way out of the smaller job. For this reason and others, many engineers require a bid bond higher than 5 percent or for a set amount.

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Chapter Four

General Conditions and Supplementary General Conditions Common parlance at the beginning of a bid document, referred to as boilerplate, includes information for bidders concerning general conditions and supplementary general conditions, or supplementals. This is standard text that remains virtually unchanged for all projects. Rewriting the general conditions and the supplementals is not necessary on all projects, but they should be reviewed each time. AWWA M47 recommends modifying the general conditions or supplementary general conditions to be more job specific. The general conditions, if prepared by the engineer, are generally standard documents prepared by the Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC). This is a coalition of engineering associations with endorsements by the Associated General Constructors of America and the Construction Specifications Institute. Even more important is another EJCDC document, “Guide to the Preparation of Supplementary Conditions.” This guide follows the general conditions, explaining what they really say and listing some of the standard exceptions. Most bidders do not review the general conditions every time, but they should read them at least once. The general conditions are generic to construction work; supplementary general conditions that are tank specific should be clauses describing the following local requirements:

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Bonding Warranties, guarantees Maintenance contracts Insurance Indemnification Prevailing wage and documentation Use of local or union labor Payment application, change order procedures Steel or concrete cost escalation Dispute resolution Safety Meetings—preconstruction, progress, final punch list Severability Schedule of values Termination

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations

Bonding Bid bonds, discussed in the previous section, are usually free. The constructor pays roughly 1.5 to 2.5 percent depending on the workload and contract default experience for the actual performance and payment bonds. A combined performance and payment bond for 100 percent of the project bid meets the requirements of the Miller Act, but it may not be sufficient to cover a project gone sour. The performance bond is used to ensure that all aspects of the project are completed. If the original constructor is unable to meet the terms of the contract, the bonding company brings in another constructor to finish the project, at least to the extent of the bond. A payment bond is used to pay all legitimate subcontractors and suppliers if the constructor fails to make payments. Problems generally start with the lowest bid process. If the project is awarded to the lowest bidder, who turns out not to be responsible (is incapable), a 100 percent combined performance payment bond is inadequate. Remember, the bond is for an amount that all of the other bidders thought was too low. Out of that amount, you must pay off all unpaid subcontractors and suppliers and bring in another constructor to finish. Separate performance and payment bonds, each at 100 percent of contract amount, are the current requirements of the EJCDC general conditions. That and control of partial payments should be sufficient to fund completion of the project. Bonding companies have a contract with the constructor, who usually must personally guarantee the bond. The bond names the owner as the intended beneficiary. Consider the bond a product supplied as a condition precedent to award of the contract to the constructor. A word of caution: There is no contract between the surety and the owner, but consider the relationship an obligation. The owner is required to control payments to the constructor and to receive waivers from all subcontractors and suppliers; this is called a waiver of surety. If the owner pays the constructor too much and there is insufficient money left to complete the project, the surety has an affirmative defense to avoid payment. Another caution: Verify that the surety company can be served process to force payment. Offshore bonding companies have attractive bonding rates. Offshore companies are offshore for several reasons; they enjoy tax advantages and are untouchable for claim enforcement. The surety should be licensed in the state of the project. Another aspect of the payment bond is the notice requirements of the Miller Act and the Little Miller Act. The prime contractor’s subcontractors and suppliers do not require notice of hire. Their contract with the prime contractor, or prime, is evidence of notice. If the

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Chapter Four second-tier subcontractors or suppliers and subsequent tiers fail to give notice to the prime at the start and again within so many days of the last workday, the surety does not have to pay the claims under the Miller Acts. The Miller Acts and surety also limit coverage: Third-tier subcontractors and suppliers to second-tier subcontractors are not protected. Although they have to draw a line somewhere, this is unfortunate, because those companies are usually the locals. Although local companies are not protected by surety, the owner can still hold payment until they are paid if the owner has received notice of nonpayment. The fourth type of bond is a maintenance bond. Maintenance bonds are usually free, but a separate maintenance bond is reassurance that any work due under the warranty will be completed. Because a warranty is a contractual requirement, it technically is already covered by the performance bond. However, a separate maintenance bond with the time frame defined is recommended for all warranties exceeding the standard 1-year/13-month warranty. A maintenance bond should also be considered for the full term of a multiyear maintenance contract (extended maintenance bonds would not be free). Performance bonds or maintenance bonds expire unless the owner gives notice to the bonding company that work is needed.

Warranty The standard construction warranty period is 1 year. The painting warranty is also 1 year, but the D102 standard allows a 13-month period in which to complete the paint warranty. The time extension recognizes the difficulty some communities have in isolating their tank. Also, weather may interfere with draining the tank within the specified time. There is also a trend toward specifying longer warranties, a practice that theoretically raises project costs. Constructors prefer to wrap up a project in 1 year. Their bonds are then released; they have less unknown potential liability and can bid other jobs. A multiyear warranty on tank construction has little benefit unless full use of the tank must be delayed. Most problems with welded steel are evident within a year. Extended warranties are specified more often on painting of new tanks or repainting contracts. Contractual problems of long maintenance periods can be resolved by the use of a maintenance bond. The problem is that the constructor is giving a warranty on a product that deteriorates with age, weathering, ablation, ultraviolet (UV) degradation, and so on. There is no standard against which to hold a 2- or 5-year paint project warranty condition. Unless specified differently, D102 limits holiday testing (directcurrent voltage testing for coating pinholes) to the high waterline and down on the wet interior surface. If there are coating breaks in that

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations area after 1 year, repairs under the warranty are justified. Small coating breaks, rust staining at the lap seams of the wet interior roof or pinhole rusting on the dry interior surface or on the exterior, are not warranty issues. If the specifications did not require a holiday-free coating, a warranty cannot require a holiday-free system at 1 year. At 2 years or 5 years, enforcement can only be to whatever expected coating condition at warranty was set in the original specifications. Also, a 5-year warranty has to consider normal wear and tear. If you are looking for annual maintenance, bid the maintenance contract into the construction bid as a separate cost; do not try to complete the work under a warranty clause. Trying to have work completed in 5 years for no pay is tricky—it is difficult enough just remembering that there is a 5-year warranty. The second concern is whether the constructor is still in business. The owner needs to pay only when scheduled work is completed.

Maintenance Contracts Maintenance contracts are for a set period of time. Generally, the actual painting takes place during the first year, and touch-up and repairs happen in subsequent years. Some maintenance contracts are attractive because they begin with an enticing finance offer, in which a company finances the initial high cost of the first painting over the first couple of years. As always, some good constructors and some bad ones offer these services. To differentiate, follow the money—or, better yet, control the money. Work including maintenance procedures should be controlled by specifications prepared by your engineer. The work should be inspected annually by a third-party inspection firm. The financial portion should be written or at least reviewed by your attorney. Your attorney should also offer an opinion if competitive bidding of the entire maintenance project is required by local ordinance or state statute. Some of the cost advantage is in the constructor providing financial and engineering services, but the owner must decide whether the savings are in the owner’s interest or are in the vested interest of the maintenance constructor. When the dust settles, the good constructors will be there; the ones with prices too good to be true will be the missing parties. Maintenance contracts are not new. In the 1960s and early 1970s, annual maintenance contracts were a major portion of the painting market. Most contracts were for 10 or 12 years and had the same annual payments. Painting on the interior would take place during years 5 and 11, and the exterior would be painted during years 6 and 12. Essentially, the major work was paid in advance. A painter had enough other contracts at varying stages and so could finance the work when it was due. When the gas crunch came in 1973 and gas and paint prices skyrocketed, most constructors merely walked away with the

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Chapter Four up-front money or went bankrupt, and the owners were left with paid but uncompleted projects.

Insurance Requirements Risk managers or insurance consultants for the owner should establish limits and types of coverages. Sometimes, consultants are nervous because the project requires elevated work or may involve exposure to lead paint. Most tank constructors carry large limits of liability, and some are self-insured. But smaller paint constructors have lower limits. The limits and types of insurance should match the owner’s exposure to risk. Excess coverage sometimes cannot be purchased by smaller constructors. Purchasing special insurance for one job drives project costs up, particularly if some constructors are eliminated from bidding. Workers’ Compensation insurance levels are standard and protect the constructor’s workers. General liability insurance protects site visitors other than employees. Auto insurance is recommended even if all work is on one enclosed site, because the constructor still will run errands. An umbrella policy would be in addition to these policies. The owner and the engineer require the constructor to name them as additional insureds. Any claim against the additional insured other than gross negligence is covered under the constructor’s policy. Over the years, attorneys have expanded the gray area between the constructor’s and the owner’s insurance liability. Some insurance counselors now require the constructor to furnish a separate owner’s protective policy. Professional liability insurance covers errors and omissions and is associated with the engineer. If the constructor acts as an engineer in a design/build contract, this insurance may still be needed. Some states have strict liability laws for accidents involving gravity, falls, or injuries from dropped objects. Under contract terms, this liability can be covered under an owner’s protective policy paid by the constructor. But with strict liability laws, responsibility is automatic and liability cannot be avoided. The owner should consider his or her own policy and consider making the constructor’s policy a primary-pay policy. The EJCDC documents require the owner to supply a builder’s risk policy. As noted, the EJCDC documents were prepared by professional engineers’ associations and endorsed by a constructors’ association; the owner’s municipal associations were not involved. Owners prefer that the constructor provide a builder’s risk policy. This policy provides insurance for the project during construction (e.g., if a tornado blows over an unfinished tank). The policy covers the cost to replace the tank. Some owners require submittal of the constructor’s entire policy, but most owners prefer just a certificate. The certificate warrants that

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations the constructor will not cancel the policy without giving a specified number of days’ advance notice. The expiration date, additional insureds, deductibles, and all policy exclusions should be checked.

Indemnification Indemnification clauses are often points of contention and are sometimes contract killers. The owner’s attorneys want contractual language that protects the owner from all claims—suits that might originate as a result of this project regardless of who is liable. Constructors have attorneys who are as smart as the owner’s attorneys, and the insurance companies, especially, have their share of attorneys. Although a constructor may agree to any clause to get a contract, it does not mean his or her insurance policy covers the indemnification. A constructor who has no insurance policy does little to offer true indemnification. Rather than proceed under the false assumption of coverage, both the owner’s and constructor’s policies should carry comparative liability coverage. Each party pays on the basis of each one’s share of liability. Both bonds and insurance are conditions precedent to contract award. We are a litigious society and, as with bonds, insurance is now a requirement before the owner even signs a contract.

Prevailing Wage, Local/Union Labor, and Local Restrictions If prevailing wages are required, the required pay scales should be included in the supplementary general conditions. Constructors should be aware that unlike the standards, which are fixed at the date of bid opening, wage rates can change within the project time frame. Supplying certified pay records or other pay documentation is an overhead cost that the constructor should be made aware of through the supplementary general conditions section when preparing his or her bid. The use of local labor or union labor should be detailed, as well as local time or noise ordinances. Can the constructor work late or on weekends? Time restrictions to painters are critical because of weather restrictions.

Payment, Change Order The general conditions and supplementary conditions detail how to file the application for payments, how the applications are reviewed and by whom, denial of partial payment, reasons for denial, determination of any denied amount, and the corrective actions needed to recoup lost payments. The change order process and other ways of changing the contract are included here.

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Chapter Four

Steel/Concrete Escalation Clause Most painting projects are completed within 1 year. Project costs are for fuel, abrasive material, paint, equipment, and labor. Abrasive material and paint are (or can be) purchased and stockpiled soon after project award. Equipment is a known cost, and labor cost increases are also foreseeable, as prevailing labor rates have expiration dates. On newtank construction, concrete costs for composite tanks and steel costs for steel and composite tanks are a major portion of expenses. Gas or diesel for their equipment is also a major expense. Their costs cannot be fixed immediately upon award. Steel is not bought until after the design is approved. Concrete for composite tanks is not purchased until it is time to start construction. Gas or diesel is purchased on-site. We have previously discussed the length of time between bid award and steel purchase. What we did not discuss was the delay in award. Working from the basic premises that a constructor who runs a project efficiently is entitled to a fair profit and that material costs fluctuate, constructors are either covered by a safe cost cushion (overpricing the project) or construction contracts should have a steel escalator clause and possibly a concrete escalator clause. These costs are beyond the constructor’s control and can rise rapidly, as was demonstrated in 2006, when increased demand drove the price of steel up 30 percent almost overnight; it continues to drive the price upward. An escalator price should require the constructor to specify quantity with the bid and to tie that quantity to a certain appropriate index. Calculation of the index should be by an independent third party. The owner either pays for the inflated bid price or pays the exact increase, if any.

Dispute Resolution The best defense for disputes is to detail in the specifications a clear procedure for dispute resolution. The two primary alternatives are the courts and arbitration. Owners, being deep pockets without a face (usually a municipality), prefer the courts. In fact, a future trend by municipalities will be to contractually require the constructor to waive the right to a jury trial. The owner wants a decision based strictly on the law, with no human element, whereas the constructor prefers arbitration by certified arbitrators. The three alternative methods of dispute resolution are negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. There are many variations and hybrid methods of resolution (minitrials, for example). Negotiation—direct talking between the contract parties—is the first step in all contract disputes. Mediation, generally the second step in the process, brings in a third party. The EJCDC’s general conditions make the engineer the mediator. He or she both hears arguments and tries to get the parties to resolve the problem. Because the argument is usually about

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations specifications that the engineer wrote, he or she, as mediator, is given the final interpretation of the specifications. The engineer’s decision, while final, is usually not binding. If either party is still dissatisfied, it may proceed to court or to arbitration, whichever method is named in the contract documents. Arbitration can be binding or nonbinding. Recent legislation permits contracting away the right of appeals to the court system. The courts are attempting to unload their dockets, and to appeal a bindingarbitration award to a court has very little chance, barring the allegation of fraud, capriciousness, or a significant procedural error.

Safety Engineering associations have always maintained that the engineer is not responsible for job-site safety. If the engineer and the owner assume such responsibility, they are potentially liable for extensive damages. If the engineer (and ultimately the owner) was responsible and thus liable, the employee can sue through Workers’ Compensation and collect a much larger settlement. So far, most cases have dismissed the engineer because he or she had horizontal privity with the owner and no contractual relation with the constructor. The exceptions were when the on-site inspector or project manager took on the constructor’s role by directing some of the work or giving advice on ways and means. No one questions the need for safety, but constructors are contractually responsible for safety. Constructors have developed their own construction procedures and ways and means. Constructors have developed safety programs and trained their personnel accordingly. The engineer’s personnel should follow the constructor’s safety program in addition to the engineer’s safety program.

Meetings The number and types of meetings required, and who must attend, should be listed as accurately as possible. If home office personnel are required to attend, it is a cost issue. Most repaint contracts have a preconstruction meeting and a final punch list meeting with the job superintendent. Interim progress meetings are usually attended by the on-site superintendent but not by the project manager unless there are problems. On new-tank projects with larger budgets, it is more common to require the project manager to attend.

Severability and Termination Every contract should have a severability clause. This clause says that if a court finds one or more clauses to be illegal, they can be severed from the contract. The rest of the clauses and the contract still remain.

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Chapter Four Contract termination clauses describe the procedure for giving notice to, and terminating the contract by, the owner for convenience or cause and by the constructors for cause.

Schedule of Values New-tank projects are usually bid as lump-sum contracts. Extras, such as complicated logos, are bid as deductible alternates. On a project that is spread over a year or 18 months, partial payments are in order. To avoid paying too much money up-front or not enough, a schedule of values is submitted early. This schedule can be negotiated until it is acceptable to all parties. The engineer has the final say. Following is a sample schedule: Design phase

10 percent

Foundation

10 percent

Fabrication

25 percent

Erection

30 percent

Painting

15 percent

Electrical

5 percent

Site work and punch list

5 percent

Repaint and repair projects can be bid with line items for repair items and unit prices for painting different areas—wet interior, dry interior, and exterior. If the project is bid lump sum, a schedule of values should be included on a bid form that assigns costs to wet or dry interior and exterior. Payment is then figured on percentage of work completed (e.g., wet interior abrasive blast cleaning 40 percent, prime coat 20 percent, intermediate coat 20 percent, and topcoat 20 percent).

Technical Specifications—New Tanks Technical specifications, while ultimately the heart of the entire project, are only briefly discussed in this chapter. Technical specifications for almost all new-tank projects are performance based. Discussions about siting, type of tank to select, foundations, appurtenances, and other topics appear in other chapters.

Tank Water Testing and Disinfection Tank disinfection procedures are usually performed in accordance with AWWA C652 Standard for Disinfection of Water-Storage Facilities or the more stringent requirements of local health agencies.

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Contractual Considerations

Contractual Considerations Specifications should define responsibilities for this work. AWWA D100 requires that the tank be tested before coating and that the owner furnish the water to fill the tank and provide a means of disposal following testing. D100 permits the coating to be applied before water testing if the tank constructor and the owner have specifically agreed to that. Tank testing and disinfection phases of the project could then be concurrent, thus saving the owner the cost of producing and disposing of a large quantity of water. However, water testing the welded tank before applying the coating has the following advantages:

r It allows identification and correction of distortions caused by anticipated or unanticipated foundation settlements before coating.

r It allows the identification and correction of any leaks that might have been temporarily covered by the interior coating system. Valves and piping should be tested in accordance with AWWA C600 Standard for Installation of Ductile-Iron Water Mains and Their Appurtenances. The constructor may be required by contract to provide and dispose of the testing and disinfection water. However, the owner will ultimately bear these costs, plus the constructor’s overhead and profit.

Federal Aviation Administration The owner or the owner’s engineer should file notification of construction with the FAA before construction of tall standpipes or elevated tanks. The FAA will determine whether the site is acceptable and, if so, the requirements for temporary and permanent tank markings and lighting.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

5

Foundations Sayed Stoman, Ph.D., P.E., S.E., M.L.S.E., and Kevin Gallagher, P.E. Caldwell Tanks, Inc.

The proper design and installation of the foundation is essential to all welded-steel tanks for water storage. Before any water tank is erected, it is vital to ascertain the suitability of the site and the feasibility of the project from engineering, construction, cost, and safety perspectives. The site soils must be capable of supporting all loads imparted on or generated by the water tank system with appropriate factors of safety against bearing, uplift, and lateral stability and with reasonable total and differential settlements. (The factor of safety [FS] is a function of the foundation type, the source of loading, and whether the loads are long-term or transient.) Most importantly, conditions at the site must constitute a safe working environment for the construction crew. The ideal sites for erecting water tanks are relatively large and level, dry, and easily accessible. The ideal bearing soils are sandy soils that range in relative density from medium to dense, to very dense, and clayey soils with consistency ranging from stiff to very stiff, to hard. These characteristics are well suited to shallow foundations, with a minimal amount of settlement and full-foundation stability. The ideal site should be large enough to accommodate the construction equipment, provide ample lay-down area, and be free of obstructions, especially high-voltage electric power lines.

Appropriate Foundation Type The foundation type is governed by the soil characteristics in the effective zone of influence of the bearing soils, the loading, the size of the property, topography, site location, and the presence or absence of structures and facilities within the site premises. Future expansion plans and modifications are also factors in the selection of the appropriate foundation type.

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Chapter Five The foundation system should provide for adequate factors of safety for both strength and stability. Since the water-storage system is very sensitive to settlement, care must be exercised to limit the total and differential settlements so that they do not adversely affect the tank and piping system. As a practical rule, it is preferred to limit the total and differential settlements to a maximum of 2 in. (5 cm) and 1 in. (2.5 cm), respectively. If high settlements are expected, special piping or piping joints may be necessary to allow more flexibility in the system. While settlement is a major design consideration, each system is unique and must be examined on its own merits. Generally, for economic reasons, shallow foundations are preferred. As long as the bearing soils have reasonable capacity, provide for tolerable settlements, and, when excavated, are properly suited for backfill around the footings, shallow foundations are possible. A net allowable bearing capacity of about 3,000 psf (144 kPa) or an ultimate bearing capacity of 9,000 psf (430 kPa) or better would be most appropriate for shallow foundations. Shallow foundations can be built where the allowable bearing capacity is lower, but the resulting footings would be much larger and the settlements possibly higher. Deep foundations are more appropriate where the bearing soils are composed of loose sands or soft clays or where tests have detected the presence of sinkhole cavities, sandy layers that are prone to liquefaction, or silty soils with high moisture content that are likely to consolidate under loading. The type of deep foundation is influenced by cost, availability of piles, and local practice. Regardless of the foundation type used, grade beams interconnecting the individual footings may be necessary where the horizontal shear resulting from either wind loads or seismic loads is too large for a single footing to resist. These compressive elements are designed as beam-columns on elastic foundations.

Location/Orientation Aside from accessibility, site location is crucial for several reasons. Specific site location and accurate determination of property lines are vital, as disputes resulting from even minor infringements onto adjacent property can cause major delays in construction and possibly even cancellation of the project. Precise staking of the foundation footprint early in the project can eliminate orientation concerns and facilitate establishing the proper grade elevations and boring locations for geotechnical investigations. Ownership of the site property is essential, as building a storage tank on land owned by others can be costly. Orientation of the tank on the site must also be considered with respect to the piping layout, existing utilities, and other obstacles. To facilitate the connection to the inlet piping as well as to accommodate

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Foundations

Foundations the flow of overflow water away from the footing area, situating the tank in the proper orientation, is essential. Tank and piping orientation should be clearly shown on the site plan with reference to reliable existing benchmarks. Sites in low-lying areas and floodplains, areas with sinkholes, and areas with underground shafts, tunnels, or fault lines are not recommended, nor are areas containing substantial fills. Similarly, coastal regions are not recommended—they are generally subject to significantly higher wind loading and may require design for tidal waves. The loose sandy soils in these areas could require additional stabilization measures.

Establishing Existing and Final Grade Elevations Because system hydraulics depend on the attained potential energy, it is very important to accurately establish the high water line and low water line so that proper pressure and flow can be maintained at all water levels. When the water delivery system has several tanks along the line, each with precise overflow and low water line elevations calibrated, it is extremely important that all elevations, including grade elevations, be accurately established for the system to function as intended. Grade elevations must be established with respect to verified benchmarks, and a clear distinction should be made between existing and final grade elevations. Grading across the tank footprint is also critical. The final grade should provide for drainage away from the tank foundations, but the slope should not be so steep that excessive footing exposure is required. The footing exposure above grade level must be properly considered and accounted for, especially when the site work involves major cuts and fills. These considerations will circumvent expensive consequences, which can and must be avoided with proper planning and attention.

Minimum Depth and Projection Above Grade The proper minimum depth at which a foundation should be placed depends on several factors. The slope and drainage of the site, the location of the frost line, the magnitude of the uplift and lateral loads, the potential for erosion, the presence and location of surface water or groundwater, and the type of soil all affect the depth at which a footing is set to bear. Similarly, these factors also influence how far the footing should project above the final grade level. Generally, geotechnical reports recommend a minimum depth on the basis of regional experience and familiarity with local conditions. However, it is preferred to bear the individual spread footings below

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Chapter Five the frost line at a minimum depth of about 4.5 to 5 ft (1.4 to 1.5 m). A minimum projection of 6 in. (15 cm) above the final grade should be sufficient to protect the column base plates from ground moisture. On sites where standing water or settlement is a concern, higher projections would be appropriate to further protect the base plate and anchor bolts from corrosion.

Excavation Requirements Before any excavation begins, it is essential that all aspects of jobsite safety are well understood. All excavations, particularly confined excavations, must be performed in strict compliance with the latest federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. It is recommended that excavated slopes, including those for shallow foundations, be laid back at a maximum of 2H:1V (horizontal to vertical) slope. Permanent slopes of 3:1 may be used on fill slopes that have been placed on suitable subgrade. Grass should be planted or other measures taken for erosion control. Vertical cuts for shallow foundations are not recommended unless all the requirements for job-site safety and foundation stability can be assured. Such cuts are not possible in dry, sandy soils, but they can be made to a critical height in an undrained soil where the pore pressures are negative. If vertical cuts are used, however, one must ensure that clear and achievable compaction requirements for the soil wedge alongside shallow foundations are well defined.

Site Access and Drainage Water tanks are often erected in remote rural areas where site access can be difficult. Even in urban areas, with everyone competing for prime space, site conditions can be challenging and access to the job site arduous. As noted previously, the job site requires access by large, heavy construction vehicles and lay-down and work areas for material and construction equipment. Thus, a suitable access road is vital to the entire construction effort. Preparing the site for work often requires tree removal, clearing, and grubbing. Where rain and mud can prohibit site access, building some basic roadwork is necessary before all other activity can begin. Geotechnical investigation and reconnaissance activities also require full access to the site. Where there is standing or seeping water, water removal measures will be required. As the presence of water can severely complicate construction efforts, site drainage must always be addressed for all phases of construction, including postconstruction, to facilitate proper maintenance.

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Foundations

Foundations

Water Table and Perched Water The presence of groundwater is always a major construction concern. A high groundwater table is also a significant design consideration due to the buoyancy effects, increased settlement and consolidation, and potential liquefaction associated with ground seismic activities. Likewise, the presence of perched water can be a challenge during construction and will require creative dewatering measures. Where water is present, various dewatering techniques are available to drain the excavations and to dry the soils before pouring the foundations. Pumping water out from established well points is a common method of dewatering. In situations where the bearing soils are or could be under water, a layer of crushed stone can be placed on the bearing soils to allow for seepage and flow of water to the well points for pumping during construction. Alternatively, where possible, a mud mat 4 to 6 in. (10 to 152 cm) thick of low-strength (2,000 psi [14 MPa]) concrete can be placed on the bearing soils to contain the water below or to protect the bearing soils from rain. As buoyancy reduces the effective unit weight of soil, it may be necessary to place the footing deeper to maintain lateral and uplift stability in shallow foundations. Similarly, in pile foundations, pile uplift and lateral capacity may be affected by the presence of water. During a seismic event, clean, submerged sands may liquefy, causing down-drag on piles and loss of lateral support in the liquefied zone. A high water table also creates design challenges when drilled piers or auger-cast piles are used.

Soils and Geotechnical Investigations Once the suitability of the site is established on the basis of a visual reconnaissance, a subsurface investigation must be performed to determine the geotechnical composition and engineering properties of the bearing soils and to identify suitable foundation types based on the prevailing conditions. Although there is some uniformity in geotechnical investigations, substantial differences exist in the scope of work performed and in the extent of data included in the final reports. To ensure that all relevant information is included in a well-documented report, a clearly defined scope of work for the investigation is essential. The number, location, and depth of borings should be specified before commencing work. Geotechnical professionals who are thoroughly familiar with their regions can offer specific guidance in defining the scope on the basis of their field experience and past explorations. Generally, the shallow-foundation option is pursued for reasons of economy and ease of construction. When unsuitable soils are encountered and/or the required bearing depths become excessive, other alternatives should be considered. When there are feasible

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Chapter Five alternatives, the geotechnical report must include all the engineering data necessary for each design option.

Exploration, Sampling, and Testing Explorations for water tank foundations should include a minimum of three borings that preferably extend to depths of 30 to 50 ft (9 to 15 m). When details about the average soil properties in the upper 100 ft (30 m) of the site profile are required by code for site class determination, one boring may be drilled down to 100 ft (30 m) or to the bedrock, if it is encountered sooner. To ensure that sound rock has been reached, it is recommended that rock cores of 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m) or deeper be obtained. Additional borings may be required if the subsurface conditions so dictate. Sinkhole cavities, liquefiable soils, rock lenses, and boulders are examples of conditions that may warrant further investigation. In all cases, boring locations must be precisely staked out and documented with reliable measurements to well-established benchmarks or other dependable references. The presence of adjacent structures and facilities affecting, or affected by, the project must be noted and realistically evaluated. The borings should be spread out over the footprint of the water tank. For leg tanks, it is preferable to perform two borings on the column circle 180 degrees apart and a third boring at the center of the tank. Generally, the deepest boring is located at the center of the tank. The boring logs should carefully reflect the geological profile encountered in the borings as well as the groundwater observations. Standard-penetration blow counts resulting from split-spoon sampling must also be reflected on the boring logs. Whether the borings were advanced by dry augering or by rotary-wash drilling should be noted. Soils encountered during drilling should be examined and classified in the field. All factual, inferred, and interpretive information included in the final report must be unambiguously noted. It is important to recognize that geotechnical investigations performed on the basis of a few borings provide only a limited view of the overall conditions at the site. Given this large margin of uncertainty, the designer should anticipate and be prepared to accommodate changes as they are encountered. Often, to lessen uncertainty, field testing is performed to verify the proposed soil properties, the allowable bearing, and other geotechnical concerns. As borings are performed, soil samples are generally taken at about 2-ft (0.6-m) intervals in the top layers and at 5-ft (1.5-m) intervals subsequently. These intervals may be shortened where noticeable variations are observed. Collected samples of disturbed and undisturbed soil must be properly handled, correctly labeled, and carefully transferred to the soil laboratory for testing. As the boreholes

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Foundations

Foundations Specified Test

ASTM Designation

Classification of soils

D2487

Cone penetration

D3441

Consolidation One dimensional Undrained triaxial

D2435 D4767

Direct shear

D3080

Modified proctor (compaction)

D1557

One-dimensional swell

D4546

Seismic refraction method

D5777

Standard penetration

D1586

Standard proctor (compaction)

D698

Triaxial compression

D2850

Unconfined compression

D2166

Note: ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials.

TABLE 5-1 ASTM Test Designations

are occasionally left open overnight to permit measurement of groundwater level the next day, preventive measures should be taken to ensure safety during the night. In most states, regulations require that the boreholes be filled with grout or plugged on completion of the investigation. The standard penetration test and cone penetration test are the common tests used to determine properties of soils. The subjective seismic refraction method is also used in subsurface explorations. To obtain an estimate of consolidation settlement in saturated clayey soils, consolidation tests are run in the laboratory. The unconfined compression test, direct shear test, and triaxial compression test are alternative test procedures for determining the shear strength of soils. The unconfined compression test is primarily suited for cohesive soils. The magnitude of potential swell in clays is determined by the unrestrained swell test or the swelling pressure test. Table 5-1 describes some of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards that can be referred to for further details regarding geotechnical test procedures. Similarly, test procedures are available for checking the design capacity of piles. The axial compression load test (ASTM D1143), the pullout load test (ASTM D3689), the lateral load test (ASTM D3966), and the dynamic pile load test (ASTM D4945) are among some of the common methods used.

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Chapter Five

Engineering Properties Soils that are well suited for foundation design can be cohesive (primarily clayey) or cohesionless. Cohesion, the characteristic that enables the soils to bind or stick together, gives added shear strength to the soil. Shear strength defines the suitability of the soil for the type of foundation work being considered. Cohesionless soils are predominantly sandy soils having particles that lack cohesion. Cohesionless soils draw their shear strength from sliding friction and interlocking of grains. Some soils combine cohesive and cohesionless characteristics and are classified according to which is dominant. Silty soils have been classified as cohesionless by some authors and cohesive by others, depending on the soil’s clay content. Silty soils, however, are not considered good foundation material due to their compressible nature when wet. Similarly, topsoil and organic soils are unsuited for foundations. Sandy and clayey soils with high bearing capacities and low plasticity are best suited for foundations of water-storage tanks. Engineering properties of soils are defined by the soil grain size distribution. For cohesionless soils, this distribution is determined by sieve analysis, which involves sifting the soil through sieves having openings of different sizes arranged in descending order from coarse to fine. The amount of soil retained in each sieve after sieve agitation serves as the basis of measurements and plots used in defining grain-size distribution. Particle-size distribution in fine-grained cohesive soils is determined by hydrometer analysis based on sedimentation of soil particles in water over a given length of time. Another measure of cohesive soil consistency is called the Atterberg limits. The Atterberg limits refer to the moisture content at which a given volume of a cohesive soil changes consistency from one state to another. These states are defined as solid state, semisolid state, plastic state, and liquid state. The moisture content at which the soil transitions from the solid state to each successive state is referred to as, respectively, the shrinkage limit (SL), the plastic limit (PL), and the liquid limit (LL). The difference between the LL and the PL is defined as the plasticity index (PI). The PI is also a measure of the expansive potential of the soil. Soils with high PI values (PI > 35) have severe shrink/swell characteristics and require additional consideration in design, as is discussed later in the chapter.

Soil Consolidation All structures are subject to foundation settlement. Given the loading, footing size, and properties of soils, these settlements can be evaluated with reasonable accuracy. Consolidation is time-dependent settlement that can be significant in saturated soils. It occurs when the soil undergoes compressive deformation under the loading from the structure.

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Foundations

Foundations Water is extruded from the voids in the soil as the soil rearranges its grains to accommodate the increased pressure. The process occurs rapidly in granular soils because of their permeability, whereas in cohesive soils or fine-grained silty soils, consolidation can take a long time. Consolidation is also a function of footing size. The larger the footing, the greater the depth of the soil affected by the loads on the footing. The affected depth is also referred to as the effective bearing depth of the foundation. Depending on the thickness of the compressive layer or layers and the depth(s) at which they occur, the resulting settlements can be substantial and could create serious consequences for the structure. Therefore, to ensure structural stability, it is important to include consolidation testing in the work scope where deformationprone soil layers are present within the effective bearing depth of the foundation.

Total and Differential Settlement All water tank foundations undergo settlement. For reasons of stability and serviceability, it is necessary to minimize these settlements to tolerable limits. The extent or severity of the settlement depends on the foundation type, the magnitude and direction of loading, and the properties of the bearing and supporting soils. In addition to the overall settlement, a foundation undergoes relative or differential settlement, which, in essence, is the settlement of one part of the foundation with respect to another. Although all settlements must be evaluated for their effects on the system, differential settlements must be examined more closely, as they are critical to foundation strength and overall system stability. As noted in the section “Appropriate Foundation Type,” at the beginning of the chapter, for water tanks, it is preferable to limit the total and differential settlements to a maximum of 2 in. and 1 in. (5 cm and 2.5 cm), respectively. If the use of shallow foundations will cause excessive settlement, deep foundations can be used to further limit these settlements. Special piping and fittings are available that can offer flexibility in the system when high settlements are expected. Settlement is a major design consideration, and its effects on the entire water tank system must be carefully evaluated. In addition to the direct vertical settlements, the foundations are also subject to horizontal displacements under the influence of lateral loading. The extent of the horizontal displacement depends on the amount of foundation movement that is necessary to activate the surrounding soils’ passive resistance against the lateral loads. Therefore, geotechnical reports must fully address all settlement and lateral displacement considerations.

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Chapter Five

Required Design Information The subsurface investigation report must be prepared by qualified, registered geotechnical engineers who are experienced in designing water tank foundations. The number, location, and depth of the borings should be provided by the foundation designer and confirmed by the geotechnical engineer. All data supporting the recommendations for each feasible foundation type must be included in the geotechnical report, which should establish the following basic requirements: For all foundations r Site classification

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Site topography and site preparation Description of the soil and its engineering properties Classification of soil strata Liquefaction potential and its consequences under dynamic loads Presence of rock, rock lenses, and boulders Potential for and consequence of shrink/swell Replacement or remediation of shrink/swell soils Anticipated total and differential settlements Drainage considerations Elevation of groundwater and dewatering requirements Minimum recommended bearing depth of foundation Excavation and backfill requirements Suitability of site soils for backfill Compaction and compaction testing requirements Seismic design parameters for American Water Works Association (AWWA) and/or other applicable codes

For shallow foundations r Soil ultimate and net allowable (FS = 3.0) bearing capacity

r Soil carrying capacity for lateral load based on soil passive resistance

r Extent of overexcavation, if necessary, and backfill recommendations For pile and caisson foundations r Anticipated pile/caisson type, size, and length

r Required pile/caisson spacing r Pile/caisson axial load capacity—compressive and pullout (include values for end bearing and skin friction separately, as appropriate)

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Foundations

Foundations r Minimum required reinforcement for caisson (as per local practice)

r Pile/caisson allowable lateral load capacity r Pile/caisson bending-moment diagram for appropriate end conditions

r Pile or caisson safety factor for long-term and transient loading

r Pile testing required and type of test r Special installation considerations r Appropriate uplift connection recommendations Typically, laboratory analysis of selected samples includes visual classification, cohesive shear strength tests, determination of Atterberg limits, grain-size analysis, determination of field moisture content, and the following additional parameters: Soil unit weight



Unit cohesion of soil

c

Coefficient of soil active pressure

Ka

Coefficient of soil passive pressure

Kp

Standard penetration resistance values

N

Angle of internal friction



Coefficient of friction, if different than tan 

f

Modulus of subgrade reaction

ks

All the required seismic parameters—including the mapped maximum considered earthquake acceleration at short period Ss and at 1-second period S1 —should be specified. Where required, site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis should be performed to determine the appropriate values.

Problem Soils Experience indicates that certain types of soils pose special challenges in design and require remedial measures before they can support water tank foundation loads. Among these are expansive soils, which are prevalent in many areas of the United States and elsewhere in the world. The expansive clays with very high plasticity index values are not suited for shallow foundations unless remedial measures are taken that include lime mixing, prewatering, use of water barriers, or soil replacement. All of these measures are costly and require strict quality control. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Five Foundation considerations in shrink/swell soils depend on the depth of the active zone and the swell potential of the soil. When a thin layer of these soils is present near the surface, it can be replaced with more suitable low-plasticity soils. When deeper layers are encountered, the expansive soils under the foundation can similarly be replaced and properly compacted. An approach that is often recommended is to place the shallow footing below the depth susceptible to shrink/swell and to replace or remediate the surrounding soils to make them suitable for backfill. However, the footing can be placed within the active zone as long as the uplift forces caused by the swelling of the soils are taken into account in design and as long as the structure can tolerate the resulting movements in the foundation. It is important to note, however, that as long as moisture is prevented from entering the soil, the shrink/swell volumetric changes cannot occur. Therefore, pouring a concrete slab over the footing area or placing waterproof barriers around the footing are alternate remedial options. Further detailed options are discussed later in the chapter. When materials such as organic soils, fills, or any other type of loose soil are encountered at the bearing level, they should be undercut and replaced with suitable soils. The replacement soils may be what is commonly known as select structural fill, sand, or crushed stone. Select structural fill consists of uniformly graded sands to silty or slightly clayey sands, free of organics and other deleterious material, with less than 30 percent passing through a no. 200 sieve. Select fill is also recommended for backfill around the footings and pile caps when unsuitable soils are present. Structural fills are commonly placed in thin (6- to 8-in. [15- to 20-cm]) lifts and compacted to 95 to 98 percent of the soils’ modified proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D1557) or other ASTM criteria. They may require some manipulation of the moisture content (wetting or drying) to achieve the required compaction. Flowable fill is another material that can be used for this purpose. Of course, replacing the undercut soils with low-strength concrete is always an option.

Structural Concrete Water tank foundations are primarily constructed of reinforced structural concrete. Concrete is a mixture of hydraulic cement with fine and coarse aggregates and water in appropriate proportions. Sand, gravel, crushed stone, and, in some cases, iron blast-furnace slag constitute the aggregates. The governing properties of hardened concrete are defined by the quality of the cement paste, ratio of water to cement, and the properties of the aggregates. Structural concrete is concrete mixed to a uniform distribution of materials on the basis of a precise mix/design and satisfactory quality control for required

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Foundations

Foundations durability and compressive strength. The design and construction of water tank concrete foundations follow the Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (ACI 318R-05) (see “Bibliography”).

r Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-05.

r Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, Commentary, ACI 318R-05. Concrete is strong in compressive strength, but its tensile strength is limited to a small fraction of its compressive strength. Therefore, in flexural design applications such as for foundations, steel reinforcement is provided on the tension side of a member to resist the tensile stresses. Similarly, as shrinkage and temperature reinforcement normal to flexural reinforcement, or wherever tensile stresses can develop, steel reinforcement is added to provide tensile resistance. Reinforcement bar sizes and details as well as criteria for determining the amount of reinforcement needed are all outlined in ACI 318-05.

Materials Structural concrete materials include cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures. The reinforcing steel used in water tank foundations comprises deformed bars ranging in diameter from 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to about 13/8 in. (3.5 cm). Two larger bar diameters of 13/4 in. (4.5 cm) and 21/4 in. (5.5 cm) are also available but are seldom used in water tank foundations. Welded wire fabric is another form of reinforcement often used in floor slabs. Cement is a powdered substance produced from a burned mixture of clay or shale and limestone. Portland cement is the most common type, grayish in color, consisting chiefly of calcium and aluminum silicates. Portland cement is manufactured to various designations on the basis of the physical and chemical requirements as defined by ASTM C150. Type I designation represents the general-purpose cement for foundations subject to normal exposure. Where sulfate attack from soil or water is a concern, if high strengths at an early period are required, or if hydration heat needs to be minimized, other ASTM cement types would be better suited and should be specified. Aggregates are generally classified into fine and coarse categories on the basis of their particle size. Fine aggregates consist of sands that pass through a no. 4 sieve, meaning that their maximum particle size is less than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm). Some references include a particle size up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates constitute any material larger than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm). The most common aggregate size is about 3/4 in. (19 mm). However, the maximum coarse

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Chapter Five aggregate size is governed by the space limitations between the reinforcing bars. As the aggregates constitute up to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, it is important not only that the proper size be selected carefully, but that the aggregates be properly graded and have the requisite strength, durability, and weather resistance for the exposure environment. Uniformity and workability of concrete are affected by the aggregate gradation or particle size distribution within the aggregate. A properly graded aggregate has a balanced distribution of particle size that remains consistent from batch to batch. Aggregates with smaller gradation minimize the number of air voids and result in more dense, stronger, and better concrete. Water is a necessary ingredient that initiates the hydration process of cement. The mixing water should be clean potable water that is free of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, and other organic materials that are detrimental to concrete or the reinforcement steel. Likewise, the water should be free of high concentrations of dissolved solids. Admixtures should be used only when required by design. They improve the workability of plastic concrete and enhance the properties of hardened concrete. The admixtures include air-entraining to increase resistance to freezing, water-reducing admixtures to reduce the quantity of water needed to maintain a certain slump, retarding agents to slow the setting of concrete, accelerators to hasten strength development at an early age, and fly ash and ground, granulated blastfurnace slag to improve the plastic or hardened properties of cement concrete.

Durability Because water tanks are erected in varied climates and locations, the environmental effects on their concrete foundations can be harsh and must be taken into consideration. Conditions that can profoundly affect the service life of the foundations include extreme temperature fluctuations, freeze/thaw cycles when exposed to water, and exposure to chemicals, salts, deicers, etc. Durability, in essence, refers to the capability of concrete to withstand these exposure conditions without damage, distress, or deterioration. ACI 318-05 provides detailed durability requirements for improving the performance of concrete. These requirements include air-entraining recommendations for concrete exposed to freezing/thawing or deicing chemicals, maximum water-to-cement ratios and minimum strength values for concrete exposed to special conditions, maximum percent of total cementitious material by weight for exposure to deicing chemicals, and criteria for resistance to sulfatecontaining solutions and soils. This reference also provides requirements for corrosion protection of the reinforcing steel.

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Foundations

Foundations

Quality Control, Mixing, Placing, Finishing, and Curing For reinforced-concrete foundations to perform and function as intended, it is essential to adhere strictly to specific requirements in each phase of construction. These requirements govern the strength, durability, mixing, conveying, depositing, workability, and curing of concrete. The quality of concrete is mostly defined by the quality of the cement paste, its proper mixing with the aggregates, and the aesthetic quality of the finish. Structural concrete is proportioned to achieve an average concrete strength based on a mix design and an anticipated exposure. The proportions are established to provide workability and consistency, resistance to special exposures, and conformance with strength test requirements as outlined in ACI 318-05. The mix design must be followed precisely to produce concrete that satisfies structural performance requirements. Placing and compacting are also important to the quality of concrete. Concrete must be placed and vibrated properly to avoid segregation, honeycombing, settling, and separation of the heavier aggregates from the rest of the mix. Concrete should be placed continuously in lifts or layers using multiple discharge locations. This eliminates aggregate separation caused by the horizontal flow of concrete within the formwork and the need for concrete to be moved into its final position. During placement, samples of the plastic concrete should be taken for field testing of unit weight, slump, and air content to ensure compliance with mix specification. The tests can be performed according to the appropriate ASTM specifications. Unless cured by accelerated curing techniques, poured-concrete foundations should be maintained at a temperature above 50◦ F (10◦ C) and in moist condition for at least 7 days after placement. Scheduledriven activities often dictate backfilling around the footings sooner than 7 days. In no case should backfilling be started before the concrete has gained sufficient strength to withstand the loading induced on the footing by the pressures resulting from the backfill and the construction equipment.

Required Strength, fc Structural concrete can be proportioned to a wide range of design strengths and characteristics. The design of water tank foundations is based on a specified design strength for concrete. The design strength refers to the compressive strength gained by concrete after 28 days of curing and is referred to as f c . For water tank foundations, a minimum design strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa) is recommended. The preferred specified strength, however, is 4,000 psi (27.6 MPa). A common practice in the industry is that when concrete strength in excess of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa) is required by the specifications, a design strength that is

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Chapter Five 500 psi (3.4 MPa) less than the specified strength is used in computations. This allows some flexibility in situations where strict quality control measures cannot be maintained due to the long hauls to remote job sites. Evaluation and acceptance of concrete for a given design mix can be made on the basis of actual testing. Adjustments to the mix design can be made to improve the resulting strength as necessary. To ensure that the concrete furnished meets the specified design strength requirements, fresh concrete specimens can be prepared at the job site for testing in the laboratory. ACI 318-05 provides criteria for concrete sampling and testing and for acceptance of concrete compressive strength: Concrete strength is considered acceptable when the average of any three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds f c and no individual test (average of two cylinders) falls below f c by more than 500 psi (3.45 MPa). For the test results to be meaningful, it is critical that the samples be taken, handled, and cured in strict compliance with the applicable ASTM standard. Testing of cylinders that are mishandled or ignored at the job site may not be truly representative of the concrete furnished. Also, it is important that qualified personnel test all specimens, as the outcome of the tests determines the acceptability of the foundations. If the strength test results fail the acceptability criteria, hardened concrete can be tested by taking core bores in accordance with ASTM C42. Experience indicates that unless the requirements of ASTM C42 are strictly adhered to, the core bore test results will underestimate the true strength of the hardened concrete. ACI 318-05 also provides specific criteria for core drill testing.

Reinforcing Steel The reinforcement steel used in water tank foundations is generally deformed bars conforming to the ASTM A615 specification and having a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi (414 MPa). Where weldability is a requirement, low-alloy steel deformed bars conforming to ASTM A706 can be used. As noted previously, welded wire fabric reinforcement can be used in floor slabs. These fabrics conform to ASTM A185 for plain wire and ASTM A497 for deformed wire. Epoxy-coated bars or wires are not necessary for water tank foundations. ACI 318-05 provides detailed criteria for determining the amount of reinforcement necessary in design as well as requirements for the spacing, cover, development length, and splice length. Requirements for the development length of bars should be carefully reviewed, especially for the horizontal bars. If horizontal bars are so placed that more than 12 in. (30.5 cm) of concrete is cast in the member below the bar, the required development length is 1.3 times the normal development length.

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Foundations

Foundations

Nonconforming Concrete On occasion, it is possible that concrete mixed and furnished under a specification fails to meet the minimum design strength requirement. As a result, contractual obligations may require the foundation contractor to remove the nonconforming foundations and reinstall the foundations according to the stated requirements. This can significantly delay project completion and can be very costly. Therefore, it is important that serious attention be paid to quality control during the mixing, conveying, placing, and curing phases of the concrete foundation construction. Contractual obligations notwithstanding, not every nonconforming condition warrants the removal of the footings. If testing confirms low strength, calculations can be performed to check the adequacy of the furnished concrete with reduced strength and the actual reinforcement provided. The nonconforming condition may be accepted if the calculations confirm that the load-carrying capacity of the foundation is not significantly reduced and that the design intent has been met.

Formwork and Removal Construction of water tank foundations requires the use of formwork. Proper formwork ensures that the foundations conform to the shape and dimensions shown on the drawings. The formwork also prevents moisture loss from concrete, and it facilitates curing, especially when the top surface of concrete is kept moist. To be effective, the formwork must be strong enough to withstand the loads and pressures from pouring concrete and any other loads that are present. Leakage of plastic concrete must not occur. Formwork should remain in place for as long as possible, especially in cold weather. Formwork must not be removed until the concrete has gained sufficient strength to withstand its dead load and any other construction loads. When properly cured, general-purpose concrete gains about 500 psi (3.45 MPa) strength in 24 hours; within 1 week of placement, it reaches nearly 70 to 75 percent of its maximum compressive strength. Although many contractors are in a hurry to remove the formwork so that they can complete backfilling around the footings, it is best to keep the formwork in place based on achieving a defined minimum strength. To simplify formwork, some contractors take the liberty of adjusting footing thickness or other dimensions. This should not happen without the explicit consent of the engineer of record. The formwork required for water tank foundations is relatively simple and should easily facilitate the required shape and dimensions shown on the engineering drawings.

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Chapter Five Tank diameter

High water line

Head range

Overflow elevation

Low water line

Column (typ.)

Top of footing elevation

Center riser

Elevation

Centerline to centerline of foundation

at eter Diam rline of e cent ation d n u o f

Plan

FIGURE 5-1 Typical leg tank elevation and shallow foundation plan.

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Foundations

Foundations

Shallow Foundations The shallow foundation is the most cost-effective foundation for water storage tanks. Shallow foundations typically include isolated footings or mat or raft foundations placed just below the columns on the lowest part of the structure, as applicable. Footings can be placed as shallow as possible as long as the bottom of the footing is below the frost line, the resulting bearing pressures are within the allowable limits, the overall settlements are tolerable, and the stability requirements are met. However, for water-storage tanks, shallow foundations can be typically placed as shallow as 4.5 ft (1.4 m) and as deep as 10 ft (3.0 m) below grade. Shallow foundations transfer structural loads to the bearing soil or rock strata occurring below the base of the footing. Shallow foundations for multicolumn elevated storage tanks typically consist of isolated piers with footings (Fig. 5-1). For ground storage tanks and elevated single-pedestal tanks, the foundation may take the form of a ringwall, a ring-tee, or a ring-slab. These ring-type foundations are further discussed later in the chapter. Ground storage tanks may also be founded on a slab or a granular berm. Figures 5-2a, 5-2b, 5-2c, and 5-3 show several common types of shallow foundations. Based on tank geometry, site conditions, and specific environmental loading effects, various foundation alternatives should be evaluated. Typically a shallow foundation is the preferable option. If poor soil conditions, high settlement expectations, or low bearing capacities dictate, deep-foundation alternatives must be considered. Low bearing capacities generally result in large footings, causing the adjacent footings to encroach upon each other. As a result, the overlapping of the pressure bulbs from the individual footings can exacerbate the bearing stresses and magnify settlements. Therefore, when the net allowable bearing pressure falls below 2,000 psf (96 kPA), the deepfoundation alternative should be pursued.

Loads and Load Combinations Water-storage tanks are subjected to a variety of loads. The gravity forces consist of the weight of the tank metal, appurtenances, and the liquid. Common appurtenances include roof-mounted cellular antenna systems, platforms, floors, walkways, ladders, and piping. Snow loading consists of the weight of snow on the tank balcony and the tank roof where the roof slope with the horizontal axis is flat to moderate. The tank roof may also be subjected to live loading that is in excess of the snow loads. Lateral forces on the tank and tower consist of loads resulting from wind pressures or earthquake ground motion. The AWWA D100-05 Standard for Welded Carbon-Steel Tanks for Water Storage states that a unit weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 (1,000 kg/m3 ) for water, 490 lb/ft3 (7,850 kg/m3 ) for steel, and 144 lb/ft3 (2,310 kg/m3 )

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Chapter Five

Centerline of foundation

Centerline of anchor bolts

Radial centerline

Centerline of foundation

Diameter at centerline of anchor bolts

Top of footing elevation

Centerline of anchor bolts

Anchor bolts

Centerline of foundation

Plan

Dowels Hoops

Top of grade Exposure Bars

Bars

(a)

Elevation

FIGURE 5-2a Typical shallow foundations: sloped slab

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Foundations

Foundations

Centerline of foundation

Centerline of anchor bolts

Centerline of foundation

Radial centerline

Diameter at centerline of anchor bolts

Top of footing elevation

Top of grade

Centerline of anchor bolts

Anchor bolts

Centerline of foundation

Plan

Dowels Hoops

Exposure

Bars

(b)

Elevation

FIGURE 5-2b Flat slab

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Foundations

Chapter Five Centerline of foundation

176

Hole for inlet/outlet pipe

Centerline of foundation A

Anchor bolts on bolt circle

A

Top of footing elevation

Centerline of foundation

Plan Anchor bolts Slab reinforcing U-bars Dowels

Exposure

Dowels U-bars

Vault for piping

Bars

Bars

(c)

Elevation

FIGURE 5-2c Riser.

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Foundations

Foundations Centerline of tank and foundation Top of footing elevation Exposure

Mat top reinforcement bars Mat bottom reinforcement bars

(a) Extend 3–5 ft Tank plate (0.9–1.5 m) beyond tank Top of berm elevation Slope To drain down away

2 ft (0.6 m) minimum

Centerline of tank and foundation Compacted crushed stone, screenings, fine gravel, clean sand, or similar material

1 1.5 1

Coarse stone or coarse gravel

(b)

1

Thoroughly compacted fill of gravel, coarse sand, or other stable material

Coarse stone or coarse gravel

FIGURE 5-3 Examples of shallow mat and berm foundations: (a) typical square mat foundation and (b) typical granular berm foundation for flat-bottom tanks.

for concrete should be considered in the design of tank structures and foundations. The standard also recommends consideration of a minimum allowance of 25 lb/ft2 (1,205 N/m2 ) for the pressure resulting from the design snow load on the horizontal projection of the tank roof surfaces with slopes not exceeding 30 degrees. A reduction of this allowance is permitted in warmer regions where snow loading is smaller. However, D100-05 limits the minimum roof design load to 15 lb/ft2 (720 N/m2 ). AWWA D100-05 has adopted the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) standard 7-05 for wind loading criteria. However, it retains the minimum design pressures to be 30 Cf lb/ft2 (1,436 Cf N/m2 ), with the force coefficient Cf being 1.0 for flat surfaces, 0.60 for cylindrical or conical surfaces with apex angle <15 degrees, and 0.50 for double-curved or conical surfaces with apex angle ≥15 degrees. For seismic design, the AWWA standard has essentially adopted ASCE 7-05 criteria with some variation in the minimum design acceleration. ASCE 7-05 provides detailed criteria for both wind and seismic loading. Proper determination of the period of oscillation of the water tank system is necessary in all seismic evaluations. The wind or seismic forces can originate from any direction. Structural analysis indicates that the greatest uplift force in a multicolumn elevated water tank occurs in the column that is situated exactly upwind of the lateral force. The maximum uplift force generally occurs

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Chapter Five when the tank is empty. For taller and shorter towers in areas of high seismic risk, it would not be unusual to find that the maximum uplift occurs under seismic loading when the tank is full. Similarly, the greatest downward force occurs in the column situated exactly downwind of the lateral force. The downward load will be a maximum when the tank is full. The direction of the lateral force that will cause the greatest uplift may not be the same as the direction of the lateral force that will cause the greatest downward force. Hence, all column foundations are candidates for the worst-case orientation. Typically, structural loading required for the design of the foundations is determined from the analysis of the elevated tank and tower or pedestal. The resulting reactions, shears, and overturning moments due to the gravity loads, wind loads, and seismic loads are all defined. These loads, in addition to the foundation dead loads and other loads emanating from soil pressure or swells, constitute the design loads. Foundations are generally designed according to ACI 318-05 and its commentary, ACI 318R-05. This building code for structural concrete stipulates that the foundations be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strength based on factored loads in defined load combinations. Although ACI 318-05 still retains the classical factored load combinations in its Appendix C as an alternative, in its 2005 edition it has adopted the ASCE 7-05 factored load combinations for design. In the seven load combinations stated for determining the required strength U, loads not present can be eliminated from the load combinations: U = 1.4(D + F)

(5-1)

U = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(L r or S or R)

(5-2)

U = 1.2D + 1.6(L r or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.8W)

(5-3)

U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L + 0.5(L r or S or R)

(5-4)

U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S

(5-5)

U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H

(5-6)

U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

(5-7)

where D F Lr L R S E W H

= dead loads = load due to weight of fluids = roof live load = live load = rain load = snow load = load effects of seismic forces = wind load = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soils, or other materials

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Foundations

Foundations T = cumulative effect of temperature, creep, shrinkage, differential settlement, and shrinkage-compensating concrete It is the authors’ view that the load due to the weight of the fluids F should be included in the strength design load combinations (Equations [5-4] and [5-5]) with a load factor of 1.2—that is, 1.2F . Otherwise, the case of the full tank under wind or seismic loading may not be appropriately considered. Interestingly, the ASCE 7-05 basic load combinations for allowable stress design correctly include the F loads in load combinations for wind and seismic loading. Likewise, the weight of fluids should be included in the seismic load combinations (Equations [5–7] and [5–10]), as the seismic uplift can be more significant in areas of high seismic risk or in the case of tall elevated tanks when the tank is full. The uplift for an empty tank is generally governed by the wind load combinations. Alternatively, the classical ACI 318 Appendix C load combinations may be used: U = 1.4(D + F ) + 1.7L U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.4F + 1.7L) + (1.6W or 1.0E)

(5-8) (5-9)

U = 0.9D + (1.6W or 1.0E)

(5-10)

U = 1.4D + 1.4F + 1.7L + 1.7H

(5-11)

Where structural effects (differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete, or temperature change T) are significant, U should not be less than the larger of the following equations: U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.4F + 1.4T + 1.7L)

(5-12)

U = 1.4(D + T)

(5-13)

Regardless of the load combination selected for design, the load factor 1.6 on wind load can be reduced to 1.3, where W has not been reduced by a directionality factor. Also, the factor 1.0 on the seismic load should be increased to 1.4, where E is based on service-level seismic forces. Refer to ACI 318-05 for other specifics in using these load combinations. It should be noted that in foundations design, AWWA D100-05 Section 12.1.1 requires the water load to be considered as live load, with appropriate factors for live load. Furthermore, the standard does not require the inclusion of snow loading in the load combinations that include wind or seismic loads. An additional AWWA D100-05 requirement that is associated with the ductility of the bracing rods states that foundations should be checked for stability at a lateral seismic force equal to yielding of bracing rods. For A36 rods, the actual yield stress may be as much as 1.33 times the minimum published yield. Hence, the anchor bolts must also be checked to ensure load transfer. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Five

Bearing Capacity Bearing capacity refers to the ability of the soil strata below the footing to safely resist the structural loading on the foundation with reasonable safety and tolerable settlements. The loads described earlier must all be transferred to the bearing strata through the foundation system. The pressure resulting from the structural loading at the interface between the foundation and the bearing strata is referred to as the bearing pressure. The bearing pressure must always remain below the ultimate bearing capacity of the bearing soils. The ultimate bearing capacity may correspond to a general shear failure or a punching shear failure in the soils. However, in design, safety factors are applied to further limit the bearing pressures to levels commonly referred to as the allowable bearing capacity. The determination of the ultimate bearing capacity follows Terzaghi’s equations (Terzaghi and Peck 1967). Based on equilibrium analysis and experimentation, Terzaghi expressed the ultimate bearing capacity in semiempirical forms that can be expressed as q ult = c Nc + qNq +  BN

(5-14)

where  = 1.0 for strip foundation = 1.3 for square and circular foundations = (1+ 0.3B/L) for rectangular foundation  = 0.5 for strip foundation = 0.4 for square foundation = 0.3 for circular foundation = 0.5 × (1 − 0.2B/L) for rectangular foundations  = unit weight of soil q = surcharge, or  times the bearing depth of the foundation B = width or diameter of the footing L = length of the footing c = cohesion of soil Nc , Nq , N = bearing capacity factors determined on the basis of the angle of internal friction of soil  Refer to a soil mechanics textbook for further details (Terzaghi and Peck 1967 or Smith and Pole 1981). Water tank foundations are designed using the net allowable bearing capacity. The net allowable bearing capacity is determined by subtracting the effective surcharge or the overburden pressure from the ultimate bearing capacity and dividing the result by a factor of safety (FS). The FS included in the recommendations of the geotechnical report is critical and should be reviewed carefully. Typically, the FS

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Foundations

Foundations ranges from 2.5 to 3.0. However, AWWA D100-05 prescribes specific values for various bearing conditions:

r A safety factor of 3.0 shall be provided on the basis of calculated ultimate bearing capacity for gravity loads.

r A safety factor of 3.0 shall be provided on the basis of calculated ultimate bearing capacity for gravity loads plus wind load, excluding overturning toe pressure caused by shear at the top of the footing, unless specified otherwise. The safety factor may be reduced to 2.25 when specified in the geotechnical report.

r A safety factor of 2.25 shall be provided on the basis of calculated ultimate bearing capacity for gravity loads plus seismic load, excluding overturning toe pressure caused by shear at the top of the footing, unless specified otherwise.

r A safety factor of 2.0 shall be provided on the basis of calcu-

lated ultimate bearing capacity for gravity loads plus wind or seismic load, including overturning toe pressure caused by shear at the top of the footing. Therefore, the geotechnical investigation must identify the net allowable bearing capacity using an FS of 3.0 against the ultimate bearing capacity. If a different FS value is specified in the geotechnical report, the bearing pressures must be corrected to an FS of 3.0, as required by AWWA D100-05.

