Hypnosis Book Ronald Shone

Chapter 1 A Brief History of Hypnosis

Summary This chapter provides a brief history of hypnosis beginning with some observations prior to Anton Mesmer. The beginnings of hypnosis as we know it today began with Mesmer’s animal magnetism; it continued with two apposing schools of thought; and is now dominated by Erickson’s indirect hypnosis. Throughout we direct attention to what insights the history provides for self-hypnosis.

CHAPTER 1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF HYPNOSIS (This is an updated version of three articles published in the European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Part I, Vol.1, No.4, 1994; Part II, Vol.2, No.1, 1994; Part III, Vol.2, No.2, 1995) Reviewing the history of any subject is always useful in putting it into perspective. This is especially true of hypnosis because it is shrouded in so many confusions, misconceptions and unnecessary links with religion, magic and the supernatural. Hypnosis in some form has been known about since the beginning of recorded history. It occurs in the bible and in the ‘sleep’ temples of ancient Greece, such as the Temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus. The ‘sleep’ temples were places of healing and people made pilgrimages to them from far and wide. There were ritual offerings and other rituals to perform even before the individual entered the temple. In the temple the oracle was consulted. But how was it consulted? It was consulted by inducing in the individual a trance state, a state that today would be called hypnosis. Of course the precise method this was induced was the secret of the temple. This is only marginally different from the miraculous cures associated with religious shrines throughout the Middle Ages and today. The shrine at Lourdes, where Bernadette Soubirous had visions of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1858, is today a place of pilgrimage and associated with miraculous healing. These and many other miraculous cures take place in a setting where the individual is already in some heightened state of consciousness, an altered state of consciousness, and highly suggestible. It is not my intention to discuss either magic or miracles, but it is necessary from the outset to be aware that hypnosis takes place in a setting of heightened suggestibility. It does not matter how this heightened suggestibility is brought about, what matters is that it is present. The point being made here is that hypnosis has occurred throughout recorded history and has often been linked to healing, religion and even magic. But even this observation has an important implication for the study being undertaken here. If such a trance state has occurred throughout recorded history, and does not appear to be associated with a particular sex or with a particular sub-section of the population, then we surely must conclude that it is a state of the human nervous system. Exactly what state it is is the subject matter of this book; but that it is a state common to us all is none the less an important observation. What all this early period had to say about hypnosis was in fact very little. Since it was supposed to be religious in origin, magical in origin, or supernatural, then there was no point investigating it because it was beyond the scope of human understanding. Of course, this view was taken not just about hypnosis, but was a view held about many aspects of the human condition. One idea from this early period is, however, important for our history – namely, the Cabala. The Cabala was a system of Jewish theosophy based on interpreting the Old Testament by some esoteric method which was secret and passed down from one generation to the next only by word of mouth. It is from the Cabala that the idea of alchemy has its roots. The ideas of the Cabalists entered the West with the three-volume work of Cornelius Agrippa, the first volume of which appeared in 1531. Agrippa was hoping to reconcile the ideas of the Cabalists with Christianity, since it was the growth of Christianity, and most especially the Christian fathers, which had turned the population against Cabalist lore. Paracelsus, a

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contemporary of Agrippa, who also did not see any inconsistency between the Cabala and Christianity, extended the ideas of the Cabalists further. The importance of alchemy in the Cabala is important for understanding the beginning of our history. Alchemy was concerned with a force that allowed two inert substances to be transmutated into a third substance. Exactly what this force was had been a secret, and is still a secret to this day. It is the philosopher’s stone, the elixir of life. Paracelsus argued that so long as the wisdom of the alchemist did not prevent him from mis-using the force, then Cabalist doctrine and Christianity were reconcilable. The wise men, the magi, were holy men of God serving the forces of nature and not using those forces for their own ends. It was Paracelsus who put forward a theory that argued that heavenly bodies exerted a force on mankind. Paracelsus argued that there existed a ‘fluid’ all around and that this ‘fluid’ meant that the heavenly bodies could influence mankind, and that man could influence each other. Furthermore, man was a microcosm of the heavens. What the theory was trying to explain was the influence of the planets on mankind and how one person could influence another person at a distance. Although not the only explanation of how one body could influence another body at a distance, another being the Neoplatonic concept of a ‘world soul’, they all relied on some vague magical process of linking. With the rise of science in the seventeenth century, and its reaction against any mystical explanations, it had to explain the influence of the planets on man and man on each other at a distance. However, the scientists of the seventeenth century did not totally abandon the idea of ‘spirit’ or other non-material agents. What they did was embody them in a more mechanistic view of the world. The developments taking place from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into the seventeenth century was the development of a science of matter. Certainly, a common term in the writings of the seventeenth century was the ‘effluvia’. It was this that was meant to explain the attraction of iron filings to a magnet. ‘Effluvia’ was considered to be ‘rarefied matter’. Although Descartes believed that all space contained matter (in other words the universe contained no empty space), and so the influence of one object on another was by direct and indirect contact, this was not held by Newton. It was Newton who introduced semi-material ‘ether’ into scientific discourse. It is hard to imagine that these ‘scientific’ explanations were much better. But from the point of view of our history, they led to the theory of magnetism. Bodies influenced each other at a distance because of a magnetic force. It was the Cabalist idea of ‘fluid’ combined with the seventeenth century development of magnetic effluvia that attracted Franz Mesmer, and it is with Mesmer that we begin our history.

1.1 Animal magnetism There is no doubt that Franz Anton Mesmer is the beginning for the modern view of hypnosis, and it is still often referred to as mesmerism. No one would suppose that Mesmer discovered hypnosis. As we have indicated it had been known about since recorded history. What Mesmer did, however, was embed it in a scientific framework and use it for healing. In 1766 Mesmer argued that the planets, in addition to affecting each other, also influenced all organized bodies – including man – through their effects on the fluid that occupies all space. The ‘fluid that occupies all space’ had its origins in the Cabala and the view had its

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roots in the work of Paracelsus. By the eighteenth century electricity, magnetism and heat were all considered as fluid forms of matter. They differed from ordinary matter only in their weightlessness. Consequently the ‘magnetic effluvia’ of Robert Boyle and the ‘ether’ of Isaac Newton were reinterpreted in the eighteenth century as ‘fluids.’ Already by 1729 Stephen Gray had demonstrated that electrical effects were transmitted along wires and had an independent existence – it was truly an ‘electric fluid’, and could even be stored. Mesmer’s views about the magnetic force affecting bodies did therefore not seem at all out of place. With the idea that all things were part of the fluid it was only a short step from this to argue that illness was because the ‘fluid’ was not in some way flowing properly. In other words, the fluid became associated with the healing force – often associated with the laying on of hands. Given the interest in magnetism and its connection with fluid forms of matter, then why not use magnets to increase the healing flow? It was this idea that interested Maximilian Hehl, Professor of Astronomy at the University of Vienna. With the aid of magnets Hehl helped an English lady overcome her cramps on a visit to Vienna in 1774. Soon after, while experimenting on a patient Mesmer was bleeding (still a common cure for many ailments), he found that he could influence the rate of blood flow: increasing it by bringing a magnet closer and reducing the flow by moving the magnet further away. But he soon discovered that just by approaching the patient he could do the same. If he approached the blood flow increased; and if he moved away then the blood flow slowed down. He found he could do the same simply by pointing his finger at the patient, or ‘magnetising’ some other object and using this. He concluded from all this that he himself must be a form of magnet, and hence the magnetic force was not associated with minerals but with the animal magnetism of man – hence the term animal magnetism. He published his findings in a pamphlet in 1775, but it was not well received by the medical profession. Before discussing Mesmer’s approach to animal magnetism in terms of hypnosis, it will be useful to continue to outline his flamboyant approach to his patients. Mesmer believed that the magnets he used and his hands increased the stagnant flows of magnetic fluid in his patients and it was this that helped to heal them. He created a tub with water and iron filings in with magnets connected to each other and immersed in the liquid. The magnetized power was sprayed around the room by means of a metal nozzle. He even ‘magnetized’ the trees and fountain in his garden. The result was patients went into trances, into catatonic states, into convulsions, into dissociative states where they were speaking in strange voices, and so on. Both he and his patients believed that all this was necessary for the healing process. When they came out of these states, however, they often felt much better His success in Paris, after having fled Vienna, made him even more flamboyant. He would enter his treatment rooms in a lilac silk dressing gown, carrying a ‘magnetic wand’ that he pointed at his patients. They in turn were formed in a circle, men alternating with women, and touching at the thighs to increase the magnetic flow between them. Having touched them all with his wand he would then play a magnetized piano. All this sent many of his patients into convulsions and to collapse to the floor. Afterwards many patients felt much better. In order to understand what went on we must ask two basic questions. 1. Was there any scientific basis for animal magnetism? 2. Notwithstanding the answer to the first question, why did patients go into various types of trance states and come out feeling much better?

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The Royal Commission of Inquiry that was set up by Louis XVI in 1784, and headed by Benjamin Franklin, addressed the first question. Here all we are interested in is their conclusion. They concluded that although patients did go into convulsions and often felt better as a result, that this had nothing to do with animal magnetism. The magnetic fluid did not exist, and since it did not exist it could have no healing effects. What they further concluded was that the patients’ responses were most likely the result of Mesmer’s strong powers of suggestion. They emphasized that from their observations patients appeared completely under the control of Mesmer. In a state of apparent drowsiness, Mesmer only had to say something, or point to them, for them to respond. The view of the Commission concerning animal magnetism is held to this day. Of more significance is the second question and the Commission’s findings that it was to do with suggestion. Patients went into states that today would be classified as hysteria. Today such hysterical response to hypnosis does not occur. Does this mean that the hysterical responses were, in fact, a result of animal magnetism and the fact that we do not today use magnets means that we do not obtain the same responses? Put another way, why were hysterical responses the typical response in the time of Mesmer but not today? This is a difficult question to answer, but one that needs an answer even in this early stage of our investigation. There are two interrelated reasons. First, because it was considered that the trance was brought about by a magnet force then this was the ‘right’ response to such a force. Mesmer expected his patients to behave in this way, and his patients behaved as they were expected to behave. It is not only in hypnosis that actual behaviour conforms to expected behaviour. People expect drunks to behave in certain ways, for women or men to behave in certain ways, for children to behave in certain ways. Throughout our lives we govern our actual behaviour to a large extent according to what is expected. The argument we are advancing here is that people considered that this was the ‘typical’ or ‘right’ response to such a magnetic force. That this is what a person did when in a trance. A second reason which is more scientific. The trance states created at the time of Mesmer were largely negative hypnotic states rather than the positive hypnotic state produced today. Briefly, a negative hypnotic state is created by activating the sympathetic nervous system; while positive hypnosis activates the parasympathetic nervous system. A very active sympathetic nervous system is typical of hysteria. Hysteria and the sympathetic nervous system interrelate in the sense that a cataleptic state could only be achieved by activating the sympathetic nervous system. This distinction will become much clearer later. A second observation immediately arises from the Committee’s findings in relation to the sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation. If we discount the hypothesis that the magnets had anything to do with the trance state, then what, or who, activated the patients’ sympathetic nervous system? It was the patients themselves. But even this is too simplistic. What made the patients stimulate their sympathetic nervous system? The Royal Commission recognized the activating element but its full significance they seemed not to appreciate. The Commission stated that in their opinion the imagination was a major factor in the response of patients. They also recognized that Mesmer had a strong suggestive influence on his patients. It was these two elements together that were of major importance. But we must not forget a third element that was always present – namely, the patients’ belief in Mesmer and in animal magnetism. It does not matter whether animal magnetism existed. What mattered was the patients’ belief in Mesmer and that he could cure them through animal magnetism. We can conclude, therefore, that three elements appear to be present during hypnosis.

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1. Imagination 2. Suggestibility 3. Belief Although Mesmer was totally mistaken about magnetism, he was well aware of his influence on patients and that it was important to establish a good relationship with them. This he called rapport, a term used to this day. As was noted much later, rapport is the situation in which the patient has confidence and belief in what the physician says and does; in other words, the suggestions of the hypnotist are more likely to be carried out. How well suggestions are carried out appears to be linked with how well developed is the individual’s imagination. We shall deal with this in more detail later. Here all we are asserting is that rapport without a good imagination on the part of the person being hypnotized is not likely to be very successful – although there is always likely to be some success. The Commission’s findings effectively brought an end to the successful career of Mesmer, although he continued with his practice, first in Paris until the end of the revolution, and later in Meesburg on Lake Constance where he retired for the remainder of his days. Animal magnetism, however, did not immediately disappear. This was largely because of investigation and comment by Laurent de Jussieu, a botanist by training. He noted that patients went into trance even when Mesmer was not in sight and was some six-foot away. Some patients even went into convulsions while Mesmer moved his finger behind them, and more significantly, continued in this way while his finger was moving but stopped when Mesmer stopped. Jussieu argued that such actions might very well arise from the existence of a magnetic fluid. A more modern view might be that this was telepathy and not animal magnetism. But this simply replaces the term ‘animal magnetism’ with the equally unsatisfactory term ‘telepathy’. Whatever it is called, we still must explain the influence of one individual on another at a distance and possibly without them being aware of it. This was apparent to Jussieu but not to the Commission. To say it is telepathy, where we understand this to be the thought of one person manifesting itself in the mind of another person, begs the question of how the thought moved from the sender to the receiver. To put it in the same terms as Jussieu: does the telepathic transfer of a thought take place because of the ‘magnetic fluid’? Thus, Jussieu posed a doubt that was not addressed by the Commission, and so enabled some people to continue to believe in the existence and effect of animal magnetism. One such person of significance was Chastenet de Puységur, who was himself a former President of the Lyon Medical Society. In 1784, while investigating animal magnetism, he came on a shepherd boy named Victor who he attempted to ‘magnetise’ by stroking his head. Victor went into a very deep trance and completely went under the control of Puységur. Furthermore, Victor had no memory of the experience when he awoke. Not only did Victor appear to carry out Puységur’s spoken commands, but he also appeared to carry out his unspoken ones too, and Puységur considered him clairvoyant. Puységur called Victor's state ‘spasmodic sleep’ or ‘artificial somnambulism’. It appeared to give some credence to Jussieu’s contention about the existence of a magnetic fluid, for how else could Victor follow Puységur's unspoken commands? Although Victor was by no means a bright young man of the village, under a trance he became very profound and knowledgeable about other people’s illnesses. With the help of Victor, Puységur began to treat the local villages with some major success. But Pététin, another past President of the Lyon Medical Society, frowned on Puységur’s work. Pététin, however, undertook some experiments of his own, and to his

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astonishment they worked with great success. This was especially true with one ‘magnetised’ woman who could ‘see’ cards placed on her stomach, and ‘taste’ foods just by touching them. Like Victor, the woman appeared clairvoyant. These experiences of Puységur and Pététin had the unfortunate occurrence that it closely linked hypnosis and clairvoyance. Had it not been for the intervention of the French revolution, ‘animal magnetism’ would have continued to be more widespread. Before leaving the experiences of Puységur and Pététin, one important observation on the hypnotic state is worth making. They all illustrate that hypnosis involves heightened awareness of a number of the senses, especially by somnambulists. This is an important observation in its own right, especially because a number of commentators who know very little about hypnosis tend to deny this fact. There is no need to accept clairvoyance and other paranormal phenomena associated with hypnosis in order to accept heightened awareness of the senses. In France at the beginning of the nineteenth century there was a return of interest in animal magnetism that more or less coincided with the posthumous publications of Pététin and Puységur’s work. Joseph Deleuze, a young curator, undertook some experiments of his own into animal magnetism. He later published his findings in an attempt to substantiate it, arguing that there must be a magnetic fluid in order to account for the phenomenon being experienced. He and later authors, however, began to drop the word ‘animal’. But the resurgence of interest into animal magnetism at the end of the Napoleonic wars was not confined to France. Experimentation was taking place in Germany, Italy, Russian, Holland, Sweden and elsewhere in Europe. Many of the reports being made strengthened the link between hypnosis and clairvoyance. For example, a report by Professor D. Veliansky presented six stages of the trance state; including the stage of clairvoyance (stage five) and the stage of ‘travelling clairvoyance’ (stage six). Although Puységur realized that the hysterical behaviour that typified Mesmer’s patients was not necessary for the trance state, he still believed in animal magnetism. Of more significance were the public demonstrations of the Abbé Faria, a Portuguese priest. It was he who realized that suggestion alone was all that was required to place susceptible members of his audience into a somnambulistic state. In his vaudeville-like performances, he simply suggested in a quiet but authoritative voice that a person should “go to sleep”. Somnambulists did so. He then demonstrated his control over them. The antics of some of his subjects made many sceptical and others suspicious of collusion. An actor who volunteered and behaved like a somnambulist, but then claimed that he was acting all the time, however, discredited the Abbé Faria. As a consequence, others who possibly had been truly in a somnambulistic state, claimed that they too were only pretending – probably on account of the foolish things that they had been made to do. Although the Abbé Faria had been discredited, he moved the subject from the place of experimentation into the realm of showmanship. But more importantly, he demonstrated that there was no need to assume the existence of animal magnetism; and furthermore, that the trance state could be achieved simply by suggestion alone, so laying the foundation for the typical induction procedures adopted today. Another major change, and a break with animal magnetism, occurred in Britain. In 1841 James Braid (1795-1860), a Scottish surgeon working in Manchester, watched a demonstration of animal magnetism by a visiting French businessman, Charles Lafontaine. Originally sceptical, his interest was aroused and he experimented himself. He dispensed with the idea of a fluid in which people are purported to exist, and demonstrated that the

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trance state could be achieved by holding a bright object a little above the subject’s eye-line. Why did he use this method? He likened the sleep of animal magnetism to natural sleep. Since, he reasoned, natural sleep occurs when a person is fatigued, then why not the mesmeric trance? He reasoned that it was the fatigue that brought on the trance state and not magnetism. In other words, the phenomenon was purely natural and due to a physiological reaction. His experiments appeared to verify his hypothesis. In 1843 he published his findings in a book entitled Neurhypnology or The Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism. The state of ‘nervous sleep’ he called neurhypnotism, later shortened to hypnotism, a condition of the nervous system that was artificially induced. At the beginning Braid brought on the artificially induced state by eye fixation on a bright object. However, he later realised that the same result could be induced by sustained concentration on the hypnotist’s voice. Although Braid initially stressed the physiological nature of hypnotism, his views changed with time, and he later stressed the more psychological factors, especially the role of suggestion. What Braid eventually realised was that the link with fatigue, just like the link with magnetism, was a spurious one. However, the abandonment of animal magnetism as the force in the trance state was now becoming more widespread. Although hypnotism (which now replaced animal magnetism and mesmerism as a term) became more widespread, it was still violently objected to by the medical profession, most especially in Britain. Such opposition was most striking in terms of the reaction of the Royal College of Physicians to the interest expressed by John Elliotson (1791-1868) in the phenomenon of mesmerism. An eminent professor of medicine at University College, London, Elliotson became convinced of the importance of hypnosis, especially in the treatment of functional nervous disorders, i.e., disorders of the mind or body for which there appeared to be no physical pathological reason. He employed the technique in hospital demonstrations, to the annoyance of the College council. When requested to stop, he resigned. When he delivered the Harveian Oration to the Royal College of Physicians in 1846, his chosen subject of mesmerism was met with stony silence. Elliotson’s interest in ‘wounds with no pain’ (the topic of his Harveian Oration) was being pursued at about the same time by James Esdaile (1805-59), a Scotsman working as a physician for the East India Company in Calcutta. Esdaile successfully operated on hundreds of patients under such pain-free operations under mesmeric trance. Such pain-free operations were also cheap and favoured both by the company and the workers. However, his report to the Calcutta Medical Board on his success in the first 75 operations was ignored. The local press, on the other hand, began a campaign against ‘the charlatan’. The deputy governor of Bengal ordered an investigation. Like so many investigations into mesmerism, the committee could not bring itself to accept the phenomenon, but they did admit that Esdaile’s patients appeared to undergo their operations without any pain. The East India Company were satisfied and appointed Esdaile to an experimental surgical unit, where he continued to use mesmerism as analgesia until chloroform came into general use. The most remarkable observation that can be made about these investigations by physicians is their preparedness to believe patients only pretended to feel no pain. This is even more surprising given the fact that a number of the operations involved amputations! Furthermore, the general medical opposition to the use of mesmerism as analgesia meant that it rapidly died out when chloroform was introduced (1847) and chemical anaesthetics became readily available.

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1.2 The period of controversy Braid’s approach to hypnosis became known on the Continent when, three days before his death, a paper of his was read to the French Academy. At this meeting was a French country doctor, Ambroise Auguste Liébeault (1823-1903), who had a practice just outside Nancy. He returned to his practice with the intention of trying Braid’s methods. He would treat his patients with the usual methods employing drugs at the standard charge, but would treat them with hypnosis for no charge. He simply suggested to his patients very quietly that they were ready to go to sleep, and many of them did so. They did not fall into a natural sleep but rather into a hypnotic trance. When in this trance he would give them suggestions, again in a very quiet voice, which would help them in removing their symptoms. In his view, it was the suggestions when made in this state that were important and not the means of achieving the hypnotic state. Liébeault was only interested in the use of hypnosis in the treatment of illness and not in any link with clairvoyance. Even when he encountered a woman who did automatic writing at high speed and quite unaware of what she was writing, he refrained from speculating on its nature. Liébeault’s approach was probably the clearest change from negative to positive hypnosis. The use of quiet suggestion activated the patient’s parasympathetic nervous system and produced a trance state that was calm rather than hysterical. Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-93), Professor at the Salpêtrière in Paris, used the same technique. He too had been experimenting with hypnosis along the lines of Braid. He, however, was dealing with hysterics and was of the opinion that hypnosis was a heightened neuromuscular state and akin to epilepsy, but artificially induced. Charcot’s patients all exhibited the cataleptic state we discussed in relation to Mesmer, and were basically exhibiting negative hypnosis. In terms of the history of the subject, Charcot provided an explanation for the hypnotic state that was acceptable to the scientific community. Once animal magnetism was abandoned the trance state, although plain to see, could not be accounted for. In 1882 Charcot, by then one of France’s leading physicians, presented a paper on hypnotism to the Academy, where he argued that it was a neurological condition. It was a sensation, and completely reversed the attitude then prevalent about mesmerism and animal magnetism. But there was an unfortunate element in his analysis. The neurological condition, he argued, was in fact a disorder: it was hystero-epilepsy that was artificially induced. It was not, therefore, difficult to see the next step in the logic. As a disorder it should not be induced – except possibly to investigate hysteria. Accordingly, there was no need for doctors to learn hypnosis. In simple terms the assertion was that anyone who went into a state of hypnosis was in a temporary state of hysteria! Charcot’s analysis illustrates the danger of generalizing from a limited sample. His patients were all hysterics to begin with (the Salpêtrière being a sanatorium) and all went into negative hypnosis. It was not surprising therefore that Charcot concluded that hypnosis was akin to hysteria. Whether an individual is under hypnosis or not, a highly active sympathetic nervous system generally produces the same effects. Thus, having abandoned the link between hypnosis and magnetism, and having to contend with the link between hypnosis and clairvoyance, we now find a link being made between hypnosis and hysteria – a link which did not help the development of hypnosis.

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Fortunately for hypnosis, the Nancy School was in sharp contrast to the Salpêtrière and advanced an alternative hypothesis. In 1882 Liébeault had cured a patient of Professor Bernheim. Hippolyte Bernheim (1837-1919) had been treating a patient by orthodox means for some time without any success. He took the patient to Liébeault in the hope of exposing him, but the patient was cured! Bernheim was immediately impressed with what he saw and introduced hypnosis into his own hospital at Nancy. He followed the methods of Liébeault, who in turn followed the methods of Braid. We have made the point that Braid’s method was basically a stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system through quiet suggestions. This positive hypnotic state bore very little resemblance to the negative hypnotic state that was being produced at the Salpêtrière. Unfortunately, Liébeault took a retrogressive step in 1883 by going back to animal magnetism. At the same time, a student of Charcot’s, a Pierre Janet, re-awakened the debate over related mental achievements in the hypnotic state. Janet witnessed a woman being hypnotized by exerting pressure on her hand. However, this worked only when the doctor concentrated on what he was doing. When his attention wavered he could not induce hypnosis. Janet concluded from this that the process of inducing hypnosis could not be a purely mechanical process as Charcot had asserted. The point was whether these accounts were examples of hyperacuity or whether there really was something that passed between the hypnotist and the subject. So the debate was re-opened. Charcot’s interpretation was readily taken up at the outset, largely because it fitted into orthodox medicine, as it was then understood. It also led to the insistence that medical practitioners should only undertake hypnosis, an understandable reaction if it was linked to hysteria. But within the space of four years evidence from various experiments came flooding into the Academy, almost all supporting the Nancy School’s interpretation. In other words, individuals did not have to be hysterics to be hypnotisable. Hypnosis was a psychological phenomenon and not a physiological one. Furthermore, even though psychological, hypnosis could in certain cases cure physical problems. Although many experiments supported the Nancy view, the basic theme of the Nancy School was suggestibility, and this was vague and did not find favour with the scientific community. Suggestion was a psychological state, and psychology at the time was not a well-defined, or a very credible, subject. It would not, therefore, fit into the general orthodox approach of medicine. As far as scientists were concerned the Salpêtrière supremacy had not been toppled. The controversy continued, each citing the same evidence in support of their theories. For instance, the stigmata of Louise Lateau were cited in support of both schools. At the Nancy School the stigmata could be created by suggestion under hypnosis; while in the Salpêtrière the stigmata were taken to be another symptom of hystero-epilepsy. Evidence was mounting, however, that suggestion did play an important role in hypnosis. It was at this time that it was discovered that blisters could be formed by suggestion alone. In addition, healing could be speeded up in certain cases. This raised a problem for medical doctors. If the Salpêtrière view was correct then they need not learn hypnosis. If the Nancy School was correct, and if healing could be speeded up by hypnosis, then they would have to learn hypnosis. One important observation that is not generally recognized comes out of this discussion and that is: both were probably correct. If we accept that both positive and negative hypnosis can exist, then the Salpêtrière were dealing with negative hypnosis and argued their case from that point of view; the Nancy School were dealing with positive hypnosis and were arguing their case from this point of view. Both have elements of truth, but neither is an explanation

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of all aspects of hypnosis. In so far as the therapeutic aspects of hypnosis come from positive hypnosis, there is a leaning today towards the Nancy School view. But the discussion of this debate also illustrates the different approaches we observe today. In some circles (and in some stage performances) it is the negative hypnotic state that is induced rather than the positive one.

1.3 The rise of psychoanalysis and hypnosis The next stage was associated with the rise in the psychoanalytic method, associated most with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Hypnosis had reached the situation where it was being used as a direct method of symptom removal and was not dealing with the cause of the problem. The psychoanalytic movement pioneered by Freud was to concentrate on the causes and not simply on symptom removal. Freud’s ideas did, however, begin from observations of hypnosis. Freud had visited the Salpêtrière at the height of Charcot’s influence on the medical profession and became ecstatic over Charcot’s lectures and the man. He became more directly involved with Charcot when he volunteered to translate one of Charcot’s third volumes of work into German. It was during this time that Freud saw Charcot’s demonstrations of hypnosis, seeing at first hand different levels of consciousness in the same individual. It was then that he realised the possibility of deep mental processes that remained hidden to the individual. Freud himself entered the debate between the Salpêtrière and the Nancy School, being fully convinced by neither. In 1889 he visited the Nancy School in the hope of improving his hypnotic technique. There he spent time with both Bernheim and Liébeault, now an old man. By this time the weight of evidence began to support the Nancy view and Freud too came round to this way of thinking about hypnosis, although he retained throughout both a neurophysiological and psychological view about hypnosis. At about the same time Josef Breuer (1842-1925) was eliminating the symptoms of hysteria by an indirect method. Whilst in a hypnotic state, he got his patients to verbalize their problems. Freud and Breuer met at Brücke’s Physiological Institute in the late 1870s, and soon became very good friends and sharing each other’s scientific interests. Breuer spent many years using his indirect method on the famous Anna O. Freud was fully acquainted with the case and Breuer’s procedures from long discussions about it. Freud, however, was slow to implement Breuer’s method on his return to Paris, no doubt because Charcot did not much approve. He began to do so in 1889 on a woman patient who he found to be somnambulistic. However, his first full-length treatment using Breuer’s method was not until 1892. So Freud began to use hypnosis on hysterical patients as a means of helping them recall the precise circumstances which led to their symptoms, publishing his experiences and those of Breuer in his Studies on Hysteria. Of importance to our study is the fact that both Breuer and Freud used hypnosis to unlock unconscious repressions that had been the cause of their mental illness. By 1887 Freud was almost exclusively using hypnosis on his patients, but with varying success. Some were not hypnotizable, and others did not go deep enough (Freud and others thinking that a deep somnambulistic state was necessary to obtain a cure.) Freud was discovering that for purposes of therapy hypnosis did have its drawbacks. But on a visit to Burnheim the latter informed Freud that although somnambulists did not normally recall what took place under hypnosis when they were in their normal waking state, they could be instructed to do so! Freud hypothesized that the same must be true of his nonhypnotizable patients and that another method was needed to unlock the unconscious thoughts.

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Furthermore, Freud was having doubts about the suitability of hypnosis for symptom removal, since he found that in some cases removing one symptom simply led to another in its place. So emerged Freud’s free association analytic method and his analysis of dreams. As Freud was developing his psychoanalytical method, interest in hypnosis continued at Nancy, but it now took on a different approach based on the work of Emile Coué (18571926). Like Freud, Coué became interested in hypnosis after seeing the work of Liébeault. His main ideas, however, were made popular by Baudouin – just as Liébeault’s ideas were made popular by Bernheim . The ideas of the New Nancy School, as it became known, were set out in Baudouin’s Suggestion and Autosuggestion. In brief, the New Nancy School argued that the main factor in hypnosis was autosuggestion. An immediate consequence of this is that in some circumstances it is possible to elicit a cure without another person making suggestions, i.e., without heterosuggestion. Second, the ‘law of reverse effect’ was of fundamental importance to success. Third, the main aspects of autosuggestion occurred at the unconscious level. The latter, although not inconsistent with psychoanalysis, overshadowed these developments. They did, however, indicate that self-hypnosis was possible. Until this time all hypnosis had been heterohypnosis – largely because it was believed that someone else must induce it. If, as the New Nancy School were arguing, hypnosis involves autosuggestion, then heterohypnosis is simply one form it can take. There should, in principle, be no difficulty in a person inducing hypnosis in themselves if they believed in it sufficiently. In 1892 the British Medical Association published a report that concluded that hypnosis was a real phenomenon that could be beneficially used on some patients. They particularly emphasised its therapeutic value in the control of pain, in inducing sleep, and other problems of a non-physical nature. Their report, however, was largely ignored. A resurgence of interest in hypnosis arose during the First World War when there was need for a quicker cure for wartime neuroses. Hypnosis was found to be most effective in relieving symptoms by reliving war experiences. The same, in fact, was true during and after the Second World War and the Korean War.

1.4 The period of experimentation All these developments considered hypnosis as a method of dealing with psychological problems – what we now call hypnotherapy. But with the rise of behaviourism, following the work of B. F. Skinner, there was a move to a more experimental approach. Part of this movement was an experimental approach to hypnosis with the investigations of Clark L Hull, and published in his Hypnosis and suggestibility: an experimental approach in 1933. This was the first major work to apply the experimental and statistical methods of psychology to hypnosis and suggestibility. The work attempted to study some of the major claims that were being made about hypnosis. It will be recalled that the group at Salpêtrière argued that hypnosis was pathological and only individuals with hysterical dispositions could be hypnotized. The New Nancy view, however, was that hypnosis was a normal process, that suggestibility was at the heart of the phenomenon, and therefore almost everyone could be hypnotized, since everyone under suitable conditions would manifest some degree of suggestibility.

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Hull and his colleagues therefore began with a scale in which various suggestibility phenomena were arranged in observed order of difficulty – from simple relaxation to amnesia and hallucination. This was the beginning of the suggestibility scales that have become prominent. Although finding no evidence for the transcendence of normal activity Hull did, nonetheless, verify many of the classical phenomena observed under hypnosis. Hull’s book (1933) although important had little impact on later research. It did provide a new model (methodology) for other psychologists to follow. On the clinical side there was Wolberg’s two-volume work, Medical Hypnosis (1948). This too did not have seminal impact, but in the United States it did lead to the founding of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (SCEH) and its Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. Membership was, and still is, restricted to individuals having a doctoral degree and having published articles on hypnotism in scientific journals. The group therefore remains small and elite. A reasonably influential book was Weitzenhoffer’s, Hypnotism: An Objective Study in Suggestibility (1953). It influenced R. Hilgard to study hypnosis and to set up a long-term research programme at Stanford University. Thereafter, research work on hypnotism proliferated and became an accepted topic for research – at least in the United States. It was from this research that the hypnotic scales occurred. In America, Milton Erickson’s influence on hypnosis was becoming more widespread. Erickson wanted membership of the SCEH opened up, but they refused and so Erickson founded his own organisation, the American Society of Clinical Hypnotism (ASCH) with its journal, the American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. This has led to a bitter battle and rivalry between the two societies. Erickson wanted health providers to be trained in hypnotherapy and to use it in their clinical practices. Erickson’s influence, however, only spread when two of his students – Rossi and Zeig – took it upon themselves to elucidate and disseminate his ideas and methods. The experimental approach expanded further in the 1950s and 1960s with the work of Theodore X. Barber, Ernest. R. Hilgard, Martin T. Orne and Theodore R. Sarbin. A major emphasis of this period of experimentation was the construction of normalised suggestibility scales, of which the Barber scale and the Stanford hypnotic suggestibility scales devised by A. M. Weitzenhoffer and Ernest Hilgard are the best well known and most widely used. The experimental approach has continued in the areas of hypnosis and pain (eg Hilgard and Hilgard(1975)) and the personality correlates with hypnosis (Josephine Hilgard (1970).) The experimental investigation into pain and hypnosis highlights very well some of the issues. We have already pointed out that both Elliotson and Esdaile undertook surgery under hypnosis and the subjects felt no pain. For the moment let us agree that the subjects were not lying or pretending. Then the question arises whether they do feel no pain or they are simply reporting that they feel no pain. But how can this be tested? Pain is a sensation felt in the nervous system that sends messages to the brain. One conjecture is that if no message is sent to (or reaches) the brain then no pain can be ‘felt’. The individual will not be conscious of any pain. Hilgard, in a famous experiment, first hypnotized a subject and then by suggestion ‘removed’ any sense of pain. The subject reported no sense of pain. However, under automatic writing, where the subject was not aware of what he wrote, he did admit to feeling pain. This suggests that hypnotic anaesthesia and analgesia are dissociative phenomena.

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But the experimental approach does have its limitations. The object of hypnosis is to suspend the analytical faculties, as we shall argue later. The very experimental approach makes this extremely difficult except in the most suggestible of subjects. Even so, these researches have provided some invaluable insights into the hypnotic state. In the United Kingdom, there was also the start of the British Journal of Medical Hypnosis. In 1955 the British Medical Association finally gave hypnosis its seal of approval – even suggesting that it be included in courses in psychiatry (and possibly given to obstetricians and anaesthetists). It would appear, as in the past that their recommendations to the profession have been little carried out. The Hypnosis Act of 1952 has to some extent avoided the misuse of hypnosis for entertainment. But the Act can be misused. This misuse arises from the following statement in the Act: Nothing in this Act shall prevent the exhibition, demonstration or performance of hypnotism (otherwise than at or in connection with an entertainment) for scientific or research purposes or for the treatment of mental or physical disease. Even so, the subject is still associated with clairvoyance and other subject areas. The therapeutic act of age regression (i.e., under hypnosis being taken back to an earlier period of a person’s life) has been taken to extremes and used to argue for reincarnation and previous lives.

1.5 The Ericksonian movement In the twentieth century, a major influence on hypnosis has come from the work of Milton H Erickson (1901-1980) and his followers. Here we shall discuss just briefly Erickson’s impact on hypnotherapy. Erickson’s approach to hypnotherapy is very client-based, where the therapist utilises anything that the client says or does. This aspect of utilisation makes the whole process unique to the individual, and so common elements of Erickson’s approach are rather difficult. A significant difference from early forms of hypnosis is the stress on indirect suggestion. Until Erickson, almost all hypnosis involved direct suggestions. The stress on indirect suggestion often involves metaphors and story telling, the purpose of which is not always obvious to the client but is supposed to be meaningful to the client’s unconscious mind. Erickson’s approach has been sweeping the United States and to some extent in the United Kingdom, and as Weitzenhoffer points out it is best thought of as a movement. This is especially true where some individuals consider the only approach is that of Erickson. But that it is not a complete explanation or approach is shown most markedly in the very topic of self-hypnosis. Although the individual engaging in self-hypnosis can utilize many things, what they simply cannot do is utilize indirect suggestion. In formulating the suggestion in the first place they would be clear about its indirect purpose. In fact, Ericksonian hypnosis has very little to say about self-hypnosis. This is somewhat surprising since it is fairly well agreed that Erickson himself used self-hypnosis to handle his pain and discomfort arising from polio. Ericksonian followers do not deny that individuals hypnotize themselves, but they simply ignore this in their deliberations on the topic.

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The Ericksonian movement has certainly shed a new light on hypnosis and particularly hypnotherapy, but it is certainly not the last word on the topic.

1.6 What do we learn from history? It would be satisfying if we could finish our history with an agreed interpretation of what hypnosis is, how to measure it, and to know under what conditions to use it. But we know none of these things. We know more about what hypnosis is not, but not exactly what it is. This is still progress. What it does mean is that much of what we present in this book must be conjecture. But even conjecture must be supported by whatever evidence is available at the time. An early view was that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness. But this begs the question in what way it is different from other forms of consciousness. More recently hypnosis has been considered as focused relaxation. But this too only emphasises two features of the hypnotic state. What clearly comes out of our history is the important role of suggestion: both heterosuggestion and self-suggestion. In fact suggestion is the means of bringing about the hypnotic state. It is only one procedure but presently considered the ‘best’ procedure. Hypnosis is more art than science. This is understandable because our scientific understanding of consciousness is still very primitive. As an art it is very dependent on the abilities of the hypnotist and the rapport they have with their client. When dealing with selfhypnosis rapport takes on a different perspective: it is the confidence one has in one’s own abilities. It is the rapport one has with oneself. Although we are a long way from knowing exactly what hypnosis is, two recent developments could prove to be most important. First is the research into split brain patients, which has led to considerable insight into how the brain functions and processes information. It also gives us some insight as to the meaning of consciousness and altered states of consciousness. Even more recently has been that of brain imaging. Pictures of the brain as it performs various tasks or functions have recently been carried out in three ways. 1. By aligning atomic particles in the brain tissue by means of magnetism and then bombarding them with radio waves, called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 2. By an adaptation of the previous procedure by showing up areas of greatest brain activity, called functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). 3. By taking pictures which show the greatest fuel intake when performing various tasks or functions by positron emission topography (PET). In particular, at the beginning of the twenty-first century PET scans were used in studies of hypnotized individuals at Stanford University. These scans showed quite clearly that something happens in the brain when a person is hypnotized which does not happen ordinarily. What has yet to be shown by such brain scans is the difference between being hypnotized by someone else (heterohypnosis) and hypnotizing oneself (self-hypnosis).

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Reading Forrest, Derek Hypnotism: A History, Penguin Books. Gauld, Alan A History of Hypnotism, Cambridge University Press. Waterfield, Robin Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis, Pan Books See also entry in Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_hypnosis

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Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) Franz Anton Mesmer was born in Switzerland on May 23, 1734. At the age of thirty-two he took a degree in medicine at the University of Vienna, of which the most significant aspect was the submission of his dissertation in 1766, entitled The Influence of the Planets on the Human Body. While in Vienna a rich patient, much his senior, fell in love with him and he married her. Their main residence was a palace on the outskirts of Vienna, but Mesmer also had a luxury town house. Mesmer’s ideas had already interested Maximilian Hehl, a Jesuit and Professor of Astronomy at the University of Vienna. There was a chance request by a wealthy English Lady to make her some magnets to ease her stomach cramps, since she had left hers at home. He did so, and when she used them the cramps disappeared. This seemed to give Mesmer's ideas support. They appeared to be further substantiated when a short time later, when he was bleeding a patient, that the patient’s flow of blood increased whenever he approached. He concluded from this that his own body must act as a magnet. These discoveries were published in a pamphlet in 1775. Although the medical profession was sceptical, patients were all too keen to try the new methods. As a result Mesmer's practice expanded considerably. His fame increased when he ‘cured’ the Baron Heresky de Horka of spasms, a hypochondriac patient who did not appear to respond to normal treatment. Mesmer became the talk of Vienna, and despised by the medical profession who considered him a charlatan. Mesmer, however, became over confident. He volunteered to cure a young blind pianist, MarieThérèse Paradis, if she would live in his house. Her problem, however, was purely physical since she had a displaced retina. After ‘treatment’ the girl claimed she could see faintly. Medics were not convinced and she was examined by a physician who stated without doubt that she was blind. Her father made plans to remove her from Mesmer's house, but she refused to go. The police were brought in, but Mesmer fled Vienna before he was arrested, and settled in Paris in 1778. In Paris his treatment became very fashionable and he became a great success. When in Paris he converted a physician to his way of thinking, a one Charles D'Eslon. It was through this connection that Mesmer eventually interested Marie Antoinette in animal magnetism, and it was through her influence that the king in 1784 set up a Royal Commission of Inquiry to look into animal magnetism. The first scientific investigation of its kind, it was composed of members of the Academy of the Sciences and led by Benjamin Franklin. The Commission rejected animal magnetism, as did the Royal Society of Medicine. This effectively brought an end to Mesmer’s successful career. His patients decreased along with his fortune and he was publicly ridiculed. Although he stayed in Paris throughout the revolution, he felt in fear of his life because of his connection with the court, and so fled back to Vienna, having lost all his money. When he attempted to set up practice once again in Vienna he again came into conflict with the police, who banished him from Vienna. Now nearly sixty years old, his confidence was waning along with his reputation, and he eventually retired near to Meersburg on Lake Constance. Although approached by the King of Prussia to set up a Mesmer Institute in Berlin, he declined and finished his days in quiet retirement until his death on March 5, 1815.

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Charles Baudouin’s Suggestion and Autosuggestion By the end of the nineteenth century, Emile Coué had come to the view that autosuggestion was a powerful force that had wider application than had been appreciated. Furthermore, hypnotic suggestion, he asserted, was only one form of autosuggestion. Coué’s work, and that of the New Nancy School, was outlined in Charles Baudouin’s Suggestion and Autosuggestion (1920), a work that seems to get little comment in historical accounts of hypnosis. It was the generally held view that in any suggestion two phases can be distinguished. First, an idea is proposed or imposed by another person and is accepted by the subject. Second, the idea undergoes transformation into an action, and the idea proposed is realised in some way. The New Nancy School asserted that the first was not an essential characteristic of suggestion, but that the second was. It is not necessary to have the idea proposed or imposed by a second person. It is necessary, however, that the subject makes a suggestion to himself or herself: that they engage in autosuggestion. For this reason, autosuggestion is more widespread than suggestion, and is the prototype for all suggestion. Because suggestion was at the heart of hypnosis, and because hypnosis assumed that the subject's will was made subservient to that of the hypnotist, then suggestion was confused with subjection. Furthermore, suggestion is more than simply an idea that undergoes transformation into an action, it is realised by means of some unconscious activity and is beyond the individual's conscious awareness. In brief, suggestion is the subconscious realisation of an idea. A prerequisite of autosuggestion is attention, since only be paying attention to an idea can it becomes realized. Spontaneous suggestion and voluntary (reflective) suggestion involve spontaneous and voluntary attention and together constitute autosuggestion; induced suggestion is heterosuggestion. Baudouin argues that autosuggestion had been generally neglected because it was an unconscious act and accordingly occurs without us being aware of it. He discusses fascination and obsession as typical examples of spontaneous suggestion, pointing out the importance of attention in these states. Like attention, another element of suggestion is emotion. The idea of an emotion will often lead to this emotion. From these and other discussions Baudouin derives four laws of suggestion: 1. The law of concentrated attention, 2. The law of auxiliary emotion, 3. The law of reverse effort, 4. The law of unconscious teleology. The law of concentrated attention asserts that if you pay attention to an idea then that idea will become realized. The law of auxiliary emotion asserts that if an idea is combined with a powerful emotion, then it is more likely that the idea will be realized. The law of reverse effort asserts, “When an idea imposes itself on the mind to such an extent as to give rise to a suggestion, all the conscious efforts which the subject makes in order to counteract this suggestion are not merely without the desired effect, but they actually run counter to the subject's conscious wishes and tend to intensify the suggestion.” (Baudouin, p.116, italics in original.) The law of unconscious teleology asserts that when the end has been suggested, then the unconscious mind will find the means for its realization. Baudouin defines hypnosis as the immobilisation of attention. There are two kinds of immobilisation of attention: fixation and seesaw. Fixation is where attention is on a single

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sensation, while seesaw occurs when attention is on two haunting sensations that continually repeat themselves. When immobilisation of attention occurs we relax. An individual immobilising their attention, then, achieves autohypnosis. After providing a detailed discussion of autosuggestion, Baudouin provides some practical suggestions for autosuggestion. It his here that he discusses Coué's work, and his famous maxim “Day by day, in all respects, I get better and better.” (Coué's maxim has been quoted in various ways, but this is the exact wording given by Baudouin, including the italicised phrase ‘in all respects’.) Although autosuggestion takes place at the unconscious level, Baudouin emphasises that it is not the same as the will and should not be confounded with it. Furthermore, autosuggestion will only be effective if it is done with the minimum of effort. This Baudouin claims is the chief discovery of the New Nancy School .

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Milton H Erickson (1901-1980) Milton H Erickson was born in the mining town of Aurum, Nevada and was the second of eleven children. The family moved to Lowell, Wisconsin in 1904 where they bought a farm. Erickson was born with a variety of problems. He suffered from a common type of red-green colour blindness, was ‘tone deaf’ and was partially dyslexic. In 1919 Erickson was stricken down with poliomyelitis which left him disabled. He almost died from the illness, but managed a programme of self-rehabilitation. By the autumn of 1920 he was walking on crutches and strong enough to enter the University of Wisconsin to study medicine. It was here that he met and married Helen Hutton. He was married to Helen for ten years, with whom he had three children. Zeig and Munion suggest strongly that Erickson was a student of Clark L Hull, but Weizenhoffer disputes this. Certainly it was at the University of Wisconsin that Erickson developed an interest in hypnosis. Erickson entered medical school without completing his Bachelor’s degree. According to Haley, it was because Milton wanted his thesis to be ‘interesting rather than routine.’ When he did present his thesis he was offered the opportunity of putting it forward as a combined Master’s and Bachelor’s thesis. He did, and in 1928 was awarded both a Master’s degree in Psychology and a Medical degree from the University of Wisconsin . Erickson did his general medical internship at the Colorado General Hospital and his psychiatric internship at the Colorado Psychopathic Hospital. Over the next twenty years he held a variety of posts. In 1929 he was assistant physician at the State Hospital for Mental Diseases; junior physician and then Chief Psychiatrist at the Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts and then the first Director of Psychiatric Research and later Director of Psychiatric Research and Training at Wayne County General Hospital in Eloise. His early appointments did not involve hypnosis since clinical hypnosis was formally prohibited. But when he took up the position at Wayne County General Hospital in 1934 his research on hypnosis began in earnest. It was during this period that his marriage to Helen broke up and he took custody of their three children. In 1935 he met Elizabeth Moore, who acted as his research assistant. A year after he married Elizabeth. She became his fellow researcher, collaborator and life-long companion. Milton and Elizabeth had five children. During this last period (1938-48) Erickson became full professor at Wayne University College of Medicine in Detroit, Michigan. In 1948 Erickson and his family moved to Phoenix, Arizona where he was Clinical Director of Arizona State Hospital. This move was prompted by a bicycle accident in 1947. He had a dirt-filled gash in his forehead and from which he reacted violently to the toxin used to treat it: a reaction that lasted the next fifteen months. This reaction exacerbated his reaction to pollen. Unfortunately, his earlier poliomyelitis and polioencaphalitis led to recurrent bouts of vertigo, disorientation and pain. As a result, he resigned after just one year. He set up a practice from his home. It was during the next three decades that he advanced the use and study of clinical hypnosis. He was one of the founding members of the SCEH, but after a dispute over their membership he founded the ASCH and its publication The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. From 1967 until his death, Erickson was confined to a wheelchair. The Erickson’s moved within Phoenix, Arizona in 1970 when Erickson intended to retire from practice. This he did, but the many visitors to their home meant Erickson became now the teacher. Teaching seminars were conducted at his home from 1975 until his death in 1980.

