Day 3 Final Metalanguage

Metalanguage Prepared by Leah E. Gustilo, PhD. [email protected]

Presentation Outline • The need for studying grammar • Conflicting approaches in teaching grammar • Defining grammar grammatically, structurally, and functionally • Parts of Speech • Sentential terminology • Moods of the Verb in English • Problematic usage and selected Rules in Grammar • Categories of Verbs • Tenses

Why is there a need to study the English Grammar? SIX REASONS ACCORDING TO CRYSTAL (2003)

1. Accepting the Challenge People are constantly curious about the world in which they live, and wish to understand it and (as with mountains) master it. Grammar is no different from any other domains of knowledge in this respect.

2. Being Human But more than mountains, language is involved with almost everything we do as human beings. We cannot live without language. To understand the linguistic dimension of our existence would be no mean achievement. And grammar is the fundamental organizing principle of language. 3. Exploring Our Creative Ability Our grammatical ability is extraordinary. It is probably the most creative ability we have. There is no limit to what we can say or write, yet all of this potential is controlled by a finite number of rules. How is this done?

4. Solving Problems Nonetheless, our language can let us down. We encounter ambiguity, and unintelligible speech or writing. To deal with these problems, we need to put grammar under the microscope, and work out what went wrong. This is especially critical when children are learning to emulate the standards used by educated adult members of their community. 5. Learning Other Languages

Learning about English grammar provides a basis for learning other languages. Much of the apparatus we need to English grammar turns out to be of general usefulness. Other languages have clauses, tenses, and adjectives too. And the differences they display will be all the clearer if we have first grasped what is unique to our mother tongue.

6. Increasing Our Awareness

After studying grammar, we should be more alert to the strength, flexibility, and variety of our language, and thus be in a better position to use it and to evaluate others' use of it. Whether our own usage in fact improves, as a result, is less predictable. Our awareness must improve, but turning that awareness into better practice--by speaking and writing more effectively--requires an additional set of skills. Even after a course on car mechanics, we can still drive carelessly. Source: Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. UK. Cambridge University Press

Conflict in Grammar Teaching Form structure

Function Communicative use

Conflict in Grammar Teaching

•Being able to use the language grammatically and being able to use the language are two different things; but both are important. •Help learners to accomplish both: approach that accounts for both structure and use Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Defining grammar suitable for both approaches Understand how grammar works in three dimensions: Grammar is not merely a collection of forms but rather involves the three dimensions of what linguists refer to as (morpho)syntax, semantics, and pragmatics (Celce-Murcia, 2008) Form – how it is formed? (Accuracy) Meaning – What does it mean? (Meaningfulness) Use – When/Why is it used? (appropriateness) Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

A pedagogic grammar • is a description of how to use the grammar of a language to communicate for people wanting to learn the target language. • Pedagogic grammars contain assumptions about how learners learn, follow certain linguistic theories in their descriptions, and are written for a specific target audience. • Should have an eclectic approach to meet the needs of the learners Source: Pedagogic grammar: Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/pedagogic-grammar

Defining the Parts of Speech Problem with semantic definition: Noun– is a name of person, place, or thing. How about color blue? Problem with structural definition Not all nouns have noun-like morphemes and do not always function as nouns: wilderness—wilderness park; fly (noun or verb) Need for functional definition Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Defining Parts of Speech: Semantic, structural, functional Parts of Grammatical/Notio Structural Speech nal/Traditional Definition Definition Nouns Name of a person, Preceded by place, or thing articles

Functional Kinds/Types Definition of Subject of Common, verbs mass, proper

Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Parts of Speech

Verbs

Grammatical/ Structural Notional/Tradi Definition tional Definition Denotes action Follows a noun or state of being and is followed by an adjective, an adverb and other nouns

Functional Definition

Adding a verb to a noun completes the sentence

Kinds/Types of

Modal verbs, be verbs, action verbs Instransitive, transitive, ditransitive Complex transitive verbs, prepositional

Parts of Grammatical/Notion Structural Speech al/Traditional Definition Definition

Functional Kinds/Types Definition of

Adverbs Modify verbs and Finally, Modify contribute meaning medially, verbs and to the sentence and initially sentences

attributive, predicative

Parts of Speech

Grammatical/Notional Structural Functional Kinds/ /Traditional Definition Definition Definition Types of

Prepositi Connects words to ons other parts of the sentence

Precedes nouns and pronouns

closely one relates to word, the noun two-word next to it

Parts of Speech

Grammatical/ Notional/Tradi tional Definition Conjunction Words that join

Structural Definition

between words, clauses, or sentences

Functional Definition

Kinds/Types of

Join elements Subordinating that are and grammatically coordinating equal or joins a subordinate clause to a main clause

Pairwork:

•Define Adjectives in a table grammatically, structurally, and functionally

Parts of Speech

Adjective

Grammatical/ Structural Notional/Tradi Definition tional Definition

Functional Definition

Kinds/Types of

The principal sent them to his office immediately. Part of Speech

The Principal Sent Them To his office

NOTIONAL/ GRAMMATICAL DEFINITION

STRUCTURA FUNCTIONAL L

Parts of Speech

Adjective

Grammatical /Notional/Tr aditional Definition Quantifies/Q ualifies nouns

Structural Definition

Functional Definition

Between a Modifies or determiner complements and a noun, nouns after BE Identifiable structures (able, ish, ful)

Kinds/Types of

Attributive, predicative

Parts of Speech Major classes/Content words/Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Minor classes/Function words/Closed class: auxiliary verbs, preposition, pronouns, determiners, and conjunctions Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Sentential Terminology Simple sentence – contains at least one subject and one verb and can stand alone as an independent clause. Compound sentence – consists of two or more clauses of equal grammatical importance. Complex sentence – contains a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd Ed). USA. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Types of Sentence Structures Sentence Structure

Description

Examples

Simple

contains at least one subject The teacher was and one verb and can stand late. alone as an independent clause.