Design of Isolated Spread Footing The isolated spread footing for water-storage tanks consists of a pier or pedestal sitting on top of a flat or sloping slab. The dimensions of the pier are generally specified to be compatible with the column orientation and size and the base plate bolting requirements. The height of the pedestal is a function of the bearing depth recommended by the geotechnical engineer. The pedestal height is also affected by lateral stability of the footing. Determining the footing size is an iterative process. The base area of the footing is initially determined from unfactored forces and moments by maintaining the resulting bearing pressures below the allowable bearing pressure. With this determination, the footing is then subjected to the load combinations defined previously. Appropriate adjustments to the slab dimensions, thickness, or bearing depth are made to satisfy both equilibrium and stability (lateral and uplift) requirements. Once the footing is sized, the concrete sections and reinforcement requirements are selected in accordance with ACI 318-05 Ultimate Strength Design Method.

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Chapter Five The footing thickness is based on the concrete flexural and shearstrength requirements of ACI 318-05. The slab bending moment requirements are checked at the faces of the pedestal. Checks are also made on strain compatibility to ensure that the failure mode will be by yielding of the reinforcement, not by the crushing of concrete in the compression zone. Beam or flexural shear is checked at the critical distance d from the face of the foundation pier. The punching shear is checked at the critical distance d/2 from the face of the pier. The dimension d represents the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of longitudinal tension reinforcement in the slab, at the face of the pedestal. When checking the punching shear or flexural shear capacity of sloping slabs, caution is warranted to use the actual depth at the location under consideration, not the depth at the face of the pier. For the multicolumn tank, the tower typically consists of tubular columns with a base plate at the top of the footing. The column pier or pedestal is sized to accommodate the column and base plate in addition to providing adequate embedment depth and edge distance for the anchor bolts. The pier can be circular, square, or—in the case of a battered column—rectangular. The rectangular pier allows the line of action of the column axial force to be centered on the footing, thus avoiding creation of eccentric moments at the base. The depth of the foundation below grade, the pedestal projection above grade, and the thickness of the footing determine the required height of the pier. The designer must ensure that the pier does not become slender. Otherwise, it would have to be designed as a column. ACI 318-05 limits the ratio of the pedestal height to its average least-lateral dimension to a maximum of 3. By this limitation, the ACI building code provides specific reinforcing requirements that are lighter than those typically required for columns. The minimum reinforcement of flexural members relevant to the foundation slabs is defined in ACI 318-05 Section 10.5.1. Section 10.5.3 allows this minimum reinforcement requirement to be waived if the calculated area of the reinforcement is increased by one-third. For footings of uniform thickness, Section 10.5.4 specifies that the minimum area of tensile reinforcement in the direction of the span should be the same as that required for shrinkage and temperature defined in Section 7.12. The upper bound on the flexural reinforcement ratio should satisfy the requirements of Section 10.3.5 or Section B.10.3.3. Shear friction should be checked at the pedestal/slab interface according to Section 11.7.4. For cast-in-place pedestals, ACI 318-05 Section 15.8.2.1 specifies that an area of reinforcement across the interface should not be less than 0.005 times the gross area of the pedestal. For shorter pedestals, this value can be arguably reduced by as much as 50 percent according to industry practice. However, the value should be maintained

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Foundations for taller pedestals. The vertical dowels constituting the pedestal reinforcement resist the uplift and lateral forces that exist at the upwind columns when the tank is empty and the design wind load is fully active. They also strengthen the pier in resisting compressive loads. The dowels will require lateral ties as per ACI 318-05 Section 7.10.5. As was noted earlier, once the foundation system is sized based on all other requirements, it is necessary to check for vertical (uplift) and lateral (sliding) stability. When the uplift is severe, it will control the embedment depth and the size of the footing. To ensure stability against uplift, the foundation can be placed deeper or made larger to maximize the dead weight of the soils directly above the footing. This will be especially necessary when the water table is high and when buoyant weights are used in design. Similarly, footing depth or slab dimensions can be adjusted to provide stability against lateral sliding. When such adjustments are made, it will be necessary to revisit final reinforcement requirements for code compliance. (Typically, for buoyant weights, 60 lb/ft3 [961 kg/m3 ] for soil and 82 lb/ft3 [1,314 kg/m3 ] for concrete are used in design.) AWWA D100-05 requires the weight of the pier (footing) plus the weight of the soils directly above the pier to be sufficient to resist the maximum net uplift occurring when the tank is empty. The lateral stability is provided by the passive resistance, cohesion, and adhesion provided by the soils. It is recommended that a minimum FS of 1.3 be maintained against the working load uplift by including the weight of a 25-degree soil wedge and that a minimum FS of 1.5 be maintained against lateral sliding. In elevated tanks, the riser carries a major portion of the water weight. For torus-bottom tanks, this loading may be equivalent to the weight of water within half the diameter of the tank times the tank head range. The loading and the requirement for pipe entry and exit at the base of the riser footing make the riser foundation unique. The pipe pit design differs considerably from the column pedestal design in that it has a top slab that can support a considerable load. The pipe pit often has an open front so that support for the top slab is provided by just three walls. The slab, treated as a two-way slab, is supported on the front edge by a deepened girder or non-deepened band beam across the open face of the pit and on the other three edges by the walls of the pit. The load transferred to the top slab by the riser consists of two parts: one part comprises the direct loads from the tank transferred by a compressive axial stress in the riser pipe walls, and the other part is due to the water column that bears on the riser floor in wet risers. Another design consideration for the top slab is whether the diameter of the riser pipe is less than or greater than the clear span in the pipe pit below. If the riser diameter is smaller than the clear span, the reinforcement in the slab must be attuned to account for the additional bending moment in the slab.

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Chapter Five The walls of the pit are reinforced in accordance with ACI 318-05 Sections 14.3.2 and 14.3.3, unless required otherwise. The walls are typically 12 in. (30.5 cm) thick. They are checked for compressive stress as well as flexural bending stress caused by soil active pressure, and their thickness is adjusted as required. Where the water table is high or when the soils are saturated, soil lateral pressures will be affected, and their effect must also be considered when specifying design lateral pressures. A

Centerline of tank and foundation ll wa ing r r

ete iam all d ringw meter ide ia d s e n I Outsid

Centerline of tank and foundation

3 in. (76 mm) Clean dry at wall sand 6 in. (152 mm) minimum at center

A Plan

Crushed stone or concrete slab

Compacted regular or gravel fill

Expansion material

Detail X Centerline of tank and foundation Top of footing elevation Compacted backfill Hoops

See Detail X

Sand cushion

Inlet or outlet pipe

Exposure

6–12 in. (152–305 mm) crushed stone Verts.

Compacted regular or gravel fill

Compacted backfill

Section A-A Concrete thrust block

FIGURE 5-4 Typical ring-wall foundation plan for a flat-bottom tank. (Verts. = vertical reinforcement dowels.)

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Foundations

Ringwall, Ring-Tee, and Ring-Slab Footings Aside from the standard isolated shallow footings, there are other types of shallow foundations. A ringwall foundation is a cylindrical wall footing of defined thickness and height. Ringwalls are typically used for flat-bottom storage tanks, commonly known as reservoirs and standpipes (Fig. 5-4). Ringwall foundations allow the tank contents to be supported directly on the soils at grade as long as the allowable bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded. The ringwall itself supports the weight of the tank container and significant appurtenances, a small tributary weight of the water, the roof loads, and pressures resulting from the effects of wind and seismic loads. Foundation systems consisting of ring-tees or ring-slabs are typically used for single-pedestal tanks such as pedespheres, flutedcolumn tanks, or composite elevated tanks. A ring-tee foundation is essentially a ringwall supported on a footing (Fig. 5-5). When the bearing capacity of the soil is exceeded under a ring-tee foundation, a ring-slab foundation is used. The ring-slab comprises a ringwall supported on a slab whose diameter is larger than the diameter of the ringwall (Fig. 5-6). Ringwall, ring-tee, and ring-slab footings—as with the single footing—are sized for the load combinations defined previously. These footings may be symmetrical about the ringwall or asymmetrical. Asymmetrical footings are used to balance the shear or bending moments along the two faces of the ringwall. This minimizes torsional moments on the ringwall. Footings containing a ringwall are also subject to hoop stresses from the soils or the surcharge that must be considered in design. As with all foundation systems, it is necessary to check for stability against overturning as well as lateral sliding.

Backfill and Lateral Stability Backfill is an essential component of properly designed foundation systems. The geotechnical investigations generally determine the suitability of the in-situ soils for structural backfill. If the on-site soils are determined to be unsuitable, recommendations for alternate backfill material are made in the report. Backfilling in accordance with the geotechnical recommendations ensures lateral stability of the foundation and stability against uplift. Backfill soils must be capable of providing the necessary passive resistance to stabilize the foundation against horizontal sliding and to eliminate the possibility of water accumulation and buildup. As noted earlier in the chapter, select structural fills that consist of uniformly graded sands to silty or slightly clayey sands are well suited for backfill. However, they must be free of organics and other deleterious material, and it is preferable that less than 30 percent passes

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Chapter Five A Anchor bolts on bolt circle

i Ins de dia

Ou

tsi de

te me

O ut side

r sl

dia diam m e ete r rin ter s gwa la ll b all g in w ter r e m e dia Insid

Centerline of tank and foundation

ab

Centerline of tank and foundation

or

Ch d

d

or

Ch

Radial bars Hoops

A Plan

Anchor bolts Top of footing elevation Hoops

Centerline of tank and foundation

Hoops (special top bars) Gravel floor

Verts.

Verts.

Concrete Thrust block

Regular or gravel fill

Do not grout pipe. Bend bars around opening B B

Hoops Radial bars

Suitable bearing strata

Bars Pipe sleeve for inletoutlet Section B-B

Roughened construction joint (or a shear key)

Section A-A

FIGURE 5-5 Typical ring-tee foundation plan for a single-pedestal tank. (Verts. = vertical reinforcement dowels.)

through the no. 200 sieve. Soils with high values of liquid limit and/or plasticity index should be avoided. A liquid limit in the range of 30 to 35 and a plasticity index of less than 15 are commonly preferred. Backfill may also be required to replace unsuitable bearing soils. The backfill material in this case may consist of well-compacted structural fills as defined above, clean-washed crushed stone (e.g., no. 57 stone), or a lean-concrete mud mat with a compressive strength of

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Foundations

Foundations

Anchor bolts on bolt circle

Centerline Ou of tank and tsi Out foundation de side dia diam me eter ring te wal r s l la b Centerline all w g of inletr rin mete outlet pipe e dia Insid

A

Centerline of tank and foundation

A

d

or

Ch

spCh ac ord in g

H sp oop ac ing

g

in

ac

sp

Radial bars Hoops

Plan

Anchor bolts Top of footing elevation Hoops Verts.

Outside diameter

Gravel floor or concrete slab Compacted soil or ground fill Concrete Verts. thrust block Hoops Radial bars

Centerline of tank and foundation

Inlet-outlet pipe

Slab bottom reinforcement bars Slab top reinforcement bars

Do not grout pipe. Bend bars around opening Compacted backfill Bars Pipe sleeve B for inletoutlet B Section B-B Bearing elevation Roughened construction joint (or a shear key)

Compacted regular or gravel fill

Section A-A

FIGURE 5-6 Typical ring-slab foundation plan for a single-pedestal tank. (Verts. = vertical reinforcement dowels.)

about 2,000 psi (14 MPa). The geotechnical consultant must provide specific recommendations as to the appropriate backfill material and required compaction. Resistance to sliding is generally derived from the passive resistance of the soils acting against the foundation. Cohesive soils also

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Chapter Five draw passive resistance from the soil cohesion. In addition, the shearing resistance at the base of the footing resulting from internal friction in the soil may contribute to the lateral resistance. The coefficient of friction at the base of the footing ranges from about 0.3 for silty soils to 0.5 for coarse-grained cohesionless soils. The backfill around the footings is commonly placed in 6- to 8-in. (15- to 20-cm) lifts and is compacted to 95 to 98 percent of the soil’s standard proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D698) or modified proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D1557) criteria. Manipulation of the moisture content of the backfill material may be necessary to achieve the required compaction. Flowable fill is an alternative backfill material that is simple to place and does not require elaborate compaction.

Settlement All structural foundations are subject to settlement. As long as the settlements are reasonably small and uniform, their effect on the structure is relatively small. However, if the settlements become large and the differential settlements excessive, there can be serious consequences that could lead to failure. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that the settlement of all foundations is estimated and that its effect on the structure as a whole is examined before construction proceeds. Geotechnical consultants are expected to provide proper assessment of the total and differential settlements. As was stated earlier, for water tanks it is preferable to limit the total and differential settlements to a maximum of 2 in. and 1 in. (5 cm and 2.5 cm), respectively. If shallow foundations will cause excessive settlement, deep foundations can be used to further limit these settlements. The effect of the settlement on the piping should also be carefully examined. Special piping and pipefittings are available that should be used when flexibility in the system is required. Settlement of foundations bearing on rock is not a concern as long as all individual footings bear on rock. However, the rock layer must be thick and strong enough to support the loads without being crushed (as might be the case with a rock lens). The designer should be very cautious of situations in which the foundation bears partly on rock and partly on soils, as high differential settlements can result.

Pile Foundations When the bearing soils are weak or prone to excessive settlements, deep foundations—of which one type is the pile foundation—are necessary. Piles transfer the structural loads deep into the stronger

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Foundations

Foundations underlying soil strata or rock formations. They also transfer the lateral loads to the surrounding soils and maintain lateral stability. Given the complex nature of the resisting soils, competent advice from a qualified geotechnical engineer should always be sought on the basis of a thorough subsurface investigation to assess the appropriate pile type, length, and other characteristics necessary for design. Pile foundations consist of long, slender structural members that are either driven into the soil or poured in place after drilling. Whether a pile develops its capacity from end bearing or side friction depends on how deep it is embedded and on the properties of the soils surrounding it. Piles driven to and bearing on hard rock or very dense layers of soil are primarily end bearing, as they axially transmit the loading to the bearing strata. Piles driven to shallower depths and not resting on hard and dense layers transmit the loading mainly by skin friction and, hence, are referred to as friction piles. Generally, piles develop resistance through a combination of both end bearing and skin friction. The resistance varies on the basis of the pile length and the relative density and consistency of the soil layers. The lateral capacity of the pile is a function of the soil characteristics near the surface. A simulation technique called “beam on elastic foundation” can be used to assess the lateral resistance capacity of the pile. The spring constant necessary for the evaluation can be determined from the elastic or shear modulus of the soil. Pile lateral load is also a function of the flexural capacity of the pile itself. Professional advice must be sought in determining pile lateral capacities and load-displacement characteristics.

Pile Types Piles can be driven or cast in place. Available driven pile types include timber, precast, prestressed concrete, steel pipe, and H-piles. All have certain advantages and disadvantages. Where the resulting vibrations from pile driving can be a problem, cast-in-place piles may be more suitable. Auger-cast piles, drilled piers, or caissons are alternatives often preferred over pile driving because of their lightweight equipment. Although pile selection depends on many factors—among them cost, availability, and load test requirements—there are advantages to using a particular pile type for a given job. The common pile types are listed in Table 5-2 (ASCE 1993b). The main disadvantage associated with timber piles is the difficulty of achieving a high-strength connection between the pile and the pile cap. Similarly, prestressed-concrete piles can pose a challenge in achieving uplift connection. Dowels can be embedded into the pile head for transfer of tensile load, but because of physical space

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Chapter Five Type of Pile

Description

Timber piles

Best suited for short-embedment, low-capacity, and low-cost applications. They are also appropriate for application in regions with corrosive groundwater. Timber piles are difficult to splice and very susceptible to decay if untreated. Precast concrete Usually prestressed, these durable and corrosive-resistant piles are well suited for higher capacities. Although precast concrete piles are available in long lengths, splicing them is difficult and can be a problem because water tank foundations resist significant tensile (uplift) and lateral loads. Steel pipes Open- or closed-ended steel pipes pose some difficulties in driving but offer high-resistance capacity, especially when filled with concrete. Steel pipe piles are well suited for splicing, but they do have the potential for corrosion. H-piles Available in a wide variety of sizes and lengths, H-piles can be driven easily and spliced rather conveniently. They offer high axial load carrying capacity and flexural bending resistance. Corrosion can be a problem, as with all steel, which can be alleviated with preventive measures. Source: ASCE 1993b.

TABLE 5-2 Common Pile Types

constraints, developing a connection for moment transfer can be difficult for smaller piles.

Capacity and Driving Formulas Pile capacity evaluation has evolved significantly in recent years, as have requirements for the design of piles. Criteria endorsed by many recent building codes reflect the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures (NEHRP 2003). These requirements are indeed very different than the common design practices employed by the design community thus far. The differences are more pronounced for regions of high seismic risk. Therefore, the geotechnical engineer’s role is extremely important in the design of pile foundations for elevated water tanks. Geotechnical engineers generally provide the allowable pile load either as a set of recommendations or in the form of raw soil borings

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Foundations

Foundations that must be interpreted. (The latter approach is not preferred.) The recommendations may also include options for other pile types and capacities for flexibility in design. A pile’s load-carrying capacity depends on its type, size, and depth of penetration. Geotechnical consulting engineers also provide pile lateral and uplift capacities, a centerto-center spacing recommendation, and anticipated settlement under the governing loads. The minimum center-to-center spacing should be at least three times the diameter or side dimension of the pile for end-bearing piles but larger for friction piles, especially when many piles have been driven in a group. Pile capacity may be limited either by the pile’s internal structural capacity or by the external capacity offered to it by the resisting soils. For the pile to be able to furnish the full resistance offered by the surrounding soils, the internal capacity must exceed the external capacity. Pile capacity is basically determined on the basis of an approved pile-driving formula, wave equations, or load test methods. IBC-2006 limits the allowable compressive load on any pile to 40 tons (356 kN) when it is determined on the basis of a driving formula alone. For allowable loads above 40 tons (356 kN), it recommends the use of the wave equation method of analysis and verification of this allowable load by a load test in accordance with ASTM D1143 Test Methods for Piles Under Static Axial Compressive Load and ASTM D4945 Test Methods for High-Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles. Similarly, IBC-2006 provides criteria for allowable frictional resistance and uplift capacity. IBC-2006 and/or ASCE 7-05 provide detailed criteria for longitudinal-reinforcement and transverse-confinement reinforcing steel for precast, prestressed piles as a function of site class and seismic design category. ACI 318-05, in its Chapter 21, also provides design criteria for piles, pile caps, and foundations that resist earthquakeinduced forces. The ultimate capacity of a pile that derives its resistance from both the side friction and the end bearing is given by QUltimate = QSide Friction + QTip Bearing

(5-15)

The evaluation of Q depends on whether the pile is driven in sand or clay. Refer to any textbook on pile foundations for appropriate methodologies for determining pile capacity. AWWA D100 requires a minimum FS of 2.0 for gravity loads and an FS of 1.5 for gravity loads plus wind or seismic loads. Other references define factors of safety on the basis of whether load tests have been performed. Various theoretical pile-driving formulas can be used to estimate pile load-carrying capacity. These formulas do not correlate well with test results and are historically inaccurate. However, they are helpful in establishing when to stop driving a pile to achieve a capacity

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Chapter Five equivalent to that of the load test. The reader is once again referred to a textbook on pile foundations (Prakash and Sharma 1990). The equation that is often used by the industry is known as the EngineeringNews formula (Liu and Evett 1987): Qa =

2Wr H S+C

(5-16)

or Qa =

1000 Wr H 6(S + C)

(in SI units)

(5-17)

where Qa Wr H S C

= allowable pile capacity (lb [kN]) = weight of ram (lb [kN]) = height of fall of ram (ft [m]) = amount of pile penetration per blow (in./blow [mm/blow]) = 1.0 for drop hammer; 0.1 for steam hammer (25 or 2.5)

There is a built-in FS of 6 associated with Equations (5-16) and (5-17).

Pile Driving and Load Tests Before any pile driving begins, the geotechnical engineer must approve the equipment and method of pile driving. This, along with monitoring the penetration resistance, will ensure safe driving of the piles. When the engineer authorizes pre-boring to a certain depth, the diameter of the hole must be smaller than the pile diameter or side dimension. A limit of two-thirds times the diameter or side dimension is recommended. Larger or oversize holes cause loss of the skin friction and, consequently, a reduction in the pile axial and lateral load capacity. If pre-boring is necessary, then auger-cast piles or drilled shafts may be a better option. The geotechnical engineer must provide guidance on pile driving and criteria for pile length or depth of penetration. Such guidance can be in the form of limiting the penetration resistance based on a particular hammer and rate of energy or recommendations for dynamic testing using a Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) to ensure pile structural integrity and adequate load-carrying capacity. Unless geotechnical recommendations for pile capacity are based on previous experience in the site vicinity, most recommendations are theoretical and only an estimate of the carrying capacity of the pile. Load tests are performed to determine or to confirm those theoretical capacities. Test piles should be driven where the soil conditions are known. Test piles must be the same as the actual piles being used

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Foundations

Foundations for the job. Also, the pile-driving techniques on test piles must be the same as those that will be used for the production piles. For foundations for elevated water tanks, the most common method of testing piles under static axial compressive loading is that performed under ASTM 1143. But this method is costly and requires a minimum waiting period of 7 days for piles in granular material and 14 days for piles in cohesive soils for dissipation of excess pore water pressure after test pile installation and before load testing begins. More recently, the use of PDA is gaining much acceptance over the static load tests in view of its fast pace and the more quickly available resulting data. PDA is also used to assess pile capacity and pile stresses from measurements of the applied force and acceleration at the head. Refer to ASCE 1993b and ASCE 7-05 for further details.

Pile Spacing and Group Efficiency As stated previously, the minimum pile center-to-center spacing should be three times the pile diameter or side dimension for endbearing piles. For friction piles, however, a larger spacing (three to five times the pile diameter or side dimension) may be required, as determined by the geotechnical consultant. A larger center-to-center spacing makes the pile cap larger and heavier and can increase the required number of piles. However, a smaller center-to-center spacing between piles may reduce the group efficiency of the piles. Some references allow smaller spacing, but the geotechnical engineer should carefully review any reduction in the spacing. As the spacing between piles decreases, the group capacity of piles may not equal the sum of the individual pile capacities in the group. Pile group efficiency must be evaluated on the basis of a rational evaluation that considers the overlapping effects of individual piles. The geotechnical engineer should provide the required pile spacing and group efficiency along with all other pertinent information.

Auger-Cast Piles Auger-cast piles are piles that are installed by pumping grout under pressure into holes drilled to required depth by continuous-flight, hollow-stem augers. The common diameters of these piles range from 12 to >30 in. (30 to >76 cm), with lengths from 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) and compressive capacities that can exceed 125 tons (1 MN). Augercast piles are reinforced by inserting a single reinforcing bar and/or a reinforcing cage through the unset grout. The cage extends to a defined length based on the structural requirements of the pile in resisting tensile, compressive, and lateral loading. The single reinforcing bar at the center of the pile typically continues to the bottom end of the pile. The grout mostly consists of portland cement, sand, and water.

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Chapter Five Where vibrations due to pile driving can cause damage to other structures or entities in the near vicinity of the job site, auger-cast piles offer a better alternative. As with all other piles, pile axial load tests are performed in accordance with ASTM 1143. Pile installation records are maintained as required. More information on these piles can be found in the Augered Cast-in-Place Piles Manual prepared by the Deep Foundations Institute (DFI 1990).

Lateral Loads and Bending Moments In addition to the gravity loads, foundations for elevated water tanks must resist vertical and lateral loads caused by wind or seismic loading. These loads are transferred through the pile cap to the resisting piles. Depending on pile head fixity and the characteristics of the surrounding soils, the lateral shears can cause significant bending moments, in addition to the axial loads acting on the piles. Therefore, both the pile and the surrounding soils should be analyzed and investigated for strength and stability. Along with the allowable load capacity for the pile, geotechnical engineers must provide allowable lateral load capacities for various pile head fixity conditions. If the pile head extends into the pile cap and is anchored by uplift connections, there is very little, if any, pile head rotation. But due to the movement of the pile cap, lateral translation of the pile head is possible. For design purposes, however, it is helpful to define the pile head boundary condition to locate where the maximum bending moment occurs. With the pile head restrained against rotation, the maximum bending moment in the pile generally occurs at the restrained end, at the pile cap. Otherwise, it occurs at some distance below the pile cap. Geotechnical engineers often provide bending-moment curves as a function of the lateral loads and an assumed pile head fixity condition. These curves are very helpful in design and should be included in all geotechnical reports that recommend pile foundations. They should be carefully reviewed for assessing pile structural capacity as well as the effect of pile lateral displacement on the elevated water tank system.

Pile Caps and Uplift Connections Pile caps are reinforced-concrete structural elements that resist direct vertical and lateral forces and transfer them to the supporting piles. Pile caps are sized based on the number of piles required for a tower column loading. Depending on their thickness, pile caps can be rigid or flexible. Typically, pile caps join the pedestal from the top and the piles from the bottom. Piles usually extend 4 to 6 in. (10 to 15 cm) into the pile cap. The size of the pile cap is a function of the number and center-tocenter spacing of piles required for a footing. The larger and thicker the pile cap, the heavier it is. Thus, the dead weight of the pile cap Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Foundations

Foundations

S

S

S

S

S

S

Four piles

Five piles

S

S

Six piles

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S Seven piles

Eight piles

S

Nine piles

FIGURE 5-7 Typical pile group patterns for single foundations. (S = spacing between piles.)

itself can cause an increase in the number of required piles. Figure 5-7 provides typical pile layouts for four-, five-, six-, and sevenpile footings. Pile caps must accommodate pile spacing as well as edge distance requirements. The pile cap edge distance, measured from the centerline of the outer piles to the edge of the pile cap, is generally a function of the pile diameter. Typically, for piles with a diameter of about 1 ft (30 cm), a distance of 1 ft. 3 in. (38 cm) is used. The thickness of the pile cap should be checked for punching shear caused by piles exterior to the critical section. The critical section is taken to be at a distance of d/2 from the pedestal, where d is the current depth to centroid of tensile steel in the pile cap. The punching shear should also be checked around the individual piles at a critical section taken a distance d/2 from the face of the pile, and the pile cap thickness should be adjusted, if necessary. The pile cap thickness is also dependent on flexural shear both tangentially and radially at a distance d from the face of the pedestal. Flexural reinforcement, in both the tangential and radial directions, should also be checked at the faces of the pedestal. The flexural reinforcement determined should then be compared against the minimum flexural reinforcement requirements of ACI 318-05 Section 10.5.1 and adjusted, if necessary. IBC-2006 provides specific criteria for pile connection to the pile cap. For prestressed piles, uplift anchorage to pile cap can be achieved Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Five by exposing and developing the reinforcing strands at the top of the pile. This approach, however, is not permitted by other model codes in areas of high seismic risk. IBC-2006 permits the option, provided that the reinforcing strand results in a ductile connection. As an alternative, reinforcing dowels can be grouted into the top of the pile. In timber, steel, or pipe piles, a reinforcing bar can be inserted through the member and bent upward into the pile cap. The pile cap must be thick enough to accommodate the anchoring mechanism. Refer to Figures 5-8a and 5-8b for typical pile foundations. Centerline of foundation

Radial centerline

Prestressed concrete piles Pile layout plan view

Top of footing elevation

Anchor bolt

Centerline of foundation

Dowels

Projection Hoops

Exposure Aggregate

Radial bars

Typical uplift anchor

(a)

Tangential bars Prestressed concrete piles

Column foundation with piles elevation view

FIGURE 5-8a Typical pile foundations: typical pile foundation for a single column

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Foundations

Foundations

Anchor bolts on bolt circle

Prestressed, precast concrete piles

A

Centerline of tank and foundation

Outs ide d iame ter rin gwall

d

Ch

Ch

or

or d

Out side diam eter slab

ringwall b iameter la Inside d rs ete m dia ide s In

Radial bars Hoops A

Exposure

Plan

Anchor Top of bolts footing Expansion elevation joint

Hoops Hoops (special Verts. top bars) Typical uplift anchor Radial bars Hoops

(b)

Centerline of tank and foundation Concrete slab

Subgrade Verts. Radial bars Reinforced concrete Hoops thrust Prestressed block concrete piles

Section A-A

FIGURE 5-8b Typical ring-tee pile foundation). (Verts. = vertical reinforcement dowels.)

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Chapter Five The pedestals for pile foundations are usually compressive elements with a ratio of unsupported height to least lateral dimension not exceeding 3.0. As noted in the section on shallow foundations, although ACI 318-05 Section 15.8.2.1 recommends a minimum reinforcing ratio across the interface (between the pedestal and footing) of 0.5 percent of the gross area of supported member (i.e., the pedestal), a smaller reinforcement ratio can be justified for the tower column pedestals due to their large size. For taller pedestals, the 0.5 percent reinforcement ratio should be maintained. However, the reinforcement furnished must be sufficient to meet the requirements for uplift as well as flexural requirements necessitated by the lateral shears on the pedestal.

Pile Stability and Settlement Piles are required to be laterally braced in all directions. Piles interconnected by a rigid pile cap may be considered braced for lateral stability provided they are situated as defined in IBC-2006 Section 1808.2.5. Elsewhere, the surrounding soils furnish lateral stability along pile length. In regions where the piles extend vertically through voids or holes, the piles should be analyzed as columns. Settlement is an important aspect of design for all water tank foundations, including pile foundations. The geotechnical engineer should evaluate pile settlement as well as potential differential settlements for full consideration in design. As discussed previously in the section on soils and geotechnical investigations, settlement not only affects the structural behavior but also the piping systems and the interconnections among the various components and appurtenances.

Drilled-Pier (Caisson) Foundations Drilled piers, caissons, or shafts offer an alternative design option in deep foundations. Drilled piers are cast-in-place reinforced-concrete shafts with or without a bell at the bottom. They are installed by drilling a hole of predefined diameter and depth at the design location and then filling the excavation with concrete and reinforcement. Drilled-pier construction is relatively easy and can be accomplished with rotary drilling equipment. Depending on the soil conditions, casings or laggings may be needed to prevent the soils from falling or caving into the hole. Typical diameters of drilled piers for water tank foundations range from about 3 to 6 ft (0.9 to 1.8 m). Larger diameters may be needed for higher-capacity tanks, depending on availability of large-diameter drill bits. Otherwise, several smallerdiameter piers will be used, which would require a larger pier cap.

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Foundations

Foundations There are many advantages to using drilled piers for water tank foundations. Because of its size and capacity, a drilled pier can replace a group of piles and eliminate the need for a pile cap. Installation of drilled piers does not generate much noise or vibration, as pile driving does, and drilled piers can be set up in hard-to-access places. A primary advantage of drilled piers is that they can sustain large axial loads with minimal settlement when bearing on bedrock.

Pier Bearing Capacity Drilled piers draw their structural capacity from the reinforcedconcrete shaft. They develop their bearing capacity from side resistance, generated by skin friction, and base resistance, generated by end bearing. In equation form, the ultimate static load capacity of a pier can be expressed as

Qu = Qbu + Qsu − Wp

(5-18)

where Qu Qbu Qsu Wp

= pier ultimate resistance (kip [kN]) = pier ultimate end-bearing resistance (kip [kN]) = pier ultimate side friction resistance (kip [kN]) = pier dead weight (kip [kN])

An FS of 3.0 is applied for allowable-stress design application. Some references may apply an FS of only 2.0 on the ultimate resistance due to side friction Qsu in service-load design application. Others may also apply a load factor on the shaft dead weight Wp . Refer to Fig. 5-9 for a typical belled, drilled pier configuration. A very useful and relevant reference on drilled piers is a report entitled Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design Methods, issued by the US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (Reese and O’Neill 1988). This reference provides detailed analysis and design, fabrication, and quality control criteria for drilled-shafts foundations. The Bearing Capacity of Soils, prepared by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE 1993a), is another source for criteria regarding analysis and design of drilled shafts.

Pier Side or Skin Friction Pier side resistance offered by the skin friction along the pier shaft is a function of the undrained shear strength of clay soils as determined by testing. Shear strength varies with depth and soil strata and is empirically related to the shaft load transfer in side resistance. The

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Chapter Five Axial load Lateral load

Additional reinforcement, if required Exposure

Hoops

Depth can vary per design

Diameter depends on loading and depth of excavation Qsu side resistance

Reinforcing steel WP

θ

Bell—may be used when required. Size varies—no larger than three times shaft diameter at base. Underream angle θ is 45° or 60° typically.

Q bu base resistance Base resistance

FIGURE 5-9 Typical drilled shaft. (Wp = pier dead weight; Qsu = pier ultimate side friction resistance; Qbu = pier ultimate end-bearing resistance) (Source: Reese and O’Neill 1988.)

shear resistance offered by sands or cohesionless silts, however, is a function of the soil angle of internal friction. The resistance capacity offered by side friction can be very significant. For piers socketed into bedrock, it is possible that the entire resistance capacity is emanating from the side resistance furnished by the socket. It is a recommended practice within the drilled-pier design community to ignore the contributions of side friction and passive resistance in the top 5 ft (1.5 m) or 1.5 diameters of the shaft when

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Foundations

Foundations evaluating lateral stability. The reason is that lateral movement by the pier causes a wedge of soil to move up and out, resulting in a loss of side friction and passive resistance. Similarly, in clay soils, the side friction in the periphery of the bell or the bottom of the straight pier within 1 diameter of shaft length is ignored in determining the resistance capacity of the pier. The reason is that movement of the base of the pier can result in the development of a tensile crack in the soil, which in turn can cause a lateral stress at the base of the pier and, consequently, a reduced load transfer in side friction (Reese and O’Neill 1988).

Design of Piers The diameter of the pier is a function of the soil characteristics within the profile, the location of the water table, and the presence of lateral loads and/or moments. The design of the concrete mix and its strength are also of critical importance. The geotechnical profile of the soil dictates not only how far down to extend the pier, but also the method of construction to be employed, the need for casing and/or dewatering, and the need for under-reaming. Special characteristics of soils—shrinking/swelling of plastic soils, occurrence of boulders, remains of abandoned footings, presence of debris or other unsafe materials, and so on—all require that certain measures be taken into full consideration. Aside from the basic structural design, the most important consideration is the amount of the expected settlement of the pier foundation and its effects on the elevated water tank system. Under-reaming, where possible, helps increase the pier bearing surface and consequently the bearing resistance. Under-reaming can also be used interchangeably with socketing where required. The longitudinal reinforcement for drilled shafts depends on the many factors noted previously, but as a minimum, industry practice has been to provide at least 0.5 percent of the cross-sectional area and at least six bars, forming a cage of equally spaced bars. This minimum is actually based on ACI 318 Sections 10.8.4 and 10.9.1. Section 10.9.1 requires a minimum reinforcement of 1 percent. For regions of low-to-moderate seismic risk, Section 10.8.4 states that, for compression members with cross-sectional areas larger than required by consideration of loading, it should be permissible to base the minimum on a reduced effective cross-sectional area not less than half the total area. Additional reinforcement may be required where heavy tensile loading or bending moments are present. The longitudinal reinforcement cage may extend a partial depth or the full length of the pier when required. Hoop or spiral reinforcement is also used for drilled shafts. Hoops are more economical, but from a performance standpoint spirals are preferred. Figure 5-10 illustrates pier reinforcement.

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Chapter Five

Ties—spacing as per ACI 318 Sections 7.10 and 7.11. Refer to ACI 318 Chapter 21 for special provisions for seismic design.

Length of cage depends on lateral design requirements and may not require extending to full length. Extend cage to full length in highly plastic (expansive) soils.

FIGURE 5-10 Drilled shaft reinforcing cage.

In regions of high seismic risk, special reinforcement requirements may also apply, including confinement steel near the interface regions with the pedestal or grade beams. Refer to ACI 318-05 Chapter 21 for special provisions in seismic design. Where belled bottoms are needed, the base diameter is generally limited to less than three times the shaft diameter. The under-ream angle is typically in the range of 45 degrees to 60 degrees, with 60 degrees often used for water tank foundations. Also, a toe height of about 1 ft (30 cm) is maintained at the base.

Lateral and Uplift Stability Lateral stability of the drilled pier depends on the shaft length and flexibility. It also depends on whether the pier is drilled in cohesive or cohesionless soils. Lateral stability of piers should be carefully examined, especially where the piers are not socketed into bedrock. Similarly, uplift stability is a function of pier length, geometry, and side friction. Where the uplift forces are relatively small, the resistance provided by the side friction along a straight shaft pier may

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Foundations

Foundations be adequate for uplift stability. But when the loads are severe, belled, or under-reamed, piers are necessary. Detailed criteria on the stability of drilled piers and a discussion on the potential collapse of the bell in loose soils during construction can be found in the study by Reese and O’Neill (1988).

Socketing into Bedrock Piers drilled into rock derive their load-bearing capacity from end bearing and side friction offered by the length of socket in the rock. A roughened socket length equal to 1 diameter into rock with higher modulus than the pier shaft enables the pier to carry 50 percent of the load by side friction, whereas a 4-diameter roughened socket length into the bedrock allows the shaft to transfer nearly all the load by side friction (Wyllie 1992). Hence, the depth of socketing should be a function of design requirements and not established arbitrarily. The socket drilled into bedrock also provides end fixity, allowing the pier to develop moment resistance at its base. Geotechnical engineers generally provide a simplified, uniform, unit side friction value along with the end bearing for design. This information may be presented as ultimate capacity or service load capacity. The references previously noted provide further information on the subject.

Design Considerations in Plastic Soils Plastic soils can be found in many parts of the world. In the United States, Texas, Oklahoma, and the upper Missouri Valley area have highly expansive soils. Increases in moisture cause swelling in these clayey soils, and, as a result, foundations are subjected to rather large uplift forces. These forces can be large enough to pull the drilled pier out of the ground unless it has been properly designed. Similarly, if the pier shaft is not adequately reinforced, it could break apart from the base because of the tensile forces caused by swelling soils along the shaft. Piers in shrink/swell soils should terminate in bells that bear deep in soil layers not in the zone of seasonal activity and movement. The reinforcement cage in these belled piers should extend the full height to allow the belled segment to anchor the uplift forces in the upper areas of the shaft. The tensile reinforcement needed is in addition to the reinforcement needed for normal tensile loading.

Load Testing A clear way of establishing the structural integrity of a drilled pier is by load testing. However, due to the high costs and logistical difficulties associated with the arrangement of reaction shafts, such testing is rarely performed. If it is absolutely necessary that a load test be

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Chapter Five performed, the pier (as with piles) must be able to sustain without excessive settlement a load that is at least twice the working load. The best way to ensure the structural integrity and intended performance of drilled piers is to follow a credible quality control program of inspection and installation procedures. Recent studies have shown that minor construction flaws that may not be detectable by common nondestructive evaluation methods can lead to significant capacity reduction in drilled piers. Such flaws include the presence of small voids, soil inclusions, misaligned cage or other reinforcement steel, weak concrete, or corroded reinforcing bars. Refer to Sarhan et al. (2004) for further details.

Settlement Settlement concerns associated with drilled piers are similar to those defined for piles. Typically, if the drilled pier is bearing on or socketed into the bedrock, settlement caused by direct loading is negligible. Under other installation conditions, it is important that a proper settlement analysis be performed by the geotechnical engineer to ensure that the expected settlements are tolerable from operations and performance perspectives and from the standpoint of structural design.

Reservoir and Standpipe Foundations Reservoirs and standpipes are considered flat-bottom tanks. The design of foundations for flat-bottom tanks follows the criteria defined previously for shallow and deep foundations. AWWA D100-05 provides detailed guidance on various foundation types for reservoirs and standpipes. The bearing pressure induced by the water at the base of a flatbottom tank is equivalent to the height of the high water line H times the density of water. For a flat-bottom tank to be supported on the ground, with or without a ringwall, the bearing soils must have an allowable bearing capacity of at least 62.4 H lb/ft2 (9.81 H kN/m2 ). Pile foundations may be necessary if the induced bearing is in excess of the allowable bearing capacity of the resisting soils. Therefore, it is important to reiterate that a formal geotechnical investigation must be performed to verify that the bearing soils can carry the resulting loads. AWWA D100-05 also provides criteria for grading the interface between the bottom of the tank and the supporting base and the use of oiled or clean sand, crushed rock, or asphalt road mix. The standard also provides information on granular berms, grout, foundation tolerances, anchor bolts, etc. Refer to Fig. 5-11 for a typical granular-berm foundation for a flat-bottom tank (Fig. 5-3b).

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Foundations

Foundations

Flat-bottom water-storage tank

Extend 3–5 ft (0.9–1.5 m) 2 ft (0.6 m) minimum beyond tank

To drain away

Compacted crushed stone, screenings, fine gravel, clean sand, or similar material

Slope down

Coarse stone or coarse gravel Subgrade

1 1

Thoroughly compacted fill of gravel, coarse sand, or other stable material

Berm

Coarse stone or coarse gravel

FIGURE 5-11 Typical granular berm foundation.

Slab Foundation Where the bearing soils are strong or when the water tank capacity is small, flat-bottom tanks can be supported by a mat or slab foundation. The slab is uniformly loaded by the pressure head in the tank. The resulting bearing stress under the slab is the pressure due to the weight of the tank and its contents added to the uniform pressure caused by the thickness of the concrete slab. Overturning moment resulting from wind or seismic loading also contributes to the bearing stress. The reinforcement requirements of the mat or slab foundation are based on the loading and deformation characteristics of the footing. Often the minimum reinforcement requirement defined by ACI 318-05 will control. Anchorage and stability requirements should be investigated when the tank is full and when it is empty. Slab exterior edges supporting the tank wall may be thickened, if necessary, to accommodate the additional bearing stress caused by wind or seismic overturning moments. Consideration should also be given to the frost depth in determining slab thickness and bearing elevation.

Ringwall Foundation As discussed in the section on shallow foundations, ringwall foundations are used when the bearing pressure under the tank shell exceeds the allowable bearing pressure of the soil near grade. The ringwall carries the loads deeper and distributes the pressure over a wider area. When the overturning moments are severe and anchor bolts are required for stability, a ringwall foundation best accommodates these anchorages. The design must consider hoop stresses caused by the internal soil pressure resulting from the weight of the tank and its contents.

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Chapter Five

Ring-Tee and Ring-Slab Foundations When the bearing soils are weak or when the tank is large, a ring-tee or a ring-slab foundation may be required. The foundation system is then designed for the direct bearing loads and the overturning moments caused by wind and seismic loading for the load combinations defined earlier. The ringwall requires vertical and horizontal reinforcement and full consideration of the hoop stresses. The tee or slab portion requires radial and tangential reinforcement. Uplift is a loading condition that must be considered for wind with the tank empty and for seismic with the tank full. Hence, for uplift stability, the dowels must be developed within the slab by hooks at the ends. It is possible that piping has been routed through the ringwall. At such locations, additional reinforcing must be provided to strengthen the opening periphery.

Deep Foundations Where the bearing soils are weak or the settlements are excessive, flat-bottom tanks require deep foundations. Driven piles and augercast piles are typically used under flat-bottom tanks. In regions of high seismic risk, special reinforcement requirements also apply, as is discussed subsequently in this chapter.

Anchor Bolts (Rods) Load combinations governing the design of foundations for elevated water tanks were defined in Equations (5-1) through (5-13). The load combination causing the maximum uplift and shear in the bolt generally governs the design of the anchor bolts (more recently also referred to as anchor rods). Because of the significant forces imposed on elevated water tanks, it is critical to properly design all anchor bolts to safely transmit these forces to the foundation. Flat-bottom tanks may or may not require anchor bolts. All elevated water tanks require anchor bolts. Cast-in-place anchors are the most common type of anchor bolt for water tank foundations, although post-installed anchors have their uses. For all bolt or anchor types, the embedment length, center-to-center spacing, edge distance, and group action should be evaluated for the design loads, with appropriate factors of safety. Of the many references addressing structural design of anchor bolts, Appendix D of ACI 318-05 is entirely devoted to anchors in concrete. This reference requires anchors and anchor groups to be designed for critical effects of factored loads as determined by elastic analysis.

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Foundations

Foundations

Minimum Embedment and Projection The minimum embedment length should be such that the anchor bolt is capable of developing the required uplift strength and shear resistance for all loads in the design load combinations. Most manufacturers of post-installed anchors recommend an embedment length for their proprietary anchors. However, cast-in-place anchors require unique design based on the governing loads or as determined by testing or past evaluations. Bolt projection is especially important when settlements are expected to be large. In such cases, the projection should be long enough to accommodate shimming, as required. To provide for variations in foundation elevations, AWWA D100 further requires a projection of the anchor bolts’ threaded ends an additional 2 in. (5 cm) beyond the anchor nuts. Typically, a 7-in. (18-cm) projection above the top of concrete is sufficient.

Allowable Tension and Shear AWWA D100 recommends sizing the bolts for tension using the root area and a basic allowable tensile stress of 15 ksi (103 MPa), with a one-third increase for the wind load combination. The minimum bolt diameter specified is 1.25 in. (31.8 mm), and the maximum center-tocenter spacing required is 10 ft (3 m). For the wind load combination, tension–shear (linear) interaction is checked using a basic allowable tensile stress of 15 ksi (103 MPa) (as per AWWA D100-05) or 19.1 ksi (as per Table I-B in Allowable Stress Design, American Institute of Steel Construction [AISC 1989]) for A36 anchors in tension. For shear, AWWA D100 recommends 7.5 ksi (51.5 MPa) for unfinished bolts, and AISC (1989) recommends 9.9 ksi (68 MPa). An interaction value less than or equal to 1.33 renders the design acceptable. For the seismic load combination, AWWA D100-05, in Section 3.3.3.2, provides a higher allowable tensile stress for mild steel anchors based on the lesser value of 0.8Fy or 0.5Fu , where Fy and Fu refer to the anchor bolt yield and tensile stresses, respectively. For A36 steel, this means 28.8 ksi. For concurrent shear, the AWWA D10005 allowable stress of 10 ksi (i.e., 1.33 × 7.5 ksi) or the AISC allowable shear stress of 13.2 ksi (1.33 × 9.9 ksi) is used. An interaction value of 1.0 renders the design acceptable. Note that in this case, the tensile allowable stress is increased by a different multiplier than 1.33, so the increases are taken directly in the denominator of the interaction equation for the seismic load combinations. For single-pedestal and ground-supported flat-bottom tanks, the design tensile load in the anchors is calculated from Equations (3-41) and (3-42) in AWWA D100. For all styles of tanks, when checking bolt interaction under seismic loads, the resistance offered by friction

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Chapter Five forces may also be taken into consideration, in the authors’ view. Some codes specifically disallow this, but for water tanks it is justified since nearly the entire mass is considered effective in the formation of all seismic loads, including the seismic overturning moments. This must be done with attention to signs (load direction), since a column under uplift cannot generate frictional resistance.

Bolt Interaction Interaction can be checked by means of a simple equation. For the combined effects of tension and shear, the following linear interaction equations may be used in design: T Tallowable

+

V Vallowable

≤ 1.33

(wind)

V T + ≤ 1. Tseismic-allowable 1.33Vallowable

(seismic)

(5-19)

(5-20)

where T = tensile load V = concurrent shear load on bolt The allowable tensile and shear stresses are as defined previously for mild steel. For other types of steel anchors, refer to AWWA D100 or other applicable codes for all allowable stresses. If high-strength or stainless-steel bolts are required, D100 allowable tensile stress for these bolts is based on the lesser of 0.4 times the minimum published yield stress or 0.25 times the published tensile strength. The calculated bolt size may need to be adjusted when corrosion allowance is required in design. AWWA D100 discourages the use of J and L bolts because of their tendency to straighten out, as observed in pull-out tests. Quality control in placement of bolts is essential. Given the size and embedment length required, bolt relocation may not be possible, and remedial measures can be expensive. Therefore, proper bolt placement, including correct embedment and projected length, is critical to proper design.

Bearing Stress Under Base Plates The design bearing strength of concrete is defined in Section 10.17 of ACI 318-05. Typically, under service load conditions, the allowable bearing stress Fp is 0.35 fc when the entire area of concrete support is covered (AISC 1989). Otherwise, when the supporting √ surface is wider on all sides, the bearing stress is based on 0.35 f c A2/A1 ≤ 0.7 f c . An additional one-third increase may be taken for wind or seismic load

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Foundations

Foundations combinations. Refer to ACI 318-05 for determination of A2 and A1 areas.

Foundations in Regions of High Seismic Risk Seismic design has undergone a tremendous evolution over the past decade. For years, seismic design of elevated water tanks was primarily based on the fixed-percentage method, in which the total weight of water and structure was multiplied by a specified coefficient based on seismic risk zones. This was subsequently changed to the pseudodynamic approach, but design was still governed by seismic risk zones. Concurrently, some building codes required seismic design to be performed using the velocity-based acceleration Av and the effective peak acceleration Aa . AWWA D100-05 has entirely eliminated language regarding design on the basis of seismic zones (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4). Instead, the AWWA standard has essentially adopted the ASCE 7-05 criteria (based on NEHRP [2003]) with some variation with respect to the minimum design acceleration. These requirements are substantially different from the procedure thus far used by older AWWA standards. The International Building Code in Section 1613.1 invokes the requirements of ASCE 7-05 for the design and construction of elevated and flat-bottom water tanks to resist the effects of earthquake motions.

Special Design Provisions As per ASCE 7-05, seismic design involves a procedure in which spectral response acceleration parameters for the maximum considered earthquake ground motions are determined from figures and then modified for local site effects with site coefficients. The resulting accelerations are then scaled down to design values. ASCE 7-05 also permits the use of site-specific procedures in design and mandates this procedure where provisions specifically require it. ASCE 7-05 classifies sites based on shear wave velocity and other features. Depending on soil consistency ranging from hard rock to stiff soils, site classifications A, B, C, and D are defined. Site classification E involves any profile with more than 10 ft (3 m) of soil having high plasticity index or high moisture content, or low shear strength as defined in the reference. Site class F involves soils that are vulnerable to potential failure or collapse, highly organic soils, very high-plasticity soils, and very thick, soft/medium clays. Site class F soils require sitespecific evaluations. With the site classifications defined, the 5 percent damped design spectral acceleration at short period SDS and at 1-second period S D1 are determined. The elevated water tank system is then assigned to a seismic design category (SDC) based on these accelerations and on

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Chapter Five the appropriate seismic use group (I, II, or III). All structures having SDS ≥ 0.5g or SD1 ≥ 0.2g (where g is the acceleration of gravity) are assigned an SDC of D. Also, seismic use group III structures with 0.33g ≤ SDS < 0.5g or 0.133g ≤ SD1 < 0.2g are assigned an SDC of D. Seismic design category E is assigned to seismic use group I and II structures located on sites with mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral acceleration at 1-second period S1 equal to or greater than 0.75g. Similarly, seismic use group III structures at these accelerations are assigned an SDC of F. Structures assigned to categories C, D, E, or F require special attention to quality assurance during construction. Structures assigned to category E or F are prohibited from being sited where there is a known potential for an active fault. The seismic importance factor IE significantly affects seismic design. (This factor is defined in ASCE 7-05 Section 11.5.1, Table 11.5-1.) Values of the importance factor range from 1.0 to 1.5, depending on the seismic use group category assigned to the elevated water tank system. AWWA D100-05 assigns a default value of 1.5 to IE unless otherwise specified by the purchaser, but it allows the use of 1.0 for systems not supplying water for fire protection.

Reinforcement Criteria In regions of high seismic risk, ACI 318-05 requires structures to comply with requirements defined in Sections 21.2 through 21.10. These sections define maximum and minimum flexural and transverse reinforcement, maximum spacing for hoops and crossties, bar development length, and other requirements. Section 21.10 provides criteria for the design of foundations. Footings, mats, piles, pile caps, piers, and caissons are all required to be designed under this section. ASCE 7-05 refers to ACI 318-05 for design and construction of concrete foundations assigned to seismic design categories D, E, and F. ASCE 7-05 requires individual pile caps or drilled piers in these categories, as well as in category C, to be interconnected by ties. Likewise, spread footings founded on site class E and F soils are required to be interconnected by ties. The design strength for ties in tension or compression is required to be greater than 10 percent of SDS times the larger pile cap or column factored-dead plus factored-live load, with some exceptions. There are also rigorous requirements for the design of piles in site class E and F soils.

Precast Prestressed and Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles IBC-2006 provides detailed criteria for the design of foundations, piles (including precast prestressed piles), and pile cap connections. It specifies a 28-day compressive strength f c of 5,000 psi (34.5 MPa) and requires the prestressing strands to conform to ASTM A416. For prestressed piles, IBC-2006 also specifies a minimum volumetric ratio of

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Foundations

Foundations spiral reinforcement, defines the ductile region of the pile as a function of its length, and establishes bounds for the center-to-center spacing of the spirals or hoop reinforcement. Similarly, IBC-2006 also establishes criteria for the design and detailing of cast-in-place pile and pier foundations. The IBC-2006 requirements are very similar to the ASCE 7-05 requirements. Either reference can be used as required, individually or in conjunction with ACI 318, in designing elevated water tank foundations.

Foundation Stability Design for stability is critical in regions of high seismic activity. Foundations must be designed to withstand all design loads with adequate factors of safety. Foundations must also be stable against all forces causing uplift, lateral sliding, and overturning. The safety factors required for stability and strength are defined in various ways by different codes. It is important to appreciate the reasoning and philosophy associated with these factors to ensure structural integrity, safety, and stability. Lateral stability in saturated soils, settlement evaluation in saturated or high-moisture-content silty soils, and potential liquefaction in sandy soils are all conditions that require competent evaluation and assessment before elevated water tanks are built on sites with these characteristics. Piles designed for fixity at the pile head must be properly connected to or embedded deep into the pile cap to develop uplift and moment capacity. Backfill around spread footing and pile foundations must be consistent with the geotechnical engineer’s recommendations. Special recommendations made in terms of moisture content, maximum loose lifts, or soil remediation measures must be followed. All nonconforming conditions must be brought to the attention of the engineer of record for evaluation and disposition.

Special Considerations Design of elevated water tank foundations requires close coordination with the project geotechnical engineer and with the construction team at the job site. All parties must clearly understand the design requirements and must appreciate what is essential to quality design and construction. Structural engineers must not assume that all geotechnical requirements defined in the subsurface evaluation report will be routinely implemented during construction. In today’s fast-paced construction, it is not unusual to see the forms removed the following day, or long before the concrete has achieved its specified 28-day compressive strength f c . Backfill placement could be started immediately

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Chapter Five thereafter. Therefore, the engineer of record (EOR) must be specific in defining any special design and construction, including formwork, requirements. Thus, as the concrete strength and backfill procedures are critical to the various phases of construction, strict quality control measures must be put in place to ensure that the correct concrete strength is achieved before any backfill activities commence. Site inspection and testing will be necessary to ensure proper compaction or soil remediation. It is possible that the site soils are unsuited for backfill, and so suitable soils must be imported. It is also possible that topsoils containing organics and other deleterious material could get mixed with other site soils during backfilling around the footing. Some states have defined certain soils or soil mixtures as “select fills” that are recommended for specific structural fills or backfill. All of these issues are important in foundation design, and the necessary quality control steps should be taken before starting any construction activity.