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The above is a factual account of the life of Milton H Erickson. However, there have been many accounts of incidents throughout his life, some recounted by himself and others by some of his pupils, especially Haley and Rossi. These incidents, many argue, helped shape his view and his approach to clinical hypnotherapy. To some extent this is speculation and so here we confine ourselves to simply listing a number of these incidents. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Resourceful mother who operated the farm. She utilised anything available. Experience in coping with colour blindness and dyslexia. Difficulty in distinguishing ‘3’ and ‘m’. Watching his father trying to get a reluctant calf into the barn. Testing his grandfather’s method of planting potatoes with his eyes up and during certain phases of the moon. The publication of an article in the Wisconsin Agriculturist at 14 years on ‘Why young people leave the farm.’ Stricken with poliomyelitis at aged 17 and overheard the doctor telling his mother that he would die before the morning. While paralysed he found he could rock the chair on which he was sitting. Undertook a self-rehabilitation programme to recover from his polio. Re-learned to balance and walk by watching his young sister learn to do the same. Going on a ten-week canoe trip, which he eventually did alone. Returned being able to walk (with a slight limp) and without crutches. Wrote editorials for the college newspaper during his sleep period at night. Divorce from Helen (1935), whom he had been married for ten years. Longstanding allergy to pollen, often requiring hospitalisation. Use of self-hypnosis to control his pain. Second bout of polio in 1953 leaving him rarely free from pain. Confined to a wheelchair from 1957 until his death in 1980.

Some of his followers argue that Erickson the man and Erickson the clinical hypnotherapist cannot be separated: that many of the incidents just listed shaped his views on clinical hypnotherapy. From the influence of his mother utilizing everything on the farm, which is purported to have been a major influence on his utilization approach; to the stubborn calf, which led to his confusional technique; and to his learning to walk again, which has given rise to the ‘Early Learning Set’ used in a number of modern courses on hypnotherapy. Of particular note is the type of suggestions used by Erickson. Examples of Ericksonian suggestions can be found on the next page.

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Name Accessing questions Ambiguous Apposition of opposites

Compound suggestions

Confusion

Covering all eventualities

Double binds

Implication

Interpersonal Metaphors

Not knowing and not doing Open-ended

Paradoxical Presuppositions Truisms

Examples Can you recall how very soothing it is to lie in the warm sun? One can be quite iron-willed and hard headed in such matters The more you try to rise from the chair the more your body will sink down and down into the chair The more you try to bend your arm the stiffer it will become As you relax so you will go deeper and deeper As your breathing slows down so your mind and body will become more and more synchronized. You may choose not to remember, or you may choose just to forget, but choosing to forget is your choice in the same way as choosing not to remember… In a moment either your right hand or your left hand will lift up; or perhaps your left hand or your right hand will develop a heaviness and press down; or maybe neither of your hands will move. Soon you will be dealing with your weight problem. You may first gain weight, or you may lose weight or you may even remain at the same weight as you begin to eat the right foods in the right quantities. Would you like to go into trance now or later? Would you like to go into trance standing up or sitting down? Would you like to go into trance with your eyes open or your eyes closed? Would you like to experience a light, medium or deep trance state? Would you prefer to get over your problem with a rapid but more intense method, or with a gentle method that takes a little longer? Do you want to get over your problem this week or next or perhaps a little longer time is required? Some people like to go into trance quickly while others like to go into trance slowly. What colour is the flower (or object)? When you are aware of the bells, just nod your head. Which one of your hands feels lighter? You can begin to wonder which one of your arms your unconscious mind will cause a development of lightness, and begin to raise. The numbness will spread slowly at first. Have you ever been in a trance before? A deep thinker, that is one who thinks deeply, can evolve a deep understanding of the complexities of suggestion. You are observing a cheetah in the African bush; it is stalking its prey. It focuses on the gazelle it wishes to kill. It picks up speed, fully focused on the one gazelle; it neither feels the wind on its back or the ground beneath its feet. It is fully focused on it prey. [Focusing metaphor] You don’t have to go into trance unless you want to. It isn’t necessary to go deep into trance to experience its benefits. It isn’t important for you to know what your unconscious mind is thinking. In the coming months you will find a solution to your problem. It may be tomorrow, it may be next week or in the weeks after that. In a moment your arm will rise, but you may not know which arm this will be. We all have potentials we are unaware of, and we usually don’t know how they will be expressed. You can take all the time you like in the next minute to complete your inner work. In a moment you will raise either your right arm or your left. How pleasantly surprised you will be when you go into trance. Most people enjoy the pleasant feeling of the sun on their skin. You already know that ... You already know how to walk. Some people like to go into trance quickly while others like to go into trance slowly.

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Chapter 2 Fallacies

Summary There are many fallacies and misconceptions about hypnosis that need to be dispelled in order for hypnosis to be induced successfully. Most of these are covered in this chapter. In a client-therapist setting, these would be dealt with in the first session and would help in establishing rapport.

CHAPTER 2 FALLACIES You are watching the late night movie, Trilby. Trilby is an artist’s model who would like to sing but has no singing voice at all. One day she comes into contact with a German-Polish musician, Svengali, who has piecing eye and a small black beard. He hypnotizes Trilby with the promise of making her an opera singer, and she soon comes completely under his spell. He turns her into a super opera singer, always obeying his will. As Svengali becomes ill, her voice starts to go; and when he dies, which he does during a performance, her voice goes completely. Now all this makes for a good movie. But it has already planted many fallacies about hypnosis. It gives a suggestion that the hypnotist must be an imposing person, with piecing eyes. It gives the wrong impression that hypnosis is about the hypnotist imposing his will on the subject. It suggests that the hypnotized person becomes an automaton. It implies something passes from the hypnotist to the subject (why else would Trilby lose her singing voice the moment Svengali dies!). This one movie has implanted in the viewers a whole series of fallacies about hypnosis. Some books too do the same. In fact, this movie is based on the book Trilby by George du Maurier written in 1896. It was most popular when it was written, and animal magnetism (see chapter 1) was still ripe throughout Europe. Today such fallacies are continued with TV programmes and even stage hypnotists. Stage hypnotists are invariably male, with a small black beard, often have exaggerated eyes and can even go by the name Svengali! As we grow up reading books, watching movies and TV, we absorb a lot of fallacies about hypnosis that we can be very unaware of. In a first consultation, a hypnotherapist will often ask the client if they know anything about hypnosis. Many often say they know nothing, or very little. But of course, this is not true. Unfortunately, what they do know, consciously or unconsciously, is a whole series of fallacies about hypnosis, as illustrated above by the movie Trilby. One of the essential features of a first consultation, therefore, is to dispel such fallacies. If, however, you do intend to learn self-hypnosis without first being hypnotized by someone else, then you will not be engaged in such a dialogue. Furthermore, since the writer cannot know exactly what your fallacies are, then all we can do here is list most of the typical fallacies about hypnosis and discuss them.

2.1 Twelve Fallacies about hypnosis Fallacy 1: Hypnosis is a state that is induced in one person by another It is commonly believed that you can only be hypnotized by another person. This implies that the hypnotist induces such a state in the subject; that the hypnotist does something to the subject. It can even suggest, as in the case of Svengali and Trilby, that something passes from the hypnotist to the person being hypnotized. None of this is in fact true. Fundamentally, the only person who can create the state of hypnosis is the person being hypnotized. Put another way, all hypnosis is fundamentally self-hypnosis. When being hypnotized by someone else (heterohypnosis), then the hypnotist is simply directing the person being hypnotized into a state of hypnosis. This is because the hypnotist is knowledgeable about hypnosis and the person being hypnotized is not. The hypnotist knows how to direct the person into a state of hypnosis. This does not mean the hypnotist is creating the state; only the person being

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hypnotized can do this. It simply means that the hypnotist is guiding the subject and showing them how to create the trance state called hypnosis. Going into trance is a subjective experience and it is usually necessary to be guided in how to do it. Being hypnotized by someone else is much easier than attempting to hypnotize yourself, especially for the first time. A hypnotist guides you through the experience and all you do is follow the instructions so that you get the best out of the experience. All you need to do is concentrate on the experience and not on the process of hypnosis. When you engage in self-hypnosis you must be the hypnotist guiding the experience and the person engaged in the trance state. For this reason it is more difficult to enter and maintain the trance state than having someone else concentrate on the process while you concentrate purely on the experience.

Fallacy 2: Hypnosis must be caused by the power and will of the hypnotist Trilby came completely under the spell of Svengali. This one powerful idea strongly suggests that the hypnotist has a power over the person being hypnotized. That the person being hypnotized surrenders their will to that of the hypnotist and does whatever they tell them to do. So strong is this idea, that many people who come to be hypnotized are worried that they will do something or say something that they do not wish to. In other words, they consider that they will do whatever the hypnotist tells them to do: that they will have no will to resist. Of course, this is what makes for a good movie. It is also useful for the stage hypnotist to foster such a view, since this will make his performance that much easier and more dramatic. But it is a completely false impression of what hypnosis is and what the role of the hypnotist is in bringing about the trance state. If you were learning to play tennis and the instructor shows you how to hold the racket, how to hit the ball and where to place it you would follow their instructions. You would follow their instructions because you wanted to learn to play tennis. There would be no suggestion in this context that the instructor made you play tennis, or even that the instructor caused you to hit the ball. Your compliance is because you want to learn to play and the instructor is showing you how. Only you can play tennis, the instructor cannot do it for you. This does not mean that the will of the instructor is being imposed over yours. Your compliance is because you want to learn. In the same way, you follow what the hypnotist is asking you to do because you want to go into a trance. You appear to be giving control to the hypnotist, but this is only because you want to follow their instructions. You are still in control. In other words, you are permitting the hypnotist to control the session because they know what they are doing and they are guiding you into a state of hypnosis. At any stage you can stop that control. Just like you can stop doing what the tennis instructor told you to do. As we pointed out, hypnosis is often thought of as focused relaxation. But no one else can force you to focus, nor can they force you to relax. Only you can do these things. So long as you wish to go into hypnosis, then when the hypnotist says, “relax” then you will try to do it, and when they ask you to focus on an image, then you will try to do it. This does not mean the hypnotist is controlling you, it simply means that you are complying and going along with what the hypnotist is asking you to do. The moment they ask you to do something you do not want to do, then you will not do it. You are always in control of your own thoughts, feelings and actions. During heterohypnosis you are temporarily giving power to the hypnotist, only in the sense that you are going along with what they say. It is the same relationship that

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occurs in many situations. When you go to the doctor you give them power in just the same way. You do what they tell you to do. Why? Because they are knowledgeable about illness, and since you are not well (why else would you be visiting the doctor), then you will do what they say in order to get better. When you go to night school to learn computing or cookery, you temporarily give control over to the teacher. You follow their instructions. Why? Because you want to learn about computing or cookery and they know how. Because their knowledge is greater than yours, and because you came to night school to learn, then you do what they say. You could say that the teacher has power over the pupil. But what this implies in the present context is that the pupil complies with what the teacher requests because the pupil wants to learn. The teacher cannot make the pupil learn; only the pupil themselves can do this.

Fallacy 3: Only weak willed individuals can by hypnotized Related to the previous fallacy is the view that a person who goes into a trance must be weak willed. It is because they are weak willed which leads the will of the hypnotist to dominate. This view in fact involves a number of fallacies and not just one. First and foremost, the hypnotic state can only be brought about if the individual wants it to. It is a matter of whether you direct your will to go along with the process or to oppose it. If you do not want to be hypnotized then you will not be. If you do not want to be hypnotized, then you simply will not comply with the suggestions of the hypnotist and so you will not go into a trance. As already pointed out, creating a state of hypnosis is a cooperative act on the part of the client in response to the suggestions of the hypnotist. If the client does not want to cooperate, and there is nothing in the process that can force him or her to do so, then they will not go into a trance. In just the same way that if an instructor tells you to put the racket at such an angle to get more force, if you do not wish to comply then there is no way to make you. You have to want to do what the tennis instructor asks you to do. The fact that you go along with the tennis instructor’s suggestions in no way implies that your will is subservient to that of his or hers. Second, going into a trance far from being gullible (weak willed), requires an intelligent approach were you follow the instructions carefully and to the best of your ability. You need to be able to concentrate, focus and be imaginative. These traits should not be interpreted as being weak willed or gullible. The more you can concentrate, focus and use your imagination the more likely you are to be a good hypnotic subject. Therefore the more intelligent you are the more hypnotizable you will be. When seeing a client for the first time and inquire if they know anything about hypnosis they may say, “No.” Or they may say, “I know very little, only what I have seen on the TV.” They then say, “I don’t think I can be hypnotized.” Now these statements can be said to be inconsistent. If they know so little about hypnosis, how can they know whether they will go into a trance! The implied view underlying this is that they believe hypnosis is a battle of wills and they do not want to reveal that their will is not as strong as that of the hypnotist’s. What they want to say is something like, “I can’t be hypnotized because I think my will is stronger than yours.” But the fallacy here is about how the trance state is brought about. It is not a battle of wills, but rather a cooperative act. “I don’t think you can hypnotize me” then means “I am not going to cooperate” and if you do not cooperate then, yes, you will not go into a state of hypnosis. In other words, you have approached the whole process with the wrong attitude. The attitude you should be adopting is one of full cooperation.

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Fallacy 4: The hypnotist must be charismatic and awe inspiring In other words, a hypnotist must be like Svengali in the opening section of this chapter. The obvious fallacy here is that the person bringing about the trance state is not the hypnotist but rather the person being hypnotized. So technically the personality of the hypnotist is not relevant. This is not quite right. The reputation or importance of the hypnotist can have a beneficial impact on the induction of hypnosis. This is because inducing heterohypnosis involves expectation. If you consider the hypnotist an expert in his or her field, then you are more likely to comply; if you consider the hypnotist has a reputation of success, then again you are more likely to comply. In other words, you have a greater expectation of success and expectations have a tendency to be self-fulfilling. Rapport (see chapter 5) is all-important in heterohypnosis. But good rapport does not require the hypnotist to be charismatic and awe inspiring. What matters is that you feel comfortable with the hypnotist. If you find that the hypnotist is off-putting because they have a beard and remind you of your father, who you hated, then this will not lead to good rapport – no matter how charismatic the hypnotist may be. You may find it difficult to be hypnotized by a person of the opposite sex, or possibly the same sex. Erickson (see Chapter 1) was a renowned hypnotherapist, but he had very poor diction and in later life undertook hypnosis from a wheelchair. Certainly not the typical voice of a hypnotist portrayed in the movies. But his reputation overcame his poor diction and rapport was readily established with his clients. Important as rapport is in bringing about heterohypnosis, it takes on a totally different meaning in self-hypnosis. If one held the view that the hypnotist had to be charismatic and awe inspiring, then to engage in self-hypnosis would presuppose that you would have to have these same traits. But it is totally unnecessary. Whatever your personality, you can go into a state of hypnosis if you know how and can engage in focused relaxation and utilize your imagination. Since cooperation is the key, then it would be absurd to assume that you are not going to cooperate with yourself!

Fallacy 5: Not everyone can be hypnotized The common view here is that some people can be hypnotized and some individuals cannot. Part of the fallacy is that hypnosis is an artificially induced state, and only some individuals can achieve this artificial state. But hypnosis is not an artificially induced state. We know this because we pass through it everyday of our lives: once when dropping off to sleep at night (hypnopompic) and then again when waking up (hypnogogic). It is because it is a natural state of our nervous system that we can create it. Going into hypnosis is simply creating the right conditions for this state to occur. It follows, therefore, that almost everyone can be hypnotized. The only real exceptions are very young children (say below the ages of four) and imbeciles, who cannot keep their focus of concentration long enough to allow the state to be achieved. It is really the same as saying everyone can play tennis. The exceptions are very young children who cannot yet hold a racket or follow instructions, or those who for some physical reason cannot hold a racket or move around the court. The analogy with tennis is important. Although almost everyone can play tennis, some people seem naturally good at it while others are not. Some individuals have good ball sense while others do not. In the same way, some individuals are good hypnotic subjects and others take much longer to achieve the trance state. What we observe here is different degrees of suggestibility (see chapter 5). To infer that someone finds it difficult to enter hypnosis does not mean that they cannot be hypnotized. It may take a long time, it may require a different

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hypnotist or a different technique, but almost everyone can be hypnotized if they are cooperating. This is important for the self-hypnotist. You must assume that you can enter hypnosis with the right training. If you begin the process under the mistaken assumption that you cannot be hypnotized, then all you are doing is making the process much more difficult for yourself. Again it is a question of expectation. If you are learning to drive, and you assume you cannot drive a car, then it will be difficult or impossible to do so. Your expectation will have a tendency to be self-fulfilling. But almost everyone can drive a car with the right training. In the same way almost everyone can achieve a state of hypnosis with the right training. Finding it easy or difficult is quite a separate issue from assuming that the state is impossible to achieve. For the self-hypnotist, not only must you assume that you can be hypnotized, but also that you can hypnotize yourself.

Fallacy 6: Hypnosis is a form of sleep A common fallacy is that hypnosis is a form of sleep, and like sleep, you loose consciousness. This fallacy is not surprising when we realise that ‘hypnosis’ is from the Greek ‘hypnos’ meaning sleep. Certainly, many films and TV shows involving hypnosis will show the hypnotist saying, “Go to sleep.” As we pointed out in chapter 1 when discussing the history of hypnosis, the association with sleep is a strong one and the beginnings of hypnosis often seem to look as if the individual is ‘going to sleep.’ They close their eyes, their body relaxes and they may even snore! But having said all this, the person who is hypnotized is not asleep. They are in a state of focused relaxation, usually with their eyes closed. When in a state of hypnosis, you are conscious and you can hear everything going on around you. If you had lost consciousness, then you would not hear what the hypnotist was saying and would not comply.

Fallacy 7: Hypnosis is harmful to your health Since hypnosis is not an artificially induced state but rather a natural state of the nervous system, then it cannot be harmful to your health. One should liken it to saying that a hammer is harmful to your health. A hammer in and of itself is not harmful. Who wheels it and how it is used may, of course, be harmful. If a hammer is thrown at someone, then it could do a lot of harm. But the harm arises from the person throwing the hammer, and not the hammer itself. The same can be said of hypnosis. Hypnosis is not harmful, but it can become so if used incorrectly. Take the following scenario. A hypnotist suggests that when you hear a particular piece of music you will “Go to sleep.” This is a typical stage trick. Suppose further that this instruction is not removed when the hypnotic session is complete. You are now driving home, the same particular piece of music is played on the car radio, and you begin to close your eyes, the car veers over as you relax and let go of the wheel. The car hits a tree and you get hurt. Do we now assume that hypnosis is therefore harmful? No, what is harmful is the fact that the hypnotist did not remove the suggestion about going to sleep when a particular piece of music is played. Consider a second scenario. A clinician is hypnotizing you and you are being directed to recall some upsetting situation that may have happened in the past. You become agitated and awaken from the trance state. (You have basically had an abreaction.) Let us suppose the

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clinician lets it go at that and does nothing about it. You go home, you have a bad night’s sleep and you are agitated for the next few days. All this would suggest that the hypnotic session was bad for your health. But this is an incorrect conclusion to draw. What should be drawn from this is that the clinician was not doing a good job. He or she should have reinstated a trance and taken you through a relaxation and calming set of suggestions, so dissipating the image that brought on the agitation and anxiety. Like in all professions, there will be good hypnotherapists and there will be not so good ones. In this third scenario we consider an untrained hypnotist who is hypnotising someone and tries desperately to get him or her to close their eyes, since this is what they consider an induction must do. The person being hypnotized becomes very agitated and refuses to close their eyes. It is not simply that they are not cooperating; they are in fact becoming agitated by the suggestion to close their eyes. An untrained hypnotist may just assume the person cannot be hypnotized (itself a fallacy). On the other hand, a trained hypnotist will have noted the agitation and realised that this is not a good induction for this particular person. Doing a totally different induction, creating a state of hypnosis, and then questioning the person in trance the trained hypnotist discovers that a few years ago the individual was practicing shooting and a gun went off close to their eyes. Even a suggestion as simple as going in for a swim and then lying on the beach can lead to anxiety if the person nearly drowned at the seaside when they were young. So far from creating relaxation, the hypnotist has done quite the opposite. But a trained hypnotherapist would see the telltale signs of this and change direction. The conclusion we come to here is that it is essential for hypnotherapists to be trained and that they constantly update their skills.

Fallacy 8: You can be made to do something against your will Again films instil fallacies of this nature: the most striking being The Manchurian Candidate. In this movie a number of prisoners in Korea are brainwashed and sent back to the United States where, later, they will be ‘activated’ to kill. In part this is a further extension of the idea that the subject is under the control of the hypnotist. We have already pointed out that this is not so. The person being hypnotized is in a state of cooperation. If they do not wish to do something, then they cannot be made to do it. If a suggestion is against their moral code then they will either come out of the trance or simply not comply. This, however, is too simplistic. Since hypnosis is about suggestion, then it is also concerned with the influence one person has over another. Brainwashing does exist, but this is not hypnosis. As the movie, The Manchurian Candidate illustrates, if the right circumstances are presented and suggestions are appropriate to the circumstances, then a person can be influenced to do something that they may not do if they were truly acquainted with the circumstances. In the movie, for example, individuals would be presented as enemies of the state. As enemies it is right for a soldier to kill. A soldier is trained to kill. It is an enemy who is being killed and this is justified under wartime conditions. What is being illustrated here is that the brainwashing sets up the circumstances where the outcome is to kill, and the setting is presented in such a way that this is the ‘right’ thing to do. To accomplish this requires an inordinate amount of effort, but it is possible. But this is brainwashing and not hypnosis. Certainly, the therapeutic session would be nothing like this. Even so, it does highlight a problem. In the hands of an unscrupulous hypnotist, a person can be influenced to do something if the setting and the circumstances are presented

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where the outcome is what the hypnotist wants. Every profession will have a very tiny group of unscrupulous individuals. This is a fact of life. Even doctors are not immune from this (Dr. Harold Shipman is an extreme example.) But one should not stop the practice simply because of a small number who will misuse their position. We would not get rid of all doctors simply because a very few doctors abuse the trust of their position. What is required is professional conduct and legislation. Although this is one of the greatest worries about being hypnotized, it is simply not relevant to the person who is engaged in self-hypnosis. You simply would not suggest to yourself that you do something that you do not want to do. This is not only illogical but also absurd. If you truly would not want to do something, then under no circumstances would you suggest it to yourself. Even if you tried it, there would be no conviction in the suggestion and it would not take effect. Even when you hypnotize yourself, you require your own cooperation!

Fallacy 9: One can become stuck in a trance This is more of a worry than a fallacy. Suppose someone was hypnotizing you and they were called out of the room on an emergency. Would you sit there in a trance state until they returned? More worrying still, is suppose the hypnotist had a heart attack and left you in a state of hypnosis, would you be stuck in this state forever? It is not surprising that such thoughts would lead to worry and concern about being hypnotized. But the answer to both questions is, ‘No’. The brain simply cannot maintain a constant state indefinitely. It is like falling a sleep in front of the TV. You would not remain asleep forever! Eventually you would wake up. The same applies to the hypnotic state. If you were left unattended while in a state of hypnosis, then you would simply come out of it, in just the same way that you awaken from a snooze in front of the TV. The brain would be registering no activity on the part of the hypnotist, and very soon would bring about a change of state – namely, to awaken from the trance state. Another source that gives rise to this worry is seeing someone in hypnosis and then the hypnotist suggests they wake up on some signal, but the person does not do so! Does it mean they are stuck in a state of hypnosis? No, what it usually means is that either some suggestion has not been cancelled; or, more often, the individual likes the state they are in and wants to prolong it. In either case the person being hypnotized is not stuck in a state of hypnosis. It simply means that it is not appropriate to bring them out of the state at that moment. When you engage in self-hypnosis this worry never arises. You are conscious and in control of the state. When you are ready to come out of hypnosis you will give yourself instructions to do so. If you do not want to come out of the state, say because you find it very relaxing, then you will not give yourself instruction to do so. Having said this, you will never be in a situation were you will never give yourself instructions to terminate the state. You will soon get very bored with the whole process. Or you will simply want to do something else – like go to the toilet, eat because you are hungry or fall into a natural sleep because you are sleepy.

Fallacy 10: It is necessary to relax and close the eyes to go into a trance This fallacy partly arises from the fact that modern hypnosis relies on creating a relaxed state in the subject and that this is more easily accomplished if the eyes are closed. Neither relaxation nor having the eyes closed is necessary for the creation of a state of hypnosis. Although it is common to describe hypnosis as focused relaxation, this is purely a description

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of the most typical state to create. Focused attention is certainly important, and this can be achieved with the eyes open. Absorption in a novel or film does this. It is quite common for someone absorbed in a novel not to hear someone speaking to them. Their whole concentration and attention is on the story. There is a story of Erickson hypnotising one of his daughters who fell. She cut her knee and blood was coming out onto the floor. It is reported that Erickson began to draw figures in the blood and absorbed his daughter’s attention to this and away from her knee. At no point was the child relaxed or had her eyes closed. But it is almost certain that she was in a light state of hypnosis. In another anecdotal report a client came to see Erickson in a very agitated state and kept walking up and down. Erickson got him to walk in a square to which he had to pay attention. Again there was no relaxation here nor was the person’s eyes closed – at least not at this stage. Dentists have been known to hypnotize children by getting them interested in a toy or mechanical device that absorbs their attention, and with their attention absorbed the dentist goes to work. The child is neither relaxed nor do they have their eyes closed. What they have, however, is focused concentration. Although neither being relaxed nor having the eyes closed is necessary for hypnosis, it does undoubtedly aid the process and is typically used in most induction routines. This is simply good practice and it should not be considered as absolutely necessary.

Fallacy 11: Hypnosis is a therapy Hypnosis is merely a tool to aid a therapist but it is not a therapy itself. The combination of hypnosis and therapy is used when one refers to a hypnotherapist, meaning a person who carries out therapy and uses hypnosis in the process. This is important for anyone wishing to learn self-hypnosis. Being able to hypnotize oneself is a very useful tool to have. But to engage in therapy, even on oneself, is totally different and requires a different training. You may be a good hypnotist but that by no means implies you are a good therapist. You can be a good hypnotist but a poor therapist; you can be a poor hypnotist and a good therapist; you can be poor at both or good at both. In other words, hypnosis and therapy are two quite different things. In learning self-hypnosis one does of course want to use it. But learning how to use selfhypnosis is quite distinct from learning how to do it. The use of self-hypnosis should be done with caution, especially if it involves therapy. It is quite a different matter, however, if one uses self-hypnosis to reach one’s full potential.

Fallacy 12: Hypnosis can be used to recall everything that has happened to you The belief here is that everything that happens to you, every experience you have ever had, is stored away in your memory banks. Hypnosis is considered a means of unlocking these memories. Again the movies and novels put across such a view. Consider the following scenario. Rebecca is in the vicinity of a robbery and sees the thieves get away from it in a vehicle. When questioned by the police she cannot give the number plate since she barely saw it. She agrees to be hypnotized and under hypnosis recalls the number plate. The criminals are caught as a result. This may indeed be possible, but not always. Furthermore, individuals can be given ‘false memories’, i.e., memories of incidents that in fact did not take place. We do not fully understand how a memory is stored in the nervous system to be able to

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say that all memories can be recalled under hypnosis. What is undoubtedly true is that when relaxed it is easier to bring into consciousness items that have been stored in long-term memory. But this is not the same as saying that when you are in hypnosis you can recall everything that has happened to you. ---------These are the main fallacies, but the list is by no means exhaustive. For example, there is a fallacy that you become clairvoyant when in hypnosis; that you have extrasensory perception. Some hold the view that you can become dependent on the hypnotist. Yet another is that the hypnotic state is addictive. Although there is evidence that you have heightened senses when in hypnosis, this is not the same as saying you are clairvoyant and have extrasensory perception. Dependence on the hypnotist goes back to the idea of the hypnotist having power over you; addiction is simply not true. All the fallacies apply to heterohypnosis but not all apply to self-hypnosis, although many do. Holding any such fallacies will only interfere with learning self-hypnosis.

2.2 Preparation for self-hypnosis On a first consultation, and after dealing with the fallacies a client may have about hypnosis, the next stage is to discuss with the client the appropriate state of mind to adopt when engaging in hypnosis. To some extent this is a continuation of rapport that is being established between the hypnotist and client. The hypnotist will reiterate that they will not go unconscious and will hear everything going on around them, but most especially will be focusing on the suggestions of the hypnotist. In this respect they will not feel much different from normal. What is different is that they will be opening themselves up to the suggestions of the hypnotist. They should not try to do anything nor try not to do anything. The client is encouraged to attempt a total indifference to the whole procedure. In other words, the client is asked simply to listen to the suggestions of the hypnotist and simply let things happen. This is not what the client may expect, so it is important to emphasize that they are not to try to make things happen or to prevent things from happening. Nor should the client try to anticipate the hypnotist. Of course, with self-hypnosis, you know what you know about hypnosis. What is more important is that you have a similar state of mind to that being discussed in the previous paragraph. The most important state of mind is one of indifference. You must be totally unconcerned about whether you enter or do not enter hypnosis; and you must be totally unconcerned about whether you do or do not follow a particular suggestion. You neither try nor do you not try. You take a purely passive stance. This may at first be a little difficult to do, but you will get better at it. On those occasions where you respond well to your autosuggestions, you will note that it is when your state of mind is just as described. You will therefore come to recognise the state of mind, and this will aid you in achieving it on future occasions. Furthermore, when engaging in self-hypnosis, you do not have to tell yourself these things. You simple adopt such an attitude the moment you decide to enter selfhypnosis. In heterohypnosis, the client may ask a variety of questions during this interchange. The hypnotist will take special note of these and utilize anything of significance pointed out by the client (a very Ericksonian approach!). In the case of self-hypnosis, you do not carry out such an interchange, but you may have passing thoughts of a similar nature. Again, utilize

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anything that seems appropriate. These passing thoughts indicate what matters to you; so if possible, utilize them.

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Chapter 3 Hypnotizability

Summary This chapter covers the following questions. Can everyone be hypnotized? Is there a type of person who is more hypnotizable than another person? Do individuals have characteristics that predispose them to hypnosis? Why are some inductions unsuccessful? Do extroverts make better hypnotic subjects than introverts? Does people’s involvement in certain activities correlate with their degree of hypnotizability?

CHAPTER 3 HYPNOTIZABILITY Can everyone be hypnotized? Is there a type of person who is more hypnotizable than another person? Both of these questions have been repeatedly asked and answers sought to them without any real success. The question, ‘Can everyone be hypnotized?’ is a question about absolutes. Either everyone can be hypnotized or only some people can be hypnotized. Whatever the answer to this question, there still remains the second question, ‘Is there a type of person who is more hypnotizable than another person?’ This is a matter of degree. There is, however, some overlap between the two questions. If everyone can be hypnotized then there is the problem of explaining why some induction procedures do not succeed. If only some people can be hypnotized then an explanation must be sought to determine why, and whether we can predict which category any given individual will belong to: whether to the hypnotizable or to the non-hypnotizable. Whether we are attempting to explain why some induction procedures do not work with some individuals or whether we are attempting to explain why some people are not hypnotizable, we are grouping people into personality categories. Put another way, we wish to know what personality characteristics are associate (correlated) with hypnotizability. There is one major difficulty with such an association. Not only do we not know exactly what hypnosis is, but also there is no agreed classification of personality. Of course, the simplest way to know whether someone is hypnotizable is to actually hypnotize them! The attempt to find correlates with hypnosis is in order to predict who will be hypnotizable. What is not so readily appreciated is that it also gives some insight as to why a particular person does not respond to a specific induction technique or to a particular hypnotist. Furthermore, it gives the self-hypnotist some insight into the difficulties that he or she may encounter in attempting to do self-hypnosis. For the self-hypnotist there is only his or her own personality to consider. But because it is their own personality, then this is more difficult to assess in an objective manner. Even so, some of the more obvious personality correlates with hypnosis do not require a deep understanding of personality since they are largely to do with involvement: involvement in art, music, reading, etc.

3.1 Is everyone hypnotizable? This is not an easy question to answer. Part of the reason for this is because we do not know exactly what hypnosis is. Suppose I said to you there is a disease, the exact symptoms of which we do not know, and I then ask whether everyone can fall victim to such a disease. This would be almost impossible to answer – in just the same way that it is impossible to answer whether everyone is hypnotizable. In terms of the statistical evidence available from psychological studies, there appears a consensus that about seventy per cent of the population is hypnotizable. Such studies, however, involve very rigid experimental conditions that are not always conducive to the induction of hypnosis. But suppose we accept the figure for the moment. Let us further suppose that this applies to a particular hypnotist (or taped induction), then a different hypnotist may lead to a different seventy per cent of the population being hypnotizable. Of course there will be some overlap, but what matters is that the second experiment involves some people not involved in the first. Change the hypnotist enough times and eventually everyone will be accounted for. You may argue that surely though there

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will be always someone not hypnotizable. But we have only mentioned the hypnotist, and not the technique of the induction. In most laboratory studies of hypnosis induction is undertaken by means of a tape recording. The reason for this is to standardise the induction across individuals. This may be good scientific practice, but some individuals simply may not respond to such an induction technique. Not because they are not hypnotizable, but rather because this induction technique is unsuitable for them. With a different induction technique they may readily go into hypnosis. When a person is not hypnotizable by someone then we must establish whether 1. It is because the person cannot be hypnotized 2. The induction technique is inappropriate 3. The subject objects to the hypnotist either consciously or unconsciously. We shall first discuss the second and third reasons. There are a number of induction techniques for inducing hypnosis, either in oneself or another person, some of which we provide in chapter 7. But why not have just one induction technique? The reason is that some people respond to one technique and not to another. The major personality correlate in this respect is whether the induction technique is authoritarian or not and whether the person being hypnotized does or does not like such an attitude. Suppose, for instance, the hypnotist is using an authoritarian approach and the person being hypnotized objects to this, either consciously or unconsciously. For example, the hypnotist may say, “You are getting drowsy”, “You will now go to sleep”, “You will not be able to open your eyes”, and so on. These are authoritarian statements that also involve a challenge. If, in your early childhood, you had constantly been told to do this, and to do that, then you are likely to resent in later life being told to do things. Some may resent it so much that they are inclined to do the very opposite. If this is so, then that person may not enter hypnosis with these instructions. This is not because they are not hypnotizable, but rather because they resent the technique being used. If the suggestions were changed to something like the following then they would be far less authoritarian. For example, “Let yourself go, I would like you to feel very relaxed and drowsy. You will find that if you let yourself relax that you will soon feel yourself going into a deep sleep. Your eyes are so heavy that you will not want to open them, and that when you try to open them the heaviness is going to increase. You may find that your eyes open, but what is important is that they feel heavy and that you don’t feel like opening them.” Yet in other people, the authoritarian approach is the very one which works. In general the actual technique is not so important. Most people respond to any technique. The problem arises when a person does not respond to a particular induction technique. It is then that different techniques must be tried. Some people respond very well to the beat of a metronome, while others find it positively annoying; and some respond very well to music, but only if it is of the right type. I was once hypnotizing a musician and thought that music would be an ideal background to the induction. However, he found the music of such poor quality, that it totally interfered with the induction process. The solution was no music! In some cases people respond best when the induction process involves some physical movement because they can relate to this more easily. The conclusions we draw from this are that a person may not be hypnotized by one hypnotist, but may be by another (using the same technique); or that a person may not be hypnotized by one technique, but is by another (using the same hypnotist). It is my contention that everyone can be hypnotized, with the exception of very young children and imbeciles. Very young

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children have not sufficiently developed word sense in their left brains to begin the process. Imbeciles cannot retain information in their left brains long enough for the induction process to even break through the barrier that is formed by the corpus callosum. In the second case, the missing ingredients are attention and concentration, both of which are necessary for a hypnotic state to be induced. This is why it is often stated that the more intelligent a person is the more hypnotizable they are. To some extent the success of a particular induction technique may depend on the person’s expectation. If a person expects the hypnotist to swing some shiny object in front of their eyes, then this is the technique that is likely to have the most success with that person. In other cases the appropriate technique is found by trial and improvisation. The fact that improvisation often works reveals that it is not the actual technique that is important – except in inducing hypnosis in a given individual. Whether hypnosis is induced by someone else, or by yourself, improvised techniques only need to be resorted to if the standard induction procedures fail to work. When you engage in self-hypnosis you will discover which induction techniques that you respond to best. In the initial stages, therefore, it is important to try out a few in order to discover which these are. In the case of heterohypnosis, the induction may fail to work, not because of the technique, but rather because the person being hypnotized takes exception to the hypnotist. This may be conscious or unconscious. For instance, a person may not like to be hypnotized by a hypnotist of the opposite sex; by a hypnotist that smokes (when they are a non-smoker); by a hypnotist that looks like their mother (or father); with a hypnotist with a beard; and so on. The list can be quite long. While the person is willing to be hypnotized and the technique is not objectionable then induction is likely to take place. But when a person does not enter hypnosis one of these reasons is always a possibility. Fortunately, when engaging is selfhypnosis this is not the situation. However, suppose the technique is appropriate and the hypnotist is not objectionable, is it still possible for a person not to enter hypnosis? In other words, is it possible for a person not to be hypnotizable by anyone or any technique? As mentioned above, it is common to hear that seventy per cent of the population is hypnotizable, which obviously means thirty per cent cannot be hypnotized. Personally, I would consider the seventy per cent a gross underestimate. In the first instance it is based on samples using a fixed induction technique and a particular hypnotist (usually on a tape recorder). Second, and most important, the figure is often based on only one attempt. Given the different personalities of those being hypnotized, some will not readily enter hypnosis until a number of their fears and (misguided) preconceived notions are allayed (see chapter 6). Part of the difficulty is the belief that you either can be hypnotized or you cannot: that you are A or not-A. But this makes sense only if hypnosis were a well-defined entity, which we have already indicated that it is not. Only when A is well-defined do we know what not being A actually means. Let us agree for the moment that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, as we argued in chapter 4. Then we can re-phrase the question, ‘Can everyone be hypnotized?’ as, ‘Can everyone alter appropriately their state of consciousness?’ When put in this way it is clear that entering hypnosis, i.e., hypnotic susceptibility, is a learning process and as such it is the acquisition of an ability. A person learns to enter hypnosis. When looked at in this way, then it is a matter of degree and not an absolute. Some people will find the learning process easy and others will find it difficult. There is a whole spectrum of abilities in learning to enter and deepen the state we call hypnosis. I would like it to asking the question,

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‘Can everyone play tennis?’ The answer is, in general, ‘Yes’. But some can play tennis better than others. There are of course some exceptions. Because hypnosis depends very much on verbal suggestion, very young children (about up to the age of four) cannot be hypnotized. In addition, anyone, for whatever reason, who cannot maintain concentration, will also be very difficult or impossible to hypnotize. This is because if the suggestions are to take root in the unconscious mind, then the person being hypnotized must be capable of holding the suggestions in their mind for a sufficient length of time. Thus, imbeciles and some people with mental disorders cannot be hypnotized. It is worth explaining the reason why in more detail, because this will also explain why some people find entering hypnosis difficult. In chapter 2 we mentioned that the cortex of the brain is divided into two hemispheres separated by the corpus callosum. The hypnotic induction is a means of reducing the functioning of the left hemisphere of the brain and activating the right hemisphere. The point is that language is largely a left brain attribute and what is required in hypnosis is that the suggestions pass very quickly into the right hemisphere of the brain without activating the cortex of the left hemisphere. The conjecture being advanced here is that this is accomplished by first concentrating on the suggestions until a habituation reflex is established. Once this is established, then the suggestions will be paid no particular attention by the conscious mind, but will still be processed by the unconscious mind. For this process to occur requires that the person is capable of concentrating on the suggestions and yet paying them no particular attention. In other words, habituation is a learning process. To the extent that some people find it difficult to ‘let go’ we can interpret this to mean that they do not wish to lose conscious control; that they do not wish to allow habituation to take place. This conjecture is supported to some extent by the work of Dr Gruzelier, which we outlined in chapter 2. Habituation is a feature of the nervous system that is possessed by everyone. There is no such thing as possessing no habituation. There may, however, be difficulty in bringing such habituation under conscious control: the ability to choose to habituate or not. Imbeciles and young children cannot habituate out of choice. Other people will have varying degrees of difficulty in doing so. Of course, we should not fall into the trap of assuming that hypnosis and habituation is the same thing. The ability to habituate means only that a person is susceptible to hypnosis; that the person can enter hypnosis. It does not guarantee that the person will, in fact, enter hypnosis. The only point being advanced here is that because almost everyone can habituate, then almost everyone can be hypnotized. Whether they actually enter hypnosis is quite a different matter. If the argument being advanced here is accepted, then it follows that the depth of hypnosis (see chapter 8) is also connected with the ability to habituate.

3.2 Rapport 3.2.1 Rapport in heterohypnosis We pointed out in section 3.1 that the reasons why a particular person may not be hypnotizable by a particular hypnotist can be very varied. What they all boil down to, however, is a lack of rapport between the subject and the hypnotist. Since the time of Mesmer, rapport has been recognised as most important for heterohypnosis. Because rapport refers to the relationship between the subject and the hypnotist, it is usually considered a

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characteristic of heterohypnosis. We shall pursue this first and then turn to the issue of rapport in the context of self-hypnosis. Rapport can be taken to mean the trust a person has for the hypnotist and the willingness they have in placing trust and confidence in them. Such confidence and trust usually takes many sessions to develop. It is quite rare for it to occur on just one meeting, although it is possible if the hypnotist has a significant reputation. Erickson had such a reputation and could often hypnotize individuals that others found difficult or impossible to do. In considering the confidence and trust that occurs between the subject and the hypnotist, it is important to realise that communication is both verbal and non-verbal. A hypnotist may not be able to hypnotize someone, not because of the verbal suggestions that they are using, but rather because of the non-verbal cues they are giving out, to which the subject has (unconscious) objection to. Hartland in his Medical and Dental Hypnosis and its Clinical Applications, p. 163 defines rapport as follows, [Rapport is a] state of affinity existing between subject and hypnotist and is present at the very onset of hypnosis. It is of such a nature that it tends to prevent the subject from responding to any stimuli other than those arising from the hypnotist himself unless he instructs the subject otherwise. He goes on to say (p. 164), Essentially, rapport seems to be a kind of mental sympathy which gradually develops through repetition into a state of exaggerated belief and trust on the part of the subject which often leads to a form of emotional attachment between subject and hypnotist. In coming to an appreciation of rapport, it is useful to break Hartland’s definition down into three component parts. 1. It is a relationship between subject and the hypnotist. 2. ‘It is of such a nature that it tends to prevent the subject from responding to any stimuli other than those arising from the hypnotist himself.’ 3. It is an ‘exaggerated belief and trust on the part of the subject.’ The first states that rapport involves two people. It is natural to think of heterohypnosis, where one person is the subject and the other is the hypnotist. But it can also be considered in relation to self-hypnosis if one considers a person with at least two selves: the one that is being hypnotized and the one giving the suggestions (the hypnotist). In other words, rapport is still between subject and hypnotist, but they are one and the same person. Now, however, trust and confidence must be interpreted as the trust and confidence one has in oneself! We shall elaborate on this further in a moment. The second aspect is in paying attention to nothing other than what the hypnotist is saying. Rapport does not prevent the subject from responding to other stimuli, but rather it narrows the focus down to just that of what the hypnotist is saying. Prevention implies some form of control the hypnotist has over the person being hypnotized, while a narrowing of the focus is something that the subject is willing to do. Furthermore, such a narrowing of focus is part of the induction or deepening process. It is not uncommon to include in the induction or deepening procedure suggestions along the lines, “and nothing matters except the sound of my voice and the suggestions I am giving.” Not surprising, then, that there is a narrowing of focus and a response only to the stimuli given by the hypnotist, since this is the very thing being suggested! In so far as this is a characteristic of rapport, it means only the extent to

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which the hypnotized subject is willing to go along with such suggestions. The more willing they are to comply, the greater the rapport is assumed to be. Trust and belief in the hypnotist is something that is usually established over many sessions. In the first instance it is very dependent on reputation. The greater the reputation of the hypnotist, the more likely the subject will comply with the suggestions they are given by them. This is because reputation enhances an expectation of success, and expectations have a tendency to be self-fulfilling. We observed in chapter 1 how Mesmer’s reputation led to his success, and even this was recognised by the commission set up to investigate him.

3.2.2 Rapport in self-hypnosis When we turn to self-hypnosis many of the comments made about rapport either make no sense, or lose their force. We start with the consideration that either rapport only has meaning when two people are involved in the process or we assert that rapport does have meaning in self-hypnosis but it requires to be re-interpreted. If it is the former, then nothing more can be said. But this is not the present author’s point of view. If one accepts that in self-hypnosis an individual does a ‘double act’ and is both the hypnotist and the person being hypnotized, then in this process the individual has two selves. Rapport is then the relationship between these two selves. Rapport is easier in heterohypnosis only to the extent that the subject and the hypnotist appear as definitely separate individuals. But there is nothing inherently different about rapport between two selves in the same individual. What is difficult is ‘seeing’ the two selves as distinct persons. This is not as difficult as it may sound. Occasionally we all find that we are observing ourselves doing a task; it is a situation of self-observation. Who is the one doing the task and who is the one looking on? In this situation there are two selves: the self doing the task and the self looking on. It is this separation of selves that is required in self-hypnosis, and which allows rapport to exist. Even when we consider the subject being focused on what the hypnotist is saying and following their suggestions and only their suggestions, this is an act of co-operation between the subject and the hypnotist. The subject is allowing their thoughts to be focused on the suggestions of the hypnotist. But once the two selves have clearly been created in the process of self-hypnosis, then the same focused concentration can be established between them. The third element of rapport – trust and belief in the hypnotist – can also be established between the two selves. In this regard, however, there is a difficulty. In self-hypnosis the subject-self must have trust and belief in the hypnotist-self. This is not easy, especially if you lack confidence in yourself in the first place. It appears that a common feature of human personality is that we accept what others say and suggest far more readily than what we say to ourselves. Put simply, we tend to believe what others tell us more readily than what we tell ourselves. So how can the self-hypnotist create this trust and belief in the hypnotist-self? The most obvious way is for you to learn all about the hypnotic state and, just as importantly, practice self-hypnosis. With practice comes ability and, through ability, confidence. Reading about hypnosis is not sufficient – you cannot climb a mountain simply by reading how! Practice without knowledge is also not sufficient – climbing a mountain without knowing its difficulties and without knowing what is the right equipment to take is silly and possibly dangerous! The most essential feature, however, is the recognition and belief in the existence of many selves. Without this the self-hypnotist cannot establish rapport and cannot derive full advantage from the hypnotic state, although some advantage is still possible.