Compound

two independent causes (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction ("FAN BOYS) made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it.

Complex

Glenda waited for the teacher, but the teacher was late.

Because Glenda went home early, I did not see her in class.

Dependent clauses start with subordinating conjunctions:

after although as because before even though if since though unless until when whenever whereas wherever while

Mood of the Verb In grammar, mood is used to refer to a verb category or form which indicates whether the verb expresses a fact (the indicative mood), a command (the imperative mood), a question (the interrogative mood) or a wish or possibility (the subjunctive mood). Source: Mood (2018). https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/moods

Moods in English Language Major moods

definition

examples

INDICATIVE

Used for factual statements (Declarative) Or pose questions (interrogative

Dr. Reyes facilitates the workshop Does Dr. Reyes facilitate the workshop

IMPERATIVE

Expresses a request or command

SUBJUNCTIVE expresses a wish, a suggestion, a command, or a condition that is contrary to fact.

Facilitate the workshop now. Would you facilitate the workshop? If I were in your position, I would do the same. It is imperative that the meeting begin at once.

Forming the subjunctive Non-subjunctive Non-subjunctive Subjunctive Form Form Example is

He is allowed.

be

was

I was ordered.

were

present verbs in the third person singular (i.e., ending s)

He cooks.

remove the s

Source: What is the subjunctive mood. (n.d.) Retrieved from : http://www.grammarmonster.com/glossary/subjunctive_mood.htm

Subjunctive Example It is essential he be allowed. If I wereordered, I'd go. I wish that he cook.

Minor Moods Tag declarative Tag imperative Pseudo-imperative Alternative questions Exclamative Optative Curse

You've been drinking again, haven't you. Leave the room, will you! Move and I'll shoot! Move or I'll shoot! Does John resemble his father or his mother? What a nice day! May he rest in peace. You pig, bag of wind, . . .!

Source: Major and Minor Moods. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/mood-in-grammar-1691405

Theme The first major constituent of a clause, indicating the subject matter, typically being the subject but optionally other constituents.

RHEME the constituent of a sentence that adds most new information. The rheme is usually, but not always, associated with the subject

provides the point of departure of the message

Source: Oxford Dictionary: Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/theme

Examples of Theme and Rheme

Theme/Topic

Rheme

When he

was distracted by the barking dog.

What easy question you ask!

Our dog, Chehe

limped into the room

Voice of the Verb Active Voice: The subject functions as the theme and is most often the actor or agent of the action of the verb Source: Towson University Online writing support (2017). Retrieved from: https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm

Voice of the Verb Passive Voice: the thing acted upon by the agent has been made the theme.

Source: Towson University Online writing support (2017). Retrieved from: https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/activepass.htm

Rules in Subject-Verb Agreement

Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes. Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the alltoo-common mistake in the following sentence: Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room. Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend) Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

•Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb. •Examples: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today. Neither Juan nor Carmen is available. Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it. Examples: Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf. Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence: Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival. If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences. Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival. OR She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and. Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation. But note these exceptions: Exceptions: Ham and eggs is my favorite breakfast. When the subject stands for a definable unit, such as money, measurement, time, organization and food combinations, the verb is indeed singular: Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular. Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject. Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome. If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb. Examples: There are four hurdles to jump. There is a high hurdle to jump. Here are the keys. NOTE: The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to use there's with a plural subject. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit. Examples: Three miles is too far to walk. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense. Ten dollars is a high price to pay. BUT Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 8. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb. Examples: A lot of the pie has disappeared. A lot of the pies have disappeared. A third of the city is unemployed. A third of the people are unemployed. All of the pie is gone. All of the pies are gone. Some of the pie is missing. Some of the pies are missing. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

NOTE

In recent years, the SAT testing service has considered none to be strictly singular. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism." When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent. Examples: All of my family has arrived OR have arrived. Most of the jury is here OR are here. A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

NOTE

Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days: The staff is deciding how they want to vote. Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Better version: The staff members are deciding how they want to vote. Source: Subject Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

Rule 10. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact: Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry. Examples: I wish it were Friday. Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing.

Source: Subject-Verb Agreement. (n.d.) Retrieved from: https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp

A few vs few + countable nouns

Laila has a few friends from Manila. (positive) I have few eggs. These are not enough for all of us. (negative)

A little vs little + uncountable noun

I have a little milk. I can have this for my coffee. (positive) I have little milk. I cannot make more coffee. (negative)