Vertical Versus Sloped Excavations Some foundation contractors prefer making footing excavations no larger than is required to place the footings. Where possible, these excavations are vertical unless they are deep enough that OSHA regulations mandate them to be sloped. Unless backfill compaction is clearly specified and required by explicit notes on drawings, it is possible that backfill compaction in these excavations will not occur. If compaction of soils within the 25-degree to 45-degree wedge was also included in lateral stability consideration, those soils would not be compacted if the excavations are vertical. Therefore, it is crucial to clearly define all requirements for excavation, backfill, backfill compaction, moisture content, and dewatering where necessary. Curing procedures, minimum concrete strength before backfill can be placed and/or compacted, and the extent of compaction beyond the footings must be defined as well. These requirements must be delineated precisely by concise notes on the foundation drawings.

Backfill Compaction Geotechnical engineers generally specify compaction in terms of maximum thickness of loose lifts and standard proctor maximum dry density unit weights per ASTM D698 or modified proctor maximum dry density tests per ASTM D1557 (see Annual Book of ASTM Standards). These requirements are usually specified to be 95 to 98 percent of the maximum dry density; even higher percentages are specified for subgrade compaction. Soil compaction is accomplished by the use of hand tampers and sheepsfoot or pneumatic rollers.

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Foundations Backfill compaction not only improves lateral and uplift stability by improving soil shear strength, but it also reduces permeability in cohesive soils. In cohesionless soils, surface drainage must be accomplished by proper grading to avoid basin or boat effects around foundations. A typical compaction note reads: Backfill material should be placed in 6 to 8 in. maximum loose lifts and compacted to at least 95% of the Standard Proctor maximum dry density (ASTM D698).

As a rule, for water tank foundations, a minimum unit weight of 100 pcf (15.7 kN/m3 ) should be achieved. Rock fragments and stones larger than 3 in. (7.5 cm) in diameter should not be used in the vicinity of the footings. Any soft or loose material should be removed from the bearing areas before concrete is placed. Thus, it is recommended that a geotechnical representative be present before and during the pouring of the foundations as well as during placement of backfill.

Water- and Moisture-Control Measures Design in areas of high water table should consider buoyant unit weights of soil and concrete for lateral and vertical stability. If the water table is likely to be encountered during excavation or construction, proper measures must be taken to dewater the bearing areas to a minimum depth of 3 ft (0.9 m) below the bottom of the foundation. When rainfall is imminent or when the excavation must remain open overnight, a 4- to 6-in. (10- to 15-cm) mud mat of lean concrete (2,000 psi [13.8 MPa]) should be poured over the bearing soils, with the top of concrete being at the required bearing elevation. If water does enter the excavations or if unsuitable soils are encountered, softened soils should be completely removed and excavation brought back to bearing grades with a mud mat or no. 57 stone. The geotechnical engineer should approve this activity. It is best to maintain soil moisture content as close to (within 2 to 3 percent of) the optimum moisture content. Plastic soils are not ideal for fill or backfill, but when the geotechnical engineer approves their use, they should be placed with a higher moisture content of ±5 percent of the optimum. These levels of moisture content facilitate compaction and help accomplish the desired unit weight.

Shrink/Swell Soils Expansive soils and challenges associated with shrink/swell soils were discussed earlier in the chapter in the section on design considerations in plastic soils. Expansive soils are generally plastic clays, also known as fat clays, that swell with increases in moisture content.

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Chapter Five

U

U

U

FIGURE 5-12 Typical foundation in shrink/swell soils. (Uw = vertical uplift due to wind; Us/w = vertical uplift due to shrink/swell.)

They are classified as CH clays in the ASTM’s Unified Soils Classification Chart. The depth of the expansive soil active zone can vary from a few feet or less than a meter to perhaps more than 15 ft (5 m). Foundations constructed in these soils can potentially be subjected to very large uplift and possibly destabilizing forces if they are not designed properly. Refer to Fig. 5-12 for a typical foundation in plastic zone with an effective active zone of 12 ft (3.7 m).

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Foundations

Foundations The plasticity index (PI) is generally used as a measure of swell potential in plastic soils. Soils with low swell potential are those with PI values below 25; a PI value of 25 to 35 indicates moderate swell potential; PI values exceeding 35 correspond to soils with very high swell potential. Foundations for elevated water tanks sited on soils with low swell potential can be constructed using the standard practices, but foundations sited on soils with PI values exceeding 25 (see ASCE 7-05 or IBC-2006) require precaution, remedial action, and special design considerations (Das 2006). Typically, when placing foundations in plastic soils, geotechnical engineers recommend bearing the footing deep in nonplastic soils or below the active zone. To mitigate the effects of the uplifting forces, the use of select structural fill and backfill, soil stabilization with lime, and/or inclusion of clearly defined uplift forces in the design have been recommended. Das (2006) provides recommendations for remedial measures as well as a procedure for estimating the uplift forces caused by the swelling forces. Typical remedial options often recommended for shallow footings include the following: 1. Bear the footing below the active zone and replace the backfill with select structural fill. 2. Bear the footing in the active zone, replace 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) of soil below the footing with select structural fill, and use select structural fill for backfill. 3. Use site soils for backfill, but ensure that soil moisture content is greater than the plastic limit and that the moisture content is 3 to 5 percent above the optimum moisture. 4. Use a polyethylene or bitumen material on the vertical faces of the footing. 5. Same as point (2), but use site soils for backfill with lime mixing. 6. Same as point (1) or (2), but use site soils for backfill, and consider the uplifting forces in the design of the footing and in its stability. Use J-voids where necessary to allow room for the soil to swell without imposing any forces on the foundation element. 7. In soils where piers are recommended, geotechnical engineers should recommend belled piers, with emphasis on the reinforcement requirements for resisting the uplift forces at the junction of the shaft and the bell. In summary, when site soils involve clays prone to swelling, specific geotechnical guidance must be sought. The geotechnical report

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Chapter Five must clearly define the active zone, the potential for swell, uplift, or adhesion forces that need to be considered in design, the bearing depth at which the foundations are to be placed, and suitability of site soils for backfill or recommendations for imported soil. If imported soils are to be used for backfill, clear criteria must be provided regarding the nature of the soil, its Atterberg limits, compaction requirements, and guidance on local availability of the recommended soils.

Conclusion Foundations are critical to the design, construction, operation, and performance of welded-steel tanks for water storage. Therefore, foundation design and construction require attention to detail and proper understanding of all criteria and requirements. Sites that are relatively dry, level, and easily accessible and that have good soils properties are ideal locations for erecting elevated water tanks. The suitability of sites must always be established by a qualified geotechnical engineer. Grade elevations and site boundaries must be established carefully to achieve the proper overflow and foundation elevations. Geotechnical investigation reports must provide all the necessary information for design. This includes detailed soil properties and other characteristics defined in this chapter. Certain soils exhibit shrink/swell or other characteristics that require extra measures and precautions in design. All of these characteristics must be clearly defined and appropriately addressed in the report. Site classification and settlement evaluation must also be included in the geotechnical report. Generally, isolated spread footings or shallow foundations are the most economical foundation type when suitable to site conditions. Otherwise, deep foundations are necessary. Detailed criteria are provided herein to assist the designer in selecting the most suitable foundation type and to assist the designer with the design, be it shallow footings or deep foundations using piles and drilled piers. In regions of high seismic activity, special design requirements apply that must be incorporated into the foundation design. Both the logic and philosophy for these requirements are explained in this chapter, and further resources are provided in the bibliography at the end of the chapter. Requirements for the quality control, mixing, placing, finishing, and curing of concrete have also been defined here. These requirements are critical, as they govern the strength, durability, and workability of concrete foundations. Also, criteria have been introduced

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Foundations

Foundations for sizing anchor bolts and for allowable bearing capacity under base plates. Requirements for backfill compaction and lateral and uplift stability are defined. It is further emphasized that to ensure safety, all excavations must be performed in full compliance with the latest OSHA construction standards.

Foundation Design Example Problem Statement To illustrate the design of a shallow foundation, the loading resulting from the analysis of a typical 500,000-gal (1,893-m3 ) elevated torusbottom water tank will be considered. The tank has a diameter of 50 ft (15.24 m), head range of 37 ft (11.28 m), and a high water line of 116 ft (35.4 m). It is supported by six columns, similar to the tank shown in Fig. 5-1. The design service loads on the footing are as follows: Vertical Loads Dead load D = 37.0 kip

Horizontal Loads

Water load F = 520.0 kip Snow load S = 7.0 kip Wind load W = ±105.0 kip

Wind shear WS = 30 kip

Seismic load E = ±142.0 kip

Seismic shear ES = 28 kip

Assume the live load to be zero, and assume that the wind load has been reduced by a directionality factor so that the 1.6 load factor applies. Use a net allowable bearing pressure of 3,000 psf (144 kPA) at a minimum embedment depth of 5.5 ft (1.68 m) below existing grade and a concrete compressive strength f c of 4,000 psi (27.58 MPa). Assume the pedestal to be 4 ft × 4 ft (1.2 m × 1.2 m) with a 1-ft (0.3-m) projection above grade. Refer to Fig. 5-13.

Footing Design Step 1: Governing Load Combinations The load combinations were defined in Equations (5-1) through (5-7). A quick examination of these equations reveals that only load combinations (5-1), (5-4), (5-5), and (5-6) are governing. After simplification, these equations are as follows:

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Chapter Five U V

Embedment depth

Grade

Footing exposure

Pedestal width p w d Flexural shear d 2

t

Punching shear

d

Footing width B

FIGURE 5-13 Shallow footing example.

Vertical Loads U 1 = 1.4 (D + F ) U 4 = 1.2 (D + F ) + 1.6 W + 0.5 S U 5 = 1.2 (D + F ) + (1.4 × 1.0) E + 0.2 S U 6 = 0.9 D + 1.6 W

= = = =

780 kip 840 kip 869 kip −135 kip

(5-1) (5-4) (5-5) (5-6) (uplift)

Corresponding Horizontal Loads = 0.0 = 48 kip = 39 kip = 48 kip

V1 V 4 = 1.6 W S = 1.6 × 30 V 5 = (1.4 × 1.0) E S = (1.4 × 28) V 6 = 1.6 W S = V 4

(5-1) (5-4) (5-5) (5-6)

Step 2: Size Footing Using Service Loads Corresponding to the load combinations in Step 1, as per ASCE 7-05 Section 2.4.0, the service (vertical) loads are as follows: Service U 1

= (D + F )

= 557 kip (5-1)

Service U 4,Wind

= (D + F ) + W

= 662 kip (5-4) (governs wind)

Service U 5,Seismic = (D + F ) + E Service = 699 kip (5-5) (governs seismic) Service U 6,Wind

= 0.6D + W

= −83 kip (5-6) (uplift)

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Foundations

Foundations Required footing area: AWind =

662 kips = 220 ft2 3000 psf

ASeismic =

(governs)

699 kips = 175 ft2 1.33 × 3000 psf

AWind governs and a square footing of 15 ft × 15 ft (4.6 m × 4.6 m) provides the required bearing area. The net bearing pressure at the toe of the footing is f bearing-Wind =

662 kips

f bearing-Seismic =

2

+

30 kips × 6.5 ft

ft (15 × 152 /6) ft3 = 3,290 psf < 4,500 psf (using FS = 2.0) 152

699 kips 3

+

28 kips × 6.5 ft

ft (15 × 152 /6) ft3 = 3,430 psf < 4,500 psf (using FS = 2.0) 152

Although the increase in the net overbearing pressure resulting from the differential weight of concrete is not yet accounted for, the initial size selected is reasonable.

Step 3: Check Punching Shear at a Distance d/2 from the Pedestal Punching shear is checked at a distance d/2 from the face of the pedestal as shown in Figs. 5-13 and 5-14a . The maximum punching shear is caused by the load U 5 of 869 kip (3.87 MN) and the factored weight of the pedestal. Assuming a depth d of 17 in. (43.2 cm) for the slab, the critical perimeter is given by b 0 = 4( pw + d) = 4 × [4 ft × 12 (in./ft) + 17 in.] = 260 in. where p w is the width of the square pedestal. For a bearing depth of 5.5 ft (1.68 m) and a slab thickness t of approximately 20 in. (50.8 cm), the pedestal height will be 4.83 ft (1.47 m). The factored weight will be Dpedestal = 1.2 × (4 ft × 4 ft × 4.83 ft) × 0.144 (kip / ft3 ) = 13.36 kip, which results in a new factored U 5 of 882 kip.

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Chapter Five

2

Pedestal width pw1

d

2

d

2

Pedestal width pw2

d

2

d

Critical perimeter = 4(p w + d ) (square footing)

(a)

Footing width B

Footing width B

d

Footing width B

Pedestal width pw

(b)

(B – pw) –d 2

FIGURE 5-14 Design shear and bending moment evaluations: (a) punching shear, (b) flexural shear, and (Continued)

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Foundations

Foundations Footing width B

Footing width B

Pedestal width pw

(c)

(B – pw) 2

FIGURE 5-14 (Continued) (c) flexural bending.

The nominal punching shear capacity as per ACI 318-05 Section 11.12.2.1 is Vc = 4



f c .b 0 .d = 4 ×



3, 500 × 260 × 17 = 1,046 kip

Here, f c is reduced by 500 psi (3.45 MPa) for reasons described in the section on structural concrete. Assuming no contribution from slab reinforcement, using a shear reduction factor of 0.75 as per ACI 31805 Section 9.3.2.3, the nominal punching shear capacity is Vn = 0.75 × 1,046 = 784 kip The punching shear caused by U 5 is Vu =

882 kips 152 ft2

[152 ft2 − (4 + 1.42)2 ft2 ) = 767 kip

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Chapter Five Since V n is greater than V u kip, a slab depth d of 17 in. (43.2 cm) satisfies punching shear requirements.

Step 4: Check Flexural (Beam) Shear at a Distance d from Pedestal Flexural shear will be checked at a distance d from the face of the pedestal, as shown in Figs. 5-14b and 5-15. The bearing pressures for

pw

W3 (soil)

W1 (Concrete—pedestal)

d

4,370 psf (209 kPa)

4,125 psf (198 kPa)

4,040 psf (193 kPa)

3,920 psf (188 kPa)

3,740 psf (179 kPa)

W2 (Concrete—slab)

psf } 450 (22 kPa)

pw

2 d+

pw

2

(B – pw)

2 B/2

B

FIGURE 5-15 Flexural shear and bending moment evaluation. (psf = pounds per square foot, kPa = kilopascal.)

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Foundations

Foundations the factored wind and seismic load combinations are as follows: f bearing-Wind =

(840 + 13.36) kips 2

= 3,238 (psf)

±

48 kips × 6.5 ft

= 3.79 ± 0.55 ft (15 × 152 /6) ft3 = 4,347 (psf) maximum < 9, 000 psf (ultimate bearing) 152

minimum

39 kips × 6.5 ft + = 3.92 ± 0.45 152 ft3 (15 × 152 /6) ft3 = 4,370 (psf) maximum < 9,000 psf (ultimate bearing) = 3,470 (psf) minimum

f bearing-Seismic =

(869 + 13.36) kips

The bearing stress due to seismic loading governs. From Figs. 5-14b and 5-15, the bearing pressure at a distance d from the face of the pedestal is f bd = 3, 920 +

(2 + 17/12) (450) = 4, 125 psf (15/2)

The resulting flexural shear at the same location is   (15 − 4) 17 1 VFlex = (4, 125 + 4, 370)(15) − = 260 kip 2 2 12 The flexural shear capacity of the footing slab as per ACI 318-05 Section 11.3.1.1 is  Vcf = 2 3, 500(15 × 12)(17) = 362 kip Vnf = 0.75 × 362 = 272 kip Since Vnf > VFlex , the 17-in. (43.2-cm) depth selected is adequate for shear.

Step 5: Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement The bearing pressure at the face of the pedestal is (Figs. 5-14c and 5-15) f bp = 3, 920 +

(4/2) (450) = 4,040 psf (15/2)

The resulting ultimate bending moment at this location is       15 − 4 2 1 1 Mu = (4, 040) (4, 370 − 4, 040) (15)+ 2 2 2      2 15 − 4 2 (15) 3 2 Mu = 967 ft · kip

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224

Chapter Five Determine the reinforcement needed to carry this bending moment. The minimum reinforcement required as per ACI 318-05 Section 10.5.1 is (200)(15 × 12)(17) A s, min = = 10.20 in.2 (60,000) Try a steel area of 14.0 in.2 (PCA 1999):   14  = = 4.58 × 10−3 (15 × 12)(17)   fy Mn = A s f y d 1 − 0.59 ·   fc   60 Mn = (0.9)(14)(60)(17) 1 − 0.59(4.58 × 10−3 ) 3.5 Mn = 1,021 ft · kip Mn > Mu Therefore, fourteen no. 9 bars each way, 14.5 ft (4.42 m) long, will suffice.

Step 6: Reinforcement for the Pedestal ACI 318-05 Section 15.8.2.1 requires a minimum pier reinforcement of 0.005Ag , where Ag is the gross area of the pier across the interface. Thus, Aspedestal = (0.005)(48 × 48) = 11.52 in.2 As noted in the section on design of isolated spread footing, for the short pedestal, this reinforcement area can be reduced per industry practice. But this is a matter of decision by the designer. If this reinforcement is to be maintained, sixteen no. 8 bars will provide 12.64 in.2 (81.55 cm2 ). Under the combined action of the 135-kip uplift U 6 and the 48-kip shear V 6 , the resulting stress in the concrete pedestal will be ped =

135 (48 × 4.83) + = 210 psi (4 × 4) (4 × 42 /6)

This stress is less than the concrete modulus of rupture f r where, as per ACI 318-05 Section 9.5.2.3, √ f r = 7.5 3500 = 444 psi As per ACI 318-05 Section 11.5.6.1, assuming a 3-in. (7.62-cm) cover for the pedestal dowels, since √ 0.5Vc = 0.5(0.75)[2 × 3500(48)(45)] = 96 kip > U6 = 48 kip,

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Foundations

Foundations no shear reinforcement is needed. However, since the dowels will be in compression due to the other load combinations, No. 4 ties at a spacing of 12 in. (30.5 cm) on center are recommended.

Step 7: Check Uplift Stability AWWA D100 requires the concrete weight along with the weight of the soils directly above the footing to be greater than the service load uplift. The weight of the concrete (W1 + W2 = 65 kip) and the soil (W3 = 80 kip) amounts to 145 kip total, which is in excess of the 105-kip wind uplift. Refer to Fig. 5-15. Therefore, uplift stability is maintained.

Other Steps The anchor bolts should be designed for tension and shear interaction. Lateral stability should be checked on the basis of the active and passive pressures and the cohesion, if any, of the backfill soils. Backfill compaction is a function of the stability requirements. A compaction to 95 percent standard proctor maximum dry density, as discussed in this chapter, may be recommended. The embedment depth can be adjusted, if necessary, to achieve additional passive resistance. Refer to Fig. 5-16 for the reinforcing details. Note that, in general, strain compatibility must be checked to ensure that a balanced condition prevails and that the footings are not over-reinforced. Also, note that a nominal top mat reinforcement can be added as required for uplift or shrinkage control.

4 ft (1.2 m) Anchor bolt

#4 ties @ 12 in. (305 mm) centerline to centerline

16 #8 dowels No. 5'S–nominal–each way (only if required for uplift or shrinkage control) 20 in. (508 mm)

5.5 ft (1.65 m)

1 ft (0.3 m)

14 #9 each way 15 ft (4.5 m)

FIGURE 5-16 Shallow footing design example.

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Chapter Five

Bibliography American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 1989. Manual of Steel Construction, Allowable Stress Design. 9th ed. Chicago: AISC. American Petroleum Institute (API). 2008. Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, 11th ed. API Standard 620. Washington, D.C.: API. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1993a. Bearing Capacity of Soils. Technical Engineering and Design Guides as Adopted From the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, No. 7. New York: ASCE Press. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1993b. Design of Pile Foundations. Technical Engineering and Design Guides as Adopted From the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, No. 1. New York: ASCE Press. Bowles, J. E. 1995. Foundation Analysis and Design. 5th ed. New York: McGrawHill. Das, B. M. 2006. Principles of Foundation Engineering. 6th ed. Florence, KY: CL Engineering. Deep Foundations Institute (DFI). 1990. Augered Cast-in-Place Piles Manual. 1st ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: DFI. Kosmatka, S. H., and W. C. Panarese. 1990. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. 13th ed. Skokie, IL: Portland Cement Association. Liu, C., and J. B. Evett. 1987. Soils and Foundations. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP). 2003. NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures (FEMA 450). Part 1: Provisions. Washington, D.C.: NEHRP. Nilson, A. H., D. Darwin, and C. Dolan. 2004. Design of Concrete Structures. New York: McGraw-Hill. Peck, R. B., W. E. Hanson, and T. H. Thornburn. 1974. Foundation Engineering. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Portland Cement Association (PCA). 1999. Notes on ACI 318–99 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, with Design Application. 7th ed. Skokie, IL: PCA. Prakash, S., and H. D. Sharma. 1990. Pile Foundations in Engineering Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Reese, L. C., and M. W. O’Neill. 1988. Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design Methods. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration FHWA-HI-88-042, ADSC-TL-4. McLean, VA: US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration; and Dallas, TX: ADSC, the International Association of Foundation Drilling. Sarhan, H. A., M. W. O’Neill, and S. W. Tabsh. 2004. Structural Capacity Reduction for Drilled Shafts with Minor Flaws. ACI Structural Journal 101(3):291– 297, May/June. Smith, G. N., and E. L. Pole. 1981. Elements of Foundation Design. New York: Garland STPM Press. Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. 1967. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Woodward, R. J., W. S. Gardner, and D. M. Greer. 1972. Drilled Pier Foundations. New York: McGraw-Hill. Wyllie, D. C. 1992. Foundations on Rock. New York: E. and F. N. Spon, an imprint of Chapman and Hall.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

6

Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks Jim Noren, P.E Advance Tank Construction

Donita Fredricks, P.E. CB&I Constructors

Steel Fabrication Tank constructors have developed specialized equipment, tools, and procedures for the construction of ground storage tanks and elevated water tanks. In the construction of nearly all steel-welded tanks, the steel components are fabricated in a shop environment and shipped to the tank site, where the fabricated components are fit and welded into the finished tank by field construction crews. Steel plate layouts are developed by the constructor, which minimizes welding and maximizes the use of the ordered plate, with consideration to the size and weight restrictions for shipping. For the composite elevated tank, specialized forms and equipment have been developed and are used in the construction of the concrete components.

Material Plate material may be purchased from a steel warehouse or directly from a steel mill. Steel warehouses stock plate material in most of the

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228

Chapter Six grades used in welded-steel tanks. Material that is required to conform to supplementary requirements (e.g., silicon-killed, fine-grain practice, normalized, or ultrasonically inspected material) is generally not available from a warehouse.

Material Purchased from Steel Warehouse Steel plate from a warehouse is typically available in standard plate widths ranging from 48 to 96 in. (1.2 to 2.4 m) in 12-in. (0.3-m) increments. Plates are normally stocked in 20-ft (8.8-m) lengths, though some warehouses have the capability to cut coiled plate to length. Stock plates commonly used in welded-steel water-storage tanks are available in the following thicknesses: 3/16 in. (4.8 mm), 1/4 in. (6.3 mm), 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), and in 1/4-in. (6.3-mm) increments for thicknesses between 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) and 2 in. (51 mm). Stock material grades, sizes, and thicknesses vary from warehouse to warehouse, so availability of a specific plate size and thickness must be verified in the design phase of the project. Delivery time for warehouse material is shorter and minimum tonnages normally do not apply, but the cost is higher than for material purchased directly from the mill.

Material Purchased from a Steel Mill Plate material purchased from a mill may be ordered to the customerspecified width, length, and thickness. Material conforming to specific supplementary requirements is available from most mills. Steel mills typically require a minimum order, and delivery times are significantly longer than for warehouse-purchased material. Regardless of whether a plate is purchased from the warehouse or mill, conformance to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) requirements for the ordered plate should be confirmed by the constructor on receipt of the material. This can be accomplished by reviewing material test reports or certificates of compliance furnished by the supplier. If the plate cannot be traced to a material test report or a certificate of compliance, testing by a qualified testing laboratory may be used to verify that the plate complies with the chemical and mechanical requirements of the specified ASTM standard. On receipt of the plate, measurements should be taken to verify that its width, length, and thickness are consistent with the ordered plate size. Permitted variations in dimensions are outlined in ASTM A6. Visual examination of the plate should be performed to verify that the material is free from injurious defects and has a workable finish. Thick plate should also be checked along the edge for lines that would indicate a possible lamination.

Cutting Several methods are available for cutting plates to size in the shop, including thermal cutting by either oxy-fuel gas torches or plasma

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 6-1 Cutting plate by oxy-fuel torches.

arc. Thermal cutting methods are commonly used in the shop for irregularly shaped plates (Fig. 6-1). Oxy-fuel gas torches may be automated by either setting up a track burner or by use in a numerically controlled burning bed. Plasma arc cutters are used in a numerically controlled burning bed. Using either method, the plate may be simultaneously cut to size and the edges tapered and beveled for welding by using multiple burning heads. The finished edges should closely follow the detailed plate dimensions to ensure good fit-up in the field. The edges should be uniform and smooth and cleaned of slag accumulation when necessary. Machining and shearing are other methods of cutting plates to size. Rectangular plates that are ordered with minimal trim allowance may be trimmed and squared by machining the edges using an edge planer. Shearing is another option for straight edges that are less than the width of the constructor’s plate shear. American Water Works Association (AWWA) Standard D100 limits plate thicknesses for shearing to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) or less if the joint is to be butt welded. Edges that will be lap welded are limited in thickness only by the capacity of the plate shear. Sheared edges should be square and burrs removed before welding.

Forming Single-curvature plates for welded-steel tanks are typically cold rolled in the shop to the appropriate curvature using a plate roll. Plate widths

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Chapter Six Plate Thickness Minimum (in.[mm])

Maximum (in.[mm])

>3/8 [>9.5]

≤3/8[≤9.5]

40 [12]

>1/2 [>12.7]

1/2 [12.7]

60 [18.2]

>5/8 [>15.8]

5/8 [15.8]

120 [36.6]

Minimum Plate Diameter (ft[m])

Must be rolled for all diameters TABLE 6-1 Minimum Diameter for Plates Not Rolled

may be limited by the fabricator’s plate roll capacity. AWWA D100 makes provisions for plates that need not be rolled on the basis of the minimum diameter and plate thickness as outlined in Table 6-1. Singlecurvature plates are frequently used to construct a double-curvature surface if the radius is large enough. One example of this is pie-shaped plates in a dome roof. Double-curvature plates are cold pressed using repeated blows with a mortar-and-pestle-shaped die (Fig. 6-2). Typical examples of a double-curvature plate include the flare and ball of a pedestal tank. Press breaks are used to form sharp bends in a plate—for example, the fluted plate in a fluted-column-style tank. Press breaks and presses can also be used to simulate a rolled plate by repeatedly hitting the plate with a straight die, allowing for short spaces between hits (Fig. 6-3). This method can also be used to form cone-shaped plates and is particularly useful for thick plate. Angle rolls are commonly used to roll structural angles for weldedsteel tanks. With all forming operations, it is important to have

FIGURE 6-2 Pressing double-curvature plate.

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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 6-3 Forming fluted plates in a press break.

adequate dimensions on the shop drawings to verify the accuracy of the formed plate.

Shop Subassemblies Fabricated plate may be subassembled and welded in the shop (Fig. 6-4). This is done to maximize the welding that can be performed

FIGURE 6-4 Shop assembly of cut and formed plates for a dome roof.

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Chapter Six in the controlled environment of the shop using optimal welding processes and configurations. Shipping restrictions dictate the extent of shop subassembly that can be executed. When plate sections are sized such that the shop-welded subassemblies are not an option, complete or partial shop assembly may still be warranted to ensure proper fit-up in the field. This is especially useful for complex geometries with double-curved surfaces.

Blast and Prime The life of a coating system depends on the surface preparation. A smooth, regular surface with the proper steel profile will provide a good basis for the application of a protective coating system. The fabricator should ensure that weld contours are smooth and that any unacceptable weld undercutting is eliminated. Weld flux and weld spatter should be removed and the sharp edges ground smooth. Most tank constructors recommend that tank components be abrasive blast cleaned and primed in the climate-controlled atmosphere of the shop. Exterior surfaces and interior dry surfaces should be cleaned to a commercial finish per Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC) SP6 as a minimum. Inside wet surfaces should be cleaned to a Near White Blast finish per SSPC SP10. Blast-cleaned surfaces should have a surface profile that is appropriate for the specified primer and coating system per recommendations of the coating manufacturer. Blasting may reveal small laminations or pitting in the plate surface not previously apparent. If these imperfections are large enough to produce holidays in the coating system, they should be removed by grinding. Occasionally, deeper laminations may require welding or further testing. The prime coat should be applied immediately after surface preparation, before the occurrence of any surface rusting or accumulation of dust or moisture. The type and thickness of primer should be defined in the customer’s specifications. AWWA D102 Coating Steel WaterStorage Tanks may be referenced for interior and exterior coating systems. Prime coats may be applied using any method recommended by the coating manufacturer, except that rolling should not be used for the prime coat on interior wetted surfaces unless required for rough pitted surfaces. An unpainted margin approximately 4 in. (102 mm) wide should be provided around all plate edges that will be field welded.

Shipping Shipping from the shop to the job site is almost exclusively by truck (Fig. 6-5). The current weight limit is 80,000 lb (36,287 kg) gross for the truck, trailer, and load, resulting in a net load capacity of approximately 45,000 lb (20,412 kg), depending on the weight of the truck

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 6-5 Shipping formed plates by truck.

and trailer. Rules for oversized loads vary from state to state. Special permitting, routing, and escorts may be an option when oversized loads cannot be avoided or are deemed to be more economical. Plate layouts are often dictated by shipping limitations. Site access should also be considered in planning shipping loads. Material should be sufficiently blocked, braced, and tied down to secure the components to the trailer and maintain the fabricated shape during shipping.

Welding In the 1950s, welding replaced riveting as means of connecting tank joints. Welding can be performed in all climates and in a variety of positions. Over time, the technology has improved, leading to increases in productivity. To convey the correct welding information from the tank designer, weld symbols in accordance with AWS Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination should be used on the fabrication and erection drawings.

Welding Processes The primary welding processes used in the shop and field are shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), and flux cored arc welding (FCAW). All are arc welding processes that use an electric arc generated by an electric current between the tip of the electrode and the base metal. Heat from the arc melts the electrode

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Chapter Six and adjacent base metal which then combines, cools, and solidifies to form the weld bead. Welding may be performed manually, semiautomatically, automatically, or by machine welding. Manual welding requires the welder to manually maintain the proper positioning and arc length and replace the electrode as it is consumed. Semiautomatic welding is performed with a handheld gun that continuously feeds the electrode and flux. Automatic welding is accomplished with equipment that is capable of performing the welding operation without a welding operator. This type of welding is more commonly used in assembly line operations. In machine welding, specialized equipment performs the complete welding operation; however, the welding equipment must be monitored by a qualified operator who is responsible for positioning the steel components, starting and stopping the weld, setting the speed, and adjusting the controls.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding SMAW, also referred to as stick welding, utilizes a stick electrode— typically 9 to 18 in. (229 to 457 mm) long—a solid metal wire core that conducts electric current and provides filler metal for the joint. The metal core is coated with a material that provides arc stability and a shielding gas or a flux coating as the electrode is consumed. Shielding gases are needed to eliminate oxygen from the molten weld metal. The fluxing agents allow the molten metal to wet the surfaces of the base metal and remove impurities from the weld metal. SMAW is one of the most versatile weld processes and is widely used in tank construction. The equipment is relatively simple and portable. SMAW can be used in a wide range of positions and in areas with limited access. It is also less sensitive to wind than either SAW or FCAW. Shielded metal arc welding is limited to manual welding and, consequently, has one of the lowest deposit rates. The electrodes are relatively short and frequent stops are required to replace them. When present, slag must be removed before restarting. As a result, SMAW is the least efficient welding process for long production welds.

Submerged Arc Welding The electrode for SAW is a continuous bare wire inserted into a wirefeeding mechanism that automatically feeds the electrode toward the joint at a controlled rate. The weld is submerged in a blanket of granular flux that is continuously deposited ahead of and around the electrode. During welding, some of the granular flux is melted and serves the same purpose as the electrode coating in SMAW welding. This weld process can be used in a semiautomatic, automatic, or machine mode. SAW has one of the highest deposit rates because of the continuous wire feed. The process is limited by joint position and accessibility.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s SAW is typically limited to the flat position for butt welds and the flat and horizontal positions for fillet welds. With specialized equipment to contain the flux, SAW may be used for lap and butt joints in the horizontal position. Moving the bulky wire-feeding mechanism for the continuous-feed electrode may make SAW a less desirable option for inaccessible areas. Good joint fit-up is also critical for SAW.

Flux Cored Arc Welding Like SAW, flux cored arc welding is a continuous-feed wire welding process. The electrode has a center core of flux encased in a tubular metal sheath. Two types of FCAW exist: gas shielded and self shielded (Fig. 6-6). Gas-shielded FCAW uses a gas envelope, usually CO2 or argon/CO2 , to protect the molten metal from the air. This method is not suitable for use when the weld cannot be protected from the wind. For self-shielded FCAW, shielding is provided by gas emitted by the flux as it vaporizes and by a slag blanket that covers the molten metal. Self-shielded FCAW is no more sensitive to wind than SMAW, so it is commonly used in the field. FCAW is a semiautomatic process in which a handheld weld gun is used. Deposition rates are typically higher than for SMAW but lower than for SAW. FCAW is versatile, in that it can be used in all positions for all the basic joint types. Like SAW, FCAW requires moving the wire-feeding mechanism; consequently, it may not be the best option for inaccessible areas in the field.

FIGURE 6-6 Shop flux cored arc welding.

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Chapter Six

Weld Procedure Specification and Procedure Qualification Record Constructors are required to develop weld procedure specifications (WPS) that define the welding parameters to be used in the fabrication and erection of the tank. Each WPS must be qualified in accordance with the rules in American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, or American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/AWS B2.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification. To qualify a WPS, the constructor welds test coupons and tests the specimens per ASME Section IX or ANSI/AWS B2.1. The weld parameters and test results are recorded in a document known as a procedure qualification record (PQR). The constructor is required to certify that he or she has qualified each WPS with a PQR. Constructors maintain standard WPSs and PQRs for weld parameters that are routinely used. The constructor may elect to use an ANSI/AWS standard welding procedure to justify a weld in lieu of performing an independent qualification. If this option is selected, it is necessary to comply with all the rules in AWS B2.1 that govern the use of the ANSI/AWS standard welding procedure.

Welder Qualification and Identification Welders in both the shop and the field are required to demonstrate their ability to perform acceptable welds. Weld testing shall be in accordance with ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, or American Welding Society (AWS) B2.1 Standard for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification. The tank constructor is responsible for testing all welders for the specific weld processes that the individual welder will use. Records of the testing dates and test results must be maintained by the tank builder. Each qualified welder is assigned a number, letter, or symbol that is stamped on the tank to identify the weld operator employed for each joint. The stamp is placed adjacent to and at intervals not exceeding 3 ft (0.9 m) along the weld. Alternately, the tank constructor may keep a written record of the welders employed on each joint and omit the stamping. This record must be certified by the tank constructor and included in the inspection report when specified by the purchaser.

Grinding Some grinding of welds may be required to ensure that the finished weld contour is suitable for cleaning and painting and will not be detrimental to the life of the coating. Grinding should be used to remove weld slag, weld spatter, burrs, and any sharp surfaces along welds. If the purchaser requires special grinding, it should be noted in the

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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s contract specifications, and a recognized standard addressing weld profiles should be referenced to clearly define the extent of grinding required. When lapped plates are joined with fillet welds that are less than the full thickness of the plate, the exposed sharp edge of the plate should be removed by grinding. This will minimize the potential for a paint failure at the edge of the plate.

Construction Scheduling Issues In addition to the production capacity and workload of the tank constructor, construction schedules are affected by the style and size of the tank, the availability of material, the time of year, and daily weather conditions. The purchaser may specify either the number of weeks to completion after award of contract or a set calendar date for completion, or the purchaser may allow the tank builder to propose a scheduled completion. If a specified completion date is critical to the owner, the purchaser may specify liquidated damages to be charged on a daily basis if the work is not completed on time. If the purchaser chooses to set a construction schedule, consideration should be given to mill delivery time to allow the constructor to use material from the mill. In northern climates, a schedule should be specified that allows painting to be performed at an appropriate time of year. Tanks with very short construction schedules are typically purchased at a premium. Weather can significantly influence the field schedule. Wind, extreme temperatures, rain, snow, and sleet can affect what work can be performed and how productive the crew is. Even moderate winds can make it unsafe to pick up and place steel plate. Weather and temperature conditions must also be appropriate for welding. Welding is not permitted when the parts to be welded are wet from rain, snow, or ice, or during periods of high wind, unless the welder and the work are properly protected. No welding is allowed when steel is wet. The protection is typically an enclosure to block the wind. Welding is not allowed if the base metal temperature is lower than 32◦ F (0◦ C) unless the base metal is preheated to at least 100◦ F (38◦ C) through the thickness and maintained for a distance along the weld of four times the thickness of the parts to be welded. If base metal temperatures fall below 0◦ F (−18◦ C), welding is not recommended. If welding is performed, low-hydrogen electrodes or low-hydrogen processes must be used, and the base metal must be preheated to 200◦ F (93◦ C) in accordance with AWWA D100.

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Chapter Six Unless protection is provided, concrete should not be placed in rain, sleet, snow, or extreme temperatures. American Concrete Institute (ACI) 306.1 and 305.1 provide guidelines for concrete placed in cold and hot weather.

Site Issues The engineer’s drawings typically show the site layout superimposed on a topographic drawing. This gives some indication of the relative slope of the site and of potential access problems. If, during the bid stage, questions arise regarding the site, a site visit may be warranted.

Access The owner should provide a suitable right-of-way for access from the nearest public road to the tank site. The access should be able to handle a semitrailer tractor rig with a trailer that is 53 ft (16 m) long and that weighs 80,000 lb (36,287 kg) under ordinary weather conditions. Side clearance needs to be adequate to accommodate the maximum shipping width for the job. The access road should be free from underground and overhead obstructions that could be damaged by the truck traffic. A minimum vertical clearance of 14 ft (4.2 m) is required.

Site Size Final property lines should be located sufficiently far from the foundation footprint to permit construction operations. During construction, additional clearance is required for steel delivery, storage, staging, and subassembly. If a permanent site of adequate size is not available, the owner should provide an adequate temporary construction easement. As a minimum for the construction operations, a site clearance from the center of an elevated tank to the site limits should be equal to the height of the tank. For a ground tank, it is preferable to have at least 20 ft (6 m) clear around the entire tank so that a crane can be used around the full circumference of the tank. The site should also be big enough to permit abrasive blasting and painting without impacting neighboring property, both after initial construction and during future recoating operations. Clearance requirements between the tank and the neighboring property vary with the prevailing wind conditions, type of paint application, and consequence of damage. Sites should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, but as a general rule, a clearance of approximately 100 yd (91.5 m) is suggested. If adequate clearance cannot be provided, it may be necessary to shroud the tank during initial and future painting operations. Shrouding the tank is costly and should be avoided if possible.

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Drainage The tank site should have good drainage during construction. Storage, staging, and subassembly areas should be free from standing water. For sites with poorly draining soils, the bearing surface for a shallow foundation should be protected from becoming saturated prior to concrete placement.

Power Lines Overhead or buried power lines present a significant safety risk for tank construction. Sites having power lines within 40 ft (12 m) of the tank or tank foundation are unacceptable.

Security Access to the tank should be blocked when the tank is left unattended. If the location is remote or subject to frequent vandalism, additional measures to ensure site security may be required. The additional measures may include fencing and full- or part-time security.

Power During Construction Power Supply The purchaser should indicate whether electrical power is available at the site. If power is available, the purchaser should indicate the voltage and whether it is direct current or alternating current (if alternating current, what cycle and phase). The specifications should define who will furnish the power to the site and who is responsible for the associated costs. Tank constructors frequently provide their own power supply in the form of generators.

Power Requirements Power requirements in the field vary depending on the types of tools that will be used on the job. If the purchaser is furnishing power to the site, the power requirements should be coordinated with the tank constructor.

Construction of Welded-Steel Ground Water-Storage Tanks Anchorage and Grout If the tank is not anchored, the interface between the tank bottom and the concrete foundation can be either grouted or filled with the placement of asphalt-impregnated cane fiberboard. If the tank is anchored, the use of grout is recommended, since the fiberboard may deteriorate over time. This deterioration would cause vertical movement of the tank, which would require subsequent tightening of the anchor bolts.

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Chapter Six

Tank-Bottom Construction The bottom of a ground-supported reservoir or standpipe is essentially a nonstressed membrane, the purpose of which is to contain the product inside the tank and transmit the water-bearing load directly to the foundation. The minimum thickness of the bottom plate is 1/4 in. (6.3 mm); it may be thicker if a corrosion allowance is specified. The tank bottom should be crowned up from the shell to the center with a minimum slope of 1 in. (25.4 mm) vertical to 10 ft (3 m) horizontal.

Layout The typical plate layout for bottom plates is a “rect-andsketch” layout, which refers to rectangular plates with sketch plates at the outside cut to a radius. The outside radius must be a minimum of 2 in. (50 mm) outside of the shell. Additional projection may be provided to compensate for shell out-of-roundness and weld shrinkage in the bottom welds. With a lap-welded bottom, there will be three plate laps at the corners of the rectangular plates. Three plate laps must be at least 1 ft (0.3 m) from the shell. Refer to Fig. 6-7 for an example of a rect-and-sketch bottom layout. Annular ring An annular ring may be required under two possible scenarios. First, if the shell uplift due to seismic overturning is large, a thickened annular ring will increase the uplift resistance of the shell. This strategy is used to eliminate tank anchorage. For this circumstance, butt-welded sketch plates may be substituted for an annular

1 ft. (0.3 m)

s

Cut

iu rad

minimum

1.5 in. (38 mm) typical

1 ft. (0 .3 m ) minim um

(1 in. [25.4 mm] minimum)

Inside shell

FIGURE 6-7 Typical rect-and-sketch layout for bottom plates.

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) 6m . (0. 2 ft nimum ll mi e she d insi 1.5 in. (38 mm) typical (1 in. [25.4 mm] minimum)

Shell ) m n m ctio 1 e j (5 o n. pr 2 i ide s t ou

Annular plate

FIGURE 6-8 Tank bottom with annular ring.

ring. Second, if the tank is designed in accordance with AWWA D100 Section 14 and is greater than 150 ft (45.7 m) in diameter, an annular ring is required. If an annular ring is provided, the minimum inside projection shall be 2 ft (0.6 m) or the minimum width required for seismic uplift resistance, whichever is less. The bottom plate is lap welded to the annular ring and has a rect-and-sketch layout. Refer to Fig. 6-8 for an example of a tank bottom with an annular ring.

Welding sequence The welding sequence for the bottom plates shall minimize out-of-plane distortion. A general sequence for bottom welding is described as follows:

r r r r

Weld the sketch plate to sketch plate joints. Weld the rectangular short side joints. Weld the rectangular long side joints. Weld the rectangular plate to sketch plate welds.

Lap welded versus butt welded Bottom plates can be welded by either lap welds or butt welds. For bottom plate thicknesses up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), the plates are typically lap welded from the top side only. The weld is a full-thickness fillet weld and, for thicknesses equal to or greater than 5/16 in. (8 mm), the fillet is typically a two-pass weld. If it is necessary to seal the underside of the bottom or if the bottom

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Chapter Six FIGURE 6-9 Breakdown of lapped area beneath shell and projected outside of tank.

Shell plate

Bottom plate

plate thickness is greater than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), butt welding of the bottom plates is appropriate. For lap-welded bottoms, the lapped area that is beneath the shell and projected outside of the tank must be “broken down.” The purpose of the breakdown is to provide a smooth transition at the lap on the top side so that there will be no gap at the shell-to-bottom connection in the region of the lap. Refer to Fig. 6-9 for an illustration of a breakdown. Annular ring splice welds must be butt welded. The welds may be either single butt welds with backup bars or double butt welds. Commonly, the fabrication shop will subassemble annular ring sections with double butt welds, and the subassemblies will be welded in the field with single butt welds. Butt-welded bottom plates can be either a one-sided weld with a backup bar or a double butt welded. Single butt welding is the preferred method since the bottom can be laid out and the welding performed from the top side. Double butt welding is difficult for large tanks due to the inaccessibility of the underside of the bottom. For small tanks, however, the initial weld pass can be performed downhand and the bottom can be flipped over so that the welding can be completed down-hand.

Shell-to-bottom junction The connection of the shell to the bottom plate shall be a continuous fillet weld on both sides of the shell. Table 18 in AWWA D100-05 gives the minimum size of the fillet welds to be used on the basis of the thickness of the shell plate. If the fillet weld is 5/16 in. (7.9 mm) or larger, the weld shall be two-pass minimum. The weld should be inspected for watertightness using dye penetrant, penetrating oil, or diesel fuel. The inside fillet weld is completed first, and indicator is sprayed on the weld. If any indicator is visible outside of the shell after a wait period, a leak is indicated and should be repaired. Once there are no indications of leakage, the outside weld can be completed.

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Shell Construction Crane versus jacking Normally, there are two basic methods for erecting the tank shell. The more common method is to start from the bottom ring and use a crane to place each individual shell plate for each successive ring until the shell is complete. However, for tall tanks a method using hydraulic jacks may be more economical. Using this method, the top two shell rings and roof are erected on temporary jack stands. Once this is complete, the shell is jacked using hydraulics, and the next shell ring is placed. This process is repeated until the shell is complete. This method reduces the crane requirements since there are no high picks. Also, temporary scaffolding for the shell is not required since all shell erection and welding activities are performed at ground level. The shell is the critical component of a storage tank. It is the primary stressed membrane that contains the liquid. Therefore, great care must be exercised in laying out, fitting, and welding the shell. Listed here are general steps for layout and fit-up of a tank shell. This procedure varies among contractors; however, the general steps are the same.

r Check the elevation of the tank bottom. r Scribe the radius of the inside of the shell on the bottom. This will be used as a guide for setting the first ring.

r Mark the chord dimensions for the first ring. r Install erection nuts or lugs on the bottom that follow the outside radius of the first ring.

r Set the first plate starting at the first chord mark and following the circular scribe mark.

r Set the second plate and use fit-up gear to align the vertical r r r r

seam for welding. Set the remainder of the first ring plates and check for level. Weld the vertical seams. Weld the first ring to the bottom. Hang the second and subsequent rings using fit-up gear on the horizontal and vertical seams.

Shimming and the tub ring After the bottom plate is laid, the first shell ring, or “tub ring,” is set. Care must be taken in setting the tub ring, since the roundness of the tub ring is the basis of whether the rest of the shell will be round. An essential part of making the shell round is that the tub ring must be level. If the tub ring is not level, tank roundness is difficult to achieve. The tub ring is leveled by using shims between the bottom and the foundation.

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Chapter Six Wind stability During shell erection, the shell is susceptible to wind loads. The shell is designed to be stable and resist buckling due to wind when the tank is complete. However, during construction the shell can buckle easily, even during moderate winds. Therefore, the shell must be braced to prevent a “blow-in” incident. One method of bracing the shell is with the erection scaffolding. The scaffolding is normally set 3 to 4 ft (0.9 to 1.2 m) below the top of the ring being erected and consists of brackets and scaffold boards or planks spanning between the brackets. If the boards overlap at the brackets and are tied down securely, the scaffolding itself acts as a ring stiffener on the shell. Because of this phenomenon, incomplete scaffolding is normally not allowed to be left overnight. Partial- versus complete-penetration welding The shell vertical welds are always complete-penetration welds. The horizontal welds may be either complete-penetration or partial-penetration welds. When the shell thickness of the thinner of the two plates being joined is greater than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), the horizontal weld can be a partial penetration. The finished weld must have at least two-thirds the strength of a complete-penetration weld. Partial-penetration welds are not allowed in the shell plates for Section 14 designs. Weld clearances Weld clearances for shell vertical joint offset, permanent attachments, and shell penetrations should meet the requirements of AWWA D100 and good industry practice. Section 14 of AWWA D100 prescribes the requirements for weld clearances. The base code does not describe any weld clearance requirements; however, good practice indicates the following weld clearances:

r Vertical shell plate offset = 12 in. (305 mm) minimum r Permanent attachments = 3 in. (76 mm) (horizontal) and 6 in. (152 mm) (vertical)

r Shell penetrations = 3 in. (76 mm) Construction openings A construction opening in the shell is normally provided to allow easy access to the interior of the tank. This opening is usually in the form of a short plate that is removed in the first shell ring. The short plate left out of the shell, called a door sheet, is 6 to 12 ft (1.5 to 3.6 m) wide and has a height equal to the width of the first shell ring. If a crane must be driven inside of the tank for roof erection, a taller opening is usually required. This is accomplished with a first and second ring door sheet, which may or may not include the full height of the second ring. Temporary stiffening must be provided around the door sheet to bridge the vertical loads during tank erection.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s Shell penetrations Shell penetrations are required for access to the interior of the tank and for an overflow to prevent overfilling. The inlet and outlet piping may go through a shell penetration but more commonly goes through the tank bottom. A minimum of two manholes are required for access. The penetrations have a neck plate that is welded to the shell, and additional reinforcing in the form of a circular reinforcement plate may be required. Post-weld heat treatment Post-weld heat treatment is only required for shell penetrations that are 12 in. (305 mm) in diameter or greater in shell plate that is thicker than 1 in. (25.4 mm). The penetrations should be prefabricated in the shell and stress relieved before shipment. This requirement applies only to Section 14 designs.

Roof Construction Roof configuration can be either supported on structural framing or self-supporting. The self-supporting roofs can be unstiffened, or stiffeners can be welded to the roof plate.

Method of roof erection—crane versus air raised For tanks with structurally supported roofs, the typical method of construction is to use a crane to lift the various components into place. The roof framing is erected after the bottom and shell are in place, and the roof plate is placed after the framing is complete. For tanks with self-supporting roofs, there are more options. The roof can be built in place using a crane and temporary support for the roof or the roof can be built on temporary supports outside of the tank and the entire roof can be lifted into place. The latter method is advantageous for tall tanks, roofs requiring seal welding, and in situations where a crane with enough capacity can be used economically. Another option is to have the roof erected on the floor of the tank and to lift it into place after the shell erection is complete. This is accomplished by sealing the outside edge of the roof to the shell and pressurizing the underside of the roof to lift it to its final position. This method is economical for large-diameter tanks that are relatively tall. Surprisingly, the pressure required to air-raise a roof is on the order of a water column of 3 to 6 in. (76 to 152 mm). The roof can be raised using high-velocity fans bolted to the shell manholes. Subassembly For self-supported roofs, to minimize the number of crane picks and reduce the need for welding in place, the field crew may elect to subassemble some of the roof sections. This may also decrease the amount of time the crane needs to be on-site, therefore reducing costs. Roof-to-shell junction The roof-to-shell junction can be configured in several ways. For cone- and dome-type roofs, an angle can be either

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Chapter Six butt or lap welded to the top of the shell. The roof plate laps onto the top of the angle. This arrangement can be advantageous since fabrication and erection variances can be tolerated. The top angle is used to aid in keeping the tank shell round. As an alternative to using an angle, a bar may be used. A double-curved transition may be used for either a supported or unsupported roof. This type of transition can be more visually pleasing for taller tanks and any tank for which aesthetics are important.

Seal welding Seal welding may be specified to reduce rust bleeding from the inaccessible plate lap areas. If seal welding is required, the type of roof must be considered. If the roof plate is supported on structural members, the surfaces mating the tops of the structural members to the underside of the roof plate will also be inaccessible. Seal welding the roof plate lap welds will solve only part of the problem. However, if the roof framing is to be seal welded to the roof plate, the tank designer must consider the effects of thermal expansion and contraction caused by temperature differentials on the roof framing. Also, the amount of welding required to seal all of the roof framing might induce additional weld distortion in the roof plate. If the roof is self-supported, any framing will be welded to the roof plates by design. Ponding For supported cone roofs, the minimum roof slope is a 3/4in. (19-mm) rise in a 12-in. (305-mm) run. This is a very shallow roof slope and it may therefore produce ponding if the roof plate is built with excessive distortion. In many local jurisdictions, ponding is not allowed by law. The easiest solution to potential ponding is to increase the roof slope.

Construction of Elevated Steel Water-Storage Tanks Method of Erection—Crane Versus Derrick The constructor should select the type of crane to be used to construct an elevated water tank, basing the decision on the tank geometry, schedule, equipment availability, and cost. Elevated tanks are frequently erected using a derrick. A derrick is a fixed-mast, guyed crane that is positioned at the center of the tank. Placement of a derrick is optimal for construction of circular tanks, because the boom is capable of a full 360-degree swing. On the basis of years of construction experience, tank constructors have developed guyed derricks specifically designed for tanks. Mobile or tower cranes are also options for erecting an elevated tank in the field. Because of rental expenses, mobile or tower cranes are usually limited to use on a smaller-capacity tank of limited height

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s with a short field-construction schedule. Use of a mobile crane requires more site clearance around the tank. Whether using a derrick, tower crane, or mobile crane, adequate support is critical. For either a derrick or stationary tower crane, supplemental groundwork or a support pad should be provided if required before setting the crane. A mobile crane requires a reasonably level surface around the tank and site conditions capable of supporting the loaded crane.

General Requirements Field subassemblies Shipped plates are frequently subassembled on the ground in the field. The subassemblies are planned on the basis of the maximum weight and size feasible to lift and fit into place. This erection practice allows the welding to be performed close to the ground in more favorable positions. Construction aids Specialized erection equipment developed by the tank constructor is used to aid in lifting, fitting, aligning, and spacing plates with the appropriate weld gaps. Maintaining the proper gaps, alignment, and overall dimensional accuracy is critical for subsequent plate placement. Some construction aids may be permanently left in place, while others are temporary and are removed after the plate is secured. Temporary attachments need to be removed without damaging the plates, and the remaining weld should be chipped or ground smooth before painting. Dimensional accuracy is maintained by consistently checking dimensions. Levels and transit levels may be used to verify elevations, check angles, and to verify that a component is plumb. Access to the tank Safe access to the tank and tower is required for welders, inspectors, and painters. Temporary scaffolding is commonly used in conjunction with permanent and temporary ladders for access. Aerial lifts such as a boom lift or scissor lift may also be used. A work basket or chair hung from a spider line is another frequently used option. This option requires a secure anchor point above the area to be accessed. Regardless of the method of access, fall protection needs to be considered and special measures taken to ensure the safety of the workers.

Fluted-Column-Style Tank The fluted tower rests on butt-welded base plates that are seated on shims and fixed to the foundation by the anchor bolts. It is critical that the base plate is level before erecting the fluted plates. After the tank has been erected, but before it is filled with water, the space between the base plate and foundation is grouted.

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Chapter Six FIGURE 6-10 Erection of tower, fluted-column-style tank.

The vertical joints in the fluted tower are lap welded, and the horizontal joints are butt welded. Water-bearing plates in the tank are welded with full-penetration butt welds. The roof is typically lap welded on the top side only. When specified by the purchaser, the overhead laps in the roof are also seal welded (Figs. 6-10 to 6-12). Access to the inside of the fluted tower is required at all times and is typically provided at the opening for the overhead door. A bottom manhole provides access to the inside of the tank. Tank constructors have developed specialized equipment to enable safe access to difficult areas such as the outside of the cone or the underside of the roof. The constructor must be cognizant of the stability of the structure at all times, but especially when the structure is left overnight. Regardless of what component the crew is erecting, the crew should not leave the tank unattended until all the plates in a given ring are in place and adequately secured. Provisions should be taken to stiffen unfinished sections of the tank in case of high winds. This may include providing stiffening or continuous scaffolding at the upper limits of construction or guying the structure to the ground.

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FIGURE 6-11 Erection of cone plate, flutedcolumn-style tank.

FIGURE 6-12 Erection of cylindrical shell plate, flutedcolumn-style tank.

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Chapter Six

FIGURE 6-13 Erection of spherical plate, pedestal-style tank.

Pedestal-Style Tank Complete-penetration butt-welded construction is used for all the components of the pedestal tank and tower except the roof. The roof is usually lap welded on the top side. At the request of the purchaser, the underside may also be seal welded or, alternately, the roof may be butt welded (Figs. 6-13 and 6-14). The base cone of the tower of a pedestal-style tank sits on a thick base plate that is welded with complete-penetration butt welds, set on shims, and fixed to the foundation by the anchor bolts. As with the fluted-column-style tank, it is critical that the base plate be level before erecting and welding the base cone. The base cone is fillet welded to the base plate. As with the fluted-column-style tank, grout is placed under the base plate after the tank is completely erected but before it is filled with water.

Multicolumn-Style Tank Erection for a multicolumn-style tank typically begins with one bent in the first panel, consisting of a pair of columns, one bolted strut, and loosely connected cross-bracing that will either be welded or

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FIGURE 6-14 Erection of roof plate, pedestal-style tank.

bolted to the columns. Base plates are welded to the bottoms of the columns in the first panel. The base plates of the first bent are set on shims placed on the foundation pedestals and are fixed using the anchor bolts. Additional bents are erected by sequentially adding a column, strut, and cross bracing around the tower. After all the bents are in place in the first panel, the cross braces are adjusted to length, as required, to ensure that the panel is square and true before proceeding to the next panel. Subsequent panels are erected in a similar manner with the columns of the upper panel welded to the lower columns. Typically, the portion of the tank that is welded to the upper column is welded to the column before the tank is erected. After the tower is complete, the intermediate plates are fit-up and welded with complete-penetration butt welds. It is critical to maintain dimensional accuracy of the tower for proper fit-up of these plates. The tank joints between water-bearing plates are joined with complete-penetration butt welds. The roof plates may be lap welded with or without seal welding, or they may be butt welded. An alternate construction sequence is to construct the upper bents and tank without the lower columns in place. The advantage of this construction method is that the tank and upper tower can be constructed and painted when closer to the ground. After this portion of the tank is complete, it is lifted by cranes and the lower columns are

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Chapter Six FIGURE 6-15 Multicolumn-style tank.

set underneath (Fig. 6-15). The structure is then lowered to its proper height and seated on the columns. After the tank is complete, but before it is filled, the final tightening or welding of the cross-braces is done. At this stage, the grout is also placed under the base plates.