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3.3 Introversion, extroversion and hypnotizability One of the main categorisations of personality is that put forward by Jung. He divided people into two main groups: the introverts and the extroverts. Introverts tend to draw into themselves, tend to be on their own and are often shy. Feelings, emotions and situations from within dominate them. Extroverts tend to seek the company of others and are usually very sociable; they tend to choose jobs and situations that involve other people. Feelings, emotions and situations from without dominate extroverts. Of course, these are the two ends of the spectrum. A given individual will probably have a mixture of the two and lie somewhere between these two extremes. From our present point of view, the question of interest is, ‘Is the extrovert more readily hypnotizable than the introvert?’ One way to assess this is to find a scale for measuring both extroversion/introversion and hypnotizability and then establish a statistical correlation between the two. But neither introversion/extroversion nor hypnotizability are clear enough categories from which to establish agreed measures. In this case it is not possible to carry out such a measure with any success. (It is always possible to carry out some statistical exercise, but the question remains whether the results are at all meaningful!) Furthermore, much of the information that has been obtained on hypnotizability has been carried out in the psychology departments of universities. The samples are therefore undergraduate students (usually American undergraduate students at that), and these are not necessarily representative of the public at large. Even so, there is a general belief that extroverts probably are more hypnotizable then introverts. There is no scientific basis for this belief. One of the real problems with hypnosis is whether we are confusing hypnosis with compliance. Wagstaff in his book, Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief has argued that much of hypnosis is compliance. To the extent that an extrovert likes to please when in the company of others, then he or she is more likely to agree to ‘play along’, to be compliant. But this raises the question of what the difference is between compliance, susceptibility and hypnosis. We pointed out in section 3.1 that the ability to enter hypnosis (and probably the depth of hypnosis) is, in all likelihood, connected with a person’s ability to habituate. One reason why there may be no clear correlation between extroversion/introversion and hypnotizability is because there is no inherent reason why an extrovert should be more capable of habituating then an introvert. The reason and motivation to habituate may be different for the two categories, but what matters for hypnosis is that they can, in fact, habituate. This is an important conclusion for the self-hypnotist. Whether you are extrovert or introvert does not really make any difference to your ability to enter hypnosis. Before leaving this particular topic it may be worth mentioning the work of Hans Eysenck. He classifies personality not just by introversion/extroversion, but also by stability/instability. This latter division is concerned with a person’s emotional state, varying at one end from calm, well adjusted and reliable to moody, anxious and unreliable. The various traits associated with the double classification are illustrated in figure 3.1. Most individuals would be somewhere in the centre of the circle. But even this is a static interpretation of an individual. Let us suppose that a point represents an individual. There is no reason why such a point should remain in the same position. As a person changes and responds to life’s changes, so he or she may move from one position to another. One of the purposes of selfimprovement is, in fact, to move yourself around the circle to a position you consider better.

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This dynamic interpretation can also explain why the same individual responds and feels different when entering hypnosis on different occasions.

Figure 3.1 Introversion/Extroversion

3.4 Hypnotizability and involvement Josephine Hilgard has been one of the main individuals to investigate the correlates with hypnotizability, and most particularly has investigated the correlation between involvement and hypnotizability. This line of research is especially useful for the self-hypnotist because it gives some insight into how to improve hypnotic susceptibility. Josephine Hilgard considers a number of paths into hypnosis, such as reading, dramatic arts, aesthetic involvement, religious dedication and adventure. A person may have one or more of these paths into hypnosis. She contends that susceptibility to hypnosis is no greater when there is more than one path than if there were only one, and most people would have at least one path into hypnosis. It is not my intention here to discuss her statistical work in detail. What I wish to do is indicate something about the type of involvement and attempt to explain why there is likely to be a correlation between involvement and hypnotizability. It must be emphasised again that these are purely conjectures since our knowledge, both of hypnosis and personality, is not sufficiently developed at the present time to substantiate them.

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3.4.1 Reading and films People involve themselves in reading in different ways. Some people identify themselves with the hero or heroine in the novel (or even a the character in a biography). They can do this on two levels. One is where they can take on the same feelings and emotions as the hero or heroine because they become that person. Others consider the hero or heroine as if from the point of view of a third person. They do not identify exactly with them but they are emotionally influenced, as they would be if the situation occurred in real life and they were looking on as an observer. Such readers are ‘reading’ with both sides of their brains, and not simply with the left brain, which is the main seat of language. This can readily be grasped if the same individuals read a technical report, because this is done almost wholly with their left brain. The observation to make from this type of involvement is the act of ‘suppressing your own identity’. When you become Don Quixote or Helen of Troy you identify with them. If you identify directly with them then you may feel what they feel; if you are an observer then you may have certain emotions, depending on your response to what is happening in the scene that your are reading about. In both cases, you involve the right brain. Such involvement cannot be achieved with the left brain alone. The more you can identify with the hero or heroine, the more the right brain is included in the reading process and the more the left brain is ‘switched off’. It is not unknown to be quite oblivious to everything going on around you because you are so absorbed in the story that you have ‘switched off’. All of your focus and attention is on the story which is unfolding in the novel. Another way of considering such involvement is that for this period you suspend reality. This should be clear. Reality testing is a left brain function and your are clearly not Don Quixote or Helen of Troy, as your left brain will readily tell you. But reading is much more pleasurable if you suspend such reality testing. This is because you are then allowing the pleasure principle of the right brain to become operative. All this applies with even more force when it comes to films. In the case of films, the director to some extent brings alive his or her imagination (a function of their right brain). A good director draws you into their world, and in so doing you suspend your reality testing. You may become Ben Hur in the Roman Circus, you may become the Gladiator or Cleopatra, or you may simply identify with a lesser character. In films this is more easily accomplished because of the visual medium in which it is presented. Sometimes, however, the world you create when reading a novel can conflict with what you see in the film version of the novel. In reading The Lord of the Rings, you would create an image of the hobbit and the various characters, none of which exist in the real world. When you see the movie, however, what the director conceives is not exactly what you conceive. But this is not relevant when it comes to involvement. All that matters is that you are involved in the movie. Your emotions rise and fall with what the director is trying to convey. You watch the movie with both sides of your brain and allow the pleasure principle to operate to the full. You can even feel joy or sadness, remorse or shame, excitement or calmness. The more you ‘let go of reality’ the more you become absorbed in the movie and the more enjoyable it is. The important point about this type of involvement is that such individuals suppress their ‘self’ and take on the characteristics of the other person. They allow themselves to become someone else temporarily. They of course know that they are not the person in the book or film, but the book or film is much more enjoyable if they experience what the hero or heroine is experiencing.

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3.4.2 The arts The arts are, of course, ideal for cultivating such involvement. Education in the West is extremely left brain dominated. If you look back to your school days, it is pretty clear that something like ninety per cent or more of your time was directed to developing left brain functions. A muscle that goes unused becomes flabby and loses its ability to function effectively. The same applies to the nerves. Your right brain has had very little conscious exercise. Music, theatre and even sport can involve much more the right brain, and so exercise that very part of you which is used in hypnosis. A good actor or actress takes on the character that they are portraying. They suspend their own identity, their own self (or at least the one they assume in everyday life). The more they become that person the more believable they are and so the more you as a watcher of the movie become absorbed in the drama. This feature of portraying another person is not just reserved for actors and actresses. We all do it throughout life. We all do it to some extent when we present to other people different parts of our own character. The man at work may be different from the man at home, and both may be different from the man who socialises in the local pub. A woman may present one aspect of her character when at home but quite a different one when having a night out with her female friends. At home she may be the boring, straight housewife, but when out she portrays the seductive woman who likes to enjoy herself. These ‘games people play’ (to use Berne’s terminology) is quite common. The contention is, of course, that the easier a person can suspend reality and portray themselves in a totally different light, the easier they can ‘let go’, and so the easier they can enter hypnosis.

3.4.3 Fantasizing An important feature for hypnotizability is the capacity to fantasize. This is not only a suppression of the self, but it involves also a suspension of reality. This is most obvious to people who enjoy reading science fiction novels or fantasy novels. The same applies to interest in such movies. In reading these or watching such movies, they may not identify with any of the characters, but rather simply become absorbed in the fantasy. Such absorption, such involvement, can occur to varying degrees depending on how well the reader or watcher can suspend reality and enter the world that is being created by the author or director. One important aspect of this suspension of reality is that the pleasure or pain is immediate to the reader or the person watching the movie. For instance, the reader may be reading about the past, the present, or even some unknown place at an unknown time, but they are experiencing the feelings created by the writer immediately. This is even more so when watching a film. When watching Star Wars, for example, the time is ‘a long time ago’ and ‘in a far off galaxy’, but the emotion felt is here and now. This is worth commenting on further. Reality testing is a feature of the left hemisphere of the brain. One of the points about reality testing is that the brain compares any incoming information with what it has already encountered in the past with regard to the environment. If you begin reading about a hobbit, as in The Lord of the Rings, then there is no reality to compare this against because it is unreal. You can process the information in a logical fashion by comparing it with previous occasions where you have read about a hobbit. But this is a process of analysis and not what you want when you read a novel. The right hemisphere of the brain, however, does not require any reality to carry out its functions. It merely responds to images that are created in the mind. More to the point, the responses are immediate: you are sad now, happy now and

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joyful now. You cannot delay an emotion. You can delay a decision, which is a feature of the left hemisphere of the brain (and largely the frontal lobe), but you cannot delay an emotion, which is a feature of the right hemisphere of the brain. Part of the reason for this is that when you have an emotion your body must be activated in a way that is consistent with the emotion. Breathing may alter, hormonal activity may alter and blood pressure may change. These changes can be activated by an image in the right hemisphere of the brain. The right hemisphere does not question whether the image is real or whether the environment that is being suggested actually exits. It simply responds. This is why a number of writers consider that the subconscious mind operates like a psycho-cybernetic. A faulty image, or different image of our selves, will create body responses and conscious responses consistent with such an image. So when a person is reading a science fiction novel or fantasy story they can become emotionally involved in it if they can suppress the reality testing of the left hemisphere of the brain. By so doing they enjoy the story or the movie much more.

3.3.4 Other involvements Josephine Hilgard considers a number of other involvements that help hypnotizability. Religious commitment appears to engender quite a different aspect that facilitates hypnosis. A person who is religiously committed practises belief and also allows himself or herself to be subject to authority. To some extent this is true of people in the armed forces, nurses and students. Hilgard has the following to say about religious involvement (p.74). Here we have the interplay of identification, of joyful participation, of basic trust, of respect for benevolent authority. With these attitudes engendered in early childhood and continued with institutional and parental support, it is easy to accept the demands of hypnosis, the confidence in trusted authority, the lack of questioning when unfamiliar elements are introduced into prosaic reality. Hilgard considers also the adventurer as a path to hypnosis. These are individuals who are willing to tolerate danger and disapproval in order to explore the unknown, who have a curiosity about the ranges of human experiences. These experiences may be physical in nature, such as skiing, skydiving and mountain climbing (basically non-competitive sports in which the experience gives rise to immediate emotion); or they may be mental, such as taking drugs, having their fortunes told or experimenting in expanded mind consciousness. They all have in common the desire for a new and different experience beyond the ordinary, whether physical or mental. What does appear to be the case is a rise in the number of people engaging in ‘mental games’, and what Ferguson has labelled The Aquarian Conspiracy.

3.3.3 Conclusions drawn All these different paths to hypnosis activate, in one way or another, the right hemisphere of the brain. What appears on the surface to be a different collection of human experiences, on more detailed observation turns out to be simply different attributes and functions of the right hemisphere of the brain. Once again, this does not mean that if you lose yourself in reading a novel, or you are an actor taking on the role of someone else, or that you are religious and an adventurer, that you will automatically enter hypnosis. It only means that you can, other things being equal, enter hypnosis with more ease than if you were none of these. What can the self-hypnotist learn from these investigations?

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1. Learn to identify with a person in any novel that you are reading. Learn to experience the emotion that the writer or director is giving the hero or heroine; with practice this can improve. It is not a question of whether you can or you can’t. Everyone can, but to different degrees. Like many things, it is a learning process – or even doing once again what you did as a child! 2. Improve your fantasising, whether in the form of science fiction or in the form of fantasy stories. Although some people do not like science fiction, they occasionally like fantasy stories. If you dislike both, and you find it difficult to enter self-hypnosis, then this may be the reason. Your hold on reality is so great that you refuse to engage in such ‘silly’ pursuits. 3. Belief is a most powerful force. If you believe that you can hypnotize yourself, then this will be a major element in succeeding. You must eliminate any doubts and negative thoughts about the procedure and have confidence in both yourself and in your ability to achieve hypnosis. This does not necessarily mean that you will be successful immediately. It means only that it will work given time, patience and knowledge. 4. Learn to be adventurous – either physically, mentally or both. In terms of mental adventures this does not necessarily mean taking drugs. There are a number of ways to achieve expanded mind consciousness without the use of drugs. We shall consider some of these in terms of creative visualisations in chapter 0. 5. There is no obvious personality type that is more hypnotizable than another type. If you believe that introverts cannot be hypnotized, and you consider yourself an introvert, then this will create an expectation of lack of success. It is not the fact of being introverted that prevents you from being hypnotized, but rather your erroneous belief. 6. Television, films and books give rise to many erroneous beliefs about hypnosis (see chapter 6) that can prevent you from achieving such a state. You must enter the process with an open mind and an expectation of success. 7. Nothing in the literature has established any clear correlation that is indisputable. The paths to hypnosis discussed by Hilgard, although interesting and revealing, are also not without criticism. But they do indicate the importance of activating the right hemisphere of the brain, which is a point we stress throughout this book.

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Chapter 4 Characteristics of the hypnotic state

Summary This chapter covers the feelings you have when going into a trance and as the trance state deepens. Some of these can be felt by the person being hypnotized and are subjective in nature. Others are observable by others and denote objective signs of hypnosis.

CHAPTER 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HYPNOTIC STATE In this chapter we shall discuss in more detail what happens during the induction and deepening procedures. In particular, we shall concentrate on the frame of mind being created and the bodily sensations likely to be experienced. We shall also consider the likelihood of falling into a natural sleep, the difficulty of holding thoughts, the sudden mental change that may be experienced and the cyclic nature of hypnosis. When discussing the characteristics of the hypnotic state it is useful to consider them under two headings: the objective and the subjective characteristics. For clinicians, it is the objective signs that are important since it is these that they can see and observe. The objective signs are important for heterohypnosis. For anyone engaged in self-hypnosis, however, it is the subjective characteristics that are important. Since we are mostly concerned with self-hypnosis we shall not only consider the subjective characteristics first, but we shall also give these more attention than the objective ones. Even for the self-hypnotist, a discussion of the objective characteristics is still useful. When discussing the subjective experiences of hypnosis, then by their very nature, they are particular to the person experiencing them. Two choices are open when faced with this difficulty. One possibility is that nothing is said and the self-hypnotist finds out for himself or herself what feelings and changes they experience. Alternatively, some common experiences can at least be highlighted and discussed. The second approach seems preferable because there are common experiences that the majority of people being hypnotized will encounter, whether by someone else or by oneself. The precise form and intensity will allay any additional worries the self-hypnotist may have. To be forewarned is to be forearmed. In the case of the objective characteristics it is what the clinician observes in the subject they are hypnotizing. Why these characteristics are important is because the clinician wants to know whether his client is in a state of hypnosis. But as Weitzenhoffer points out, the important question is not whether a hypnotist’s client is hypnotized but rather whether they are in a state that produces the effect they want. This is equally true of self-hypnosis. What matters most is whether you are in a state in which you can produce in yourself the changes you want to bring about.

4.1 Subjective characteristics of hypnosis 4.1.1 Feelings during induction and deepening We have already pointed out that hypnosis as a procedure reduces sensory information to the brain to an absolute minimum. In so doing, the brain, which never stops working, turns inwards to body sensations. These are normally present, but do not consciously enter awareness because they are ‘drowned’ by all the other sensory input – from sight, sounds, touch and smell. We have all had experience of this with respect to a pain. A pain seems to come and go in our conscious awareness. If something happens, or a film captures our interest that requires our attention, then the pain is temporarily not ‘felt’, but then, a short while later, our attention returns to the pain and the awareness of the pain returns. The point is that we are only consciously aware of the pain when we direct our attention towards it. How often does a mother exclaim, ‘Don’t think about it and the pain will go away’? There is an anecdotal story about a client of Erickson’s who suffered pain. He asked her to imagine a

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tiger under her bed and asked her what she felt at that moment. It certainly was not the pain! What these remarks illustrate is that our body sensations are generally not considered at the conscious level, because the brain is processing other information that occupies all of a person’s conscious awareness. Only when we relax and shut off outside stimuli is our attention turned inwards to such bodily sensations. The first sensation to be experienced, therefore, is a slowing down. This arises from the fact that there is very little for the mind to concentrate on, except the suggestions – which are slow, repetitive and melodious. During the early stages of the induction, other thoughts begin to cross the mind, such as whether you have fed the cat, almost as if the mind just abhors having nothing to think about. Soon these ‘pressing’ thoughts become less and less as the mind quietens down. In fact, one objective of the induction is to reduce such extraneous thoughts as much as possible. One way to do this is to let them simply pass through the mind and, above all, pay them no attention. To consider that they are hindering your induction process is, in fact, to pay attention to them, and you can only do this by holding them in your consciousness. Pay them no attention and simply let them pass through your mind. The aim is to be purely passive. Soon your attention will rest wholly on your own suggestions. The second sensation is that of relaxation and heaviness. This is the object of the induction and if it is working, then you should be feeling relaxed and, as you relax, a feeling of heaviness should develop. The induction routine, outlined in chapter 7 (script #1) is especially designed to enhance these feelings. As you move up your body, the part prior to the one you are presently concentrating on will relax even more. For instance, as you direct your attention away from your left leg to your right leg, the left leg well almost certainly relax even more than it already is. The principle of redirected attention is being utilized here. When you cannot get to sleep, the more you think about it, the more difficult it becomes. The point is that when your conscious thoughts are dealing with one thing, your unconscious can be dealing with the thing your really want. So when the conscious thoughts are attending to relaxing the right leg, the unconscious is relaxing even more the left leg. And so on up your body. As your body relaxes and becomes limp, so you will not wish to move any of the muscles of your body. It is this that you should aim at achieving. You will find that it is very pleasant. To move your body will feel as if it is too much trouble, and totally unnecessary at that. Movement requires effort, and when in such a relaxed state the last thing you want to do is expend effort. If achieved properly, then doing some of the deepening exercises that involve moving specific parts of the body will not disturb the overall relaxation that has been achieved. Furthermore, if, after each exercise, you suggest to yourself that you are once again relaxed, then this is what you will be – almost immediately. Once relaxation is achieved, if not before, you may experience a tingling sensation, especially in the legs and feet. The feet may even feel as if they are slight expanding. These reactions are quite normal and can give the feeling of vitality. This is almost certainly the case. At particular times, a person can either take in energy from the environment or can give up energy to the environment. When you relax you give your body an opportunity to draw this much-needed energy. When a person is ill or run-down they are asked to rest. Through rest and relaxation the body can restore its energy reserves. This tingling sensation is most conspicuous in the early stages of induction and seems to taper off as you establish some form of equilibrium. It must be emphasized, however, that not everyone experiences this

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tingling sensation. Even for individuals that do experience it, over many sessions it seems to disappear. A most characteristic experience of relaxation and further deepening is the slowing down of the heartbeat and of breathing. The breathing especially becomes very mild and takes on a slow steady rhythm, sometimes imperceptible. Also the breathing comes from much lower in your lungs, just above your diaphragm, and not from the upper part of your chest. In other words, your breathing is much deeper and more natural. As you learn to relax, this feature is very soon established. It shows that the body is establishing its own natural rhythm, which it finds the best for relaxation and other body functions. It is very therapeutic and if you do not experience this change in breathing, it almost certainly means that you have not relaxed sufficiently. One aspect of breathing is worth commenting on. When very relaxed, and breathing is slow and steady, you may experience, on occasions, an expelling of air, as if there was an air pocket. Put another way, you take a sudden deep breath. The feeling comes usually from the pit of your stomach. Some authors have commented on this phenomenon, but have not given any reason for it. However, it seems to me that this is highly significant. There is a view in physiology that tension that has not found any outlet is retained in the muscles of the body. The obvious case is the person who ‘bottles up his or her emotions’ and has stomach cramp or a peptic ulcer. Tense or anxious people have tense expressions because their muscles are tense. It is even argued that such tension simply accumulates, unless dispelled in some way. Now during hypnotic induction, as the body truly relaxes, these tensions are released. It is very probable that when these deep-seated tensions in the muscles are released some physiological change takes place, which has, as one of its features, an expulsion of air. This is one of the reasons why relaxation is so therapeutic.

4.1.2 The likelihood of entering natural sleep It has probably crossed your mind that if you relax, as suggested, then you may fall into a natural sleep. This is possible, but rather unlikely – or at least does not happen each and every time you enter a state of hypnosis. The hypnotic state, although often referred to as ‘sleep’, is not like ordinary sleep at all. When a hypnotist says, “Relax and go to sleep” there is a mutual understanding that you are not expected to go into a natural sleep, but rather to go into a state of focused relaxation. The word ‘sleep’ is useful because you already have an idea that sleep is associated with ‘letting go’ and relaxing, and this is the very feelings you want at the induction stage of hypnosis. This is why the word is so frequently used by hypnotists. Some hypnotists, however, dispense with the word altogether and merely suggest limpness and relaxation. The self-hypnotist can see how they react with and without the word ‘sleep’. Why you are unlikely to go into a natural sleep is because hypnosis is an active state that is requiring your constant co-operation and participation. Natural sleep does not involve this degree of co-operation and participation. Of course, if you begin the induction when you are very sleepy or exhausted, then you might well fall into a natural sleep. In engaging in self-hypnosis there is the difficulty of distinguishing between a loss of consciousness and falling asleep. The two states are not the same. Although a loss of consciousness is easier in heterohypnosis, it can still occur in self-hypnosis. They occur as you deepen the state. If they do occur, you should not presume you have fallen asleep, rather you have shut down quite considerably your conscious mind. Even so, the periods are quite short and you will find that you ‘come up’ to consciousness but are still in a state of hypnosis.

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. So what would happen if you did become so relaxed and fell asleep? Well, you would simply respond as you always do when you fall asleep. In your own time, or when disturbed, you would awaken. You will no longer be in a hypnotic state and you will awaken in the same state as when you awaken from a natural sleep or falling asleep in front of the TV set. A situation in which you are most likely to fall into a natural sleep when hypnotizing yourself is if you have taken ‘too much’ alcohol or some soporific drug, e.g., hay fever tablets. The relaxation plus the drug is likely to lead very quickly into a loss of concentration and into a natural state of sleep. Hypnosis, both self-hypnosis and heterohypnosis, is best undertaken with a clear head and no other stimulants. In fact, one of the main values of hypnosis is to deal with the very situation that may be leading you to take alcohol or tablets.

4.1.3 Difficulty in holding thoughts The induction and deepening aims at reducing sensory input and at shutting down, to a large extent, the left brain – the conscious mind. As you become successful at this, what you may find is difficulty in remembering your own instructions or suggestions. You may simply forget where you are in the script. It is as if the conscious mind ‘blanks out’ for short periods. Rather than being alarmed at this, it is a sign of success. Simply ignore it and carry on, or go back and repeat your suggestions from approximately where you thought you stopped. In heterohypnosis, this is most likely to happen. You do not have to do the double act you need to do with self-hypnosis, and so you can give in to the state and lose all consciousness. In self-hypnosis you must always preserve that small degree of consciousness in order to give yourself instructions. If, however, you use recorded tapes or CDs, as outlined in chapter 17, then you may find loss of consciousness occurs more frequently because then, as in heterohypnosis, you can let go more completely.

4.1.4 Sudden mental change As the induction and deepening takes hold, you will find that you will accept further suggestions more readily. You may even get the feeling that there is nothing you would not do. Occasionally, however, another change occurs which, unlike the gradual realisation, is very sudden. With your concentration in the centre of your forehead between your eyebrows, on some occasions you will find a sudden change occurs in your mental outlook. The most obvious sensation is the absolute clarity of your thought processes. It is as if you have ‘jumped’ onto another plane of consciousness. When this happens, it is quite unmistakable because, qualitatively, it is so different from both your thoughts when awake and your thoughts during the early stages of induction and deepening. During this state, you are at your most responsive and so many important suggestions you wish to give yourself should be done when this occurs. If you find that you have not achieved this state, one possible reason is that you have not included any long periods of silence when no suggestions at all are made. The ‘jump’ is most likely to occur during one of these periods.

4.1.5 The cyclic nature of the hypnotic state The hypnotic state does not deepen gradually or continuously, nor does it necessarily level off at some lower limit, as draw in figure 4.1(a). It in fact cycles, with a downward trend, as illustrated in figure 4.1(b). This should come as no surprise. In large part the body is an

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electro-chemical apparatus. Even the mechanical aspects, like the heartbeat, behave in waves. This cyclic feature of hypnosis reveals the changing impulses in the brain. We now know, from research on altered states of consciousness, of the importance played by alpha waves, beta waves and theta waves (see section 2.4.3). Of these three waves, the important one in hypnosis, as it is in meditation, is the alpha pattern. These occur as the mental processes are slowed down, as we have already talked about. The point being made here is that the hypnotic state varies in a wave pattern. You can recognize yourself that during one particular hypnotic session you are very deep indeed. During another session, however, you are sometimes very deep indeed while at other moments you feel as if you are about to awaken from the trance state. At the same time the deepening trend is also quite apparent.

Figure 4.1 Possible paths of hypnotic depth Some authors argue that the depth that a person can reach is fairly fixed and cannot be exceeded, and shown by the dotted line in figure 4.1(a). There is no evidence for this and it

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can lead to a false expectation. It is a negative attitude that must be avoided at all costs. This is not to say that in any particular session there is no lower limit, or that over some consecutive sessions only a certain depth can be reached. But these should be thought of as ‘plateaux’, as illustrated in figure 4.1(c). We are familiar with such plateaux in many learning situations, e.g., in sport, learning to type or learning a hobby. Why should learning hypnosis be any different? It is my contention that there are plateaux and when these are reached a change in approach, or more ingenuity, is required in giving suggestions in order to break out of the plateau and onto the next phase. Inducing hypnosis is an art. One typical plateau encountered is when you have doubts about whether you are, in fact, going deeper into trance. Such a negative thought is sure to hold up the deepening process. You should try to believe absolutely that continued deepening is always possible, that Samadhi is attainable, and that the only thing holding you back is knowing how to do it and finding the reason for the lack of progress. The view that only a certain depth can be reached seems to arise from laboratory experiments on hypnosis. Valuable as these are, they very rarely consider the same individual over long periods of time (see Appendix). My own work on myself has demonstrated the existence of plateaux, and I have no reason to believe that I am unique in this regard. It seems to me quite a natural feature of learning, and I remember it well in my younger days when I was learning to play table tennis, and most especially learning to fence. Research by psychologists into learning to type have shown the existence of such a plateau, and that a significant change in learning occurs when the typist progresses from a ‘letter habit’ to a ‘word habit’. The message to be draw from these comments is not to be discouraged when you feel that some lower limit has been reached. This limit is not immutable; it is not an absolute limit. In all probability, it signifies that you have reached a plateau, and that a change in your approach is almost certainly called for if you wish to progress further. In this regard, the use of the imagination, as outlined in chapter 18, will play a vital role.

4.1.6 Detachment, dissociation and time distortion As you go into a deep trance state you will often experience a feeling of detachment. As if you are hearing the world around you but it has no impact on you. The most notable nonreaction is to a loud noise. You hear it but you do not have the startle response so common when a loud noise is heard. Related to this is a feeling of dissociation. This more usually occurs in heterohypnosis. The hypnotist may say, “Your arm is getting light and is starting to rise” (see script #17). The hypnotized person may not be aware their arm is rising even though it is. Their thoughts have become dissociated from their body. Body awareness varies during a particular hypnotic session and from one session to another. Sometimes you can become totally unaware of your limbs. In deep trance you can be almost pure thought with no sense of body whatsoever. You should not worry about this experience; on the contrary, it shows that you are in a deep trance state. Body awareness returns immediately when you awaken or when it is suggested in the trance state. A common characteristic of hypnosis is time distortion, which we shall discuss in more detail in chapter 16. You may be in a trance for one hour but feel that it has only been ten minutes; or you have been in a trance for only ten minutes but it feels much longer. Time distortion also arises in the normal waking state. How often have you been waiting for a bus, thinking it has been at least ten minutes, but only two minutes have passed? Or been so absorbed in what

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you are doing that you have not noticed two hours have gone by. Because time distortion is a natural feature of our nervous system, and because it is a typical response in the hypnotic state, it can be utilized to great effect, as we shall illustrate in part IV.

4.2 Objective characteristics of hypnosis When considering objective signs of hypnosis, some can readily be observed in the subject while others need to be tested for to see if they are present.

4.2.1 Physical signs During the induction phase of hypnosis a person can quite readily begin to blink, there can be a fluttering of the eyelids and the eyeballs may role up. As the trance state comes about blinking diminishes. A hypnotist will often utilize the blink by saying something like, “Yes, with each blink, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier”. The self-hypnotist can use the same utilization. When hypnotizing someone for the first (and possibly the second) time a subject may giggle. This is a sign of nerves. As rapport is established this tends to disappear. Giggling, however, is something we do more in company and is not likely to be experienced by a person engaging in self-hypnosis. As the trance progresses, physical movements tend to become much less. This is truer with adults. Children may continue to fidget, but this should not be taken to mean they are not in a trance. What a hypnotist would be observing is a difference in their fidgeting. Very soon there is virtually no voluntary movement on the part of the subject. It is as if they become totally immobile, unless instructed to do some movement. When engaging in self-hypnosis you will become aware of this on occasions. The most conspicuous is when your head drops forward or, most especially, to one side. The head is a very heavy object, and will tend to take on one of these positions. If it falls to one side, it will pull on the neck muscles. This can be quite uncomfortable, yet the hypnotized subject does not move the head. You will be aware of this reluctance to move the head even though the neck muscles may be uncomfortable. The reason is that movement requires effort, and when in a trance state the individual is reducing effort to a minimum. If this should happen, and you become aware of a strain on your neck, simply suggest to yourself that you make yourself comfortable. Keeping effort to a minimum also explains another feature sometimes observed in hypnotic subjects, and that is retaining posture for long periods of time. For instance, a hypnotist may use arm levitation (see script #17) and once the hand touches the cheek, the person may simply leave it there unless it is suggested otherwise. In self-hypnosis you can become aware of this same phenomenon. Once a person is in trance, if a hypnotist asks them to open their eyes but to remain in trance, they will do so but have a fixed stare. They blink very little, look straight ahead as if looking into the infinite distance and give the impression they are not listening to you when they are in fact very focused on your words. A hypnotist can also notice that the pupils will be dilated. When engaging in self-hypnosis you can be aware of these characteristics. If you suggest you will open your eyes, you will be aware of having a fixed gaze and blinking very little. If you want to actually see what this looks like, suggest that you do this in front of a mirror. There is nothing intrinsically useful about physical immobility, the trance stare and dilation of the pupils. All they provide is objective signs that a person is in a trance state. They are characteristic of the trance state and not of a person in a normal state of

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consciousness. They provide the hypnotist with reassurance and feedback that their induction and deepening process is truly creating a state of hypnosis. Where these are observed or sensed in self-hypnosis, they too provide feedback and a belief in the trance state.

4.2.2 Trance logic and other verbal cues Trance logic and literalness are characteristic of the trance state but a hypnotist only becomes aware of these when engaging the subject in dialogue. In normal waking consciousness, if you ask someone whether they are comfortable, they may respond, “Yes, I find this chair most comfortable. It is softer than the one I have at home.” If you ask a person in hypnosis whether they are comfortable, you are likely to get the reply, “Yes” with absolutely no elaboration. Replies to questions tend to be direct and brief. Questions are treated in a literal fashion and answered accordingly. But the most characteristic feature of trance logic is not being concerned about logical inconsistencies. A hypnotist may suggest to a subject that they are sitting in a chair opposite, and that they then transport a part of themselves to their living room and are sitting in a chair watching television. This dissociation (see chapter 15) is commonly used in hypnotherapy. Now the person knows that they cannot be in three places at the same time, and yet in a trance this inconsistency is totally ignored. The same is true if the subject is asked to hallucinate a flower or other person. The hypnotist may suggest to a subject that they see their mother in a chair opposite and that they engage them in conversation. The hypnotized person may ‘see’ their mother. Of course, she is not there and at one level the hypnotized subject knows that she is not there. If they hallucinate a flower, it does not seem illogical that the flower is growing in the room. But given that they are complying with the suggestions of the hypnotist, they create what is suggested and do not concern themselves with the logical inconsistency that may be present. What is important for the self-hypnotist is knowing that such trance logic exists and that accepting logical inconsistency is a common characteristic of hypnosis. In fact, not only is it a common characteristic but a necessary one in utilizing a number of hypnotic techniques, as we shall observe when we consider the uses of self-hypnosis in part IV.

4.2.3 Increased rapport, hypersuggestibility and amnesia With successive sessions of hypnosis rapport tends to increase. This is not surprising. Both hypnotist and subject become more acquainted with each other, expectations are more clearly defined and if the hypnotist is doing his or her job properly, then they will be gaining the confidence of their subject. We discussed rapport in section 5.2 and it was highlighted there that it is possible for an individual who engages in self-hypnosis to increase rapport with themselves. In addition, as the trance state deepens, which it tends to do over more than one session, the individual being hypnotized tends to become more suggestible. It is difficult to establish how much of this naturally occurs and how much is in response to suggestion. It is quite common during induction and deepening for the hypnotist to use phrases such as, “And you will find it easier and easier to follow all of my suggestions” or “Each suggestion will be easier than the one before”. Of course, there is nothing stopping the self-hypnotist from using similar phrases. “I will find each suggestion becomes easier and easier”; “I will find each suggestion easier to follow than the one before” and “I will become more and more responsive to my suggestions”.

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Forgetting things is something most of us do to varying degrees. It is not uncommon to go upstairs to get something and then on arriving forget what it is you have gone for. Occasionally one finds going to a cash dispenser only to find that you have forgotten your pin number, or at least the exact order of the numbers. The most common thing we forget is our dreams. We awaken with a dream in our head and say to ourselves that was an important dream and I must remember it; and then in about two minutes it has all but gone from your memory. As a person shuts down their consciousness when going into trance, then the less they tend to recall of the trance experience. Somnambulism is partly defined as someone who has amnesia (see section x.x). Many people recall everything that occurs in their trance state. Even those who do have amnesia for part of the session, it can be argued that what they are responding to is the implicit association with sleep, and what happens in sleep is not recalled in everyday consciousness. The self-hypnotist should not allow themselves to get hung up on the ability or otherwise to have amnesia. It is not important for the uses of self-hypnosis we shall discuss in part IV. The importance of amnesia lies with the research worker who uses it as a defining characteristic of deep hypnosis. As a self-hypnotist, and if you use a tape or CD for your own instructions, then you may find amnesia occurs for much the session. Whether it does or whether it does not is not important.

4.2.4 Other signs When individuals go into a trance they tend to lose motor control. This not only applies to the limbs but also to speech. Subjects speak quieter and they also find it difficult to speak, where they often have long pauses when replying to a hypnotist’s questions. For this reason we also observe a lack of spontaneity in the hypnotized person. Probably linked to this is the observation that the hypnotized person lacks a sense of humour. Responses are matter of fact, and generally do not give rise to smiles or laughter unless these are part of the response. The hypnotized subject responds but does not initiate action. For this reason the hypnotized person often looks as if he or she is an automaton. To some extent these are expectations, both on the part of the hypnotist and on the part of the subject. It is what a hypnotized person is expected to do. As such, suggestions can be given to be spontaneous and to initiate action. It can be suggested to them that what they hear next will be the funniest thing that they have ever heard. Something totally innocent is then said, and the individual goes into fits of laughter. If the subject is truly hypnotized and responding to suggestions, then they can be directed to respond spontaneously and to initiate action and, as just described, they can have a sense of humour. For the self-hypnotist these are not important other than being aware that you may experience them even in self-hypnosis. What is important is that you can create any response by mere suggestion. If you feel your body is limp and lacks motor control, and assuming you want motor control, then simply suggest to yourself that you have it. If you are speaking in your trance state and it is slow and sluggish, simply suggest to yourself that you will speak normally and clearly. If you do have a tendency to forget what transpired in the trance state, then simply suggest to yourself that you will recall everything. A common misconception about hypnosis is that the subject is under the spell of the hypnotist (see chapter 6). Part of the reason for this belief is the compulsive behaviour one observes on the part of the hypnotized person. It is as if they must do what the hypnotist tells them to do. There is no doubt that when in a trance some suggestions can have a compelling need to be carried out, as if resistance if futile. It is this feature of hypnosis that leads to great

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concern about its moral use. However, for the self-hypnotist there will be occasions when such a compulsive response is very noticeable, even to his or her own suggestions! Such compulsions do not occur throughout the whole trance state, and therefore not to every suggestion given. Its intensity varies from one trance state to the next. What is most important for the self-hypnotist is to recognize when this happens (which is quite easy) and to utilize the moment for the very suggestions you want to bring about.

4.3 Resistance and how to handle it Some people want to be hypnotized and so fully co-operate but fail to go into a trance. The point is that they consciously want and do co-operate but unconsciously do not want to go into hypnosis and so do not co-operate at the unconscious level. There are many reasons for this and most are to do with the concern about loss of control. Such unconscious resistance can be overcome to some extent by allaying an individual’s worries and concerns about being hypnotized. We dealt with these in chapter 6. In heterohypnosis and when a person sees a hypnotist to overcome some problem, resistance to the hypnotic state at the unconscious level may result because the person concerned does not want a solution to their problem. In other words, the problem serves some purpose and so that purpose will not be served if the problem is corrected. Therefore unconsciously the individual prevents this happening by not entering trance in the first place. On other occasions a person enters a trance, and then part way through opens their eyes and professes that they are not in a trance. They invariably are. How do we know this? A person who is consciously co-operating and wants at the conscious level to go into a trance would not say that they are not hypnotized – at least not during the process, although they may say so once it has been concluded. Another variant on this is someone who insists that they were not hypnotized when they clearly were. In this case the statement is revealing an unconscious resistance to the hypnotic state. One important reason why a person may not enter hypnosis when they especially want to is because they are trying too hard. This occurs both in heterohypnosis and self-hypnosis. It is in trying too hard that conscious interference occurs in the induction process. Rather than letting things happen, which is the ideal state for entering hypnosis, the person is trying to go into a trance: trying too hard to follow the suggestions of the hypnotist. All the person is doing is keeping their conscious mind active, which is not conducive to hypnosis. Whether in heterohypnosis or self-hypnosis, this must be avoided at all costs. Simply have an attitude of indifference, and simply let things happen. Be neither concerned about going into a trance nor concerned about not going into a trance. In most cases, however, the resistance is related to the problem an individual has. In heterohypnosis the reason for this can be explored. This is not so easy in self-hypnosis, but not impossible. The application of ideomotor signalling allows the self-hypnotist to have a dialogue with their unconscious. We discuss this in detail in chapter 12. So long as an individual is willing to be hypnotized, if they do not go into hypnosis on the first attempt or with the standard induction (e.g., relaxation, script #1) then it is necessary to try a variety of induction techniques until a suitable one is found. This is the reason why we considered so many alternative induction routines in chapter 7. Even for the self-hypnotist this may become necessary. However, some techniques are not suitable for self-hypnosis. One procedure used by Ericksonian hypnotherapists is the confusion technique. The hypnotist gives a series of confusing and possibly contradictory statements.

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You may want to go into hypnosis, then again you may not, you may want to on Tuesday, which is two days before next Thursday and one day after the day before yesterday. Then again, you might like to go into trance on two days before next Wednesday and one week after the last full moon. Etc. The subject is using all of his or her faculties trying to make sense of what is being said. When the hypnotist considers the subject sufficiently confused, and so off-guard, they are then given a clear direct suggestion “And so now you can go into a nice deep, deep trance state” or some such phrase. Because the statement is clear and not at all confusing, the mind latches onto it. It is as if the mind wants something that it can understand rather than all these confusing statements that it has been hearing. However, it is simply not possible to use this technique on yourself. Even if you try using it on a tape or CD you would be aware of what is taking place and so it would lose its force. Like so many Ericksonian techniques, they do not lend themselves very well to self-hypnosis. Luckily, for the person truly interested in learning self-hypnosis such resistance is less common than in the hypnotist-client relationship.

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Chapter 5 Suggestions in Hypnosis

Summary There are many types of suggestions used by hypnotherapists:some are better than others; some are better for heterohypnosis than self-hypnosis. This chapter explores all these and considers in what circumstances each are suitable. Modern hypnosis utilises very much Ericksonian indirect suggestions, but these are not always suitable for self-hypnosis. An especially important type of suggestion is the post hypnotic suggestion.

CHAPTER 5 SUGGESTIONS IN HYPNOSIS In this chapter we are concerned with suggestion, i.e., with what constitutes a good suggestion and why. We are not concerned with suggestibility, i.e., why is one person more suggestible than another and how do we measure a person’s suggestibility? These are the concerns of laboratory investigations and are well documented elsewhere. Furthermore, they often give very little help to the practitioner on how to give good suggestions. They are certainly of very little help to the self-hypnotist. On the other hand, what constitutes a good suggestion and why is most important for anyone engaged in self-hypnosis. There has been a considerable amount of work done on the type of suggestions used by hypnotherapists, and most especially since the work of Erickson. Not all types are suitable for self-hypnosis. Why this is so will become clear as we investigate the different type of suggestions used by hypnotherapists. The special case of posthypnotic suggestions is left to the next chapter.

5.1 The three laws of suggestion At the heart of hypnosis is suggestibility, and central to the workings of suggestion are three laws. These three laws of suggestion were first outlined by Baudouin (see BOX 2). They are: 1. The law of concentrated attention 2. The law of reverse effect 3. The law of dominant effect. We shall now discuss each of these in turn. But before we do it is important to realise that these are not ‘laws’ in the sense used in the physical sciences. We do not know enough about the workings of the mind to establish such laws. What they are purported to be are strong tendencies that appear to have a lot of truth in them: they are hypotheses. They should be interpreted in this way and not as something that is asserting an absolute truth.

5.1.1 The law of concentrated attention This law asserts that whenever attention is concentrated on an idea then that idea tends to spontaneously become realised. The law itself can be broken down into three component parts: (a) concentrating one’s attention, (b) focusing the attention on an idea, and (c) the result of carrying out (a) and (b). The first part is rather ambiguous because it is not clear whether it means consciously concentrating one’s attention or unconsciously concentrating one’s attention. Hartland is of the view that it is the attention of the unconscious mind that we are trying to enlist. But when you pay attention to something, this usually means that you bring it into conscious awareness. In fact, consciousness and attention are very closely associated – especially in cognitive psychology. What is in the forefront of your consciousness is precisely that to which you are paying attention. To clarify the point we need to distinguish two type of attention: peripheral attention and focal attention. You may be reading a book and concentrating on the story – but you can also be aware that someone has just entered the room – you are peripherally aware that someone has entered the room. The principle is asserting that you must focus your attention on the idea, i.e., it must be in the forefront of your consciousness. To do this you

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must think about the idea, repeat any verbal suggestions that relate to it over and over again and see the idea from every point of view. In carrying out this operation you bring into the process not only your left hemisphere of the brain, but also your right. The fact that it is focally in your attention will mean that the idea will sink below your conscious mind and into your unconscious mind: it will pass from the left hemisphere of the brain into the right, and back again! The second part of the principle indicates that attention is focused on an idea. Why is this? An idea is not as well formulated as, say, an object. You can think about a chair by trying to see one in your mind’s eye that is familiar to you. In this case you are in fact retrieving a memory of a chair and bringing this into your consciousness. But you can also think about a chair in general, you can think about the ‘idea of a chair’: how different chairs look, the materials they are usually made of, the functions that they serve, etc. By concentrating on an idea, pictures and relationships form in the mind. These pictures and relationships are the essence of the right hemisphere of the brain. It is true that some of the relationships, such as logical relationships, are features of the left hemisphere of the brain, but in many respects ideas utilise both right and left hemispheres, with more emphasis on the right. The third part of the principle says that the idea ‘spontaneously tends to become realised’. No idea becomes spontaneously realised. What the principle is asserting is that if you focus on an idea sufficiently, then that idea will give rise to changes in your behaviour or your way of thinking. If you focus on the idea of being happy, then you will become happy: the idea will become realised. But there is nothing spontaneous or inevitable about this. You are not guaranteed either to become happy or happy immediately. The reason is that this principle alone is not sufficient for an idea to become realised. It is necessary, but not sufficient, for the idea to become realised. All that can be asserted is that there will be a tendency for it to become realised – given that other factors are favourable. What is not so clear in this principle is that when you focus your attention on an idea you bring into play both your conscious mind and your unconscious mind: both your left hemisphere and your right hemisphere of the brain. Even the scientist does this when grappling with a problem. The problem can be in the focus of attention but not yet solved. He or she may then, as Poincaré did when trying to solve a mathematical problem, forget about it for a time and suddenly the solution comes – in Poincaré’s case it was just as he was about to step on a bus! What appears to have happened is that the problem was processed further by the unconscious mind and once solved was thrown into conscious awareness. The solution could not have been derived without the initial focus and concentration. The idea had to be thought about in all its aspects first. The point about this example is that it is in relation to a mathematical idea. When the idea is about behaviour, then the likelihood of the idea becoming realised is greater. The reason for this we shall discuss later, but for the moment we can say it is because of the emotional content involved.

5.1.2 The law of reverse effect This law states that the harder one tries to do something the less successful one is likely to be. The most common everyday examples of this principle in operation are 1. Trying hard to get to sleep and being totally unsuccessful 2. Trying hard to remember a name, equally without success 3. Trying hard to play a good game of golf or tennis and making things worse.