Construction of Composite Elevated Tanks Concrete Support Structure The concrete support structure for a composite elevated tank is cast in place. Jump forms are commonly used. Constructors of this style of elevated tank have specialized forms conforming to their standard geometries. Forms have horizontal and vertical rustications built into the exterior face to provide architectural relief and help mask form panel joints and construction joints (Fig. 6-16). Wall reinforcing is placed and tied before the forms are installed. Special reinforcing is required around the overhead, mandoor, and other significant openings. After the rebar is placed, the forms are set and prepared to receive concrete. Large openings in the tower are blocked out, while smaller openings may be cut or drilled after concrete placement. The concrete is delivered to the tops of the forms

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s FIGURE 6-16 Tower construction, composite elevated tank.

either by pumping or by bucket. Hand compaction and power vibration are performed in accordance with ACI 309 to ensure proper compaction, minimize segregation, eliminate air voids, and to ensure close contact with the reinforcement and forms. After the first ring is poured and has had time to cure, the forms are removed. The sequence of placing reinforcement, jumping the forms, and pouring the concrete is repeated until the support tower is complete. Forms are set for the dome and ringbeam or the flat slab. Similar to the tower forms, the tank constructor will have developed specialized forms for their geometry and construction practice. Reinforcement is placed and tied and embedments secured before the concrete is poured.

Concrete Mix The concrete mix should be suitable for the method of placement and the weather conditions. The proportions of the mix should be adjusted to provide adequate workability and the proper consistency for placement. For each tank, the material should be from a consistent source and the mix design number verified upon delivery. The arrival of trucks should be sequenced to sustain a pour without long delays. Retempering of the concrete should be controlled to maintain the mix

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Chapter Six FIGURE 6-17 Roof erection, composite elevated tank.

parameters. Concrete testing should be in conformance with ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.

Welded-Steel Container for the Composite Elevated Tank Welding for the cone, shell, and roof of a composite elevated tank is similar to that for a fluted-column tank (Fig. 6-17).

Method of Erection—Hoisted Versus Crane or Derrick Construction methods for the steel container on the composite elevated tank and the fluted-column tank are similar if a crane or derrick is used. One additional construction technique, hoisting, has been successfully employed for composite tanks. This method allows the constructor to erect and weld the cone, shell, and upper cone roof transition as a complete unit around the concrete shaft at grade. After the welding is complete, the container is hoisted into position using a series of cables and hoists. It is welded into place, and the roof is installed. (Fig. 6-18a and b).

Liner Plate An interior liner plate is placed over the dome or flat slab. The liner is lap welded on the top side only. For tanks with a dome, formed liner plates may be used and constructed so that the liner lies directly on

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Construction of Welded-Steel Water-Storage Tanks

(a)

(b) FIGURE 6-18 (a) CET hoisted tank erection as the tank is being raised. (b) CET hoisted tank erection with the tank in the final position.

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Chapter Six FIGURE 6-19 CET liner plate formed to fit dome with derrick-erected cone and shell plates.

the dome. Alternately, unformed steel liner plates that do not match the shape of the dome may be used if the space between the plate and the dome is completely filled with flowable grout after welding (Fig. 6-19).

Inspection and Testing Foundation Tolerances Before construction is started of the tank’s support structure, the foundation should be checked to verify that it is within specified tolerances. AWWA D100 provides minimum requirements for foundation tolerances for multicolumn tanks, single-pedestal tanks, and groundsupported flat-bottom tanks. Minimum tolerances for anchor bolts need to be maintained for installation of the base plates for elevated tanks and anchor chairs for ground storage tanks. AWWA D100 anchor tolerances for all tank styles are as follows: Anchors should be within ±1/4 in. (±6.3 mm) of the theoretical location and plumb within 1/8 in. in 12 in. (19 mm in 305 mm). The anchor projection above the top of the foundation should be within ±1/4 in. (±6.3 mm).

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s Foundations and anchors that are not within tolerances should be identified and addressed before the tank is erected. A design professional representing the tank constructor should evaluate whether the structural capacity of the foundation has been compromised and should provide details for remedial action when required.

Tolerances for Concrete Support Structure Dimensional tolerances for the concrete support structure of a composite tank are outlined in ACI 371R and repeated here. Fabrication and placement tolerances for rebar should be in compliance with ACI 117. Dimensional tolerances for the concrete support structure are as follows: Variation in thickness r Wall: −3.0 percent, +5.0 percent

r Dome: −6.0 percent, +10.0 percent

Support wall variation from plumb r In any 5 ft (1.5 m) of height: 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)

r In any 50 ft (15 m) of height: 1.5 in. (38 mm) r Maximum for total height: 3.0 in. (76 mm)

Support wall diameter variation r 0.4 percent (not to exceed 3.0 in. [76 mm]) Dome tank floor radius variation r 1.0 percent Level alignment variation r From specified elevation: 1.0 in. (25.4 mm)

r From horizontal plane: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)

The offset between adjacent pieces for formwork facing material should not exceed the following:

r Exterior exposed surfaces: 1/8 in. (3 mm) r Interior exposed surfaces: 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) r Unexposed surfaces: 1/4 in. (6.3 mm)

The finish tolerance of troweled surfaces should not exceed the following when measured with a 10-ft (3-m) straightedge or sweep board:

r Exposed floor slab: 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) r Tank floors: 3/4 in. (19 mm) r Concrete support for suspended steel floor tank: 1/4 in. (6.3 mm)

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Chapter Six Maximum Diameter (ft[m])

Radius Tolerance (in. [mm])

40 [12]

± 0.5 [±12.7]

150 [45.7]

± 0.75 [±19]

<250 [<76.2]

± 1.0 [±25.4]

≥250 [≥76.2]

± 1.25 [±32]

TABLE 6-2 Roundness—Cylindrical Shells

Welded Tank Tolerances Tank constructors are responsible for maintaining the quality of their work. AWWA D100 outlines some specific shell tolerances for plumbness, roundness, peaking and banding, and localized flat spots for ground storage tanks. The maximum out-of-plumbness from top to bottom should not exceed 1/200th of the total shell height of the shell. Single shell plates should also meet the flatness requirements of ASTM A6. To check the roundness of the shell, measurements should be taken 1 ft (0.3 m) above the shell to bottom seam and not exceed the tolerances in Table 6-2. Peaking, defined as the out-of plane distortion across a vertical weld seam, should not exceed 1/2 in. using a 36-in.-long sweep board. Banding, the out-of-plane distortion across a circumferential weld, is also limited to 1/2 in. using a 36-in.-long sweep board. Industry-wide tolerances for plumbness, roundness, peaking and banding, and localized flat spots for elevated tanks do not exist. AWWA D100 indicates that the tanks are to be “trued up” after erection and prior to grout placement. To guard against fit-up problems as field erection progresses, most individual constructors have selfimposed tank and tower tolerances to ensure that the tank is built plumb and within fairly tight construction tolerances. AWWA D100 provides erection tolerances for plates designed for stability. If the compression allowables of AWWA D100 are used in the design, the maximum local deviation from the theoretical shape must be less than √ ex = 0.04 Rt √ Lx = 4 Rt where Lx = gauge length to measure local imperfection ex = local deviation from theoretical shape t = shell thickness R = radius of exterior surface of the shell, normal to the plate at the point under consideration and measured from the exterior surface of the plate to the axis of revolution.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f We l d e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s Subject to Primary Stress (in. [mm])

Subject to Secondary Stress (in. [mm])

0 < t ≤ 5/8 [15.8]

1/16 [1.6]

1/8 [3.1]

>5/8 [15.8]

Lesser of 0.10t or 1/4 [6.3]

Lesser of 0.20t or 3/8 [9.5]

Thickness (in. [mm])

t = Nominal thickness of the thinner plate at the joint.

TABLE 6-3 Maximum Allowed Offset for Butt-Welded Plates Subject to Primary or Secondary Stress

Alternately, if a plate thickness is based on a buckling analysis performed by the tank constructor, measurements must be taken to verify that the deviations assumed in the analysis have not been exceeded. AWWA D100 also provides tolerances for plate alignment for lapwelded joints and butt-welded joints. Lap joints should be held in as close contact as possible, with no plate separation exceeding 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). When plate separation is present, the weld size should be increased by the amount of separation. The maximum allowed offset for butt-welded plates subject to primary or secondary stress is defined in AWWA D100 and repeated in Table 6-3.

Welded Tank Inspection Shop welds that will carry stress from the weight or pressure of the water are typically inspected by the tank constructor before the component is shipped. Some purchasers may choose to visit the tank constructor’s shop during fabrication to observe the fabricating practices and operations. Per AWWA D100, either the constructor or a qualified inspector hired by the owner is required to check the quality of the field welding. Visual inspection by an individual who is competent to perform the inspection is to be performed on all welds. Competency for visual inspection can be obtained either by training or by experience. A weld shall be repaired or replaced if any of the following defects are found: a crack, lack of fusion, unfilled craters, overlap resulting from the protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or root, undersized weld, and porosity in butt joint subjected to primary stress. Welds exhibiting any of the following defects in excess of the AWWA D100– specified limits also need to be repaired or replaced: excess butt joint reinforcement, fillet-weld convexity, undercut, porosity, and plate misalignment. All welds should also be visually inspected to ensure the removal of all weld spatter, sharp surfaces, overlaps, and unacceptable undercuts that would be detrimental to the coating life.

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Chapter Six The most common method of evaluating complete-penetration butt-welded joints for weld quality is by radiography. Radiographic inspection is to be performed in accordance with ASME Section V, Article 2 by Level II radiographers. Section 11 of AWWA D100 prescribes the number and location of radiographs for tank shells, risers, and single-pedestal columns. The radiographic inspection should be performed as the work progresses. The purchaser may participate in the selection of the specific radiograph locations. AWWA D100 has radiograph inspection standards that must be used for evaluating discontinuities and defects present in the radiograph film. A weld shall be repaired or replaced if cracks, incomplete fusion, or inadequate penetration are noted. In addition, welds with inclusions or rounded indications that exceed the limits specified in AWWA D100 need to be repaired or replaced. The welds in bottom plates of a ground storage tank are required to be tested for watertightness by magnetic-particle testing or by airpressure or vacuum testing. There are additional inspection requirements for ground storage tanks built to AWWA D100 Section 14. The weld between the shell and the bottom should be inspected for watertightness using dye penetrant, penetrating oil, or diesel fuel. The inside fillet weld is completed first and indicator sprayed on the weld. If any indicator is visible outside of the shell after a wait period, a leak is indicated and it should be repaired. Once there are no indications of leakage, the outside weld can be completed. Section 14 requires more extensive radiographic examination of butt welds in the shell and annular plate. It also requires that all welds attaching manholes, nozzles, and other penetration be inspected for cracks by either the magnetic-particle or the dye-penetrant method by a qualified inspector.

Hydrotest Water testing is typically performed on the completed tank after it is painted and disinfected. The purchaser is responsible for furnishing the water to the site with sufficient pressure to fill the tank. Water should be filled to the top capacity level, and weld seams should be inspected for any signs of leakage. If leaks are found, the water must be lowered at least 2 ft (0.6 m) below the point of repair, and the defect must be repaired and rewelded. If no leaks are found, the tank can be put directly into service, which eliminates the need to dispose of the test water.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

7

Construction of Bolted-Steel Water-Storage Tanks Keith McGuire, P.E. Columbian TecTank

Richard Field, P.E., S.E. Engineered Storage Products Company (retired)

Bolted-steel tanks are factory coated and conform to American Water Works Association (AWWA) D103, Factory-Coated Bolted Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage.

Erection of the Tank Equipment required to erect a bolted-steel tank varies among tank manufacturers. When jacks are used, a complete ring of shell sheets is assembled and raised by the jacks so that the subsequent ring of sheets may be assembled under them. The tank is assembled from the top down while the construction crew operates from a location at or near ground level. Tank walls consist of shell sheets or panels carefully packed at the factory to prevent damage to the factory-applied coating during shipment. Shell sheets and panels typically have varying bolt-hole patterns designed to resist the increased hoop loading as tank height increases (Fig. 7-1). The roof may consist of factory-coated roof panels, deck plates supported by structural members, or a self-supported aluminum dome.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-1 Bolt-hole patterns vary. (Photo courtesy of CST Industries.)

Various lengths and strengths of structure bolts, washers, and nuts are used to assemble the tank and appurtenances. Each manufacturer specifies the degree to which bolts must be tightened to properly assemble the tank and its components. Typical instructions indicate a specified torque or a visual observation of gasket deformation that must be achieved. Coated areas that are damaged in the erection process must be repaired in accordance with the tank manufacturer’s written procedures. In addition to wrenches and drift pins, proprietary equipment may be used to ensure that the sheets are properly joined and aligned.

Sealant and Gaskets To ensure watertightness, gaskets and/or sealer are used to seal all joints. Sealer is dispensed from tubes or sausage packs via hand-held caulking guns. The most common sealant materials used are urethane and silicone. Gaskets to seal along sheet seams are supplied in strips. Strip gasket is pre-punched and furnished in rolls, and it must be cut to the required length during erection. When splices are necessary, lap joints are required, and a bead of sealant is applied along the joint. Circular gaskets for items such as nozzles, manways, and collars are furnished in one piece or are in several pieces that are joined to form rings. Special gaskets are sometimes required to seal certain areas of the bolted tank panels, depending on the type of construction. Lap gaskets, radius fillet gaskets, and other types of gaskets may be furnished by the tank manufacturer for use at specific tank locations during assembly.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

Floor If the tank will have a concrete floor, specially sized sheets and panels will be embedded into the floor, forming a ring of foundation sheets on which the remainder of the tank will be erected. If the tank will have a steel floor, factory-coated floor segments/panels will be used.

Unloading and Storage Tank components and materials are usually shipped to the site on skids or special racks on open trailers. Before unloading, the materials should be checked for shipping damage. During unloading, it is recommended that a forklift truck or crane be used to avoid damage to tank components and boxed items. An inventory should be performed to ensure that all items shipped agree with the bill of lading. The materials should be stored near the tank location on dry ground, out of the way of other construction activities, and secure from pilferage and theft. All materials should be covered to prevent damage from the weather.

Concrete Floor Construction Footing and floor concrete placement are usually performed in two separate pours (Fig. 7-2). Leveling plate assemblies are installed in

FIGURE 7-2 Footing and floor concrete placement.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-3 Leveling plate assemblies.

the top of the footing pour. These assemblies are used to position the embedded tank foundation sheet (Fig. 7-3). The foundation ring is set on the leveling plate assemblies, then leveled and rounded to specified tolerances (Fig. 7-4). Floor sumps are then installed, and other piping is stubbed off above the floor line (Fig. 7-5).

FIGURE 7-4 Foundation ring set on leveling plate assemblies.

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FIGURE 7-5 After floor sumps are installed, other piping is stubbed off.

Reinforcement is placed in the floor area and around the curb to the outside of the foundation ring in accordance with the engineering drawings (Fig. 7-6). Forms are usually used for creation of the foundation floor curb around the entire perimeter of the foundation

FIGURE 7-6 Reinforcement placed in floor area and around curb.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-7 Floor and curb concrete placed and finished.

assembly. Forms may be installed during or after placement of the floor and curb reinforcement steel. A water-stop seal strip is installed onto the foundation sheet prior to concrete placement. The floor and curb concrete is placed, finished, and allowed to cure before further tank construction takes place (Figs. 7-7 and 7-8).

FIGURE 7-8 Concrete allowed to cure.

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Steel Floor Construction For a tank with a steel floor, a concrete ring footing should be installed that contains properly prepared soil and provides support for the tank shell, steel floor, and the stored liquid load. Special soil conditions and other requirements may dictate the use of a concrete slab to properly support the tank. Embedded anchor bolts, if required, are installed to the specified projection above the top of the footing (Fig. 7-9). If the tank does not require anchor bolts, and depending on the site conditions and tank loadings, then tanks with steel floors may be supported on a prepared granular base or berm in lieu of a concrete foundation. A steel perimeter ring at least 1 ft (0.3 m) larger than the tank radius may be used to contain the compacted base. The steel floor is constructed in accordance with the tank manufacturer’s instructions. Assembly of pie-shaped segments begins at a circular plate at the center of the tank, and segments are assembled from the center outward until the outside of the tank is reached (Fig. 7-10). For floors using rectangular segments (Fig. 7-11), workers start at a designated point along the tank perimeter and work their way across the tank to the other side.

FIGURE 7-9 Embedded anchor bolts are installed to specified projection.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-10 Assembly of pie-shaped segments.

FIGURE 7-11 Floors using rectangular segments.

Tank Construction Jacking Method Specially designed jacks are used to build the remainder of the tank. The jack assemblies are anchored to the tank floor, one at each sheet Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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FIGURE 7-12 Jack assemblies are anchored to tank floor.

location around the tank perimeter (Fig. 7-12). After all jacks are installed, the faceplates to which the wall sheets will attach are leveled with each other. As the first ring of sheets is placed on the jacks, sealer is placed in the overlapping vertical joints, and the sheets are bolted together. Before tightening the bolts, a special tool is used to spread the joint apart, simulating the loading that will be placed on the vertical joint from the stored liquid load. As the joint is held in its spread condition, the bolts are tightened to their specified torque. At this point, the roof segments are bolted and attached to the top of the first ring of sheets (Fig. 7-13). The center of the roof is temporarily supported while the roof segments are bolted into place. When the roof is complete, the temporary support is removed and the entire structure is jacked up to the next level. After the first ring of sheets is completed and tightened, the jacks are energized and the structure is raised to a height that allows the next ring of sheets to be installed in the same manner as the first ring (Fig. 7-14). The second ring of sheets rests in supports attached to the foundation sheet while being bolted to the ring above it. On completion of the second ring of sheets, the jacks are disconnected from the first ring, lowered to a specified location in the ring just completed, and connected to that ring. The jacks are energized, and the structure is raised to the next level. Tank erection continues in this manner until the last ring of sheets is installed and tied into the foundation sheets. Tanks taller than 120 ft (36.5 m) have successfully been erected in this manner. The last sheet of the bottom ring is typically left out to provide an easy means of access for other work inside the tank and for the removal of the jacks. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-13 Roof segments are bolted and attached.

Wind stiffeners, ladders, ladder cages, and platforms, as applicable, are attached to the side of the tank as successive rings are assembled and jacked to the next level (Fig. 7-15).

Scaffold Method Exterior scaffolding similar to that shown in Fig. 7-16 is required. The quantity and length of scaffold planks required are determined by

FIGURE 7-14 The jacks raise the structure.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 7-15 Wind stiffeners, ladders, ladder cages, and platforms are attached.

FIGURE 7-16 Exterior scaffolding.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-17 Scaffolding bracket.

the size of the tank and the width of the tank panels. Scaffolding is moved from ring to ring as work progresses, meaning that the minimum quantity of planks is enough to encircle the tank at one level, plus a few extra. Some crews prefer to leave all scaffolding in place until the shell and roof are complete, thus requiring two planks for every shell segment in the tank. Scaffold planks are supported by scaffolding brackets (Fig. 7-17). Normally, the brackets consist of steel angles 2.5 in. × 2.5 in. × 0.25 in. (63.5 mm × 63.5 mm × 6.35 mm). Accommodation for safety line uprights must be provided. The bracket shown in Fig. 7-17 will receive a tubular upright that fits over the 6-in.(152-mm)-long plank-retaining rod at its end. Any plank-retaining device should have a minimum height of twice the scaffold plank thickness. The safety line upright must be 42 in. (1 m) in height, measured from the top of the scaffolding board. Common practice is to leave all scaffolding brackets in place until the shell and the deck are complete. This requires one bracket for each shell segment in the tank. All boards must be secured. If interior scaffolding is not used, a hooked drive-out ladder similar to the one shown in Fig. 7-18 is required during erection. Points that bear on the shell should be padded to protect the interior finish of the tank. Hoisting equipment capable of lifting components weighing as much as 1,000 lb (453.6 kg) is required. A variety of devices can be used, but gin poles similar to the one shown in Fig. 7-18 are the

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FIGURE 7-18 Drive-out ladder and gin pole.

most common. Made of steel pipe or tubing, they are supported from scaffolding brackets and extend well above the top of the ring under construction. The tank shell must be protected from gin-pole bearing points.

Roof Installation At least three types of roofs are commonly installed on factory-coated bolted-steel tanks. These types are self-supported (Fig. 7-19), centersupported (Fig. 7-20), and self-supported aluminum domes (Fig. 7-21).

Self-Supported Roofs Self-supported roofs consist of one-piece pie-shaped panels that are temporarily supported in the center while the panels are lapped onto each other and bolted together. The roof slope is typically 20 degrees, and the outer end of the panel is formed in a rounded shape, creating a knuckle, which adds stiffness to the panel. This outer edge bolts to the top of the tank wall (Fig. 7-13). After all roof panels are assembled and attached to the tank wall, the temporary center support is removed, allowing the roof to support itself. Low-profile self-supported roofs are typically sloped at a 1:12 pitch to allow for rain runoff. One or two horizontal support members span the tank diameter, and an elevated collar is located at the mid-span to set the roof pitch and accept the radial rafters or stiffened roof sheets.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-19 Self-supported roof.

Center-Supported Roofs Center-supported roofs are supported by a center pole that extends from the tank floor. A common system consists of a center support column of prefabricated pipe with a base plate at the bottom, a rafterbearing plate at the top, and radial rafters (see Fig. 7-22 for proper arrangement of parts).

FIGURE 7-20 Center-supported roof.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 7-21 Self-supported aluminum dome roof.

Self-Supported Aluminum Domes Self-supported aluminum domes are spherical structures conforming to the dimension of the tank. It is a clear span structure with a fully triangulated space frame complete with noncorrugated closure panels. These domes can be constructed in place on the top ring of the

FIGURE 7-22 Arrangement of parts, center-supported roof.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-23 Self-supported aluminum domes can be constructed in place.

tank shell sheets (Fig. 7-23) or constructed on the ground and lifted onto the top ring of shell sheets as a completed assembly. In either case, the mounting shoes of the dome attach to a formed angle that has been attached to the upper horizontal bolt line of the first ring of shell sheets. The dome consists of an aluminum I-beam structure, lightweight aluminum roof panels, and flashing. Although the dome is attached to the tank shell at the perimeter roof angle, the attachment allows necessary movement between the roof and the tank.

Tank Appurtenance and Accessory Installation Ventilator Normally, the roof ventilator is located in the center of the roof at the roof cap (Fig. 7-24). The ventilator capacity needs to be sufficient to pass air so that the maximum possible rate of water entering or leaving the tank will not cause excessive pressure or cause a vacuum to be developed. For potable water storage, screening to prevent birds and bugs is required, and the ventilator must be capable of relieving pressure and vacuum if the screens become clogged.

Roof Accessories A hinged, lockable roof access door is normally provided near the outside ladder to allow liquid samples to be withdrawn from the top Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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FIGURE 7-24 Roof ventilator usually located in center of roof at roof cap.

of the stored liquid (Fig. 7-25). The door is bolted onto an opening provided in the roof panels for this purpose. A roof railing assembly is installed after the roof installation is complete. Depending on the pitch and the type of roof, a walkway may be provided (Fig. 7-26). The assemblies are bolted together

FIGURE 7-25 Hinged, lockable roof access door near outside ladder.

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Chapter Seven

FIGURE 7-26 A walkway may be provided.

using appropriate fasteners; sealer and neoprene pads are used where support brackets attach directly to the roof panels. A caged ladder with a roof manway landing platform that meets requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is supplied with most tanks (Fig. 7-27). Depending on tank height, some ladder/cage assemblies also include one or more stepoff platforms. Individual sections of the ladder/cage assemblies are constructed on the ground. The sections are then attached to the rings of shell sheets during the tank erection process.

Shell Penetrations Tank manufacturers’ policies vary concerning penetrations through the tank sidewall for piping and other instrumentation. Some manufacturers supply the openings in the panels shipped from the factory; others provide detailed instructions for locating and cutting the openings in the field during or after tank erection. Depending on the opening size, the tank manufacturer may require and provide the means to reinforce the area around the opening. Depending on the tank coating, the reinforcement can be a plate welded around the opening in the factory or bolted on in the field (Fig. 7-28).

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s FIGURE 7-27 Caged ladder is supplied with most tanks.

FIGURE 7-28 Depending on coating, tank can be reinforced in factory or field.

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Chapter Seven FIGURE 7-29 Brackets holding overflow pipe should be correctly located.

After the tank sidewall has been tied into the foundation sheet, one or more access door assemblies (manways) are mounted to the tank sidewall within the lowermost full-height ring of shell sheets (refer to Fig. 7-26). A variety of overflow piping designs can be installed. Care should be taken to ensure the brackets holding the overflow pipe are correctly located and cushioned against the tank to prevent damage to the coating (Fig. 7-29). When level indicators and other control devices are being installed, workers need to heed the tank manufacturer’s instructions regarding penetrations of the sidewall and prevention of coating damage.

Completion After all tank sections have been erected, all appurtenances have been installed, and piping is complete, the interior is cleaned of all construction equipment and debris. Any damaged coating areas on the tank interior or exterior are repaired in accordance with the coating manufacturer’s instructions. The tank exterior is examined to ensure that all safety decals are in place, if applicable.

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C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B o l t e d - S t e e l Wa t e r - S t o r a g e Ta n k s

FIGURE 7-30 Completed reservoir tanks.

The tank is tested for leaks by filling it to the overflow level. Any leaks found are repaired in accordance with the tank manufacturer’s recommendations. The test liquid is usually disposed of using the tank’s drain system. FIGURE 7-31 Completed standpipe.

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Chapter Seven Once testing is complete, the tank should be disinfected. AWWA Standard C652 and the tank manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed to achieve proper tank disinfection. All construction equipment is removed and the tank site is cleaned in accordance with the project specifications. Figures 7-30 and 7-31 show the completed tanks.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

8

Inspecting New-Tank Construction Steven P. Roetter, P.E. Tank Industry Consultants

The purchaser should inspect the tank as construction proceeds to ensure that the structure complies with specifications, both in form and in quality. This chapter discusses the specific items to be checked by the purchaser and those that are the responsibility of the constructor. On the job, the purchaser and the constructor should keep in mind that a quality structure is the result of the cooperation and affirmative efforts of all parties. If the relationship between the purchaser and the constructor is combative or antagonistic, the project is likely to be completed late and quality will probably be adequate at best. On the other hand, a purchaser with a sound knowledge of specifications, standards, and trade practices can work with the constructor to complete a high-quality project on schedule.

Responsibility for Quality In general, tank constructors are responsible for maintaining the quality of their work. The American Water Works Association (AWWA) D100 Standard for Welded Carbon-Steel Tanks for Water Storage and its D103 Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted-Steel Tanks for Water Storage give the constructor the responsibility for designing and conducting a welding or bolting quality assurance program. According to the provisions of AWWA D103, the constructor is responsible for selecting a factory-coated bolted tank (manufactured in accordance with that same standard) that meets the capacity and height or diameter requirements of the owner. This is a logical assignment of responsibility, because the designing and building of tanks is a specialized field, and

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Chapter Eight specialized equipment and knowledge are required to conduct a total quality control program. Nonetheless, the owner or the owner’s engineer, as well as third-party consultants where needed, should monitor the work for inevitable human errors and misunderstandings. Even before construction begins, the owner or engineer should check shop drawings to ensure that the special requirements of the job are met. The constructor is usually responsible for the structural design of the tank, but the interplay of the legally defined responsibilities of the engineering and construction phases is not firmly established. The engineer reviewing the drawings should clearly specify the purpose and the extent of the review to avoid being held legally liable for a more detailed examination than was actually performed. A quality assurance program for the tank project should take into account each of the functions involved in building a tank. In general, these functions fall under the following categories: foundation, fabrication, steel delivery, tank erection, field-applied coatings, shopapplied coatings, and appurtenances.

The Foundation and Composite-Tank Pedestal The foundation for a tank and the concrete pedestal of a composite tank are the most significant sources of potential failure, and so most owners and engineers apply greater expertise to inspecting the foundation than to any other function of tank construction. If neither the owner nor the owner’s engineer has expertise in this area, other experts should be contacted. The reinforced-concrete foundation and the soil on which it bears are made up of nonhomogeneous materials over which there is little control. In addition, the foundation is frequently installed by a specialty constructor or under another division of the water project, giving the tank constructor little control over this function. Figure 8-1 shows foundation construction in progress.

Soil Investigation The purchaser should be at the site when the borings are being taken as part of the soil investigation. This gives the purchaser better insight into problems that might be encountered during construction of the foundation.

Activities Before Concrete Is Placed The excavation should be properly shored to prevent cave-in. The soil conditions at the bottom of each excavation should be evaluated to confirm that they are the same as those used when the foundation design was developed. The bottom of the excavation can be sealed with a mud mat to prevent water from changing the soil characteristics and to provide a solid surface from which to work. If piles are

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I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n

FIGURE 8-1 Foundation construction in progress.

being driven, the purchaser must determine if the piles are driving as predicted. The purchaser should be on the job to verify that the pile-driving log is properly completed. Site and final concrete elevations should be confirmed. Placement of forms, reinforcing steel, and anchor bolts should be verified, and photographs should be taken to document these steps before the constructor allows the concrete to be placed.

Concrete If the owner, constructor, or engineer does not have extensive previous experience with the materials supplied by the concrete ready-mix plant, a design mix should be developed and tested. The consistency of the concrete should be evaluated as it comes out of the chute, and concrete test cylinders should be taken. The storage location for the test cylinders should provide satisfactory moisture conditions and controlled temperature. The cylinders should not be transported during initial cure. Test cylinders that are taken after approximately oneeighth of the truck’s load has been discharged give a more representative sample of the concrete than the initial material that is placed. Slump tests should also be performed. For large pours, it is necessary to sequence the pouring operations so that the concrete does not set up before placing fresh concrete next to it, creating “cold joints.” The concrete should not be dropped into the forms from excessive heights. After the concrete is placed, it should be vibrated with a mechanical

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Chapter Eight vibrator to ensure proper distribution of the material. Mechanical vibrators should not be used to move the concrete from one location to another. Proper removal of the forms and of all form ties should be verified. Tolerances on concrete foundations are given in AWWA D100 and AWWA D103. The purchaser’s representative should be familiar with American Concrete Institute (ACI) Standards 301 (Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings) and 318 (Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete). With a good cure, quality concrete develops the necessary compressive strength and is less likely to experience surface deterioration. If the surface of the foundation is not cured properly to protect it from the elements, chipping or spalling failure of the concrete can occur long before the steel tank deteriorates.

Backfilling If backfilling is done improperly, the concrete is overstressed. Proper backfilling techniques are necessary to provide a structurally stable foundation, to prevent water from ponding on moisture-weakened soils, and to make the site more solid for the tank-erection crew. Proper backfilling operations require the specialized services of a qualified soil-testing laboratory to determine the optimal moisture content and maximum density of the backfill material, check the moisture content of the material being placed, and conduct relative density tests in the field after the backfill material has been placed and compacted. This last test ensures that the specified degree of soil compaction has been obtained. Adequate soil compaction is particularly important for the foundations of ground storage tanks. Although the bottoms of these tanks are usually quite flexible, particular care is necessary for backfilling pipe trenches beneath the tank and the soil or fill material adjacent to concrete ringwalls. Severe differential settlement in these places can rupture the underlying pipes and cause possible failure of the tank bottom. The contract documents may assign the responsibility for providing necessary soil-testing services to either the tank constructor or the owner. In either case, copies of all soil test reports should be furnished promptly to all interested parties.

Fabrication It is recommended that the owner and the engineer visit the constructor’s facility while the tank is being fabricated. Fabricators approach the process differently in terms of flow of materials and the sequence of operations, which eventually influences how the structure is evaluated. The owner should inspect the quality of shop fabrication, welding, and fit-up; the type of surface preparation; and the shop coating

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Inspecting New-Tank Construction

I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n if applied. The owner should compare the mill test certifications to the heat numbers stamped on the steel plates. These mill test certifications should be filed for future reference. The material should also be examined for excessive corrosion or pitting, signs that the material has been stored outdoors for too long. The amount of fabrication performed in the shop varies depending on the contractor. One function that will be performed in the shop is rolling of the plates. Table 19 in the D100 standard outlines the conditions under which the shell plates must be rolled. If D100 requires that the shell plates be rolled, the owner should verify that they are rolled to the correct radius. The conditions for welding and the available equipment make welding in the shop much easier than welding in the field. The welds should be visually evaluated in the shop to determine if they meet the requirements of D100 and can be adequately painted. Welding repairs can be more effectively performed in the shop than in the field. This visit also serves to open communications for the balance of the project.

Steel Delivery The owner should be on hand when the steel is delivered to the job site. The owner can help resolve conflicts with neighboring property owners, document any damage occurring in the unloading process, and protect underground utilities on the site or under the access road.

Tank Erection Erecting and welding or bolting the steel are tasks for which the expertise of the constructor is vital to the success of the project. Erecting steel is a dangerous operation, requiring skills acquired only through experience. During this phase, the purchaser’s representative may need assistance. Independent testing laboratories are usually equipped to take radiographs of welded seams, but they know little about steel erection and fit-up and are not willing to climb to the heights usually associated with water-storage facilities. Using someone from another tank constructor’s organization as the purchaser’s representative can lead to conflicts of interest and other problems. It is very difficult for a competitor to be unbiased in the evaluation of another constructor’s work. Even if this competitor is fair, it is difficult for the tank constructor to accept the opinion as an unbiased one. Therefore, it is usually best to secure the services of a consultant who specializes in this type of inspection work and has the expertise and climbing ability to accomplish the job.

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Chapter Eight

Fit-Up Quality Tank Bottom The levelness of the tank’s base plate(s) is critical if the rest of the tank is to be erected properly. The constructor’s steel-erection supervisor should check the foundation(s) for differences in elevation. Any such differences should be compensated for by shims underneath the base plate(s). If this task is not done properly, or if there were fabrication problems with the steel, the purchaser may see slivers of steel that need to be cut from seams, frequent use of a large hammer to form the steel variations in the seam gaps, or plates not aligned in accordance with the tolerances required in AWWA D100 Section 10.6.3. These problems usually produce a tank of unacceptable aesthetic or structural quality.

Tank Shell AWWA D100 has several fit-up requirements. Most are related to appearance of the structure, but improper fit-ups can be structurally significant if bad enough. AWWA D100 addresses plumbness of the shells of ground storage tanks. The shell’s deviation from vertical should be measured as the shell is erected, and variations from vertical should be corrected when they approach the limits set in AWWA D100. The standard also establishes the roundness of the shell. The tank diameter should be measured in several locations 1 ft (0.3048 m) above the tank bottom corner weld. The measurements should not exceed the tolerances established in AWWA D100. AWWA D100 also establishes tolerances for peaking and banding of the shell of ground storage tanks. Peaking is the out-of-plane distortion across a vertical weld seam, and banding is the out-of-plane distortion across a horizontal weld seam. To measure peaking and banding, a sweep board is useful. A sweep board can be constructed from a piece of plywood 36 in. (0.9144 m) long. One side of the plywood board should be curved to the radius of the tank, and the other side should be flat. The curved side should be used to measure peaking, and the flat side should be used to measure banding. The offset of aligned shell courses is governed by AWWA D100. During fit-up, it should be verified that the plates are aligned within the tolerances established in D100, and these tolerances should be maintained throughout the welding process.

Double-Curved, Axisymmetrical, Conical, and Cylindrical Section In D100, tolerances for these sections are specifically established for stability and are structurally significant. The owner should verify through the formulas given in D100 that the double-curved, axisymmetrical, conical, and cylindrical sections are within the tolerances established.

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I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n

Welding Quality According to AWWA D100, the constructor is required to check the quality of the welding. It is the job of the owner to monitor the constructor’s quality control program. First, the owner should collect the certification papers of all welders on the site. These papers detail the types of welding and the steel thicknesses for which the welder is certified. The most common method of evaluating weld quality is by means of radiography. The purchaser should participate in the selection of radiograph locations, watch for documentation of the radiographs, and review the radiographs with the constructor’s quality assurance expert. The areas selected should be in strict accordance with the AWWA D100 standard, which requires that the radiographs reflect the general quality of welding on the tank. Equal proportions of shop, ground, and air welds should be reflected in the radiographs. The contractor should document these radiograph locations on a rollout. AWWA D100 has radiograph inspection standards that must be used for evaluating discontinuities and defects present in radiograph film. The penetrameter, which ensures the reviewer that the radiograph was sensitive enough to identify the smallest defect addressed by the standard, must be visible in each radiograph. It is vital that the radiographs be evaluated in accordance with this criterion and that any repairs and follow-up radiographs be conducted in accordance with D100. It is also important for the tank constructor and purchaser to visually inspect all welds to ensure the removal of all weld splatter, sharp surfaces, overlaps, and unacceptable undercuts that will be detrimental to the coating life. Welds do not need to be perfectly smooth, but sharp edges must be removed. Ground storage tanks erected under AWWA D100 Section 14 Alternative Design Basis require many more radiographs than standard tanks.

Bolting Assembly Bolted-steel tanks require the proper placing of steel sheets, gaskets, and sealants. Some erection methods may also require pre-tensioning the sheets and tightening the bolts to a prescribed torque. These details are covered by the manufacturer’s erection instructions and drawings. The engineer or purchaser may require that a set of these instructions be included with the shop drawing package that is submitted.

Tank Appearance Tank appearance is of great importance to many owners. The final appearance is known only after the tank is coated, when dents and buckles become apparent. It is then that the owner expresses dissatisfaction. Determining how well the tank complies with the specifications and applicable codes and negotiating a settlement for poor appearance are time-consuming and stressful. Usually these problems

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Chapter Eight can be avoided if the constructor checks to see that the tank is level, round, and plumb as it is being built. Incorporating dimensional tolerances into the contract will also minimize disputes. AWWA D100 specifies some of these tolerances.

Surface Regularity A smooth, regular surface provides a good base for the application of a protective coating system, thus helping reduce maintenance costs. To this end, the constructor and the purchaser should ensure that the weld contour is smooth, that unacceptable weld undercutting is eliminated, that weld spatter is ground off, that remains of welds used to attach erection and fit-up equipment are chipped and ground smooth, and that unacceptable gouged-out places in the steel are filled in. Representatives of the tank constructor and the purchaser should be alert for sharp edges or areas that would cause premature coating failure so that corrective action may be taken as the work progresses.

Factory-Coated Bolted Tanks A bolted-steel tank is delivered to the location with a factory-applied coating. If the steel has not been damaged in transit, the surfaces will be smooth. Each panel should be carefully inspected before erection. If the panel is damaged in transit, in handling, or during erection of the tank, it may be necessary to repair or replace it.

Water Testing When welded tanks are water tested before they are coated, any leaks that are found can be repaired without requiring any coating to be redone. If the tank is not filled until after it has been coated, small pinholes in the welds may be plugged temporarily with coating; these will cause leaks later if the coating breaks loose. The owner should ensure that water for the test is available at the time and pressure necessary to coincide with the constructor’s schedule. The owner should also ensure that provisions are made for draining and disposing of the test water. If leaks are found in factory-coated bolted tanks, the constructor should make repairs according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Field Cleaning and Coating This section discusses the cleaning and coating of welded-steel tanks after they have been erected and before they are placed in service.

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I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n

Erection Scar Removal By the time the tank is erected, irregularities in the surfaces of the tank should have been eliminated. The erection crew has the equipment and scaffolding to smooth out these defects economically and effectively. On the other hand, the coating crew is often subcontracted or made up of members of another department of the tank company. Their rigging is sometimes not as well suited for this cleanup work as the scaffolding of the erection crew. Occasionally, abrasive blasting reveals small laminations in the steel plate. If these are not removed completely by blasting and remain large enough to produce holidays in the coating system, they should be removed by grinding. Occasionally, deeper laminations may require welding or further testing.

Steel Cleanliness The first requirement for a good coating is a clean surface. The steel should be free from dirt and oil, both of which may accumulate during construction. All weld seams, abraded areas, scratches, shop or field markings, or poorly adhering shop primer should be removed by abrasive blast cleaning. The areas cleaned by abrasive blasting should blend well into the adjoining undisturbed shop primer. Some shopapplied primers must be scarified or otherwise prepared before ensuing coats are applied. The purchaser should also be aware that welding or cutting activity on one side of a plate is likely to damage the coating bonding on the opposite side of the plate. This is especially important if shop priming is used. The areas opposite welding or cutting operations should be examined for coating damage resulting from the heat induced by the cutting or welding process. The manuals Good Painting Practice and Systems and Specifications visual standards and an inspection manual available from the Society for Protective Coatings give good guidelines for inspecting coatings.

Inspection Instruments Instruments needed to inspect coating include at a minimum a wetfilm thickness gauge, a calibrated dry-film thickness gauge, equipment for measuring air temperature and humidity, a steel-temperature thermometer, a surface-profile measuring device, and a wet-spongetype holiday detector. The holiday detector is used to inspect the coating for voids that will cause premature coating failure. If full-time inspection is not conducted, destructive testing involving the use of a Tooke Gage and/or other instruments will be necessary to evaluate the thickness of each coat and to obtain an indication of the cleanliness of the substrate.

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Chapter Eight

Inspection Planning The purchaser should plan work to aid in the timely completion of the tank field coating. This will require open lines of communication with the coating company and an understanding of the effects of weather on coating progress. The constructor will also need to work efficiently in good weather. The purchaser should state requirements for the number of locations to be tested according to the total surface area of the plate. Minimizing testing is unwise, but an excessive number of testing locations places an unreasonable burden on the constructor and can substantially delay the progress of the tank coating. SSPC PA2 delineates procedures for measuring coating dry-film thicknesses. To avoid excessively delaying the coating progress, large tanks may require more than one purchaser’s representative to conduct the required field tests.

Technical Aspects of Coatings Today’s coatings require exactness in measuring and mixing components and thinners. The appropriate application equipment must be used, and the proper combination of humidity and dew point, air, and steel temperatures is critical during both application and curing. The tank interior must be ventilated to ensure the safety of workers and to allow for the proper curing of the field-applied coatings. Fans or air horns are usually required to move air through the tank. Even with forced-air ventilation, proper breathing equipment is necessary for the safety of the workers and the purchaser’s representative(s).

Shop-Applied Coatings Bolted tank panels are coated at the factory under controlled conditions. AWWA D103 requires that the panels be grit-blasted to nearwhite metal (SSPC SP10) and coated within 15 minutes of cleaning to prevent rust from starting. The coating is then either baked on or fused on. If desired, the purchaser may observe these operations during shop inspection. If specified, a preconstruction primer may be shop applied to new welded-steel tanks. Observation of the shop painting and fabrication of the steel components of welded-steel tanks is necessary to evaluate proper fabrication techniques, shop surface preparation, and shop primer application.

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I n s p e c t i n g N e w - Ta n k C o n s t r u c t i o n

Mechanical and Electrical Appurtenances Mechanical and electrical items that need to be checked vary depending on the equipment specified for a particular project. The following should be checked on every project:

r Electrical wiring should meet applicable codes. r Conduits, fixtures, pipes, valves, or other items should not interfere with the safety of the ladders or platforms.

r Cathodic protection anodes and hand-hole covers should be properly placed, and the purchaser’s representative should witness the energizing of the cathodic protection system and the initial potential profile being conducted as per the project specifications.

r All hatches should be locked. r Safety belts and sleeves should be furnished for the ladder

safety devices. Safety sleeves should be checked for proper operation along the full height of the rails or cables. Any coating, deviations, or obstructions that prevent the free operation of the sleeve should be removed.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

9

Operation Jos´e N. Hern´andez, P.E. City of Cleveland

Sami F. Sarrouh, P.E. Brown and Caldwell

There are an estimated 400,000 potable water storage tanks in the United States. Worldwide, the total number of tanks is undoubtedly staggering. Water-storage facilities have played and continue to play a pivotal role in the growth and success of water distribution systems. Existing and new tanks come in a variety of styles, construction materials, configurations, and functions, and they have a wide range of capacities. Tanks have been constructed from materials as diverse as steel, wood, and concrete; they can be at ground level, elevated, or buried. They can have many different inlet and outlet configurations and can hold as little as 10,000 gal (37,854 L) or as much as 140 mil gal (529,957.6 kL) or more (Fig. 9-1). These and other factors influence tank performance and capabilities. Such characteristics also play a role in how utility personnel operate the tanks, and how they affect the important tank functions such as emergency storage capacity and the preservation of water quality. Concerns about the effects of tank characteristics and operation on water quality present new challenges for both operators and tank design engineers. It is the intent of this chapter to provide the reader with practical information, in addition to technical and scientific data, regarding the design and operation of potable water storage tanks. Although tanks are often the most visible part of a water distribution system, they are just one among several major components in a system designed to bring potable water to utility customers. Potable or drinking water can be defined as the water delivered to the consumer that can be safely used for drinking, cooking, and washing (De Zuane 1997).

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Operation

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Chapter Nine

FIGURE 9-1 Masonry and concrete reservoir, capacity 23 mil gal (87,064 kL), in Parma Heights, Ohio.

A utility’s water may begin its journey to its customers from a nonpotable (raw) source or from another utility acting as a wholesaler. Raw water can be groundwater, such as in the case of wells. It can also be surface water from lakes, rivers, or dams (Fig. 9-2). It may also be desalinated brine or seawater. The raw water is treated according to rules and regulations established by government regulatory agencies. Myriad treatment strategies are available. The applicability of each treatment strategy depends on the characteristics of the source water and the technology

FIGURE 9-2 Water intake crib in Lake Erie; Cleveland, Ohio, is in the foreground.

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Operation

Operation

Elevated tank Treatment plant

Clearwell Raw water source

Surge tank

Ground tank

Trunk and distribution water mains Pumping station

FIGURE 9-3 Major components of typical water distribution system.

required to make it potable. There is an extensive list of references on potable water treatment. AWWA’s Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook on Drinking Water, published by McGraw-Hill (AWWA 2010), is an excellent general reference on this subject. Once treated, water is usually stored in a large tank or reservoir at or near the treatment plant. Finished water is then pumped into a water distribution system serving a community or service area, as demand requires. Water distribution systems comprise several major components (Fig. 9-3). Pipes and piping systems include trunk and distribution mains, valves, and hydrants. Trunk mains are large-diameter pipes that carry water away from treatment plants. Trunk mains branch off into distribution mains. Distribution mains are smaller pipes that carry the water through individual streets or zones. Each water customer has at least one service tap into a distribution main. In a well-designed distribution system, trunk and distribution mains act as a network, or web, with many connecting nodes. The web connections are redundant. If a section of pipe inside the web should break, valves could be closed to isolate a small affected area and conduct repairs while maintaining service to the remaining customers in the system. The pipe network’s design serves another function. A completely closed pipe network has no dead ends, thus eliminating the possibility of water stagnation. When a distribution system’s area is very large or encompasses substantial differences in elevation, it is often necessary to divide the system into two or more pressure zones, or “highs.” Booster pumping stations are used to raise the pressure of the water as it is pumped from a low-pressure zone to a high-pressure zone. Storage tanks are connected to the trunk-main web. Under optimal conditions, a distribution system is designed so that one or more storage tanks are located at the opposite end of the system’s grid from the pumping station. The main function of a water distribution system is to deliver sufficient quantity of potable water at a minimum established pressure

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Chapter Nine to utility customers. This role has been expanded in recent years to that of preserving the quality of the water in the system. More detailed information regarding the design and operation of potable water distribution systems is available from many sources, including the Water Distribution Systems Handbook (Mays 2000).

Modeling of Tanks in Water Distribution Systems Tanks are an integral element of water distribution systems. Water distribution system modeling has become an essential tool for distribution system operators, scientists, and engineers. Models represent a water distribution system as a web or network in which different hydraulic scenarios can be simulated. The network model is represented by a collection of pipe lengths interconnected in a specific topological configuration by node points where water can enter or exit the system (Fig. 9-4). Tanks represent boundary conditions in these models. Traditionally, tanks in water distribution system models define the hydraulic grade line limits at its boundaries. Modeling is concerned with water behavior when the water is both moving and stationary. An important parameter in a water distribution system is pressure. For instance, pressure is a function of depth within a tank. The pressure is the same at two points that are at the same fluid depth regardless of the shape or volume of the tank. Pascal’s law states that the pressure at any point inside a tank has the same magnitude in all directions. In other words, pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector. Pressure is always perpendicular to a submerged surface regardless of the surface’s shape or orientation.

Tank 1

Treatment plant

Tank 2

Tank 3

FIGURE 9-4 Node representation of a distribution system network; arrows indicate average pipe segment flow.

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Operation

Operation Hydraulic grade line Energy grade line

V 2/2g Total dynamic head

Ground tank

H static Elevated tank Trunk and distribution water mains

Datum

Pump H atmospheric Absolute zero pressure

FIGURE 9-5 Distribution system energy lines. (Note: V 2/2g = velocity head.)

The energy head at any point in the distribution system is calculated using the Bernoulli equation: H=

V2 P + +Z  2gc

Each point in the system has an energy level, H. The energy grade line (EGL) is a graph of the total energy versus position in a pipeline from a reference line or datum. Friction losses in the pipe cause the EGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. Since friction in the pipe is a function of fluid velocity, the faster the flow, the steeper the EGL. The hydraulic grade line (HGL) is a graph of the sum of the pressure and potential energies versus position in a distribution system from the reference line or datum. The HGL level at any point in the distribution system is equal to the height a water column would rise inside a vertical conduit open to the atmosphere. It can also represent the height of the water in a tank connected to the system at that point. The kinetic energy component is the difference between the EGL and the HGL. Figure 9-5 shows distribution system energy lines. In most water distribution applications, the elevation and pressure head terms are much greater than the velocity head term. For this reason, velocity head is often ignored, and modelers work in terms of hydraulic grades rather than energy grades. Therefore, given a datum elevation and an HGL, the pressure can be determined as (Walski, Chase, and Savic 2001): P =  (HGL − Z) Both the EGL and the HGL increase at the location of a pump within the pipeline by an amount equal to the head added by pumping. The head added by pumping (h A ) may be calculated if the flow

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Chapter Nine velocity and gauge pressure are known for the suction and discharge pump nozzles.     P V2 P V2 hA = + +Z − + +Z  2gc  2gc discharge suction The head added by the pump is a function of the flow rate through the pump. A graph of pump head versus flow rate is called the pump curve. The plotted head is the head difference across the pump and is given the name total dynamic head (TDH). Traditional hydraulic modeling provided an insight into how the water level in tanks changed under simulated demand conditions. However, the water in the tank was considered of invariable quality. Hence, there was no difference in quality whether the water was entering the tank, inside it, or leaving it. In the past decade, increased emphasis on water quality in storage facilities prompted more detailed investigations of water dynamics in tanks. Modeling of water flow regimes and water quality in tanks has been done using multiple methods:

r r r r

Scaled laboratory models Tracer studies Semiempirical mathematical models Computational fluid mechanics using finite-element or finitevolume models

Scaled Laboratory Models For more than a century, scaled models have been used to validate hydraulic structures, vessels, and tank designs. Geometrically similar scaled-down models are tested under laboratory conditions to simulate actual operating conditions involving fluid flow phenomena, since governing equations regarding the latter do not have exact mathematical solutions. The laws governing tank scale-model construction are known as principles of similitude. These principles make it possible to construct models that accurately represent actual tank performance. The main dimensionless parameters used in scale models are Froude number U Fr = √ Lg Reynolds number Re =

UL 

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Operation

Operation Weber number We =

U 2 L 

where U is the free stream velocity of the system; L is the characteristic length, diameters, or depths; g is the gravitational acceleration;  is water density;  is the viscosity of water; and  is the surface tension of water. A tank and a geometrically similar model are in similitude if Re ,Fr , and We are the same. The scaling of the model, however, is based on the predominant parameter for each particular application. The Froude number is generally used in the scaling of water-storage facilities. A scale model should be as large as possible to minimize scaling errors on tank performance. Many sources quote typical scale ratios for tank models in the range of 1:30 to 1:50. Chemical tracers or dyes are used to visualize streamlines in the model. However, most sophisticated technology, such as optical technology and lasers, has been used to quantitatively measure scalar values. The objective of these tests is to trace water streamlines from the inlet as they mix with ambient water in the vessel and exit the tank. The tracer is monitored at the outlet and compared with a constant influent concentration over time to determine how much time water spends in the tank (residence time). The effects of temperature on the buoyancy of influent water are of particular interest for tank modeling. Temperature distribution in tanks can be measured at different locations and depths in the model with temperature probes.

Tracer Studies Tracer studies are conducted in water storage tanks to determine residence time and/or water quality distribution (Fig. 9-6). Tracers may be chemicals or dyes that can be tracked or measured by ion-specific electrodes, conductivity probes, colorimeters, or visual/camera observation. A tracer can be introduced at a known concentration by a dosing pump at the tank’s inlet piping. Typical tracers include chloride ions (such as sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and lithium chloride), fluoride ions, and the fluorescent dye Rhodamine WT. Local regulatory agencies must approve the use of a particular tracing chemical for studies of actual potable water tanks. The tracer should not be consumed or removed during treatment. Fluoride ions are not typically present naturally in water. Therefore, fluoride can be used in lower concentrations than chloride tracers. Rhodamine WT must be used following certain guidelines found in Appendix D of the August 1999 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual (USEPA 1999). Selection of a

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Chapter Nine 24

Chloride ion concentration (mg/L)

22

20

18

16

14

12

10 0

1

2

3 Time (h)

4

5

FIGURE 9-6 Tracer study results of live pass-through distribution system tank with plug flow to determine contact time.

particular chemical tracer may depend on the salt concentrations present in the water. Specific instructions on chemical tracers and the conditions under which they are most effective are found in Appendix D of the Guidance Manual. If a tracer study is needed to find the contact time (CT), a water system should consult the latest tracer study guidance from its regulatory agency. The tracer chemical should be added at the same injection points as the disinfectant to be used in the CT calculations. Tracers are commonly added in two ways: the step-dose method and the slug-dose method. In the step-dose method, the tracer is injected at a constant dosage, and the endpoint concentration is monitored. To acquire 90 percent recovery for the tracer, endpoint sampling should continue until the tracer concentration reaches steady-state level. In the slugdose method, however, a large dose of tracer chemical is instantaneously injected. The tracer concentration is then monitored at the endpoint until the entire dose (slug) has passed through the tank. Figure 9-7 shows apparatus to measure CaCl tracer concentration. A mass balance is required for this method to determine whether the entire tracer dose was recovered. Contact time is then determined mathematically from the concentration versus time profile. A tracer study is generally done as follows:

r Determine the flow rate or rates to be used in the study. r Select the tracer chemical and determine the raw water background concentration of the tracer chemical. This is needed

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Operation

Operation

FIGURE 9-7 Apparatus to measure CaCl tracer concentration at tank inlet and outlet. Ion-specific probes can be seen at left. Data were recorded on a PC.

to determine the dosage of chemical to feed and to properly evaluate data.

r Determine the appropriate tracer dosage. r Determine tracer addition locations, sample collection logistics, and sampling frequency. Sampling frequency depends on the size of the tank—the larger the tank, the less frequent sampling is needed, but the longer the duration of the sampling event.

r Conduct the tracer test using either the step-dose or slug-dose method.

r Compile and analyze the data. r Calculate CT.

Semiempirical Mathematical Models These models interpolate or extrapolate experimental data using simplistic mathematical relationships to predict tank performance on the basis of inlet and outlet operational conditions and simplified

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304

Chapter Nine geometric parameters. Some of these models have an extensive database of experimental data so that they can produce highly accurate results if the operational conditions are within the data’s range. These models have been adopted by the USEPA for outfall modeling of discharges into bodies of water.

Computational Fluid Mechanics Using Finite-Element or Finite-Volume Models A multitude of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software programs are commercially available. Although the mathematical algorithms might differ slightly, they all predict fluid behavior in vessels and around structures by solving the Navier–Stokes equations. These algorithms use a multitude of turbulence models to predict timeaveraged turbulent flow characteristics. Often, the software packages offer a choice of turbulence models to the modelers. The model chosen affects the accuracy of the solution depending on the phenomena involved in each particular study. Grid generation is another critical software component that can drastically affect accuracy and convergence. The modeler must determine the regions where finer grids are required and track convergence at critical locations. Models differ in their ability to handle complex geometries, curved surfaces, inlets/outlets, buoyancy effects, and boundary conditions such as free boundaries (e.g., changing level at the water-to-air boundary) (Fig. 9-8). Transient flows, separation and

FIGURE 9-8 Computational fluid dynamics model of reservoir with two inlets and two outlets showing velocity contours. Light gray is highest velocity and dark gray is stagnant.

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Operation

Operation reattachment, vortices, and swirl are not accurately predicted by current mathematical procedures. Specialized application software packages are available to predict such phenomena, but they are limited in application and cannot easily be generalized due to their reliance on numerous empirical and semiempirical equations. These limitations allow general-purpose CFD modeling to be more useful for baffling and plug flow optimization than mixing, for example. Some packages include dispersion models or the ability to incorporate transport equations programmed by the modeler. Nevertheless, the capability of the packages to produce accurate predictions is limited by the mathematical constraints of modeling curvilinear flow patterns and fluctuating or time-dependent phenomena. Their capability is also limited by the modeler’s grasp of advanced fluid mechanics principles and his or her ability to detect an improbable or inaccurate result. Otherwise, the phrase “garbage in, garbage out” may apply. Many CFD users have learned that validating models against real-world testing or experimental data is needed to prevent faulty or inaccurate solutions. CFD is a step in the design process that minimizes trial and error, but it is not in itself a validation of design.