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It is often a characteristic of dieting. The harder a person tries to diet the more they think about food and the more they eat. Why it is that trying too hard creates a reverse effect while trying, but not too hard, does not, is now known. However, it probably has something to do with how the two halves of the brain interrelate with each another. ‘Trying too hard’ implies that a conscious act is involved. One is consciously trying to get to sleep; one is trying consciously to remember a name; one is trying consciously to play tennis well. It is as if the conscious trying is interfering with the ‘natural’ process. It is reasonable to conjecture that what is taking place is a situation where the conscious trying is interfering with the unconscious workings of the right hemisphere of the brain. It is very much as if you are happily doing a job and then someone comes along and tries to tell you, very forcefully, how to do it better. Would you do it better? Probably not. This appears to be one of the major reasons why some people do not enter hypnosis although they may want to. They may want to so much that they try too hard. The trying too hard simply makes things worse and they do not enter hypnosis. Of course, this is not because they are not hypnotizable, but rather because they are trying too hard and interfering with the brain’s natural workings, which will quite naturally allow a person to enter into a state of hypnosis. This is especially true of a person engaging in self-hypnosis. We discussed this in section 9.3. How one determines to distinguish between concentrated attention and trying too hard is difficult to describe. But once a person has entered hypnosis on previous occasions and fails to do so on a subsequent occasion, it becomes possible to recognize when the principle of reverse effect appears to be the cause. When this happens, either you stop trying too hard, or else you abandon the attempt on this occasion. Before leaving the principle of reverse effect, it is worth mentioning the fact that it is possible for someone to take advantage of this ‘law’. Take, for example, a hypnotist who is attempting to get someone into a hypnotic state. The usual induction procedure is to attempt to get them to close their eyes; suggestions about tiredness and heaviness of the eyelids are usually employed to do this (see script #1). But suppose the law of reverse effect is operating and that the more a hypnotist suggests that the subject relax, the tenser they become. A hypnotist could then reverse the suggestions! The hypnotist might suggest that the subject tries to keep their eyes open, and that whatever suggestions are made their eyes will remain open. If the principle is truly operating, then they will do the opposite and close their eyes! This principle is in operation with arm rigidity (see script #18). In this deepening script, a hypnotist suggests to the subject that one of their arms is getting stiffer and stiffer and that when the person tries to bend the arm, the stiffer it will become. In other words, the act of trying to bend the arm makes it even straighter and stiffer. For the person engaging in self-hypnosis, they should either stop trying too hard or, as in the previous example, utilize it in order to achieve the desired outcome.

5.1.3 The law of dominant effect This principle states that a strong emotion will tend to replace a weaker one. This principle means that if a strong emotion is attached to a suggestion, then it is more likely that the suggestion will be effective. If we take two emotions, such as pleasure and a sense of

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danger, then the second is the stronger of the two. If a person is having a pleasurable experience and danger becomes imminent, then the emotion of danger will displace the emotion of pleasure. This can be utilized quite readily in suggestions. For instance, a hypnotist could simply suggest to a subject that they relax. They may do so. But if the hypnotist suggested to the subject that they were being messaged and were comfortable and relaxed, then they almost certainly would. The strongest emotion here is that of sensation and comfort. There are two reasons why attaching emotion to a suggestion will make it more effective. First, an emotion is felt immediately. There is no such thing as an emotion in the future, or a delayed emotion. Because of this, the suggestion to which it is attached also tends to be effective immediately. Second, an emotion involves the right hemisphere of the brain and, because of this, the suggestion gets more quickly assimilated by the unconscious mind. It is as if the link with the emotion allows the suggestion to pass from the left hemisphere of the brain and into the right hemisphere quickly and easily. Because of the importance played by emotion in suggestions it is worth commenting on it further. Emotion has two facets: first physiological (the bodily changes that occur when an emotion is felt); and second, behavioural (the changes in behaviour that are undertaken when an emotion is felt). Both these facets are utilized in hypnotherapy and can be utilized in selfhypnosis. When you become angry, your heart starts to beat faster, your breathing becomes deeper and quicker and you become flushed. One way to self-improvement is to ‘observe’ how your body responds to different emotions. One method is by imagery, and we develop this in detail in part III. But what are the emotions to be elicited? We can use Plutchik’s classification and distinguish eight primary emotions set out in a circular dimension, as shown in figure 5.1, where similar emotions are placed next to each other, Plutchik (1980).

Figure 5.1 Plutchik’s circular ordering of eight primary emotions

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Secondary emotions, according to Plutchik, can be represented by a combination of these primary emotions. Thus, shame is the combination of fear and disgust and love is the combination of joy and acceptance. Of course, this is just one approach to the nature of emotion, and there are many others. From our present point of view, what matters is that you become acquainted with your emotions. Once you have become acquainted with them, then it is possible to control them, if that is what you wish to do.

5.2 A critique of the laws We pointed out that the three laws of suggestion are really hypotheses and are therefore not absolute truths. Consider once again the first law: the law of concentrated attention. The emphasis of this law was that the more attention and concentration you placed on an idea the more likely (spontaneously) the idea would become realised. However, suggestion can be facilitated by distraction. When a person is concentrating on one thing, a suggestion about something else can pass into their unconscious more readily because resistance is at its lowest. Conscious attention, as we outlined in BOX 11, can only be directed at one thing at a time. You can switch your attention, but you can only pay conscious attention to one thing at any given moment. Now consider two suggestions, which we shall simply label as A and B. Suppose suggestion B is the one that deals with the particular problem a person has. The law of concentrated attention would suggest that you pay attention to B. But because you have B in your consciousness, you are also placing it in touch with your reality testing, and this may prevent the suggestion from ‘spontaneously’ being realised. On the other hand, if you are paying attention to A, then you cannot be paying attention to B. If B is suggested while you are paying attention to A, then B passes directly into your unconscious (with no reality testing) and becomes realised as a result. What applies to distraction also applies to stories and metaphors (see part III). The suggestion is buried in the story or in the metaphor and gets unnoticed at the conscious level by the listener, but is picked up by the unconscious. We need to make two observations about the alternative types of suggestion. First, we are not asserting that the ‘law’ of concentrated attention is wrong. All we are asserting is that as a hypothesis, it is true in many (if not most) circumstances. But there are occasions, which can be considered the exception to the rule, where an alternative type of suggestion is called for. The second law is certainly not true when applied to all circumstances. Training is all about putting in more effort. If the law were always true, then this would lead to lower performance! This is patently false. The examples usually cited to illustrate the law, and the ones we also used above (e.g., recalling a name, falling to sleep), could be put down to a misinterpretation. If you cannot recall a name, and the more you think about it the more illusive it becomes, means you are going about recall in the wrong way. Meumonists provide many techniques (tricks) for helping memory recall. Trying harder to go to sleep is simply applying a process that is incompatible with the process of going to sleep. The law should be interpreted is indicating that there are occasions (and probably not many) where too much conscious involvement in what you are trying to do is not the most suitable approach. By letting go, by not trying too hard, you bring into the process the unconscious mind that is more suitable to the task you are trying to accomplish. The third law states that attaching a strong emotion to a suggestion will more likely bring it

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about. It may bring about the desired result or it may have no effect or even the opposite effect. It is not so much having a strong emotion as have the right strong emotion. The hypothesis is a useful one, but it is important that the right emotion is attached to the suggestion for it to lead to the result that you want. All these reservations really illustrate that the laws are not laws in the scientific sense but rather hypotheses that have a tendency to hold in certain circumstances. The art is knowing the circumstances when they do hold, and to know how to change direction when they do not hold.

5.3 Other principles of hypnosis The principles of hypnosis follow quite naturally from the three ‘laws’ of suggestion. Hartland has stated the three principles as follows: 1. You should always couple an effect that you want to produce with one that the subject is actually experiencing at the moment. 2. It is always much easier to secure the acceptance of a positive suggestion than a purely negative one. 3. It is sometimes easier to secure the acceptance of a suggestion if it is coupled with an appropriate and strong emotion. The first principle is attempting to relate suggestion to an action. It is important to realize that an action causes an immediate response from the body and so if a suggestion is coupled with something that the subject is actually experiencing at the time, then it is more likely to be acted upon. To take a simple illustration, if a hypnotist was suggesting to a subject that their hand was becoming numb, then it is useful to stroke the hand at the same time. The sensation of touch directs the subject’s attention to the hand and gives immediate body responses. In self-hypnosis it is not always so easy to carry this coupling because it requires too much conscious effort. However, there are some simple actions. For instance, rather than just suggesting to yourself that you are getting deeper and deeper, it is possible to have your arms circling around one another and to suggest that as you go deeper and deeper then the circling will become quicker and quicker (script #19). What this, and other similar actions, does is establish a feedback mechanism. The circling gives some indication of the deepening. It is as if success is being registered by the circling action. As some success is being registered, so expectation of further success is enhanced and doubt reduced. The second principle is somewhat ambiguous. It means that a suggestion under hypnosis should be indicating a positive response rather than a negative one. To illustrate this let us suppose that you are attempting to get rid of a headache. A negative response is to suggest that the headache will disappear – either immediately or in so many minutes. A positive suggestion is one that displaces the feelings associated with a headache and, if strong enough, will replace it. Thus suggestions should go along the lines of feeling warm, secure, free from tension etc., and that as these feelings occur your head will become clearer and freer. One way to think of this principle is make suggestions in terms of adding rather than subtracting; of doing something rather than not doing something. Giving suggestions in the form of doing something rather than not doing something is very important. If I said to you don’t think about a teapot, then you must think of a teapot first. In other words, the mind cannot cope with not thinking about something. Don’t think about an elephant will immediately bring the image of an elephant into your consciousness. Suggestions, therefore, like ‘don’t smoke’ or ‘don’t eat chocolate biscuits’ will most likely do the very opposite. It will reinforce your

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desire to smoke and will reinforce your desire to have a chocolate biscuit. The principle is ambiguous only to the extent that it would suggest that positive suggestions are more powerful than negative ones. This is not necessarily true. Negative suggestions, coupled usually with the imagination, are very powerful. What the principle is saying is that to overcome an already negative situation you require a powerful positive force. The more powerful the negative situation is the more powerful needs to be the positive force. The third principle we have already elaborated on. Emotion is immediate. If a suggestion can be coupled with the appropriate emotion, then it is more likely to be successful. Emphasis is undoubtedly on the ‘appropriateness’ of the associated emotion. Suppose, for example, that you are obese and want to lose weight. You may be carrying out suggestions to the effect that you will lose weight or that you will eat less. If the suggestions were simply verbal, and nothing more, then it is unlikely that they will be successful. What is required is some form of emotion. It is usual in situations of this kind to employ aversion therapy. The emotion called on is either nausea (possibly in the form of vomiting) or revulsion and disgust – revulsion at the sight of someone obese and disgust at yourself for becoming obese. For therapists who like using aversion therapy (and not all do), they argue that there is no point in giving yourself suggestions to the effect of losing weight and simultaneously not having an aversion of being and looking fat. Aversion therapy, however, is rather negative in its approach. It emphasizes the negative aspects of the way you are. Alternative therapies stress the positive; they stress how you would like to be. How slim you would like to be, the clothes you could wear if you were slimmer, the many things you could then do which you have stopped doing because of your weight and how you look. Even these suggestions, however, should be coupled with strong emotions if they are going to succeed. These three principles apply to hypnosis in general, but they equally apply to self-hypnosis. The difficulty encountered by the self-hypnotist is coupling the suggestions with actions and emotions without disturbing the hypnotic state. This becomes easier with practice. It is useful to give careful thought to the suggestions before entering a trance. Ensure that they are phrased in a positive way and that they add rather than subtract. Most particularly avoid any phrase like, ‘don’t do this or that’.

5.4 Positive and negative suggestions We pointed out in the last section that positive suggestions can be thought of as ‘adding to’: of doing something. Negative suggestions can be likened to ‘subtracting from’: of not doing something. Much has been written on the power of positive thinking. Why is this? Part of the reason, in this writer’s view, is that our upbringing readily stresses the negative. From an early age we are repeatedly told what we can and cannot do – with the greater emphasis on what we cannot do! This readily leads to suggestions in later life like, “Don’t eat fattening foods”, “Don’t smoke it’s bad for your health”, “I will not worry about such-and-such”, etc. But such negative suggestions bring the very problem into conscious awareness and so you pay attention to it. The mind simply cannot deal with the native. If I said, “Don’t think of your car” or “Don’t think of the colour red” the mind must first bring up the image. These simple examples illustrate the way forward. If I want a person not to think of their car, then the easiest way is to get them to think of something else: anything else. The same applies with not thinking about the colour red. What is occurring, of course, is directing attention elsewhere.

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People often do not know how negative their thinking really is, and so the following exercise is very useful to undertake. A day of being positive Take a particular day and decide to make absolutely no negative statements or suggestions either to yourself or to anyone else. If you do make such a negative statement or suggestion do not (notice the native) be critical of yourself, simply observe yourself doing it. That is the essence of this exercise: to become familiar with how negative you are. Pay attention to your own selftalk, which can be the most negative of all. It is simply not enough to make a suggestion positive. It must also be phrased in a way as to empower. To empower a suggestion is to give it emotional content and as such the suggestion is more likely to have the required response. One of the most positive and empowering suggestions was the one used by Mohamed Ali, “I am the greatest”. Said repeatedly and with utter conviction, this positive suggestion has tremendous power. Take a simpler desired response – that of loosing weight. Compare the following three alternative suggestions. 1. Negative: “I will not eat fattening foods.” 2. Positive but not empowering: “I am going to diet” 3. Positive and empowering: “I will eat only the right foods in the right quantities so I can become all that I wish to become.” Although the last is longer, it is both positive and empowering. The empowering aspect comes from stress on ‘becoming all that you wish to become’. Also not that this is rather vague. But it allows the unconscious mind to work on directing you behaviour to achieve the desired goal in the way that it considers best for you. Another aspect of suggestion should also be taken into account. This is best considered first in the context of heterohypnosis. A suggestion may be both positive and empowering but it may also be phrased in a very authoritarian way. For example, “You will eat only the right foods and in small amount so that you will therefore loose weight.” This authoritarianism may be enough for the suggestion to be rejected. Although there are occasions when an authoritarian approach is called for, in general it is much more acceptable to phrase the suggestions in a more permissive way. For example, “By eating the right kind of foods in the right amounts you will find that your weight simply drops away.” What about self-hypnosis? Self-hypnosis involves making suggestions to yourself. There is every reason to follow the same practice in order to make your suggestions successful. Put simply, your suggestions should have three characteristics. They should be 1. Positive 2. Empowering 3. Permissive The more you incorporate these characteristics into your suggestions, the more likely they will have the desired outcome.

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5.5 Direct and indirect suggestions Direct suggestions are simple, clear and explicitly state what is the desired response. There is no ambiguity or subtleness in direct suggestions. If a hypnotist desires a client to close their eyes, and if they are using direct suggestion, then they may simply say, “close your eyes”. No ambiguity or confusion is involved in such a suggestion. Direct suggestions are usually part of the induction process. “Relax all the muscles of your body”, “Let yourself go” and “Sink deeper and deeper into trance” are all direct suggestions. Although there may be some ambiguity on what is meant by “let yourself go” or “sink deeper and deeper”, they are nonetheless very direct. They can, of course, be combined with a permissive style, such as “I would like you to let yourself go, to relax fully and completely.” The suggestion “sink deeper and deeper” has overtones of being authoritarian and could be construed to mean, “you will go deeper and deeper” as if in a form of command. On the other hand, saying, “I would like you to go deeper and deeper” allows the individual to choose whether or not to go deeper and deeper. The choice is left up to the person being hypnotized to decide whether or not they comply. Looking back at the scripts provided in earlier chapters will readily show that many of the suggestions are direct. This is not surprising. Scripts and tape recordings need to be simple and direct. Ambiguity is not recommended for such medium since those providing the scripts and tapes have no control over the situation. Accordingly, these usually involve very direct suggestions. They also involve directly the problem the client has. Many clients, however, do not respond (or do not like) direct suggestions. In such circumstances a more indirect method is called for. This can be accomplished in heterohypnosis. The hypnotist can go about giving very indirect suggestions, sometimes embodied in stories or metaphors. We shall discuss both of these later. But consider a simple example. Suppose a hypnotherapist wants their client to relax. They could, of course, give direct suggestions: “Your body is becoming very, very relaxed. Every muscles in your body is relaxing… and as you relax your are going deeper and deeper into trance.” Clearly these are a set of direct suggestions. But some individuals simply do not like such direct suggestions. In this case a more indirect approach is called for. This is where imagery comes in. The hypnotherapist may suggest to their client, “You are in a boat, all nicely padded, which is drifting down a river. You are not rowing; the current of the boat is taking you down the river. It is all very relaxing. You can see the clouds up above; the sun is glistening through the leaves of the trees on the bank; you can hear the birds and feel the breeze on your face. Nothing matters except letting go and sinking down and down into a deep and relaxing trance state.” This is much more indirect. More than that, it calls on the individual’s experiences and involvement. The problem with indirect suggestion for the self-hypnotist is that it is limited. Certainly, the indirect suggestion that involves imagery can readily be utilized. However, more subtle indirect suggestions are ruled out simply because the self-hypnotist knows what they are doing and the implied suggestion that is being used. If you yourself are making the suggestion, then it is simply impossible to embed it in a series of suggestions where the (implied) meaning is not apparent. The very act of consciously thinking up the suggestion rules out this possibility. Not all is lost, however. The important point is making a suggestion in such a way that you get the desired response. If you cannot use indirect suggestion in an obvious way, you can still use imagery that leads to the desired response.

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We shall discuss indirect suggestion a little more in the next section since it is an important feature of Ericksonian hypnosis.

5.6 Ericksonian hypnotherapy and suggestions Many hypnotherapists, especially in the United States, consider the only type of hypnotherapy is Ericksonian. This acts as a straightjacket. Throughout history, to consider anything from just one school of thought is doomed to failure. A school of thought simply gives one perspective of a problem. There is nothing immutable in the approach since there are no laws governing human nature that we are presently aware of. There are tendencies and good hypotheses, but there are no laws. A good, and extreme example of this is behaviourism. This school of thought considered the only thing that is acceptable for study is that which can be observed. It was an outgrowth of positivism in philosophy in which verification was an essential ingredient. In philosophy this ruled out any debate over the existence of god, since this could not be verified. In psychology, behaviourism ruled out any discussion of the unconscious mind, since this could not be observed. Accordingly, in the heyday of behaviourism, hypnosis was little if at all studied. But the same extreme thinking is taking place in the area of hypnotherapy. Ericksonian hypnosis has much going for it, and we shall discuss this later, but it is only one approach – one school of thought – for the study of hypnosis. A major feature of Ericksonian hypnosis is the understanding and utilization of a whole variety of different types of suggestions. These are quite numerous. A fairly detailed account of them will be found in Erickson and Rossi (1979). Here we shall not attempt to define them. The following table just gives examples. We shall be brief, largely because the uses of many of these types of suggestions only work in heterohypnosis but not in self-hypnosis. Even so, some also apply to self-hypnosis. Part of our aim in this section, therefore, is to explain the variety of Ericksonian suggestions and to highlight those that will be useful for the self-hypnotist, as shown in table 5.1. The list is by no means exhaustive, but it does indicate the variety of suggestions that can be used in hypnosis. Most, however, only make sense in heterohypnosis: as for example, implications, double binds and truisms. For the self-hypnotist, since you are the one making the suggestions, then you will be aware of the implication, of the double bind or the nature of truism. You will know that you are covering all eventualities when you say to yourself, “In a moment either my right hand or my left hand will lift up; or perhaps my left hand or my right hand will develop a heaviness and press down; or maybe neither of my hands will move.” This does not mean you should not use some of these suggestions, and it may be difficult to avoid them anyway, but it does mean that they are likely to have less impact than they would in heterohypnosis. Some of the types of suggestions, however, are useful for the self-hypnotist. Not knowing and not doing is an example. “I don’t have to go into trance unless I want to” will be just as effective in self-hypnosis as it would be in heterohypnosis. Also apposition of opposites, such as “The more I try to rise from the chair the more my body will sink down and down into the chair and the deeper and deeper I will become” – which also involves a compound suggestion. Open-ended suggestions are also very useful for the self-hypnotist. For example, “I will become more assertive. This may occur tomorrow, the next day or in the days to

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Table 5.1 Examples of Ericksonian Suggestions Name Accessing questions Ambiguous Apposition of opposites

Compound suggestions

Confusion Covering all eventualities

Double binds

Implication

Interpersonal Metaphors

Not knowing and not doing

Open-ended

Paradoxical Presuppositions Truisms

Examples Can you recall how very soothing it is to lie in the warm sun? One can be quite iron-willed and hard headed in such matters The more you try to rise from the chair the more your body will sink down and down into the chair The more you try to bend your arm the stiffer it will become As you relax so you will go deeper and deeper As your breathing slows down so your mind and body will become more and more synchronized. You may choose not to remember, or you may choose just to forget, but choosing to forget is your choice in the same way as choosing not to remember… In a moment either your right hand or your left hand will lift up; or perhaps your left hand or your right hand will develop a heaviness and press down; or maybe neither of your hands will move. Soon you will be dealing with your weight problem. You may first gain weight, or you may lose weight or you may even remain at the same weight as you begin to eat the right foods in the right quantities. Would you like to go into trance now or later? Would you like to go into trance standing up or sitting down? Would you like to go into trance with your eyes open or your eyes closed? Would you like to experience a light, medium or deep trance state? Would you prefer to get over your problem with a rapid but more intense method, or with a gentle method that takes a little longer? Do you want to get over your problem this week or next or perhaps a little longer time is required? Some people like to go into trance quickly while others like to go into trance slowly. What colour is the flower (or object)? When you are aware of the bells, just nod your head. Which one of your hands feels lighter? You can begin to wonder which one of your arms your unconscious mind will cause a development of lightness, and begin to raise. The numbness will spread slowly at first. Have you ever been in a trance before? A deep thinker, that is one who thinks deeply, can evolve a deep understanding of the complexities of suggestion. You are observing a cheetah in the African bush; it is stalking its prey. It focuses on the gazelle it wishes to kill. It picks up speed, fully focused on the one gazelle; it neither feels the wind on its back or the ground beneath its feet. It is fully focused on it prey. [Focusing metaphor] You don’t have to go into trance unless you want to. It isn’t necessary to go deep into trance to experience its benefits. It isn’t important for you to know what your unconscious mind is thinking. In the coming months you will find a solution to your problem. It may be tomorrow, it may be next week or in the weeks after that. In a moment your arm will rise, but you may not know which arm this will be. We all have potentials we are unaware of, and we usually don’t know how they will be expressed. You can take all the time you like in the next minute to complete your inner work. In a moment you will raise either your right arm or your left. How pleasantly surprised you will be when you go into trance. Most people enjoy the pleasant feeling of the sun on their skin. You already know that ... You already know how to walk. Some people like to go into trance quickly while others like to go into trance slowly. Sooner or later everyone learns to walk. There was a time when you didn’t know how to walk.

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come.” Not only is this open-ended but it presupposes that it will occur; it is just a question of when it will occur. What matters for the self-hypnotist is not so much how to classify suggestions, but rather to become aware of those that best suit your psychology. If you are a ‘control freak’ then openended suggestions will not be to your liking. On the other hand, suggestions of apposition of opposites might suit you very well. There is an art here of establishing which type of suggestions you best respond to. Of course to establish this you will need to try out a variety of types. Then you can discard those that seem to have little impact and utilize those that do.

Reading Erickson, M.H. and Rossi, E.L. (1979). Hypnotherapy. An Exploratory Casebook. Irvington Publishers, Inc., New York. Yapko, M. (2nd ed. 1990). Trancework. An Introduction to the Practice of Clinical Hypnonsis. Brunner/Mazel Publishers, New York.

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Chapter 6 The Nervous System

Summary A technical chapter giving an overview of the nervous system. It highlights the ‘fight-and-flight’ response and the ‘relaxation response’. It covers features of the autonomic nervous system, distinguishing the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. It also provides a brief discussion of the brain’s structure and functions.

CHAPTER 6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM In order to appreciate the phenomenon of hypnosis at a more fundamental level, we must outline some of the more technical aspects of the nervous system. Some readers may consider this material either too technical or they prefer to consider it later. One can liken the relevance of this material to driving a car and knowing what is under the bonnet. For a number of individuals knowing just that there is an engine under the bonnet and they need to check the oil and the water occasionally is all that is relevant in driving a car. For these individuals Sections 6.1-6.3 are relevant. For other individuals they want to know how the car goes. This is especially true for individuals who want to repair their own car when it breaks down. For these individuals this chapter is highly relevant. The history already outlined in chapter 1 quite clearly indicates that hypnosis, whether heterohypnosis or self-hypnosis, has to do with suggestion. But how does suggestion change the mental state of the person receiving the suggestions? What changes take place? Are these changes purely changes in consciousness or are they physiological? It is quite clear that some change takes place when a person goes into hypnosis. Positron emission topography (PET) scans have clearly demonstrated that this is so. In order to fully understand what this change is we need to lay the groundwork in terms of the nervous system, because it is quite clear that the change must in large part take place here. The purpose of this chapter is two fold. First, the intention is to lay down some of the more technical aspects of the nervous system that are likely to have a bearing on our understanding of the hypnotic state. It will present, in simple terms, what is presently known about certain aspects of the nervous system. This field is in a state of dramatic change and the new discoveries taking place are providing new insights into the brain, its function and its effects. The second purpose is more conjectural and attempts to relate this new information to our knowledge of hypnosis. It must be appreciated that our knowledge of the nervous system, and especially the brain, is very inadequate. At the same time, we do not know what hypnosis is. It follows, therefore, that any statements made about the importance of certain organs or brain functions in relation to hypnosis must be taken as conjecture on the part of the author. We begin with an overview of the nervous system followed by a discussion of the peripheral nervous system. In section 6.3 we turn to the important topic of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system and how this leads to a distinction between positive and negative hypnosis. Section 6.4 outlines our present knowledge of the brain, emphasising three aspects: (a) the brain’s lateral structure; (b) the brain’s division into right and left hemispheres; and (c) the brain’s electrical activity. The final section briefly outlines the new techniques of brain imagining. Although this chapter is somewhat technical in nature it will be found to be very important for most of our discussions of hypnosis. We conclude with the latest research into brain imaging.

6.1 An overview of the nervous system The chief purpose of the nervous system is to send messages to the muscles in order to make the body move efficiently, i.e., to move in a unitary fashion and with the minimum of discomfort. Simply maintaining posture requires an enormous processing of information by

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the nervous system. The nervous system also monitors the environment in terms of light, sound, smell and feel. It also monitors gravity and the earth’s magnetic field. All this monitoring we are usually unaware of. Humans have developed specialised receptors for monitoring the environment. Eyes for capturing light, ears to capture sound, the nose for capturing smell, and the skin for monitoring touch, pressure and vibration. These receptors report information to the brain. The response of the organism to this information we call behaviour. Even at this stage it is important to realise that some information is consciously processed while other information is processed at the unconscious level. Similarly, some behaviour is conscious while other behaviour is unconscious. Furthermore, some information is given priority because we pay attention to it. Other information, such as pain, demands our attention whether we wish to give it or not in order for the body to preserve or maintain itself. The nervous system, although very interrelated, can be sub-divided as shown in figure 6.1. It is a central feature of the nervous system to unify the internal environment of the body. But it is also a feature of the system to do the same for the external environment in which it finds itself. The monitoring of internal states and the monitoring of the external environment in which it finds itself will be found to be very important in our study. But the body requires a constant supply of energy. The nervous system monitors the body’s energy and, if necessary, elicits behaviour to correct any shortfall. But because the body operates through the body the nervous system also carries out the function of monitoring the state of the body and initiates action to protect it.

Figure 6.1 Structure of the Nervous System As a person grows and matures so does his or her nervous system. There is now evidence that nerves can grow and develop later in life – a view not accepted until very recently (see Czerner (2001)). Furthermore, as new levels of experience are learnt so are new connections formed in the nervous system. The one requires the other. The nervous system is sub-divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The purpose of the peripheral nervous system is to relay information about internal

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and external environments to the central nervous system, where it is integrated and evaluated. This evaluation is done in relation to both current and past events. Once evaluated, a response is initiated. This can be a decision, the formation of a memory, or simply an action. The peripheral nervous system itself is sub-divided into the somatic system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic system carries messages to the brain about the body in relation to its environment. The autonomic nervous system in turn is sub-divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The former is initiated by changes that are detected as going on in the external environment, while the latter is activated by changes that are detected as going on in the internal environment. The nerves of the peripheral nervous system link up to the spinal cord. This is the main centre for conducting information up to the brain. The spinal cord is also where reflex actions take place. The brain itself lies at the top of the spinal cord. The structure of the brain is usefully divided into three concentric layers, which form a lateral division of the brain. These are: 1. the central core brain 2. the limbic system, and 3. the cerebrum. In evolutionary terms, this is also the way the brain has developed. The core brain and limbic system control all reflexes while the cerebrum, which developed much later in evolution, and is contained only in higher vertebrates, is the centre of nonreflexive mental processes, e.g., thinking and reasoning. Of special importance in the core brain is the reticular activating system (commonly called the RAS), which acts as mediator between the lower brain and the cortex. The cerebrum (sometimes referred to as the cerebral cortex, or simply the cortex for short) itself is composed of two hemispheres, called the left and right hemispheres, which are separated by a large bundle of nerves, called the corpus callosum.

6.2 The peripheral nervous system The peripheral nervous system is composed of two sub-systems: the autonomic system and the somatic system. The somatic system carries messages to and from the sense receptors, muscles and the surface of the body. It is this system that makes us aware of pain, pressure and temperature changes. The nerves of the somatic system also carry all involuntary movements of muscles that deal with balance and posture. In other words, the somatic system relays information to the brain about the body in relation to the environment in which if finds itself. The second main element of the peripheral nervous system is the autonomic nervous system. However, this acts together with the neuroendocrine system. The autonomic nervous system, it should be appreciated, is called this for historical reasons. In the history of anatomy, the autonomic nervous system was so called because it was considered to be automatic – and as such outside conscious control. However, because it is part of the nervous system that establishes a unity, then it can be brought under conscious control to some degree by the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous system consists of the nerves that connect internal organs to the central nervous system and regulate especially glands, respiration, heart rate and digestion. Furthermore, the autonomic nervous system plays a major role in emotion. Although the autonomic nervous system is not essential for life, in the sense that large portions can be removed with only little functional impairment, when an organism is exposed to stressful situations then any absences can lead to mal-adaptive behaviour. The reason for this is not hard to see. The essential function of the autonomic nervous system is to modulate

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the activity of its target organs so that they respond appropriately to changing external environmental conditions. If this modulation either cannot be performed, or can only be partially performed, then the response does not occur or only partially occurs or is not a suitable response. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two parts: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The system as a whole controls the glands and the smooth muscles that is to say the muscles of the heart, blood vessels and the stomach (as distinct from those muscles connected to the skeleton). The sympathetic nervous system is composed of two main chains of nerves on either side of the spinal column from which connections are made to various organs in the chest, stomach, and lower abdomen. The parasympathetic nervous system is composed largely of two parts. One part has nerve fibres arising from the upper part of the brain stem and a second part has nerves emanating from the lower region of the brain stem. About eighty percent or more of the parasympathetic nerve fibres are in the upper portion that passes to the chest and stomach. In appreciating the different roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems it is important to realise that the sympathetic nervous system is initiated by changes which are detected as going on in the external environment. On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system is activated by changes that are detected as going on in the internal environment, a distinction of importance for hypnosis. There are some significant morphological differences between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems, but from our point of view one of the major differences is the fact that the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system are located away from their target receptors and, on the contrary, are often located parallel to the spinal cord, as indicated above. The result is that the postganglionic axons of the sympathetic nervous system are quite long. Furthermore, because of the long postganglionic axon, cells of the sympathetic nervous stem tend to receive information from several different layers of the spinal cord. The importance of this is that the activity of the sympathetic nervous system will not be confined to a single organ but, on the contrary, will have widespread effects. It produces high levels of arousal and prepares the organism for ‘fight-or-flight’ (see Section 6.2.1). In particular, high stress situations require the simultaneous and coordinated responses of many different visceral muscles and glands. On the other hand, the parasympathetic ganglia are located close to the peripheral parasympathetic receptors, and as such they have short postganglionic axons that spread into the particular organ. Neural connections, therefore, within the parasympathetic nervous system are quite specific. This means that parasympathetic activity tends to be specific – although this should not be taken too far. There is some association between various parasympathetic responses. For example, salivary, gastric and pancreatic secretions often occur together. However, these are limited in comparison with the sympathetic nervous system. Although something of an over-exaggeration, it is possible to think of the two systems as influencing the body in opposite ways. When each system is stimulated the result is to excite some organs and to have inhibitory effects on others. More significantly, when sympathetic stimulation tends to excite a particular organ, parasympathetic stimulation tends to inhibit it. It is the case, however, that most organs are largely controlled by one or other of the two systems and so, in general, the two systems do not oppose each other. But even this is too

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simplistic. In a number of cases the two systems act together, and in still other cases they act in sequence. The interrelationship between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system is not yet fully understood. What have been established are the effects on various organs of excitation of each of the systems. When a person is emotionally excited, the sympathetic nervous system will bring about an increase in heart rate, dilation of the arteries of the muscles of the heart, constriction of the arteries of the skin and digestive organs, so leading to perspiration and the increase in emotional arousal. On the other hand, when the parasympathetic nervous system is aroused the pupils contract, the heart rate slows down, breathing slows down (as constriction of the bronchi takes place) and the skin dilates. Scientists are presently coming to a greater understanding of the workings of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as their knowledge of neurotransmitters increases. We cover this in Section 6.2.2.

6.2.1 Fight-or-flight response and relaxation response The ‘fight-or-flight’ response is well known and well documented but its opposite, the ‘relaxation response’ appears far less well known and less well understood. In this section we shall consider both responses together, concentrating particularly on the physiological aspects, and referring to them as the ‘stress response’ and the ‘relaxation response’ respectively. Under the stress response there is typically an increase in blood pressure, heart rate and breathing; an increased blood flow to the muscles; and an increase in body metabolism. All these reactions prepare us to either fight or escape. Today, however, the stress response is not just brought on by imminent danger but most commonly by a need for some sudden behavioural adjustment. This has two important implications. First, it is brought on under many and varied circumstances. Second, the physiological changes that are associated with it tend not to be neutralized, and so the cumulated stresses can lead to extreme problems of heart attacks and strokes. Benson (The Relaxation Response, 1975) argues just as there is a stress response that switches on appropriate bodily responses, so there is a relaxation response that switches off these same bodily responses. It is typically opposite that of the stress response and reduces blood pressure, heart rate and breathing; reduces blood flow to the muscles; and decreases body metabolism. Although the stress response is readily switched on (being instinctive) by everyday needs of behaviour adjustment, the same is not true of the relaxation response. It appears that we need to learn the relaxation response and apply it consciously. Benson argues that the relaxation response has always existed and is well known in Eastern cultures, and in some Western religious practices. A main part of the work undertaken by Benson and his team has been to develop techniques for eliciting the relaxation response. He summarizes them as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Place yourself in a quiet environment Repeat a word or phrase over and over again Adopt a passive attitude Adopt a comfortable position

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Of these, he rates the third as the most important. However, these same conditions are required for hypnotic induction. But what initiates the stress response? It is the hypothalamus, which lies at the centre of the brain. If the hypothalamus is repeatedly activating the stress response, then a higher blood pressure becomes the norm and the individual develops permanent hypertension. When the stress response is turned on the sympathetic nervous system is activated. As part of this reaction there is an increased secretion of specific hormones - namely, adrenalin (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). It is the secretion of epinephrine that leads to increased blood pressure, heart rate and body metabolism. More important is that all body responses occur in a coordinated fashion and simultaneously, being orchestrated by the hypothalamus. The relaxation response quietens the sympathetic nervous system according to Benson. It signals a reduction in the production of epinephrine and norepinephrine and so reduces blood pressure. What is not mentioned by Benson, which is somewhat surprising, is any affect the relaxation response has on the parasympathetic nervous system. Table 6.1 Physiological Changes of the Relaxation Response Different Techniques Eliciting the Physiologic Changes of the Relaxation Response Physiologic Measurement Oxygen Consumption

Respiratory Rate

Heart Rate

Alpha Waves

Blood Pressure

Muscle Tension

Transcendental Mediation

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Increases

Decreases*

Not Measured

Zen and Yoga

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Increases

Decreases*

Not Measured

Autogenic Training

Not Measured

Decreases

Decreases

Increases

Inconclusive Results

Decreases

Progressive Relaxation

Not Measured

Not Measured

Not Measured

Not Measured

Inconclusive

Decreases

Hypnosis with Suggested Deep Relaxation

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Not Measured

Inconclusive Results

Not Measured

Sentic Cycles

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Not Measured

Not Measured

Not Measured

Technique

* In patients with elevated blood pressure.

The work on biofeedback convincingly demonstrates that man can control his autonomic nervous system: that he can control his involuntary responses. But such control over the autonomic nervous system had been recognised, accepted and utilized by Eastern meditation techniques for centuries. Biofeedback experiments only provided scientific evidence of such control to the satisfaction of Western scientists. It was in investigating the responses of Transcendental Meditation (TM) that researches realized that the responses they were observing were part of an integrated response that was opposite to that of the stress response. They also realized that this response was not unique to TM. Certainly what the responses were showing was a decrease in the activity of the sympathetic nervous system.

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The coordinated responses of the relaxation response had been demonstrated to be a result of the hypothalamus, where a different part is active from that which elicits the stress response. This was demonstrated by Walter Hess and his work on the brain of cats, in which he stimulated different parts of the hypothalamus. It appears reasonable that both the stress response and the relaxation response should be under the control of the same organ. But a number of techniques appear to elicit the same physiological changes as the relaxation response, of which hypnosis is just one, as shown in Table 6.1 (Benson (1975), Table 2) Benson argues that the relaxation response is an altered state of consciousness: it is an altered state because we do not normally experience it. More significantly, however, is that because we do not normally experience it, we must elicit the change of state by a deliberate conscious act. In the West the conscious act of creating this altered state has usually been through religious contemplation. In our discussion the point has been repeatedly made that although the stress response is readily activated by everyday situations, this is not true of the relaxation response. The relaxation response must be consciously activated. The reason why this may be true is because of the way society has developed. Situations that may activate this response are ‘frowned on’ or considered unacceptable. Taking 15 minutes off work to activate the relaxation response would be treated as shirking or laziness in modern society. In other situations it is treated as being self-centred. If one considers the four techniques listed above, no matter how simple they are, they do not occur as part of our everyday living. On the other hand, our everyday living activates the stress response extremely frequently. The conclusion we draw is that if we wish to activate the relaxation response then we must incorporate the techniques for doing so into our every-day situation. Furthermore, only by practising it can it be elicited more readily.

6.2.2 Neurotransmitters and the autonomic nervous system In the autonomic nervous system information is transmitted from one neuron to another by means of neurotransmitters that pass from one neuron to the next at the synaptic cleft, as shown in figure 6.2. Primarily two substances mediate this synaptic transmission (a) acetylcholine and (b) norepinephrine. In both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, the transmitter at the preganglion synapses is acetylcholine. For the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons the only transmitter is acetylcholine. Although both substances occur in the postganlionic sympathetic neurons, the most important transmitter substance is norepinephrine. Of particular importance to the sympathetic nervous system is epinephrine (adrenaline). This excites or inhibits various peripheral organs. When the adrenal gland is stimulated by sympathetic activity, it secretes epinephrine into the blood that quickly reaches many sympathetic target organs and so creates quick changes there - most especially raising heartbeat, increasing blood pressure, and increasing blood flow to the muscles, brain and liver. It should not be thought that a particular neurotransmitter has only one response on target organs. The same neurotransmitter may excite one target organ but inhibit another. For example, epinephrine causes the bronchial muscles to relax but the pulmonary perivascular muscles to constrict. The reason for this is because the response of an organ is not solely dependent on the substance transmitted but also on the receptors - of which there can be many kinds in the different organs. Thus, more of one type of receptor will lead to inhibition,

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while more of another will lead to excitation as a response to the same neurotransmitter. What this does, especially for the sympathetic nervous system, is to provide a much more varied set of responses. It was this research which led to the question that if opiates act on the brain then there must be opiate receptors. It was indeed discovered that the brain had specific receptors for opiates. Once this was discovered it was readily hypothesised that there must, then, be natural opiates in the brain too. In 1975 it was discovered that the brain generated a natural opiate that was named enkephalin. There are now known to be a number of different kinds of enkephalins. But soon another type of opiate was discovered, which were called endorphins. (Now endorphin is used to mean any endogenous body material that has morphine-like qualities. Enkephalins are a subset of endorphins.) There are now known to be many endorphins, and they are distinguished by having prefixes alpha, beta and gamma. Enkephalins and, more generally, endorphins are neuropeptide transmitters which have been found to be present not only at the synaptic vesicles, but in other parts of the body where they act as hormones and tend to be under the control of the hypothalamus. Endorphins tend to be released during acupuncture and during hypnotic suggestion for pain relief.

Figure 6.2 Synapse

6.3 The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and hypnosis So far we have been fairly factual in our account and have made little reference to hypnosis. Now let me turn to some conjectures in the light of the discussion so far. It must be emphasized, however, that these are conjectures on the part of the author. In the first chapter we noted the difference of opinion between the Salpêtrière and the Nancy School. The work at the Salpêtrière was on schizophrenics. Such subjects are usually

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Figure 6.3 Main Brain Structures

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emotionally aroused, can create catatonic states, and show general hysterical symptoms associated with a highly activated sympathetic nervous system. When the sympathetic nervous system is very aroused the body takes on a ‘fight-or-flight’ condition (see Section 6.2.1). Action is almost reflexive and spontaneous. This is not surprising from the remarks we have made above. The postganglionic axon run parallel and close to the spinal cord, and it is within the spinal cord that the reflex arc is formed, bypassing the brain and giving rise to immediate action. In other words, when the sympathetic nervous system is highly aroused, conscious thought processes are largely bypassed. But this is one of the main requirements for inducing hypnosis, although by no means the only one. The induction of hypnosis by Mesmer under the name of animal magnetism had all the same features. His dramatic entry, his arrangement of individuals in a circle with men and women alternating, his requirement of their thighs touching to increase the flow of magnetism, etc, all lead to an aroused sympathetic nervous system. On top of this was an expectation that things would happen. This expectation was based partly on what Mesmer himself expected and partly on what the patients expected they should do (no doubt having heard what others had done). It should be recalled from our earlier discussion that the sympathetic nervous system is initiated by changes which are going on in the external environment. The induction of hypnosis at the Salpêtrière and by Mesmer was clearly part of the external environment and as such the patient was responding to this. On the other hand, the Nancy School followed the procedures laid down by Braid. His method involved quiet repose and slow breathing, amongst other things. But it should be clear from our discussions that what Braid’s method is doing is to activate the parasympathetic nervous system. It is an activation of the ‘relaxation response’ outlined in Section 6.2.1. Although the Nancy School involved suggestion, what the suggestion was doing was getting the individual to relax and to direct the patient’s attention to the internal workings of their body. Their breathing, their heart beat, and so on. But again it is important to note that the parasympathetic nervous system is activated by changes that are detected as going on in the internal environment. But getting the patient to concentrate on their breathing or their heartbeat is important from another point of view in terms of the way the parasympathetic nervous system works. We made the point that the parasympathetic nervous system acts far more specifically than the sympathetic nervous system (with its much smaller postganglionic axons). We also made the point that it mainly affects the chest and stomach. Concentration on slow rhythmic breathing or on the heartbeat will, therefore, activate the parasympathetic nervous system. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system means that the reflex arc comes into action, which is why the brain is bypassed, and why suggestions made in this state are often not consciously processed. But what is the equivalent within the parasympathetic nervous system? There is no equivalent to the reflex arc in the spinal cord! There is no point because the nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system operate more specifically. However, as more areas of the parasympathetic nervous system become active and the body relaxes and the brain begins to monitor more explicitly the body’s internal state, so it pays less attention to suggestions made to it. As we shall note shortly, what happens is that as the parasympathetic nervous system becomes more activated so there is less need for the brain to bring the cortex into action – and it is the active cortex that inhibits hypnotic induction. What seems to be happening, therefore, is that when the parasympathetic nervous system is

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activated then it also appears to be the case that the conscious mind is bypassed. Once the conscious mind is bypassed, suggestions will be responded to more directly. What is clear from our discussion so far, however, is that the induction of hypnosis undertaken by activating the parasympathetic nervous system is likely to be much slower than activating the sympathetic nervous system. This should not be surprising from our analysis. The sympathetic nervous system works on many parts of the body simultaneously while the parasympathetic nervous system is much more selective. The sympathetic nervous system utilizes the body’s natural reflex while there is no equivalent for the parasympathetic nervous system. In this book we shall define negative hypnosis as suggestions made in the context in which the sympathetic nervous system is very active; and define positive hypnosis as suggestions made in the context in which the parasympathetic nervous system is very active. This distinction illustrates that what matters in hypnotic induction is not the suggestions per se, but rather the context in which the suggestions are made. More specifically, whether the suggestions are made while the sympathetic nervous system is aroused (negative hypnosis) or whether the suggestions are made when the parasympathetic nervous system is aroused (positive hypnosis). It should be noted here that it does not matter what the suggestion is, it can have the same effect regardless of which nervous system is activated. What may differ, however, is how long lasting the effect of the suggestion is. But we shall return to this later.

6.4 The brain The brain lies at the top of the spinal cord, which together constitute the central nervous system. It is an exceedingly complex structure and here we shall only outline some main aspects that will help our discussion of hypnosis and related phenomena. We shall discuss three aspects of the brain. 1. Its lateral structure 2. Its division into right and left hemispheres 3. Its electrical activity All three aspects have a bearing on hypnosis, along with many other altered states of consciousness.