Water Quality Issues for Water Storage Tanks in Distribution Systems The quality of potable water in the United States is defined by regulations that govern all facets of water treatment and distribution. These include, among others, means of filtration and disinfection, reduction or elimination of contaminants, control of taste and odor, backflow prevention, and distribution system minimum pressures. The USEPA’s Division of Drinking Water has the primary charge of establishing and enforcing these regulations. Regulations set forth by the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) directly affect the operation of water distribution systems. “The intent of the SDWA is for each state to accept primary enforcement responsibility (primacy) for the operation of the state’s drinking water program. Under the provisions of the delegation, the state must establish requirements for public water systems that are at least as stringent as those set by the USEPA. In some states, the primacy agency is the health department, and in others it is the state’s environmental protection agency, department of natural resources, or pollution control agency” (Von Huben 1999). Amendments to the SDWA made in 1996 included the requirement that water utilities create and distribute consumer confidence reports (CCRs). The yearly CCR includes information regarding compliance with maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and treatment techniques for drinking water. Utilities serving more than 10,000 people were

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Chapter Nine

FIGURE 9-9 Chlorine residual analyzers monitor inlet and outlet disinfectant residual at ground storage tank.

mandated to mail the CCR directly to their customers. The report discloses contaminant levels in a community’s drinking water supply alongside MCLs and maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs). It also tells what type and concentration of disinfectant, such as chlorine or chloramines, is used by the utility. Whenever a disinfectant molecule reacts with organic or inorganic molecules in the water, it forms what are commonly known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). DBPs are a collection of chemicals, including trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAA5), that are highly soluble in water. Animal testing has demonstrated that some of these compounds have carcinogenic properties. Other disinfectants, such as chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and ozone, may yield DBPs upon reacting with organic or inorganic molecules. The reaction products from such interactions are similar to those produced by chlorine, but they tend to occur in smaller concentrations. Figure 9-9 illustrates a chlorine residual analyzer. The USEPA announced in December 1998 the Disinfectant/Disinfection By-Product Rule, Stage 1 (D/DBP). This rule created the following MCLs: total THMs, 80 g/L; HAAs, 60 g/L; and bromate, 10 g/L. The rule also established MCLs for disinfectants: chlorine, 4 mg/L; chloramines, 4 mg/L; and chlorine dioxide, 0.8 mg/L (AWWA 2003 Principles and Practices). The USEPA published the Stage 2 Disinfectant/Disinfection ByProduct Rule (Stage 2 DBPR) on January 4, 2006. The Stage 2 DBPR

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Operation

Operation builds on existing regulations by requiring water systems to meet DBP MCLs at each monitoring site in the distribution system to better protect public health. The Stage 2 DBPR includes a provision requiring all community water systems (CWSs) and only nontransient noncommunity water systems (NTNCWS) serving more than 10,000 people to conduct an initial distribution system evaluation (IDSE). NTNCWSs serving fewer than 10,000 are exempted from IDSE requirements, but will need to comply with the Stage 2 DBPR compliance monitoring requirements. The goal of the IDSE is to characterize the distribution system and identify monitoring sites where customers may be exposed to high levels of total trihalomethanes (TTHM) and haloacetic acids. Compliance with the IDSE requirements includes the modeling or monitoring of distribution system site on the basis of criteria outlined by the EPA that include all water-storage facilities. Utilities are required to report trended averages per site and address MCL violations. The Total Coliform Rule mandates monthly monitoring of distribution system samples for coliform bacteria. A fecal or Escherichia coli bacteria test must be performed on any positive sample. Additional samples and analyses are required at the positive-sample point as well as in its vicinity within 24 hours. Utilities must submit a sampling plan, and samples must be taken at the customers’ taps or from taps that are representative of the distribution system. The Total Coliform Rule does not require the testing of water from storage facilities or their outlet pipes. The Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) mandated desktop studies to determine the need for corrective action regarding lead and copper concentrations. Many utilities discovered that they required the addition of corrosion-inhibiting agents to arrest the release of copper or lead ions from piping materials into the water. Action levels for copper and lead were set at 1.3 mg/L and 0.015 mg/L, respectively. Pilot studies were conducted by utilities to identify the most suitable inhibitor for their system. Orthophosphate and phosphoric acid are popular choices. Stagnant areas of distribution systems, such as dead ends or poorly mixed tanks, readily lose their residual concentration over time. Residual phosphate compounds used as inhibitors do not readily dissipate like disinfectants do. In the absence of sufficient disinfectant, these compounds can foster the development of biological agents such as algae and bacteria. Regular flushing of dead ends in distribution systems and appropriate tank design and operation are needed to eliminate this potential problem. The water quality in distribution systems’ water storage tanks and reservoirs is affected by several other factors. Some likely issues, their cause, and suggested solution are listed in Table 9-1.

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307

Inadequate tank turnover

Nitrification

Issue Low disinfectant residual in water entering the storage facility

r Low inflow and/or outflow r Low tank volume change over time r Low normal demand versus tank size r Improper tank location, elevation, or size

r Chloramines

Possible Cause(s) r Excessive water transport time to tank r High biological or chemical demand in distribution system r Distribution system backflow or pipe integrity issues r Number and size of tanks in series upstream of facility and their water quality issues

pumping, or storage requirements r Revisit tank location and elevation r Excessive pump operation

r Ensure adequate chloramines residual throughout the system (2.0 to 2.5 mg/L) r Reduce water age by avoiding excessive storage residence time r Use chlorine:ammonia:nitrogen ratio of 4.5:1 r Hydraulic analysis to investigate proper distribution piping,

r r r r

r

prevention is best choice: adequate pipe velocity, disinfection, and flushing Improve disinfection and flushing after main repair or installation Eliminate dead ends in distribution system Find and repair main breaks, leaks, and backflow issues Solve issues at upstream tanks, if any Boost disinfectant

Suggested Solution(s) r Investigate low flow or demand for size of mains r Boost disinfectant in large/multizoned distribution systems r Find valve issues in trunk mains r Biofilms on interior pipe surface are difficult to eliminate,

Operation

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TABLE 9-1

Biofilms

r Availability of nutrients in water or tank surfaces r Low disinfectant residuals r Nitrification r Warm temperatures r Corrosion inhibitors r Tank coatings

r r

r

r

chemical and biological demand Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light (open tanks) Diffusion due to ambient air temperature Corrosion of tank metals Excessive water tank residence time

r Tank geometry and location of inlets and outlets r Buoyancy caused by temperature difference between tank ambient and influent water r Accumulation of sediments:

r r r r

pollutants from entering tank See Loss of Disinfectant Residual See Nitrification Improve tank turnover and mixing Replace with NSF61-approved coatings that do not promote biogrowth; minimize crevices, gaps, and substrate imperfections before applying coatings to minimize biofilm habitat

r Periodic cleaning of tank sediments r Eliminate tank elements that allow sediments to accumulate or provide habitat for biofilms r Install appropriate tank cover r At tank design, decrease ratio between water surface area and tank volume r Design venting to prevent excessive air drafts above water surface r Conduct periodic tank maintenance and rehabilitation r See Stratification r Perform periodic tank cleanings r Monitor condition of vents and hatches to prevent biological

r Increase tank turnover r Improve tank mixing r Properly locate inlets and outlets

Water Quality: Issues, Causes, and Suggested Solutions (Continued)

Loss of disinfectant residual in distribution system tanks

Stratification

Operation

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Effects of metal corrosion in contact with the water, such as red water, iron-reducing bacteria, and high turbidity

Coating leachates

Regions of stagnant water in tank

Issue Short-circuiting

r Improper coating or coating application r Ice damage r Presence of sharp edges, cavities, or gaps that prevent proper coating or cause coating failure r Inadequate tank inspection and maintenance program

r Insufficient coating cure r Improper coating component mixing or mixing ratios r Not NSF61-approved coatings

r Tank geometry and location of inlets and outlets r Short-circuiting r Stratification

Possible Cause(s) r Tank geometry and location of inlets and outlets

surface preparation r See Effects of Ice r Ensure proper surface preparation during maintenance or rehab r Follow periodic and comprehensive tank inspection and maintenance program

substrate surface temperature r Follow manufacturer’s recommendations for component mixing and use factory-measured quantities r Use NSF61-approved coatings r Consult coating specialist for proper coating selection and

of height to diameter r Locate inlets and outlets such that the largest volume of water in the tank is contained between them r See Short-Circuiting r See Stratification r Follow manufacturer’s recommendations for cure time versus

Suggested Solution(s) r Provide tank mixing r Provide baffling for pass-through tanks (if inlet and outlet are connected to different pressure zones with little or no backflow) r At design, optimize ratios of tank surface area to volume and

Operation

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r Periodically clean tank sediments

r r r r

r Metals come out of solution and settle inside tanks, affecting water quality in high concentrations r Winter conditions in colder climates r Thermal stratification

TABLE 9-1

Water Quality: Issues, Causes, and Suggested Solutions (Continued)

Provide insulation and heating of a tank for surge tanks Provide tank cover At design, bury or partly bury tanks See Stratification

r Provide and maintain vent and overflow screening r Provide secure hatches and proper tank covers to prevent animals, insects, vandals, or rain from entering tank r Provide proper air gaps

r Improper vent and overflow screening r Improper hatches r Tank cover r Improper tank overflow and drain

Note: NSF = National Sanitation Foundation.

Effects of ice including tank damage; encapsulation and later release of contaminants, debris, and coating particles upon meltdown

Chemical composition of precipitates in the storage facility, such as iron and manganese

Contamination, intentional or unintentional, through tank openings such as vents and hatches

Operation

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Chapter Nine

Water Quality Monitoring in Distribution System Tanks The importance of monitoring the quality of water in storage facilities is fast becoming a focus of interest. Although no US regulations require the monitoring of water quality parameters in storage tanks, there are several important reasons why utilities should maintain a monitoring program for tanks. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, mandate frequent monitoring of tank water quality. Tanks are an intermediate stage between the water treatment plants and customers. Depending on the size of a distribution system, demand, and other factors, water in tanks could have left the treatment process from several minutes to several days, or even longer, before it entered the tank. Testing of water quality parameters in storage provides a utility with valuable information regarding what happens to the water as it moves through the distribution system en route to the customer. Testing can also indicate whether detrimental occurrences are taking place in the storage facility itself. Sampling data can also be used in the determination of tank mixing efficiency and turnover.

Security Concerns The events of September 11, 2001, raised questions about the safety of the nation’s water supply. In general, water tanks are accessible through access hatches, air vents, overflows, and access ladders. These entry points can be tempting targets for vandals or criminals attempting to contaminate the water supply. They are also potential sources of accidental contamination from rainwater, birds, insects, and other natural sources. Continuous online monitoring of water quality parameters can provide an indication or alarm should contamination occur. The affected tank can be isolated from the system, and authorities and the public can be notified. Figure 9-10 illustrates protective measures for water tanks.

Tank-Monitoring Program The tanks themselves can be a source of concern. Leaching from coatings, red water and bacteriological concerns from rusting wet surfaces or overhead structural elements, accumulation of sediments that may contain biofilms, settled metal particles, or other detriments to water quality may be present in storage. Some may engender complaints about the water’s taste, odor, or appearance. A tank-monitoring program provides a utility with background data of tank parameters for different seasons and weather conditions; it helps establish schedules for tank inspection and maintenance; and it can serve as a guide to water quality managers for planning treatment strategies for changing distribution system conditions. Although no regulatory requirements in the United States mandate tank monitoring, there are regulations that require periodic water

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Operation

Operation

FIGURE 9-10 Tank overflow and catch basin are protected from insects or vandals by combination of stainless-steel cage and insect screen; flow switch (not shown) triggers overflow alarm.

testing in distribution systems. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (CFR 141.23), the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR), the Total Coliform Rule, and Stage 1 of the D/DBP all establish contaminant restrictions and monitoring requirements for distribution systems. Table 9-2 provides water quality parameters and related regulatory information. Regulations cover such important contaminants as total and fecal coliform bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria, disinfection by-products such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), nitrite, nitrate, lead, and copper. They also limit the concentration in the system of residual disinfectants such as chlorine or chloramines. The USEPA has identified several secondary contaminants (nonenforceable) under the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWR). The enforceability of this rule is up to the individual states’ regulatory agencies. Table 9-3 lists the secondary nonenforceable contaminants. At a minimum, utilities should attempt to monitor disinfectant residual, heterotrophic plate count (HPC), and coliform bacteria in water-storage facilities. Suspected biofilms on tank surfaces should be sampled and speciated to determine source or cause. An ideal way to test a tank for biofilms is to prepare a metal or concrete coupon with a coating and finish similar to those of the tank. The coupon can be

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Entry point to distribution system Distribution system

Throughout distribution system

Entry point to distribution system Entry point to distribution system Throughout distribution system Throughout distribution system Throughout distribution system Customer’s tap Customer’s tap Throughout the distribution system

Disinfectant residual

Disinfectant residual

Disinfectant residual or heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria count

Nitrite

Nitrate

Total trihalomethanes

Haloacetic acids (sum of five)

Total coliform bacteria

Lead

Copper

pH

7.0 minimum pH units

1.3 mg/L

0.015 mg/L

TABLE 9-2

Action level at 90th percentile

Contaminant Restrictions and Monitoring Requirements for Distribution Systems

Unless state determines otherwise

Lead and Copper Rule Lead and Copper Rule

Action level at 90th percentile

Lead and Copper Rule

Systems serving more than 10,000 people Number of samples determined by population served

D/DBP Rule, Stage 1

60 g/L, running annual average based on quarterly samples

Systems serving more than 10,000 people

Maximum contaminant level

Maximum contaminant level

Only applies to systems using surface-water supplies; in the United States, Legionella is also regulated by a treatment technique

Surface-water systems serving more than 10,000 people

Only applies to systems using surface-water supplies

Comments

Total Coliform Rule

D/DBP Rule, Stage 1

80 g/L, running annual average based on quarterly samples

0 cfu in 95 percent of samples

NPDWR, CFR 141.23

National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR), Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 141.23

Surface Water Treatment Rule

D/DBP Rule, Stage 1

Surface Water Treatment Rule

Reference

10.0 mg/L as N

1.0 mg/L as N

Detectable levels of disinfectant residual or HPC bacteria count of 500 or fewer colony-forming units (cfu) per milliliter in 95 percent of samples collected each month for any 2 consecutive months

Maximum residual disinfectant levels (MRDLs): chlorine, 4.0 mg/L; chloramines, 4.0 mg/L; running annual average

0.2 mg/L on a continuous basis

Regulatory Limit

Source: Adapted from Kirmeyer et al. (1999; p. 37, Table 2.1).

Sample Location

Parameter

Operation

314

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Operation

Operation

Parameter

Conditions

Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level

Aluminum

Colored water

0.05–0.2 mg/L

Chloride

Salty taste

250 mg/L

Color

Visible tint

15 color units

Copper

Metallic taste, blue-green stain

1.0 mg/L

Corrosivity

Metallic taste, corrosion, fixture staining

Noncorrosive

Fluoride

Tooth discoloration

2 mg/L

Foaming agents

Frothy, cloudy, bitter taste, odor

0.5 mg/L

Iron

Rusty color, sediment, metallic taste, reddish or orange staining

0.3 mg/L

Manganese

Black to brown color, black staining, bitter metallic taste

0.05 mg/L

Odor

Rotten-egg, musty, or chemical smell

3 TON (threshold odor number)

pH

Low pH: bitter metallic taste, corrosion High pH: slippery feel, soda taste, deposits

6.5–8.5

Silver

Skin discoloration, graying of the white part of the eye

0.10 mg/L

Sulfate

Salty taste

250 mg/L

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Hardness, deposits, colored water, staining, salty taste

500 mg/L

Zinc

Metallic taste

5 mg/L

Source: Adapted from Kirmeyer et al. (1999; p. 42, Table 2.2).

TABLE 9-3 Secondary Nonenforceable Contaminants in Water Distribution Systems

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Chapter Nine Parameter Iron oxide

Indication Parameter Is Present Distribution system corrosion

Aluminum hydroxides

Excess aluminum after flocculation

Calcium carbonates

Supersaturation of minerals in hard waters

Manganese

Source-water problem

Heterotrophic plate count (HPC)

Taste and odor problems; recurring bacterial counts

Depth of sediment

Rate of accumulation; disinfectant residual loss due to resuspension

Gross microbial examination

System cross-connection, poor hydraulic circulation, or failed facility vent screening

Source: Adapted from Kirmeyer et al. (1999).

TABLE 9-4 Sediment Monitoring Parameters

fastened to a wet tank surface so that its conditions mimic those of the tank walls. In this manner, the coupon can be retrieved from the tank for analysis without interfering with tank function. Samples from tank bottom sediment may be collected to determine chemical composition or biological activity. Kirmeyer et al. (1999) recommend the sediment monitoring parameters outlined in Table 9-4. The need to monitor other bulk water parameters varies depending on the type of tank, source water, environmental conditions, and so on. Monitoring the amount of sediment accumulated in the tank bottom can give a utility an indication when the next cleaning cycle should take place. Table 9-5 lists water quality monitoring parameters recommended for storage facilities. Several nitrification tests should be performed where chloramines are used for secondary disinfection. As a minimum, tests for heterotrophic plate counts (HPC), nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, and chlorine species can help to ensure that optimal conditions are maintained in storage facilities when chloramination is used.

Sampling Methods and Equipment The main issue regarding monitoring of water quality parameters is access to adequate sampling points. The tools used depend on the type of sample being retrieved, available access to the tank, and the utility’s budget. Regardless of method, technicians must be conscious of water quality concerns regarding accidental contamination. The materials for the sampling equipment must be compatible with use in potable water, if applicable.

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Operation

Operation Sampling Procedure Used

Parameter

Purpose

Alkalinity

Indicates potential buffering On-line ion-selective capacity (pH stability) electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

Aluminum

Indicates potential coagulant overfeeding

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

Ammonia, total and/or free

Indicates potential for nitrification

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

Chlorine residual, total and/or free

Indicates protection from bacterial growth and provides early warning sign of water quality deterioration; monitored at inlet and outlet to control rechlorination when practiced

On-line chlorine residual analyzer or grab sample and amperometric titration laboratory analysis

Coliform, total and/or fecal

Indicates the presence of indicator bacteria

Grab sample and laboratory analysis

Conductivity, specific

Can quickly indicate relative On-line ion-selective electrode or grab changes in total sample and dissolved solids (e.g., laboratory analysis alkalinity)

Disinfection by-products

Represents potential for ongoing chemical reactions and DBP formation

Grab sample and laboratory analysis

Heterotrophic bacteria

Indicates conformance to MCL; provides early warning sign of water quality deterioration

Grab sample and laboratory analysis

Iron

Indicates potential corrosion reactions

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

TABLE 9-5 Water Quality Monitoring Parameters for Storage Facilities (Continued)

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Chapter Nine Sampling Procedure Used

Parameter

Purpose

Nitrate

Indicates possibility of nitrification

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

Nitrite

Indicates possibility of nitrification

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

pH

Indicates changes from the water source; indication of corrosion of concrete or an unlined new facility

On-line ion-selective electrode or grab sample and laboratory analysis

Taste and odor

Evidence of water quality problem in progress

Grab sample and laboratory analysis

Temperature/ temperature profile

Differences in storage facility indicate possible stratification and stagnant zones—early warning sign of potential microbial problems

On-line sensor

Turbidity

Provides early warning sign of water quality deterioration

On-line turbidimeter sensor and analyzer

Source: Adapted from Kirmeyer et al. (1999; p. 46, Table 2.4).

TABLE 9-5 Water Quality Monitoring Parameters for Storage Facilities (Continued)

Sampling is divided into two categories: grab samples and continuous sampling. Grab samples are small volumes of tank water manually collected by a technician to be analyzed either in the field or under laboratory conditions. Continuous sampling is accomplished by means of electronic equipment such as ion-specific probes, temperature probes, or on-line colorimetric chemical analyzers. The sensors are in the tank water, or tank water is continuously or periodically piped to the sensor. The data are recorded locally either on paper or electronically, or they are transmitted via telemetry to the utility’s data storage and monitoring facility. Kirmeyer et al. state that a [monitoring] program that takes all necessary parameters into account and schedules sampling when needed to provide adequate information is a conceptual starting point. A recommended approach. . .is to further

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Operation

Operation break down sampling needs into two categories of routine sampling and diagnostic sampling. Routine sampling is defined as monitoring of parameters on a regular (continuous, weekly, monthly) basis and may include regulatory and operating parameters. Diagnostic sampling is defined as special purpose monitoring to document condition or to determine the cause of a problem. Routine monitoring is used to document general water quality conditions, whereas diagnostic monitoring is often more facility specific. Diagnostic monitoring can first provide a baseline for a storage facility and identify problems. After the problems are corrected, routine monitoring can then be used to track tank conditions to detect or prevent the recurrence of the problems or the beginning of new ones.

The types of data being collected or the purpose for the data collection dictates whether grab or continuous sampling is required for a particular parameter.

Grab Samples In theory, technicians using grab sampling techniques can collect every type of parameter. Certain types of tank-water tests such as heterotrophic plate count, total coliform bacteria, chemical composition of tank sediments, biofilm analysis, and disinfection by-products can only be performed on manually collected tank water, as they require analysis under laboratory conditions. A rare exception is when a tank is located next to the utility’s laboratory and sampling lines exist directly between the tank and the laboratory. The laboratory technician or chemist is then able to fill the test vial directly from the sampling tap. In most cases, technicians must travel to several tanks in remote locations as often as the monitoring program dictates the taking of grab samples. Under the best of circumstances, the sampling program includes the installation of permanently and properly located sampling taps on the tanks. The taps can be connected through small-diameter piping to several sampling locations inside the tank. This scheme can provide a more or less three-dimensional view of the tank’s water quality parameters. The more sampling taps are installed, the more complete the water quality picture will be. The ideal locations for sample points are the inlet(s) and outlet(s), if any; locations that may be subject to short-circuiting or stagnation, such as regions not in the general path between the tank’s inlet and the outlet; and at several depths to test for the effects or the presence of stratification. The sampling lines can be designed such that the water will flow out of the tank by gravity or be pumped out with the use of a jet (vacuum) or metering pump. Technicians must flush the sampling lines for sufficient time to provide a proper sample from the tank water at the sampling point. Twenty minutes of flushing is usually sufficient. Some systems allow for continuous flow through the sampling lines, which facilitates this step. Others are designed so that the sampling lines can be periodically disinfected and flushed. Permanently

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Chapter Nine installed sampling lines are a security concern, as they may provide easy access for intentional contamination of the tank water. Sanitation of the sampling collection area and frost proofing are also concerns. Sampling lines create an environment in which a relatively small volume of tank water is enclosed by a relatively large surface area. This condition is favorable to the formation of biofilms inside the sampling line. Technicians should monitor test results such as elevated bacterial counts or turbidity that may show such a problem exists. In general, sampling taps should be enclosed and protected from the elements. Pump station buildings, insulated enclosures, and heated underground vaults are all potential locations for sampling taps. (The vaults are not so convenient if confined space is a concern.) Most tanks, however, are not fitted with sampling taps, and technicians must use roof hatches to gain access to the tank. This implies that the technician must be fit, trained, and equipped to safely climb the tank and open the hatch and that the tank meets all Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements for climbing safety. Several depth sample collection probes and tubes, such as weighted collection bottles with string-operated trap doors or rods with check valves, can be used to collect samples at different depths (Fig. 9-11). Although samples can be taken at various water depths using these devices, the number of sampling locations is limited by the location and number of roof hatches. The sampling equipment, including tethers, must be adequately disinfected before it is introduced into the tank. Care must be observed

FIGURE 9-11 Grab sample retrieved from ground tank using calibrated depth sampling tube with check valves.

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Operation

Operation so that the equipment disinfection process is compatible with the parameter being tested. For instance, disinfecting a sample bottle and tether with 200 ppm of chlorine and then lowering the bottle into the tank to retrieve a chlorine residual sample may not yield a satisfactory result. The water must be collected in a properly prepared and labeled bottle suitable for the type of sample being prepared, and it must be transported to the laboratory in a timely and sanitary manner to preserve the validity of the test results. Some tests, such as colorimetric chlorine residual, may be performed by the technician on site, as there is a chance that the residual concentration may decrease in transit. More than one technician may perform grab samples. Proper training in sample collection and the use of calibrated tethers or rods helps maintain consistency among technicians and samples. Both on-site and laboratory analyses should be performed by a certified water quality laboratory using the methods specified in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater and the USEPA’s Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.

Continuous Sampling Climbing tanks to take grab samples can be dangerous or impossible, especially during rainy or cold weather. Continuous online sampling, which relies on technology rather than technicians to collect, analyze, record, and communicate the data, does not require that operators climb the tank to retrieve water or that they even be present during sampling, and its performance is independent from weather conditions. Online sensing probes may be located at various locations inside the tank, or water from various locations in the tank may be brought to an analyzer through sampling lines. The analyzer, data recorders, telemetry, and other equipment should be located in a secure, heated, and sanitary location to preserve the integrity of the readings. Figure 9-12 shows a pressure transmitter, analyzer, and corrater. Online sampling technology offers the advantage of a continuous data stream or data collected at relatively brief time intervals, depending on the type of test, type of instrument, and the utility’s desired sampling rate for particular parameters. Grab samples reflect only a momentary condition of the water in the tank, often with no accurate time reference. The analyzed data can be stored on site using a personal computer, data logger, printout, or pen-chart. Operators can retrieve the data in either electronic or paper form at scheduled intervals that can vary from daily to yearly, depending on the purpose of the testing. Data can also be sent to a central data collection and monitoring facility using a telephone modem connection, remote terminal unit (RTU) with radio frequency communication capability, cellular technology, broadband (T lines), satellite, and so on. These methods of communication are

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Chapter Nine

FIGURE 9-12 Left to right: tank water elevation (pressure transmitter), disinfectant residual (analyzer), and water corrosivity (corrater) are monitored for ground water storage tank.

discussed in the section “Telemetry” of this chapter. The amount of monitoring data storage is limited by several factors:

r r r r r

Number of parameters Total sampling rate for all the parameters Capacity of the data storage device Frequency of data retrieval by the utility Size of the data packages being stored for each parameter

Online monitoring can also serve a local control function. This is particularly useful in cases where rechlorination is desirable (Fig. 9-13). Online chlorine residual analyzers can serve both as monitoring devices for chlorine residual and as controllers for chlorineboosting feed systems. For example, when an analyzer at the inlet of a tank detects that the chlorine residual is below a level accepted by the utility’s water quality manager for the tank or is in violation of minimum disinfectant concentration regulations, it can start or adjust the on-site chlorine feed to match a target concentration. It is ideal for this process to take place at the inlet of the tank to provide some contact time for the disinfectant and as a backup safety mechanism for potential malfunctions of unmanned chlorine-feed systems. Ideally, a controller for such system should be able to determine whether the

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Operation

Operation

FIGURE 9-13 Hypochlorite generation system makes disinfectant from brine for rechlorination at this water-storage facility.

water is inflowing or outflowing from a single inlet/outlet tank; and the boosting should only take place into the inflow. A second chlorine residual analyzer monitoring the outflow from a tank with an inlet and an outlet can be integrated as part of a feedback loop control for the boosting system and/or can serve as an alarm trigger in case of overfeeding. It is important to note that the effectiveness and accuracy of an online monitoring system is only as good as the maintenance it receives. A calibration schedule must be established for each type of analysis equipment being used. Most ion-specific probes have a life-span and must be replaced as recommended by the manufacturer. Some analyzers have moving parts that require cleaning and maintenance. Chemical solutions used by analyzers should be checked and replenished as needed. Sampling hoses must be kept clean and should be replaced when fouling is suspected or on a regular schedule. Maintenance technicians first introduced to a monitoring program should be made aware of these issues and should be appropriately trained.

Water Storage Tank Applications and Their Operation Water storage tanks are categorized by function. The main categories are clearwells, distribution system storage tanks, surge relief tanks, and hydropneumatic tanks.

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Chapter Nine

Clearwells Treatment plants require tanks in which to store treated water before it is pumped into the distribution system. These tanks are commonly known as clearwells. Clearwell sizing is critical to reducing or eliminating fluctuations in use of filtered water. These tanks also provide the utility with disinfectant contact time (CT) credit. The SWTR requires that all surface water treatment facilities provide filtration and disinfection that achieves at least a 99.9 percent (3-log) removal-inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts and a 99.99 percent (4log) removal-inactivation of enteric viruses. The SWTR assumes that for effective filtration, a conventional treatment plant achieves 2.5log removal of Giardia and a 2-log removal of viruses. Disinfection is required for the remainder of the removal-deactivation. The amount of disinfection credit to be awarded is determined with the CT concept, CT being defined as the residual disinfectant concentration (C, in mg/L) multiplied by the contact time (T10 , in minutes) between the point of disinfectant application and the point of residual measurement. The SWTR Guidance Manual (USEPA 1991) provides tables of CT values for several disinfectants that indicate the specific disinfection or CT credit awarded for a calculated value of CT (AWWA 1990). Clearwell design must take into account CT requirements for the particular treatment process served by the tank. It is a recommendation of the Ten States Standards (1992) that intermittently operated filtration plants with automatic high-service pumping from the clearwell during nontreatment hours provide enough extra clearwell volume to compensate for depletion of storage during nighttime hours to ensure adequate disinfectant CT. It is commonplace to design clearwells with two or more compartments. One compartment may be removed from service for maintenance or during times of low demand. Methods for optimizing CT in clearwells will be discussed in the section on plug flow in this chapter. Figure 9-14 is an aerial view of a baffled tank optimized for contact time. Clearwell operation must follow preset parameters for flow and elevation. It is desired that a clearwell should operate in a condition as close to steady state as possible. The hydraulic control of raw water pumping, filter effluent flow, and pumping out into the distribution system should be coordinated and interlocked, if possible, to prevent pulsating flows and other transients. Interlocks should also maintain elevations and should properly shut down during power failure. This allows for fast recovery when power is restored. To further prevent flow fluctuations, since most raw water pumps are vertical pumps, caution should be exercised so that pumps are not operated in unstable regions of their curves.

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Operation

Operation

FIGURE 9-14 Aerial view of baffled tank optimized for contact time.

Distribution System Tanks Distribution system tanks are by far the most common category of tanks in service. This type of tank serves multiple purposes for water utilities, including the following:

r Reduce the need for pumping during high water demand periods (peak shaving)

r Act as pressure relief should a pressure transient occur in a distribution system

r Provide extra water storage for emergencies such as fires or power outages

r Help optimize water treatment by allowing treatment plants to maintain relatively constant treatment rates

r Help reduce the size of trunk and distribution mains r Act as a sediment trap to settle solids from distribution system water

r Serve as a landmark, even a source of identity and pride, for a community The most important parameters in the design of distribution system water storage tanks are location and size. A tank serves a specific area of a distribution system. Hydraulic engineers, designers, and modelers must determine how much water must be stored in the tank

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Chapter Nine to serve both typical and emergency capacity demand. The water must be stored at sufficient elevation to meet the pressure requirements of the service area. It is important to keep in mind the preservation of water quality when sizing the tank and determining its operating characteristics. Distribution system tank operation is inherently intertwined with the pumping facilities that feed it, other parallel tanks and their elevations and capacities, the size of upstream piping, and valve operation. Each of these is discussed hereafter. Isolation valves in a distribution system may be inadvertently closed after repair of a water main break or after a new installation, for example. This may cause a lower-than-expected pressure at the end of a system, where tanks are likely located. Such a condition may prevent adequate filling of a tank, increase water transport time between the pump station and the tank (system residence time), and create customer dissatisfaction from low pressures. Periodic isolation valve surveys and valve exercising should be carried out to ensure proper valve operation and position to prevent isolation valve mishaps. Hydraulic modeling is a tool that can be used to assist in the location of improperly positioned isolation valves, pressure zone boundary valves, and faulty pressure regulators. All of these may reduce supply pressure to tanks. Altitude valves (Fig. 9-15) are installed at the system connection to tanks. There are two types of altitude valves: single acting and

FIGURE 9-15 Piston-style altitude valves shown here control flow and water elevation for two adjoining storage tanks.

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Operation

Operation double acting. Single-acting altitude valves allow water to enter the tank when it is less than full. They do not reopen if the system pressure drops; they remain closed until some other connection or a check valve bypass causes the tank to draft, dropping the water level below the valve’s set point. Double-acting altitude valves are used for single-inlet/outlet tanks, since they eliminate the need for a check valve bypass. This reduces installation cost and possible transients caused by check valve slam. Double-acting valves close when the water elevation in the tank reaches a set point, and they open when the system pressure drops below another set point. Altitude valves can have hydraulic or electric solenoid pilot controls that allow for throttling inflow and outflow, further controlling fill and draft cycle times. Altitude valves, in general, have a considerable pressure drop. This is why many are installed with a bypass containing a remotely controlled valve, such as a motor-operated butterfly valve. Some utility operators opt to lock the altitude valve in the full open position and use a motor-operated valve to isolate the tank if the water level gets too high. Some operators attempt to control the tank level by turning pumps on and off, throttling pump discharge check valves, or reducing a variable-speed pump’s revolutions per minute (rpm), essentially negating the reason for having an altitude valve. In most water distribution systems, a tank experiences two cycles of fill and draft in a 24-hour period. The fill cycles usually take place at noon or midnight, ±3 hours. To optimize power consumption, the fill and draft periods should be long enough that the fewest number and the smallest sizes of pumps are needed to satisfy demand. This also ensures that tank turnover is optimal. The number and size of pumps operating upstream of a tank can affect the available pressure at the base of the tank. In most cases, a pump is run continuously, and a second pump is added to help satisfy demand during peak hours if the tank cannot supply enough peak shaving. This number of pumps varies seasonally. Hydraulic modeling is useful not only during system design, but it can also be valuable for system operation because it can predict the amount of pumping required under various system conditions. If enough pumps are in operation, the tank will be filled with leftover water after system demand is satisfied. If upstream pumping is reduced before the tank is full, several things may occur; for instance:

r The tank may not fill at a rate fast enough to provide sufficient turnover and/or mixing.

r If the fill rate is low enough, the tank may not fill high enough to help peak shave pumping demand during the next highdemand period.

r If pumping is reduced excessively, the tank may begin drafting even though it has not been filled.

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Chapter Nine If the upstream pumping is larger than demand so that the tank fills at a fast rate, it may cause a different set of events:

r The altitude valve will close to prevent overflow, preventing the tank from floating on the system. This creates a “hard” system condition. In other words, the tank is no longer available to dissipate pressure transients in the system, and the pressure in the system could change drastically, causing the pumps to operate at higher pressures that may result in pump shutdowns. Pump shutdowns cause system pressure surges, which are further exaggerated by the subsequent opening of the altitude valve when the system pressure drops below the valve’s set point. This operation mode is undesirable.

r The high inflow into the tank may fluidize sediments at the bottom of the tank, and they may reenter the distribution system at the next draft, creating water quality concerns.

r High flows and flow reversals may scour water mains; this also creates water quality issues, such as red water and reduction in disinfectant residuals. Low pressures are seen at a tank when a system outgrows the capacity of its water mains. Some operators address this issue by increasing pumping at the upstream pump stations, or they add booster pumps between stations. But this is only a temporary fix that may result in large pressure variants between the pump station and the tank. Additionally, the water mains may not provide sufficient flow capacity to fill the tank within the required time. Oversized water mains do not have a low-pressure problem, but excessively low flow rates can cause increased distribution system residence time, biofilms, and sediment accumulation, resulting in areas of high disinfectant decay. The overall effect is a reduction of disinfectant residual available at the tank. Tanks installed in parallel to serve the same pressure system are rarely of the same dimensions. Some even have different overflow and bottom elevations. Further, the ability of the utility to supply water to each tank varies because of its location, adjacent demands, and water main size. This results in different fill rates. Hence, the tanks may not readily cycle in unison. Hydraulic models may help properly size the mains and valves to new tanks, providing more uniformity with less throttling. Modeling can also be used to devise elaborate operational schemes, resulting in similar uniformity in tank use. In the absence of a hydraulic model, operators often resort to throttling of inlet and outlet valves to equalize the fill or draft time such that fill and draft cycles occur simultaneously, preventing the need to shut off one tank before the others. Although hydraulically it is not critical

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Operation

Operation for tanks to cycle in unison, water tank residence time will vary, and water quality may become inconsistent between facilities in the same system. However, the effect of differing tank shutoff times in the same system may render transient travel times not constant. Hence, pump check valves at pump stations may require a much longer closing or opening time to prevent pressure surges. Distribution system water storage tanks should be periodically taken out of service for cleaning and inspection. Most of the water in the tank should be allowed to flow back into the distribution system. A few feet or meters of water, typically between 3 and 5 ft (0.9 and 1.5 m), are left in the tank to prevent collected sediments from reentering the system. Debris and sediments are brought to the tank from the system’s piping and are collected at the bottom of tanks. This is a desirable means of removing contaminants and particulates from the water. However, as discussed in the water quality section of this chapter, several potential biological and chemical water quality issues are associated with tank sediment. Removal of this sediment is the only way to eliminate these potential problems. NSF International– approved chemicals are available that remove persistent, troublesome stains , such as those caused by manganese and iron deposits. Tanks’ inlets and outlets should be designed such that settled solids are not fluidized by the inflow and do not return to the distribution system through the outlet. In the authors’ experience, a good practice is to allow the water main supplying the tank to flush through the tank, using it as a sediment trap. This can be achieved by emptying the tank and then opening the tank shutoff valve while the drain is open. This creates high-velocity scouring of the mains in the vicinity of the tank. A considerable amount of sediment has been removed from tank supply mains using this scheme. The flushing can be accomplished in as little as a couple of hours. The drained water must be treated according to local regulations (dechlorination and solids removal, for example) prior to disposal. The tank should be isolated with at least two valves in series with the tank. All hatches should be open, and the tank drain should be kept open. After all water and sediment are drained from the tank, the tank is typically powerwashed prior to inspection. Regulations require that the tank be disinfected before it is returned to service. The tank should be disinfected according to the latest version of AWWA C652, Standard for Disinfection of Water-Storage Facilities. The standard describes the materials needed, facility preparation, application of disinfectant to interior surfaces of the tank, and sampling and testing procedures for the detection of coliform bacteria. It also contains instructions for disinfecting equipment used in on-line underwater inspections.

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Chapter Nine Three methods of tank disinfection are discussed in the standard. Only one method is required to be used, although it is possible to combine two or all three methods, if necessary. The three methods are

r Full tank chlorination so that, at the end of the retention period, a free chlorine residual equal to or greater than 10 mg/L is achieved.

r Spraying the interior tank surfaces with a solution of 200 mg/L of available chlorine.

r Chlorinating the bottom portion of the tank with 50 mg/L of available chlorine, then filling the tank to overflow and maintaining a free chlorine residual of at least 2 mg/L for 24 hours. The standard should be consulted for more detailed instructions. According to the Ten States Standards, two or more sets of samples taken from the tank at 24-hour intervals shall indicate that water is microbiologically satisfactory before the facility is placed in operation. One of the main functions a tank serves is to dissipate pressure transients that may take place in the distribution system. When a tank is taken offline, a distribution system may become vulnerable to water hammer or other damage stemming from a potential pressure surge. It is a good practice to plan the installation of temporary pressure relief valves at critical locations in the distribution system for the duration of the tank work. Insulated enclosures should be provided along with the surge relief valves in locations subject to freezing conditions. Large customers in the tank’s service area should be notified and encouraged, if at all possible, not to run processes that demand a great amount of water while the tank is offline. This is important because emergency water storage is lost when a tank is taken out of service. The risk of losing water pressure during a fire is reduced when large customers temporarily abstain from using large volumes of water during tank work. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) determines and regulates structures that may pose an obstruction hazard to air traffic. Elevated tanks, tanks located at high elevations, and those within an FAA-designated three-dimensional controlled volume of airspace at the end of airport runways are required to carry aviation obstruction markings and/or equipment. The equipment may be an air traffic obstruction light at the highest point on the tank. Utility operators and maintenance crews must monitor the light’s operation and replace the light when it burns out. Failure to comply with FAA requirements may lead to fines in the best of cases, or an airplane’s collision with the tank in the worst case.

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Operation

Operation

Cold-Weather Operation of Distribution System Tanks Table 9-6 describes the influence of atmospheric temperature on steel tanks. Tanks in areas where the lowest one-day mean temperature (LODMT) is less than 5◦ F (−15◦ C) are likely to experience tankfreezing conditions. Other factors may contribute to tank freezing even in areas where the LODMT is above 5◦ F (−15◦ C):

r Elevated tanks with small-diameter (less than 36 in. [0.9 mm]) uninsulated risers

r Tanks with uninsulated and unheated appendages that experience no flow (e.g., a drain valve at the end of a nipple)

r Tanks experiencing overflow problems because of frozen or otherwise malfunctioning controls for valves or pumps

r Tanks with abnormally static water conditions r Tanks with inadequate vents or overflows

The National Bureau of Fire Underwriters publishes tables giving the heat loss per hour from various types of tanks. A 250,000-gal (1-ML) elevated tank located in a −10◦ F (−23◦ C) area losses 1 million Btu/h (292 kJ/s) in a 12-mph (19-km/h) wind. Move the tank to a −40◦ F (−40◦ C) location, such as International Falls, Minnesota, and the heat loss almost doubles (Knoy 1991a, 1991b). See the isothermal map in Fig. 9-16. Although it is possible to replace most of the water in a tank with warmer water, that is seldom the way the tank is operated. Water storage tanks (particularly elevated tanks and standpipes), because they are connected to the main only by the riser pipe, usually float on the system. As a result, it is possible that a tank can serve a system that uses several times more water per day than the tank capacity yet still receive only a small percentage of fresh water daily. The operating procedures discussed in the following paragraphs allow a tank to make optimal use of the heat available in incoming water and highlight limitations and effects of water quality. Most utilities in cold-weather regions experience a drop in demand during the winter months. If the upstream pump station to a tank that is part of such a utility’s distribution system does not allow for adequate reduction in pumping so that the tank is allowed to cycle, tank turnover may be jeopardized, water quality may suffer, and, in extreme weather, ice may form. Drafting the tank and filling it may slow the formation of ice caps inside tanks. This is the only operational tool available to slow icing. The more a utility is able to cycle a tank, the less ice buildup will occur. However, tanks should not be kept at low levels for long periods, because the amount of heat energy contained in the tank is a function of the volume of tank’s water. The

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61.5 (0.183) 77.2 (0.243) 93.6 (0.295) 110.9 (0.349) 128.9 (0.406) 148.5 (0.468) 168.7 (0.532)

20 [−6.7]

15 [−9.4]

10 [−12.2]

5 [−15.0]

0 [−17.8]

−5 [−20.6]

32.3 (0.102) 46.1 (0.145)

25 [−3.9]

30 [−1.1]

35 [1.7]

205 224 262 304 400 480 626 755 884 (0.060) (0.065) (0.077) (0.089) (0.177) (0.141) (0.183) (0.221) (0.259)

180 197 231 268 352 423 551 664 779 (0.053) (0.058) (0.068) (0.079) (0.103) (0.124) (0.161) (0.195) (0.228)

156 171 200 233 306 367 478 577 676 (0.046) (0.050) (0.059) (0.068) (0.089) (0.108) (0.140) (0.169) (0.198)

135 147 172 200 263 316 411 496 582 (0.039) (0.043) (0.050) (0.059) (0.077) (0.093) (0.120) (0.145) (0.171)

114 125 146 169 222 267 347 419 491 (0.033) (0.037) (0.043) (0.049) (0.065) (0.078) (0.102) (0.123) (0.144)

94 103 120 139 183 220 287 346 405 (0.028) (0.030) (0.035) (0.041) (0.053) (0.064) (0.084) (0.101) (0.119)

75 82 96 111 146 175 223 275 323 (0.022) (0.024) (0.028) (0.033) (0.043) (0.051) (0.065) (0.081) (0.095)

40 43 51 59 77 92 120 145 168 (0.012) (0.013) (0.015) (0.017) (0.023) (0.027) (0.035) (0.042) (0.049) 56 62 72 83 110 132 171 207 242 (0.016) (0.018) (0.021) (0.024) (0.032) (0.039) (0.050) (0.061) (0.071)

1,152 (1.11)

982 (0.944)

820 (0.788)

670 (0.644)

519 (0.499)

380 (10.365)

255 (0.245)

50 (0.048) 144 (0.138)

1,536 (1.47)

1,309 (1.26)

1,092 (1.05)

893 (0.859)

692 (0.665)

506 (0.486)

340 (0.327)

69 (0.066) 192 (0.184)

Add Btu Tank Capacities—Thousands of US Gallons (Thousands of Liters) Heat per Lineal (Btu) 25 30 40 50 75 100 150 200 250 Ft (kW-hr/m) Loss (94.6) (113.6) (151.4) (189.3) (283.9) (378.5) (567.8) (757.1) (946.4) Uninsulated 2 per Ft Steel Riser Square Feet (Square Meters) of Tank Surface∗ 2 (kW-hr/m ) Atmospheric Tank 1,210 1,325 1,550 1,800 2,370 2,845 3,705 4,470 5,240 3 ft 4 ft Temperature Radiating (112.4) (123.1) (144.0) (167.2) (220.2) (264.3) (344.2) (415.3) (486.8) (0.914 m) (1.220 m) (◦ F[◦ C]) Dia. Dia. Surface Btu Lost per Hour, Thousands (kW)

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213.2 (0.672) 236.8 (0.747) 262.3 (0.827) 288.1 (0.909) 316.0 (29.3) 344.0 (0.997) 405.6 (1.28) 470.8 (1.48)

−15 [−26.1]

−20 [−28.9]

−25 [−31.7]

−30 [−34.4]

−35 [−37.2]

−40 [−40.0]

−50 [−45.5]

−60 [−51.1] 570 (0.167)

491 (0.144)

417 (0.122)

383 (0.112)

349 (0.102)

318 (0.093)

287 (0.084)

258 (0.076)

231 (0.068)

624 (0.183)

538 (0.158)

456 (0.134)

419 (0.122)

382 (0.112)

348 (0.101)

314 (0.092)

283 (0.083)

253 (0.074)

730 (0.214)

629 (0.184)

534 (0.156)

490 (0.143)

447 (0.131)

407 (0.119)

368 (0.108)

331 (0.097)

296 (0.087)

848 (0.248)

731 (0.214)

620 (0.182)

569 (0.067)

519 (0.152)

473 (0.138)

427 (0.125)

384 (0.112)

344 (0.101)

1.116 (0.327)

962 (0.282)

816 (0.239)

749 (0.219)

683 (0.199)

622 (0.182)

562 (0.165)

506 (0.148)

452 (0.132)

1,340 (0.392)

1,154 (0.338)

979 (0.287)

900 (0.264)

820 (0.240)

747 (0.219)

674 (0.197)

607 (0.178)

543 (0.159)

1,745 (0.511)

1,503 (0.440)

1,275 (0.373)

1,171 (0.343)

1,068 (0.313)

972 (0.285)

878 (0.257)

790 (0.231)

707 (0.207)

2,105 (0.616)

1,814 (0.531)

1,538 (0.450)

1,413 (0.413)

1,288 (0.377)

1,173 (0.343)

1,059 (0.310)

954 (0.279)

853 (0.250)

2,467 (1.722)

2,126 (1.623)

1,805 (0.529)

1,656 (0.485)

1,510 (0.442)

1,375 (0.403)

1,241 (0.363)

1,118 (0.327)

1,000 (0.293)

3,702 (3.56)

3,139 (3.02)

2,620 (252)

2,381 (2.29)

2,145 (2.06)

1,926 (1.85)

1,718 (1.65)

1,515 (1.46)

1,329 (1.28)

4,936 (4.75)

4,186 (4.02)

3,494 (3.36)

3,174 (3.05)

2,860 (2.75)

2,563 (2.46)

2,291 (2.20)

2,020 (1.94)

1,771 (1.70)

TABLE 9-6 Thousands of British Thermal Units (Btu) Lost per Hour from Elevated Steel Tanks Based on Minimum Water Temperature of 42◦ F (5◦ C) and Wind Velocity of 12 mph (5 m/s)

Notes: To determine heat loss per hour, find the minimum mean atmospheric temperature for 1 day from the isothermal map (Fig. 9-16) and note the corresponding heat loss. Heat loss for a given capacity with a different tank radiating surface than shown here shall be obtained by multiplying the radiating surface by the tabulated heat loss per square foot (square meter) for the atmospheric temperature involved. The minimum radiation surface area shall be the wetted tank steel surface area plus the top water surface area. For tanks with large steel plate risers, the heat loss from the riser shall be added to that from the tank. The riser loss per linear foot (linear meter) shall be as tabulated above. ∗ These numbers are square feet (square meters) of tank radiating surfaces used for each capacity to compute the tabulated heat loss values and are typical for tanks with D/4 ellipsoidal roofs and bottoms. Source: AWWA Manual M42.

190.7 (0.601)

−10 [−23.3]

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Chapter Nine

FIGURE 9-16 Isothermal lines for lowest one-day mean temperatures and normal daily minimum 30◦ F (−1◦ C) temperature line for January, United States and Southern Canada.

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Operation

Operation

FIGURE 9-16 (Continued)

lower the volume of water in a tank, the less heat energy is present in the tank. It is this heat energy that minimizes ice formation. For example, it takes longer for a pitcher of water than a glass of water to freeze. The authors have been successful in eliminating icing by using tank mixing systems in combination with normal tank operation.

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Chapter Nine

FIGURE 9-17 More than 100 tons (90.72 metric tons) of “dirty” ice was discovered inside this 3-mil-gal (11.35-ML) elevated tank in the spring of 2004. It took weeks for repair crews to remove the ice before work on the tank could begin.

Elevated tanks are more susceptible than ground tanks to icing conditions (Fig. 9-17). Ground tanks are more likely to experience icing than partly or fully buried reservoirs. Insulating the tanks is not a viable option; insulation only slows heat loss but does not stop it. Hence, prolonged extreme weather eventually causes icing despite the insulation. The reason partly or fully buried tanks have less propensity to freeze is that the ground temperature is much higher than the air temperature below freeze depth. Freeze depth is the depth of ground from surface (grade) below 32◦ F (0◦ C). Ice formation on the interior surfaces of the tank acts as insulation and retards further icing of the water. However, formation of an ice cap on the surface of the water is the most damaging result of cold weather. Ice can have several detrimental effects on tank longevity and water quality. The physical effects of ice have been well documented. Floating and falling ice can scrape coatings and damage or destroy structural elements of the tank such as tie rods, ladders, overflow weirs and piping, painter’s rings, and so on. The effect is cumulative and progressive; more and more damage is done in each cold season if the ice problem is not addressed. Although it is often desirable to take tanks down for inspection or rehabilitation work during low-demand winter months, caution must be taken to ensure that the tank is drained before ice forms. Otherwise, substantial amounts of ice may remain in the tank after it is drained. In some cases, so much ice may be present that it would need

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Operation

Operation to be physically removed before work can proceed. This can cause considerable unexpected delay and added expense to tank inspection or rehabilitation. Thawing a frozen tank is a difficult task. There are, however, some alternatives for dealing with such situations. A common technique is to lift a heavy-duty hose 3/4 in. (19 mm) in diameter from the ground up over the top of the tank. The end of the hose terminates with a 1/2-in.- (12-mm)-diameter pipe about 10 ft (3 m) long. This pipe is dropped through the tank vent or manhole located directly over the inlet or riser pipe. It must be kept slightly off the ice to keep it from sticking to it. Warm water from a fire department tank truck is pumped through the hose, parting the ice as the probe drops down. The water must be used judiciously. Stopping in the middle of this process could allow the thawing pipe to freeze in the tank, which may mean the equipment must be left in the tank for the rest of the winter. When the tank truck is empty, it must be refilled from utility mains. However, the refill water will not be as warm as the original water in the truck, which was taken from the heated fire station. Steam generators have been attached to this type of probe, but the warm-water method seems to work best, is cheaper, and creates fewer safety hazards. The same equipment can be used to thaw a frozen riser. However, it may be difficult to thread the probe into the riser pipe. The tank drawings or a recent tank inspection report should be reviewed before this type of riser thawing is attempted, unless the positioning of the piping arrangement is known from experience. Artificially thawing tanks is expensive and dangerous. In addition, a warm front may move through the day after the crew has thawed the tank, which makes a high thawing bill hard to justify. Rust, coating debris, and damaged structural elements are normally encapsulated in tank ice. Because the damage occurs as the ice develops, the substances—which may include biofilms, metals, debris, and assorted particulates such as coating chips—become trapped in the ice for the duration of the cold season. Most of the accumulation is in the tank’s ice cap. These substances are released when the ice thaws. Since they are released near the surface, they may be suspended long enough to be drafted out of the tank with the outflow. Another way ice formation can affect water quality in tanks is that if the ice cap becomes thick enough (as it often does), the water level underneath the ice may drop while the ice cap remains stationary. This creates a small vacuum above the surface of the water that can cause air and chlorine (if used as a secondary disinfectant) to leave the water. This wet chlorine gas and air can cause accelerated corrosion in the areas damaged by the ice. Several devices on the market claim to prevent ice formation inside tanks. Some involve the use of mechanical mixers such as pumps

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Chapter Nine or propellers, some use air bubblers (bubbles remove heat from the water, and there must be an influx of warmer water for the system to operate properly), and others use turbulent jets. They are all essentially mixing devices with varying degrees of mixing efficiency and energy consumption. A small tank may be fitted with a recirculation pump and a water heater. This energy-intensive option is limited by tank size and equipment expense. There are reasons beyond tank operation that may make a tank susceptible to freezing problems. Isolation or altitude valves may be improperly applied or malfunctioning, which creates conditions of overflow, low flow, or no flow that may cause a tank to freeze. Valves’ hydraulic control piping should be protected against freezing by providing heated enclosures, insulation, or electric heat tracing. Some traditionally designed air vents for tanks can collect condensation, freezing rain, or snow that freezes on vent parts and hinders operation. A common problem in such cases is the insect screen serving as a substrate for ice formation. Water outflow from a tank with a frozen vent creates a vacuum condition that may result in progressive collapse of the tank shell until structural failure allows venting or the water outflow stops. Several manufacturers supply frostproof tank vents designed either to prevent the formation of ice on their parts or to dislodge any ice formed by using a tank vacuum condition. Utility crews should inspect tank vents periodically to ensure their proper functioning. A common cause of tank freezing is inadequate cover over the pipe leading to the tank. Sometimes soil conditions preclude installing the tank foundation deep enough to provide adequate frost cover; in such cases, fill should be brought in for cover, or other means should be devised to insulate the pipe.

Site grade In some tower-type elevated tanks, the riser foundation is built higher than the column foundations. The site should be graded higher in the center to prevent the inlet/outlet piping from being exposed to the atmosphere between the concrete riser foundation tunnel and the earth. Compacting fill If the earth over the connecting piping is not compacted properly, it will settle during the first few years of operation. The ensuing lack of adequate cover, combined with moisture saturation of the depression, creates a potential trouble area that may freeze. Supervising the covering The base of the tank is usually the location of the interface between constructors, and it may become a no-man’sland. Unless the construction work is properly supervised and inspected, the piping may not even get backfilled before the first winter operation (AWWA 2003).

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Operation Tank overflows are subject to icing when the tank overflows at a slower rate than the freezing rate. This may occur for any of several reasons: a utility may want to misguidedly trickle-overflow a tank to prevent it from freezing; the hydraulic controls for the altitude valve may be set above the overflow elevation or may be damaged by ice or frozen; an altitude or isolation valve may be leaking; telemetry may be faulty due to weather conditions or damage; or the altitude valve may have been locked in the open position so that the tank can float on the system, and the system pressure may have increased beyond the tank capacity. When tanks overflow in freezing weather, several problems can develop. An overflow-to-grade may freeze solid, especially where there is a trickling overflow, where screens are plugged, or where flap or rubber valves are stuck on the discharge. If water continues to be pumped into the tank after the overflow pipe is frozen solid, the tank may overflow through the roof hatch for a while and then through the vent. The tank will then freeze solid, build up pressure, and burst. When water overflows through the hatch and vent, it invariably forms a large icicle, weighing tons, on the tank exterior. The same problem can be caused by normal overflow through a stub overflow (one extending only a few feet or meters from the shell of the tank). Either situation places a large eccentric load on the structure which, in the case of water towers, can exceed the structure’s design stress. The icicle usually forms on the side of the tower that is away from the prevailing wind, and the wind and icicle together create additive loadings. Even if the structure is not damaged by the ice load, it may be damaged when the ice thaws or breaks off and falls. Eccentric ice loadings or tower members damaged by falling ice have caused water towers to fall (AWWA 2003). Proper tank design and operation will prevent many of the freezing problems discussed previously and will allow operators to deal with the problems that do occur. Special consideration should be given to tank inside appurtenances. Tanks located in areas where the LODMT is −5◦ F (−15◦ C) or colder should not be equipped with inside ladders or overflow pipes. As ice forms and moves up and down, it can exert tons of force on ladders and pipes, tearing them loose from their supports and possibly ripping or punching holes in the container. The resulting leak will occur at a very inopportune time. If an inside overflow pipe is broken, the tank will rapidly lose all water down to the break, creating a large icy area on the ground below. If the vent is plugged with ice or snow, the tank roof may collapse when water evacuates the tank rapidly. It is acceptable to equip a tank with inside ladders and overflow pipes if the tank is known to have a high turnover rate of warm water. A ladder and overflow can also be installed at the center of the tank

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Chapter Nine and supported by the access tube, as in single-pedestal tanks and extremely large column-type tanks. The use of interior girders, roof bracing, painters’ rails, or virtually any other protrusion below the high water line or within an area affected by floating or suspended ice is a poor design practice for areas with an LODMT of −20◦ F (−29◦ C) or colder. Certain local conditions or tank use patterns such as those discussed earlier may cause equally severe icing problems in warmer areas.

Surge Relief Tanks Surge tanks are connected to trunk mains at locations where there is a change in elevation, such as a peak or a knee. They are designed to hold a specific volume of potable water at a specific head or pressure. Special valve arrangements maintain the water level until a downsurge or column separation occurs in the nearby main. Within a few seconds, a large amount of water is released to fill the void created. This prevents the destructive vacuum from damaging the pipe and minimizes flow reversal, which can create extremely high pressure in the pipe. The size of the surge tank and its associated piping and the speed of water delivery are based on transient surge analysis, which should be conducted by experienced professionals. Misapplied surge tanks may cause more damage than if there was none. Figure 9-18 shows an insulated surge tank.

FIGURE 9-18 Insulated surge tank in metropolitan area provides protection from water column separation to large pump station located approximately 200 ft (60.961 m) lower than tank.

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Operation

Operation Since these tanks do not float on the distribution system, special attention must be given to the quality of water, disinfection residual, and turnover in the tanks. In colder climates, special consideration has to be given to eliminate freezing, which can affect the available volume and speed of delivery at the desired head. A circulation pump changes the water in the tank at a sufficient rate to maintain water quality. Tank water is returned to the system, and fresh water is supplied from the system upstream of the return location. In cold climates, surge tanks are typically insulated, and a recirculation pump may be used to cycle the water in the tank through heaters. The chlorine residual should be monitored in tanks whose recirculation systems do not exchange water with the main. If needed, chlorine should be boosted using a rechlorination system.

Hydropneumatic Tanks Hydropneumatic pressure tanks are used in very small systems to reduce the amount of pumping required to provide water at pressure. They can also serve as temporary replacements to elevated storage in small systems during prolonged rehabilitation work. Hydropneumatic tanks are pressure vessels typically made of steel. A portion of the tank is kept filled with compressed air. Once full of water, the tank provides water in excess of the pump capacity as required. This keeps the pump from short-cycling and provides pressured water for short periods during power outages. These vessels can also act as pressure surge relief tanks.

Fluid Dynamics in Tanks The water entering the tank may be turbulent (as in the case of a pipe inlet) or laminar (as in the case of a tank with a large-diameter wet riser). The inlet geometry and the flow characteristics affect how the water interacts with the tank’s structure and the ambient water within it. During design, depending on the tank’s operational requirements, it is typically desired to have one of two flow modes, plug or mixed.

Plug Flow Short-circuiting, in general, occurs when influent water bypasses most of the tank volume, having only minimal interaction with ambient water, and flows directly to the outlet. Clarifiers, clearwells, or tanks where contact time is needed should not be designed to have any form of short-circuiting. It is ideal if the water enters the tank and leaves the tank in an orderly fashion like a train, with the oldest water in the tank leaving first. This is referred to as the first-in, first-out flow mode or the regime generally known as plug flow. In such a flow mode, a decrease in tank elevation decreases the flow area. This increases the speed by which the influent water reaches Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Nine the outlet. Hence, the detention time of water in the tank decreases. Also, depending on geometry, some areas inside the tank may experience a change in the nature of the flow. For example, a separation area near where water changes direction may trap more water and increase velocities in the rest of the cross-sectional area, which may cause some mixing and/or short-circuiting. The Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual of the USEPA (1999) has procedures for CT calculations that list baffling factors for various baffling conditions. These are approximate, and the regulatory agency usually approves the baffling factor during design reviews. Computational fluid dynamic analysis can accurately predict baffling factors by modeling a tracer flow through the tank. However, the use of CFD is limited to design validation and should not be a tool for determining baffling factors because drastic difference in results are possible depending on the model and modelers’ limitations. Tracer studies are the most accurate means of determining baffling factors. A tank’s theoretical detention time (TDT) is computed by dividing the volume (V) of the tank by the peak hourly flow rate (Q): (TDT = V/Q). The baffling factor, T10 /T, is multiplied by the TDT to yield an estimate of the contact time (also known as the effective detention time), T10 , as follows: T10 = Contact Time = V/Q × T10 /T Baffling factors are a function of tank design. T10 /T equal to 1.0 represents pure plug flow characteristics where TDT is equal to the contact time, T10 . Figure 9-19 illustrates a CFD model of a baffled clearwell showing velocity contours.

FIGURE 9-19 Computational fluid dynamics model of baffled clearwell showing velocity contours.

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Operation

Operation Baffling Condition Unbaffled (mixed flow)

T10 /T 0.1

Baffling Description None, agitated basin, very low length-to-width ratio, high inlet and outlet flow velocities

Poor

0.3

Single or multiple unbaffled inlets and outlets, no intrabasin baffles

Average

0.5

Baffled inlet or outlet with some intrabasin baffles

Superior

0.7

Perforated inlet baffle, serpentine or perforated intrabasin baffles, outlet weir or perforated launders

Perfect (plug flow)

1.0

Very high length-to-width ratio (pipeline flow), perforated inlet, outlet, and intrabasin baffles

Source: USEPA (1999).

TABLE 9-7 Baffling Classifications and Factors

Baffling classifications and factors as given in the USEPA Guidance Manual are shown in Table 9-7. A discussion of CT calculations is outside the scope of this text. However, we shall discuss the effect of baffling geometries on detention times. Baffles are obstructions in a tank that can be made from a variety of materials. These obstructions contain and direct the flow in tanks to create plug flow conditions. Ideally, the objective is to transform the tank into a wound pipe, creating a first-in, first-out condition. Baffle configurations can be numerous; however, some baffle arrangements produce better plug flow than others. Design modifications that can increase T10 may allow the same inactivation (CT) with a decreased disinfectant residual or a decrease in tank size. The following summarizes some of the design features that optimize clearwell plug flow design and operation.

Inlet Treatment The inlet to a tank can be modified—for example, by adding a perforated wall—so that the flow entering the tank does not create an uneven stream but is distributed evenly along the flow’s cross-sectional area. In addition, the flow should not be directed such that it impinges on and attaches itself to a boundary; this creates a skewed velocity profile.

Flow Area Length Versus Width To optimize the total water volume, proper baffling must be designed to eliminate short-circuiting and dead zones (stagnant areas). The flow

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Chapter Nine area should be long and narrow, eliminating secondary flows and allowing a pressure gradient along the length of the flow channel only. Ideally, the entire volume of water should be in motion in one direction with no recirculation, stagnation, or mixing.

Number of Turns and Angle of Flow Direction Change The number of direction changes in a baffled tank should be minimized. Turns skew the velocity profile, causing the water at the outer (concave) edge of the turn to move faster than at the near (convex) end. The increased turbulence creates some localized mixing. The angle of flow direction affects the amount of skew and the size of the separation region in which recirculation occurs. Keeping the turns as mild as possible improves the plug flow. This means that curvatures are better than corners, especially if the radius of curvature is larger than the width of the flow area. The tank designer should take the following into consideration:

r Avoid any dead zone by eliminating (filling in) corners between horizontal and vertical surfaces.

r Add perforated walls at each change of flux direction. To obtain good water distribution on the whole cross section, a certain head loss must be created through holes, given by the following formula: P = k (V 2 /2g) where k = 0.62 v = velocity through hole, in feet or meters per second g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/s2 (9.80665 m/s2 ) A velocity of 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) creates sufficient head loss to ensure good distribution.

Laminar Versus Turbulent Velocity Profile The perforated walls just discussed can be used at various intervals along the flow path to modify the shape of the velocity profile from a laminar bullet shape to a more blunt (turbulent) shape, thus producing a more uniform velocity distribution across the flow cross section.

Outlet Treatment To maintain water level, an outflow weir may be provided at the tank’s outlet. Water drop should be minimal to prevent aeration of water and disinfectant loss. However, a bypass through the weir should be added to allow drafting of the clearwell in an emergency. A perforated wall in the vicinity of the outlet may help in eliminating preferential currents and help ensure an even distribution into the outflow from all parts of the baffled channel’s cross-sectional area.

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Operation

Operation FIGURE 9-20 Computational fluid dynamics model of 0.8 baffling factor tank.

Inflow and Outflow Control To prevent the creation of transients and encroachment of highvelocity influent water into the lower-velocity ambient water, the flow into and out of the tank should be controlled to maintain steady-state conditions. Baffling factors are directly proportional to water depth. As the flow depth decreases, the baffling factor decreases. Figure 9-20 shows a CFD model of a 0.8 baffling factor tank. In addition, the decrease in water depth increases the average velocity across the baffled channel. This decreases the theoretical detention time, resulting in a considerable decrease in contact time. A way to ensure a constant water depth is to use variable-speed pumping with a proportional integral derivative (PID) controller using tank elevation as a feedback and the desired water depth as a set point. Valve throttling can achieve similar conditions but is not as accurate or energy efficient.

Mixed Flow Mixed flow occurs when the influent water impinges on the ambient water, resulting in a diluted volume representative of their proportions. The water leaving the tank is no longer the oldest water in the tank but is of an averaged age based on the tank’s turnover ratio and mixing efficiency. Just as the baffling factor represents the scale of plug flow present in a pass-through tank, mixing efficiency or effectiveness represents the amount of mixing achieved. Just as baffling schemes are not equal in performance, performances of mixing schemes differ. Mixing in tanks can be achieved in many ways; we shall attempt to discuss most of them, concentrating on turbulent jet mixing due to its applicability in water storage tanks as discussed hereafter.

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Mixing Times and Dynamics Mixing is a function of time. For mixing to be complete, it must be efficient and sufficient. Whenever an attempt is made to mix multiple ingredients, the amount of time during which the ingredients are subjected to the mixing process dictates the degree of mixing. The nature of a particular mixing process determines its mixing effectiveness or efficiency. Therefore, the mixing time needed to provide a homogenous tank is indirectly proportional to its mixing efficiency. Inefficient mixing may cause water in some areas of the tank not to be mixed. Water in a tank without an effective mixing system may have stratification, short-circuiting, or stagnant areas. Even a significant amount of filling and drafting would not result in mixing in the tank. Calculation of a minimum theoretical mixing time is insufficient to make a decision regarding the mixing condition of a tank. Consider, for example, a standpipe that experiences stagnation due to a stratification problem, or a tank with stagnation issues due to short-circuiting. If sufficient mixing time is available, as calculated by the method discussed later in this section, the stagnant water will remain there and will not mix.

Basic Discharge Flux Quantities The basic discharge (from diffuser) flux quantities are used to determine mixing characteristics.

r Discharge volume flux: Qj = uj Aj r Discharge momentum flux: Mj = uj Qj r Discharge buoyancy flux: J j = g  Qj j

where j = parameters pertaining to the discharge jet A = cross-sectional area u = velocity along main flow axis gj = reduced gravitational acceleration of the discharge jet due to the density difference between the effluent and ambient environment (AWWA 2003) The momentum flux affects the relatively near-field mixing region and has minimal affect on the far field region. Momentum flux is directly proportional to the micromixing; however, it is not an indication of mixing in the entire tank. Available research specifically dictates that macromixing or large-scale folding of the interfaces is what affects mixing efficiency, not micromixing or small-scale wrinkling. There is ample research on turbulent mixing, and the more appropriate measures to use would be the coefficient of variance, decay function, and/or mixing efficiency calculations based on fluid interfaces (Hjertager et al. 2008; Nathman, Aguirre, and Catrakis 2004).

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Mixing Times and Efficiency The mixing time equation currently in use for water storage tanks has been derived from experimental data on 4- and 6-ft- (1.2and 1.8-m)-diameter cylindrical tanks under fill-and-draw operation (Grayman et al. 1999). Mixing time (in seconds) = 10.2 V 2/3 /M1/2 = 9 V 2/3 (d/Q) where M = momentum (inflow velocity times inflow rate, UQ) V = volume of water in the tank at the start of the fill cycle in cubic feet (cubic meters) Q = inflow rate in cubic feet per second (cubic meters per second) U = inflow velocity in feet per second (meters per second) d = tank inlet diameter in feet (meters) This calculated mixing time must exceed the tank’s fill time for sufficient mixing (Grayman et al. 1999). In small tanks, such as models, the effects of mixing by molecular diffusion affect a larger proportion of the tanks’ volume within a given time than is the case with large live tanks, in which the concentration gradients may be lower or dissipate more quickly, causing slower diffusion. Hence, the previous equation may overestimate the mixing capabilities of a tank. Nevertheless, this approach is a good tool, since a tank that does not meet the criteria of the previous mixing time equation most probably has water mixing problems. On the other hand, if a tank meets the criteria, there is still a good chance that it has a problem regardless of the apparent sufficient exchange of water volume. The most definitive and accurate means of checking a tank for water quality is to take multiple samples at different areas and elevations and calculate the tank’s coefficient of variance (CoV), as discussed later. More research should be conducted to determine satisfactory CoV or mixing efficiency values. Some authors set a target CoV of 0.05 (5 percent) for well-mixed tanks. Recent publications point to a CoV of 0.1 (10 percent) as a more attainable goal. Although we agree with the higher CoV requirement change (less mixing), we still believe it may not always need to be this stringent. Many tanks that meet the criteria of the previous mixing time equation do not have a CoV less than 0.1, which further reinforces the statements made about its limitations. Some references state that a CoV between 0.05 and 0.1 is comparable to achieving complete mixing. A CoV of 0.05 is typically considered in the industry to constitute an excellent mixing condition for a wide variety of applications (such as paints), all of which are required to be more homogeneous than ambient potable water in tanks. A CoV value close to zero reflects optimum homogeneity, while a value close to 1.0

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Chapter Nine implies the solution is heterogeneous. High levels of homogeneity are not needed in tanks to maintain water quality. In addition, it may be very expensive to achieve CoV levels less than 0.1 (10 percent). A CoV of 0.15 (15 percent) is considered good for industrial applications if mixing time is increased by approximately 25 percent. A higher CoV may then be acceptable if we are able to increase mixing time, slightly boost incoming disinfectant residual, or make other less expensive tank modifications that can slow disinfectant deterioration—or if it is determined that the higher variation’s effect on water quality is acceptable. Hence, adequate mixing is subject to many interpretations from many perspectives. It should be based on achieving water quality objectives with an efficient use of resources. Nevertheless, one cannot go wrong by targeting a CoV lower than or equal to 10 percent if the ability to do tank analysis is hindered. The coefficient of variance is defined as CoV = /xave where n  x ave

= number of samples = standard deviation of the measured readings corrected to the true value of the population by using n−1 in the denominator = average of the measured readings

Determination of CoV is the most definitive method of establishing tank mixing performance. Several samples are collected at various elevations and areas within a tank. A good rule of thumb is to collect at least six samples; more samples should be collected for tanks larger than 1 mil gal (3.78 ML). Any number of parameters can be studied—disinfectant residual, disinfection by-products, turbidity, temperature, and so on. A CoV of 0.2 or less is an indication that the tank is sufficiently mixed and does not require mixing enhancements. Another widely used parameter for quantifying mixing effectiveness is the range mixing effectiveness (ERange ). The ERange is defined as E Range = 1 −RangeOut /RangeIn. where RangeOut = range of concentration readings leaving the tank RangeIn = range of concentration readings entering the tank An E Range value of 1.0 implies excellent or homogeneous mixing, whereas a value of zero implies a heterogeneous solution or poor mixing. This measure may yield misleading effectiveness values if short-circuiting is present in a tank. However, this anomaly will be revealed when the tank is drafted and stagnant water leaves the tank. Stagnant water may cause an E Range value below 1.0.

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Operation The advantage of this method of mixing evaluation is that it lends itself easily to online monitoring, since only the inlet and outlet require continuous sampling and testing for water quality parameters (disinfectant residual, for example). Mixing time calculations involving inflow and outflow rates should be compared with tank ambient volume to determine whether or not a mixing system would work. If tank turnover rate is insufficient—that is, if the volume of water entering and leaving does not change a certain volume in the tank—turbulent jet mixing systems may not result in a homogenous tank, regardless of the mixing efficiency. The required percentage of tank volume to be exchanged is a function of the scalar concentrations of the ambient water and the incoming water. These scalars include disinfectant residual, contaminants, disinfection by-products, and so on. Other influential parameters may be the temperatures of the incoming and ambient water, chemical compositions and biological contents, atmospheric conditions, and the tank’s physical condition.

Mixing Theory Of the many mixing technologies, no single one can be used for all mixing duties. This makes choosing mixers a complex task that requires adequate understanding of mixing processes—their application and limitations. Many texts have been written on this subject. Hereafter we shall attempt to discuss the subject in general and then focus on its applications in tanks. The mixing of one or more components or materials in a fluid system can be described in terms of two separate but interlinked processes, macromixing and micromixing:

r In macromixing, there is no mixing on the molecular scale, but fluid elements or different components are well distributed or blended to create uniformity throughout the mixture.

r Micromixing is complete mixing of species on the molecular level. Droplet or particle size reduction (dispersion) of one or more components of the mixture produces increased homogeneity of the system. Most fluid-mixing problems may be analyzed in terms of the miscibility or ease of mixing of the components. The ease of distribution affects the mixing approach to be adopted. For instance, where the rate of reaction between the components is to be improved (such as combining water with a high disinfectant concentration with water that contains bio-matter water or with low-residual water), the mixing approach is focused on maximizing distribution (macromixing).

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Chapter Nine For mixing immiscible fluids such as chlorine gas or solids with water, the mixing approach is focused on reducing droplet or particle size to maximize the area of contact (micromixing). Hence, micromixing has a higher tendency to resuspend settled solids or diffuse gases. Another point of consideration is the mode of operation involved, of which the fluid mixing is normally only a part. The most important distinction that affects the mixing operation is whether the tank operation is a batch process (distinct fill or draft cycles) or a continuous process (pass-through where fill and draft occur simultaneously). In a batch process, a discrete volume of material is mixed in the tank, whereas in a continuous process, a stream of material is mixed.

The Mixing Process Fluid mixing is the process by which a nonuniform system is made uniform. The degree of mixing or uniformity can be analyzed by evaluating how well the flow is macromixed or micromixed. A measure of uniformity is the coefficient of variance, which is the ratio of the standard deviation in concentration and the average concentration. The CoV may be viewed as a measure of macromixing. Therefore, if the CoV is close to 1.0, the fluid is not mixed; if it is close to zero, it is homogenous. To analyze the degree of micromixing, another quantity, the decay function, is evaluated. The decay function (d) can be expressed as the ratio between the cross-sectional average of concentration fluctuations and the cross-sectional average of the concentration (Nathman et al. 2004). A recirculation zone in the area near the inlet increases the mixing effect. Experimental results show a uniform concentration distribution at that point. However, farther along the path, the concentration becomes less uniform as the flow becomes better macromixed than micromixed (Nathman et al. 2004). In other words, the turbulence in the region very near the inlet can result in micromixing, but micromixing cannot be maintained as the flow gets farther from the source. This has been confirmed by several researchers, and the mechanisms that cause each type of mixing are known. Before discussing mixing mechanisms, it must be understood that the aforementioned research implies that even high-jet-velocity inlet sources will always revert to macromixing as the flow gets farther from the source, whereas micromixing is limited to areas close to the source. The energy cost required to expand this effect to cover an entire tank or reservoir would be excessive. In addition, such a high level of mixing is not necessary to achieve high mixing efficiency, as will be shown later. Micromixing is also not maintainable, because as soon as the inflow to the tank stops, density and temperature gradients will increase the coefficient of variance with time. Biochemical reactions

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Operation taking place over time also contribute to the increase in the coefficient of variance. In addition, the higher velocities reduce the total amount of tank influent water because of the effect of the resulting higher head loss on pump performance. Reducing the amount of water with high disinfectant residual entering the tank results in a lower overall increase in tank disinfectant residual over time. Therefore, creating high-velocity jets in an effort to increase micromixing is not an optimum way of mixing tanks.

Tank Mixing Systems Various tank mixing systems employ several energy transfer and conversion mechanisms to create various effects for particular mixing results. In the case of distributive or macromixing, swirl created by rotating parts or directed flow causes laminar thinning of the material interfaces, thereby increasing volumetric combination of the materials. A repeated cutting and folding action of the mixture also increases the distribution of various material components. The effectiveness and efficiency of a mixer in distributive mixing is therefore a function of how the machine interacts with the fluid in a geometric sense. That is, the volume enclosed by the outer interfaces (i.e., the interfaces between the pure fluid and the mixed fluid) rather than the interfacial surface area is what determines mixing efficiency. Conversely, the effectiveness and efficiency of a mixer in dispersive mixing (micromixing) is dependent on the means of the system’s shearing interaction with the fluid. The higher the shear stress, the smaller the resulting particles or droplets are in the mixture. The uniformity of the stress distribution determines the uniformity of the mixing. Without uniform distribution of the shear stresses, it is impossible to guarantee that the same level of mixing is applied to all parts of the water in the tank. Mixing technologies are often available in either batch or continuous form, but rarely both. In situations where both are offered, there are typically some performance trade-offs. Care must be taken to select a system that performs effectively with the tank’s operational scheme. In addition, energy consumption and availability must be considered. Since the amount of water to be mixed is huge, the energy needed to mix the tank can add up to a considerable amount over time. Also, many tanks are constructed in remote areas where electrical power may not be readily available. Some mixing systems, due to the requirement for high inlet pressure, may require additional pumps, pump replacement, or a change in operation points of existing pumps. This not only changes the distribution system’s performance and efficiency during filling, but it also may affect the drafting of the tank, which could become critical in achieving fire flows from the tank. We shall next discuss some of the various mixer types on the market.

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Mixer Types The many types of mixers applicable to water mixing in tanks may be categorized as follows:

Impellers These have specially shaped blades on a rotating shaft driven by a gear motor and/or variable-speed drive. They are used almost exclusively for batch processes. Applying them in water tanks or towers may be prohibitive because of structural support requirements and energy consumption issues. Also, these systems may not work in changing water levels.

Static Mixers These devices require continuous fluid motion to work, so they are used in continuous processes. They comprise a set of nonmoving obstructions or orifices in a pipeline. The obstructions or orifices are shaped and positioned in such a way as to create cutting and folding effects and/or turbulence for mixing of piped fluid streams. Static mixers are a reliable and low-cost alternative. Nevertheless, any highpressure drop across the mixer may require larger and more expensive pumps, increase energy consumption, or alter pump operating points.

Dispersers Dispersers comprise a range of complex machines and systems that deliver relatively uniform dispersions in particular fluid applications. A valve homogenizer comprises a very high-pressure pump and a controlled valve nozzle through which the fluid is forced at very high velocity to rupture the droplets through extensional stressing. The jetimpinging mixer, another type of disperser, uses high-velocity fluid streams—except that in this case, the fluid is jetted against a plate or contra-jet to rupture the droplets or particles using impact stressing. The high level of mixing that these systems provide is localized; use of this technology in water tanks would require many nozzles or jets, making it high in installed cost and energy consumption.

Pump Mixers Available in both batch and continuous forms, pump mixers use internally generated energy to force fluid through small nozzles at very high velocities while extending and shearing it. The fluid flowing through the nozzles at high velocity then impinges on an internal wall of the mixer. A dynamic cutting and folding action added to vigorous turbulent flow provides distributive mixing. Pump mixers are suited to a wide variety of applications because they can handle a wide range of materials and viscosities with high mixing performance. In addition to energy consumption and availability issues, these systems may not be as effective in large tanks. Tests conducted for the US

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Operation Department of Energy have shown that a considerable volume of water in large tanks remains unmixed (Lee and Dimenna 2001).

Turbulent Jet Mixing Turbulent mixing is involved in most mixing processes due to its ability to mix and transport species, momentum, and energy much faster than can be done by molecular diffusion (Hjertager et al. 2008). Detailed understanding of the mixing process and validation of prototypes are even more critical in mixing systems used in tanks that store potable water for human consumption, because they can affect water quality. Turbulent jet discharge into a crossflow (i.e., a transverse jet) is a turbulent free-shear flow (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). Crossflow in a tank can be created by change in water elevation and/or outflow streamlines (as in a pass-through tank). The discharge, in the form of a round buoyant jet into a nonturbulent stratified crossflow, may contain five asymptotic regimes (AWWA 1986) in which self-similar flow conditions exist: 1. Pure jet 2. Pure plume 3. Pure wake 4. Advected line puff 5. Advected line thermal Of these regimes, the first three are free turbulent flows dominated by transverse shear (shear normal to jet axis); the latter two are dominated by azimuthal shear (parallel to jet axis). In the latter case, an internal double-vortex structure is generated within the jet. No selfsimilar regime is possible in the presence of density stratification (Jirka 1999). In that case, axial pressure forces influence and finally destroy the boundary-layer evolution of the flow and lead to strong horizontal spreading—the so-called collapse motion during the terminal-layer phase of a buoyant jet in stratified surroundings. The flow is no longer jet like. In actual discharge situations, one or more of the five regimes can occur as asymptotic regimes. Regime (1) is often the initial regime (whenever the jet velocity U j > ambient velocity ua ). Regime (5) is usually—but not always—the final regime (Jirka 1999). Figure 9-21 shows a model of a positively buoyant turbulent jet. The buoyant jet is a flow phenomenon with free turbulence. It represents a gradually evolving flow along its axis and thus exhibits boundary-layer characteristics with its possibilities for mathematical simplification including self-similarity techniques (Schlichting 1968). However, because of the variety of forcing elements, buoyant jet motions are in general not self-similar (Jirka 1999). They are self-similar

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FIGURE 9-21 Model of positively buoyant turbulent jet.

only in five possible asymptotic regimes in which they have an invariant internal force balance, invariant turbulence, and entrainment properties. In between these regimes, the buoyant jet properties are variable and cannot be scaled uniquely by local jet parameters (Jirka 1999). The local Reynolds number (Re) in the case of a turbulent jet in a quiescent reservoir is approximately equal to the jet exit Reynolds number Rej = d j U j / (d j is the jet diameter, U j is the jet velocity, and  is the kinematic viscosity of water). If the jet momentum flux Mj U j =  j (d j /2)2 U j 2 ( j is water density and Mj is the mass of water in the jet) is held constant as the jet diameter decreases and its velocity increases, the jet approaches a point source of normal momentum, which generates a counterrotating vortex pair (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). At low Reynolds numbers, in particular, tertiary and sometimes quaternary vortices are formed such that the vortices no longer have equal circulation, and each vortex could have a different induced velocity. In that case, the induced vertical velocities would be substantially smaller, and the overall mean trajectory would be shallower. At high-Re transverse jets, the counterrotating vortex pair is the dominant structure and the primary mechanism for entrainment of free stream fluid. The vortex circulation is a decreasing function of downstream distance decaying through viscous diffusion (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). In other words, high-Re (more turbulent) inlet sources would result in a flow with higher vertical velocities and a vortex pair as the main source of water entrainment. As will be explained later, entrainment is the major mixing mechanism. The higher vertical velocity means that the influent would reach the water surface faster, resulting in even less entrainment of the ambient water in the tank. Hence, the high level

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Operation of micromixing caused by the high Reynolds number results in more homogenous mixing in the vicinity of the inlet, but less water is mixed. Experimental data indicate that the scalar gradients are steeper in the horizontal directions than in the vertical directions. Anisotropy of the transverse jet’s scalar field is in contrast to the far field isotropy for axisymmetric jets discharging into a tank (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). Scalar mixing in the transverse jet is enhanced by increasing the Reynolds number. In the case of turbulent jets discharging into a tank, the concentration’s probability distribution functions lose their peak at the highest Reynolds number (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). This means that when discharging into a reservoir or tank in which there isn’t a crossflow, mixing is decreased in the far field at high Reynolds numbers (or influent velocities). The minimum Reynolds number for which turbulent mixing can be considered as fully developed is approximately 10,000 (Nathman et al. 2004). On the basis of the previous analysis, tank mixing systems need to reduce the Reynolds number to slightly above 10,000 by reducing the velocity through each inlet. An efficient way to accomplish this is to have more inlets to spread the flow. Having more inlets results in a larger volume of water involved in near-field micromixing, and it introduces the influent at various locations in the tank, further enhancing the distribution of the micromixing effect. Flow-dependent mixing is explained by noting that turbulent mixing is essentially a three-stage process (Shan and Dimotakis 2001): Entrainment: Engulfment of irrotational (ambient) flow into the turbulent flow region, or macromixing. Stirring: Kinematic motion responsible for creating interfacial area between species. Molecular mixing: Diffusive mixing on the molecular scale, or micromixing. The balance among these three stages determines the probability distribution function of the mixed water. Nevertheless, the mean concentrations are a measure of entrainment rather than of molecular mixing. Hence, the transverse jet entrains less ambient fluid than the ordinary turbulent jet. Transverse jets homogenize the entrained fluid more thoroughly. This indicates that for transverse jets, there is more stirring and molecular mixing; for ordinary jets, there is more entrainment (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). Increases in water elevation in tanks with mixing systems result in little transverse motion. Transverse motion is especially negligible in a large tank unless it is a pass-through tank with considerable and independent inflow and outflow rates. Therefore, the influent jets need to entrain larger volumes to mix the whole tank. To maximize entrainment, the inlets should be located such that the inflow engulfs

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Chapter Nine the maximum amount of volume possible. This is done by creating sheet flows at different elevations that intersect and or interact in the far field. This is further enhanced if the influent is buoyant, as will be shown later, whether positively or negatively due to temperature difference between influent and ambient water.

Turbulent Jet Mixing Efficiency Turbulent jet mixing efficiency is determined by the behavior of the mixed influent/ambient water interfaces. Knowledge of the dynamics of the interfaces is crucial for physical descriptions, predictions, and control of the mixing efficiency (Nathman et al. 2004). Although it has long been recognized that large-scale entrainment is important for mixing, one must understand that entrainment alone sets an upper bound only on mixing efficiency. In other words, knowledge of the growth rate of a turbulent shear flow is not sufficient to deduce mixing efficiency (Nathman et al. 2004). The crucial point is that the volume enclosed by the outer interfaces (i.e., the interfaces between the influent water and the ambient tank water)—rather than the interfacial surface area—determines mixing efficiency. Hence, it is the large-scale dynamics of the outer interface that provide the dominant contributions to the mixing efficiency (Nathman et al. 2004). On the basis of high-resolution measurements in the far field of fully developed round jets, it was found that large-scale folding of the interfaces, as opposed to the small-scale wrinkling of the interfaces, provides the dominant contribution to mixing efficiency (Nathman et al. 2004). A discharge with no buoyancy is referred to as a nonbuoyant jet or pure jet. A release of buoyancy only (no initial momentum) is called a pure plume. A discharge with both momentum and buoyancy is called a buoyant jet or forced plume. Positively buoyant flows are defined where the buoyancy force acts vertically upward against the gravity force; negative buoyancy is defined as acting downward in the direction of the gravity force (MixZone 2005). Dilution in turbulent buoyant jets is caused by entrainment of surrounding ambient water into the influent water jet. Entrainment is a turbulent process caused by shear stress between the discharge flow and the surrounding ambient water (MixZone 2005). As briefly stated earlier, to improve mixing efficiency, a tank mixing system would have to engulf or entrain as large a volume of water as possible during inflow. To take maximum advantage of this mixing phenomenon, a tank mixing system must have inlets creating sheets of flow at different elevations. The interfaces should then fold over each other for optimum mixing efficiency. The directed momentum of the created sheets of flow would create more folding if the inlet orientations and design allow for the energy to be converted to directed momentum rather than excessive stirring turbulence. This process

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Operation requires less throttling at each inlet and multiple inlets at the proper elevations. The locations of the inlets should be such that boundary-layer attachments occur only as part of the entrainment scheme and do not disrupt it.

Mixing Regions The hydrodynamics of an influent continuously discharging can be conceptualized as a mixing process occurring in two separate areas. In the first area, the initial jet characteristics of momentum flux, buoyancy flux, and outfall geometry influence the jet trajectory and mixing. This area, called the near field, encompasses the jet subsurface flow and any surface or bottom interaction (or, in the case of a stratified ambient, terminal–layer interaction). The mixing zone is the part of the near-field area in which the initial dilution of a discharge occurs. Many hydrodynamic definitions of mixing zones include both nearfield mixing and boundary-interaction processes (MixZone 2005). In this area, mixing system design can usually affect the initial mixing characteristics through appropriate manipulation of design variables. In particular, designs with dynamic bottom attachments should be avoided (MixZone 2005). Dynamic plume attachments occur when the discharge flow interacts strongly with a boundary in the near field. Such near-field boundary interactions present the possibility of high influent concentrations near the discharge (MixZone 2005). Often, near-field attachments are avoidable with proper design of the mixing system. This flow also exhibits a subsequent buoyant liftoff and an unstable near field (MixZone 2005). Two types of attachment are typically found: wake attachment forced by the crossflow and Coanda attachment forced by the entrainment demand of the influent jet itself. A physical description of these processes is given below (MixZone 2005). In wake attachment, the presence of the discharge structure and the jet influx interrupts the ambient velocity field and causes a recirculation area in the wake downstream from the discharge (MixZone 2005). A Coanda attachment is a rapid dynamic attachment that occurs when a jet discharges close to a nearby parallel boundary. This process is referred to as a Coanda effect. It occurs because of the entrainment demand of the jet flow at its periphery. If a boundary limits the approach flow of ambient water, then low-pressure effects cause the jet to be deflected toward that boundary, thereby forming a wall jet. Thus, the mixing process of Coanda-attached flow is governed by the dynamics of the wall jet (MixZone 2005). Figure 9-22 shows a negatively buoyant turbulent jet flow with wall attachment. This implies that a tank mixing system discharging very close to the bottom or surface may cause flow attachment to the bottom or a buoyant film at the top with reduced mixing.

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FIGURE 9-22 Negatively buoyant turbulent jet flow showing wall attachment. (Source: MixZone.)

Boundary interactions occur when the flow contacts the surface, bottom, or sides or forms a terminal layer in a density-stratified ambient environment (Fig. 9-23). Boundary interactions also determine whether mixing is controlled by stable or unstable conditions at the discharge source (MixZone 2005). Boundary interaction generally

FIGURE 9-23 Turbulent jet flow into density-stratified tank model. (Source: MixZone.)

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Operation provides the transition from near-field (discharge source–controlled, or micromixing region) to far-field (ambient environment–controlled, or macromixing region) mixing processes. However, boundary interactions in the form of dynamic plume attachments to the bottom are considered near-field mixing processes (MixZone 2005). As the turbulent buoyant jet travels farther away from the source, the source characteristics become less important. Conditions existing in the ambient environment control trajectory and dilution of the flow through the spreading of buoyant density-current motions and passive diffusion due to ambient turbulence. This region is referred to as the far field (MixZone 2005). A counterrotating vortex pair has been noted in the far field of a transverse jet; however, the mean flow state is not necessarily a symmetric vortex pair but can be unsteady and asymmetric under certain conditions (Shan and Dimotakis 2001). The rotational flow created by the vortex is what helps to make the flow regime more homogenous. Hence, a properly designed tank mixing system would attempt to encourage or extend the creation of lateral vortices that do not reach the surface so that it enhances the mixing of the largest volume of water. The assessment of near-field stability (i.e., distinguishing stable from unstable conditions) is a key aspect of analyzing influent dilution and modeling the mixing zone. It is especially important for understanding the behavior of the two-dimensional plumes resulting from multiport diffusers (MixZone 2005). Discharge plumes may be classified as having the following characteristics:

r Stable discharge conditions usually occur for a combination of strong buoyancy and weak momentum (MixZone 2005).

r Unstable discharge conditions occur when a recirculation phenomenon appears in the discharge vicinity. This local recirculation leads to re-entrainment of already mixed water back into the buoyant jet region (MixZone 2005). The previous discussion of stability emphasizes the importance of eliminating recirculation at the discharge vicinity. Recirculation at the inlets can be minimized by (1) reducing influent velocity to minimize the recirculation region size or (2) having a boundary surface very close to the point of discharge to prevent or minimize rotational flow in the direction opposite that of the discharge. In the second case, this means not using discharge nozzles.

Buoyant Discharges Information about the density distribution in the ambient water body is very important for correctly predicting influent discharge plume behavior. Density currents are buoyancy driven far-field flows that are defined by transverse horizontal spreading while being advected

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Chapter Nine downstream by an ambient current. These spreading processes can intrude into the ambient flow, forming a buoyant upstream wedge and stagnation point. These flows are caused by the density difference of the mixed flow relative to the ambient density. Density currents are preceded by turbulent jet mixing in the near field and are followed by passive diffusion in the far field. Density currents may or may not form upstream intrusions, depending on the crossflow magnitude and internal buoyancy at boundary interaction (MixZone 2005). Buoyant jets discharged horizontally along the water surface from a laterally entering channel or pipe bear some similarities to the more classical submerged buoyant jet. For a relatively short initial distance, the effluent behaves like a momentum jet, spreading both laterally and vertically due to turbulent mixing (MixZone 2005). After this stage, vertical entrainment becomes inhibited due to buoyant damping of the turbulent motions, and the jet experiences strong lateral spreading. During stagnant ambient conditions, ultimately a reasonably thin layer may be formed at the surface of the receiving (ambient) water; that layer can undergo transient density-current buoyant spreading motions (MixZone 2005). In the presence of ambient crossflow, buoyant surface jets may exhibit any one of following three types of flow features (MixZone 2005):

r They may form a weakly deflected jet that does not interact with the bottom or surface.

r When the crossflow is strong, they may attach to the downstream boundary, forming a bottom-hugging plume.

r When a high discharge buoyancy flux combines with a weak crossflow, the buoyant spreading effects can be so strong that an upstream intruding plume is formed that also stays close to the surface near the inlet. Density currents are effective transport mechanisms that can quickly spread a mixed effluent laterally over large distances in the transverse direction, particularly in cases of strong ambient stratification. In this case, influent of considerable vertical thickness at the terminal level can collapse into a thin but very wide layer, unless this is prevented by lateral boundaries (MixZone 2005). If the influent water is nonbuoyant or weakly buoyant, there is no buoyant spreading area in the far field—only a passive diffusion area. Depending on the type of near-field flow, ambient density stratification, and boundary interaction process, several types of density current buoyant spreading may occur:

r Spreading at the water surface r Spreading at the bottom r Spreading at a sharp internal interface with a density jump Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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FIGURE 9-24 Buoyant discharge from single port inlet at 45-degree angle into stagnant tank.

r Spreading at the terminal level in a continuously (e.g., linearly) stratified ambient.

Turbulence in the ambient environment becomes the dominating mixing mechanism in the far field at sufficiently large distances from the discharge point. In general, the passively diffusing flow grows wider and thicker until it interacts with the vessel bottom and/or sides (MixZone 2005). The strength of the ambient diffusion mechanism depends on several factors that relate mainly to the geometry of the ambient shear flow and the amount of ambient stratification. From classical diffusion theory, gradient diffusion processes in the bounded flows can be described by constant diffusivities in the vertical and horizontal direction that depend on turbulent intensity and on channel depth or width. In the presence of a stable ambient stratification, the vertical diffusive mixing is generally strongly damped (MixZone 2005). In the surface approach condition, the weakly bent flow impinges on the surface at a near-vertical angle (>45 degrees) (Fig. 9-24). After impingement, the flow spreads more or less radially along the water surface as a density current. In particular, the flow spreads some distance upstream against the ambient flow and laterally across the ambient flow. The strong buoyancy of the discharge dominates this spreading. The lateral spreading of the flow in the surface impingement area is driven by both the flow momentum and the buoyancy force (MixZone 2005). Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Nine Since influent water is rarely at the same temperature as ambient water in the tank, buoyant flow can be used as a free source of mixing energy. Substantial additional mixing can be created and further optimized if the tank mixing system is designed to use density streams as part of the entrainment scheme. This would further negate the use of inlets at the bottom or near the surface in a tank mixing apparatus. Such inlets prevent the density streams’ interfaces from folding due to stratification and prevent the engulfment or entrainment of large volumes of water needed for mixing efficiency.

Flow Diffusers Influent A multiport diffuser is a linear structure consisting of many more or less closely spaced ports or nozzles that inject a series of turbulent jets into the ambient receiving water body. These ports or nozzles may be connected to vertical risers attached to an underground pipe or tunnel or they may simply be openings in a pipe lying on the bottom (MixZone 2005). Flow diffusers in water tanks’ mixing systems should be designed to use and accommodate all the physical phenomena associated with turbulent jet mixing. Such systems should optimize mixing efficiency using as little energy as possible, as follows:

r Use reasonable inlet velocities. Higher velocities are not only energy consuming, but are also detrimental to proper mixing as shown earlier. This requires a multitude of inlets to sufficiently divide the flow so that velocities are lower.

r Do not use nozzles—not only because of higher velocities and

head loss, but also because more recirculation is associated with nozzles. Orifices are closer to the conduit/pipe surface and minimize such recirculation.

r Entrain larger volumes of ambient water by having flow

streams at different levels and sides, creating three-dimensional mixing effects. A three-dimensional arrangement would be required for the inlets such that the influent creates undisturbed streams or currents, which engulf the majority of ambient volume.

r Enhance folding of the interfaces in the far field (Fig. 9-25).

The inlets must be positioned so that inflow streams impinge on each other and interact with boundary surfaces in such a manner that they create large-scale folding and lateral vortices.

r Use density currents.

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FIGURE 9-25 Sheet flow from multiport diffuser into tank model showing formation of vortices and folding of interfaces in far field. Note: better mixing distribution in far field.

Effluent The flow diffuser discussed so far is an influent structure. However, it may also be a tank effluent structure. The filling cycle typically uses a fraction of the total time of a tank’s operating cycle. The tank may remain idle for some time or may draft for a long time, feeding back into the system. Reliance on influent mixing alone is not optimum, because throughout the longest part of the operational cycle, no mixing is taking place. To optimize mixing, it is ideal to also mix during the draft cycle. After the fill cycle, ambient water in the tank will stratify, lose disinfectant, or be rendered otherwise nonhomogeneous because of some physical or biochemical activity. As a result, water quality may progressively decrease. More importantly, impurities or disinfection by-products may settle, stratify, or accumulate unevenly because of temperature gradients and removal of fluid solely at one or two locations on the tank bottom. To prevent the possibility of high concentrations of accumulated impurities (such as some disinfection by-products or solids being fed back into the distribution system by excessive drafting), it is prudent to mix or blend the effluent water from various areas and elevations of the tank as it is drafted. At a minimum, effluent mixing will accomplish the following:

r Prevent the sequential removal of stratified or accumulated components

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Chapter Nine r Minimize the number of dead spots due to drafting from the regions close to the outlet

r Decrease reliance on passive diffusion which may be disrupted by many environmental factors

r Decrease the possibility of icing in colder climates due to distributed motion of the fluid and removal of fluids near the top

r Remove water close to the top, where biological activity is higher and disinfectant residual is lower

r Make effluent more uniform and provide a more homogeneous starting point for the next fill cycle, making turbulent jet mixing more effective

r Because of uniformity of mixing, achieve better and more meaningful tracking of water age

r Eliminate mixing cost, since water from the tank or reservoir is mixed by gravity and forced back into the distribution system. When water is combined from different areas and elevations through the diffusers, it creates large interface areas internally which are then stirred by the turbulence in the diffusers and tanks’ piping, valves, and fittings. This further mixes the flow to create a more homogeneous effluent and consistent water quality.

Tank Venting Most water storage tanks are nonpressurized tanks that require adequate venting. By allowing the removal or replenishment of air as water enters or exits the tank, venting prevents both pressurized and vacuum conditions. Atmospheric tanks are not designed to handle pressurization; the absence of sufficient venting to handle the air outflow generated as water enters the tank would cause the air in the tank to compress and exert pressure on the tank walls that may exceed design stress limits. Likewise, tanks are not designed to handle the vacuum conditions created when water is drafted from a tank without adequate venting. Buckling of tank walls takes place even when differential pressure is small. The styles of air vents most commonly found in water tanks are the mushroom, pan, and 180-degree types. AWWA D100, Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage, requires that one tank vent, even if more than one is required, always be located near the center of the roof. A reasonable offset is allowed for tanks designed with center dry-access tubes. Vent designs, examples of which are given in Figs. 9-26 to 9-28, should meet the following requirements:

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24 in. (588 mm)

Screen

Tank roof assembly

FIGURE 9-26 Double 90-degree elbow roof vent detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks.)

r Prevent insects and animals from entering the tank (a noncorrodible mesh is recommended)

r Prevent rainwater or surface water from entering the tank r Prevent air drafts from entering the tank (Outside diameter) 3/16

er ov

C A

Ve nt

di am .

A

am

di

Tank ro of (Inside diameter)

er

et (Outside diameter) (Hole in roof) Plan view

Section A-A

FIGURE 9-27 Pan deck vent detail. (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks.)

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Chapter Nine

re

su

res

p Air PTFE gaskets (typical)

1/2- no. 13 × 15 flattened expanded metal bird screen

Pres

sure

Vacuum

palle

t

pallet

Screen (brass material is normal) Support bars Air vacuum Carbon-steel body

Roof

Install vent vertical 5 +

FIGURE 9-28 Typical clog-resistant vent detail. (Note: PTFE = polytetrafluoroethylene. Pallets should be removed during coating to prevent clogging of the screens. Periodic inspection and maintenance are required to keep in proper working condition.) (Source: AWWA Manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks.)

r Exclude dust and debris, as much as possible, from entering the tank

r Provide some level of security against accidental or intentional contamination

r Prevent direct sunlight from entering the tank r Be frostproof in cold-weather areas r Be tall enough, or installed high enough, not to be blocked by drifting snow or debris

It is a requirement of the Ten States Standards that overflows not be considered as vents. Obviously, a tank using its overflow as a vent would be left without venting during overflow conditions. It also points out that vents on ground-level tanks should terminate in an inverted U shape with its opening 24 to 36 in. (609.6 to 914 mm) above the tank’s roof or ground. The U-shaped overflow should be covered with 24-mesh noncorrodible screen installed within the pipe at the location least susceptible to vandalism. AWWA manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks, recommends clog-resistant vents with pressureand vacuum-releasing pallets. Large tanks should be provided with more than one vent. One should be installed near the center of the roof, and the other(s) closer

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Operation to the tank’s walls. This facilitates crossflow ventilation through the tank. Vent sizing is of special concern in the case of tanks in systems that have experienced demand growth. Increased tank inflow and outflow rates must be handled by tank venting. Undersized vents must be replaced with properly sized ones to prevent problems related to increased maximum flow rates.

Telemetry Most storage facilities for potable water are located in unmanned sites. Some tanks are located in sites manned by a handful of operators whose main responsibilities are to monitor a water treatment process. In either case, it is desirable to have automated systems that monitor hydraulic and water quality parameters of tanks. These devices can store data in electronic form or on paper. They can also transmit information collected to a central location or manned facility where an operator can keep track of and control multiple facilities throughout a plant and/or a distribution system. Telemetry is the science and technology of automatic measurement and transmission of data by wire, radio, or other means from remote sources, pumping stations, distribution system tanks, or other facilities or processes to receiving stations for recording and analysis. Most telemetry systems used by water utilities are commonly known as SCADA (for supervisory control and data acquisition) systems.

Tank Water Elevation Water utilities that operate a SCADA system have a central monitoring facility where one or more operators are able to remotely control the fill or draft of tanks, the opening and closing of motor-operated valves, and chemical feed processes such as disinfectant boosting. In addition, the SCADA system monitors, records, analyzes, and identifies trends regarding myriad parameters from online sensors, analyzers, and transmitters at each facility in the communication network. Although some of the systems monitored by SCADA may be automatic (e.g., the closing of an altitude valve to prevent tank overflow, the sounding of alarms, and so on), some may be entirely controlled by the SCADA operator (e.g., starting and stopping pumps). Tank elevation information lets SCADA operators know when pumps should be turned on or off as part of normal distribution system operation. In many cases, tank elevations are the only source of information to operators regarding distribution system pressures. Trended elevation data over time paints a picture of a tank’s daily fill and draw cycles. Parameters such as rates of inflow and outflow throughout the fill and draw cycles can be indirectly determined from

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Chapter Nine elevation data if the tank geometry is known, and changes in tank volume can be calculated over time. This trended flow and volume data can help water quality personnel monitor mixing patterns in tanks over the course of the year and provide operators with strategies to enhance tank mixing for each tank’s operating characteristics. A balance must be maintained between the need for optimum water quality and emergency storage. Allowable low levels in tanks should leave sufficient water in storage to satisfy potential emergency demands from fires, power outages, water main breaks, and so on. Excessively high water elevation can trigger an overflow alarm to alert the SCADA operator that an altitude valve may be malfunctioning and that tank overflow is probable. The operator can respond by turning pumps off at upstream pumping stations and/or closing a remotely controlled motor-operated isolation valve, if one is present at the tank. Depending on the particular circumstances, the operator can dispatch a road crew to the tank. Skillful operation and knowledge of the distribution system are required to appropriately address high-pressure conditions. Isolating a tank from the distribution system without taking other measures, such as shutting pumps off, may create abnormally high pressure and leave a system vulnerable to water main breaks and other catastrophic failures. Tanks that are left open to a distribution system provide surge relief should pressure transients be generated. Such systems are deemed soft systems. A system operated at high pressures with its tank(s) offline loses this surge protection and is said to be a hard system. It should be noted that some utilities have chosen to forego altitude valves and rely entirely on telemetry and motor-operated isolation valves to control water level in the tank. Many strategies are available for sensing water level. A few of the most common technologies are listed here, divided into two categories: contact sensors and noncontact sensors.

Contact-Level Sensing Technology Bubbler systems use a source of compressed air to push bubbles out of a conduit at the bottom of the tank. The higher the pressure required to push the bubbles, the higher the water level. Bubblers provide continuous level sensing relatively accurately, but they require an external source of compressed air. The air pressure is transmitted as an analog voltage or current signal. Radio-frequency (RF) capacitance sensors, tuning-fork sensors, and floats are switches that are engaged when submerged in water and disengaged when water levels drop below them. Several of these switches can be installed on a track or some other means of support at several tank depths. An elevation signal is generated for each particular depth where switches are located. A transmitter unit is commonly

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Operation used to monitor each switch in the tank and transmit digital outputs corresponding to tank level. Icing is a concern with this technology.

Noncontact Level Sensing Technologies Ultrasonic level sensors and radar level sensors are noncontact devices that are suspended above the water surface. They measure the rate of travel of energy through air to measure the distance between the sensor and the surface of the water. Although some sensors are susceptible to condensation, many styles are available with features that prevent condensation from affecting the measurement. Icing may or may not be a concern, depending on how the sensor has been installed. Another concern is the proximity to the sensor’s energy beam of tank walls or other tank appurtenances. Some sensors are able to “calibrate out” such obstacles. Under certain conditions, a stilling well can be used to focus the sensor’s beam through a pipe dipped into the water. This method has the added advantage of reducing water surface turbulence that may affect accuracy, but it increases the chance for icing damage. Pressure transmitters measure the pressure, or head, of the tank at some point along the tank’s piping or wet riser. These devices use the compression of a pressure-sensing element, typically a strain gauge or a capacitor, to generate a continuous-voltage or current-analog signal corresponding to tank elevation. A tap is required in the tank’s piping or riser where small-diameter piping (copper that is 0.25 to 0.75 in. [6.3 to 19.0 mm] in diameter is common) connects to the transmitter. This small-diameter pipe is susceptible to freezing and should be installed in a heated or insulated enclosure in cold-weather regions. Pressure transmitters are the most common type of level sensor used in SCADA systems for distribution system storage tanks. Level-sensing methods require accurate information regarding tank elevation and dimensions. A maintenance and calibration schedule should be followed, and good records should be kept.

Street Pressure Street pressure is measured on the street side of the altitude or tank isolation valve. The most common technology used is the pressure transmitter. A continuous-voltage or current-analog signal corresponding to the pipe pressure at the sensor elevation can be continuously sent to the SCADA operator. (The pressure transmitter need not be at the same elevation as the pipe centerline, but this discrepancy must be accounted for in the determination of street pressure.) If the altitude valve is not locally controlled, a decrease in street pressure signals the operator that the altitude valve or tank isolation valve should be opened and the tank drafted to meet demand. Data on street pressure enable the operator to monitor distribution system pressures even if

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Chapter Nine the tank has been isolated. For instance, a sharp decrease in street pressure may be an indication of system failure such as a water main break.

Disinfectant Residual Water quality managers are installing monitors for disinfectant residuals at representative distribution system locations. Some installations are made because of regulatory requirements, others as a voluntary measure. Tanks are ideal for such systems since they are usually in secured locations, electrical power is available, and utility personnel periodically visit the tank site. Various technologies are commercially available to measure and transmit concentrations of disinfectant residual. The most common secondary disinfection chemical in the United States is chlorine. The following methods are described for measuring concentrations of chlorine residual at water storage facilities.

N,N-Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) Colorimetric Method DPD is oxidized by chlorine in solution. This results in two oxidation products. The contrast between the colors of these two compounds, as measured by a colorimeter or a spectrophotometer, reveals the amount of free or total chlorine in the water. A voltage or current-analog signal corresponding to the calibrated concentration of residual is then transmitted to SCADA.

Iodometric Method Potassium iodide reacts with free chlorine in the sample water to produce iodide. The iodide concentration is measured by the instrument to yield total chlorine. Free chlorine is not measurable by this method.

Polarographic Membrane Sensor Technology A pair of electrodes is immersed in a conductive electrolyte and separated from the sample water by a chlorine-permeable membrane. Free chlorine travels through the membrane and is reduced to chloride at the electrode’s surface. The reduction of free chlorine generates an electric current between the electrodes that is proportional to the free chlorine concentration.

Amperometric Electrodes Combinations of probes consisting of a silver anode and a platinum cathode measure free chlorine concentration, pH, and temperature. A current proportional to the free chlorine concentration is produced within the electrodes. The amperometric electrodes require replacement after a manufacturer-specified lifetime (Pollack et al. 1999). Although automated, these systems may require chemical replenishment and periodic maintenance and calibration to sustain accuracy.

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Operation Disinfectant-residual sensors can also act as feedback for booster disinfection at storage facilities. The SCADA operator can remotely control the feeding system. System parameters such as start, stop, feed rate, remaining disinfectant, and set point may be controlled and/or monitored.

Temperature Temperature transmitters and thermocouples can be used to measure and transmit temperatures. Low air temperature inside equipment enclosures can alert the SCADA operator to potential freezing conditions that are detrimental to tank-monitoring devices. A water temperature probe inserted either in the tank or in the pipeline leading to the tank, or in both, can provide the utility with information regarding tank stratification conditions. A complete temperature profile of a tank can be obtained by using a weighted line of thermocouples designed to measure temperature at various water depths. The information may be transmitted to SCADA or stored locally and downloaded manually. Trending of such temperature profiles over time can help water quality managers and operators to determine operational parameters for seasonal or changing conditions.

Flow Many different types of meters can be used to measure water flow. SCADA monitoring of flow into and out of a tank can indicate problems in the distribution system, assist water quality managers in determining optimum tank operation, determine water depletion time during emergencies, and so on. Some of the systems used to measure flow at tanks are differential-type flowmeters such as venturis, insertion meters (V-Cone, Annubar, etc.), and orifice plates and electronic-type meters such as ultrasonic, temperature, and magnetic flowmeters. Detection of flow direction is inherent to the operation of some of the meters, such as magmeters. Other meters, such as venturis, require additional devices to determine flow direction. Each meter named, whether as a primary or a secondary device, makes use of a transmitter to calculate and convert the flow into an analog current or voltage signal.

Security As discussed earlier in this chapter, security at water storage facilities is a concern to utility officials and law enforcement. SCADA systems can also transmit data from security sensors and video from cameras either to the SCADA operator or directly to a separate security SCADA monitoring center or to law enforcement monitoring officials. A variety of sensors are available to detect intrusion to a tank site or

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Chapter Nine tampering with tank appurtenances such as hatches and vents. Each of these sensors is capable of sending a digital signal to SCADA that indicates the appropriate security-related reaction. Pan/tilt/zoom cameras can be operated remotely to track an intruder’s activities. Available camera technology is able to register images even at very low light levels. Video recording devices at each site may be accessed remotely through SCADA to download video images of the intrusion.

Local Monitoring and Control The section of this chapter on water quality monitoring in distribution system tanks outlined several parameters that a utility may choose to monitor. Water corrosivity, pH, conductivity, total organic carbon (TOC), and turbidity are among the most commonly encountered. All and any of these parameters, as well as the ones described in detail previously, can be relayed by telemetry to the utility’s SCADA center. Data about all parameters measured at each tank are routed through a common device for processing and communication. There are essentially two devices found throughout the industry—the remote terminal unit (RTU) and the programmable logic controller (PLC). RTUs are generally associated with remote monitoring of field devices. PLCs have been traditionally used for the automatic and/or remote control of processes. These differences have become cloudy in recent years; each device can now serve both monitoring and control duties. Debate rages on over the reliability of each system, their control and sampling rates, and their capability or lack thereof to handle large numbers of data points, store data during power outages, and so on. RTUs and PLCs require a protective splash-proof/weatherproof enclosure. Each data point is wired to the device’s input/output cards. The data are analyzed according to the terminal or the controller’s programming and are stored or transmitted. It is possible for either device to be connected to a local personal computer. Operators and maintenance personnel can use these local computers to monitor or troubleshoot data and device performance locally without the assistance of, or feedback from, the SCADA center operator. The local computer, which is called a human/machine interface (HMI), can be a laptop computer brought from site to site or a desktop computer stationed at the site. Technology options available for remote telemetry communication can be categorized as follows: telephone, cellular, radio frequency, fiber, and satellite. Telephone communication technology requires a hard line be installed. The information is transmitted and received in analog form by means of modems at the site and at the SCADA center. Several communication rates are available depending on the utility’s budget and the need for fast transmission of large volumes

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Operation of information. Available services range from basic telephone modem communication (2,400 bits per second [bps]) to leased duplex lines with high broadband capability (>2 million bits per second [Mbps]). Because telephone lines are already available near most water storage facilities and the needed equipment is relative inexpensive and commonly available, telephone communication is the most popular technology used for SCADA systems. Telephone lines are susceptible to weather such as lightning or windstorms, which may disable SCADA access to the facility. Careful consideration should be given during design of any SCADA system to default operation of controlled devices if there is a communication failure. Cellular communication technology can be used if the water storage facility and the SCADA center lie within the coverage range of a cellular communication company. A cellular modem is installed at the tank and at the SCADA center, but no hard wire exists. Instead, data are transmitted via a wireless cellular network of communication towers and cellular antennas between the site and the control center. Cellular communication is a good choice for locations where hard phone lines do not reach, as the cost is relatively higher than for a hard telephone line and fewer broadband options are available. Many electronic devices, such as pressure transmitters, small process controllers, security sensors, and so on are now available with integrated cellular modems capable of sending a small number of monitoring and/or control signals to a cellular modem at the SCADA center. Radio-frequency communication systems use a radio modem and a low-powered transceiver at the tank location, and a transceiver is connected to an RF base station at the SCADA center. Several tank sites or other remote facilities can be polled over a single ultrahighfrequency (UHF) or very-high-frequency (VHF) system. Any station can serve as a repeater to extend the line-of-sight transmission of the SCADA center (Pollack et al. 1999). In a typical application, the SCADA base requests data from a remote location, such as a tank, by transmitting a wake-up signal to send data. When the remote begins transmitting, the base reverts to the receive mode and collects the data package. After transmitting the data, the remote goes back to the receive mode and awaits instructions from the base. The output of the sensors at the remote site has usually been converted to digital data by the RTU or PLC. This signal (typically in the range of 300 to 3,000 Hz) is delivered to a modem that converts it to an analog form that can be frequency-modulated to the RF carrier. When the base receives the analog data, the base modem converts it back to digital data. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has allocated certain frequencies that can be used for fixed operation. Certain frequencies are available for RF transmission in the low band (25 to 50 MHz), midband (72 to 76 MHz), VHF band (150 to 174 MHz), UHF band (450 to 512 MHz), and 900 MHz (928 to 960 MHz). The low band provides the

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Chapter Nine best communication range because the path loss is less than at higher frequencies. However, it is susceptible to interference from electrical noise. The UHF band is the most frequently used because of the large number of available channels and its relative freedom from electrical noise. Line-of-sight studies are always required to test the feasibility for RF systems. Obtaining a license from the FCC for the exclusive use of a frequency can be expensive and time-consuming. Start-up cost is high, and although maintenance cost is low, the utility becomes the sole owner and operator of the RF communication system and is responsible for its maintenance and upgrades (Pollack et al. 1999). Fiber SCADA communication systems require the installation of expensive fiber-optic cable (often several miles or kilometers) to a fiber utility cable. Fiber provides the best broadband of any communication method, often surpassing 100 Mbps. This expensive option should only be considered when a utility requires the fast transmission of very large volumes of data, including real-time video. The fiber lines can be leased or owned, depending on availability and agreement with the provider. When the water utility owns the line, it becomes responsible for its maintenance and upgrades. When a tank is located where telephone lines, cellular communications, or RF systems are impractical, satellite communications is an option if a satellite covering the distribution system area is in space. In this case, the satellite acts as a relay station between the tank and the SCADA center. Transmitters and receivers are required at both ends to communicate through the satellite. This option is more expensive than hard phone lines or cellular technology, but it may be well worth the cost when no other communication alternative is viable.