6.4.1 Lateral structure of the brain The lateral structure of the brain is shown to be composed of three parts, as illustrated in figure 6.3. These are (a) the core brain, (b) the limbic system, and (c) the cerebrum. (a) the core brain The core brain is the enlarged section of the spinal cord at the entry to the cranium. It is evolutionary the most primitive of the three brain structures and is very much concerned with reflex actions – such as breathing, heart rate, etc. The medulla oblongata controls breathing and some of the reflexes required to control posture. Slightly above the medulla oblongata, and to the rear, is the cerebellum, a rather convoluted structure that is important in coordinating movement and adjusting movement according to the external environment. Movements once learned appear to get programmed into the cerebellum and then become automatic without any conscious involvement, such as picking something up, walking,

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writing, and so on. You may be consciously thinking about what you intend to write, but not about how to write! Thus, with practice, many learned actions can become quite automatic, e.g., driving, dancing, skating and typing. Above these two structures there is the thalamus. This appears to have two separate functions. One is to process and relay information to the cerebellum arising from sense receptors. It not only interrupts signals from the sense receptors, but it also ‘decides’ whether it is pleasant or unpleasant: reward or punishment. The other is to mediate between the reticular activating system and the cortex. In simple terms, it deals with the degree to which the cortex is activated, hence controlling sleep and wakefulness. The thalamus, along with the reticular activating system, determines what part of the cortex should be ‘turned off’ and what part ‘turned on’. The hypothalamus is much smaller than the thalamus and lies below it. It is a very complex structure and seems to have a great many functions. It has an important role in motivation and emotion, it is involved in eating, drinking, sexual behaviour, sleeping, temperature control, homeostasis (body equilibrium) and it regulates endocrine activity. In simple terms, it acts as a control mechanism. When the body becomes over-active, or the emotions become aroused, it is the hypothalamus that re-establishes the body’s equilibrium. As such, it has an important role to play in the ‘relaxation response’ (see Section 6.2.1). From the point of view of hypnosis, however what is important is that the hypothalamus can be influenced by messages from the cortex. If a person is sufficiently hypnotized then no reality testing takes place. If a hypnotist now suggests that the person is in a desert and it is very hot and that they are very thirsty and have not had any water for some time, then it is the hypothalamus which will begin to send messages to various parts of the body. The person will feel thirsty because liquid is required to re-establish equilibrium in such an environment. The fact that the person is not in the desert is irrelevant to the workings of the hypothalamus: it simply acts on the information it receives. This has now shown to be the case with brain imaging techniques. One structure running through and between a number of the structures we have so far discussed is the reticular activating system (RAS). The RAS acts like an alarm clock and awakens the cortex so that it can interpret the incoming sensory signals. But unlike an alarm clock, it can also change as a result of signals from the cortex. This results in two pathways of nerves: one ascending and one descending. It would appear that the RAS determines what signals should reach the cortex, or even if any should reach the cortex. It obviously has an important bearing on what we understand by the term ‘consciousness’ or even ‘being conscious’. A damaged RAS can lead to a permanent coma: to total lack of consciousness. Furthermore, the RAS plays a role in attention. When you are concentrating very hard on something you may not hear someone speaking to you. In this case, the signals from the ear have reached the RAS but this structure has not allowed them to penetrate to the cortex: you therefore do not consciously hear the person speaking to you. (You will hear the person unconsciously in the sense that the information is there in the RAS, and if it so wishes it can make the information available to the cortex. The signal as such cannot evaporate into nothing. It is simply a question of where in the nervous system the information is stored, and what other parts of the nervous system can have access to this information.) It is not an unreasonable conjecture that the RAS has an important role in establishing positive hypnosis. (b) the limbic system The limbic system is a very complex group of structures around the central core of the brain that evolved later than the core brain. Early studies (around 1933) suggested that this structure activates the cortex in a non-specific way and that it is involved in emotional

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arousal. A major structure belonging to the limbic system is the hippocampus (see Appendix 6.1), which has significant effects on behaviour. As we have already mentioned, the hypothalamus also has an important role and this too is part of the limbic system (indicating no clear demarcation between the three parts we are discussing). As more research has revealed, each element in the limbic system has a particular function. The limbic system is known to be where the brain ‘decides’ whether a sensation is one of pleasure or one of pain – also called reward and punishment – and is intimately connected with aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour and with motivation. It has been found, at least in animal experiments, that a sensory experience that leads to neither reward nor punishment is very soon forgotten. One important observation, at least for hypnosis, is that novel or new sensory input leads the limbic system to activate the cortex; while repetition of a stimulus over a period of time, which excites neither the reward nor the punishment centres, leads to no such activation of the cortex, what is referred to as habituation. On the other hand, if the stimulus causes either reward or punishment then the continued stimulus leads to more and more activation of the cortex. In other words, the response is reinforced. The brain’s response to a new or novel sensory input is called the orienting reflex. It is the orienting reflex that allows you to become alert and attentive to the new or novel situation. When habituation occurs then the orienting reflex is not activated. But what undertakes the comparison in order to ‘decide’ that the stimulus is not novel or new and what blocks the orienting reflex? It is here that the hippocampus plays a role (see Appndix 6.1), and for the moment we shall simply say that in these circumstances the orienting reflex is replaced by a conditioned reflex. Luria (1933) makes the following important statement: Much human activity is evoked by intentions and plans, by forecasts and programmes which are formed during man’s conscious life, which are social in their motivation and are effected with the close participation, initially of his external, and later of his internal speech. Every intention formulated in speech defines a certain goal and evokes a programme of action leading to the attainment of that goal. Every time the goal is reached activity stops, but every time it is not reached, this leads to further mobilization of efforts. (p. 57) The mechanisms that largely bring this about belong to the limbic system of the brain and its relationship with the core brain and the cortex. (c) the cerebrum Covering the core brain and limbic system is the cerebrum, the largest part of which is the cerebral cortex, the most recently evolved section of the brain and the most highly developed in man. It is in the cortex that complex mental activities take place. The cortex is itself divided into two hemispheres, separated by a collection of nerves called the corpus callosum (see Appendix 6.2). We shall deal with both of these in the next section. Quite a bit is know about the functional activity of various parts of the cortex as they affect movement, bodysense area, sight, hearing and language. There are also what is called associated areas that are not so specific in function and are concerned with learning, memory and thinking. Important as this research is, it is not that germane to our present study, for the basic reason that hypnosis is attempting to ‘switch-off’ such cortical activity. However, this research does indicate that the cerebral cortex is able to block synaptic connections (see Section 6.2.2) and so prevent the flow of information into conscious

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awareness. Eccles (1983), in particular, has been concerned with these developments and makes the following point about synaptic inhibition in relation to hypnosis and meditation. Thus we can account for the afferent anaesthesias of hypnosis or of yoga or of acupuncture by the cerebral and other pathways to the brain. In all these cases discharges from the cerebral cortex down the pyramidal tract and other pathways will exert an inhibitory blockage at the relays in the spinocortical pathways. (pp. 254-5) This views the brain not in terms of ‘windows of the mind’ but rather as a means of discarding irrelevant information.

6.4.2 The divided brain The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, called the left and right hemispheres. Although they appear as symmetrical structures modern research has shown that there is a difference in function, e.g., Blakesee (1980), Russell (1979) and Springer and Deutsch (1981). This asymmetrical nature of the brain is referred to as cerebral dominance. The functional differences between the two halves have a great deal to do with a person’s psychological functions, although not only these. The left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. More important from our present point of view is the type of function for which each hemisphere is responsible. Although there are no hard and fast rules, in general, there is a pattern of specialization that is fairly common. This is indicated in figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 Hemispherical Specialization It is clear from figure 6.4 that what we commonly think of as ‘conscious thought’ takes place largely (although not wholly) in the left hemisphere; while many functions we commonly think of as ‘unconscious thought’ take place largely (although not wholly) in the right hemisphere. The simplest way of thinking about the specialization of the brain is to consider the brain’s process while you are talking to someone. Your left brain is picking up what they are saying and processing the information and then activating your speech centres for your reply. At the

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same time, your right brain is considering the other person’s facial expressions, their mannerisms, the intonation in their voice, etc. In other words, the left brain is processing verbal cues while the right brain is processing nonverbal cues. Now if the two halves could not communicate with one another this would not be a sensible procedure. But information taken in by one hemisphere is passed to the other by means of the corpus callosum (see Appendix 6.2). It is this sharing of information that gives us a sense of unity: of oneness. The verbal and nonverbal incoming information can either be in agreement or can be conflicting. But what has just been said indicates that one hemisphere dominates for a particular function. But it is not as simple as this. If you wish to pick up a cup you can do it with either hand. You do not find yourself in conflict or indecision. The fact that you pick up the cup without hesitation means that one hemisphere of the brain has taken a dominant role for this act. It would appear that this is a function of the corpus callosum. For any act only one hemisphere is dominant. It would also appear that hemispherical dominance switches throughout the day. To observe this try the nostril test. Nostril test Throughout a particular day or half-day, notice which nostril you breath through the most. Although you can take in air through both nostrils, one will be the dominant one. To check this, press your finger on the side of the nose to block one nostril. Then do the same with the other. Which is easier to breath through? Check this out at different times and note which nostril is easier to breath through. When it is easier to breath out of the right nostril, the left hemisphere is dominant; when easier to breath out of the left nostril, then the right hemisphere is dominant. What this present research indicates is that the function of the right hemisphere is very underrated. Part of the reason for this view was that if the right hemisphere became damaged it did not appear to impair the individual as much as when the left hemisphere became damaged. However, we now know that the right hemisphere has its functions spread over a greater area of the brain tissue than does the functions in the left hemisphere. For the hypnotist and self-hypnotist, knowledge of the hemispherical specialization of the brain gives him or her insight into the hypnotic state itself. The induction procedure, whether self-induced or induced by someone else, activates the parasympathetic nervous system. Since conscious control appears to be given only to one hemisphere at a time, then it could be argued that the induction procedure is a method of giving the dominance to the right hemisphere of the brain. By closing the eyes and reducing sensory input, and also by means of suggestion, the ‘alert’ mechanism is not activating the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere of the brain is being used less because the induction procedure does not require logical thinking. A number of the suggestions involve imagery, such as being warm and comfortable while lying on a beach. Such images are specifically directed at activating the right hemisphere of the brain where such imagery is largely (although not wholly) processed. It would appear, although this is only conjecture, that less information traverses the corpus callosum. When this is achieved, as it is in hypnosis and other altered states of consciousness, the nervous system responds to the suggestions as if they were true. If the induction procedure of hypnosis is successful then the left hemisphere will not check incoming suggestions against reality – that is, reality testing will not take place – as this is a left brain function. If no reality testing takes place, then as far as the nervous system is concerned the information contained in the suggestion is correct and the body will respond to

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it accordingly. The ‘closing down’ of the left hemisphere is also shown by the subject’s change of speech. This becomes slow and difficult during the induction phase. This is consistent with a reduction of cortical activity in the left hemisphere of the brain. The process just described is not simply a question of hemispherical specialization. We have made the point that the brain is composed of three interrelated structures. All three structures are probably involved in this procedure. For instance, the repetitive phrases of the induction procedure lead to habituation, which is part of the limbic system. The conjecture being advanced here is that hypnosis involves the establishment of a particular relationship between the different parts of the brain, and it is sufficiently distinct from other configurations, such as being awake or being asleep. To highlight this point in relation to hypnosis we present in Appendix 6.3 an experiment undertaken by Dr John Gruzelier at London’s Charing Cross Hospital Medical School. This study, besides shedding some interesting light on the hypnotic process, suggests that hypnosis should not be taken to be a feature only of the right hemisphere, but is to do with a particular configuration of right and left hemispheres.

6.4.3 Brain waves The brain is an electro-chemical structure and as such it gives off an electrical charge that can be measured. An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a tracing of the changes in the voltage of the brain over time. It must always be remembered that the EEG is a composite of all the millions of nerve cells that are firing in the brain. With such diversity of activity it might be thought that the brain would show no obvious pattern – that the EEG would indicate asynchronous activity. For the awake and alert person this is largely the case. However, under certain conditions the brain cells achieve synchronous activity and in such circumstances wave patterns emerge which are observable on the EEG. Different waves have been discerned and are classified as to their frequency per second (where the frequency of a wave is measured as the number of cycles: a cycle consisting of the curve from one high point to the next high point). Table 6.2 gives the four waves discussed in the literature: the alpha, beta, theta and delta waves. Table 6.2 Brain Wave Patterns Wave

Frequency cycles per second

Alpha

8-12

Beta

14-50

Theta

4-7

Delta

Less than 3.5

Typical situations of occurrence Awake and quietly resting, meditation, hypnosis Normal waking alertness Emotional stress, deep meditation Deep sleep, infants

The normal awake and alert person exhibits largely beta waves, which denote effectively an unsynchronized pattern since the range of frequencies is quite large (and can reach up to fifty cycles per second). But even in this state it is possible to have short bursts of alpha waves. While some people can have varying degrees of alpha waves, others show very little indeed.

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It is now well documented that alpha is more likely to occur when a person is resting with their eyes closed and engaged in very little (conscious) mental activity – a very significant observation for hypnosis and meditation. The paradox of alpha is that it decreases both with drowsiness and with difficult mental tasks. Hypnosis, like meditation in this respect, is aimed at achieving alpha without going into drowsiness and not activating conscious mental processes. That hypnosis and sleep are quite different can be discerned from EEG patterns of sleep compared with those of hypnosis. The EEG pattern of sleep has been more thoroughly investigated and we shall not discuss it here. Suffice it to say that sleep is considered to be composed of four stages which go through various wave patterns, only part of which are similar to hypnosis – namely, the period when alpha predominates at stage 1, and called the hypnopompic state. But as Evans (1972) points out, The available evidence suggests that there is no similarity between hypnosis and sleep in the EEG, although without independent criteria of both hypnosis and the relevant sleep stage, any hypothesized similarity is difficult to evaluate conclusively. (p. 53) As table 6.2 indicates, the EEG pattern found during hypnosis is predominantly (but not wholly) that of alpha. More significant for the self-hypnotist is the now commonly held view that alpha can be brought under conscious control; that is to say, a person can learn to generate alpha waves. One should not fall into the trap, however, of assuming that just because alpha waves can occur during hypnosis that one is the cause of the other. But it is a fair conjecture that those individuals who generate little alpha, or who find it difficult to achieve alpha waves by biofeedback methods, will also find being hypnotized difficult, or will find it difficult to achieve self-hypnosis. Evans (1972) on the other hand, found no correlation between alpha activity and hypnotisability, although the studies he cites did not involve sophisticated instrumentation that would be required in a proper analysis. One final observation about brain waves, important for hypnosis, is worth making. Early studies of brain waves showed that there is an alpha blocking response. If an individual is in a restful state, with their eyes closed and not engaging in complex mental activity, then such a person will exhibit alpha waves on the EEG. If, however, they open their eyes then the alpha pattern no longer occurs; there has been a blocking of the alpha pattern. When the eyes are once again closed, then alpha returns. What this suggests is that closing the eyes is very important for achieving and deepening the hypnotic state. It appears to be connected with the role of the hippocampus (see Appendix 6.1) and the process of attention, conditioning and habituation. More significantly for the self-hypnotist, is the now held view that alpha can be achieved by conscious means. With practice and conditioning this does mean that the alpha wave pattern can also be maintained when the eyes are open. This has certainly been shown to be the case with practised Zen meditators. A feature of the human mind-body, not unrelated to brain wave activity, is that of the ultradian rhythm. It appears that the mind-body is active for between 90-120 minutes and then takes a rest period of about 20 minutes. This repeats itself throughout the day (see Appendix 6.4). It is possible for the self-hypnotist to take advantage of this cycle by utilizing the 20-minute rest period when suggestibility is likely to be at its greatest.

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6.5 The emotional system and brain structures A stressor has to be perceived so by the brain. The emotional control centre of the brain is shown in figure 6.5 and the three important structures involved in emotion are: 1. The thalamus 2. The amygdala 3. The hippocampus

Figure 6.5 The emotional brain All these structures lie deep within the brain and are not under any conscious control. When a stressor occurs, especially one involving fear, a number of emotional reactions occur that first influence the brain, and this in turn activates various responses within the body. In order to understand problems such as ME/CFS or PTSD, it is important to appreciate two responses (each with two elements) that take place. First there is a dual pathway within the core brain and the core brain and the cortex. Second, stress activates the pituitary-adrenal system along with the sympathetic nervous system. Let me briefly describe each one. First, sensory information from a stimulus that, for example, involves fear (perceived or actual) enters the brain via the thalamus and thereafter divides into two pathways: a ‘low road’ and a ‘high road’. The ‘low road’ is a quick and unconscious activation of the amygdala and will lead to immediate action on the part of the individual in terms of fight-or-flight. The ‘high road’ goes from the thalamus to the cortex of the brain where it is assessed as to whether it is truly life threatening. If it is not life threatening, then signals are relayed to the amygdala that dampens the influence of the ‘low road’s’ unconscious response. In the case of ME/CFS and PTSD the slower ‘high road’ dampening cannot sufficiently dampen the ‘low road’s’ responses. The individual therefore always seems constantly on the alert (which also has the effect of draining the person’s energy). But when a stressor occurs (typically a threat whether physical or psychological), it is compared with past experience. It is this comparison that determines the extent to whether the individual pays attention to the stressor.

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In the case of ME/CAF or PTSD sufferers, certain triggers lead to immediate attention and so increase the stimulus’ threat value. Once attention is directed towards the threat, its threat value is more fully evaluated. This in turn raises anxiety leading to even more attention. The amygdala is most likely involved in detecting and evaluating threat and, where context is important, the hippocampus is also involved. This is important for phobia, ME/CFS and PTSD sufferers amongst others. When a fear-conditioning stimulus is learned the learning involves the whole context and not just one aspect, e.g. it is not just a gun-shot sound but also the context in which the gun shot is heard. This means that even a similar context can bring on the fear response. What we now know is that constant stress leads to less branching of cells within the hippocampus and there is also a reduction in some types of new cells being generated, which can lead to memory impairment. Furthermore, these changes can last for months. Second, a stressor will activate the pituitary gland, which in turn activates the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland when stimulated releases a hormone that itself triggers the release of glucocorticoids. It is these that produce many of the effects that are associated with stress. At the same time, stressors activate the sympathetic nervous system which increases the amounts of adrenalin and noradrenalin in the body. It is these that lead to the feelings of anxiety (e.g. fear, worry, and despondency) and to physiological responses (e.g. rapid heartbeat, high blood pressure, nausea, breathing difficulties, sleep disturbance, and high levels of glucocorticoids). The magnitude of the stress response depends on (1) actual stressors, (2) the individual and (3) coping strategies. Furthermore, stress increases a person’s susceptibility to infections since it reduces the efficiency of the immune system.

6.6 Brain imaging Recent advances in technology have enabled scientists to make images of a living brain. There are basically four methods of doing this. 1. Computer Tomography Scan (CT Scan or CAT scanning). This is the most common and involves passing x-rays through the head. This allows a threedimensional image of the brain to be constructed. This method shows the structure of the brain, but not its function. 2. Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Radioactive material is either injected or inhaled by the patient. A scanner then detects this material in the brain allowing an image of the brain to be formed. This method provides a functional view of the brain. 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). This method utilizes the fact that organic tissue has magnetic properties and by displacing radio waves in a magnetic field, an anatomical view of the brain can be made. 4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). This uses a method that detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain. It, therefore, provides both an anatomical view and a functional view of the brain. These various methods of producing images are allowing scientists to produce some remarkable computer-screen images of the brain in terms of both its structure and its function. Often more than one method is employed to enable a more complete picture of the brain to be carried out. One of the most exciting is the fMRI, which creates moving images of the brain as the patient performs various tasks or is exposed to different stimuli. Brain images can be created quickly, e.g., every second, and are of a very high quality.

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Although these methods are new, and expensive, they have been used in studies involving hypnosis – especially with regard to pain. In a nutshell, images of the brain can now show that something does happen when individuals go into a hypnotic trance and use imagery.

Reading Benson, H. (1975) The Relaxation Response. Collins. Fount Paperbacks. Blackasee, T.R. (1980) The Right Brain. The Macmillan Press Ltd. Czerner, T.B. (2001) What Makes You Tick? New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Scientist (1984) “Hypnosis relies on left-brain dominance” New Scientist, August 2, 1984. Pinel, John, P. (6th edi. 1990) Biopsychology. Pearson. Russell, P. (1979) The Brain Book. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Temple, C. (1993) The Brain. Penguin Books.

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Appendix 6.1 The hippocampus, recognition of novelty and hypnosis The hippocampus is one of the most paradoxical brain structures. More is know about its structure than virtually any other part of the limbic system, but still very little is know about its function! What is known is that it has something to do with recognition of novelty, with learning and with memory. Our only concern here is with its recognition of novelty. When something is novel then you pay attention to it until it becomes familiar. Once the familiarity is achieved then attention can be switched off or re-directed. The hippocampus appears, then, to be a source of decision-making, and can lead to inhibition of inappropriate behaviour. The habituation response has been analysed particular by the Russian Sokolov. With the aid of the hippocampus, a stimulus when first encountered is compared with information already stored in the brain. If it considers the stimulus novel, then the orienting reflex is activated and the person pays particular attention to it. If it is not novel, then the orienting reflex is not activated. It is this feature that is attempted in the induction process of (positive) hypnosis. It may also account for why some people find it difficult to enter hypnosis. If the person pays attention to what the hypnotist is doing then the orienting reflex is highly likely to be operative. In this case the person finds it difficult to ‘let go’. The point is that if this conjecture is correct, then while the orienting reflex is operative the hippocampus, in conjunction with the reticular activating system, will continue to activate parts of the left cortical hemisphere. For selfhypnosis there is also a lesson to learn from this analysis. Continued practice will soon stop the orienting reflex from being activated. The hippocampus at some point decides that the whole process has been heard before and so pays it no particular attention. With practice a person can enter hypnosis quickly because the orienting reflex no longer occurs when induction takes place. The simple message, of course, is not to pay attention to the hypnotic induction – even when being induced by oneself.

Appendix 6.2 The corpus callosum The corpus callosum is a large bundle or nerve fibres dividing, yet connecting, the two hemispheres of the cortex. It is, in fact, the largest fibre bundle in the brain and because of this it was thought to have an important function in relation to the two hemispheres of the brain. Yet until the 1960s its function was a complete mystery. It was a complete mystery in the sense that when it was cut nothing in the brain appeared to be affected by such an operation - nothing at least in terms of the standard psychological tests. Furthermore, attention was not focused on the right-left characteristics of the brain because lesions in the right hemisphere did not appear to have any great debilitating effect. Better experimental design, however, revealed quite major differences between the two hemispheres. The corpus callosum relays information between the two hemispheres. Information that is picked up by one hemisphere is quickly relayed to the other and combined with related information taken in by that hemisphere and vice versa. The corpus callosum acts like a huge cable between two computer banks, each computer receiving different information about the same phenomenon. So long as the cable is operating information flows between the two computers and a more complete view of the phenomenon is established. In terms of the brain, this implies a single consciousness: a single and integrated view of the outside (and one might add inside) world. It is also believed, although this has not yet been established, that the corpus callosum helps in reconciling conflicting sensory information received by the two hemispheres. Furthermore, the structure does have a bearing on the brain establishing a synchronized wave pattern. (In the case of the epileptic, cutting the corpus callosum prevents the whole brain synchronizing and so it lessens the extent of an attack.)

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We know that the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere the right side of the body. Consider now a decision to pick up a cup. You can do this with either hand. You do not find yourself first putting out one hand, then pulling it back to use the other, or in a state of complete indecision. One hand reaches out and picks up the cup. This implies that one hemisphere has taken dominance in carrying out this particular act. But this further implies that the other hemisphere must have been inhibited from carrying out the same act. It would appear that this is a function of the corpus callosum. For any act only one hemisphere is dominant. Which hemisphere is dominant depends not only on the corpus callosum but also on information from the limbic system that ‘alerts’ the appropriate hemisphere.

Appendix 6.3 An experiment on hypnosis and hemispherical specialization From the New Scientist ‘Hypnosis relies on left brain dominance’, 2 August, 1984. Interest in the connection between hemispherical specialization of the brain and hypnosis has led to some interesting studies. One is that undertaken at London's Charing Cross Hospital Medical School under Dr John Gruzelier of the psychiatry department. In this research they were studying people's electrical skin conductance during hypnotic induction. Electrodermal response is generally considered an indication of how much attention a person is paying to a particular stimulus or stimuli. The experiment involved running a hypnotic induction tape for seven minutes during which time subjects were also played a number of one-second seventy-decibel tonnes at regular intervals. Dr Gruzelier explains the basis of his approach as follows: ... to achieve effective induction, one has to narrow one's attention to what the hypnotist is saying and a susceptible subject will be the person who can best focus his attention initially. The aim of the tones, therefore, is to distract the individual from concentrating on the hypnotic induction tape. The article continues, Before induction, the people who subsequently proved susceptible to hypnosis had greater electrodermal responses in their left than in their right hand. The opposite was true of unsusceptible individuals. As the induction tape was played, this asymmetry was reversed in susceptible people, the right hand responses becoming the larger. But no such effect was seen when unsusceptible subjects were played the same induction tape. Because of the know association between electrodermal activity and brain hemispheres, it seems that susceptible individuals start off with the left side of their brain holding sway and then, under induction, switch over to the right side. The susceptible people also habituate faster to the intrusive tones - they showed fewer electrodermal responses - suggesting they were able to ignore them. The hypnotic state seems to be associated with the right hemisphere of the brain [according to Dr Gruzelier and his team]; its dream-like quality, altered time sense, attitude of passive acceptance and several other characteristics all suggest this. And under hypnosis this was confirmed in that the susceptible subjects did switch into a right hemisphere 'mode'.

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Dr Gruzelier points out that what matters is the left brain dominance of those who are susceptible but who can switch to right brain dominance during the hypnosis. The left brain dominance during induction is important in order for the individual to ‘focus their attention’. Unsusceptible subjects, however, start with right brain dominance, with its associated ‘broadened attention’ such that they cannot concentrate sufficiently on the induction even to begin to be hypnotized. Studies such as this shed considerable light on the hypnotic process. It also suggests that a simple statement that hypnosis is all to do with the right brain is probably incorrect.

Appendix 6.4 Ultradian rhythms Hypnosis, therapy, etc can only be an input into the system of mind-body interaction. But to be an effective input, it needs to interact with the mind-body system when this system is ‘looking’ inwards. This inward reflection occurs once about every 90-120 minutes when the mind-body requires about 20 minutes to process the previous 90 minutes. During this 90-120 minute period a person works hard and feels generally active. During the 20 minute period, the mind-body is introspective. The individual feels tired, ready for a break, daydreams, etc. These behaviour patterns are simply a manifestation of the body’s mind-body process at the trough of the ultradian rhythm, as illustrated in the figure. This is the period when the healing response takes place, Rossi (1989). He argues that all our mind-body systems of selfregulation, e.g., the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine system and the immune system all follow this basic 90-120 minute activity-rest cycle. To the extent that individuals do not allow the healing response to take place by not taking a break about every 90 minutes is one explanation for the build-up of stress.

Ultradian rhythm Activity level

creates

Information molecules

Mind-body interaction

90min 20min

Mind-body "looks" outwards

Mind-body "looks" inwards

Hypnosis, therapy, etc most effective

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It appears that an individual is more responsive to suggestion during the 20-minute rest period of the ultradian cycle. Also during this period they become less responsive to pain, have altered sensations and perceptions and basically become very relaxed and engage in daydreaming. Rossi goes on to say, “…we all can master self-hypnosis by learning to facilitate our inborn, Ultradian Healing Response.” (1989, p.181).

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Chapter 7 Ideomotor Responses

Summary The chapter begins with a description of Chevreul’s pendulum: how to construct it and how to use it. There are various ways a person can exhibit ideomotor signals and all can be utilised as a means of questioning the unconscious mind. Finger signalling gets particular attention. It concludes with a discussion of emotional involvement and the degree of trust in the responses.

CHAPTER 7 IDEOMOTOR RESPONSES Ideomotor responses are simply physical responses. The importance for hypnotherapy is such responses arise from unconscious thought processes. It is therefore possible to utilize ideomotor responses to tap into the workings of the unconscious mind. Most people are not familiar with ideomotor responses and so we begin our discussion with Chevreul’s pendulum as a way to become familiar with this important and useful technique.

7.1 Chevreul’s pendulum

There are many uses of Chevreul’s pendulum that include a test of hypnotizability and as a method of ‘communicating’ with the unconscious mind. In this latter respect it is an alternative to the finger ideomotor response, which we discuss below, or the method of automatic writing (see image 0 in chapter 15). The principle on which it is based is very straightforward. Individuals respond to suggestion, and included in the suggestion can be given specific instructions about how to respond at the unconscious level. These unconscious responses manifest themselves in very small muscle movements – small enough to direct a pendulum to move in a certain manner. There is, then, two parts to this technique. Constructing a pendulum and accompanying circle; and, second, giving suggestions appropriate to a response with the pendulum.

7.1.1 Pendulum and circle The pendulum comprises a thread about eight to ten inches long at the end of which is any small light object. The object should be heavy enough to keep the thread taught when hanging freely; while the thread should be long enough (including the light object) to hang freely from the fingers while the elbow is resting on the table. The object can be a small ball, a ring, or a crystal. It does not matter what it is, what matters is that you can direct your attention quite easily to it. In this respect a bright object may be better, but it is purely a matter of taste. It is even possible to purchase pendulums of this type from stores specializing in alternative therapies and goods for the Aquarian Age. Such purchases have the advantage that the thread is very thin and is attached to a crystal such that the crystal hangs suitably. The next step is to construct a circle. Although this is not essential, it facilitates the technique. Draw a circle in the centre of a piece of paper or on a card that you can reuse. A typical A4 sheet is quite suitable. The circle should be clear. Inside the circle are drawn two lines at right angles and which cross at the centre of the circle. It may even be useful to identify the lines crossing with a heavy dot, since it is over this spot that the pendulum will rest, as illustrated in figure 7.1

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Figure 7.1 Pendulum Directions As figure 7.1 reveals, there are at least four directions that the pendulum can move: 1. 2. 3. 4.

vertically horizontally clockwise anti-clockwise

More directions can be used, as shown by the dotted lines in figure 7.1, but a simple approach, with just these four directions, is likely to give better results and lead to less confusion.

7.1.2 Using the pendulum Rest gently on your elbow with the pendulum held between the thumb and forefinger, as shown in figure 7.1. The pendulum when resting should be positioned over the centre of the circle. The whole arrangement must be comfortable and free from stress. The seating and the height of the table may be significant here. For instance, too high a table will place you in a strained position, and also may make it difficult for you to focus on the object at the end of the thread. The purpose is to use the four directions indicated above to specify four responses. The four responses are: 1. Yes 2. No 3. I don’t know 4. I don’t want to answer that question There is no intension here of assuming the responses are to be assigned in the same order as in the first list. On the contrary, the technique should be used to establish the correspondence, as we shall explain shortly. The responses should not be anything other than those indicated. You must narrow down the questions if you wish to obtain any clarification. The last two responses are quite important. You may simply not know the answer to a particular question and no matter how the question is worded this will still be true. The last response is most important in therapy in establishing some form of unconscious resistance. The instructions for using the pendulum go something like this.

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Using the pendulum Hold the pendulum over the centre of the circle. Now move it gently up and down … Now move it from right to left … Now swing the pendulum gently clockwise … Now do the same anti-clockwise. (This is only required on the first occasion and its aim is to give you a sense of what the different swings feel like. (It also sends a signal to the unconscious mind!) Now return the pendulum to the centre of the circle and rest gently. From now on don't move the pendulum by any voluntary movements. Any movement that is to take place must be involuntary. You are first going to establish which direction your unconscious mind wants to use to indicate the four responses. The four responses are: yes, no, I don't know, and I don't want to answer that question. You will take each one in turn, and you will find the pendulum swinging in the direction indicating that response. You should also repeat to yourself the indicated response, while looking at the object at the end of the thread. Begin with the response, ‘yes’. Just think of ‘yes’ and say the word ‘yes’ to yourself while you concentrate on the pendulum. The pendulum will soon begin to swing in one of the four directions. From now on this direction of the swing will always indicate the answer ‘yes’ to any question you ask yourself. You then do the same for each of the other three responses. Once the direction for each response has been established, a question and answer session can begin. How useful this will be depends on a number of factors. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How clear you are at giving questions that can be answered by means of the four responses. What the problem is that you are investigating. The degree of your suggestibility. Whether you have any unconscious resistances. How you take to this particular method of inquiry.

The pendulum is used not only in hypnosis but also in many other areas, such as water divining and homoeopathy.

7.2 Why is ideomotor signalling important? Not everyone is a good subject and not everyone will follow suggestions immediately. A client needs time to assimilate a suggestion and time to decide whether and/or when they wish to respond. This is as true in self-hypnosis as it is with heterohypnosis. In heterohypnosis how can the hypnotist know when their client is responding as they want them to respond when asked to think about something? If the hypnotherapist says something like, “Your arm is getting lighter and lighter and soon it will begin to rise.” Then it is quite clear if and when this suggestion is being followed. On the other hand, if the therapist says something like, “I want you to recall the last time you had such-and-such a feeling”. How will the therapist know that they have recalled such a feeling? How much time should a therapist give their client to recall such a feeling? The problem, of course, is that the therapist has no idea what is going on in the head of their client. Even more difficult is when the therapist suggests something along the lines, “Your unconscious will know if you are

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prepared to do such-and-such even if your conscious mind does not know.” Now if this were truly the case, then how will the therapist know (not to mention the client) that the unconscious does know such-and-such and is prepared to do it? It is here where ideomotor signals are useful. Typical ideomotor signals are: ● Saying yes or no ● Nodding or shaking the head ● Raising the hand (or finger) to indicate yes (Not doing so implying no.) But these should not be haphazardly used. The therapist can quite readily create these ideomotor responses very early in a session and then use them repeatedly. We shall describe some of these in a moment. Once the ideomotor response is established, then the art is asking the right questions and seeing the response. But there is another important reason for using ideomotor signals. A person may not consciously know the answer to a specific question but the unconscious does, especially where the problem resides with the unconscious in the first place. Or the individual may not be able to consciously recall when a problem first began, but the unconscious does. The unconscious has access to everything the person has thought, felt and experienced throughout their life. Ideomotor signalling, then, can be used to pinpoint when something occurred, or pinpoint the stimulus that first led to the problem under investigation. Ideomotor signally is important because it can be used to illicit answers to a whole variety of questions. Some simply ones are the following. · · · · · · ·

When you are ready to do something If you are prepared to do something When a problem first arose What the cause of a problem might be The person contributing to your problem Whether your unconscious is will to contribute to a solution to your problem Whether you are prepared to give up something

Whether your problem is serving a purpose and what that purpose is Although not an exhaustive list they do indicate that ideomotor signally has a very useful role to play in therapy. Furthermore, not just an important role to play in therapy, but also in self-improvement.

7.3 Finger signalling The pendulum is just one particular ideomotor signally device. Another, which is particularly useful for the self-hypnotist is that of finger signals. This technique can be used in both heterohypnosis and self-hypnosis. It is useful to consider it in heterohypnosis first because a therapist will introduce the procedure with a preamble about the unconscious mind. The therapist may begin explaining that there is an inner mind, the unconscious mind that contains knowledge on everything that the individual has done and feels: knowledge of all past experiences from the time the person was born. (Notice here the implied engram theory of memory.) More important the therapist may continue that such knowledge may not be

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known by the conscious mind or that the conscious mind may have forgotten about the events. The therapist then says that the unconscious mind can take control of the index finger on each hand. Although it is possible for the therapist to choose whether the right or left index finger will represent the answer ‘yes’, it is better to let the client do this. So the therapist continues by saying that the unconscious mind will now take control of the index finger on each hand and raising one index finger will indicate that the unconscious mind wants to answer ‘yes’ to a question it is given and the other to answer ‘no’. The therapist then asks the client to think about ‘yes’ and as they think about ‘yes’ their unconscious mind will raise either their right index finger or their left index finger. The therapist says just keep thinking about ‘yes’ and soon one of your index fingers will rise. Let us suppose this is the right index finger. The therapist may say, “That’s fine, we now know that your unconscious mind can answer ‘yes’ to any question I give by raising your right index finger.” Although it is obvious that raising the left index finger is going to indicate the answer ‘no’, the whole process is gone through just as for the right index finger. Now the pendulum allowed the answer, ‘I don’t know’ and ‘I don’t want to answer that’. These can still be utilized with finger signalling. The therapist may say that if the unconscious mind does not know the answer to a question, then it can raise both index fingers – it can signal the answer is both ‘yes’ and ‘no’. Finally, the therapist can indicate to the client that if the unconscious mind does not want to answer a particular question then it can do so by not allowing either index finger to rise. Be careful here. It may be that at this particular moment of time the unconscious mind does not want to answer the question, but that it still may do so in the future. In fact, this can be elicited by asking, ‘Will the unconscious mind be prepared to answer this question in the future?’ Having explained the way the procedure works in heterohypnosis we now present a script for the self-hypnotist. You are assumed to be in a trance, which does not even need to be a deep trance state. Ideomotor signalling In a moment I will think of the word ‘yes’ and as I think of the word ‘yes’ one of my index finger will rise. It may be the right index finger or the left index finger, but whichever finger my unconscious wants to use to answer ‘yes’ to any question I give, it will raise that index finger. [Repeat this a few times and wait for a response.] Now think of the word ‘yes’, say the word in your mind’s eye and wait for the index finger to respond. You may find your mind keeps switching between your right and left index finger, as if the unconscious mind is attempting to make a decision as which index finger to rise. On the first occasion you may have to repeat the instructions again. Under no circumstances should you voluntarily raise your right index finger. The response must be involuntary. One way to establish the difference is to voluntarily raise your right index finger before you start this instruction. The response while in hypnosis is quite different. You may find your index finger twitches and then begins to rise rather slowly. It may just shoot up, or it may take some time. Now do the same with your left index finger and the word ‘no’. You can now definitely indicate the left index finger indicates the answer ‘no’ because the unconscious mind has

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already decided that the right index finger will indicate the answer ‘yes’. After having established a ‘yes’ response, you may find the ‘no’ response is much quicker. You also continue to establish responses for ‘I don’t know’ and ‘I don’t want to answer that’ in the following manner. In a moment my unconscious mind will lift my left index finger indicating the answer ‘no’ to any question I will give it. [Keep thinking of the word ‘no’ and wait for the left index finger to rise.] When my unconscious mind does not know the answer to any question I give it then it will raise both index fingers, my unconscious will indicate that the answer is both ‘yes’ and ‘no’ because it simply does not know. And when my unconscious does not want to answer a question I give it, then it will not raise either my right or my left index finger.

After establishing ‘yes’, ‘no’, etc responses you need to verify the signalling. You need to ask yourself a question to which the answer is obviously ‘yes’. E.g., suppose you are at home in your living room, then you may ask, “Am I sitting at home in my living room?” Next ask yourself a question to which the answer is obviously ‘no’. E.g., “Am I 55?” when you are say 25. Do the same with a question you clearly do not know the answer to. The final response cannot be so obviously verified and arises during an investigation into a problem in which you may be reluctant to answer at the unconscious level some question directly. You are now ready to utilize the finger ideomotor signalling. You begin by recalling which finger indicates which response. In a moment, I will ask myself a series of questions. I will direct these questions to my unconscious mind. When my unconscious mind wants to indicate the answer ‘yes’ it will raise my right index finger. If my unconscious wants to indicate the answer ‘no’ to my question, then it will raise my left index finger. If the answer to my question is both ‘yes’ and ‘no’, then my unconscious mind will raise both index fingers. And if my unconscious does not want to answer the question at this moment of time then it will raise neither my right nor my left index finger. Some comments on this procedure are worth noting. 1. All responses must be involuntary. At no time should you attempt any voluntary movement. If nothing happens, then this is an appropriate response. 2. On the first few trials make the questions simple. 3. All questions must be unambiguous otherwise you will receive a constant ‘yes/no’ response or no response at all. 4. Avoid the use of a double negative. E.g., 5. Do not make up multiple questions. Break these down into a series of simple questions. E.g., Do not ask, “Should I take up a new job and move to London?” This involves two questions: (1) “Should I take up a new job?” and (2) “Should I move to London?” Even more, the answer to the second question is conditional on the answer to the first!

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6. You need to give your questions some serious thought before you engage in self-hypnosis. It is useful to write them out and eliminate ambiguities, etc. 7. It is possible to elaborate on the technique in order to either a. Indicate the degree of emotional involvement b. To indicate that the unconscious is still processing a suggestion. We shall elaborate on these below. 8. If you are getting no response to a particular question (and assuming you are generally responding), then you may begin a subsidiary set of questions. E.g., “Is no response indicating that the unconscious does not know?” This almost certainly will elicit either a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’ response. If ‘yes’ then that’s the end of the matter. If ‘no’, then further questions are called for. E.g., ”Does the unconscious mind not want to answer this question at this time?” Suppose the answer to this question is ‘yes’. Then you can go further. “Is the unconscious mind prepared to answer the question in the future?” This line of questioning is more important when you are trying to establish something that is emotionally upsetting. 9.When trying to get an answer about the age when something happened, then you can go in stages. Assumed possible responses are in square brackets. “Did this happen before I was 20?” [Yes] “Did this happen before I was 10? [No] You may then proceed as follows. I am going to count down from 20 to 10 and when the incident occurred my ‘yes’ finger will rise. This does, of course, presuppose the event is unique. We shall discuss this further below.

7.4 Emotional involvement and processing the question 7.4.1 Emotional involvement You may want to know how concerned you are with a problem. Most of us are aware that we think we are not consciously concerned about a problem but we are unconsciously so. We know this because our sleep is disturbed, temper is short, etc. But we often do not know why. The technique is approached in two stages. The first is to find out exactly what the unconscious mind is concerned about: what we are worried about unconsciously. In formulating the question you must make it clear that you are directing it to the unconscious mind. Ideomotor signalling for an unconscious worry In a moment I am going to ask my unconscious what it is worried about. If the unconscious is at all worried about what I am asking then it will raise my ‘yes’ finger. “Am I unconsciously worried about …?” “Am I unconsciously worried about …?”

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Care needs to be exercised in this question/answer session. You may be unconsciously worried about more than one thing. So keep going through the list. The list is best thought of before you engage in self-hypnosis. Suppose three things are worrying your unconscious mind. Let us simply call them A, B and C. What you next want to do is rank them. So continue as follows, where again possible responses are shown in square brackets. “Is A of most concern to my unconscious mind?” [No] “Is B of most concern to my unconscious mind?” [Yes] You now do not need to go to C. Having established that B is of the most concern, then you want to find out the next issue of most concern to your unconscious mind. One question is sufficient. “Is A more of a concern to my unconscious than C?” If ‘yes’ is the response, then the ranking is B, A, C. If ‘no’ is the response, then the ranking is B, C, A. (We rule out equal concerns.) Next you want to know how concerned your unconscious mind is. You can do the following with each concern in turn. Here we shall just consider concern B, the most serious one that the unconscious mind is worried about. My unconscious mind has indicated that it is worried or concerned about B. In a moment, I will ask how much concerned. The more my unconscious mind is concerned about B, the higher my ‘yes’ index finger will rise. [Emphasise the word higher.] How concerned is my unconscious about B? If you are very unconsciously concerned about B, then the finger can shoot up; it may rise a lot pointing upward. It may even pull up your whole arm if the unconscious is very concerned!

7.4.2 Processing a question What about processing a question. Even the unconscious mind needs time to process a question. Time to process, time to search, time to consider alternatives. Suppose you want to give up smoking. Suppose contrary to popular belief that you consider this helps you handle stressful situation. It does not matter whether this is actually true; what matters is that you believe it to be so for you. You may then want your unconscious mind to find an alternative way of handling stress. It is necessary to ensure that it is a better way of handling stress than smoking. Second, there may be many alternative better ways to handle stress. The finger ideomotor response can help in this. The instructions go as follows.

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Ideomotor signally for processing a question I want my unconscious mind to consider alternative and better ways to hand my stress other than by smoking. When it has considered as many alternatives as it wants to, my ‘yes’ index finger will rise. [Now wait until this happens.] I would like my unconscious mind to consider the best of these alternatives. When it has done so, my ‘yes’ index finger will rise. I would like my unconscious mind to consider using this alternative for the next week. “Is the unconscious mind prepared to do this?” The question/answers can progress. What matters is to give the unconscious mind time to do whatever it has to do; whatever you want it to do. There are many situations in hypnotherapy when this is necessary. I once used the computer reprogramming script (see script #…) and the person was to leave his ‘yes’ finger raised throughout while doing this, and only when finished would he lower his ‘yes’ finger. He continued with the processing for about 10 minutes!! Many a therapist can be too much in a rush to get on with the next suggestion. But give the unconscious mind time to do what it wants to do.

7.5 Establishing when something happened The following instructions apply whether the event is unique or happened on more than one occasion. Suppose it is some event that you are trying to find that may have created a problem that you are now concerned about. Unfortunately, the event may not be unique. At this stage you are not trying to find out what the event is – you leave that for another session – what you are trying to establish is when some even happened. You are attempting to find out the event that is contributing to your present problem and not simply any old event. Your suggestions might go along the following lines. Ideomotor responses for establishing when something happened In a moment I am going to count down from my present age of ___ and if in any year something happened that contributed to my present problem, then I will raise my ‘yes’ finger. [Now count down and make a mental note of the age. Then count up and see/feel if the same age or other ages are indicated.] Of course, once you have found the year you can progress in the same way to find the month if that is useful. Then you can progress as above to establish exactly what the event was, unless it is obvious. On the negative side, all this can take quite some time to establish, and sometimes the unconscious will indicate that it simply does not know. But this is more likely to be a result of poorly formulated questions. So long as the experience has happened, and so long as it is not a major trauma, then some indication of the problem can be obtained by this procedure.

7.6 Should I trust my responses? In response to this question the first aspect you must be absolutely clear about is whether your responses were purely involuntary. There must be no voluntary contribution to the response. The less sure you are that your response was involuntary the more careful you must be about accepting the response at face value. The more serious or important your question

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the more careful you must be. One way forward is to ask different aspects of the question. This will establish whether they support the initial response. Let us suppose you wanted to know whether you should take up a new job that has been offered to you. You might under self-hypnosis and using ideomotor signalling ask yourself, “Should I accept the new job?” There are, of course, four possible responses 1. 2. 3. 4.

yes no yes and no no response

What we are concerned about here is a ‘yes’ response about which you are not sure you gave an involuntary response. The same would apply to a ‘no’ response. There are two ways forward. 1. You can ask the unconscious mind a whole series of subsidiary questions. E.g., a. “Will I be happier if I take up the new job?” b. “Will my partner agree with me taking up the new job?” c. “Will the extra travelling become a burden to me?” d. “Will I find the change in lifestyle acceptable?” All this should help in clarifying the initial response. 2. An alternative is to go totally away from ideomotor responses and use visualization. The script is given in full later (script #00), but the gist of it is that you walk along a path and come on a fork. Going down one path sees you continuing in the present job. Seeing what you will be like over (say) the next five years. Going down the other path is to take up the new job. To see how you might be like over the next five years if you took up the new job. Of course, there is nothing preventing you from doing both. What is being emphasized here is a method of establishing how far you can accept the ideomotor response as the ‘right’ response – an involuntary response. Another safeguard is worth considering. It may be that you will be happier with a new job but it is not a practical solution at the present time. This may be because of financial commitments or family commitments. Your new job may mean moving, which means your children going to a new school. You may be happier but will your children or your partner? No one can answer these questions other than you. But in self-hypnosis you have a better chance of seeing the issues in perspective and consider alternatives in a relaxed and dispassionate manner. Nodding and shaking the head is another ideomotor signally used more in heterohypnosis than in self-hypnosis. The finger signalling is far more flexible for the self-hypnotist, which is why we have emphasized it in this chapter. Here we have emphasized the technique. Exactly how it is utilized will be taken up in Part IV.

Reading

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Rossi, Ernest L. and Cheek, David B. Mind-Body Therapy: Methods of Ideodynamic Healing in Hypnosis. W.W. Norton & Company. Stock, Armin and Stock, Claudia, A short history of ideo-motor action. Psychological Research (2004) 68, pp.176-188.

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Chapter 8 Association and Dissociation

Summary This chapter explains association and dissociation in the context of hypnosis - paying particular attention to dissociation. It explains methods of achieving dissociation and areas in which it can be useful. In addition it considers the relationship between dissociation and the ego

CHAPTER 8 ASSOCIATION AND DISSOCIATION Dissociation is used as a method of deepening the hypnotic state. Let me now take this discussion of dissociation further. But first it is useful to consider not only dissociation but also association. Dissociation can be thought of as stepping out of an image; association can be thought of as stepping into an image. The literature plays a great deal of attention to dissociation but very little to association. Dissociation is dealing with negative thoughts and emotions. Association is taking advantage of positive thoughts and emotions. Association draws heavily on the techniques of NLP (see chapter 22). Even so, association can still involve negativity. The essential element is seeing something, whether positively or negatively, from the inside the picture. Even so, this is why dissociation is required. To overcome the negative aspects, a person needs to step outside of the picture: to dissociate. The essential difference between association and dissociation is illustrated in figure 8.1.