SCADA Systems The sophistication of the SCADA system depends on the utility’s budget, the equipment supplier, and the programmer/system integrator. Often a single operator is in charge of remotely controlling and monitoring thousands of data points throughout the distribution system. A master station at the SCADA center is usually a single device (centralized system), a master with submasters (hierarchical system), or a parallel group of processors (distributed system). For the purpose of this discussion, each will be referred to as the master station. The functions of the master station include scanning PLCs and RTUs throughout the distribution system. This is accomplished by monitoring the proper operation of remote control devices, ensuring that messages from these devices are error free, retrying when messages are incorrect, and reporting PLC or RTU failures. A master station also processes data received from RTUs and PLCs. The

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Operation master station does this by checking for alarm conditions, averaging and trending data, storing event changes, and entering data into a database. The transmittal of operator commands is another important function of the master station. The transmittal of commands involves several steps: interrupting the scan and arming the proper remote, encoding and transmitting the command, verifying that the proper command has been received, permitting execution of the command, and verifying command execution. Master stations must also maintain a database for historical data. To accomplish this, data received from the remote location are typically condensed into hourly and daily averages, peak values are delineated, and various data-compression techniques are used to minimize storage. Additionally, the historical data might include status information such as valve positions, water level elevations, and similar items to allow later correlation with flows and pressures. The historical database must also provide very flexible data retrieval capabilities. The master station is also responsible for driving the human/ machine interface. This is done by presenting data on video display screens, map boards, printers, or similar mediums; providing the ability to define screen formats, including graphics; and providing the ability to define report formats. Master stations provide the important function of providing failover to a backup when necessary. This involves maintenance of duplicate data files in a backup processor and monitoring of the primary processor (by the backup) and switch to the backup (i.e., failover) on detection of a stall or error. Master stations may also perform advanced functions such as supply prediction, demand prediction, optimal pumping, and leak detection. The human/machine interface is the point at which the operator interacts with the SCADA system. Current SCADA systems offer interactive HMI modules. These allow building of display screens by those with no programming knowledge. This permits operations personnel who will be using the system to design and build graphic and tabular displays that precisely meet their needs. These displays may be interactive—that is, the symbol for a pump may change color depending on pump status, or a reservoir icon may “fill” as the reservoir level increases. Inputs to a SCADA system occur either as real-time events automatically sensed and reported by the remote control device or as manual inputs through an HMI. Inputs from RTUs or PLCs include status, flow, pressure, and level. Inputs from HMIs include commands for open/close, run/stop, and set point. SCADA outputs are either for driving the HMI or for executing the commands at the remote location. HMI outputs include periodic reports, alarms, alarm summary reports, graphic pictures, displays of

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Chapter Nine real-time data, displays of averaged or trended data, and historical reports. Control outputs include set point and on/off or start/stop. SCADA technology should permit building of reports by persons with no programming skills. An operator or engineer, for instance, can readily define a report format. The resulting report can then be produced for a special study or scheduled to be automated output as a routine operational report (Gotoh et al. 1993). HMI screens should be organized and labeled in a way that they are easily identified and uploaded to the screen. The interface with the operator should be clear and simple (feedback, on-screen help, and option menus are useful tools). A sufficient number of control and monitoring screens should be provided to keep screen cluttering to a minimum. Alarms should be in a scroll window that does not overtake the main window. Symbols, colors, and terms should be consistent and self-descriptive. The overall screen environment should be intuitively simple and allow operation with minimal computer programming skills.

Energy Conservation in the Distribution System In many communities, water utilities are the largest consumers of electric power. Pumping is the largest consumer of electric power for utilities and is their largest operational cost. Pumping is a continuous process that is typically rarely interrupted. It is used to meet high demand in the early morning and late afternoon (and/or evenings) and to fill the tanks between those times. Utilities can take advantage of elevated water storage to reduce these power expenses. Electrical energy is converted to pressure and velocity head through the pumping process. When the water reaches an elevated storage facility, the water rises to an elevation equal to the remaining energy in the pipe. Hence, energy is stored in tanks in the form of potential energy, or head. Tanks can be filled during low-demand hours to take advantage of reduced power rates. The volume of stored water and its specific head reduces the need for pumping (additional electric energy) during peak-demand hours. This process is known as peak shaving. Peak shaving not only reduces power consumption, it reduces the size of pump stations and trunk mains to satisfy the same demand. This capital cost savings is in addition to the operational energy cost reduction. However, this must be weighed against the cost of additional storage to satisfy demand. An optimum design is one that achieves the lowest life-cycle cost including maintenance and cost of demolition and replacement. Tanks help save energy in other ways. Drafting of tanks in conjunction with pumping during hours of peak demand reduces water flow in trunk mains. Lower pipe velocities result in less head loss

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Operation

Operation (energy loss) due to friction. Maintaining water elevation in tanks within a specific range can help set limits on the minimum and maximum system curves. Coordinating that with the pump curves forces pumps to operate at or close to their highest possible efficiencies. The size and number of pumps installed must be optimized in keeping with the demand conditions and storage available. Pumps operating efficiently can reduce electric consumption drastically. In many cases, pumps with best efficiency points (the combination of flow and pressure at which a pump operates most efficiently) that are greater than 90 percent provided wire-to-water efficiencies of less than 25 percent due to inappropriate operation. Pump wire-to-water efficiencies during operation are commonly less than 50 percent. To improve pump efficiency, elevated tanks should be used to satisfy the marginal demand, and pumps should be used only when there is enough demand in the system for them to operate near their optimum efficiency. In addition, allowing tanks to float on the system eliminates the need to start pumps to meet marginal demand increases, which eliminates maximum electric demand surcharges. Most water utility power rates are based on demand or capacity surcharge. That is, the water utility pays based on its peak power consumption during the billing period, for the entire billing period. Rates are also higher for power consumed during peak hours. Therefore, water administrators and operators should look for ways to decrease overall and peak-hour power consumption. The action of starting pumps, in particular, draws large and instantaneous amounts of inrush current from power grids. Electrical distribution systems may experience serious problems if a power company does not have enough standby power to meet this instantaneous demand. In fact, utilities that require large pumps for distribution pumping often must get clearance from the power company before starting a pump. Power companies may also require water utilities to install soft-starter technology to reduce starting motor current. Some small utilities with sufficient storage are able to shift pumping to periods of low electrical demand and pay a reduced rate for power. This strategy, however, is difficult to implement in large systems because of the excessive volume of storage that would be required. Many utilities have resorted to variable-speed pumping to meet variable demand. Variable-speed drives allow pumps to operate below normal speeds to reduce flow and pressure output. Although wire-to-water efficiencies may be low at lower speeds, the amount of energy used is less, reducing energy consumption. Hence, peak power consumption is reduced, because only a fraction of the total potential pump power is used. The efficiencies achieved by variablespeed pumping can be exceeded by properly designed and operated constant-speed pumping systems and tanks.

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Chapter Nine Ideally, the most efficient means of conveying water is to have no more than two pumps operating continuously at constant speed near or at optimum efficiency. The number of pumps may increase or decrease on a seasonal basis if demand patterns change, but it remains constant otherwise. Tanks are filled when daily demand drops and drafted when it increases; the draft and fill limits are set by the boundaries of the pumps’ high-efficiency region. Of course, not all systems have pump stations or tanks that are set up to do that. In addition to the peak-shaving volume for energy considerations, tank size should provide sufficient reserve storage for fire flow and emergencies while maintaining tank turnover for water quality. It is not easy to optimize the tank’s diameter versus height for the required storage volume to satisfy all or most of these considerations.

Bibliography American Water Works Association (AWWA). 2003. Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations—Water Treatment. 3rd ed., p. 210. Denver, CO: AWWA. AWWA. 1986. Maintaining Distribution-System Water Quality. Denver, CO: AWWA. AWWA. 1990. Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook of Community Water Supplies. 4th ed., p. 14.4. New York: McGraw-Hill. AWWA. 2010. Water Quality and Treatment, A Handbook on Drinking Water. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Clark, R. M., and W. M. Grayman. 1998. Modeling Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems. Denver, CO: AWWA. Clesceri, L. S. (ed.), A. E. Greenberg, and A. D. Eaton. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association, AWWA, and Water Environment Federation. Code of Federal Regulations. 2004. Title 14—Aeronautics and Space, Chapter 1, Subchapter E Airspace, Part 77. Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation. Code of Federal Regulations. 2004. Title 40—Protection of Environment, Chapter 1, Part 141. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency. Connell, G. F. 1996. The Chlorination/Chloramination Handbook. Denver, CO: AWWA. Crozes, G. F., et al. 1999. Improving Clearwell Design for CT Compliance. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association Research Foundation (Awwarf). De Zuane, J. 1997. Handbook of Drinking Water Quality. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Gotoh, K. (ed.), J. K. Jacobs, S. Hosoda, and R. L. Gerstberger. 1993. Instrumentation and Computer Integration of Water Utility Operations, pp. 113–4. Denver, CO: Awwarf and Japan Water Works Association.

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Operation

Operation Grayman, W. M., L. A. Rossman, C. Arnold, R. A. Deininger, C. Smith, J. F. Smith, and R. Schnipke. 1999. Water Quality Modeling of Distribution System Storage Facilities. Denver, CO: Awwarf and AWWA. Guidance Manual for Maintaining Distribution System Water Quality. 2002. Denver, CO: Awwarf and AWWA. Hjertager L. K., B. H. Hjertager, N. G. Deen, and T. Solberg. 2008. Experimental and Computational Studies of Turbulent Mass Transfer in a Mixing Channel. International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering 6:A105. Jirka, G. H. 1999. Five Asymptotic Regimes of a Round Buoyant Jet in Stratified Crossflow. 28th International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research (IAHR) Biennial Congress, Graz (Austria). Kirmeyer, G. J., L. Kirby, B. M. Murphy, P. F. Noran, K. Martel, T. W. Lund, J. L. Anderson, and R. Medhurst. 1999. Maintaining Water Quality in Finished Water Storage Facilities. Denver, CO: Awwarf and AWWA. Knoy, E. C. 1991a. Good Design Eliminates Frozen Storage Tanks. Opflow 17(2):1. Knoy, E. C. 1991b. Solving Cold Weather Problems for Storage Tanks. Opflow 17(1):2. Lee, S. Y., and R. A. Dimenna. 2001. Performance Analysis for Mixing Pumps in Tank 18. Report WSRC-TR-2001-00391 prepared for US Department of Energy, contract DE-AC09-96SR18500. Aiken, SC: Westinghouse Savannah River Co. Lindeburg, M. R. 2001. Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual. Belmont, CA: Professional Publications. Mays, L. W., ed. 1999. Hydraulic Design Handbook. American Water Works Association. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mays, L. W., ed. 2000. Water Distribution Systems Handbook. American Water Works Association. New York: McGraw-Hill. MixZone, Inc. 2005. www.cormix.com. Moegling, S. D. 1992. Modeling the Effects of Reservoir Mixing on Water Quality in Water Distribution Systems. Graduate thesis, University of Akron, Akron, OH. Nathman, J. C., R. C. Aguirre, and H. J. Catrakis. 2004. Far-Field Turbulent Mixing Efficiency and Large-Scale Outer-Fluid-Interface Dynamics. 42nd American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Conference, Sacramento, CA. Pollack, A., A. S. C. Chen, R. C. Haught, and J. A. Goodrich. 1999. Options for Remote Monitoring and Control of Small Drinking Water Facilities, pp. 52–120. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press. Recommended Standards for Water Works [Ten States Standards]. 1992. Great Lakes–Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environmental Managers. Albany, NY: Health Research. Roberts, P. J. W., X. Tian, S. Lee, F. Sotirepoulos, and M. Duer. 2004. Physical and Numerical Modeling of Mixing in Water Storage Tanks: Progress Report. Denver, CO: Georgia Institute of Technology and Awwarf. Sanks, R. L., ed. 1989. Pumping Station Design. Stoneham, MA: ButterworthHeinemann. Schlichting, H. 1968. Boundary Layer Theory. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Chapter Nine Shan, J. W., and P. E. Dimotakis. 2001. Turbulent Mixing in Transverse Jets. Report CaltechGalcitFM:2001.006. Pasadena, CA: Graduate Aeronautical Laboratories, California Institute of Technology. Ten States Standards. 1992. See Recommended Standards for Water Works. Great Lakes–Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environmental Managers. Albany, NY: Health Research. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1974. Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. Washington, D.C.: USEPA. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Guidance Manual for Compliance with the Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for Public Water Systems Using Surface Water Sources [Surface Water Treatment Rule Guidance Manual]. EPA 570391001. Washington, D.C.: USEPA. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999. Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual. Appendix D, Determination of Contact Time. EPA-815-R-99-013. Washington, D.C.: USEPA. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2006. Stage 2 Disinfectant and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (Stage 2 DBP rule). EPA 815-F-05-003. Washington, D.C.: USEPA. Compliance Help: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ disinfection/stage2/compliance.html#quickguides. Accessed February 2008. von Huben, H. 1999. Water Distribution Operator Training Handbook. 2nd ed., p. 16. Denver, CO: AWWA. Walski, T. M., D. V. Chase, and D. A. Savic. 2001. Water Distribution Modeling, p. 31. Waterbury, CT: Haestad Press. Walski, T. M., J. Gessler, and J. W. Sjostrom. 1990. Water Distribution Systems: Simulation and Sizing. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

10

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Jennifer Coon, C.H.M.M., C.E.T. Tank Industry Consultants

Why have a maintenance program? The answer is simple: Preventive maintenance has been, and always will be, less expensive than crisis maintenance. Preventive maintenance allows owners to identify potential problems and develop solutions before the problems reach crisis proportion. For example, it can be much cheaper to identify and arrest coating failure and corrosion before they turn into metal loss requiring more extensive repair. Additionally, tank painting, if done properly, is typically required at intervals of 15 to 20 years. If the coating adhesion is monitored regularly during inspections, topcoats can be applied to the exterior to restore the aesthetics and extend life of the original or underlying coating system beyond the anticipated 15 to 20 years. Topcoating can cost only a fraction of the cost of full repainting.

Tank Evaluations and Resources Three types of evaluations are recommended during the life of the tank: (1) initial or baseline tank evaluations, (2) update evaluations, and (3) operator evaluations. Several organizations have established standards by which water storage tanks are evaluated and maintained. AWWA publishes standards dealing with specific aspects of tanks. Additionally, all water storage tanks should be compliant with any local building codes.

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Initial Evaluation An initial evaluation is a thorough evaluation performed to determine the tank’s structural, sanitary, safety, and coating condition. The AWWA manual M42, Steel Water Storage Tanks, recommends that a professional engineer familiar with the design and maintenance of water storage tanks perform this type of evaluation. The initial evaluation is the most detailed and intensive evaluation.

Update Evaluation An update evaluation should be performed approximately every 3 to 5 years following the initial evaluation. The update evaluation is performed to monitor changes in the coating condition and rate of corrosion and to verify that tank conditions have not changed significantly since the previous evaluation or rehabilitation. The same person or firm that performed the original initial evaluation should perform the update evaluation. The update evaluation is not as time-consuming and detailed as the initial evaluation. The advantages of having an initial evaluation and subsequent update evaluations performed by a professional are that these evaluations will identify the optimum time for tank repainting and repairs, and the owner can better plan for and budget for proper tank maintenance or rehabilitation. The evaluations will identify all of the work that is required to properly maintain the tank. This eliminates surprises and change orders during a repair or repainting project.

Operator Evaluation Tank owners should perform a cursory evaluation of the tank’s condition at least annually. The purpose of this evaluation is to identify items that can be easily remedied by maintenance personnel and to indicate if any issues exist that require professional evaluation. If any significant deterioration is found, or if the tank has been damaged in some way, a professional should be called in to evaluate the problem. Items requiring basic maintenance can be remedied by operating personnel at this time. If the owner’s personnel are not properly equipped or qualified to climb the tank, the professional person or firm that performs the initial and update evaluations could perform this function. The advantages of operator evaluations are that any significant or serious changes that may require further evaluation by a professional, such as a potential leak or metal loss on the anchor bolts, can be identified by the operator. Also, routine maintenance can be performed by water department personnel, thus saving the costs of replacing items or repairing items at the next rehabilitation.

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Resources for Tank Owners

r The AWWA Standard D100 for steel water storage tanks was originally published in 1935 and has undergone continual upgrading and modification.

r The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) initially

adopted NFPA 22 Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection in 1914.

r AWWA M42 Steel Water Storage Tanks Manual. This manual incorporates and updates much of the information contained in AWWA D101 Standard for Inspecting and Repairing Steel Water Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs, and Elevated Tanks for Water Storage. The publication of D101 has been discontinued.

Additional Steel Tank References

r AWWA D100-05—AWWA Standard for Welded Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage

r AWWA D102-06—AWWA Standard for Coating Steel WaterStorage Tanks

r AWWA D103-97—AWWA Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted Steel Tanks for Water Storage

r AWWA D104-04—AWWA Standard for Automatically Controlled, Impressed-Current Cathodic Protection for the Interior of Steel Water Tanks

r API Standard, ANSI/API 65-1992—Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

r API Standard, ANSI/API 653-1995—Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction

r API Standard, ANSI/API 620-1992—Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

r NFPA 22—Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection

Composite-Tank References

r ACI 371R-98—Guide for the Analysis, Design, and Construction of Concrete-Pedestal Water Towers

r AWWA D107—AWWA Standard for Composite Elevated Tanks for Water Storage

Inspection and Repair by Operator The first step of any preventive maintenance program is inspection to identify the items requiring maintenance. Following are items that

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C h a p t e r Te n should be inspected periodically by the operator and instructions regarding repair.

Site Access Inspection The tank and the site should be monitored for signs of unauthorized access and vandalism, which are a potential liability for the tank owner. Signs of unauthorized access include damage to the tank or site, graffiti on the tank or site appurtenances, paint chipping caused by rocks being thrown at the tank, and bullet holes or indentions in the steel caused by from guns being shot at the tank. Personnel should look for damage or loose wiring in the site fence and barbed-wire strands as well as gaps between the fence and the ground. The proper operation of the gate locking mechanism, site motion detectors, site lighting, and surveillance cameras should also be verified. If the tank is equipped with an exterior ladder, the proper operation of its vandal deterrent and locking mechanism should also be confirmed.

Repair If the site is not already enclosed by a fence, a fence at least 6 ft (1.8 m) tall and topped with barbed wire should be installed around the entire tank site. Barbed-wire strands should be added to the top of the fence if they are not already present. Personnel should then regularly maintain the fence and barbed wire so that they are in good condition. Any holes, broken wire, or bent sections should be repaired. The fence should be close enough to grade to prevent intruder passage under it. All barbed-wire strands should be taut. The fence should be equipped with a gate or gates that can be locked whenever the site is unattended. Vegetation should be regularly trimmed back from the fence so that it does not damage or restrict view of the fence. All light fixtures, motion detectors, and surveillance cameras should be regularly maintained. If the tank has an exterior ladder, it should be equipped with a locked vandal deterrent.

Site Maintenance Inspection The operator’s personnel should evaluate the condition of the tank site not just for appearance purposes, but also to help protect the tank from damage and corrosion. The presence of any trees, bushes, or other vegetation touching the foundation, bottom plate, or tank should be noted. Foliage traps moisture against the steel and creates a damp atmosphere that can accelerate corrosion. These areas should also be checked to see if grass clippings or other debris have accumulated there. If saturated or eroded soil not caused by precipitation or

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair overflow effluent is noted around the base of the tank, a professional engineer familiar with water storage tank issues should be contacted, as this may signify a structural problem.

Repair Trees and bushes should be trimmed back to prevent the limbs and foliage from touching the tank. Vegetation should be trimmed so it does not grow up on the foundation, base plate(s), and tank. Personnel should remove any debris found on the foundation and base plate(s). When the tank site is mowed or other maintenance operations are performed with similar equipment, the discharge should be directed away from the base of the tank to prevent any rocks discharged from hitting the tank and damaging its coating. This will also prevent grass clippings from accumulating on the foundations and base plates and accelerating corrosion. Care should be taken that maintenance equipment, trucks, and so on do not come into contact with the tank or foundation. If necessary, personnel should regrade the site so that the foundation projects 6 to 12 in. (152 to 304 mm) above grade and adequate drainage away from the foundation occurs. Rainwater runoff and overflow discharge should be directed away from the foundation.

Foundation(s) Inspection The foundation should be checked to verify that it projects between 6 and 12 in. (152 and 304 mm) above grade and that there is proper drainage away from the foundation. The foundation(s) should be examined for signs of settlement and the concrete inspected for evidence of cracking, spalling, or exposed reinforcing steel. Deep cracks or extensive crumbling of the foundation signal, a potentially serious issue, and a professional evaluation should be conducted. Also, if the foundation tops are not approximately level with each other, this may be evidence of differential settlement of the tank foundation, and a professional evaluation should be conducted.

Repair Personnel can apply a bonding agent and vinyl emollient concretepatching mortar to any deteriorated areas or voids found in the concrete foundation to build up the surface to its original contour. The condition of this repair should then be monitored.

Grout, Fiberboard, and Sealant Inspection The condition of any grout, fiberboard, or sealant located at the interface of the foundation and the bottom plate should be evaluated

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C h a p t e r Te n for any cracks, voids, or deterioration. These can allow moisture to build up between the tank foundation and bottom plate and cause underbottom corrosion.

Repair A flexible sealant can be applied to any deteriorated areas or voids found in these materials to restrict the ingress of moisture through the voids and under the tank bottom plate. The condition of these repairs should then be monitored.

Anchor Bolts and Chairs Inspection The anchor bolts and chairs should be inspected regularly by the operator’s personnel for any signs of corrosion and metal loss. Metal loss is most critical at or below the nut. If metal loss is observed, the area of metal loss should be measured and compared with the diameter of the bolt where no corrosion has occurred. Typically, if the anchor bolt has deteriorated by more than the thread depth (to the root diameter or less), if any of the anchor bolts are bent or otherwise damaged, or if any of the nuts are not completely threaded, a structural engineer familiar with the design and maintenance of water storage tanks should be contacted to evaluate the anchor bolts and chairs further.

Repair Personnel should keep the chairs free of debris, vegetation, and grass clippings.

Manholes and Access Doors Inspection Manholes and doors should be checked periodically to confirm that they are secured against unauthorized entrance. Unlocked manholes and doors are a potential liability for the tank owner.

Repair Personnel should install locks on manholes and access doors. They should also replace any manhole gaskets that do not create a positive seal. If any of the bolts have corroded, they should be replaced with stainless-steel bolts to prevent rust staining from streaking onto the tank surfaces.

Exterior Overflow Pipes Inspection The overflow pipe should be checked to verify that no potential exists for cross connection between the potable water stored in the tank and

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair the water in the storm or sanitary sewer. The proper operation of a flap gate or elastomeric check valve should be confirmed, and the inspector should verify that no gaps exist between the flap gate and the pipe. The condition of the screen should be assessed to verify that it is adequate to prevent the ingress of insects and small animals. The brackets and associated attachments should be evaluated for corrosion and metal loss.

Repair If gaps are noted, personnel should reposition the flap gate or elastomeric check valve on the overflow pipe to eliminate them. Any damaged screening on the overflow pipe discharge should be replaced to prevent the ingress of insects and small animals.

Venting Inspection The proper operation of the clog-resistant vent and its pallets needs to be checked before and after freezing weather. The condition of the vent screening needs to be assessed to verify it is adequate to prevent the ingress of insects into the tank. Shielding over any vertically oriented screening also needs to be assessed so that wind-driven dust and debris do not enter the tank.

Repair Personnel should replace any damaged vent screens to prevent the ingress of insects into the tank. Any damaged shielding over the screening should also be replaced so wind-driven dust and debris do not enter the tank.

Ladders Inspection All ladders should be carefully checked for deteriorated members that might pose a danger to climbers. The ladder brackets and their attachments to the tank and the ladder itself should be checked for missing or deteriorated bolts and/or cracked welds. The rungs should be inspected for metal loss, especially where they join the side rails.

Repair If deteriorated members are noted on a ladder or its associated brackets, repairs should be made. If the ladder is equipped with a safeclimbing device, the device should be shielded from any paint or solvent being used to ensure its continued proper operation.

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Balcony and/or Platform Inspection Any balcony and/or platform should be evaluated to verify that the surface does not retain water. If the surfaces allow water to pond, a professional engineer should be contacted to discuss options for drainage. The floor or safety railing access openings should be assessed. Closable covers should be located over all floor openings, and protective chains or bars should be located at all railing access openings.

Repair Personnel should replace any missing covers from floor openings and/or protective chains from safety railing.

Interior Lighting Inspection Personnel should check to make sure all interior lighting fixtures operate properly. The condition and presence of the protective cages and globes on the fixtures should be verified. The conduits associated with the lighting should be assessed to confirm that they enclose all wiring and are adequately supported. If they do not appear to be adequately supported, a professional engineer should be contacted.

Repair Personnel should maintain any interior light fixtures so that they operate properly. Burned-out bulbs should be replaced, as should damaged protective cages and globes. If the fixtures or associated conduits expose wiring, it should be covered in accordance with National Electric Code (NEC) guidelines.

Obstruction Lighting Inspection If obstruction lighting is required on a tank, personnel should make sure it is operational and lit. The condition of any globes and bulbs should be verified. The lighting should be evaluated to confirm that it is adequately braced and that it and the associated conduits do not have exposed wiring. The condition of the photoelectric cell should be checked. The proper operation of the lighting should be verified both at night and during the day to ensure that the lights are on when required and off during daylight hours (unless otherwise required by the Federal Aviation Administration) to reduce electricity use and the frequency of replacing bulbs. If the fixture and its conduits do not appear to be adequately supported, a professional engineer should be contacted.

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Repair Personnel should replace damaged bulbs or globes. If wiring is exposed, it should be covered in accordance with NEC guidelines.

Inspection of the Tank Exterior Exterior Steel Welded Tanks and Leaks The general condition of the exterior coating and any evidence of corrosion should be monitored. If the exterior of the tank is in poor condition, the condition of the interior coating could be as poor or worse. The tank should be observed for signs of leakage or rust streaking that a leak could have caused. Leaks can develop in flat steel plates, but the most common sites are at seams and joints. Dark rust stains are usually evidence of leakage. Small leaks in the seams may rust closed over time, so water may not actually be running down the tank at the time of the inspection. Also, if the tank is empty, a leak may not be visible. If a leak or excessive corrosion is noted, a professional engineer should be consulted regarding repair, as the leak may indicate a more serious issue.

Exterior Steel Riveted Tanks and Leaks The general condition of the exterior coating and any evidence of corrosion should be monitored. If the exterior of the tank is in poor condition, the condition of the interior coating could be as poor or worse. The tank should be observed for signs of leakage or rust streaking that a leak may have caused. Leaks can develop in flat steel plates, but the most common sites for leaks are seams and joints. Dark rust stains are usually evidence of leakage. Small leaks in the seams may rust closed over time, so no water will actually be running down the tank at the time of the inspection. Also, if the tank is empty, a leak may not be visible. Rivet heads should be closely evaluated as extreme metal loss on these items may indicate a structural issue. If a leak or excessive corrosion is noted or severe corrosion observed on rivet heads, a professional engineer should be consulted regarding repair, as the leak may indicate a more serious issue.

Exterior Steel Bolted Tanks and Leaks The general condition of the exterior coating and any evidence of corrosion should be monitored. If the exterior of the tank is in poor condition, the condition of the interior coating could be as poor or worse. The tank should be observed for signs of leakage or rust streaking that a leak may have caused. Leaks can develop in flat steel plates, but the most common sites for leaks are seams and joints. Dark rust stains are usually evidence of leakage. Small leaks in the seams may rust closed over time, so water may not actually be running down the tank at the time of the inspection. Also, if the tank is empty, a leak

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C h a p t e r Te n may not be visible. Additionally, the gaskets or sealants between the bolted joints should be evaluated to confirm they create a watertight seal. Glass-lined coatings should also be checked for damage around the bolts from over-tightening. If a leak or excessive corrosion is noted, a professional engineer should be consulted regarding repair, as the leak may indicate a more serious issue.

Professional Evaluation AWWA recommends that water storage tanks be professionally evaluated at least every 5 years and otherwise whenever conditions warrant evaluation. A thorough professional evaluation will enable the tank owner to accurately schedule required maintenance, prolonging the structure’s useful life. A professional evaluation should consist of a careful study of the tank’s interior, exterior, foundation, and accessories. All necessary surfaces on the tank should be accessed by rigging and rappelling the interior and exterior as required by the condition and design of each tank.

Selecting a Professional Inspection Company When retaining a firm or person to perform a professional tank evaluation, the owner should refer to the AWWA manual M42 Steel WaterStorage Tanks, which states: “The tank maintenance engineer should have knowledge of the traditional engineering disciplines and have specialized training and practical experience in the design, fabrication, erection, inspection, sanitary integrity, coating, and maintenance of steel water-storage tanks.” A tank owner who invests in a professional tank evaluation should expect the evaluation to be thorough, professional, and complete. In addition to supplying the usual components of a professional evaluation, the evaluation team should identify any peculiarities associated with the tank.

The Evaluation Report A certified engineering report should be issued concerning the condition of the tank. The evaluation report should describe the observations of the technicians and engineers and their recommendations for optimum rehabilitation. Color photographs of the tank interior and exterior provide aid to the tank owner in analyzing the data presented. The report should address the condition of the tank— structural, coating (including heavy-metal content analysis), corrosion control (including cathodic protection), safety (OSHA compliance), operational and sanitary conditions, and compliance with other applicable standards—and environmental considerations such as

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair containment and proper disposal of abrasive blast residue. Those items not in compliance with current OSHA regulations concerning safety, sanitation, and operation should be identified so that the tank owner can make informed decisions regarding compliance with these important issues. A registered professional engineer familiar with the design, construction, and maintenance of water storage tanks should certify the report, which should serve as a decision-making document for the tank owner. The report should also include budget estimates for the recommended work, anticipated life of the coatings and the structure, and estimated replacement cost of the tank. Recommendations should address what rehabilitation work needs to be performed to meet the short-term and long-term needs of the water system.

Inspection of the Tank Interior Underwater Evaluation Using a Diver Although this method does not require the tank to be drained, it should be taken off line and isolated from the system the entire time the diver is in the tank. When performing an underwater evaluation, the diver must wear a full dry suit and full-face diving mask to prevent contact between the diver’s body and the potable water. Before entering the tank, the diver and all related equipment must be thoroughly disinfected in accordance with the latest revision of AWWA Standard for Disinfection of Water-Storage Facilities C652.

Underwater Evaluations Using a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Remotely operated vehicles can be used to evaluate the interiors of water tanks without interrupting service and isolating the tank from the system by operating valves. These ROVs provide closed-circuit video to an on-site technician who operates the unit. As with divers, the ROV must always be disinfected before use in potable water tanks in accordance with AWWA C652. The vehicles are typically made of nonporous materials, and the bearing seals must be filled with a foodgrade glycerin.

Float-Down Evaluation The interior of the tank is full of water as a float-down evaluation begins. A field technician in a small raft evaluates the interior surfaces as the owner drains the tank. The interior wet riser of elevated tanks is typically evaluated by rigging after the float-down evaluation has concluded. The duration of this evaluation is determined by the rate at which the tank is drained.

Drained (Dry) Evaluation During a dry evaluation, the tank is drained before the evaluation and dewatered. The remaining water and sediment are removed from

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C h a p t e r Te n the tank to access the bottom plates. Technicians get to the necessary surfaces of the tank by rigging and rappelling the interior (including the interior of riser pipes 36 in. [0.9 mm] in diameter and larger) as required by the condition and design of each tank. Both dry and wet evaluations have limitations. First, with a diving evaluation, the diver is able to access all of the steel surfaces. During a dry evaluation, the tank evaluation crew can only access, via simple rigging from roof manholes and vents, surfaces that are adjacent to ladders. However, the diver must evaluate the steel surfaces up close, as the limited light does not allow him or her to move away from the tank shell and evaluate the overall corrosion patterns inside the tank. Also, because there is usually silt in the bottom of the tank, the tank bottom cannot be as thoroughly evaluated by diving. When a diver stirs up this sediment, visibility is impaired, diminishing the quality of the evaluation of the tank bottom and the lower portion of the tank shell. In addition, the diver is working with a limited supply of air, which typically causes him or her to accelerate the evaluation. Some of the physical tests that are normally performed, including adhesion tests and dry film thickness readings, cannot be accomplished on the submerged surfaces. Perhaps most importantly, only one diver sees the tank interior, whereas it is ideal for several members of the tank evaluation crew to visually assess the tank interior and evaluate the problems found. This provides for greater accuracy in the evaluation.

Structural Evaluation Structural evaluations are normally only performed if the owner or the engineer believes a tank does not meet current structural standards or if the structural integrity of the tank is suspect. Structural evaluations should evaluate metal loss compared to the apparent or observed original metal loss obtained by ultrasonic testing. A structural analysis is not commonly required for properly maintained existing tanks unless the tank has been modified (if, for example, equipment or antennas have been added to the structure) or has experienced an extreme event such as high winds or an earthquake. The first step of a structural analysis is an engineering evaluation of the tank to determine its condition. A structural engineer should review deterioration of the foundation to determine its effects on the tank’s structural integrity. A level should be used to determine if differential settlement has occurred since construction of the tank. The original design drawings should be reviewed for compliance. Measurements should be taken in the field to analyze the tank and anchorage for compliance with current structural codes and requirements that may have changed or come into effect since the tank was originally designed and constructed. The latest AWWA standards and local building codes should be used. Careful attention should be given

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair to the tank’s compliance with current design requirements for wind, snow, and seismic loadings. The original weld quality on welded steel tanks should be verified by ultrasonic or radiographic testing. The testing is normally performed at locations as required by current AWWA standards and evaluated in accordance with American Welding Society (AWS) standards for weld quality. If the owner has the original radiographs used to verify the original weld quality and has confidence in their accuracy, this additional weld testing may be redundant.

Specialized Inspections Ultrasonic Thickness Measurements Ultrasonic thickness measurements of the steel should be taken, and areas of metal loss and deterioration should be analyzed for structural deficiencies.

Coating Evaluation The coating survey should include laboratory analysis of coating samples to determine the total lead content by weight. Similar tests should be conducted for other regulated heavy metals such as arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, and silver. Additionally, the coating type, thickness, condition, and adhesion should be tested to assess the ease of applying a topcoat to the existing coating. If such tests indicate that topcoating is an option, recoating costs could be significantly reduced.

Cathodic Protection Evaluation Annual inspection of the cathodic protection system by the manufacturer or other qualified person is recommended. At a minimum, this should include overall inspection of the entire cathodic protection system (including removal of expended or damaged anodes, if required), replacement of all defective parts, complete potential profile survey, a physical check of the anode placement and wiring continuity, observation for corrosion at areas of exposed steel, and a written report.

Inspections Following Extreme Events In the 1970s, national design standards first began to include procedures for designing liquid storage tanks that resist earthquakes. The basic design standards and codes for tanks, which focused on providing better details and structural resistance, were based on observed behavior and problems. Design standards have evolved since that time with regard not just to seismic design, but to wind-load design. Older tanks may not meet these current standards. Therefore, inspection and upgrading, and then maintaining retrofits, may reduce the effect of a seismic or other natural event on the tank. Additionally,

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C h a p t e r Te n inspections can identify problems that potentially could arise during freezing weather. Many of these problems could be easily repaired and maintained before they cause hazardous conditions or before the tank fails during freezing weather.

Owner-Performed Inspection Immediately following a tornado, hurricane, major windstorm, or earthquake, or during freezing weather, tanks should be evaluated for any possible damage. If damage is evident, a professional structural engineer familiar with water tank design and maintenance should be contacted as quickly as possible to evaluate the structural condition of the tank.

Professional Seismic Evaluations In-depth seismic evaluations (as with structural evaluations) are typically above and beyond the standard initial evaluation. Seismic evaluations are typically performed only if the owner or the engineer believes a tank does not meet current seismic requirements. Because of the ever-changing seismic regulations and prescribed design loads, some owners are compelled to do a seismic evaluation of their structures, especially those built before the advent of seismic design. In addition to a professional engineer–performed initial field evaluation of the tank, the engineer should obtain and research all available original tank erection drawings, design calculations, specifications, as-built drawings, and other historical data. Based on the field evaluation and the historical documentation review, a certified engineering report should be submitted outlining the observations and recommendations for replacement or retrofit and maintenance to meet the objectives of the owner. The analysis should determine not only whether the original design complies with the current seismic standards, but also whether the tank in its current condition complies with these standards. Because there have been significant changes in the AWWA design and construction standards (especially in the approaches to design for seismic loadings) and design philosophies, the owner may desire a more complete structural evaluation. Accordingly, the entire tank and anchorage system should be analyzed for compliance with present structural codes and requirements, which may have changed or come into effect since this tank was originally designed and constructed. Careful attention should be given to each tank’s compliance with the present design requirements for wind and seismic loadings. Additionally, the original foundation design drawings and soil report should be reviewed for compliance. This design review of the foundations and the amount of reinforcing steel actually inside the concrete will be based solely on the drawings, as there is no economical method of verifying the amount and the location of reinforcing steel and/or

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Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair concrete construction practices. Without the original foundation design drawings, this review could not be reasonably performed, and several assumptions would have to be made. The engineer should always provide a recommendation after reviewing the foundation design regarding the necessity of additional physical foundation evaluation. If original drawings of the foundation(s) are not available, then portions of the existing foundation may have to be excavated. During the seismic evaluation, the original weld quality on welded steel tanks should be verified by ultrasonic or radiographic testing. The testing is typically performed at locations as required by present AWWA standards and evaluated in accordance with AWS standards for weld quality. If the owner has the original radiographs used to verify the original weld quality and has confidence in the accuracy of their radiographs, this additional weld testing may be redundant. If one has not been recently performed, a soil investigation may be part of the seismic evaluation of the tank. The additional information gained from a site-specific soil investigation is important in assessing the overall tank behavior. The soil information may also be useful in determining the design load to comply with the building code requirements and to identify potential soil abnormalities that may affect the performance of the tank. However, a soil investigation is not always a necessary expense that adds value. It is typically in the owner’s best interest to require soil investigations only when the information gathered may have a significant influence on the outcome of the seismic evaluation. It is recommended that a soil investigation be conducted only for the following conditions:

r Tanks where the foundation is extremely sensitive to the integrity of the tank

r Sites believed to have a potential or known soil problems, or r Sites where the potential properties suggest that the default building code soil factors used in determining the seismic load are not credible. For example, when tanks are located in areas subject to soil liquefaction or gross slip failures, additional site investigation and remediation may be required. The size, location, and type of tank influence the relative value of a soil investigation. A tank of low height with an unanchored flat bottom typically imposes less load on the soil and may not be susceptible to soil and foundation problems during an earthquake. Conversely, a large standpipe or elevated tank with substantial anchorage requirements may be significantly affected by the soil behavior. The existing building codes and national tank design standards all specify factors to adjust the seismic design load for the site soil classification. All of these documents also have a default value when

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C h a p t e r Te n sufficient detail is not available. For many sites, the default site classifications are conservative for determining the design load. Another important factor in assessing the need for a site-specific soil investigation is the history of tank failures during seismic events. The types of tank failures most often encountered are related to piping flexibility, damage to the shell anchorage, shell buckling, or sloshing damage to the roof and roof support structure. Few foundation problems resulting from earthquakes are reported. When foundation problems are reported, they are often related to gross soil failures (e.g., a tank sliding down the hill) that may not be addressed by the typical soil report or may be a consequence of inadequate anchorage design.

Tank Inspection Issues Confined Space and Other Safety Issues Personnel accessing the interior of a tank should be trained in proper procedures for entering confined spaces. This includes training in measuring atmospheric conditions for oxygen levels and lower explosive limits, emergency response procedures, and roles of each of the workers on the site crew. Worker training programs are available from a variety of sources including OSHA, which offers outreach training courses through its Outreach Training Program. Before climbing a tank, the operator’s personnel should be trained to work at heights and should be comfortable doing so. The worker should use all appropriate safety equipment and follow all safety procedures. Whenever someone enters the tank, at least one additional person should act as a ground person who is available to get help, if needed. Emergency response procedures should be established and reviewed with all crew members at the start of the tank access. Training may be available through an OSHA Outreach Training Program, through your local fire department, or from recommendations by distributors of fall-protection equipment.

Tank Cleaning/Washouts As water is held in the tank, suspended solids begin to settle out of the water and onto the tank bottom. Without regular washouts, large amounts of sediment may accumulate in the tanks. In addition, proper evaluation of the interior surfaces of the tank cannot be conducted with sediment covering the bottom of the tank.

Draining the Tank Before scheduling work crews to wash out a tank, it is a good idea to determine if the tank is equipped with a drain. If so, its location should be noted.

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Washing Out the Tank The tank can be washed out with low-volume, moderate-pressure (2,500 psi [17,237 kPa]) pumps, firefighting equipment, or other means. Water should be sprayed on all interior surfaces to remove as much residue as possible. In areas where sedimentation is a problem or where strict local environmental regulations apply, it may be necessary to separate the sediment from the washout water and properly dispose of it by some means other than allowing it to enter storm sewers or nearby streams. Also, care should be taken so that large amounts of sediment are not allowed to enter the tank piping; this could clog pipes or damage valves. If the tank has been equipped with aluminum cathodic protection anodes, many of them may have fallen since the previous washout. Because these anodes may damage the interior coating, they should be removed from the tank during the washout.

Operating Without the Tank Operating without a tank may require notification of local businesses and residents so that temporary large uses of water such as lawn watering or equipment washing can be scheduled for other days, thereby leaving the operator with adequate fire protection capacity. It may be necessary to provide pressure relief valves for the one-tank pressure planes when the single tank is out of service.

Refilling the Tank and Disinfection The disinfection of water storage facilities should be done in accordance with the latest revision of AWWA C652. This standard offers three chlorination methods by which disinfection can be accomplished.

r Method 1. This method requires that the tank be filled with chlorinated water (10 mg/L chlorine) for the sole purpose of disinfecting the tank. After the required retention period, the disinfection water is drained and the tank is filled with potable water. After the potable water has satisfied bacteriological tests and is determined to be of acceptable aesthetic quality, the water may be delivered to the distribution system.

r Method 2. This method requires that a chlorine solution

(200 mg/L) be applied with brush or spray equipment to all parts of the tank that would be in contact with water when the tank is full to the overflow elevation. After rinsing, the tank is then filled with potable water. After the potable water has satisfied bacteriological tests and is determined to be of acceptable aesthetic quality, the water may be delivered to the distribution system.

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C h a p t e r Te n r Method 3. This method requires that the tank be filled to approximately 5 percent of the total storage volume with a mixture of potable water and chlorine containing 50 mg/L of available chlorine. After a retention time of not less than 6 hours, the tank is filled to the overflow level with potable water. After a 24-hour retention period, the water should be tested. Once the water has been tested for bacteria and aesthetic quality, the water may be delivered to the distribution system. Of the three disinfection methods listed in AWWA C652-02, Method 1 is the least popular because an entire tank full of water must be wasted to accomplish disinfection. In addition to wasting the water, discharging large volumes of highly chlorinated water is not environmentally acceptable. The primary drawback to Method 2 is that personnel disinfecting a tank must be equipped with proper respirators and protective clothing to help protect them from the vapors released into the air when chlorine is applied.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

11

Potable Water Security John McLaughlin, P.E. Jordan, Jones and Goulding

The use of water as a leveraging tool in conflict is not new, or is the concept of water security. Besides the air we breathe, water is the single most critical element to human survival. In Water Conflict Chronology (Gleick 2008), more than 100 incidents are documented in which water was the cause of, or was integral to, a major conflict or event. These events or types of conflicts are grouped into one or more of the following categories: control of water resources, water as a political or military tool, terrorism, water as a military target, and disputes related to development of water resources. As early as 2,500 bc, water was used as a military tool to help defeat an enemy. With humans’ reliance on safe and sustainable potable water, its use as a tool of war and conflict should be no surprise.

Threats to Water Systems Any lack of attention to or understanding of the critical importance of potable water changed dramatically after September 11, 2001. Suddenly, the concepts of unconventional threats and how they could use critical infrastructures against a population became real. An immediate reaction to the events of September 11 was the introduction of federal legislation to require US water systems to complete vulnerability assessments (VAs) and emergency response plans (ERPs). This federal legislation became Public Law 107-188, and it required every public water system in the United States serving more than 3,300 people to complete a VA and an ERP, on a staggered schedule, before

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Chapter Eleven December 31, 2004. The actual schedule for completion of the VAs was the following:

r March 31, 2003, for systems serving a population of 100,000 or more

r December 31, 2003, for systems serving a population of 50,000 or more but less than 100,000

r June 30, 2004, for systems serving a population greater than 3,300 but less than 50,000 In each case, the system was to complete an ERP as soon as possible, but no later than 6 months after completion of the VA. The ERP was to incorporate the results of the VA. Water systems were not fundamentally insecure before September 11; most had fences, locks, and other systems to detect and delay intruders. Larger water systems sometimes had guards and more intricate electronic security systems. What fundamentally shifted was the focus—away from protecting water systems against natural disruption and contamination and toward reducing the risk from an intentional malevolent human attack (and not necessarily from an international terrorist organization). Some of the most prevalent, best documented, and least appreciated threats to water systems come from disgruntled current or former employees, a lone vandal or a group of vandals, and common criminals. Almost monthly since September 11, news stories have documented break-ins at water facilities. These types of events almost certainly occurred as often before 9/11, but they received little publicity or attention. The main difference between the pre- and post9/11 incidents is that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other law enforcement agencies paid the former—usually unorganized attempts at vandalism—little attention. Nevertheless, the incidents directly pointed to the need for better risk reduction at water systems, which quickly began to improve formerly minimal security practices.

Definitions People tend to think of “providing security” at water systems, and this chapter uses that terminology, but the real goal is to reduce risk by eliminating vulnerabilities. This process of risk reduction ultimately leads to the security that water system operators and the public seek. In that connection, the following definitions are provided (Sandia 2002).

r Risk—Measure of the potential damage to or loss of an asset based on the probability of an undesirable occurrence.

r Risk assessment—Process of analyzing threats to and vulnerability of a facility, determining the potential for losses,

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Potable Water Security and identifying cost-effective corrective measures and residual risk.

r Vulnerability—An exploitable security weakness or deficiency at a facility.

r Physical protection system—Integration of people, procedures, and equipment for the protection of assets or facilities against theft, sabotage, or other malevolent human attacks. The goal of any security system is to prevent an attack if possible. It is generally not cost-effective, though, to stop any and all attacks. Can a water system afford the level of physical protection used at a nuclear facility or strategic military facility (armed and trained guards; “kill zones,” clear areas outside the perimeter where deadly force is authorized; and so on)? The answer to this question is almost always no, and so water system management must be willing to develop strategies to mitigate the consequences of an attack. This ensures that even though a water system may not be able to stop the attack from happening, it can still cost-effectively reduce the overall level of risk. Consequence mitigation, in addition to reducing the risk from an intentional malevolent human act, also helps reduce the risk to a system from a natural disaster. By providing a double benefit, consequence mitigation measures may be the most cost-effective risk reduction measures of all. Certain aspects of risk reduction at a potable water storage system also benefit the system during natural disasters. The focus of this chapter, however, is still on reducing risk from an intentional, malevolent human act.

Types of Threats A water-storage facility can be intentionally attacked in three basic ways: physical disruption, contamination (radiological, chemical, or biological), and interference with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), computer, and information technology (IT) systems.

Physical Disruption Much has been written about contamination being the worst-case scenario for a water-storage facility. This is valid and worthy of discussion, but perhaps the simplest and the most effective way of having an impact on potable water storage is through physical disruption. The amount of water that humans actually consume is only a fraction of a percentage of the total potable water produced. In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, for example, the percentage of potable water actually consumed is one-half to one-quarter of 1 percent of the total produced (Danneels 2001). Having storage, and

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Chapter Eleven therefore supply, of nonpotable water still allows fires to be fought, industry to operate, contamination to be contained, and basic sanitation to continue. In cases where potable water storage is compromised, potable water can be temporarily provided using bottled water, mobile treatment systems, and bulk water that has been hauled in. The purpose of this chapter is not to identify specific vulnerabilities of a water-storage facility or to provide direction for adversaries; therefore, the discussion will remain general. Physical disruption of storage facilities generally requires some knowledge of the specific water system to be truly effective. However, almost every water system relies on critical storage facilities that, if eliminated, would critically disrupt its ability to supply water to the distribution system or to critically important customers. It is easy to disable or eliminate a storage facility without sophisticated chemical or biological knowledge and equipment. Imagine the damage that can be done to electrical systems with basic tools. Sugar in the fuel tanks of emergency generators can create substantial damage. Valves can be broken and extensively damaged without explosives. Any simple Internet search reveals recipes for various homemade explosives capable of doing substantial damage.

Contamination Three types of contaminants are of concern in water systems. These are, in order of concern, biological, chemical, and radiological. Traditional water treatment has focused on removal or inactivation of naturally occurring contaminants and contaminants unintentionally introduced by humans. Each case of intentional or malevolent contamination can cause unique problems. Besides the obvious—customers getting sick or dying—one of the most likely overall problems is the widespread public perception and panic that water is not safe to drink (Burrows, Valcik, and Seitzinger 1997). Additionally, there is the problem of timely determination of what agent (or agents) has been introduced. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utilities (in North Carolina) has dealt with this issue twice. The first event was unintentional and involved Foamgate (Krouse 2001); the other occurred after 9/11 and was intentional. In each case, even with rapid detection of the contamination, the testing necessary to determine its exact nature and potential harmful effects was one of the most difficult parts of the entire response effort. A chemical agent might be easily detected through the taste, odor, or appearance of the water, especially if enough of the agent is present to do physical harm to a person. The problem with radiological or biological agents is that they are much more difficult to detect and deal with. The first means of detecting these agents in water, even large quantities of agents, might be through symptoms that do not appear in an affected population until days or weeks later. Moreover,

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Potable Water Security symptoms could still be difficult to trace back to the water system without good coordination, cooperation, and relationships between the water system and public health personnel. Add to these difficulties the fact that most potable water storage facilities are still not well protected and thus contamination is relatively easy to accomplish. If the threat has knowledge of the system and chooses a storage facility that serves a critical part of the distribution system, the situation can easily be made worse. It would be difficult for a terrorist or other threat to have a broad, long-term impact on a water system through use of a contaminant. At a minimum, an adversary would need each of the following to create widespread consequences: (1) specific knowledge of which storage facilities are in the most critical parts of the distribution system, (2) access to agents and knowledge of which agent(s) might be most effective and difficult to detect or inactivate, and (3) access to the equipment to distribute the agent. Many agents can be introduced into a water supply system. Any one of them can cause panic among the public (Deininger 2000). This means that the contamination threat, though difficult to carry out, cannot be minimized.

SCADA/IT Interference A third method of disabling a water-storage facility is through cyber attacks against a SCADA system. Fortunately, many water systems still practice manual operation and allow their SCADA systems to perform very little, if any, control. Those that do not practice manual operation or that allow maximum control by their SCADA systems run the very real risk of losing control through hackers entering their system. These hackers can be current insiders or employees, disgruntled former employees, lone thrill-seeking hackers, or a group of organized and highly capable hackers bent on significant and coordinated destruction.

General Site Considerations Location Possible locations for existing storage facilities are as varied as each facility’s vulnerabilities. It is difficult to conclude what would be an ideal location from a security standpoint. A facility in a heavily populated area might be less vulnerable because it would be harder to attack with so many people potentially watching; it is more critical, though, because it serves more customers. In a remote setting, there are fewer people to observe and possibly detect an intrusion, but the criticality of the service area is probably lower. This section will only review the more common security issues for remote and urban locations.

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Chapter Eleven

Remote Location When a storage facility is remotely located, its primary vulnerability is that few people are around to detect an intrusion. Unless it is a manned facility, such as a clearwell at a water treatment plant, the only reliable means of detecting an intrusion would be through an accurate, automated detection system, which many remote facilities do not have. Even when a system has the capability of accurately detecting an intrusion attempt at a remote site, response would normally take too long because of the distance from a regular patrol area.

Urban Location An urban or heavily populated location does not have the same vulnerabilities as a remote location, but several inherent vulnerabilities still exist. Location in a congested area means that many more people have close access to the site and are potentially aware of the facility’s importance. In general, in many urban areas, a lot of criminal activity goes unnoticed and unreported. One thing common to virtually all water system facilities is the presence of graffiti, especially on tanks. Most water systems have not worried about this in the past, but the presence of graffiti points to the ease of access by and the poor detection of intruders. In addition, because these storage facilities are so close to large population centers and because they tend to serve more critical customers, they are usually much more vital assets. In both remote and urban settings, the key is good detection. Obviously, until a system accurately detects an intrusion attempt in the first place, delay of the intruder will not be possible. A response force, no matter how close or aware, will have not have any impact, and no facility location will be safer than any other.

Accessibility Accessibility, as discussed here, has to do with the number of people allowed to access the facility. Almost all potable water storage systems allow nonutility personnel to have unmonitored access to storage tanks. These are most often employees of telecommunication companies, electrical utilities, and other city departments. An unscientific survey of results of many vulnerability assessments shows that almost all facilities allow this access without maintaining any direct control over who accessed the facility or when. An equally critical vulnerability is the common practice by many water systems of allowing too many of their own personnel to have keys to facilities. Maintaining access control over the water department’s own personnel is a more difficult problem to solve than

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Potable Water Security controlling access by employees of other agencies. Many tank personnel legitimately need access to the site, but many others have no real need for keys or key cards. Both cases require policies that call for monitoring of all personnel, utility or nonutility, who might access a site. Access should be limited to those who legitimately require it. Background checks should be conducted on anyone who has access privileges.

Visibility, Perimeter, and Size The visibility, perimeter, and size of any site are difficult to control. Most sites are selected on the basis of hydraulic considerations and the ability to acquire suitable property without any forethought to vulnerabilities and security, a practice that must change. Even then, cost will be a primary concern, and creative means of eliminating vulnerabilities will be required. A tank’s visibility is a given. Large ground storage tanks and elevated tanks of any size are obvious. What often works in the tank owner’s favor is that most people take water tanks for granted and forget they are there. As long as police, fire, and the tank owner’s personnel do not do this, the visibility issue can be minimized. What should always be avoided is taking a potentially bad visibility issue and making it worse. Neighborhood aesthetics may dictate some screening, but hiding a tank too well makes it more difficult to detect intrusions. Site perimeters should not be camouflaged or screened unnecessarily. A tank owner should enlist the public relations staff to help explain this to the community. Whether the site is large or small, the tank and related critical facilities should not be placed near the perimeter. A small site may be dictated by economics or location (tight, congested area), but as long as good detection of potential intruders is maintained, additional layers of delay can be added without huge cost, especially at a new site.

General Tank Considerations Water storage tanks tend to be fairly standard in how they are designed and accessed. The biggest differences are elevated versus ground storage tanks and, in the realm of elevated tanks, leg supports versus enclosed pedestal supports. There are differences in construction material (steel, concrete, or a steel/concrete composite) and variations within each category of tank (standpipes, clearwells). These specific differences tend to have less impact on tank security. For this chapter, only design elements that are pertinent to security of storage facilities will be discussed.

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Chapter Eleven

Elevated Storage Tanks Elevated tanks generally offer a security advantage over ground storage tanks in that they do not usually require integral, on-site booster pumping. That is not to say that pumping is not part of the design of an elevated tank system, but maintaining pumps on site is usually unnecessary. Where pumping is not integral to the tank site, the number of vulnerabilities is reduced accordingly.

Enclosed-Base Elevated Tanks The two main types of enclosed-base elevated tanks are the flutedcolumn tank and the pedestal/spheroid tank. Figure 11-1 shows a typical fluted-column type of enclosed-base elevated tank; Fig. 11-2 shows a typical pedestal/spheroid type of elevated tank. Both types usually contain a single pedestrian access door with an integral lock. The fluted-column tank, with its (usually) larger-diameter base, can often accommodate a vehicle protected by a lockable door similar to an automatic garage door. Both styles of tanks almost always contain in their bases tank-specific piping (Fig. 11-3), including the supply and

FIGURE 11-1 Typical fluted-column type of enclosed-base elevated tank.