Imagined picture

Stepping in (Association)

Stepping out (Dissociation)

- Bigger - Brighter - Active - Sounds closer and louder

- Smaller - Black/white - Still picture - Sounds further away and quieter

Figure 8.1 Association and dissociation As we pointed out, dissociation refers to the ability a person has to ‘detach’ himself or herself from their immediate environment, i.e., of ‘stepping outside’ of themselves and observing himself or herself and being in other places simultaneously. We all possess this faculty and it is utilized considerably in dreams. However, as with other faculties we have discussed, people have this ability to varying degrees. But once again, it is possible to cultivate the ability with a little practice. Dissociation is as old as man. Socrates was known to dissociate on frequent occasions, and the shamans of all ages have utilized this ability. Automatic writing, to be explained later in this chapter, is also based on the ability to dissociate – but in this case, to dissociate the

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writing arm. Some researchers have argued that the degree of dissociation is the same as the degree of hypnosis and, accordingly, would argue that hypnosis is no more than dissociation. This is not the case, and rests on a lack of understanding, both of the phenomenon of hypnosis and that of dissociation. Many hypnotic features can be illustrated without the aid of dissociation. Furthermore, by making such a link, hypnosis becomes associated with only one of its characteristics. It is like defining a bicycle as a machine with two wheels! There is little doubt that the degree of dissociation a person can achieve is linked, in some way, to the depth of hypnosis a person can achieve: generally, the greater the ability to dissociate, the greater the depth of hypnosis. In addition, the degree of dissociation is also linked to the degree of amnesia that can be achieved. A somnambulist who is amnesic can usually dissociate to a very high degree. But once again, varying degrees of dissociation can occur without amnesia. Dissociation, therefore, is neither necessary nor sufficient for hypnosis to occur. One other general observation is worth making about dissociation. Once dissociation has been established in a hypnotic state, the person becomes much more suggestible and instructions are much more readily absorbed by the unconscious mind, and acted upon. The next section will deal with three different sets of instructions that can be used to achieve dissociation. In a later section, I shall take up some points raised by these instructions – including a discussion of glove anesthesia and automatic writing. In the following section, the relationship between dissociation and the ego, and why, therefore, dissociation is important in hypnotherapy, will come under discussion. As in other chapters of this book, my intention is to deal, most particularly, with non-medical uses of hypnosis and this aspect will be stressed in this chapter too.

8.1 How to Achieve Dissociation The aim of these suggestions is to ‘detach’ yourself from your immediate environment, to ‘step outside’ of yourself. In the first of the three instructions, I shall employ this term somewhat literally. In the second and third instructions, dissociation is brought about by means of pictorial images. In each case, it is assumed that you are already in a hypnotic state. Image a Dissociation 1: Stepping Out of Your Body I am now stepping out of my body; I can feel myself rising from the chair. Yes, I have no difficulty in rising up out of my body. It is as if there are two me: the one rising from the chair and the one remaining seated in the chair. And this is happening now with no difficulty at all. I am stepping out of my body and moving about the room — in my mind’s eye … I can see myself sitting in the chair and I look very peaceful and very relaxed and in a deep hypnotic state. And there appears nothing strange about seeing myself in the chair. All my consciousness seems to be with the person outside. I can see everything in the room, including myself, very clearly indeed. And now I can give that person in the chair instructions, and he (or she) will carry them out, without any difficulty whatsoever. And I will be able to observe how well he (or she) is carrying out my suggestions. This straightforward set of instructions can be very effective and is well worth practicing. The important aspect is to have your consciousness in the person outside of your body. In your normal waking state you are aware that your thoughts are in your head. This tends to

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localize your thoughts and contains them in the body. It is possible, however, to have them ‘outside’ of the body. When this is achieved, the person is said to have dissociated, and the person ‘left’ in the chair is more amenable to suggestion. What seems to be happening is that your conscious awareness, which resides in the left brain, locates itself ‘outside’ of the body; while the physical body sitting in the chair is then controlled solely by the right brain. The dissociation is no more than operating the two hemispheres of the brain independently of one another. And why should we not be capable of doing this? You have two arms and hands that look fairly alike, but are not. You rarely let one dangle unused while you concentrate on using the other. No. You achieve more by utilizing your arms and hands independently and yet in co-operation. So why not use your two brains in the same manner? It has been argued that Leonardo da Vinci had both left and right brains equally developed, which is one reason why he could write with both hands simultaneously. The obvious school game to demonstrate that, for most of us, the two halves are not equally developed, is to rub your stomach with your left hand in a clockwise direction and circling your head with your right hand in a counter-clockwise direction – and then try to switch directions repeatedly. Image b Dissociation 2: Disappearing I awaken from a sound sleep, I am in bed and very comfortable. But I now feel myself becoming smaller and smaller. I am shrinking, first to four feet, then to three feet, two feet … The bed now appears tremendously large and looks the size of a football pitch. And I continue to get smaller. Now I am only one foot tall and becoming smaller still. And I am not, in any way, worried about this sensation or any other sensations that I may have. I will be taking a very detached interest in the whole thing. And now I am continuing to get smaller and smaller. I am now so small, smaller than an ant, so that I can move around in the fibers of the pillow or sheets. Yes, I am so small that I can crawl around the fibers, which look like giant stalks (pause and really feel this experience). And I am continuing to get smaller. I am smaller than a molecule and in fact so small that I can pass in and out of the fibers. And I now vanish altogether! This can be a very absorbing scene and one that you may respond to in a variety of ways. There is no harm that can arise from this instruction, although, on the first occasion, the sensations that may be created can surprise you. Never be alarmed. Simply realize that no harm can come to you and just let things happen. By the time that you have vanished (!), you will be in a dissociated state. Why? Because the person becoming smaller and smaller must be some ‘other’ person from the one in the chair, and so the two must dissociate. The scene does not have to be a bed; it can be outdoors, or anywhere else you may like. The message is: be imaginative. Image c Dissociation 3: Change in Body-image I am becoming very, very heavy. So heavy that I feel as though I am made of lead, and I can feel myself sinking down into the chair as you become heavier and heavier …

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Now I am returning to my normal weight. I am becoming lighter and lighter; very light indeed, as light as a feather, and still lighter. And I am becoming so light that I can feel myself rising up just a little amount … Now I am returning to my normal weight, quickly and easily. And now I feel as if I am made of wood, yes I can feel myself made of wood. I am a young tree bending and swaying in the breeze, and I can feel the wind blowing through your leaves … And now I am becoming very porous, very porous indeed, so porous that the wind is blowing right through me. And I am expanding, expanding more and more and I am the wind. Yes, I am now the wind, blowing over mountains and lakes … And now I am becoming a whirlwind, yes, a whirlwind, and I am at the center and I am spinning faster and faster, faster and faster. So fast now that I go shooting off into space. Once again, this can become very absorbing because you will experience a number of sensations. As the scene unfolds, you should allow enough time in the pauses (denoted …) to let the sensations take effect on the body. Inevitably, you will dissociate from the person in the chair. Your thoughts and your conscious awareness seem to be ‘out there’ in the wind and in the whirlwind. If you have not dissociated before you become a whirlwind, this will almost certainly bring it about. Once these instructions have been completed and you have gone off into space (!), after some moments of silence you can continue with suggestions, because now you will be in a much more suggestible state.

8.2 Some Points About Dissociation Having tried some, or all, of these exercises on dissociation, you will have a clear appreciation of what it means. The first observation to make about your response is that your attention is moved to the scene – whether rising out of your body, becoming smaller, or becoming a whirlwind. Your attention is directed away from your physical body and there is a splitting of consciousness. This allows you to release the conscious hold on your physical body, which remains sitting in the chair. The right brain is then free to operate on your physical body, by means of the unconscious mind. Far from being an act of introversion, dissociation allows you to have a clearer perspective about your body image because you can become critical of yourself. Psychologists have demonstrated that we do have a body image, which has been shaped by past experiences and associations with people and places. Dissociation allows you both to distort your body image temporarily, and to take on others. This, then, gives you more of an appreciation of your own body image. You cannot be aware of air, which is necessary for life. You can be aware of polluted air, or more significantly you can be aware of its absence, but you cannot be aware of its presence. The same tends to be true about body image. But, unlike air, we can become aware of it by means of dissociation. A second observation about dissociation is its use in such things as ‘glove anesthesia’, i.e., the loss of feeling in the hand, or anesthesia in other parts of the body. What is done, in these cases, is to dissociate the appropriate part of the body. Let us take glove anesthesia as the simplest example. In this instruction, the object is to dissociate the hand. When this is done, your awareness lies ‘outside’ in the imagined hand and so leaves your physical hand

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insensitive to pain. You can only feel pain when you are aware of it, and since your awareness is ‘in’ the imagined hand that feels no pain, then you feel no pain. Before proceeding with the instructions, it is important first to know the location of your actual right arm, on which we shall direct attention. We shall assume, throughout, that you have both arms on the arms of the chair. Image d Glove Anesthesia I can imagine raising my right arm until it is horizontal. I can see, in my mind’s eye, my right arm held out horizontal. I can feel the tension in my horizontal arm as it stretches out straight. All my awareness is concentrated on my right outstretched arm. I can see my right hand, with fingers outstretched, pointing at the wall opposite. [Continue the image until the awareness is well established in your ‘extended limb’.] This type of suggestion is usually undertaken in a heterohypnotic situation. If anesthesia can be accomplished, it has been used in operations, childbirth and dentistry. In the self-hypnotic context it can only be used as a means of redirecting your attention, your awareness, away from the source of the pain. If, however, you had a pain in your right hand, you would be better to direct your attention completely away from your hand and to something different. The point of including this is to demonstrate the importance of dissociation. All research demonstrates that pain remains present in the location, but if you can redirect your awareness away from the location of the pain, then the pain will not be felt. Dissociation is just one technique of redirecting your awareness. The idea of dissociation in your arm is useful in another phenomenon, namely that of automatic writing. Although automatic writing can be done in a non-hypnotic state and without the aid of dissociation, it can be accomplished easier by means of hypnosis. The idea is basically the same as glove anesthesia, but now, having dissociated your awareness away from your physical right hand, you then make suggestions to the effect that your right hand, which is now resting on a page of paper and holding a pen, is controlled solely by the unconscious mind. Thus, you prepare yourself with a board and paper on your lap and a pen resting in your right hand. You then dissociate as in glove anesthesia, and continue the suggestions in the following manner. Image e Automatic Writing I can imagine my right arm and hand now in the air. All of my awareness is in my right arm that is in the air. The right arm on the pad is now being controlled by my unconscious mind. Yes, my awareness is on my right arm in the air but my unconscious mind is controlling my right arm on the pad … And now my unconscious mind is making my right hand write on the paper. It is going to write whatever it wishes, whatever it feels I ought to know. Wait a few moments. The writing may begin in a jerky fashion, it may or may not be intelligible; it may even be in the form of mirror writing. Most certainly, it could be joined together and use its own form of shorthand, e.g. to, too or two is likely to be written as ‘2’. Basically, the right brain does not conform to the correct usage of English. This has begun to interest those involved in linguistics, but they must realize that ‘primitive language’, or what Chomsky calls ‘deep structure’, is a feature of the right brain and not the left, in which words and ‘surface structure’ is processed. In carrying out automatic writing you need not be in a

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hypnotic state, but you must be capable of dissociating your writing arm. This is a clear illustration of why dissociation and hypnosis are different. A third aspect of dissociation is its relationship to fantasy. The easier you find it to fantasize, the easier you will find it to dissociate. Children like fairy stories and fantasize quite frequently. They also frequently dissociate. They do not consider this unusual; because, to them, it seems quite natural and all children do it to varying degrees – they, at least, understand what each other mean! As we ‘put away such childish things’, so we also tend to put away fantasizing. Why this is classified as ‘childish’ and not ‘grown up’ is, in my view, a feature of our age of reason. As reason and logic have become dominant, so we have become very left brain dominated, and so such fantasies have been demoted, simply because they do not involve reason. But the human mind is more aware of its needs than man gives it credit for, and so such tales remain. Parents rarely fail to get some personal delight when telling their children a fairy tale. This mode of expression has remained in places like India and the near East. The Tales of a Thousand and One Nights still has great charm for the young and old alike. The need for such (right brain) stimulus is well attested by Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, which required it to be classified as a ‘grown up’ fairy tale before it really became popular – and because even more popular (with both children and parents) once the film was released in 2002. Star Trek, probably the most popular TV science fiction series, was originally screened during children’s hour (at least in Britain), but now has a wide adult following. Fairy tales, like science fiction, possess a charm that appeals, not to our reason, but to our imagination; not to the left brain, but to the right; not to the conscious mind, but to the unconscious mind.

8.3 Dissociation and the Ego It is not my intention here to become involved in a psychological debate, especially on the merits of Freudian concepts of personality. These concepts have now become part of our common language. Freud saw personality as composed of three interrelated systems that he called the id, the ego and the superego. Briefly, the id is the original source of personality with which a child is born, including its instincts and drives. The id works according to the pleasure principle – it avoids pain and obtains pleasure, regardless of external considerations. The id, however, is constrained by the later developments of the ego and the superego. The ego relates the mental images with reality: it works according to the reality principle, which requires it to test reality and delay any bodily tensions until the appropriate environmental conditions are obtained. The ego is realistic and logical, and its purpose is to create a plan, which can be executed in the environment in which it lives, in order to achieve satisfaction. Thus the id requires immediate satisfaction, while the ego intervenes and chooses the time, the place, and which conditions are to be satisfied. The ego is the ‘executor’ of the id. The superego concerns a person’s values and morals. As the ego is the executor of the id, so the superego considers whether the plan of action, chosen by the ego, does not violate the values and morals of society, to which the individual belongs. It is very important to realize that when hypnosis is achieved, we have a more direct link with the id. In addition, the superego is still operating at all times – both in the waking state and in the hypnotic state. Of course, because reality testing has been suspended, a person can be

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fooled into believing something which is harmful is not really so. In other words, if the superego is fooled, then the person may carry out something that the superego would normally have not allowed. For this to occur, the person would have to be a somnambulist so that the ego is fully repressed. Furthermore, this fooling of the ego can only take place in heterohypnosis; if you were hypnotizing yourself you would not want to fool your superego. But what has all this to do with dissociation? By dissociating, a person can become an observer – either of himself or herself or someone else. More to the point, they can experience things that would otherwise be prevented by their ego. To illustrate, take the case where you have to make an important decision, e.g., a change of job. You could then attempt the following experiment. After inducing hypnosis you could carry out dissociation. Once dissociated, you can begin to ask the person in the chair about their present job; how they feel about it; what they would think about having another job, and so on. The answers, so elicited, would be those that are most ‘true to your nature’. One important point must be stressed, however. It is the case that the answers are true to your nature, but because the ego has been suppressed the answers you may receive may not be feasible, given your present circumstances, i.e., they may be unrealistic! If this is the case, you will know this because you will be anxious and tense, to some extent, until your true nature has been satisfied. For instance, it is possible that the new job pays less money, but gives you greater satisfaction. Your unconscious, freed from the ego, will allow the pleasure principle to operate freely and you may, accordingly, reply that you should take the new job. If your financial circumstances cannot afford such a move, then caution is clearly called for. If you knew you would get more satisfaction from the new job, then such a use of selfhypnosis would be uncalled for. But often we do not know how much we dislike the job we are in. Suppose, therefore, that you were considering a change of job that paid roughly the same, but involved a complete change in lifestyle for you and your family. It is for this type of decision that self- hypnosis and dissociation can be most useful to you. We have already dealt with the problem of giving a public talk in chapter 0. Seeing yourself giving such a talk in your mind’s eye, means that you have already dissociated to some extent, and it can be made even more effective by first dissociating. The person ‘outside’ who is free from all anxiety and pressure, i.e., is free from the ego, can then be seen to give the talk. The suggestion that you will do precisely the same when the event arises is an important post-hypnotic suggestion to add. Since you have ‘seen’ it done and since the ‘you’ in the chair is separated from this other ‘you’, then the post-hypnotic suggestion will be more readily accepted. The conclusion to draw from this chapter is that, for the self-hypnotist, the facility to dissociate can be used in a variety of ways, and all to your benefit. More explicit uses will be provided in part IV.

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Chapter 9 Time Distortion

Summary In this chapter we explain the meaning of time distortion, with the help of a hologram. We then turn to how to achieve time distortion and its uses. Finally the special case of time distortion in post hypnotic suggestions.

CHAPTER 9 TIME DISTORTION Time distortion is probably the second most important use of hypnosis, after that of relaxation, at least in terms of the non-medical uses. But what is time distortion? To explain this, a distinction must be made between clock time (or objective time) and subjective time. Clock time means what it says; namely, the time that elapses as registered by the clock. Subjective time, on the other hand, is the elapse of time that a person perceives has taken place. Consider some examples. Most people have experienced waiting for a bus or train, when time seems to go very slowly indeed; it may feel as though twenty or more minutes have elapsed when, by clock time, only a minute or two has passed. The same experience is felt when you cannot get to sleep. It may feel as if you have been lying there for hours, when it is in fact, no more than fifteen minutes. These are examples of time expansion. A different sense of time tends to occur when you are very absorbed in something, then time just seems to fly. Two or more hours, as measured by the clock, may have elapsed and yet you feel as though it has only been half-an-hour. In the morning, you awake and, on occasions, lie there for what you feel is only two minutes which, by clock time, is half-an-hour or more. These are examples of time contraction. Time expansion and time contraction is illustrated in figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1 Time expansion and time contraction These experiences are so common that people often fail to see their true significance. To begin with, these examples show that subjective time and clock time are not the same thing. Given that they are not the same thing, an event can be experienced either according to clock time or to subjective time. In the examples just cited, one seems to have no control over whether you experience something by clock time or subjective time. But they do illustrate that subjective time is purely a feature of your state of mind. Once this is realized, it is but a short, and significant, step to realize that subjective time can be controlled. You would never raise the question, ‘How can subjective time be controlled?’ unless you consider that it can, in the first instance, be subject to control. It can, and this chapter is concerned with how to

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control subjective time: how to expand it and how to contract it. Because so few people are aware that subjective time can be controlled, I shall begin with a hypothetical explanation as to how it is possible to distort subjective time. Recent research into how the brain works suggests that it functions like a holograph. Before explaining a hologram, we shall first consider an analogy provided by Bentov in his Stalking the Wild Pendulum. Imagine a pail of water in which three pebbles are dropped, as illustrated in the following figure on the left-hand side. These will create ripples that will interact with each other. Imagine, now, that the water is frozen instantly and a layer of extracted, as shown by the figure on the right.

Figure 9.2 Ripples from dropping three pebbles into water Now if we take a slice of this layer, then information about all three pebbles is recorded, in terms of the interaction that is taking place in the ripples (which are now frozen). In other words, the slice does not simply record the information about the pebble in its area, but also information about the other two pebbles in a different part of the layer. Each slice, as it were, has information about the whole. It is this aspect that is important in holography. The basic idea of a hologram is illustrated in the next figure, where a hologram of an apple is being constructed. The upper part shows a laser beam that is split into two parts. One part continues until it hits the photographic plate, this is called the reference beam. In the lower part, consisting of the working beam, the beam comes into contact with an object (here an apple) before it hits the photographic plate. The two beams meet on the photographic plate and interact, forming an interference pattern – just like the frozen ice. This constitutes the hologram and it looks very much like a contour map rather than anything like a photograph of the original object. It, however, a laser beam is once again shone on the exposed film, an

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apple will appear in mid-air and with a three-dimensional appearance. Just as for the pebbles, it is the two beams that interact to form the hologram.

Figure 9.3 Hologram of an apple In normal photography, each point on the photographic plate records only that part of the image that falls on that section. While in the holograph we see that each point of the hologram stores all the information about the object. Each point contributes more information and clarifies the object, because each point records the object from a slightly different angle.

9.1 Instructions for Creating Time Distortion Time distortion is fairly easy to obtain, although the duration of time distortion requires practice. Under hypnosis, man’s in-built clock can be controlled to some degree. The initial instructions for time distortion are always the same – a straightforward statement of the time to be distorted. For instance: ‘In just one minute of clock time, you will experience thirty minutes of subjective time’; or, alternatively, the statement can be left ambiguous, but with specified limits, e.g. ‘you will, in one minute of clock time, solve this problem which normally takes about thirty minutes’. Both of these are examples of time expansion, which have a number of non-medical uses, as we shall see in later chapters. Time contraction is more difficult, but why this is so is not known. It has many uses in clinical situations, most

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notably, shortening the time a pain is experienced. In section 9.2 we shall illustrate the use of time contraction in shortening the subjective experience of the time that a journey takes. Time expansion 1: The Time Machine I am now going to expand time. One minute of clock time is going to feel like thirty minutes to me. Yes, in one minute, I am going to feel as if thirty minutes have elapsed, and this time distortion will remain until I return it once again to normal. I am sitting in a time machine, just like the one created in H. G. Wells’ novel by that name, and I am seated before a window, through which I have no difficulty in seeing out. I now push the lever forward and time begins to speed up. I can see things moving across the window, and they are moving faster and faster, yes they are moving faster and faster. Day becomes night, and then night becomes day. And the night follows the day, more and more quickly. The seasons now become noticeable, because time is moving very, very quickly. And now it all goes dark. (Pause) My time is now slowing down to normal. Yes, my sense of time has returned to normal. With no difficulty at all, I am now back to normal. During this set of suggestions, a variety of sensations will probably be experienced. The most conspicuous is a sense of speed. Furthermore, the whole suggestion will probably take a few minutes of clock time, but your subjective experience of the lapse of time will be much longer. Although you suggested one minute into thirty this is unlikely to be the actual distortion, although the difference will become longer with practice. During this sequence, you may also dissociate, as you may in other time distortion experiments. A variant of the above, which will appeal to the scientist or science fiction lover, is the following. In this, we will not again repeat the distortion, and we shall shorten the instructions because they are basically the same as for the time machine. You can elaborate, and above all, picture the whole sequence. Time expansion 2: Space Travel [Stipulate the time distortion first, then continue as follows.] I am on a disc, tied down securely. The disc is below a dome on the roof, which opens up to the sky. And now the disc begins to spin, faster and faster (repeat, increasing the speed). The dome now opens and I fly out off into space. I pass the planets, the stars, and the moons, going faster and faster. And I am now being pulled into a black hole, ever faster (repeat). I am now through the black hole where time is motionless and everything is dark and peaceful. [Now return your sense of time to normality.] This set of instructions will, in all probability, elicit the same sensations as the first, with the possible exception of the final stage, which can produce blackness and a feeling of emptiness far greater than you may have experienced before. This particular instruction may also cause a far greater degree of dissociation. In addition, both instructions will deepen the hypnotic state automatically, because of the deep involvement in the subjective experiences.

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Time contraction is more difficult to elicit and it is generally more difficult to devise scenes that will help in developing this technique. The object, however, is for you to create a scene in which you become very involved and that would generally take a long time for such an event or situation to unfold. In this way a long journey, for instance, can be passed without too much notice: a two or three hour journey can be reduced to thirty minutes or so. The more involved and detailed the scene, the longer your attention will be held by this and not focused on the journey. Time Contraction Thirty minutes of actual time are going to feel like five minutes to me. Yes, time is going to go by very, very quickly, just as it does whenever I become very interested in something. Yes, in thirty minutes of subjective time, my entire journey of three hours is going to be over. [Now create the most vivid scene you can, paying attention to details, no matter how small. Be involved in it. More importantly, have a clock somewhere in the scene that strikes twelve, and between each strike continue to elaborate on the scene. A fairy tale or something from the Arabian Nights is ideal.] The object, of course, is to become involved in the scene: to become so interested and involved that your attention becomes very directed to it. This slows down your subjective sense of time and so actual time goes more quickly.

9.2 Uses of Time Distortion It is apparent that time distortion refers only to mental thinking, and not to physical responses of the body. Even with time expansion, you cannot build a doll’s house in half the time. You can, however, reduce the objective time taken from the amount of time you would normally take. But we shall return to this later. The point being made at the moment is that the uses of time distortion are limited to mental actions. Under hypnosis and using time expansion, it is possible in five clock minutes or so to re-experience the reading of a whole novel or to see, once again, the whole of Gone with the Wind. As explained earlier, this is likely to arise from the holographic nature of the mind. The suggestion used to elicit experiences of this nature, is as follows. Re-experiencing a Whole Film or Novel in Five Minutes In a moment, when I snap my fingers, I will imagine that I am once again watching Gone With the Wind, and in just five minutes I will have watched the whole movie through again in my mind’s eye; yes, the whole of the film, with no difficulty at all, and in all its detail. [Now snap your fingers.] There is more to this than watching a film. The brain records all past and present experiences. Under hypnosis, these can be recalled much easier than normal and, certainly, in more detail than normal. Combined with time expansion, you can re-read a whole book, for instance, and so help your memory and recall. As an educational device, this is extremely valuable – and it costs nothing!

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Here, I wish to consider further just one other non-medical use of time distortion: namely, solving a problem. Solving problems, whether they are to do with the household or are of a more technical nature, are both time-consuming and require the expenditure of a great deal of energy. This loss of energy often goes unnoticed, except when the problem is solved. Then, a sense of relief is usually felt, which is quite noticeable. Alternatively, those people who worry about problems at the unconscious level tend to create tensions somewhere in the musculature of their bodies – especially in the walls of the stomach (which also tend to aggravate ulcers). The act of hypnosis reduces tensions, and allows you to approach a given problem more effectively and more objectively. By also using time distortion, you can amass in your mind all the relevant facts, and begin to solve the problem in far less time than you would take in your normal waking state. The reason for this should now be fairly apparent. Under hypnosis, you are concerned only about that which you have decided to direct your attention to, namely the problem, at the exclusion of everything else. Second, you have reduced your general level of tension, which allows more energy to be directed at the problem – rather than in a wasteful tension of the muscles. Third, your recall of information is far superior to normal. Finally, by speeding up the process, you can obtain a better understanding of the different facets of the problem, which, in turn, helps in formulating a solution more quickly – and almost certainly a better solution, if more than one exists. Let me expand on this issue a little further. Suppose you cannot keep all the facts, etc., in your head, or that you wish to write out steps in obtaining the solution, or to draw a diagram. In other words, suppose that, in coming to a solution, you must consider material that you have gathered, constructed, sketched, or whatever. In this case, you wish to approach the solution somewhat differently. The first job is to hypnotize yourself and then carry out a time distortion instruction. Having done this, you then give yourself the following suggestions. Problem-solving In a moment, when I say, I will open my eyes and I will go to my desk (table, or whatever), which has all the necessary information that I require in considering my problem. And because five minutes of time is going to feel like thirty minutes to me, then I will find that the solution to the problem will arise quicker than normal. I will be able to marshal all the facts very easily, and the solution will come to me very easily and very quickly. [Now open your eyes and go to work.] If necessary, elaborate the suggestions with specific details, in the light of whatever problem you are trying to solve. You will notice that there is no termination to the trance state in these instructions. Once you have completed the task of solving your problem, and even if you do not manage a complete solution, you should then awaken yourself. An alternative approach is rather than initially being in a trance state, you could give yourself a post-hypnotic suggestion to the effect that as soon as you come out of trance you will go to your desk and begin to solve the problem and while you are doing this five minutes will feel like thirty minutes of time and so you will solve in five minutes what normally takes thirty minutes. It is also possible to use this technique in earlier stages, such as setting out the problem, seeing whether the problem can be looked at in a variety of ways. Creativity is a right brain feature and, under hypnosis, this has a greater chance of arising. If your work involves

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design, then, at this stage, engage in self-hypnosis so that you can apply the creativity that we all possess, but under utilize. The educational value of time distortion is very great and is quite underrated in the literature on hypnosis, largely, I feel, because of the greater emphasis on the medical uses of hypnosis. This is one of the costs of allowing the medical profession to monopolize the training of professional hypnotists.

9.3 Time Distortion and Post-Hypnotic Suggestions In the previous section, I highlighted the use of time expansion as an aid in solving problems. Another possibility is to combine time distortion with a post-hypnotic suggestion. We shall do this with the use of time contraction, since we have not used this feature as frequently as time expansion. Chores of one sort and another are, to many people, drudgery and because they are such drudgery, they seem to take a long time to do, either as measured by the clock and/or in terms of subjective time – but most especially subjective time. Just as we do not like waiting for a bus and, and as a consequence it seems to take ages in coming, so with unpleasant tasks, such as housework. It is true that some people like housework, but for many it is something that must be tolerated, no matter how distasteful. In this section, I shall concentrate on this one example as an illustration of the use of time contraction with a post-hypnotic suggestion. It can be readily adapted to other situations. I shall first give the instructions and then discuss them, referring to the numbers in brackets. First induce hypnosis. There is no need to carry out a time distortion because this will be contained in the post-hypnotic suggestion. Housework (or any disagreeable job) When I awaken, I will go about doing my housework. I will begin with the living room, then go on to the kitchen, etc. (1). I can see myself going through each room, doing all that is necessary. (2). And while I am doing this, which I will do when I awaken, I will not notice time passing and very soon all the housework will be done. I will be able to get through all of my housework in no time at all. I will concentrate on each task and think of nothing else. (repeat) (3). You will feel happy and will direct all my attention to the task in hand. Yes, I will go from the living room to the kitchen, and then on to … And in no time at all, the housework will be done and I will be very pleased and most satisfied with my progress and what I have accomplished. Let me now explain the three points. (1) It is useful to have a clear idea of which rooms and in what order you wish to do the housework, and to do this before you induce self-hypnosis. This is so that you can give yourself the instructions without having to think about it, for to think about it will activate your left brain. The order is purely illustrative, but it is best to begin with the most disagreeable task because the post-hypnotic suggestion will be strongest at this stage. This approach also has the advantage that, as the jobs get shorter, you will,

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quite naturally, take less time to do them, and so the success of the suggestions will act as a reinforcement. (2) It is very important to carry out the visualization. Actually see yourself hoovering the floor, washing the dishes, etc. Furthermore, see yourself doing these in a very happy frame of mind – singing if you like that. In all likelihood, you will do the work very much as pictured. If you can, try introducing some fun into the whole affair. A job is not, in itself, drudgery: it is your attitude towards the job that makes it so. Knowing this, it can be eliminated and even replaced by something else. So why not introduce some humour into the whole affair. If you have children, include them in the work and turn it into a game. Be imaginative, and housework, or any job, can take on a totally new dimension. (3) This is an important suggestion. It can be referred to as the principle of one-pointed attention. Jobs often take longer than necessary because a person’s whole attention is not on the job in hand. How often are we doing one thing while thinking about something else? This should be avoided at all costs. This one-pointed attention should be cultivated in all things you do, and not just in this post-hypnotic suggestion concerning housework. The more busy you are, especially if this means you have a variety of jobs to deal with, then the more important it is to deal with each problem in turn, and devote all your attention to that one task. When this is done, then and only then should you turn your attention to the next job. If you do have many jobs, always workout in advance of the hypnotic induction, the sequence in which they are to be carried out. I shall return to one-pointed attention in chapter 0, where a specific set of instructions for achieving it will be given.

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Chapter 10 External Aids

Summary In this chapter we discuss some useful external aids that can be utilized in inducing and deepening the hypnotic state. Special attention is paid to utilizing available software for producing sessions that incorporate suggestions, sounds and sometimes flashing images.

CHAPTER 10 EXTERNAL AIDS External aids can be used in five areas of hypnosis: 1. Induction 2. Utilizing scripts 3. Metaphors 4. Stories 5. Affirmations The most important is with regard to utilizing scripts.

10.1 Induction aids It is when induction is a problem that an external aid may be found useful. We have already discussed one external aid in a different context, namely Chevreul’s pendulum, discussed in chapter 12. It is possible to induce hypnosis by focusing on the object at the end of the swinging cord, but this is not sensible for the self-hypnotist. When considering aids to induction it is useful to reconsider what induction is trying to do. The object of induction is to narrow the focus and reduce sensory input as much as possible. It is possible just to focus on a spot on the wall. But it is much easier to focus on a spot if the eyes are drawn into the object of focus. A simple drawing placed on an A4 sheet of paper will do, as illustrated in figure 10.1. Not only are the eyes drawn to the centre of the drawing, but also the pattern of lines makes your vision go in and out of focus, tiring the eyes and creating a desire to close them. Simply stare at the centre of the picture and repeat that your eyelids are getting heavier and heavier; and that they will soon close and you will go into a deep, deep trance state. You may add that your vision will go in and out of focus, which it will do, and that this will bring on the trance state that much easier. Once you get used to going into trance you can abandon such a prop.

Figure 10.1 Image on which to focus Any drawing or object can act as a means of focusing your attention. Some other typical shapes you may wish to try are illustrated in figure 10.2. What matters is that it is something you can stare at for any length of time without it upsetting you in any way. Some modern lamps with floating bubbles are ideal; or a favourite object you have around the house, such as a paperweight, will also do fine. In general flashing lights should be avoided. However, if you can sit comfortably in front of your computer screen, then induction can be aided with

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the use of Microsoft’s Media Player, which comes with Windows. Have a look through the musical colours and choose one that you find pleasing. Play some soothing music and stare at the screen, which now sends coloured patterns across in synchronization with the music. Since you will be giving yourself instructions (or playing a CD as outlined below), then the music should be non-vocal.

Figure 10.2 Alternative images on which to focusing One object that has been popular is the metronome. Set the beat to about 60 or 70 beats to the minute. The first is the beat for baroque music while the latter is just under your normal heart rate. Stare at the swinging arm as you repeat to yourself the induction routine. Personally, I have never found the metronome satisfactory. Sometimes the winder runs out before you have induced hypnosis – especially when you first begin. Alternatively, your eyes are closed and you are in a slight trance state and the metronome is still going. This might not be a problem to you, but if it is this is a signal to find an alternative prop to aid in the induction of hypnosis.

10.2 Utilizing scripts A major use of external aids is in the utilization of scripts. We have in this book set out many scripts but all are simply texts. There are two ways you can enhance the impact of scripts. The first, and simplest, uses no technology just simple pictures and designs. The second utilizes a more technological approach and places the scripts on tape or even CD. We shall discuss both in this section. One can, of course, simply memorize a script – or at least the basic gist of the script. But this is a very left brain approach to scripts, basing its impact on the verbal construction of the script and on any intonation of voice used. But a script will have more impact if both sides of the brain are utilized in the process.

10.2.1 Scripts with illustrations Suppose you are not at all technologically minded and do not want to get involved in taping a script or placing a script on a CD using a computer. There is still an approach you can take beyond simply reading the script to yourself. The idea is very straightforward. Take any script and add to it pictures, drawings cutouts from magazines etc. Even this act itself will

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implant in your mind the significance of the part of the script you are attempting to illustrate. You will have to think about the script in order to know what type of picture or drawing will enhance what it is referring to. You will need to look through magazines with a purpose and focus for illustrations. Not only are pictures and drawings a right brain function, but also the very act of seeking them out focuses the mind on the important features of the script. Nice colourful glossy pictures from magazines are most useful but it is not always possible to find the exact one that matches the script. Include a drawing – and do not worry about your artistic talents. What matters is that the drawing enhances in a meaningful way what is being conveyed in the script. Furthermore, no one need see these scripts. Of course, some scripts lend themselves more readily to illustration, but the idea is to be as ingenious as you can. The creative images also contained in this book are, for this reason, much easier to illustrate. Here we shall concentrate on the scripts, but everything applies to the creative images too. We shall just deal with one script as an illustration. Reconsider script #15 on going down to a crystal cave. This is a deepening script, the purpose of which is to increase the depth of the trance state. Let us break this script down into parts and list possible illustrations for each part. 1. Walking over the hills. 2. A set of rocks with a crevice between two large boulders. 3. A passage down into the mountain. 4. Entrance to an inner cave that glows. 5. An inner crystal cave. The aim now is to find pictures from magazines that come close to these items. Use your camera and take photographs of things that can be utilized in your scripts. If this cannot be done, then draw (or even better still paint) illustrations. Design a border around the script if that is something you like doing. Do not just type the script, put it in calligraphy. In other words, put a lot of effort into the design of the script. The possibilities are endless. What matters most is that the illustrations are chosen by you and have meaning to you. For instance, you do not have to have the entrance to the mountain through two boulders. Suppose you were recently on holiday and entered a set of caves, of which you have photographs. Use these instead. Change the script to conform to your holiday photograph. The script, after all, is simply a guide.

10.3 Creating tapes and CDs For the self-hypnotist the major difficulty is always shutting off parts of the left brain while still keeping enough conscious control to give suggestions. We pointed out in chapter 15 how dissociation can help in this regard. Another method is the use of cassette tapes or, more usual these days, CDs. This is a halfway house between heterohypnosis and self-hypnosis. Once you can readily enter the hypnotic state, then it is possible to use tapes/CDs with instructions for deepening, for post-hypnotic suggestions, or any other suggestions that you may want to give – some of which we shall discuss in part IV. It is even possible to put the whole induction, deepening and termination routine on the one tape/CD. This has the advantage that you can sit back and just let things happen. Recording post-hypnotic suggestions is extremely useful for the self-hypnotist because a greater hypnotic depth can be achieved and so the greater the possibility of success.

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The general routine is exactly the same as we have outlined, so far, in this book. But some comments on the use of recordings is worthwhile. We shall discuss four aspects. 1. The very beginning of the induction. 2. Deepening – involving a specified reaction in a specified time. 3. How to deal with an emergency when you are alone. 4. What if you do not wake up when the termination instruction is given? If you record an induction which begins with your eyes open, and it contains suggestions that your eyelids will become heavier and heavier, then this has the disadvantage that your eyes may close before the instruction to close them is given. This can be annoying. The way out of this is either to begin with your eyes closed and start the toe-to-head relaxation (see script #1); or, alternatively, simply say to close your eyes when you count to three. Then continue to one suggesting relaxation and going deeper. Pause, and then begin the toe-to-head relaxation suggestions. The same idea applies to deepening. Counting is useful because you simply respond to the suggestions. Arm heaviness is useful because if you do not respond fully then this will not hold back the next suggestion. This is why raising your arm may not be so useful on a recording. If you do not respond by the time the recording thinks you have, it will finish the suggestion without any response on your part, which may act negatively on your unconscious mind. This also applies to arm rigidity. Eye catalepsy is useful if you respond to it without opening your eyes. If, however, you do open your eyes this suggestion should be removed from the recording. However, first try the recording a few times. If you do respond to the recording, it may be that you do not hear noises such as the noise of passing cars or the refrigerator. The worry may then arise that you will not hear the telephone ring, a knock at the door, or some emergency. This is not true. It is well known that a mother can sleep soundly and not awaken, even with fairly loud bangs, but will awaken immediately the slightest sound occurs from her baby. This facility of specific attention is by no means restricted to mothers or to the state of sleep. A well-documented situation is that of hearing your own name in a party bustling with noise. You may even be able to hear and respond to the person you are with, but be paying attention to another conversation about which you are particularly interested. Although you are withdrawing your senses from outside stimuli, you can always ‘hear’ them, but you do not generally register them in your consciousness. When you record a session, therefore, a fairly early suggestion should be one that involves reassurance that you will awaken immediately if the need arises. The suggestion can go something like the following. We assume here that this is a tape, and so there is an additional safeguard in case the tape should get entangled. Taping a Reassurance Instruction You know that, even when you sleep at night you have in you a safeguard to awaken you in an emergency, so during your hypnosis the same guard will awaken you if the door bell or telephone rings, or if an emergency occurs that requires your immediate attention. Yes, you will immediately awaken if something requires your immediate attention. And you will have no difficulty awakening. And so if the tape should get entangled or stop for some reason, then for this too you will immediately awaken.

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And because you know that, for whatever reason, you will awaken if the need arises, then this will ease your mind and so allow you to give yourself up, utterly and totally to this hypnotic session, in the knowledge and confidence that you will immediately awaken if the need arises. Now relax, let go and give yourself up to the trance state. Let us suppose the recording runs through its suggestions and comes to the last that terminates your hypnosis, but you do not wake up. In one respect this should not happen if you have responded to the suggestions prior to this one, but let us suppose you have, but still do not awaken because you do not consider this an ‘emergency’ and you are feeling pleasantly relaxed. Either you can simply repeat to yourself the termination suggestions, or if you are very deep you will come out naturally because the hypnotic depth cannot be maintained in periods of prolonged silence. You may even fall into a natural sleep from which you will also awaken as from a light nap. This is most unlikely, but we have discussed it here to allay any concern that you may have and to show you how to deal with the unexpected if it should happen. Never worry, and simply continue the suggestions. If you are truly hypnotized (for how else could you not awaken!) then you respond to suggestion: hence, simply continue the suggestions and you are bound to respond very soon. Two other aids are worth considering. One is the use of the metronome, while the other is the use of music. We shall take these in turn. The metronome we have already encountered. Its value lies in the monotonous sound at a regular rhythm. It can be used either during induction and/or as a means of deepening. In both cases it is best set at seventy-two beats a minute – the heart beat. If it is used during the induction then it can replace looking at some point. You can, however, continue to look at a point while listening to the metronome. Alternatively, you can fix your eye on the swing of the bar while listening to the click. Some people respond to this very quickly. If used during deepening, you can suggest to yourself that with every click you will go deeper and deeper into trance. There is one difficulty in using the metronome in deepening when you are on your own, and that is that it may have totally unwound, which limits its use. One way to overcome this problem is to record the click of the metronome. The recording can then be employed as background during the induction and also used for deepening. The fact that the sound will be so regular means that the left brain will soon ignore its presence and pass it to the right brain. This will then influence your breathing and heart beat, so establishing a synchronized pattern. Just as the metronome can be used as background, so too can music – but not any kind of music. The first point is that the music must not be vocal and must either be a solo instrument or an orchestra. The music must be soft and slow. Films occasionally show Indians meditating with classical Indian music in the background. This is just what is needed. The Western music most suitable for this purpose is classical baroque, such as the music of Handel. Alternatively, there is now a ready supply of meditative music on the market that is ideal. However, what matters is that it is slow and soothing. It does not have to be all the one composition and can be made up by putting together appropriate pieces from individual records – such as all largo music. It is important that you find the music pleasing. If it jars, then delete it from the tape. There may be an unconscious reason for this dislike. To illustrate the point, the music may remind you of the seashore with the waves lapping on the rocks. For many people this can conjure up a most pleasing and soothing sensation. If, however, you lost a loved one in such a place, then such music will only bring to mind hurtful memories.

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This is an extreme example, but when something jars, the unconscious mind is sending out a signal that you should not ignore. The remarks so far have concentrated on making a tape. The problem with a tape is that the background music and your vocalization of the script must be recorded together. More problematic is that if you make a mistake, especially in the middle of the script, then the whole recording needs to begun again. The music and script need to be recorded together because a tape has only one track. (Although there are some recording instruments for doing four or more tracks, these are for musicians. They are not readily available, require special tapes and are expensive.) But there is a much better alternative if you have a computer with the appropriate hardware and software.

10.4 Computer software for hypnotherapists In the past, scripts could be taped and utilized for self-hypnosis. However, now there are a number of computer software programmes that allow personal scripts to be inserted and combined with such things as music and nature sounds. Some include flashing images for brain-wave entrainment. In this section we shall outline two such programmes. 1. SHARM 2. Neuro-programmer 3 What is particularly useful with these packages is that once the script and accompanying music and nature sounds have been created, the file can be exported which can be suitably played on a CD-player or downloaded onto an iPod or MP3 player. The two programmes, therefore, are suitable for the hypnotherapist and the person wanting to create self-help material.

10.4.1 SHARM Originally I explained making CD's using music software, which I have now deleted from this web site. This was very elaborate and not without difficulties. However, I have since discovered SHARM, which does all that I described - and much, much more. There are also other software packages on the market that make the making of CD's with music software redundant. SHARM is simple to use and is suitable for both the hypnotherapist and the person wanting to create self-help material. A link to SHARM's web site is provided below. Here I wish to describe briefly how it works and what can be done with it. The main features of SHARM are illustrated in Figure 10.3, which shows the basic window. Sessions are compiled by combining various soundtracks. The tracks included are shown on the left in Figure 103, and include tracks for suggestions, music, nature sounds, etc. Not all soundtracks are used for a particular session. Along a particular soundtrack are placed segments. These can contain particular suggestions, music or nature sounds for example. Each segment has its own properties - such as length, volume, bilateral effects, bird sounds, etc. Figure 10.4 shows a window with the properties for two different segments. The one on the left is for the first suggestion soundtrack, and in particular has audio files listed which are non-random. The one on the right is for the second suggestion soundtrack, and has audio files of suggestions which are to cycle in a random order for the time length of the overall segment length.

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Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

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The programme comes with a whole set of pre-recorded suggestions grouped under a set of broad categories, e.g. framework, health, peak performance and personal development. There are also a set of music files and nature segments. All these and other facilities are explained in SHARM's web site, which also contains videos and tutorials. The suggestion segments , which is one of the most important parts of the programme, can include random and non-random suggestions. (Non-random suggestions follow a linear sequence through the suggestions; random suggestions go through a list of suggestions randomly repeating them for as long as the segment length allows). So it is very easy to compose a whole session. The session length is set by the user, shown in the bottom lefthand corner in Figure 3. This is usually set first. Additional suggestion tracks can be added, so allowing overlays of suggestions, as illustrated in Figure 3. The same is true for other soundtracks. Once a session is composed to the satisfaction of the user (whether therapist or self-help user), it can then be recorded as a CD-player file (in either WAV or MP3 format). This file can then be played on the computer, e.g. in Media Player, or on any standard CD-player. The stereo effects are included, as are other sound characteristics, so listening with headphones is particularly recommended. There is much more to this programme, but all its many features can be found on SHARM's web site, which includes videos and tutorials, at: SHARM web site address :

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Chapter 11 Alternative Theories of Hypnosis

Summary Because hypnosis is difficult to define, and there is no agreed definition, so there are many theories that account for the phenomenon of hypnosis. In this chapter we outline eight theories of hypnosis. Each theory has a different focus on the phenomenon of hypnosis that account for their difference.

CHAPTER 11 ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS To anyone interested in how to hypnotize, whether this is hypnotizing someone else or selfhypnosis, it may be thought that an account of alternative theories is unnecessary. After all, to drive a car does not require you to know the theory of combustion or the theory of motion. Since we do not know exactly what hypnosis is, then why attempt to define it? But to talk of ‘hypnosis’ does imply some idea of what it is and why it is different from other observed phenomena. More importantly, however, is the tendency to view hypnosis from a particular point of view. This either means that the person has an explicit theory of hypnosis or, more likely, has an implicit one. Facts cannot be interpreted without some theory: heuristic or otherwise. Is hypnosis just an altered state of consciousness? Is hypnosis brought about by chemical changes in the brain? Is hypnosis just a particular form of suggestion? Is hypnosis regressing to a more primitive consciousness? The list could be extended, but it does highlight that there are alternative views about the subject. Of course, one reason why hypnosis cannot be defined is because there is no generally accepted theory of it. In outlining alternative theories we shall come to appreciate different aspects of the hypnotic phenomenon. But there is a famous Sufi story, recounted by Idries Shah, which acts as a warning. The story goes as follows.

Story: The Elephant

There was a city whose inhabitants were all blind. One day, the king arrived with his entourage and camped outside of the city. The king had a huge elephant that he used in battle and as a symbol of his authority. The villages were keen to know about the elephant and some went running out to the encampment to seek it, even though they had no idea what they were hoping to find. When this group came on the elephant they began to feel a part of it – and a different part. Each considered that he had knowledge of what the

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elephant was. When they returned to the village the inhabitants were eager to hear exactly what an elephant was. From those feeling it they heard: “It is a large, rough, thing, wide and broad, like a rug” (from the one who had felt its ear). “It is like a straight and hollow pipe, awful and destructive” (from the one who had felt its trunk). “It is mighty and firm, like a pillar” (from the one who had felt its feet and legs). Of course, each had felt only one part and had no true picture of the whole. So, like the alternative descriptions of the elephant, we have alternative views about hypnosis. None are likely to be wholly true, but each will give us some insight into hypnosis. We have already encountered this in our discussion of positive and negative hypnosis. The Salpêtrière had a theory of hypnosis that looked at it from the point of view of the sympathetic nervous system and considered it to be hystero-epilepsy. On the other hand, the Nancy school saw hypnosis from the point of view of the parasympathetic nervous system and based on suggestion. As we have pointed out, both probably had an element of truth, just like each villager who had touched a different part of the elephant had an element of truth about what an elephant was. This is not always so. A theory can be totally mistaken. We have already met this too. Animal magnetism has nothing to do with hypnosis. This was a mistaken theory. Hypnosis is not alone in holding to a mistaken theory for many years. In theorising about the movement of planets (the subject of cosmology) it was long held that the earth was the centre of the universe and that the planets moved around the earth. Planets were assumed to move in circles around the earth. When the facts did not fit, another circle was ‘invented’ to account for the ‘irregular’ movement. We now know this Ptolemaic theory was totally false. Planets revolve around the sun, and generally in elliptic orbits – the orbits of which are accounted for by gravitational force and the relationship of one body to another. In presenting the alternative theories of hypnosis we shall highlight not only what the theory attempts to explain, but also what it does not explain. We often gain more knowledge about a phenomenon when we consider what the theory does not explain. In doing this we shall draw on both the history outlined in chapter 1 and the nervous system outlined in chapter 2. In some cases we shall leave detailed discussion to later chapters where the topic is more thoroughly dealt with. Table 11.1 presents not only the list of theories we are about to discuss (and the section in which it is discussed), but also presents in brief form the features that each theory emphasizes.

11.1 State of hysteria We noted from our history that Charcot’s view about hypnosis being a state of hysteria was held quite widely for some time. The Salpêtrière hospital involved many patients who were either suffering from hysteria or from epilepsy. It was these patients that Charcot began to investigate by means of hypnosis in 1878. His investigations led him to conclude (to theorize) that the only persons who could be hypnotized were those suffering from hysteria and that hypnosis itself was simply a form of hysteria. This theory of hypnosis asserts that it is a physical phenomenon and an abnormality of the nervous system. But it had to account for the physical change. Charcot believed in animal magnetism. It was the stroking by means of magnets, or another external medium, that brought about the altered state. But the theory

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Table 11.1 Features of alternative theories of hypnosis

Theory

Section Brief summary

State of hysteria

11.1

Charcot’s view of hypnosis. Believed the only people who could be hypnotized where those suffering from hysteria. Hypnosis is an abnormality of the nervous syste.

No more than suggestion

11.2

Form of sleep

11.3

Multiple selves and dissociation

11.4

Role-playing

11.5

Altered state of consciousness

11.6

Regression

11.7

Hologram

11.8

Nancy school view. Hypnosis is merely a form of suggestion. Not a feature of the nervous system and possessed by everyone. All suggestion is autosuggestion and takes place at the unconscious level. View held by Pavolv. The word ‘sleep’ is a secondary stimuli and leads to a conditioned reflex that leads in turn to a physiological response we call hypnosis. “Go to sleep” continues to be used in hypnotic inductions. Individuals are composed of multiple personalities and during hypnosis an individual splits off (dissociates) and takes on one or other of these personalities losing volitional control in the process. In hypnosis people behave as they are expected to behave, i.e. they role-play. This role-playing depends on the attitude towards hypnosis, motivation, expectation and a willingness to cooperate. A state different from being awake, different from being asleep and different from other states - such as meditation. The most characteristic feature is being in a state of focused relaxation. Hypnosis is assumed to be a situation of reverting back to an infantile state in which the parent (hypnotist) provides guidance. An alternative regressionist theory does not involve transference but assumes reversion is to the more primitive brain structures. The brain is a hologram in which memory, vision amongst other things, are not localised but are generalised throughout the brain. Hypnosis is a way of tapping into the interference pattern that exists in a holographic universe.

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went further. Only individuals who were suffering from a hysterical disposition (known or otherwise) would respond to such magnetic stroking. All these conclusions, of course, were based on his experiments at the Salpêtrière, whose patients were not representative of the population at large. If one accepts such a theory, then the problem is that if most of the population can be hypnotized (which is now readily accepted), then most of the population are potentially or actually hysteric! This seems unlikely, or stretching the definition of hysterical too far. Furthermore, hysterical patients are harder to hypnotize than ‘normal’ individuals and it is often very difficult to hypnotize a hysterical patient. What appears to be the case is that most of the general population can be hypnotized. This would reject the hypothesis that only hysterical individuals can be hypnotized and that hypnosis is a form of hysteria. But before leaving this particular theory it is worth noting a few observations. First, the hypnotic state induced by the Salpêtrière was one of catatonic states and convulsions. It was negative hypnosis with a very active sympathetic nervous system, as defined in the last chapter. Second, if hysterical patients are not good subjects of hypnosis relative to the general population, what is the difference? The difference is the degree of suggestibility. There is, as we shall reveal later, a high degree of correlation between suggestibility and hypnosis. Hysterical patients are not highly suggestible individuals. Third, the work of the Nancy School, which used quiet suggestion, not only indicated that suggestion was a main element in the hypnotic induction, but that language played an important role. Although language appears a left brain function, this is only a superficial view. Language is vital in coming to a view of ‘self’. The concept of ‘self’ appears to be a left brain feature, as we shall develop later. But language has been subdivided into superficial language and deep language. Although superficial language is a left brain feature, deep language appears to be a right brain feature. Superficial language attracts the attention of the left brain, but then deep language, in the form of images, activates the right brain. Fourth, if self-hypnosis is possible, which it is, then for this theory to be true would imply that all individuals who could hypnotize themselves were potential or actual hysterics. Hysterical patients have only a tenuous view of ‘self’. Furthermore, their attention span is what makes it difficult to hypnotize them. Suggestion is made by means of language, and for this to happen, the subject must pay attention to the suggestions. If either the suggestions cannot be understood, or if attention cannot be paid to the suggestions, then hypnosis is difficult or impossible. At the same time, this may account for why ‘normal’ individuals could be hypnotized, contrary to Charcot’s view! The theory that hypnosis is a hysterical phenomenon does not, therefore, seem to hold up to scrutiny.

11.2 No more than suggestion The main alternative theory to Charcot’s was that put forward by the Nancy School. This theory of hypnosis, in its extreme form, asserts that hypnosis is a result of suggestion. That hypnosis was no more than a result of suggestion was asserted most strongly by Liébeault and Bernheim of the Nancy School. Bernheim, in his De la suggestion, argued that hypnosis was a form of sleep brought on by heightened suggestibility, most specifically established by verbal suggestions. This theory asserts, therefore, that hypnosis is not an abnormal feature of the nervous system (e.g., hysteria) but rather a feature that is possessed by everyone, and so

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almost everyone is capable of being hypnotized. A similar view was later asserted by the New Nancy School under the work of Coué and Baudouin (see Chapter 1). The main difference between the view of the New Nancy School and that of the earlier one was that the main factor in hypnosis was autosuggestion. Another important feature was that the main aspects of autosuggestion took place at the unconscious level. The continued investigation into hypnosis and suggestibility, especially in terms of suggestibility scales (see Section 1.4), would further support this theory. However, its extreme form, that hypnosis is a result of suggestion, does not hold up to scrutiny. In the first instance we need to be clear what is meant by suggestion. It may be that we are simply replacing the word ‘hypnosis’ by the word ‘suggestion’, neither of which are clearly understood. The Oxford Companion to the Mind does not even have a separate entry on ‘Suggestion’. Furthermore, the assertion by the New Nancy School that autosuggestions take place at the unconscious level means that their investigation is almost impossible. As such, the assertion can neither be proved nor disproved. Third, it is well known that some animals go into a state akin to hypnosis when fixated (e.g., the fixation carried out by a snake). Even in humans, a trance-like state can arise from fixating on a repeated pattern, especially flashing lights. If this is a state of hypnosis, then it can hardly be a result of suggestion. Lastly, we noted that Mesmer and other hypnotists could hypnotize subjects at a distance without them being conscious of the act. Whether they were unconscious of the act we shall consider later, but what matters here is that no direct verbal suggestions were involved. As a complete theory of hypnosis, the suggestion theory is flawed. That suggestion is an important element in many forms of hypnosis is not being denied. What we have in fact established is that suggestion is neither necessary nor sufficient for hypnosis to occur. This is an important observation. What the theories are trying to establish is the main ingredient of hypnosis: what is it that distinguishes this state from any other state? This may be some phenomenon, such as suggestion as argued by the two Nancy Schools, or some particular organ or location of the body. It may be none of these things! What the history of hypnosis reveals is that suggestion has played a vital role in most hypnotic states, especially the positive form of hypnosis. One possible conjecture that may be made is that suggestion is a vital ingredient of positive hypnosis but not necessarily a vital ingredient in negative hypnosis. The fixation response we referred to above is a reflex action on the part of the subject being fixated. The subject responds automatically and with no conscious control. At the same time the sympathetic nervous system is highly activated, with the subject in a ‘fight-or-flight’ state. Although suggestions are not necessary in this state, if such suggestions are made then they tend to be acted on without conscious volition. On the other hand, when the ‘relaxation response’ is invoked (see BOX 4) then a main, but by no means essential, ingredient is verbal suggestions. It is through the verbal suggestions that the individual brings about the ‘relaxation response’ so necessary for positive hypnosis.

11.3 Hypnosis is a form of sleep “Go to sleep” is probably one of the most used phrases when inducing hypnosis. Does this mean that hypnosis is a form of sleep? It is not ‘sleep’ in the normal sense of the word because the individual can talk and respond to the hypnotist. When in self-hypnosis the individual knows that they are not in the same state as when they go to sleep at night. Why, then, would anyone hypothesize that hypnosis was a form of sleep? The crucial word here is ‘form’, since we need to define exactly what form we are referring to. In order to explain this

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it is worth emphasising that the strongest exponent of hypnosis being a form of sleep is Pavlov (see Section 11.3.1). Pavlov classifies stimuli into two types: primary and secondary. Primary stimuli are those that directly affect the sense organs; while secondary stimuli are those that affect first the primary stimuli and which in turn affect the sense organs. Words are one of the main secondary stimuli and are particular to man. Thus, a word such as ‘sleep’ leads to a conditioned reflex that leads in turn to a physiological response (see Section 11.3.1). This conditioned reflex is set up early in life and so the word ‘sleep’ is a very strong secondary stimulus. Before being too dismissive of this theory let us look at it in more detail. First, hypnotists inducing hypnosis often suggest to the subject to “go to sleep”. Certainly this was the basis of Braid’s method, and was used by the Abbé Faria and by the Nancy School. It is still used to this day in many induction procedures and by stage hypnotistis. Second, to the casual observer, looking at a person who is hypnotized is like looking at someone asleep in the normal sense. Their eyes are closed, they are relaxed, and they do not respond unless spoken to. In deep hypnosis the individual does not remember what transpires when in the hypnotic state. Finally, the individual is asked to “awaken” in order to return him or her to a normal waking state. In all outward appearances, then, normal sleep and hypnosis look alike. Also, since hypnosis is induced by instructing the individual to “go to sleep” and to come out of hypnosis by “awakening”, then it seems reasonable to conclude that the two states are very similar. It is not surprising that ‘hypnosis’ is from the Greek word hypnos, meaning ‘sleep’, and that ‘somnambulism’ is from the Latin somnus (sleep) and ambulae (walk), which is used to describe a deeply hypnotized person. Returning to Pavlov’s theory, he considered sleep as being a state of reduced cortical stimulation and that hypnosis was half way between wakefulness and sleep. In other words, hypnosis was a partially reduced state of cortical stimulation. If an individual was exposed to prolonged monotonous environmental stimulation, then cortical inhibition takes place. This in turn reduces the motor activity of an individual, i.e., they become listless and lacking in movement. But Pavlov went further. He argued that under hypnosis, not only are motor components lost, but that they are lost in a progressive fashion. We immediately see from this that Pavlov sees hypnosis as being a characteristic of the cortex. As hypnosis progresses and deepens, so more of the cortex is inhibited. As more of the cortex is inhibited then movements of the hypnotized individual become more difficult and slower until there is no motor response at all. To different degrees, we do observe this phenomenon in hypnotized subjects. There are two aspects here we need to distinguish. First, is the superficial similarity between sleep and hypnosis. Second, is the hypothesis of cortical inhibition that occurs under hypnosis. The similarity between sleep and hypnosis has been fairly convincingly disproved: there is very little similarity between sleep and hypnosis – except at the most superficial level. When we consider such things as EEG, blood pressure, and physiological responses we find that the two phenomena differ significantly. Evans (1972), for example, reports that the basic EEG patterns of sleep in stages 2, 3 and 4 are quite different from those of an individual in hypnosis. Furthermore, deep hypnosis (somnambulism) and ‘sleep somnambulism’ also appear to be different. For instance, sleep somnambulism occurs in stage 4 of sleep, with characteristic delta waves (see Table 2.2, p00), whereas delta waves do not occur in deeply hypnotized subjects. It has also been found that there is little relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and alpha waves – although this is not a universal empirical result. Given the

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present interest in alpha waves, Evans concludes that alpha activity does not appear to vary during hypnosis. But what about cortical inhibition in both sleep and hypnosis? There is no doubt that cortical inhibition takes place in normal sleep. Eventually, the individual is immobile, there is little or no response to outside stimuli, and there is no rapport whatsoever with the hypnotist. As hypnosis is deepened and suggestions of “deep sleep” are repeated, then similar lack of motor control seems to occur. This may, as Pavlov suggested, be a conditioned response. But the word “sleep” need never be used in the hypnotic induction and deepening. Furthermore, a responsive individual can be instructed to feel quite alert, have their eyes open yet still be hypnotized, appear quite normal, but at all times responsive to the suggestions of the hypnotist. In this situation there is absolutely no correlation between normal sleep and hypnosis, or even between sleep somnambulism and deep hypnosis. What we are in danger of doing here is having an (incorrect) expectation about what the hypnotic state is. If we expect an individual to have the appearance and characteristics of sleep, if we reinforce this expectation with the constant repetition of the phrase “you are going to sleep... a deep, deep, sleep” then it is not surprising that for susceptible individuals they will respond as we and they are expected to respond. This was true in the time of Mesmer, and it is equally true today! The association between hypnosis and sleep is a very unfortunate one. The work of Erickson, and that of neuro-linguistic programmers (who base their work on Erickson), avoid the association with sleep and still hypnotize individuals very effectively. “Sleep” as a conditioned response appears neither necessary nor sufficient for hypnosis. But having said this, we should not dispense with all that we have learnt about why individuals go into hypnosis when “sleep” is suggested. When we go into a normal sleep, we shut down to a large extent the left brain. It is the left brain that houses our consciousness. Hence, when we go into a natural sleep we ‘lose consciousness’. At night, the right brain gains prominence and we dream. Let us make a conjecture. Let us suppose that an essential element of hypnosis is a reduced activation of the left brain and a very active right brain. We have yet to establish whether there is any truth in this, but let us assume for the moment that it is true. Then the induction procedure that emphasises sleep is a conditioned response that quickly and easily elicits the shift from left brain to right brain activity. Still assuming our conjecture, if we do not use this particular conditioned response, then how do we bring about the shift from left to right brain activity? Erickson and his followers have devised a quite different approach which can be categorised as a combination of metaphor and story-telling. In this approach there is no reference to sleep, and can even involve waking hypnosis Furthermore, spinning disks, flashing lights, repetitive sounds can all induce hypnosis. It seems implausible to argue that these are intimately connected with conditioned responses – and none involve language, which is required for Pavlov’s secondary stimulus particular to man. The conclusion we draw from this conjecture, if it is correct, is that we need to establish ways of shifting from the left brain to right brain activity. A hypnotist can bring this about – where the hypnotist may be someone else, as in heterohypnosis, or by oneself, as in self-hypnosis. It may be established by means of suggesting “sleep” but it can equally be established by other means. It is the other means that have been little investigated.

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11.3.1 Pavlov and classical conditioning Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian psychologist whose main fame was as a result of his work on conditioned reflexes. There are two types of conditioning discussed in the literature: classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning and instrumental (or operant) conditioning. Here we are concerned only with classical conditioning. While working on digestion, and using dogs as his subjects, he noticed that if a sound was made just before a dog was fed, and since the anticipation of food led to salivation, he found the same salivation occurred when the bell was sounded but no food was given. He also found that it did not have to be a bell. ‘Psychic salivation’ could occur with the production of the usual tin can that normally contained food, or with the attendance of a person who usually fed the animal. His most famous experiment involved sounding a bell just before the dog is fed. Once the dog was familiar with the bell and the production of food, then the bell was sounded without any food being presented. He found that the dog still salivated even though no food was forthcoming. He referred to the food as an unconditional stimulus and to the bell as a conditional stimulus; in addition, he referred to the salivation as an unconditional reflex. In the case of just the bell and the salivation, however, he referred to the salivation as the conditional reflex. The usual order of events is therefore: conditional stimulus -> unconditional stimulus -> unconditional reflex (bell) (food) (salivation) i.e., the conditional stimulus is a signal that the unconditional stimulus is about to appear. Pavlov undertook a detailed study of the response. Here we shall concentrate only on those observations important for hypnosis. One observation he made was that it was much easier to form a conditional reflex if the unconditional stimulus (food) followed the conditional stimulus (the bell) rather than if they were simultaneous or if the conditional stimulus followed the unconditional stimulus. This has led to much research into the best way to learn. It has, for example, been found that learning is fastest if the conditional stimulus is presented about 0.5 seconds before the unconditional stimulus. Second, it is important for the unconditional stimulus to occur soon after the conditional stimulus. In other words, the dog learns to expect the food soon after the bell is rung. The two stimuli form a strong bond with each other. This same bond will arise, however, if the conditional stimulus comes a fair time before the unconditional stimulus, so long as it continues up to the time the unconditional stimulus is presented. Third, the stronger the conditional stimulus the more intense the conditioned reflex, i.e., the louder the bell the more the dog salivates. Fourth, once a conditioned response to a stimulus has been acquired, then similar stimuli will invoke the same response. For example, a bell with a different pitch will also illicit salivation. This he called the generalization of the conditional stimulus. The more alike the new stimulus is to the original, the more the second will substitute for the first. It has been found that generalization falls off the more unlike the new stimulus is in comparison with the original one. His investigations went further still. Suppose a dog develops a conditioned reflex based on the sound of a bell. What would happen if the same dog were exposed to a whistle in place of a bell? What Pavlov discovered was that the initial conditioned reflex was lost and replaced by a new one. This he referred to as external inhibition of the original conditional reflex. He further raised the question of what would happen if the food (the unconditional stimulus) were repeatedly absent, would the dog continue to salivate when he heard the sound of the

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bell? The answer was no. Salivation in response to a bell would only continue if the food were presented soon after the bell was sounded. In other words, the conditioned reflex required continual reinforcement by the unconditional stimulus. However, he also found that although reinforcement was required initially, continued learning levels off. The learning curve (as has been well established elsewhere) has an asymptote where learning levels off. Without the reinforcement of the unconditional stimulus there was internal inhibition of the conditioned reflex, i.e., the situation led to the extinction of the conditioned reflex. Although most of Pavlov's work was on dogs, he did experiment on other animals. Furthermore, he asserted that the same conditioning occurred in man. Certainly, the conditioned reflex is observed in babies.

11.4 Hypnosis, multiple self and dissociation It will be recalled from chapter 1 that Chastenet de Puységur had hypnotized Victor, a somnambulist. When Victor was hypnotized he appeared to be under the direct control of Puységur. But two other features are worth noting. First, Victor did not remember what transpired during his hypnotic states. Second, he seemed to be a different person – no longer the village simpleton, but a rather profound young man and knowledgeable about other people’s illnesses. Did Victor have two personalities? Did Victor simply dissociate when he went into hypnosis? Is hypnosis associated with multiple personality? These are not easy questions to answer. The dissociationist theory of hypnosis is that during a trance state an individual dissociates and splits off part of his or her consciousness. Dissociation is not an uncommon phenomenon. We all at times have been in situations were we are doing something very intensively and then dissociate into two were we become the observer of what is doing the intensive work: we become an observer of ourselves! In terms of this theory, when a person is hypnotized they split into two and lose volitional control. They respond to suggestions as a reflex. Since the reflex occurs purely in the spine (see chapter 6), then it does not involve awareness, which requires an activation of the cortex. For this theory to be correct then dissociation must be the necessary characteristic of the hypnotic state. However, this is far from true. Individuals, as pointed out above, can dissociate when working intensively. Furthermore, dissociation occurs in a number of altered states of consciousness – not least in religious reverie. The dissociationist theory concentrates too much on somnambulism. The non-awareness occurs in deeply hypnotized subjects. But what about subjects who are not deeply hypnotized, but are hypnotized nonetheless? In a number of such individuals awareness, far from diminishing, is actually heightened: heightened but focused at the same time. But even for the deeply hypnotized subject who is amnesic about the hypnotic state, they can recall what occurs if they are instructed to do so. So although amnesia is necessary for dissociation, it is not necessary for a state of hypnosis. There may be an element of truth in the dissociationist theory of hypnosis. If, as I shall argue in detail later, consciousness resides in the left brain, and if hypnosis largely shuts off the left brain and activates the right brain, then a hypnotized subject will experience some degree of dissociation. If we suppose for a moment that the unconscious mind resides in the right brain, then we have the conscious self and the unconscious self. In terms of the dissociationist theory it is the unconscious self that is responding to the hypnotist, and the conscious self is unaware of the process. But this treats the activity of the two brains as absolutes. They are

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either ‘on’ or ‘off’. But there is no reason to suppose this is true either in hypnosis or any other state. Cortical activity will vary both in each half of the brain and in relation to each other. However, the less the cortical activity, especially in the left brain, then the less awareness there is and the greater the dissociation. If this conjecture is correct, then the dissociationist theory is partly a theory about the two halves of the brain and their relationship with each other. It cannot, however, be a complete theory because it does not explain what is happening with the two halves of the brain. Also, to the extent that the theory requires amnesia, and amnesia is not a necessary element of hypnosis, means that it cannot explain those hypnotic situations where no amnesia takes place.

11.5 Hypnosis is just role-playing We distinguished negative hypnosis that was typical of hypnotic states at the time of Mesmer from positive hypnosis that tends to be the norm today. In making this distinction we argued that subjects behaved as they were expected to behave. Thus, patients hypnotized by Mesmer went into convulsions and catatonic states because magnetised individuals were supposed to do that; today subjects appear in a relaxed sleep-like state because they are told to "go to sleep" and that is what such a person would be like. In other words, hypnotized subjects play the role they are expected to play: hypnosis is simply a form of role-playing. The role-playing theory of hypnosis asserts that the performance of a subject when being hypnotized depends on four factors: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Attitude towards hypnosis Motivation Expectation A willingness to cooperate

and that the willingness of the subject to cooperate is the most important element in the whole process. The degree of this cooperation will also depend on the rapport between the subject and the hypnotist. So long as a subject wants to be hypnotized, and has some idea of what role a hypnotized person should take, and is cooperative, then they will not only be hypnotized, but will react as expected. Like the other theories we have discussed, there is some element of truth in this theory; but just like the other theories, it cannot be a complete explanation. In the first instance it assumes that the hypnotized individual is aware of the role he or she is playing. In the case of a deeply hypnotized person who does not recall what he or she did under hypnosis, then this makes sense only if we argue that the unconscious self is role-playing. But this is stretching theory into the realm of the unknown. Second, we noted in chapter 1 that Esdaile, when in India, undertook many operations on patients who were under hypnosis. These often involved amputations. It is stretching credibility to assume that such individuals were simply roleplaying. Indeed, if they were, then it is role-playing which needs to be thoroughly investigated! But the same has been shown to be the case with anaesthesia. Under hypnosis the degree of anaesthesia that can be tolerated is much higher for a hypnotized subject than for a normal individual who is role-playing. What this theory does direct our attention to is the degree to which an individual is willing to be hypnotized and is cooperative in the hypnotic session. Furthermore, that the degree of success is partly dependent on the subject’s motivation and partly on the rapport with the

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hypnotist. All these are, however, secondary factors that aid the hypnosis, but they do not account for it.

11.6 Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness We have often, in passing, mentioned that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness. It must be appreciated that this too is a theory, a theory that views hypnosis from a particular vantage point. Altered states of consciousness (ASC) are now in vogue. In the past it was accepted that sleep and wakefulness were different. It was accepted that hysteria was some form of abnormality and it too was different from normal consciousness and from sleep. A person in hypnosis appears different from someone in natural sleep, certainly different from someone in the normal waking state, and different yet again from someone in meditation. The point is that you are not conscious or unconscious. These are absolutes. Consider the following analogy. There is a table that is full of lights. Half of the table (the left half) has plain lights and the other half (the right half) has red lights. One situation is that all the plain lights are on (all the left half is alight) but the red lights are off. A second possibility is that all the red lights are on (all the right half is alight) and the plain lights are off. These states, of course, only represent two of the four extreme possibilities. But it is quite possible for only some of the lights on the left side of the table to be on and others to be off; and at the same time, only some of the lights on the right side of the table to be on and others to be off. Each different combination of on/off lights would represent a different state of the over-all table. Each right-left and on-off combination would represent a different state of consciousness. This analogy is, of course, too simplistic. What it does illustrate, however, is that the brain can be in different states throughout the day. But to say hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, we must explain what it is different from. This is probably best explained by listing different states of the mind (which are here simply listed in alphabetically order): dissociation drunkenness hypnosis meditation religious ecstasy sleep wakefulness Hypnosis, as a state, is assumed to be one of focused relaxation. The body is relaxed and the mind is focused on the suggestions of the hypnotist – whether the hypnotist is someone else of oneself. We shall take up this discussion in chapter 4.

11.7 Regression theory There are two variants of this theory. In one, hypnosis is assumed to be a situation where the subject regresses to an infantile state. In this state the infant is dependent on the parents for guidance; and so the hypnotist takes on this role. What is upper-most in this version is that a subject is compliant to the hypnotist and this arises because the subject has undergone an infantile regression and the hypnotist has taken on the parental role. But why does regression take place? An individual as he or she develops, develops an ego which is a subject’s conception of ‘self’. Regression suppresses the ego and puts the subject in the situation before a well-developed ego has formed. Compliance is a necessary ingredient in order to

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allow this to take place. So is motivation. Only if a subject wishes to be hypnotized will they allow such regression to take place. This theory, at least this version of the theory, places strong emphasis on transference and the role of the hypnotist taking on the role of the parent. But this cannot account for selfhypnosis, were no transference takes place. This does not, however, mean that regression does not occur in hypnosis. A second variant does not require transference and the hypnotist taking on the role of the parent. What it does assume is that during hypnosis a subject reverts to the more primitive brain structures. In other words, during hypnosis the reptilian brain is activated in which more reflex actions take place. It is this part of the brain which is operative when a subject is young and before their ego has had time to develop. So long as a subject can activate their reptilian brain structure, then self-hypnosis and heterohypnosis is possible according to this theory. Regardless of what hypnosis is, regression can and does occur. A subject can be regressed under suggestion. Does this mean a subject acts like he or she thinks a younger person behaves and speaks, or do they regress? The evidence is that they do indeed regress. Their brain waves change, their digestion changes, and they can, when regressed far enough, instinctively perform the Babinski reflex. Compliance alone cannot account for these changes. As with other theories, however, regression is neither necessary nor sufficient for hypnosis to occur. Although the parent-transference version of this theory may be rejected, the possibility that hypnosis involves regressing to the extent of activating the reptilian brain cannot be discounted. Even in the case of self-hypnosis, this is possible so long as dissociation occurs. The subject can hypnotize himself or herself, regress themselves, and behave childishly and yet still give themselves ‘sensible’ suggestions. This dissociation would imply dissociation between the various brain structures in which the cortex sends messages to the relevant sections of the core brain.

11.8 Holographic theory of hypnosis The early view of memory was that each memory was localised somewhere in the brain, and the traces of such memories were called engrams (although no one knew what an engram actually was). This view seemed to be substantiated by Penfield’s work on the brain of epileptics. When stimulating certain areas of the brain, the subjects re-experienced past memories. More specifically, when the same spot was stimulated so was the same memory. It was on the basis of this research that Penfield and others concluded that everything that has ever happened to us is recorded somewhere in the brain. Such a view continues to be held by many hypnotherapists. Since, it is thought, that memories are localised in the brain, then under hypnosis these memories can be recalled. Although this view helps to explain the phenomenon of age regression, it is not so helpful in explaining age progression. Pribram later cut out the part of a rat’s brains that contained the location of a memory (for a maze); however, the rat recalled the maze. Pribram’s conclusion was that memories were not localised, as Penfiled had asserted, but were located (distributed) throughout the brain – which is why removing part could not remove the memory. Furthermore, duplication of Penfield’s work did not appear possible on patients other than epileptics – even by Penfeld himself. The ability to duplicate scientific results has always been an essential feature of the scientific method of research. At the time of Pimbram’s research there was no scientific way

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to account for memories being distributed throughout the brain. But in the mid-1960s there was the first construction of a hologram, and it was this that supplied the basis for a new theory of memories – and a new theory of hypnosis. We shall explain holograms more fully in chapter 16 when we discuss time distortion. Here we shall be brief. Central to the construction of a hologram is interference. When a pebble is dropped in a pond it makes a set of concentric ripples. A second pebble will do the same. How one set of ripples interacts (interfers) with the other is called an interference pattern. The same idea is used in constructing a hologram. A hologram is created by bouncing a laser beam off on object and then having a second laser beam interact with the first to create an interference pattern of the object, which is then recorded on a holographic plate (see chapter 16). This recording looks like a series of concentric patterns and nothing like a photographic image. However, when a laser (or bright light) is shone on the plate a three-dimensional image of the object is recreated. You can see the object from all sides just as if you were walking around it and viewing it from different angles. But it does not exist in material form – as evidenced by the fact that you can put your hand through it. More significant is the fact that each part of the holographic plate contains the whole image. The more parts of the plate one has for viewing the image, the sharper the image becomes. So for Pribram, each part of the brain contains the memory. Put another way, if the holographic plate is cut into two, then you have two images each complete. If you cut the holographic plate into four, then you have four images each complete. And so on. In other words, each part contains the whole. Because each part contains the whole then the way information is stored holographically is fundamentally different from other ways of storing information, especially photographs. This has led to the view that a holographic image has ‘field properties’ because such a field property is like, but not the same as, a magnetic field. It is not only memory that is now considered to be holographic in nature. Until quite recently, vision was thought to produce an (inverted) image on the retina that was then interpreted by the brain. However, removing large portions of the visual cortex (the part of the brain that interprets what the eye ‘sees’) does not totally remove the ability to do visual tasks. Rather than being localised, vision, like memory, is now considered to be distributed throughout the whole brain. But how is this possible? Neurons have branches that radiate outwards. It is now thought that these create electrical patterns that act like ripples on a pond, so creating interference patterns. The whole brain can then be considered as a hologram. The essential features of holograms are that they can process vast amounts of information quickly and information can be cross-correlated instantaneously. Think for a moment about a rose. You do not think of the last rose you saw, its colour and then the previous rose, etc. A whole spectrum of thoughts comes into your head almost simultaneously, which you then sift through. In a holographic universe a quantum can be a particle or a wave. As a particle it has dimension but as a wave it does not. As a particle it has space-time dimension but as a wave it does not. As a wave it can create an interference pattern. Consciousness is like the particle and has a space-time dimension. On the other hand, unconsciousness is like the wave and has no space-time dimension. As a waveform the unconscious has access to the whole: it is part of the whole and the whole simultaneously. There is no past, present or future in this waveform: space and time simply do not exist.

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To the extent that consciousness is involved in the hypnotic process, then space and time have meaning to the individual. However, the more the unconscious process is activated, then the less meaning there is to time and space. In a deep trance state the individual becomes part of the interference patter of the holographic universe, and so becomes part of the whole with access to knowledge of the whole. In this holographic universe we are not separate but interconnected with everything. It is in this interconnectedness that mind and matter come together: that mind can influence matter. In such a holographic universe, individuals such as Victor (see history) can access knowledge beyond what he possesses, and can ‘know’ the ailments of others. He is not separate from others and his knowledge is not limited by time and space. In the same way, ESP, dissociation, trance logic – so often found in hypnosis – may just be manifestations of the holographic universe. Any new theory, and this is a new theory, must explain things that previous theories could not. From our history in the previous chapter, one puzzling phenomenon is that of hypnosis at a distance. Some believe this is simply not possible. But it does occur, and if it does occur what is the explanation for it. Early theories argued that it was magnetism, but this is now discredited. But if it is not magnetism, then what is it that allows hypnosis at a distance? If individuals belong to a holographic universe, then (at some level) they create an interference pattern with each other. The two individuals, rather than being separate are part of the whole. There is not a magnetic flow between them, but rather they are connected – as they always were. The holographic interference pattern created between them allows the two individuals to be part of the whole at the unconscious level. Some scientists have gone further in their speculations. They argue that thought (or what they refer to as consciousness) acts like a field. While the gravitational field links all matter, and this is purported to be done by means of a particle called a ‘graviton’, so all living organisms are connected by means of ‘biogravitons’. Thought, and one might speculate hypnosis, influence these biogravitons, which in turn interact with other fields (like gravitation) and so influence matter. There is a striking similarity in these speculations about fields and biogravitons to Mesmer’s hypothesis (now discredited) that hypnosis involved animal magnetism – also a field concept. We may have come full circle and simply replaced animal magnetism with the term ‘biogravitational field’!

11.9 Definitions of hypnosis It might be thought that with so many theories about hypnosis we could define it. But this is far from true. The various theories indicate that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness; that it occurs when consciousness is suspended; that there can be positive and negative hypnotic states, depending upon whether it is the parasympathetic or sympathetic nervous system which is being altered; and, finally, that it is a subjective state. It is not surprising, therefore, that we have no agreed definition of hypnosis. To illustrate the point we present here just five definitions, and there are many more. (1) Hypnosis is a complex of two fundamental processes. The first is the construction of a special, temporary orientation to a small range of preoccupations and the second is the relative fading of the generalised reality-orientation into non-functional awareness. (Shor)

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(2) Hypnosis is an altered state of the organism originally and usually produced by a repetition of stimuli in which suggestion (no matter how defined) is more effective than usual. (Marcuse) (3) Hypnosis is essentially a particular state of mind that is usually induced in one person by another. It is a state of mind in which suggestions are not only more readily accepted than in the waking state, but are also acted upon much more powerfully than would be possible under normal conditions. (Hartland) (4) Hypnosis is an artificially induced state, similar in some respects to sleep, but specially characterised by exaggerated suggestibility and the continuance of contact or rapport with the operator. (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology) (5) Hypnosis is an altered state of awareness brought about by total concentration on the voice of the therapist. It will result in measurable physical, neurophysiological and psychological changes in which may be produced distortion of emotion, sensation, image and time. (Waxman) These definitions are quite diverse. They all to some extent capture the appropriate characteristics but they differ largely on which characteristics they consider as important. The characteristic that has had the least attention in the literature is the part of the nervous system that is being activated – the sympathetic (negative hypnosis) or the parasympathetic (positive hypnosis). Both positive and negative hypnosis satisfy, for example, Shor’s construction of a special temporary orientation and a relative fading of the generalised reality-orientation, but each involves a different part of the nervous system. In so far as either the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system can be most active in a hypnotic state, but not both, then we may agree with Tart that more than one altered state of consciousness is involved in hypnosis. The reason for highlighting positive and negative hypnosis is not only that this has been neglected but also that it reveals that the early hypnotic states during the time of Mesmer and the Salpêtrière Institute, involving as they did hysterical and catatonic states, were almost wholly negative hypnotic states. When it is realised that suggestion played an important role, what went unnoticed was that suggestion largely operated on the parasympathetic nervous system. Today the common form of hypnosis is positive. More importantly for the selfhypnotist, it is the positive form that is therapeutic. The fact that it activates the parasympathetic nervous system means that it reduces tension in the body – and this is irrespective of what other suggestions are made during the hypnotic state.

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Chapter 12 Some NLP Techniques

Summary This chapter explains what NLP is and what its important features are. It covers such things as modalities, anchors, and the timeline. It also discusses three important techniques: namely, the reframing and swish techniques along with the circle of confidence.

CHAPTER 12 SOME NLP TECHNIQUES 12.1 What is NLP? NLP stands for Neuro-Linguistic Programming. This is certainly a mouthful. But basically it has three elements: Neuro, meaning neurological processes of our senses Linguistic, meaning use of language to order our thoughts and to communicate Programming, meaning the way we organize our ideas and actions to produce results In more simplistic terms it is what constitutes personal excellence and the techniques for achieving it. NLP deals with how we structure what we experience about the world through our senses, and most especially the filters we use to create a model of the world around us. In addition, it is about the language we use in creating such models (maps) and how we act to create results. These actions can be intentional or unintentional, conscious or unconscious. By understanding the filters we have we can change them; create a better map, which in turn creates better outcomes. Personal excellence can then be achieved. NLP is a vast and growing area of study but it is not hypnosis. Hypnosis and NLP overlap, and it is this overlap we are concerned about in this chapter. What NLP provides for hypnosis is a new way of looking at certain aspects of it, but more importantly, some new techniques in overcoming problems and in pursuing personal excellence. Although we are concerned largely with the overlap between NLP and hypnosis, it is useful to set out the ten basic presuppositions of NLP. These are as follows. 1. The map is not the territory 2. Experience has a structure 3. If one person can do something, anyone can learn to do it 4. The mind and body are parts of the same system 5. People already have all the resources they need 6. You cannot NOT communicate 7. The meaning of your communication is the response you get 8. Underlying every behaviour is a positive intention 9. People are always making the best choice(s) available to them 10. If what you are doing isn’t working, do something else: do anything else We can summarize these as follows. 1. The map is not the territory Our mental maps of the world are not the world. We respond to our maps, rather than directly to the world. Mental maps, especially feelings and interpretations, can be updated more easily than the world can be changed. 2. Experience has a structure Our thoughts and memories have a pattern to them. When we change that pattern or structure, our experience will automatically change. We can neutralize unpleasant

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memories and enrich memories that will serve us. 3. If one person can do something, anyone can learn to do it We can learn an achiever’s mental map and make it our own. Too many people think certain things are impossible without ever going out and trying them. Pretend that everything is possible. When there is a physical or environmental limit, the world of experience will let you know about it. 4. The mind and body are parts of the same system Our thoughts instantly affect our muscle tension, breathing feelings, and more, and these in turn affect our thoughts. When we learn to change either one, we have learned to change the other. 5. People already have all the resources they need Mental images, inner voices, sensations, and feelings are the basic building blocks of all our mental and physical resources. We can use them to build up any thought, feeling or skill we want, and then place them in our lives where we want or need them most. 6. You cannot NOT communicate We are always communicating, at least nonverbally, and words are often the least important part. A sigh, a smile, and a look are all communications. Even our thoughts are communications with ourselves, and they are revealed to others through our eyes, voice tones, postures, and body movements. 7. The meaning of your communication is the response you get Others receive what we say and do through their mental map of the world. When someone hears something different from what we meant, it is a chance for us to notice that communication means what is received. Noticing how our communication is received allows us to adjust it, so that next time it can be clearer. 8. Underlying every behaviour is a positive intention Every hurtful, harmful, and even thoughtless behaviour had a positive purpose in its original situation. Yelling in order to be acknowledged. Hitting to fend off danger. Hiding to feel safe. Rather than condoning or condemning these actions, we can separate them from the person’s positive intent, so that new, updated, and more positive choices can be added that meet the same intent. 9. People are always making the best choice(s) available to them Every one of us has his or her own unique personal history. Within it, we learned what to do and how to do it, what to want and how to want it, what to value ad how to value it, what to learn and how to learn it. This is our experience. From it, we must make all of our choices, that is, until new and better ones are added. 10. If what you are doing isn’t working, do something else: do anything else If you always do what you’ve done, you’ll always get what you’ve always gotten. If you want something new, do something new, especially when there are so many alternatives.

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The first presupposition is probably the most important. The world is a complex place and in order to make sense of it we make mental maps: mental constructs of reality. These maps arise by creating filters that we use to simplify the world in which we live. It is these filters that constitute our present programming. The programming may be too restrictive; it may be faulty; it may be heavily laden with value judgements and certainly arises from our experiences. NLP is about changing filters. If you change the filter then you change your world because you change the map of the territory. You cannot change the territory, but you can change one or more filters, and hence the way you respond to people and situations. NLP therefore introduces greater flexibility and more choices into your life. The situation is illustrated in figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1 The Map is not the Territory In attempting to understand the maps people make of the world, great attention is played to filters. Important filters are thought of as frames. Some typical frames are set out in table 12.1.

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Table 12.1 Filter frames in NLP Name

Usual frame

Behaviour frame

Think about problems. Analyse what the problem is and why you have it. Why questions. Leads to justication and reasons without changing anything. Failure simply describes a result you do not want. Results are used to redirect effort. Failure leads to no change.

Why/how frame Failure/ feedback frame

Necessities/ possibilities frame Assumption/ curiosity and fascination frame

NLP frame

Think about outcomes. What are your goals? What resources do you have? How questions. Directs attention to understanding the structure of a problem and possible resolutions. No such thing as failure, only results. Results can be used to provide feedback to make corrections and so change the results. Feedback and correction used to achieve goals. Consider only necessities. Here Consider possibilities. Look at emphasis is on the constraints of a what you can do, the choices problem. available to you. Concerned about assumptions and Relearn how a child learns and the curiosity and fascination they have failure. Failure emphasized that in learning. Unconcerned about limits change. failure: change is far more important.

Figure 12.2 NLP utilizes constant feedback

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It is apparent from this table that NLP involves a shift of focus. But in just the same way that lateral thinking involves a shift of focus NLP does exactly the same. This shift of focus emphasizes goals, the resources for achieving them, how to resolve problems, utilizing constant feedback by looking at what you do and the choices open to you, and not to be concerned about failure but rather to welcome change. The situation is shown in figure 12.2, adapted from O’Connor and Seymour, Introducing NLP, p.15.

12.2 Communication and rapport It is often said that communication must involve at least two people. This is both true and not true. In self-hypnosis there is only one person. But that person divides into two selves: the subject and the hypnotist. It is as if they become two people. But this is important because communication is about how two or more people interact. Communication is not merely by words; it also involves volume level, intonation, gestures, postures and general body language. NLP stresses the importance of ensuring that the message you send to the other person is the message that they receive. Although in self-hypnosis you know what message you are sending in terms of the words you are using, it is still not obvious that the other part of you is receiving the same message. To illustrate the point, imagine there is the subject-self and the hypnotist-self. Now imagine that the hypnotist-self is shouting at the top of their voice for the subject-self to go into trance. Would the subject-self comply? Probably not. Even when we talk to ourselves (which we do frequently) we can use a soft voice, a harsh voice or even a sexy voice. Internal communication has all the nuances as external communication. What the other person understands by your communication is revealed in the response they give to it. Their response depends on their map of the territory just as yours does, and even if the territory is the same, it is most unlikely that the two maps are the same. That is why communication can break down. Question In the case of self-hypnosis will the subject-self and the hypnotist-self have the same map of the territory? The answer is: not necessarily. You can impart to the subject-self all the doubts, phobias, etc. while endowing to the hypnotist-self all positive, confident and knowledgeable attributes. The negative subject-self will have a different map from the positive hypnotist-self. In NLP good rapport is about appreciating another person’s map of the world while retaining your own. Good rapport involves trust, confidence and participation. When two people are in rapport, communication flows freely, body language matches and individuals mirror and match each other. This mirror and matching is in terms of body language, postures and most especially eye contact. In other words, communication takes on the form of a dance: the better the rapport the more fluent the dance. Even in self-hypnosis, it is necessary to create good rapport between the subject-self and the hypnotist-self. In some respects this is why self-hypnosis can be more difficult than heterohypnosis. In heterohypnosis you are more likely to trust and believe in the hypnotist. If you are a doubting Thomas, then it is likely that you will attribute doubts to both the subject-self and the hypnotist-self. The way to succeed, therefore, is to attribute to the hypnotist-self all what you would attribute to a most successful and famous hypnotist: someone in whom you have complete trust, faith, confidence and belief in. Another reason why self-hypnosis may be difficult in having good rapport between the subject-self and the hypnotist-self is the general lack of eye contact. Again the message is try to involve eye contact in the two parts of yourself that you create. You may find that this takes a bit of practice.

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When a therapist wishes to create a change in a client their first job is to gain rapport, and in the process of doing this they mirror and match. They come to understand and appreciate the client’s view of the territory: the client’s map. But good rapport is good communication: it will not bring about change. Pacing and leading is what brings about change. Pacing is the act of creating rapport while leading involves changing your behaviour so that the other person follows. You can only lead if the other person is willing to follow; and the other person will only follow if they trust and believe in you. In other words, pacing must come before leading. Attempting to lead without first pacing is unlikely to succeed – a failing in many politicians who want to lead without pacing! The difficulty in self-hypnosis is that pacing and leading are obvious since it is you who is doing it. Simply accept this fact, but continue as if the hypnotist-self is pacing and leading the subject-self. The way to do this is attribute all the positivism and wisdom you can muster and endow them to the hypnotist-self. Make the hypnotist-self larger than life.

12.3 Modalities and submodalities There are three primary representational systems we use: 1. Pictures 2. Feelings 3. Sounds Consider a conversation between two people. The response to a question may be, (1) ‘I see what you mean’ (pictorial), (2) ‘That feels just right to me’ (feeling), and (2) ‘That sounds right’ (sound). Each of these responses is revealing the modality in which the person largely operates. People tend to have one of these representations that they prefer. Not that they do not use the others; it is more that they use one more than the other two. It will be noted from the answers above that a person’s main representational system is often revealed in the words that they use. Another way you can discover your own main representational system is to recall some important event in your life. What did you recall first? What it looked like? What if felt like? Or was it what it sounded like? One memory may not be enough to establish this since we do use all three. You may need to recall say ten memories in order to establish your main modality. NLP has found that another way to establish the way a person is accessing their representational system is through the way they position their eyes. It is as if they are accessing different parts of their brain. We can think of the eyes looking up (left and right); looking sideways (left and right); and looking down (left and right). Figure 12.3 summarizes the three main modalities indicated by eye accessing cues. There is much written in the NLP literature about eye accessing cues but it is not directly relevant to the self-hypnotist. You may, however, want to become aware of the positions of your own eyes when thinking about something. Try to be aware of your eyes when you think about the following. · · ·

What does an elephant look like? What ring does your mobile phone make? What does your breathing feel like?

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Figure 12.3 Eye Accessing Cues of the Three Main Modalities But why is it important to know your main modality? The answer it that you can change it to one of the others and so experience it differently. Something may look awful but sound OK; or something may feel a disaster but look or sound manageable. So far we have discussed modalities. So what are submodalities? Submodalities can be thought of as shades of pictures sounds and feelings. Pictures can be large or small; coloured or black and white; or they can be still or moving. Sounds can be loud or quiet; high or low pitch; near to you or far away. Feelings can be heavy or light; sharp or dull (typical of pain); mild or intense; hot or cold. What NLP has found is that changing these submodalities changes your perception. A picture of your problem tends to be large. If it changes to being small then it seems less of a problem. A problem in black and white seems less of a problem than when it is in colour. A memory that sounds close by is greater than when it sounds far away. Recalling a bodily sensation that was hard will feel less of a problem if you change the memory to feeling it soft. Table 12.2 lists the most common submodalities of the three main representational systems. The essential importance of submodalities for hypnosis – whether heterohypnosis or selfhypnosis – is that changing the submodality changes your perception of the problem. Change the submodality of the memory and you change the influence of the memory on your feelings and behaviour. What NLP argues is that you cannot change the event that happened to you in the past, but you can change the memory of it. This is more important that if first appears. Most of our behaviour is not responding to the event that actually happened, but rather to the memory of that event. If the memory is faulty a person still responds to the faulty memory. Change the memory and you change the response to it. Memories are very malleable. You can see them coloured or black and white; you can see them large or small; you can change a

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moving image to a still one; you can see the problem in front of you or behind you; and so on. Table 12.2 Submodalities of the three representational systems Visual

Sound Feeling

Associate with or dissociate from picture; colour or black and white; framed or unframed; two or three dimensional; location; brightness; blurred or focused; still or moving picture; fast or slow movement; large or small size. Stereo or mono; words or sounds; loud or soft; soft or harsh; near to you or far away from you; brief or long lasting; fast or slow. Location; intensity; hard or soft rough or smooth; light or heavy; hot or cold.