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FIGURE 11-2 Typical pedestal spheroid type of elevated tank.

FIGURE 11-3 Tank-specific piping for enclosed-base and pedestal spheroid elevated tanks.

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Chapter Eleven

FIGURE 11-4 SCADA components stored in enclosed tank base.

discharge piping, sampling ports, overflow piping, shutoff valve(s), and an altitude control valve (if used). An integral pumping system is commonly provided in the base of a fluted-column tank, but usually not in a pedestal/spheroid tank. In one sense, the large size of the enclosed base is one of the pluses of a fluted-column tank, because more assets can be stored in the space. The other side of the coin is that storing all critical assets in one place creates potential vulnerabilities, because only a single door serves to delay an intruder. Within the base of each style are usually found SCADA components such as tank pressure gauges, residual chlorine analyzers, remote terminal units (RTUs), and radio/dialer equipment (Fig. 11-4). Internal ladders providing access to the top of the tank bowl are almost always located in the base of both styles of tanks. These ladders allow direct access to the water storage portion of the tank by way of direct hatch access or through the water-storage vent.

Multicolumn Tanks Multicolumn tanks have many of the same features as an enclosedbase tank, but without the same level of protection. Figure 11-5 shows the base of a typical multicolumn elevated tank with a ladder guard. Usually, multicolumn tanks have detached underground vaults to

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FIGURE 11-5 Typical base of multicolumn style tank with ladder guard.

house critical piping and shutoff and altitude control valves (see Fig. 11-6 for an example of this arrangement). SCADA components and other related instrumentation are sometimes housed in the same vault, but more often they are located in the open on the tank leg or possibly in an unprotected shed detached from the tank.

FIGURE 11-6 Detached underground vault for piping and valves, multicolumn tank.

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Chapter Eleven In the past, ladder access was available at ground level in many systems, but that practice began to change even before September 11. The practice of cutting off ladders 20 ft (6 m) or so above ground level and adding locked access gates began as a way of controlling vandalism, and it has now become an even more accepted means of limiting access.

Ground Storage Tanks/Standpipes In both ground storage tanks and multicolumn tanks, the piping, valves, SCADA, and so on. are usually located in underground vaults or separate sheds, or they are mounted outside on the tank itself. Ladders are now being cut off above ground level, and lockable access gates are being installed. Figures 11-5 and 11-7 show examples of how this is accomplished on both multicolumn and ground storage facilities. As noted previously, ground tanks often differ from elevated tanks because a booster pump station is often integral to ground tanks’ operation. Usually, both the tank and the pump station are located on the perimeter of the same site. Often the pump station is a more critical and easily accessed asset and becomes more of an issue to

FIGURE 11-7 Ladder cutoff and guard on ground storage tank.

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Potable Water Security secure. The principles of detection, delay, and response (Sandia 2002), along with consequence mitigation, apply to the pump station if it is located on site.

Construction Materials Materials of construction play only a minor part in the security of a tank. Almost all tanks are constructed of concrete, steel, or a steel/concrete composite. A study of explosives, tank characteristics, and materials of construction would be needed to determine which of the three would be most susceptible to destruction. Suffice it to say that a steel, concrete, or composite tank of proper structural design will withstand about the same level of explosive force, all other factors being equal.

Water-Storage Vulnerabilities This section is general and avoids describing specific methods and means of contaminating or disrupting a water system through intentional acts at a potable water–storage facility. Most key elements of water system vulnerability have been covered previously. Specific locations exist on most storage facilities that are the most vulnerable points. These include vents, sampling ports, fiberglass hatches, and local chemical feed stations. Many utilities have hatches that are lightly screened or not screened at all because of wear and tear. Fiberglass hatches are common on ground storage tanks and present a minimal barrier to a determined adversary. The locks usually provided for metal hatch covers are of the type found at the hardware store and are easily cut with large bolt cutters. Readily accessible sampling ports, fire-hose connections, or local chemical feed systems (for maintaining residual chlorine levels, for example) are simple points of access for possible contamination. Disruption of a water system through physical destruction at a water-storage facility is a bit more difficult, but it is possible just the same. It would take a large amount of explosive placed strategically close to a storage facility to ensure complete destruction. Because of this, we tend to focus on the possibility that an adversary would attempt the same level of disruption through focused destruction of critical piping, valves, booster pumping, or other on-site components. As with a tank’s access hatches and vents, most enclosed tank base doors or exterior vaults are only secured with a minimal hasp-andlock system. SCADA/IT vulnerabilities are not currently severe or common, because not many water systems rely on SCADA/IT to control functions. Many utilities use SCADA only to monitor a few key parameters and are alerted either when the signal is lost or when values are out

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Chapter Eleven of range. This does not mean, though, that these vulnerabilities can be ignored. Reliance on SCADA signals without verification can be dangerous, and often SCADA systems alarm over many minor occurrences, leaving operators to filter these alarms and potentially miss something of real importance. SCADA-related vulnerabilities will probably increase as security systems (closed-circuit television [CCTV], perimeter alarms, and so on) begin running signals through the same SCADA system used for operational data. This also opens up a new avenue to be concerned about: A disgruntled employee who controls not only the operation of a system but the security system as well is known as a super insider.

Effective Security/Risk-Reduction Practices All security or risk-reduction measures can be placed in one of several categories. The major categories are physical protection systems (PPS), operational security (OS), and consequence mitigation (CM). Within the PPS are three subcategories: detection, delay, and response (Sandia 2002). The basic concept is to try to prevent an attack from occurring through PPS and OS (and, as a result, through effective detection, delay, and response). The CM piece of risk reduction automatically presumes that the attack has occurred and was successful. Through good CM, a system can effectively respond to an event and minimize the damage. Water systems have an inherent ability to mitigate consequences, because they face similar issues every day when lines break, power goes out, spills occur, and storms move in. In some instances, it is probably more cost-effective for the same risk reduction to focus energy not on preventing the attack but on mitigating its consequences. (The cost and physical difficulties of protecting every part of a water distribution system, or even the most critical parts, would be extreme. However, most systems incorporate beneficial elements such as redundant facilities, system loops, and interconnects. A rapid response by personnel trained in these matters will almost certainly reduce the attack’s effectiveness.) This does not mean to ignore the effort to prevent an attack; it just acknowledges that no water system can truly afford to prevent every attack from all possible threats.

Physical Security Physical protection systems are security measures such as CCTV (camera) systems, motion sensors, alarms, fences, locks, and guards. The basic concept of PPS is to detect an adversary as early as possible. Detection means not just having a camera system record an intruder, but having a person assess the alarm or image and react quickly and effectively to alert whatever response mechanism is planned. Delay is the combination of measures that will slow an adversary who is on the

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Potable Water Security path to the water-storage facility. As noted, early detection followed by effective delay is the ideal sequence for PPS. Response comprises the time and process involved to intervene with the adversary. If the delay is inadequate, the adversary will succeed in carrying out the malevolent act before the response arrives, and therefore the response is ineffective. A response that arrives on scene and reaches the adversary in time, but fails to intercept the adversary, is equally ineffective. An example of this would be having an unarmed guard trying to stop a group of heavily armed adversaries. Although the unarmed guard may arrive in time, he or she can do little to stop the adversary. Detection, delay, and response comprise a three-legged stool. Without all three legs in place and of equal strength, the stool will not stand. In addition to the information provided here, the reader should review information provided in “Guidelines for the Physical Security of Water Utilities,” a Water Infrastructure Security Enhancement guidance document produced by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and funded by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the Water Environment Federation (WEF). Also see the USEPA’s Water and Wastewater Security Product Guide at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ safewater/watersecurity/guide/tableofcontents.cfm.

Detection Practices Digital CCTV Many utilities installed CCTV capability before September 11. Some of these provided digital image storage. The majority used tape and relied on an operator to see an event in real time or to forensically view what happened. After 9/11, digital CCTV systems became more prevalent. These systems store images in digital format and provide an alarm if the viewed image deviates from a stored baseline image. In such a case, in addition to providing the alarm, they pull up the correct segment of video image, including the moments immediately preceding and following the event. With any camera system, lighting conditions and clear lines of sight are critical. An uninterrupted fence line and clear areas at least 15 ft (4.5 m) outside the fence line are essential to successful early detection. Adequate lighting, properly designed with the camera system to provide optimum contrast, is also essential. Lights should be the quick-strike type so that after a power outage has been resolved, it does not take several minutes for the lights to warm up. (Quick-strike lights come up to full candlepower almost instantly after power is restored. They do not operate without power. The best means of powering lights and other critical functions during a power outage is to provide a generator.)

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Chapter Eleven Hand in hand with these systems is the ongoing maintenance of each part of the tank and the tank site. Areas inside and outside of fences must be kept clear, lights that burn out must be immediately replaced, and any camera system must be designed to work with the light level available. These practices fall somewhat into the operation systems category because they are policy-level practices that humans take care of operationally. They are listed here, though, because they are also integral to physical security, and they clearly demonstrate the need for all protection systems to be just that—systems. Table 11-1 shows some basic comparisons of CCTV technologies, with pros and cons for each.

Perimeter Detection Systems Numerous types of perimeter detection systems are available. The highest levels of these involve multiple integrated systems including combinations of microwave, infrared, capacitance, taut wire, and fiber optic. Fiber-optic technology can be cost-effective and can be adjusted or tuned to minimize nuisance alarms. All physical alarm systems must still rely on a human to assess the alarm and react properly. Table 11-2 shows some basic comparisons of detection technologies, with pros and cons for each. As with the CCTV systems, the training and policies necessary for this are discussed in the section “Operational Security.”

Guard Dogs or Geese Depending on the criticality of the facility and whether it is operator attended or not, trained guard dogs may be an option. This option obviously carries certain maintenance and liability issues, but it may be a valid option where human monitoring is difficult, requires augmenting, or is impractical. Similar to guard dogs, but less of a liability concern, are geese. The mess and maintenance for geese may be a problem, but they are very good at sounding an alarm. Once the alarm is sounded, a human must intervene effectively, or the alarm has not been fully assessed. An alarm without human assessment is not an alarm at all.

Access Control Controlling access is another key component of both detection and delay. Access control can be as simple as basic door and window locks or it can comprise state-of-the-art biometrics. Basic lock-and-key systems can be effective against many adversaries, but they require strict key-control policies that are practiced and enforced. If everyone has a key to all facilities and assets, locks cease to be effective. Good key control can detect and delay both insider and outsider adversaries. If padlocks are used at remote storage facilities to which other

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Potable Water Security Photographic Technology Night-vision camera

Black and white (B&W) camera (recommended)

Color camera (not recommended)

Day/night (color/B&W)

Comments r Good for day and night viewing r Will not have to redo or add lights r Expensive r r r r r

Good for day and lower-light vision Inexpensive Not good for dark conditions Not as easy to distinguish during the day Will have to redo site lighting to have effective monitoring

r Good for day viewing r Not good for low-light or dark conditions r Will have to redo site lighting to have effective monitoring r Expensive r Color is good for day viewing r B&W is better for night viewing r More expensive than B&W or color r Will have to redo site lighting to have effective monitoring

Recording Technology No recording

Tape recording

Digital recording

r Must monitor at all times to be functional r Nothing is available that can be used for prosecution r Used for backup validation of alarms r Hard to find previously recorded moments r Cannot record while viewing a previously recorded moment r Used for backup validation of alarms r Begins recording based on motion in the field of view r All recordings are date/time stamped for ease in finding a particular moment when viewing r Accessible from a remote location r Images are in PC-friendly format and can be stored electronically indefinitely

TABLE 11-1 CCTV Summary

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Fence sensors

Types of Detection

r Not overly sensitive to wind r Very reliable r Low false-alarm rate and low nuisance-alarm rate r Immune to electrical or electromagnetic interference (EMI) disruption r Intrinsically safe and uses very stable equipment, resulting in high reliability r Adjustable sensitivity.

r Taut wire

r Fiber optic

Pros r Most economical and easiest to install of the fence sensors r High probability of detection

Technology r Vibration

r The more activity there is at fence, the lower the sensitivity setting r Sensitive to extreme temperature changes and blowing debris r Could be sensitive to large-animal activity r The fence must be stable, free of vibration, and in good condition

with enhancements: r Weather sensor station—feeds weather information to field processor, which then adjusts its vibration alarm sensitivity r Pulse count accumulator—sensitivity is determined by choosing number of pulses needed to create an alarm r Nuisance alarms can be caused by shrubbery, trees, animals, and severe weather that causes fence to vibrate r Regular tensioning maintenance is required r One of the most expensive fence sensor systems because of laborious installation and maintenance time

Cons r Must have properly installed and maintained fence lines r Prone to all types of vibrations, which can be minimized

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TABLE 11-2

In-ground sensors

r Mostly immune to weather and environmental noise

r Ported coaxial buried line

Perimeter Detection Technologies (Continued)

r Mostly immune to weather and environmental noise

r Balanced pressure line

r Strain-sensitive r Capable of “hearing” what may be causing an alarm (similar to cables pressing ear against the wall) r E-field r Self-adjusting circuit rejects wind and ambient noise r Extremely low nuisance-alarm rate r Capacitance r Weather and EMI/radio frequency interference (RFI) have no effect on sensors’ ability.

working with large expanses of concrete r Tree roots may cause problems when tree blows in wind r Sensitive when in close proximity to roads/rails due to machinery. r Avoid installing under chain-link fences; install at least 3 ft (0.9 m) above buried metallic pipes r Susceptible to buried metal r Affected by high-EMI sources such as large electrical equipment or substations (should not be used in close proximity to these areas)

r Very sensitive to high-EMI sources (for example, substations) and radio frequency interference r Sensitive to poor fence construction or maintenance r Adverse weather such as rain, snow, and lightning can create problems r Vegetation and animal movement can cause sensors to react r Generally mounted on top of fence, so use in conjunction with another type of sensor on lower part of fence fabric r Anything making physical contact that changes fence characteristics may cause an alarm r Should use additional surveillance/detection when

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Volumetric sensors

Types of Detection

r Mostly immune to weather and environmental noise r Send multiple-beam pattern, increasing coverage r Good probability of detection r Available in portable versions r Narrow detection zone good for monitoring perimeter sectors r Can be used to monitor an area or a definitive perimeter line r Use monostatic sensors where well-defined area of coverage is needed (400 ft [122 m] coverage) r Bistatic sensors can be used up to 1,500 ft (457 m)

r Buried geophone r Active infrared

r Microwave

optic

Pros r Mostly immune to weather and environmental noise r Immune to electrical or EMI disruption r Adjustable sensitivity

Technology r Buried fiber

r Sensitive to high-frequency spectrum r Sensitive to areas that contain strong emitters of electric fields (radio transmitters) or magnetic fields (large electric motors or generators) r Can interpret ionization cycle created by fluorescent bulbs as motion r Potential health hazards

Cons r Must be installed away from poles and trees at a distance equal to at least the height of the pole or tree) r Should not be installed in or under concrete or asphalt r Susceptible to erosion where either more exposure or deeper burial affects the sensitivities r Sensitive to tree roots as the tree blows in wind r Sensitive to medium in which geophones are buried r Sensitive to trees, fences, light poles, and telephone poles, which can trigger the alarms when blowing in wind r Precise alignment of sensors is critical r Not good with hilly terrain r Sensitive to snow and grass around the sensors r Sensitive to fog, heavy rain, and dust r Sensitive to vegetation overgrowth

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r Can help to limit false alarms r Provides record of events during an intrusion r Monitoring field can be manipulated r Typically used in conjunction with other monitoring technologies

Video sensors r Motion detection

TABLE 11-2

r Greatly reduces false-alarm rate if used in predictable and/or controlled environment r Cost effective (cheaper than purchasing two individual sensors) r Good for detecting helicopter or plane intrusions

r Passive infrared/ microwave

Perimeter Detection Technologies (Continued)

r Radar

r Send multiple-beam pattern, increasing coverage r Good probability of detection

r Passive infrared

r Susceptible to uneven terrain r High maintenance r Potential radio-frequency health hazards r Needs lighting r Needs unobstructed viewing

r As ambient temperature approaches temperature of intruder, sensor is less likely to respond r Sensitive to all heat sources (heaters, animals, and so on) r Precise alignment of sensors is critical r Not good with hilly terrain r Sensitive to snow and grass around the sensors r Sensitive to fog, heavy rain, and dust r Sensitive to vegetation overgrowth r Reduces probability of detection since both sensors must positively detect before sending an alarm r Has all the cons of each technology r Potential microwave health hazards

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Chapter Eleven utilities and/or agencies may need access, the tank owner should avoid daisy-chain systems (several interlocking padlocks); all that is necessary for an intruder to do is to break the weakest lock. Swipe cards and/or personal identification number (PIN) access control can be more secure and allow easier “key” control. The person must remember his or her code and remember to carry his or her key. An advantage of these systems is that they allow logging of who enters the facility—or at least of whose card and PIN were used to enter. This may not stop the adversary (the wrong person with the right key or access code can enter), but it will dissuade those who want to escape undetected. Biometric systems control access by using characteristics and traits that are unique to an individual. Among the most common are fingerprint and retina/eye scanners. These systems are virtually impossible to trick, and they do not involve having to carry a key. Their cost may prevent widespread use, but they can be especially effective against an insider or as a second layer to a perimeter detection system for an especially critical facility. See Table 11-3 for a further breakdown of various access control systems.

Glass-Break Sensors Delay and response are most effective when there is early detection. If an adversary gets through a fence or other outer perimeter undetected, the time available to a response force for intervention is greatly diminished. However, using glass-break sensors on building windows may be necessary if perimeter detection at a fence line is not available or practical. Certainly, it is preferable to have the extra distance and delay, but short of moving entire facilities, that may not be possible. This type of sensor may also be considered a layer in a detection system for a highly critical storage facility or where threat by an insider is the main concern.

Door Alarms Door alarms, too, are more appropriate when the adversary is an insider or as an extra layer in a detection system. The use of alarms for storage facilities within the property’s perimeter can detect an insider who, although legitimately within the perimeter of the facility as a whole, may need to be restricted from entering key buildings that house specific assets.

Contaminant Detection Technology Contamination is less likely to occur than physical disruption and may not have the same impact. Contamination may be more difficult for an adversary to accomplish, and detecting such an attack is also much more difficult. Current technologies generally detect contamination by looking at the effect the contaminant has on certain key

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TABLE 11-3

r Verification of a personal characteristic to authorize access to a restricted area

r Verification by matching PIN to badge number for entry

with predetermined criteria for access to restricted area

r Correct combination of numbers entered on keypad for entry into restricted area r Automated verification of card

stored picture of same person to actual person wearing badge

Entry Method r Verification of a personal picture on a badge to actual person wearing badge r Verification of picture on badge to

Entry Control Summary

Biometrics

Key card/PIN entry

Key card entry

Personal identification number (PIN)

Stored-image badge

Photo ID

Technology

recognition, or face scanning r Each characteristic is unique to the individual r Access can be denied to some individuals and allowed to others, or access can be only during certain times of day r Access privileges can be modified r Automated process

others, or access can be only during certain times of day r Access privileges can be modified r Automated process r Characteristics include fingerprints, retina or voice

r Key cards can be coded per entry point and per card r Access can be denied to some cardholders and allowed to others, or access can be only during certain times of day r Access privileges can be modified r Automated process r Must have both the card and PIN for access r Access can be denied to some cardholders and allowed to

r PIN entry can be coded per entry point, but not per person r Automated process

r Procedural—relies on identification of person by guard r Relies on guard for all access control

r Procedural—relies on identification of person by guard r Relies on guard for all access control

Comments

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Chapter Eleven indicators—among the most common residual chlorine and oxidation–reduction potential (ORP). The theory behind residual chlorine analysis is that a biological contaminant exerts a chlorine demand and therefore creates a drop in the residual. This unusual or unexpected drop would raise an alarm, but there would be no specific information about what caused the drop and whether it was intentional or natural. The same is true for ORP detection. This indicator may react to more contaminants, including chemical and biological contaminants, but there is no way of identifying a specific agent or of determining whether contamination occurred naturally or intentionally. Several criteria should be considered when deciding whether to implement an early warning system for water system contamination. In no particular order, they are:

r Provides warning sufficiently ahead of time to allow for r r r r r r r r r r

proper action Is economically affordable Requires little skill or training Is flexible enough to cover all possible threats Is able to identify the source Is sensitive to changes at regulatory levels Provides minimal false-positive and/or negative results Is durable and robust Provides results that are reproducible and verifiable Can be operated remotely Has year-round all-climate functionality

Any decision to choose an early warning system must be made locally, and the relative costs (monetary, physical, social, and organizational) must be weighed against the relative benefits. It is also important to keep in mind the relative infancy of this technology. Little is known about which contaminants the technology might most accurately detect, and any early warning system currently considered would not likely be able to score high on all the criteria just listed. The following sections detail types of systems and tools that will likely be used when early warning systems become more effective and prevalent. For much more specific information on planning, designing, implementing, and operating an early warning system, please refer to “Early Warning Monitoring to Detect Hazardous Events in Water Supplies,” from which much of this contaminant monitoring information is taken (Brosnan 1999).

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Contaminant Analyzers Current technologies for detecting a contaminant look at its effect on certain key indicators. Among the most common are residual chlorine and ORP, described previously. The very nature of these types of detection means the contaminant is already present in the system and its consequences must be mitigated. Another technique is to use biological analyzers—organisms that react in certain ways to any of several toxic agents. Their reaction is tied to an electronic signal that creates the alarm. The problems here are the lack of any specificity as to the cause of the alarm and the potential for false positives or negatives. A few examples follow:

r In the dynamic fish test, golden ides are exposed to an artificial water flow/current, which they normally swim against. If they detect an upset condition, they turn to avoid it, and this action would be detected and registered. Similar techniques have been used in Europe since the 1970s.

r In the dynamic daphnia test, water fleas are placed in a con-

trolled column of raw water and exposed to several infrared light beams, which they regularly interrupt and which indicates a regular level of activity. If a contaminant is introduced into the water, the activity level initially increases and then sharply declines because of the death or incapacitation of the daphnia.

r Recently, some locations have used the mussel as a monitoring

indicator. The theory is that when mussels are subjected to a contaminant, their shells close at low contaminant levels and then open wide at severe levels. The monitor takes several mussels and glues one half of the shell to a wall. The other half of the shell has a magnet attached that contacts a reed switch to indicate an open or closed position. Electromagnetic sensing between the two shell halves can indicate their interim positions between fully opened and fully closed.

r Delayed algal fluorescence and luminescent bacteria monitors

use the principle that the presence of a contaminant diminishes the luminescent/fluorescent level of either the algae or the bacteria. While these methods may not be desired for use at this stage, they give an indication of the body of knowledge available to enhance security at all your facilities. Technology to monitor and analyze contaminants is constantly being developed and perfected with a goal of providing accurate, real-time capability. Already the Sandia National Laboratories staff

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Chapter Eleven have developed the ChemLab (microChemLab), a palm-sized analytical laboratory that can virtually instantly detect any number of chemical or biological contaminants (Sandia 2002). This type of technology, which can accurately detect and identify an agent in real time, appears to represent the future of contaminant monitoring.

Placement of Detection Devices Accurately detecting a contaminant is only the first step. Where do you put these analytical devices to do the most good? How do you know where the contaminant originated and where it may be headed in the distribution system? Several hydraulic models on the market provide a level of water quality prediction. The most widely used for contaminant transport are Haestad’s WaterCad, MWSoft, and MIKENET from the Danish Hydraulic Institute. MIKENET is already being used in Europe. The model takes analytical measurements from a series of parameters to detect a contaminant and then applies its algorithm to predict the fate and transport of the contaminant from start to finish. Critical to this or any other model is its calibration to real-world conditions, the number and locations of analytical devices, and the operator’s knowledge of the system. As is the case for any detection effort, a contamination event cannot be considered truly detected until the alarm has been accurately assessed. For water-storage facilities identified as critical through pairwise comparisons, fault tree analysis, or accurate hydraulic modeling, realtime contaminant analyzers should probably be located on site.

Delay Practices Delay measures generally are the most cost-effective part of a risk reduction system that comprises detection, delay, response, and consequence mitigation. There is a multitude of number and types of measures; the only limits are the constraints of the particular site. Whether it is an operator-staffed facility such as a water treatment plant clearwell or a remote, unmanned facility such as an elevated water storage tank, the most common delay features are fencing and gates. As with any protection system, fencing and gates are useless without proper maintenance and training of the staff on how to maximize their effectiveness. A simple way of making a regular chain-link fence more secure is to use razor wire at the top of the fence instead of three strands of barbed wire. Traditional fences consist of 6-ft to 8-ft (1.8-m to 2.4-m) chain link with three strands of barbed wire on outward-facing outriggers. Where necessary and practical, the fence can be made more secure by replacing the three-strand barbed wire with at least one coil of concertina or razor wire (Fig. 11-8). Even more delay can be built in by using two layers of fencing. This system is prevalent at critical

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FIGURE 11-8 Chain link fence with razor wire at top.

military or nuclear sites and may be appropriate for certain waterstorage facilities. If the facility is highly visible and is located in a neighborhood, ornamental or architectural-type security fences may be necessary. Figure 11-9 shows an example of an ornamental fence that can also provide security benefits. There are numerous varieties of this type of fence (the example in Fig. 11-9 is from Delgard) that can help with both security and public acceptance. Regardless of the type of fencing used, both fence and clear areas must be properly maintained. This can be assured by establishing and complying with a policy to regularly check the entire fence line—that is, to perform a touch test on the entire perimeter. Finally, tamperproof nuts and bolts for gates and fences should always be used. When reviewing the effectiveness of a perimeter fence, one of the first checks is to see if the nuts and bolts can be loosened by finger pressure only. This is frequently the case, and it negates the effectiveness of hardened locks, razor wire, and the like. At perimeter entrance points for personnel, gates with effective locks, swipe card, or biometric access control are effective. Because vehicle access is commonly needed at water-storage facilities, the same locking systems as used for personnel access should be used. Figures 11-10 and 11-11 show examples of vehicle gate entrances at remote sites. Usually, the gates are only of the vehicle-access type; because

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FIGURE 11-9 Architectural security fence.

the sites are unmanned, they are almost always accessed by vehicle. If gates exist but vehicle access is no longer allowed, Jersey-type barriers are very effective. These come in various forms, including plastic barriers that can be filled with liquid to add weight. If they are to be effective, they must remain filled with liquid.

FIGURE 11-10 Typical chain link entrance gate.

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FIGURE 11-11 Typical architectural gate and multilock system.

A special caution needs to be sounded against using daisy-chain locks if at all possible. These systems are allowed to exist because of the normal practice of permitting those other than the tank owner and personnel (e.g., people from the phone company, emergency services, police, and so on) to have unrestricted access to a site because they have equipment there. As noted elsewhere in this chapter, this practice should be stopped or at least severely restricted. In addition to preventing unknown personnel from having unrestricted access to a site, it is important to have an effective lock. Figure 11-12 illustrates the concept of the weak link in the chain, in which a simple lock of the type available at a hardware store is all that stands in the way of an adversary.

r An array of delay features can be placed between the site perimeter and the storage tank itself. Vehicle barriers in zigzag patterns are very effective. Additional layers of fencing will delay an adversary who is on foot. Use reinforced glass for all exterior windows.

r Depending on the nature of the operations at the site, certain assets may be contained within a building on site. The building presents several opportunities to delay an adversary. Heavy exterior metal doors should be installed. Locks and hinges on all exterior doors should be covered with steel plates using tamperproof screws. Reinforced glass should be

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FIGURE 11-12 Daisy-chained locks with weakest link.

used for all windows (if applicable). Figure 11-13 shows a typical entrance configuration for a fluted-column enclosed-base elevated tank. If this configuration is not practical, bars, cages, fence, or mesh can be installed on the inside of the window frame. Of course, these measures are worth nothing if doors are not kept locked and if there is no key control. Presuming the adversary gets to the asset before a response arrives, further delay measures can still be used. The most common and simplest is to build a steel cage around the actual asset. The design of this barrier must allow for adequate normal maintenance, but it can be very cost-effective.

Response Practices The response component of physical security should focus on providing the water tank owner and staff with backup communications systems for all possibilities. This should include landline phones, cellularphone backup, and even radio systems tied into emergency frequencies. Local law enforcement should be made fully aware of all facility locations and should train on these sites. Water system staff should also be familiar with local law enforcement agencies and should have all of their emergency phone numbers up-to-date and readily available at all times.

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FIGURE 11-13 Pedestrian and vehicle access to fluted-column base.

In conjunction with good detection system practice, nuisance alarms must be minimized to prevent the “cry wolf” problem, in which alarms are ignored because there are too many false alarms. If private guards are to be used, many issues must be addressed. Will they be employed 24/ 7/365? Will they be armed? What level of authority will they have? Will they be used at all facilities? Do they regularly train with local law enforcement? Generally, the cost of hiring private guards is prohibitive. An adequate response can be made by local law enforcement if you have worked to improve relationships with those agencies.

Operational Security Operational security (OS) can also provide security, detect and delay an adversary, and enhance response capabilities.

Detection, Delay, and Response Practices for Operational Security The categories of detection, delay, and response still apply in OS, but they are different from the physical security or PPS functions. With OS, policies, procedures, and training—not physical features—have a much greater role:

r From an operational perspective, one of the best ways to improve detection is to have a well-trained and aware staff. Preparing and fully implementing a set of security policies

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Chapter Eleven and procedures along with emergency operations and response plans is absolutely the most important element of any risk reduction program.

r If guards are to be provided, they should be on site 24/7/365 and should be well trained.

r Complete background checks should be conducted for all employees. Focus more thorough and more frequent checks on employees who have critical access.

r Limit access and key availability to only those employees who need them.

r Plan in advance what deliveries are expected, and record what company and driver are expected when. Allow no deviations from this schedule. Require that all delivery personnel be escorted at all times on site. Institute a policy to perform basic assay tests for all chemicals arriving on site.

r Establish Water Watch neighborhoods throughout your sys-

tem, but begin by focusing on areas near your critical facilities. Train people in these groups in the basics of water system operation and, especially, what security problems to look for and whom to call. Whoever is tasked with receiving the calls must be prepared to handle the situation and initiate a response.

r Have local law enforcement stop and check identification on any person working in or around water system facilities (such as hydrants, valve boxes, tanks, booster pumps, and so on). Do not assume that the worker is an authorized employee of the water company.

r Consider splitting SCADA system monitoring into two categories—normal monitoring and monitoring for intrusion detection. Establish two-person control over SCADA and security access to critical assets.

r Strengthen existing backflow prevention policy or establish a new policy. Begin requiring backflow prevention on all connections and change-outs.

r As already stated, probably the most effective way to delay an adversary is by establishing and implementing securityand emergency-related policies and procedures. These should specifically address such areas as key control for all facility locks. If biometrics or other types of access control are used, proper policies and procedures still must be followed. The same type of key control policy should apply to vehicles and at all other points where access needs to be restricted. All employees should be subject to strict sign-in/sign-out procedures around all critical facilities and when using any water system vehicle. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Potable Water Security

Potable Water Security If an employee is alone at a facility, a regular passive and active call-in procedure should be strictly observed. The passive program means that a call is regularly placed to the lone operator, either from a base facility or from local law enforcement. The calls can be placed randomly or at regular intervals. The active method requires the lone operator to place the regular or random calls. (Having at least two operators on duty at all times is the ideal situation, thus eliminating or minimizing the need for active or passive call-in procedures. However, if having two people available at all times is impractical, the regular call-in procedure is the next best thing.) These types of policies are especially effective at reducing the risk from an insider adversary, but they are also applicable in defending against the outsider. They are generally very cost-effective to implement. The biggest obstacle is to change the ways in which a tank owner’s staff thinks and functions. Even now, not all operators and staff members consider security to be an important part of utility operations. Thus, it can be difficult to achieve full acceptance of policies such as these.

Consequence Mitigation If detection, delay, and response have failed and a successful attack has occurred, you are left to mitigate the consequences of that attack. For water systems, conducting mitigation may be one of the most costeffective means of reducing the risk of future attacks and ultimately improving the level of security for the system. Consequence mitigation provides benefits after an intentional human act and after natural disasters. As with some high-level adversaries (e.g., international or domestic terrorists, organized criminal enterprises, and saboteurs), a natural disaster cannot be prevented from “attacking” a water system; in either case you must be able to mitigate the consequences. These general mitigation techniques are applicable to all sites:

r Provide and maintain an inventory of replacement equipment, focused on the most critical assets as determined from a Sandia-based RAM-WTM (Sandia 2002) or other vulnerability assessment.

r Do not store replacement or redundant components in the same location or structure as the primary item.

r Provide generators or other backup power at all critical facilities. They should be capable of powering the critical assets, at a minimum.

r For utilities that use gaseous chlorine, store less total chlorine on site, assuming delivery is on time and reliable.

r If you must store large quantities of gaseous chlorine on site, store it in two or more geographically distant locations to lessen the amount available at any single place. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

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Chapter Eleven r Provide additional gas venting and storage locations for all gaseous chlorine, and regularly provide emergency training.

r In lieu of gaseous chlorine, switch to safer means of disinfection such as hypochlorite delivered in bulk form or created through on-site generation.

r Provide tamperproof, lockable fire hydrants. Schedule regular training and communication with fire department personnel.

r Work toward establishing system interconnects with neigh-

boring utilities whenever possible. Modeling and testing of the feasibility of an interconnect must happen before any physical connection is made.

Bibliography Brosnan, T. M., ed. 1999. Early Warning Monitoring to Detect Hazardous Events in Water Supplies. International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Risk Science Institute Workshop Report. Washington, D.C.: ILSI. Burrows, W. D., J. A. Valcik, and A. Seitzinger. 1997. Natural and Terrorist Threats to Drinking Water Supplies. US Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. In Proc. 23rd Environmental Symposium and Exhibition, American Defense Preparedness Association, Arlington, VA. Danneels, J. J. 2001. Department Manager, Sandia National Laboratories. Statement to US House of Representatives Committee on Science, hearing on H.R. 3178 and the Development of Anti-Terrorism Tools for Water Infrastructure, Nov. 14, 2001. Deininger, R. 2000. The Threat of Chemical and Biological Agents to Public Water Supply Systems. Water Pipeline Database, Science Application International Corporation (SAIC), Hazard Assessment and Simulation Division. McLean, VA.: SAIC. Gleick, P. H. 2008. Water Conflict Chronology (revised). Oakland, Calif.: Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. Krouse, M. 2001. Backflow Incident Sparks Improvements. Opflow 27:2. Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002. Public Law 107-188, 42 U.S.C. Washington, D.C.: 2002. Security Systems and Technology Center, Systems Analysis and Development Department, Sandia National Laboratories. May 2002. Risk Assessment Methodology for Water (RAM-WSM ). Notebook Volume I. Copyright 2002 Sandia Corporation. Contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. Export Control Classification Number (ECCN) EAR99. US Environmental Protection Agency. 2006. Guidelines for the Physical Security of Water Utilities. ASCE/AWWA Draft American National Standard for Trial Use. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and Water Environment Federation (WEF). Washington, D.C.: USEPA.

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Source: Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair

CHAPTER

12

Tank Rehabilitation Gregory R. “Chip” Stein, P.E. Tank Industry Consultants

Maintaining water-storage facilities is becoming increasingly important because of rising replacement costs and the difficulty of obtaining rate increases and funding for large-scale construction operations. Although the cost of maintenance is also increasing, these smaller outlays can substantially delay or even eliminate the need to replace a utility’s large capital investment in tanks. This chapter is a guide to the proactive rehabilitation of existing water tanks as well as a guide to planning short- and long-range maintenance operations on a new tank. When renovation of an existing tank is being considered, an evaluation must be made to determine the scope of work to be included. The costs of renovation versus replacement must be compared and amortized over the life of a new tank to determine if repair is economically justifiable.

Developing Specifications If an evaluation of the tank’s condition, components, and appurtenances has determined that repair is required—and if repair is economically feasible—it is necessary to generate a set of detailed technical specifications and bonding requirements. The scope of work must be determined by evaluating the recommendations and cost estimates from the inspection report and comparing these to the availability of funds and to the tank owner’s long- and short-term plans for the tank. Often, there are multiple potential solutions to an observed deficiency. To determine the repair that best fits the utility’s needs, these solutions and their associated costs should be evaluated in terms of the level of risk the utility is willing to accept.

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Standards Referenced For the specification writer to be effective, he or she must have a working knowledge of and have access to the following material:

r Applicable American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards

r National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) standards r SSPC Painting Manual Volume 2: Systems and Specifications. Society for Protective Coatings

r Local regulations regarding volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

r National Fire Protection Association regulations r All pertinent regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) In addition to these, the specification writer must have a working knowledge of any state or local regulations that apply to water tank rehabilitation. The writer should also be familiar with the capabilities and availability of qualified contractors to perform work of the nature and magnitude required.

Seismic Design Standards AWWA D100-05 has changed the way tanks in seismic zones are designed. This latest AWWA D100 revision eliminates seismic “zones” altogether—instead, the coordinates of the tank are entered into a computer program, and site-specific seismic design criteria are determined. The change in seismic design standards resulted from a dramatic change in the way engineers view the risk of a seismic occurrence, its potential magnitude, and its effect on a structure. Existing tanks in high-risk areas should be evaluated to determine whether they meet the current seismic criteria. It may be prudent to reevaluate the seismic criteria and the original tank design criteria when planning future structural upgrades or modifications.

Owner’s Standard Requirements Also included in the project specifications should be any special requirements the tank owner or local regulatory agencies might have. Potential contractors must be alerted to special bonding, wage rate scales, taxes, and licenses that may be required. Local ordinances may have stipulations concerning hours of work, acceptable noise levels, requirements for air monitoring, and other construction activities.

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Tank Rehabilitation

Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n Open communication among the specification writer, the tank owner, and local officials is imperative when preparing specifications.

Environmental/Worker Safety Lead Regulations Regulations regarding removal of paint that contains lead and other regulated heavy metals were changed in the early 1990s. Methods of compliance and the interpretation and enforcement of these regulations to protect the environment and workers have changed dramatically. Many areas of the United States now enforce a policy of no emissions into the atmosphere or past the property line. Add to this the concern for the safety of workers while they are removing the coatings, and it is obvious why the cost of water tank rehabilitation has doubled. The largest problem has been collection of the dust and debris generated by the removal of the tank’s coating while keeping workers’ exposure levels to heavy metals within the permissible range prescribed by OSHA in its regulation 1926.62. One solution is to shroud the entire structure with impervious tarps and conduct open blasting within this containment system. Dust collectors are then used to negate the pressurization effect of the compressed-air abrasive blasting, producing a negative air pressure in the containment enclosure. Workers must be adequately equipped with respiratory protection while they are in this hazardous environment. This relatively expensive method of containment has been very successful and widely used. Other methods of surface preparation include the use of vacuum shrouding around blast nozzles and power tools and the use of ultra-high-pressure (35,000+ psi [241.32 MPa]) water jetting. The most promising technology currently in use and undergoing further development is the robotic blasting system. This system includes a self-contained centrifugal blasting apparatus that seals against the tank surface. The unit is raised and lowered by a winch and cable. There is no compressed air, so there is no pressure to disperse the debris that is generated. The abrasive media is typically recyclable, so the amount of debris is minimized. Additionally, because workers are outside the blasting assembly, they are not exposed to the concentrated dust.

VOC Regulations Volatile organic compounds, the solvents that traditionally have given coatings their liquidity and workability, are being heavily regulated nationwide. To complicate matters, different areas of the country are

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e adapting different acceptable levels of VOCs in industrial coatings. As the solvents in the coatings are released, the coating dries. To reduce VOCs in their products, coating manufacturers are producing more high-solids coatings and more water-based coatings. These new coatings will greatly affect coating selection for topcoating operations, recoating, and construction of new tanks.

Water Circulation Short-circuiting and stagnation of water in tanks is a concern for tank owners, who have installed baffle walls and piping systems to force circulation and water turnover. Baffle walls should be carefully designed to account for their effect on the tank structure. Additionally, these walls present challenges to future tank maintenance. Piping systems should be evaluated for use of dissimilar metals, increased cost of interior repainting, and degree of head range loss required to run the system.

Description of Repair Work The accurate and thorough description of needed repair work is one of the most important roles of the specifying engineer. The engineer’s goal should be to adequately describe the work so that change orders are minimized or eliminated and bidders are all on the same page with respect to what is required. Sometimes it is easy to accurately estimate and describe the work (e.g, installation of a safe-climbing device on a ladder). However, in other situations, the repair work is not as easily estimated (e.g., the amount of pit welding required or the length of a crack in the concrete). For these situations, the specification should stipulate the method of repair while allowing bidders to submit a unit price for it (e.g., the price per foot to repair the concrete crack). This allows the specifier to minimize the possibility of a change order and solicit prices for the unknown quantity of work in a competitive bidding atmosphere.

Surface Preparation A successful coating application depends largely on the quality of surface preparation. Regardless of the substrate (be it steel, concrete, or a coated surface), the area to be coated must be clean, relatively free of contaminants, and properly abraded to receive a coating. Surface preparation should be specified to conform to the applicable SSPC standards for cleanliness and the coating manufacturer’s surface profile requirements. Depending on the location of the water tank (in coastal or heavy-industry areas, for example), specific requirements regarding the degree of cleanliness and additional testing requirements may be required for surface contaminants.

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Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n

Coating Systems There is no longer any such thing as a standard coating system. Technology in the painting industry, especially in the water storage tank industry, is in a period of rapid change. There is no longer a “standard spec”—not if you want a coating system that will truly protect your tank. Gone are the days when conventional paints were applied over minimally cleaned surfaces by everyday laborers. Now, in a period of increasingly stringent environmental regulations, highly skilled technicians apply sophisticated coatings onto surfaces cleaned by everevolving surface preparation methods. We must now “design” a coating system for each tank, taking into consideration all the specific conditions that may affect the system’s performance.

Coating System Selection First, we need to realize that in the past, common industry shortcomings caused specifiers to use improper or inadequate coating systems for water tanks. Engineering education was lacking with regard to controlling corrosion by using coatings, and so specifiers relied mainly on coating suppliers for guidance. Thus, a trend developed among specifying engineers of using suppliers’ “canned” specifications rather than developing a specification and system that fit the exact needs of the tank owner. Additionally, the welded-steel tank specifiers, designers, and fabricators frequently failed to recognize the need to incorporate proper design details that extend the coating life. Just because “it’s by the specification” does not mean it is the best coating design for long-term corrosion protection. The first step in designing a proper coating system is to determine the owner’s needs and research specific operating conditions by asking questions about the tank itself. r In what environment is this tank located?

r r r r r r r r

What are the constraints of the tank site? What is the design of this tank? What is the current condition of its coating? What are the types of coating failures observed on this tank? Why did these coating failures occur? What can be done to correct these coating failures? Where are the existing corrosion problems on this tank? What time of year and for how long can the tank be taken out of service for painting?

r What is the level of community acceptance of this tank? r What are the owner’s short- and long-term plans for this tank?

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e After these questions have been answered, review possible coating alternatives. Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each system so that the best system can be provided for a specific tank and owner. Research of coating alternatives should begin with a thorough review of applicable standards. This review should include AWWA D102 Standard for Painting Steel Water-Storage Tanks and the applicable standards of the SSPC. The coatings must comply with and be tested in accordance with the requirements of the NSF for coatings in contact with drinking water. Finally, the coating manufacturer’s performance test data and real-life case histories should be investigated, as well as any independent laboratory testing or documented service history.

Coating System Objectives The specifier should set objectives that will be compatible with the needs of the tank painter, engineers, and, most importantly, the tank owner, as follows:

r Reduce initial cost. r Provide the optimum coating life for the tank environment. r Minimize release of VOCs or other harmful materials into the atmosphere.

r Provide a coating system that will be easily maintained by touch-up and maintenance topcoating, thus minimizing the need for abrasive blasting to bare steel until the tank has been topcoated several times.

r Eliminate unsealed or uncoated interfaces of steel surfaces. r Provide excellent resistance to abrasion and be self-healing when subjected to minor abrasions and scratching.

r Provide excellent resistance to ultraviolet (UV) light, moisture, oil, soil, and chemicals.

r Provide a recoat window varying from a few days to as long as years for new tank projects.

r Meet all NSF standards and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) regulations.

r Describe the system in generic or performance terms that do not rule out qualified coating manufacturers yet that uphold the standards of quality and performance necessary to provide the tank owner with the best possible system.

Interior Coating Systems Interior coating systems should offer long life; ease of application; abrasion resistance; and (in the case of open-top tanks) resistance to UV light, oil, dirt, chemicals (chlorine), and other contaminants.

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Tank Rehabilitation

Ta n k R e h a b i l i t a t i o n Prior to the effective date of NSF Standard 61, Drinking Water System Components–Health Effects addressing direct and indirect water additives, there were many types of coatings: r Vinyls

r r r r r r r

Zinc dust/zinc oxide Chlorinated rubber Bituminous Coal tar Red lead Wax grease

Phenolic aluminum In the past, these coatings have worked with varying degrees of success. However, because strict environmental guidelines for toxins, heavy metals, VOC emissions, and other health threats have since been established, significantly fewer of these coatings are likely to meet new criteria set forth for use on tank interiors. The success of the two-component catalyzed epoxy appears to make it the frontrunner at this time. Epoxies can be and have been formulated with very high solids (low VOCs) and with many chemical varieties available. Two-component catalyzed epoxy is a highly versatile tank lining and coating. Another product for consideration is the solventless 100 percent solids polyurethanes. These products are not mixed, as conventional epoxies and urethanes are; they are sprayed with a dual pump arrangement that mixes the polyurethane at the spray gun tip. The advantage is less waste and a coating that cures for immersion within 48 hours. Manufacturers claim that these coatings offer from 20 percent to 38 percent longer life than epoxies, but in this author’s opinion, extensive field testing and evaluation are required to substantiate this claim. One last coating for consideration for water immersion is not really a coating at all. Spray metalizing using zinc, aluminum, or a combination of both has been used successfully for many years. Only recently has technology made this a viable option when considering costs. Zinc coatings can also be used for direct application to the water tank. While there is a lack of extensive service history in our industry, inorganic zinc coatings could be used on surfaces intended for immersion in potable water if NSF certified. However, these coatings should not be topcoated unless they are fully cured and hydrolyzed.

Exterior Coating Systems Like the interior coating systems, the exterior systems should also offer long life; abrasion resistance; ease of recoating; ease of application; and resistance to ultraviolet light, oil, dirt, salts, chemicals, and other

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e contaminants. Because of potential community resistance, coatings requiring minimal to no abrasive blasting are attractive alternatives for future repainting needs. With ever-tightening regulations to control VOC emissions, the alternatives for exterior systems have been reduced significantly. Solvent-based aluminums, acrylics, vinyls, and chlorinated-rubber paints do not meet most VOC restrictions and have lately been used very little. Although we are never quite sure what direction the regulatory bodies will take when it comes to environmental issues, the trend appears to be to reduce emissions even further, resulting in lowering the VOCs of all coatings. Generic coating systems that currently meet most areas’ restrictions are high-solids alkyds, water-based acrylics, epoxies, polyurethanes, and inorganic and organic zinc-rich coatings. More stringent regulations will probably eliminate alkyds and all but the high-solids epoxies and polyurethanes in the future. The most widely used exterior system today is the epoxy–urethane system, sometimes with a zinc-rich primer and sometimes with an additional clear urethane topcoat. Water-based acrylics are becoming more popular—especially for overcoating, due to the minimal stress they have on existing coatings during cure and for congested sites where their “dry fall” characteristics are important. (Dry fall coating overspray releases all of its solvents as it falls through the air. The overspray is dry when it contacts the surface below.) A more recent technology is the use of solvent or new water-based fluorourethanes. Previously, these coatings were only available as a baked-coil coating material from which more than 25 years of color and gloss retention was normally expected. Time will tell if the newer air-dried versions will perform as well. Another category of exterior coatings comprises inorganic-based siloxane hybrids that claim to weather as well as, if not better than, conventional polyurethanes, but apply like high-build epoxies. Finally, there are varieties of coatings of several generic types that are formulated so that they can be applied over very minimally cleaned surfaces. They can be applied over rust, rust stain, old chalked and cracked paint, and other existing coating defects. Environmental issues, especially for lead paint removal and abrasive dust generation, have caused specifiers to strongly consider alternatives to conventional cleaning methods. To avoid open-air blasting, the coating industry has developed various methods to achieve the same degree of cleaning. Among these methods are containment of the structure with tarp material and the use of dust collectors to produce negative air pressure inside this containment.

Risks and Benefits of Repainting After considering coating systems and environmental issues, the specifier and the owner must decide the risks and benefits for the various options of repainting. Table 12-1 is a way of reviewing this Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

Very low Low Moderate High High

Spot repair/spot repaint

Zone painting

Spot repair/overcoat

Complete removal/recoat

Replace tank

TABLE 12-1

High

High

Moderate

Low

Low

Cost 0

Comparison of Relative Risks, Benefits, and Costs

Note: N/A = not applicable.

Benefit None/negative

Alternative Do nothing

Low

Low

High

Moderate

High

Early Coating Failure N/A

Low

High

Low

Low

Low

Environmental Release N/A

Risks

Low

High

Low

Low

Low

Worker Contamination N/A

Low

High

Low

Moderate

High

Adverse Publicity High

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e information. Costs may be inserted using an engineering estimate or even from the actual bids. Another consideration is when the tank can be drained and available for painting. If this cannot be done in normal warm-weather conditions, the coating system design must specify either coatings that can be applied and cured at colder temperatures or coatings that are applied while using heaters and dehumidification to control the environment. If the schedule is tight and downtime must be limited, multiple shifts using environmental control might overcome schedule constraints. Also, the coating system must meet the owner’s aesthetic requirements. Color availability and color and gloss retention are important aspects of aesthetic appeal. To the public, aesthetic appeal is often the most important aspect of the coating system. One final consideration when designing coating systems—the specifier must keep in mind the knowledge and abilities of the potential low bidder. The specifier must realize that if no independent field inspection of the work will occur, there is greater risk in specifying a coating system that is very sensitive to the quality of workmanship— as are nearly all of the new long-life systems. So, if little or no inspection is to be performed or if prequalification of the bidders is impossible, it is not recommended to specify coatings that are difficult to properly apply. Likewise, the specifier must be prepared to address problems that will undoubtedly occur in the field. This may even include demonstrating to the contractor how the specified coatings are to be mixed, applied, and cured. As new systems are developed, adequate product knowledge and practical field experience with these new coatings are lacking. Beware of being the guinea pig for new coating systems. Know what you are specifying! If you lack previous experience with the new product, observe application procedures and gain information from knowledgeable colleagues. It is important that specifiers continually learn about new coatings, equipment, procedures, regulations, and other important aspects of the coating industry through pertinent professional organizations and societies so they can provide the best service possible.

Overseeing Painting and Maintenance Many water tank owners seek autonomous verification that recoating and repairs are being performed in accordance with project specifications and generally accepted industry practice. By having a qualified and experienced professional be the on-site project representative while the work is being performed, the owner has independent assurance that the coatings will remain in good condition for their intended service life.

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Role and Qualifications of the Project Representative Long before any abrasive blasting and painting are performed on the water tank, the tank owner needs to determine what the role of the project representative will be and what qualifications that person must possess. Many water utilities require registration and licensing from one or more of the various industry associations (e.g., SSPC, NACE). However, possession of a specific industry’s license should not take the place of numerous years of experience in administering water tank rehabilitation projects. The role of the project representative must be determined and agreed on before the project begins. It is critical, then, that the description of the project representative’s duties, including the limitation of authority and responsibility, be communicated and made clear to all parties, including the painting contractor. For example, when an independent project representative is on-site, his or her responsibility (or lack thereof) for the safe work practices of the contractor’s personnel should be understood. Generally this is the case, since the project representative does not have direct control or supervision of the means, methods, techniques, sequences, or procedures of the contractor’s personnel, nor would the project representative generally be asked to issue direction regarding or assume control over the contractor’s compliance with environmental regulations. In most cases, the role of the project representative is to conduct on-site observation of the work in process and help the owner determine whether the work is in compliance with the specifications and with generally accepted industry practice. The project representative should also be expected to document and report to the tank owner any work that appears unsatisfactory or defective and advise the owner when additional testing appears necessary. The project representative should document his or her observations daily on an observation form. Topics might include number of contractor’s personnel on-site, surface profile measurements, paint batch numbers, area(s) of tank worked on, and ambient weather conditions. The written narrative should be supplemented with photographic documentation as determined necessary by the project representative. It is critical that this documentation be distributed to the owner and to the contractor’s foreman on a regular (daily) basis so that all parties are on the same page.

Role of the Water Tank Owner As previously discussed, the water tank owner is responsible for selecting the project representative and communicating the authority and limitations of that person’s duties to all parties. Next, the owner should designate someone else to act as the utility’s representative, a person who has the authority to transmit instructions, receive

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e information, and interpret and define the owner’s decisions. The utility’s representative should also be responsible for arranging for access onto both public and private properties as necessary and for reviewing and providing input on all documentation submitted by the contractor and the engineer.

Observation of the Work in Process As mentioned previously, many utility owners view independent evaluation of the coating application and repairs as an essential part of a successful tank rehabilitation project. The capability of a coating to achieve its anticipated service life is directly related to the quality of workmanship during application. Verification of the workmanship assures the owner that the money spent on tank maintenance will be maximized. As applicable, the following should be verified daily by the on-site project representative:

r Temperature of steel r Weather conditions (temperature, wind velocity and direction, relative humidity, and dew point)

r Paint batch numbers used on the day of the observation r Location of work performed r Quality of work being performed and compliance with the r r r r r r r r r

project documents Wet and dry film thickness readings Calibration record of dry mil thickness gauge Measure of the paint cure Number of workers on the job Equipment on the job Recommendations made Estimated completion date Photographs of significant details Other pertinent data as required or requested

It is necessary that the on-site project representative, in addition to having the previously discussed qualifications, be trained and qualified to competently use the equipment necessary to verify the quality of the work. The project representative generally uses the following equipment and resources to observe the work when required to do so:

r SSPC-Vis 1 visual blasting standards r NACE Visual Standard TM-01-70/75 (available)

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AWWA standards D100-96 and D102-97 Testex Press-O-Film Profile Measurement System Surface contamination detection device (soluble salts) Wet film thickness gauge Dry film thickness gauge Certified thickness calibration standards Steel temperature gauges Sling psychrometer and psychrometric tables Wet sponge holiday detector (low voltage) Tooke Gage (if required) Adhesive force measurement device (if required)

Contract Document and Specification Options It is important that the project specifications include specific tank upgrades as well as the tank repainting design. Repair specifications can be worded according to the precise methods to be used or the desired end result. The specification writer should review the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

Precise Methods of Repair For a specification that outlines precise methods of repair, the specification writer (and therefore, ultimately, the tank owner) exercises a good deal of control over the contractor’s activities. This type of specification can result in fewer bidders who are willing to modify their standard procedures to comply with the specifications, and bid prices may be higher. Strictly adhered to, this method of specification preparation is a bit of overkill and places more liability on the specifier.

End Result Only This type of specification defines the repairs to be made but leaves it to the contractor to determine how to accomplish the repairs. The result is more bidders and possibly lower costs. It allows the contractor to use his or her standard methods of repair and can lead to the development of innovative procedures. However, the specifier and the owner have little or no control over methods used. A prudent specifying engineer uses the best of each method and writes a repair specification that results in the best bidders offering the most competitive bids that result in a long-lasting, high-quality repair. Quantity does not necessarily mean quality. The contract documents used in a tank rehabilitation project generally spell out such necessary requirements as insurance limits,

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C h a p t e r Tw e l v e bonding, length of contract time, and bidding information. Sometimes a utility has a complete set of contract documents; sometimes it just provides certain documents and/or input on minimum requirement levels. If the utility lacks a complete set of contract documents, there are organizations that provide boilerplate documents (e.g., the Engineering Joint Contract Documents Committee) that can easily be modified for tank rehabilitation. Regardless of how the contract documents are assembled, the utility must provide precisely exact input in numerous areas, including minimum insurance level requirements, liquidated damages amounts, on-site availability of water and electricity, and bid opening dates.

Contract Administration The specifier and the tank owner should collaborate to administer the project to make sure that the owner’s needs are being satisfied. The owner may prefer that some activities be performed on-site during a rehabilitation project; some activities are best overseen by either the specifying engineer or the on-site project representative. The project engineer should verify compliance with the project specifications and contract documents to ensure that both the letter and the intent of the documents are being followed. The go-ahead for work to proceed should not be given until all submittals have been reviewed and accepted. After all of the submittals have been reviewed and accepted, numerous other administration activities need to be done, including these:

r Pre-job conference attendance r Consultation on adequacy of and compliance with the project specifications

r Specification interpretation r Attendance at the preconstruction meeting and all subsequent r r r r

meetings, and provision of meeting notes Review of all contractors’ submittals and shop drawings Review of construction schedule Review and approval of materials Preparation for negotiations of change orders and assistance with supplemental agreements

r Review and approval of payment requests r Dispute settlement r Public relations

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Tank Rehabilitation

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First Anniversary Evaluation A first anniversary evaluation, as recommended in AWWA D102, should be called for in the project specifications and should be scheduled prior to the end of the one-year bonded guarantee. The purpose of this evaluation is to identify and repair defective work before the bonding period ends. The water tank owner should be responsible for making the tank available and coordinating the date of the evaluation with the contractor and the project representative. The contractor should be required to complete the tank washout the day before the evaluation and should also be responsible for meeting the following requirements:

r Have an experienced foreman present. r Be prepared to perform minor touch-up work. r Bring all rigging necessary to performance of the touch-up work.

r Bring at least 1 gal (3.79 L) each of the exterior primer, intermediate coating, and finish coating.

r Bring at least 1 gal (3.79 L) each of an interior coating that can be placed in immersion service immediately for minor spot repairs.

r Bring Scotch-BriteTM abrasive disks with power tools and sandpaper to clean the steel surface.

r Supply equipment with which to apply coating repairs. r Supply equipment with which to wash out the tank and chlorine to disinfect it following the evaluation and any required touch-up work. The project representative should prepare and submit to the water tank owner a brief report with color photographs of the conditions found during the first anniversary evaluation and of the touch-up work.

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