Consider something important to you. Most typically a person sees such an image as big, bright, colourful, close and they associate (are part of) the image. Now if the memory is a pleasant one then store the memory in this way because this gives it intensity. But unpleasant images may and can be stored in this way too. But then they are stored with great intensity. What you want to do is reduce the intensity of unpleasant memories. How do you do this? Do the opposite. Reduce the size, brightness and convert the image to black and white. Move the image away from you and dissociate (become separate from) the image. The point to realize is that the content of the memory is the same, but how you remember it has been changed. Although it is difficult to change modalities, and then there may be no reason to, what can be changed are the submodalities. By changing these we change our memories and we can change them in order to enhance them or to lessen the impact they have on our behaviour and our way of thinking.

12.4 Anchors and hypnosis Emotional states have a powerful influence on how we feel and how we behave. Change the emotional state and you change how the person feels and behaves. NLP is concerned about how to bring about a particular emotional state: how to elicit an emotional state. The simplest way to do this is to ask someone to recall an event in which the particular emotional state of interest was very prevalent and very strong. Even more success will be achieved if you try to match the emotion you are trying to elicit with your own expression, body posture, tone of voice and gestures. Furthermore, to elicit the emotion fully the person must be associated with the image (being inside the image) and not dissociated from it (outside the image looking in). An anchor is a stimulus that is linked to and triggers an emotional state. The stimulus can be either external or internal, but is usually external. Typical external anchors are a particular sound, such as church bells; or a particular visual stimulus, like the nod of the head; or a stimulus involving smell, such as the smell of freshly baked bread. Anchors are created in two ways. 1. By repetition 2. A single event with a strong emotion and occurring at the right moment

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Repetition is required when there is little or no emotion. Put simply, the greater the emotion involved in the trigger the less it needs to be repeated. The repetition is in order to establish a connection or association between the trigger and the elicited emotion. You cannot activate something if it is not connected to the thing you wish to activate. Each of us already has many anchors that involve all the five senses. These have arisen from our life’s experiences. A particularly strong negative association is a phobia. Seeing a spider can be enough to elicit a sense of panic. Most anchors, if not all, have arisen whether we wanted them or not. The usefulness of NLP is bringing to our awareness the anchors we already possess; giving us a means to changing those anchors we do not want; and creating new anchors that elicit emotional states that we do want. Most anchors are involved in associations that lead to habits. Habits are by no means all bad. We all have many habits: some good and some bad. Through a deeper understanding of anchors, we can improve the habits that we want and eliminate or change the habits that we do not want. Furthermore, we can use anchors to create new habits. The situation is shown in figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4 Using anchors to change or create habits We shall describe in detail how to create a new response by creating a suitable anchor. Other anchors follow a similar pattern. The first thing you must do is choose an emotional response you want. You need to think about this before you enter self-hypnosis. You then associate with it a stimulus (anchor). The important consideration for the anchor is that it can readily be brought to mind whenever you want it. You will, in fact, require three anchors for this technique: one for each of the main modalities of feeling sound and visual. In each case the anchor should be unique, distinctive and discrete. Unique so that it is not something you generally do; distinct so that it does not occur all the time and does not get associated with other states and behaviours; and discrete so that you can perform it any time and anywhere without anyone else being aware you are doing it. We shall illustrate the type of anchors in a moment. The point is that you should decide on these before you enter a state of selfhypnosis. The most important type of anchors in NLP is referred to as resource anchors. A resource anchor is something that you have or have experienced in the past. That is why it belongs to your set of resources. If you have not experienced something, for example, then you cannot call on it. If it is a positive emotional resource then it is something you will have experienced in the past. A resource, therefore, refers to any physical, emotional state you have had; any thought, experience or event that you have had; and any of your physical or mental attributes.

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Think of it like your house where you are listing all its resources: items in the rooms, lighting, colour schemes, and general ambience of each room. We are now in a position to describe the technique. First place yourself in self-hypnosis. Now identify the situation or state you want to change. Let us suppose this is how you behave at work. Next you identify a particular resource that will help in bringing about the change you want. Suppose this is confidence. The next step is to think back in your life to when you experienced the resource strongly. Even if you lack confidence now, you were not born that way. There is always some moment in the past when you experienced confidence. Next choose the anchor. This anchor will bring to mind your feeling of confidence. It is in fact composed of three individual anchors: one from each of your main representational systems – feeling, sound and sight. Thus, you need to establish a feeling anchor, an auditory anchor and a visual anchor. Here we shall just give one example of each. Feeling: Auditory: Visual:

Bring together your thumb and index finger on your right hand Say the word ‘confident’ to yourself Some specific past memory image in which you were supremely confident

The next step is to recall an occasion in the past in which you were supremely confident. Recall it in full detail – feelings and all. In doing this what you are trying to recall is the moment you were at your most confident. Exactly what were you doing, how did you feel, and what were you thinking about at the time. Step into the experience and associate with it. When the feeling of confidence begins to diminish you have just past the peak. At this point, step out of the image: dissociate from it. The next step is to anchor the resource (confidence). Step back into your image and re-create it up to the point of greatest intensity. At that moment, bring your thumb and index finger together, say the word ‘confident’, and bring to mind your picture of confidence. Hold this for a few moments and then step out of the image once again. It is important to test this anchor. Bring your index finger and thumb together, say the word ‘confident’ to yourself and recall your picture of confidence. If you do indeed feel confident then you have accessed the resource you want and can now use it any time you need it. If it does not feel strong enough, then go back to re-experiencing the peak and activating the three anchors once again. Test again. Keep doing this until you feel you can access the confidence resource anytime and anywhere. The last step is to think of some future possible situation where you will want to feel confident. What you need to think of is something that will trigger your need for the resource – when you need to be confident. In our example it is how to behave at work. Suppose you always take a lift up to your workplace. Then this would be a suitable trigger. This will trigger your anchor when you use it at work and each time you take the lift on arrival this will activate the anchor. We have explained the anchor technique in detail. On a first reading it appears a long and involved technique. But this is partly the problem of putting it into words. Below we summarizes the technique. It can be much quicker than the description given here. But it does require some practice to use the technique properly. We shall illustrate its many uses in bringing about specific changes you may want to bring about in Part IV.

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Summary of resource anchoring with self-hypnosis 1. Place yourself in self-hypnosis. 2. Identify the state or situation you want to change. 3. Identity a particular resource that helps to bring change about. 4. Recall a past experience when the resource was most intense. 5. Select three anchors: one for each of feeling, sound and vision. 6. Re-experience the resource and at its peak apply the three anchors. Then step out. 7. Test the anchor by activating the three anchors. If you are not satisfied with our association, then go back to step 6. 8. Identify a signal to trigger your anchor 9. Bring yourself out of self-hypnosis Here we described a resource anchor, but there are three types of anchors. 1. Resource anchor. Any physical, emotional state you have had; any though, experience or event that you have had; or any of your physical or mental attributes that can be used in association with an emotional response you desire. 2. Chained anchors. This refers to individual resource anchors that are linked in a chain where the first activates the second, and so on. Since each anchor elicits a response, you keep changing the response each time to get closer to the final response you wish to create. 3. Collapsing anchors. This refers to activating two anchors simultaneously where the response for each is opposite. In general, one anchor fires a negative response while the other fires a positive one. By firing them simultaneously you change the negative one and bring into being a new emotional state.

Figure 12.5 An anchor is more than just a stimulus-response mechanism On the face of it anchoring may appear to be just a stimulus-response mechanism. But this is not true. The anchor does not bring about the response. What the anchor does is to recreate the chosen resource and have almost as much power over a present situation as occurred originally. Furthermore, the anchor is triggered by some situation that in the past activated a negative response but now activates a positive one. In addition, you choose the resource and

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you choose the trigger. To the extent that the situation involves a stimulus-response mechanism you have fully taken control of it to serve your purpose. The difference is illustrated in figure 12.5. You can even bring on the desired response by activating the anchor. So, for example, if you need to feel confident at some public speaking and nothing to do with work, you can still activate your anchor.

12.5 Timelines and hypnosis You always live in the present and as such you have a past and a future. The mind has a conception of time that is linear and is thought of as a line extending into the past (backwards) and extending into the future (forwards). The mind must have a conception of time otherwise we would not know what belonged to our past, our present or our future. As you move on in time the mind places events into the past and brings future events closer to the present. As we have pointed out, NLP is partly about linguistics: the words we use. Words convey our concept of time. ‘Yesterday I went shopping’, ‘You look back over your past.’ ‘You look forward to your future.’ ‘I look forward to seeing you [in the future].’ Timelines are usually in front and behind you; or to the left and to the right of you. They also have a characteristic of location. The further behind or the further to the left, the further in the past; the further in front or the further to the right, the further in the future. This is important. Why? Because you need to sort your past memories and your future plans. You need to know that you went to school before you got married and not the other way round. You need to know that what you intend to do two weeks hence is before what vacation you intend to take in three months time. In other words, we linearize time in our minds along a line, and the location of things along that line gives them an order. With the concept of a timeline there are three classes of people: 1. People who live in the past 2. People who live in the present 3. People who live in the future In NLP reference is made to ‘through time’ and ‘in time’ people. Through time people have a strong linear conception of time, they order their life through time, they keep appointments – time is money. Then there are those for whom time is more flexible: they live for the moment, and keeping appointments are not important. Through time people perceive time quite differently from in time people. There can be another difference. Those who see the line extending behind and in front of them are in the line, i.e., they associate with the line. On the other hand, those who see the line to the left and right often see the line in front of themselves, i.e., they dissociate from the line, as illustrated in figure 12.6. The difference between the two types of people is most highlighted when individuals from each group are trying to arrange a common event. Frustration and tensions can run high. Although somewhat of an exaggeration, it has been argued that through time people are typical of AngloEuropeans while in time people are typical of people from Eastern and Arabic nations. Although we have indicated two configurations for timelines in figure 12.6, it is important to realize that there is no standard one. Even in the case of timeline extending right and left it is possible to have the past on the right and the future on the left. In addition, your timeline may be the shape of a V with your present at the point of the V and past pointing outward to the left and the future pointing outward to the right. Yet another variant is it may form an arc that

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passes through you (your present). Since there appears no universal shape for a timeline, then it is useful to discover exactly what shape your timeline takes.

Figure 12.6 Different representations of the timeline You can do this either in a relaxed state or in a state of self-hypnosis. We shall assume that it is in a state of self-hypnosis. First establish the location of your past. To do this all you need to do is the following – taking mental note of where these memories are locating themselves in relation to your present position. Think of something specific you did yesterday, last week, last month, last year, five years ago and finally ten years ago. Notice that the memories further into the distant past are further away from you. There will always be a pattern that places recent memories close to you and those further in the past further away along the line. Now do the same with the future. Of course these will not be memories. They are things you expect to be doing in the future. Notice the distance along the line. Also notice the clarity of the images. Do they become less clear the further into the future? Now rise above the line and view all events/memories along the line: past, present and future. Take a note of the shape of the line, the vividness of the colours of events/memories closest to the present as distinct from those far away. Notice the size of the images on the line: are they large or small? You now have a picture of your personal timeline – exactly how your brain stores events/memories across time. The technique is summarized here.

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Discovering your personal timeline 1. Place yourself in self-hypnosis or simply a relaxed state. 2. Think of specific things you did in the past at intervals yesterday, last week, last month, last year, five years ago and ten years ago. Notice exactly how your brain records these memories and note their characteristics, e.g., location, colour, size, etc. 3. Do the same for future expected events. 4. Rise above the line and view your past, present and future noting the shape of the timeline, the location of memories or events, size, colour, etc. 5. Awaken. The importance of the timeline is not simply in discovering what shape it takes but rather in using the knowledge of how your brain stores memories and events in time and to change these for the better. Recall that NLP emphasizes that the map is not the territory. Your memories and future events along your timeline are simply part of your map and you can always change your map. The following exercise is an NLP technique devised by Richard Bandler and uses the timeline. It can apply to any memory in the past that you wish to remove, i.e., destroy. We are, of course, considering negative or harmful memories. The basic idea is to take a pleasant very emotive and empowering memory and place it on your timeline just before the one you wish to change/destroy. Furthermore, the same positive and empowering memory is placed repeatedly along your timeline – in the past, the present and the future – so giving you the impression that you have had it most of your life and will continue to have it into the future. It is as if it belongs to you: it is a part of you. This very powerful technique allows you to change your past and give you a resource you always wished was there: a succession of positive past experiences that you can draw on for your present and future. Keep in mind that the map is not the territory. You are simply changing the map, which changes how you perceive the present and the future. In simple terms, and to use an analogy, if you always in your past saw the bottle as half empty, then you would do so in the present and the future. If, however, you always saw the bottle as half full in the past, then you would do so in the present and future. So if you can change the memory of the bottle in the past from being half empty to being half full, then you will change your perception of your present and future. Changing memories on your timeline Place yourself in self-hypnosis. When sufficiently deep, think back to a very empowering, positive and emotive memory. It needs to be all three: (1) empowering, (2) positive and (3) full of emotion. It is the type of feeling you have when you are very good at something. Not only do you know you are good, but you feel positive and confident when you do it. If you have more than one, then chose the strongest. Once you have chosen your empowering memory then recall it in great detail. Exactly the situation and most especially the feelings you have. Next think of some ordinary memory that has no real significance for your life. Your last bath or shower or your last trip to the shops would be suitable. Now compare the two memories. What you are looking for are differences, most especially what is contained in your empowering memory that gives you this feeling. Is it bigger, brighter or more colourful; does it feel close to you or far way; does it involve sounds and if so are they louder. These are the submodalities we referred to above. Since you will utilize

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the empowering memory on a number of occasions it may be worth noting down these submodalities. Now think of your timeline and float above it as we described earlier. It is important, however, to take with you all the elements of your empowering, positive and emotional memory. Next consider a time or event in the past when you would have liked to have had the resources of this empowering memory. An event or memory that had you been empowered and positive a totally different change in your future would have occurred. Once you have this clearly identified on your timeline, slide down your timeline – of course, taking with you your empowering memory – to just before the critical event you want to change. Now move rapidly forward along your timeline through the event in question but with all the force of your empowering memory. See, hear and feel the memory change as you now pass through it in your mind’s eye. Then awaken. This technique can be made even more effective by cycling through past memories and future possible experiences. To be more specific, suppose you wish you were more confident. The empowering image you are seeking is a time when you were supremely confident. This was likely to be a much earlier time in your life. It may only be when you are playing a particular sport; it may be when you were in your teens or at school. There is always some time in your life when you felt supremely confident. Let us suppose you are about 25 and the time and situation when you were extremely confident is when you were 15. What you now do is recall the condiment memory, recall an ordinary memory and compare them as outlined above. Rise above your timeline and position yourself just before the first time you recall when you lacked confidence. With your empowering confident memory move through it. Continue to move through your timeline passing through all memories when you lacked confidence, but with your empowering image clearly in focus until your present. What is happening is you are imprinting the empowering, positive, confident image over those you want to change: and they will change. It is like adding sugar to tea; the taste of the tea will change. So in the same way, your memories in which you lacked confidence will also change. Next move into your future along your timeline to those experiences where you want to feel confident. Take with you your emotive, positive, confident image imprinting it on as many future experiences as you can think of: making your future a positive and confident future. Repeat the whole process if you wish a few times to reinforce it. Then awaken.

12.6 Some miscellaneous NLP techniques for hypnosis In this section we discuss just four techniques taken from NLP and utilize them in a state of self-hypnosis. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Reframing The swish technique The fast phobia technique Circle of confidence

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12.6.1 Reframing Reframing is a well-known technique within NLP but not outside of it. Like many of the NLP techniques they do not necessarily involve hypnosis, but when combined with hypnosis they can become even more powerful. This is especially true of reframing because it involves a degree of cooperation with your unconscious mind. Reframing is most suitably used when there seems to be a part of you that is making you behave in a way you do not like. For example, you want to give up smoking but something keeps stopping you. This example illustrates a feature of the problem: you often do not know consciously exactly what it is that is stopping you from giving up the unwanted habit. The technique is described in the following exercise. In this exercise we shall assume the unwanted behaviour is smoking, but it can be applied to any unwanted behaviour. Reframing with self-hypnosis Place yourself in a state of self-hypnosis. Identify exactly what it is you want to change, in the present case this is smoking. Next you utilize the ideomotor signalling with your index fingers indicating ‘yes’ and ‘no’ in order to communicate with your unconscious and the part of you responsible for the unwanted behaviour. At this point you may need to establish the yes/no ideomotor responses as outline in chapter 12, unless you have already done so in this trance session. You now ask, ‘Will that part of me responsible for smoking communicate with me?’ Wait for a ‘yes’ response. In NLP every behaviour has intent. So the next step is to find out what that intent is. So you now ask, ‘Will the part of me that is responsible for smoking let me know what it is trying to do?’ If the answer is ‘yes’, then the intent will be made clear to you. Give it time to formulate. If the answer is ‘no’, then there must be a reason for this, so some exploration is necessary. Try to explore the circumstances in which it would be willing to let you know. If you get a repeated ‘no’ response, then it may be that the intent benefits you and your unconscious does not want to give it up. The next step deals with presenting the unconscious with alternative ways of satisfying the intent. To make this clear, suppose the intent is relaxation, i.e., you smoke because you feel it relaxes you. The fact that this is not true is irrelevant. It is what you believe to be true that matters for your behaviour. So what you are now about to do is find alternative better ways of satisfying your need to relax (of satisfying your intent). You now ask, ‘If you were given other ways to relax that are as good or even better than smoking to relax you, would you be willing to try them out?’ Notice that you are now talking to that part of you who has the intent as if it were a person. This is an offer that can’t be refused. You now remind yourself that there is an imaginative and creative part of you. So you now ask, ‘Will that part of me that wants to relax reveal this to the creative and imaginative part of me?’ When you get a ‘yes’ signal, ask further, ‘and will that imaginative and creative part of me find six ways I can relax that are as good if not better than smoking?’ Continue, ‘Will the imaginative and creative part of me now choose the best three ways I can relax?’ Wait for a ‘yes’ response. Finally ask, ‘Will the imaginative and creative part of me now choose the best of those three that will satisfy my need to relax?’ Wait for a ‘yes’ response. The next step is to establish whether you are prepared to use this alternative. So you ask, ‘Will that part of me that smokes be prepared to use this new choice to create

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Figure 12.7 Reframing

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relaxation rather than smoking over the next three weeks?’ If you get a ‘yes’ response, then that is fine. If you get a ‘no’ response, then smoking is providing some positive intent that helps you relax. So you continue, ‘Will that part of me that smokes be prepared to use this alternative choice first?’ Saying it in this way does not prevent you from smoking, rather it simply means that you will try the alternative to smoking first. The final stage, referred to as an ecological check, is to establish whether any other part of you will object to your new choice. So you ask, ‘Does any other part of me object to this new way of relaxing?’ This is important. You do not want another part of you sabotaging the process. If you receive a ‘no’ response, then you can continue. If you receive a ‘yes’ response, then you will have to go back to where you established the intent and find an alternative choice that other parts of you will allow. Now in your mind’s eye, see yourself using the alternative choice from smoking to relax you over the coming three weeks and ask, ‘Is the alternative choice working?’ If ‘no’, then again you need to go back to the intent and find an alternative choice. If the response is ‘yes’, then you can awaken yourself. Although this exercise took a while to describe it does not have to take as long to carry it out in practice. It is useful, however, to summarize the technique, which we do in figure 12.7. Notice that in this technique you do not have to know what the best choice is. All you are establishing is whether your unconscious is prepared to try it out. This allows the unconscious mind to do its work in its won way, which is what it is designed to do.

12.6.2 Swish In this next exercise the aim is to switch a positive image for a negative one until the negative one is virtually or totally extinguished. Swish technique with self-hypnosis Put yourself into a trance. Take some specific habit, phobia or unwanted behaviour and think about it in detail. Put yourself in the image and note mentally all the feelings and features. We shall call this the habit picture. Next you need to put that picture to one side, so you need to distract your thoughts away from it. Spelling your name backwards would be a sufficient distraction. Next formulate a picture of how you would like to be without the unwanted habit, phobia or behaviour. This is the ‘you’ who has solved your unwanted habit. We refer to this as the goal picture. It is important to have a very clear, positive, colour and near picture of your goal. This is the ‘you’ with no trace of your unwanted habit, phobia or behaviour: a perfect ‘you’. Once you have a very clear goal picture, place it in the lower right hand corner of your habit picture, as shown in figure 12.8. Now switch the images, i.e., swish them. The goal picture is now the big picture and the habit picture is small and in the lower right hand corner. See this large goal picture right in front of you. Feel and see the wonderful ‘you’ in full colour, totally free from the unwanted habit. Now blank the picture. Imagine it becomes a white screen on which nothing is pictured. Bring into mind again your goal picture placed in the right hand corner of your habit picture and swish them once again. Blank the screen and repeat at least five times.

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You may even swish them up to ten times: doing each one quite quickly. Finally, test the technique. Bring back the very first image: your habit picture. You should find that it is difficult to do – either in terms of the image or the feelings associated with the image. If you cannot bring to mind the unwanted feelings at all, then you have fully succeeded. If you still get some unpleasant feelings, then repeat the whole exercise. Now awaken yourself from the trance state.

Figure 12. 7 Swish Technique

12.6.3 Fast phobia technique The fast phobia technique utilizes many levels of dissociation and typical changes to your submodalities. Although it is possible to use this technique on intense phobias, it is more suited to moderately fearful situations. Typical ones would be speaking in public, performing either a sport or a concert before a large audience, and an interview for a job. The exercise is as follows. Fast phobia technique Place yourself in self-hypnosis. As with many of the NLP techniques we have been outlining, the first task is to get in touch with the feelings of fear. So think of a fearful situation and get in touch with the feelings. Now imagine yourself in a cinema watching your self on the screen. On the cinema screen is a still picture of yourself

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just before you had the fearful response for the first time. If you cannot think of the first time, think of the time that was the most intense. Now you imagine floating out of your body and moving up into the projection room. From there you can see yourself down in the theatre watching yourself on the cinema screen. In the projector room you are in control of the projector. So you now run the movie, in black and white, through the fearful experience until its end and once again in a non-fearful situation. You now freeze the frame once again. At this point you move out of the projection room and become that person in the still movie picture. You now do two things. First, you make the black and white picture full colour; and, second, you run the movie backwards very rapidly (in about two seconds). Repeat going into the still black and white movie picture and running backwards in full colour a few more times. In your mind’s eye step out of the theatre altogether. Imagine you are once again experiencing that fearful experience. For instance, go through a job interview or a public performance you did in the past. But note now how different you feel about it. You should feel far less fearful. If you do not, keep repeating the whole process. When satisfied you have reduced the fearful event to virtually zero, then awaken yourself.

12.6.4 Circle of confidence Although we shall be dealing with confidence in a number of places in Part IV, this technique is very specific to NLP. The basic idea of the circle of confidence is to relive a moment when you were extremely confident, locate the feeling in an imaginary circle and as it were imprint it there, and then whenever you need this confidence just step into the circle once again. We shall employ this NLP technique while in self-hypnosis. The exercise involves five steps. Circle of confidence 1. Place yourself in self-hypnosis. Now stand up with your eyes closed and go back to a memory when you were supremely confident. Even if you lack confidence now, you were not born that way. There will always be some situation in the past when you felt supremely confident. This will be easier to locate than you think because you are in a relaxed trance state. Recall all the feelings, the situation, what you heard and any other sensation from you five senses. 2. As you feel this confidence rising within you, imagine a coloured circle on the floor around your feet. The circle can be any thickness you want it to be, any colour you want, it can have symbols in it or it can have a sound. Whatever form the circle takes, it is to represent power. See and feel the power of the circle rise with a rise in your confidence. When the feeling of confidence is at its height (and you will recognize this by it starting to decline), then step out of the circle. 3. Now think of some up-coming event in which you want to feel confident. It may be a presentation, an interview, a sporting event or a night out with someone you like and want to get to know. Picture the future situation in detail just before you need the feeling of confidence. More specifically you want a trigger that will be there when the future even arrives. It may be the room, the building, the venue for a sporting event or a restaurant.

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4. As soon as the trigger is clear in your mind, step back into the circle and feel the confidence you imprinted in the circle rise through the event in your mind. Yes, imagine you have all the confident feelings you had originally now available to you in this circle. 5. Step out of the circle leaving the confident feelings still within it. Now think of another, a different, future event where you want to feel confident. What you will find is that you will automatically recall the feelings of confidence that you require. If you do not get this strongly, go back and repeat. What you have done is programmed a feeling of confidence for the up-coming event. Now wake yourself up. We have only touched on this growing area of NLP. Although quite separate from hypnosis, the techniques are very frequently combined with hypnosis – which often gives them extra force. The interested reader should consult the readings at the end of this chapter.

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Chapter 13 Consciousness and Altered States of Consciousness

Summary This chapter covers the concepts of consciousness and altered states of consciousness, of which hypnosis is one such state. We ask the question of whether consciousness is a barrier to hypnosis and to what extent a self-hypnotist must suppress the conscious self.

CHAPTER 13 CONSCIOUSNESS AND ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 13.1 An analogy In order to come to some understanding of altered states of consciousness (ASC), let us begin with an analogy. Consider three light bulbs, which we have labelled A, B and C in table 13.1. Now at any one time we can have a different possible situation (a different state of illumination) depending on whether different lights are on of off. There are, in fact, eight possible states shown in table 13.1. Table 13.1 States of illumination

States A 1 on 2 on 3 on 4 off 5 on 6 off 7 off 8 off

Lights B C on on on off off off on on off on on off off on off off

Suppose we now define something to be so only when light A is on. Then this definition is satisfied in a total of four different states (states 1, 2, 3 and 5). If, on the other hand, we define something as requiring both lights A and B to be on, then we have only two states which satisfy this condition (states 1 and 2). If we push the analogy to an extreme then we can think of state 1 as being conscious and state 8 as being asleep. But between these two extremes there are six other possible states, each different from both states 1 and 8 in at least one respect. These other six states, along with state 8, can be likened to altered states of consciousness – i.e., different from the normal waking state, state 1. The analogy is quite a useful one. It readily indicates that there is more than one altered state of consciousness. For instance, state 3 may arise under LSD, while state 7 may occur under mystical experiences. Although this is pushing the analogy a bit far, it does illustrate the important point that the brain passes through many states both during the day and over the maturation of the nervous system. Some states occur once during a twentyfour hour cycle, such as states 1 (consciousness) and 8 (sleep); others, like mystical experiences, may never occur over a person’s life span. The difficulty faced is in identifying the different states and establishing under what conditions they occur. One of these states is the hypnotic state. The difficulty is identifying which one it is and how it differs from the other states. The new developments in brain imaging may very well provide a means of distinguishing different altered states of consciousness. Certainly it can provide more information about ‘which light are on.’ The analogy, although useful up to a point, has a major shortcoming. Although it is true that

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nerves act like lights in that they either fire (the light is on) or they do not fire (the light is off), what is probably more important is that the brain has a number of electrical cycles. These cycles are distinguished by waves. To get some idea of what this means return to our analogy. Suppose all the lights went on and off at random. Then we would observe no cycle: we would over twenty-four hours show constant changing patterns, possibly being awake one moment (state 1) and asleep the next (state 8). We know, however, that this is not true. Suppose, then, that the lights have a sequence such that A and B are on four sixteen hours and off for seven hours and thirty minutes and that for the remaining thirty minutes the lights move randomly over the eight states. For the sake of illustration, let state 7 represent mystical experiences. It may be, therefore, that state 7 never occurs. Now if we looked at the brain in state 1, we could discern its electrical state, which is characterised by lights A, B and C all being on. Similarly we could discern the electrical state of the brain in state 8, characterised by all the light being off (but where we are assuming some electrical potential can be measured). The electrical pattern in each case also shows a cycle with cycle and wavelength. Consciousness (state 1) is characterised by a beta cycle while sleep (state 8) is characterised by a delta cycle . Although in practice all waves are likely to be present in any state, one or two will dominate. The strongest cycle at any moment of time will govern the observed state of the individual. We illustrate this in figure 13.1. Wave 1 (the heavy line) is smaller than wave 2 (dashed line), and the situation at any moment of time is the sum of waves 1 and 2 (the dotted line). As can be seen, the combined situation (wave 1 and 2) is dominated by the greater wave (wave 2). This is important. Even while conscious, and so characterised by beta waves, it is possible to measure the occurrence of alpha waves – but these are swamped by beta waves. Furthermore, some waves are under conscious control while others, like alpha waves, can only be brought under conscious control with training. Figure 13.1

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13.2 Some views on altered states of consciousness With this analogy in mind, what have writers said about altered states of consciousness? Tart admitted in 1969 in a volume of readings on altered states of consciousness that at the present time we really do not know precisely what it is. He was content to state that a person’s ‘normal’ state of consciousness is the one in which he or she spends the major part of his or her waking hours; while an ‘altered’ state of consciousness is one in which he or she feels a qualitative difference in their mental functioning. He leaves the volume of readings to clarify what the qualitative difference is. In the same volume Ludwig argues that an altered state of consciousness is one in which the mental state is induced by various physiological, psychological or pharmacological means, which can be subjectively recognised by the individual themselves as a sufficient deviation from their general norms which occur during their alert, waking state of consciousness. But such a person-centred definition of an altered state of consciousness is not very helpful. The difficulty in distinguishing between different states of mind, different states of consciousness, is exemplified in trying to distinguish between autosuggestion and selfhypnosis. Are these states of mind the same or different? First we must recognise that suggestion is a force. Baudouin comes to this idea when he says that suggestion involves an idea that undergoes transformation into action. If the idea is given by the person himself or herself, then this constitutes autosuggestion; while if someone else gives it, then it is heterosuggestion. What Baudouin emphasises is the importance of transforming the suggestion into action. The transformation of a suggestion into action is what constitutes the force. Furthermore, this transformation takes place at the unconscious level. Having stated that autosuggestion is an unconscious transformation of an idea into action, how does this differ from self-hypnosis? I may walk along the street and give myself a suggestion to feel cheerful and this idea may take root at the unconscious level. However, this is autosuggestion and not self-hypnosis. The difference lies in the context in which the suggestion is given. In other words, the difference lies in the frame of mind the individual is in when the suggestion is given. If I induce a state of focused relaxation and then suggest to myself that when I walk along the street I will feel cheerful, then this is self-hypnosis (and strictly speaking involves a post-hypnotic suggestion). The suggestion is the same as before, but the context in which it is given is different. But the context is not simply a relaxed state: it is more than this. It is also a receptive state. The autosuggestion may or may not take root in the unconscious mind. In self-hypnosis the context deliberately creates the right environment for the suggestion to take root. It does not mean, of course, that in self-hypnosis the suggestions will automatically take root; it means only that there is an increased probability that the suggestion will do so. The conclusion we draw from this discussion is that autosuggestions occur during normal waking consciousness, while self-hypnosis involves suggestions made in an altered state of consciousness. Put differently, the suggestions given may be the same but the state of consciousness is different. There is little disagreement in the literature that hypnosis is one particular altered state of consciousness, although some authors consider the topic of altered states of consciousness too vague to be of any help. The main difficulty investigators have is trying to distinguish hypnosis from other states of consciousness, such as meditation. Recent research into brain imaging is, however, giving some evidence on the difference. The confusion is compounded when we note that a number of drugs can create similar features that are characteristic of

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hypnosis – such as time distortion . Return to the light bulb analogy. Suppose we knew enough to distinguish all eight states listed in table 13.1. Let us further suppose that time distortion occurs when light bulb B is off. Then four altered states of consciousness involve time distortion (states 3, 5, 7 and 8). Even with our present state of knowledge we know that drug states, hypnosis and sleep involve time distortion. (Even waking consciousness does to a small degree.) At the present time research is investigating the light bulbs – as to when they are on or off – but not yet the states themselves, simply because we lack the knowledge. We may be able to establish when light bulb B is off (when time distortion occurs), but not the different states in which it occurs, i.e., we cannot distinguish states 3, 5 and 7 although we can identify state 8 (sleep). Even sleep, which is also an altered state of consciousness, has only fairly recently been investigated in any depth. But the more we investigate, the more the problems mount up. We know, for instance, that the sleep state has three phases. Are these also altered states of consciousness or simply small deviations from the state we classify as sleep? In Ludwig’s definition there had to be a significant deviation from certain general norms. The same could be said of sleep. The three phases, although distinguishable, are not sufficiently deviating from each other to be classified as an altered state of consciousness in their own right. At the same time, the hypnotic state is significantly different from both normal waking consciousness and from sleep to be worth considering separately. Where the haziness comes is in whether there is, say, a sufficient difference between the meditative state and hypnosis to consider these different altered states of consciousness. Each would not only have to be significantly different from the general norms of the waking state, but also significantly different from each other. It is only when our attention is focused on altered states of consciousness that we require to distinguish degrees. In most countries people talk of ‘snow’, not shades of snow or types of snow, just simply ‘snow’. Icelanders are known to talk of many different types of snow. The different types have different characteristics that are important for them. In Britain it was common to talk of hard water and soft water – and it still is. But now we also distinguish chlorinated from unchlorinated water. The point is that ‘water’ has a whole range: from pure distilled water to varieties of polluted water. We have for too long talked of ‘consciousness’ as if it were a single state. Freud, more than anyone else, raised the importance of the unconscious as distinct from the conscious mind. But still, there was only the two. It is time we recognised that there are many states of mind, different altered states of consciousness. Only when we become interested in the different states (just like the Icelanders being interested in different types of snow) will we begin to discern the many varieties there are and what distinguishes one from the other. Hypnosis is just one of the many altered states of consciousness that we are recognising as different from other states. The difficulty one encounters in trying to distinguish the state of hypnosis from other altered states of consciousness are nicely illustrated in Huxley’s state of deep reflection (his own term for his altered state of consciousness). In my view his state of deep reflection is no more than self-hypnosis. But both Huxley and Erickson, who undertook the experiment with Huxley, deny this. The difficulty is how do we distinguish between ‘deep reflection’ and selfhypnosis. Both these undoubtedly are different from the general norms of waking consciousness, but are they sufficiently different from each other to be classified as different states of consciousness? We will almost certainly never know since both Huxley and Erickson are now dead. Even so, anyone engaging in self-hypnosis would do well to read Erickson’s account of Huxley’s experiences.

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13.3 The development of human consciousness The previous section concluded with the idea that consciousness was not a single state. But we can go further. Not only is it not a single state, neither is it a thing or repository. This important point is made in Jaynes’ book, The Bicameral Mind. He says in this book (p. 53), ‘[Consciousness] is an operator rather than a thing or repository. And it is intimately bound up with volition and decision.’ An operator acts on something and is not in itself an entity. In justifying this conclusion, Jaynes looks into the development of human consciousness. He argues that consciousness came after language. In support of this contention he considers the Homeric legends, the Iliad and the Odyssey, from a psychological point of view. When this is done, the most striking thing is that they contain no mental acts. There is no distinction between the soma (body) and the psyche (mind). They contain action and instructions from the gods. In his view, the gods take the place of what we now call consciousness. In this bicameral mind (p. 99), ‘volition came as a voice that was in the nature of a neurological command, in which the command and the action were separated, in which to hear was to obey.’ A number of people have experienced ‘voices in their head’, not their own voice, but voices just as real (or even more real?) than if someone were speaking to them. What is clear is that such voices occur either in times of relaxation or in times of emotional stress. In the time of Homer, such voices were common. To show that this is not historical sophistry, but rather a feature of the human nervous system, all we need to do is turn to the studies on schizophrenia. In this state hallucinations abound – and the auditory more frequent than the visual. As with the heroes of the Odyssey and the Iliad, so the schizophrenic invariably finds he must obey his or her auditory instructions. This is most poignantly illustrated in the book A Beautiful Mind and the film of the same name, which portrays the life (and mind) of John Nash, a mathematician, Nobel Prize winner of economics and a schizophrenic. What arises from the study by Jaynes is when did volition, the will and conscious decisionmaking manifest themselves in the development of man? Jaynes would argue that it is a very recent development. Such a development is linked with the increase in the size of the brain and especially the frontal lobes. This can be established, or at least has been established, by brain seizures and various lobotomies. The outcome of these for the individuals has been difficulty in making decisions, formulating plans and generally engaging in purposeful activities. In addition, consciousness is very much a left-brain process. This domination, however, only arises from the fact that most of the logical and linguistic faculties (but not all) are contained in the left hemisphere of the brain. However, such hemispherical distinction is inadequate to account for human consciousness. We already pointed out in chapter 2 that the brain has three interrelated parts, which are related more in a lateral direction than in a horizontal direction. To say that human consciousness is a function simply of the left hemisphere is almost certainly wrong. That the left hemisphere plays a significant role in human consciousness is almost certainly correct. The connection between hemispherical specialisation and consciousness has, for example, led Ornstein to argue that people have two modes of consciousness: one linear and rational; the other nonrational and intuitive. The former is associated with the left hemisphere of the brain, while the latter is associated with the right hemisphere. He goes on to say (pp. 33-4), ‘If we can realize, from the outset, that our ordinary consciousness is something we must of necessity construct or create in order to survive in the world, then we can understand that this

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consciousness is only one possible consciousness. And if this consciousness is a personal construction, then each person can change his consciousness simply by changing the way he constructs it.’ Of course, this is not the only view of consciousness. Two broad views arise in the vast literature on this topic. First, consciousness is generated by brain activity but plays no causal role in people’s behaviour. In other words, consciousness is a by-product, just like heat is a by-product of combustion. This is referred to as the epephonomenalist view. A second view is that consciousness is generated by brain activity, but can influence brain mechanisms and, in turn, behaviour. This is referred to as the interactionist view. As will become clear in this book, the present author leans very much towards the interactionist view.

13.4 Is hypnosis a retrogressive step? You may be wondering why we have been discussing human consciousness at some length when our interest is in hypnosis, and most particularly self-hypnosis? In the history of human knowledge, it is only recently that we have been considering consciousness in any depth. Freud broke even new ground when he discussed the unconscious. The studies into sleep, drugs, and meditation – along with hypnosis – have all added to our knowledge of the mind. The question we wish to raise here is, ‘Is hypnosis a retrogressive step into an earlier state of mind?’ Put in a totally different way, ‘Was it easier to hypnotise people in the time of Homer than it is today?’ If the answer is yes, what has changed? On a more scientific note, what we are asking is whether hypnosis involves those parts of the brain that were part of our earlier development, in particular the limbic system. We cannot answer the question of whether it was easier to hypnotise people in the time of Homer than people today. We can only consider the literature of the Bible, the documents of Egypt and the sleep temples of ancient Greece. At the same time we can consider other cultures less developed than our own. Here again, trance states appear more common. What we need to separate is the unscientific, inaccurate, prejudicial and even fanatical statements from the hard core. We have already noted in the history outlined in chapter 1 how Mesmer believed in magnetic forces. Although ‘scientific’ (at least in the time of Mesmer) it was false. The idea of magnetic force also gave rise to the belief, both then and to some extent now, that the hypnotist has some power over the hypnotised person. This is a totally false belief. Certainly, in self-hypnosis there can be no such consideration: you cannot have power over yourself. This is absurd. The reason is that such power does not exist, except in people’s imagination. What the Nancy school demonstrated was the importance of suggestion. But they too concentrated on too narrow a range. Even Baudouin overstated the scientific nature of the subject. He stated that the effect of a suggestion is the square of the emotional involvement. Although it is true that emotional involvement plays an important part in hypnosis, this particular ‘law’ is simply a restatement of Kepler’s second law of planetary motions. Baudouin is overstating the case and is trying to make ‘scientific’ what, given our present state of knowledge, cannot be stated so precisely. What we need is to discuss hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness. In doing this we must try to distinguish it from other altered states of consciousness. Furthermore, we need to recognise that hypnosis is a subjective state. When we look back on the development of consciousness, we see that the discussion is about various states of consciousness, where normal waking consciousness is but one of the states. The importance of consciousness lies in the fact that a person spends most of his or her time in such a state. It does not necessarily

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mean, however, that such a state is the most important one. The mystic would argue that his or her mystical experience is the most significant and important thing in their life. This is even argued as so when the experience itself may last only a few minutes. Why such a view about an experience often so short? This is because from then on his or her normal waking consciousness takes on a different meaning. But more significantly, nothing in normal waking consciousness can compare qualitatively with the brief mystical experience. We do not have to turn to mystical experiences either. Peak experiences, to use Maslow’s term, have similar qualities. Even insight does, but to a lesser degree. They are all very brief and occur during altered states of consciousness.

13.5 Consciousness is a barrier to the hypnotic state We can, however, learn something from our discussion so far: consciousness is a barrier to the hypnotic state. If we are in a normal waking conscious state, then we cannot be in hypnosis. We must change the mental state: we must alter it. Now this can either be done with the help of someone else, by drugs or by oneself. All three means are possible; and they are each a means of creating the hypnotic state. This should not be surprising. It is the state of mind that is hypnosis and not the means by which it is achieved. We can talk of fire without confusing it with whether the fire was brought about by lighting a match or using a lighter. So we must constantly remember that hypnosis is a state of mind independent of how it was achieved. Can one consciously alter the normal waking state? This is a confusing question. The hypnotic state can be achieved only by suspending consciousness. In other words, when creating a hypnotic state we put a halt to the process of consciousness: we halt the operator. By suspending the operation of consciousness we allow a change in consciousness from the normal waking state to take place. This is not a retrogressive step. It does not mean that we are going into a more primitive form of consciousness. It simply means that we are going into another form of consciousness. The point can be made in the following way. Suppose I have a piano and play a Strauss waltz. Is that retrogressive? It is true that it is music common in the early twentieth century, but it is in no way inferior; it is just another kind of music. Just as a Strauss waltz is different from an Oscar Peterson jazz composition, so hypnosis is different from the normal conscious waking state. We have laboured this point in an attempt to indicate that altered states of consciousness are alternatives. One is no better than another or more primitive than another. Certainly many altered states of consciousness activate the lower limbic system of the brain. But that only reflects that consciousness is less associated with these areas of the brain. We are, in fact, no more than saying that the brain has areas of specialisation. All efficient systems have parts that are specialised. The human nervous system is one of the most (the most?) efficient systems we know, and its efficiency far outstrips anything man-made. The difficulty we face is that we do not exactly know what hypnosis is. We know a number of its characteristics, but not exactly what it is. If we return to our analogy of the light bulbs, we know that certain lights should be on, and some off, but there are many others we do not know about. Some of these same lights are off or on in other altered states of consciousness also, but our knowledge does not extend across the whole range of lights and so we cannot distinguish the one state from the other. It is this lack of knowledge that has led Tart to suggest that hypnosis involves a whole range of altered states of consciousness.

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13.6 Submergence of the self A typical view of hypnosis is that provided by White in his A preface to a theory of hypnotism, which emphasises two features: (1) goal-directed striving and (2) an altered psychological state. Although the first has gained much attention, I find the argument circular and rather implausible. The second, however, is gaining general acceptance. White does appreciate that volition is transcended whether in an emotional state (such as fear or excitement) and in a ‘low dynamic intensity state’. This latter state is achieved when the parasympathetic nervous system is activated. What is clear is that it is important to suspend reality testing and reduce the sensory input in order to activate the parasympathetic nervous system. Sarbin in extending White’s theory emphasises role-playing. In other words, the special orientation required for hypnosis is one where the self is submerged and the person behalves as if. This is a fairly common interpretation of hypnosis. By submerging the self, the realityorientation is relinquished. When this is done no testing against preconceived notions of reality is undertaken. If this is successful, then the only reality is that being presented to the senses. We pointed out in chapter 2, when discussing recent research on the brain, that there is a blocking action of the orienting reflex when an environment becomes familiar. The induction procedures of hypnosis, do just this. When induction is successful it is the conditioned reflex that becomes activated. This activation can come about through verbal suggestion. These changes are not brought about in the cortex but rather in the relationship between the cortex and the reticular activating system (RAS). The slow, repetitive and melodious induction seems to bring this change about. Once the conditioned reflex is established the realityorientation is bypassed and role-playing can take place. In self-hypnosis, the same individual accomplishes this. What makes self-hypnosis more difficult than heterohypnosis is that the self-suggestions prolong the reality-orientating state of mind. Alternatively, the selfsuggestions raise difficulties in submerging the self. However, if the suggestions are kept up, eventually the conditioned reflex comes into action. With repeated use the conditioned reflex is easier to activate and so the self-hypnotist will find it easier to submerge the self. The main reason why some individuals find it difficult to enter hypnosis is because of their reluctance to ‘let go of reality’. It seems that their wish to hold onto reality satisfies some psychological need. More to the point, the training one has over a lifetime is in creating a realityorientation. In hypnosis the reverse process is required. Some people are more flexible and adept at changing their orientation than other people (just as some people can drive backwards better than others!). The more adaptable a person is, the easier the self can be submerged and the easier the hypnotic state can be achieved. A number of points just made come out in the experiences of Huxley referred to above. Huxley always went into a state of deep reflection in the same chair, so creating the right mental state. He could prolong the state when he had something specific to think about, but would come out of it when he had nothing to think about. Just as conscious awareness requires constant stimuli, so does the hypnotic state. If no suggestions are made then this will either lead to natural sleep or to awakening consciousness. Furthermore, attempts to explore the subjective state of hypnosis are liable to deepen it still further. This is probably because it sets up a closed loop. It could also be that as the reticular activating system (RAS) affects the cortex to induce the hypnosis, the cortex influences the RAS by thoughts and so reinforces the state, hence the individual goes deeper into hypnosis. Huxley himself found he had a subjective need to go deeper into hypnosis, but an intellectual need to stay in a light trance!

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As Baudouin points out, the stronger emotion will win out. Finally, the reality-orientation was experienced when Huxley was asked to examine a chair objectively. When he did this his hypnotic state became lighter. If, on the other hand, he was asked to examine the chair subjectively (e.g., its softness) then the state became deeper. The explanation of this is likely to be that the left brain is more involved in objective evaluation, while the right brain is more involved in a subjective one. The depth of hypnosis seems to be connected with the need or not on the part of some people to have a link with objective reality. In simple terms, with how difficult it is for them to ‘let go’. What we observe from the foregoing discussion is the importance of the self in realityorientation and the submergence of the self in altered states of consciousness. We may go further and argue that there are many selves, each one appropriate to a particular state of consciousness. Let us for a moment suppose that there are many selves, but you consider that there is only one – the real self. It is clear, then, that you are in a sense imprisoned in that self. There is no existence other than this reality and only the self in that reality. Plato’s cave nicely illustrates this.

Plato’s cave A set of prisoners have lived all their lives in a cave chained and facing a wall. The prisoners in the cave are chained in such a way that they cannot turn their heads. Behind them is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a parapet. On this parapet puppeteers can walk. These puppeteers hold up their puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave in front of the prisoners. But because the prisoners cannot turn their heads, they do not know that the ‘things’ on the wall are mere shadows and that the real things pass by behind them. Their only reality is the shadows on the wall. Plato ponders on what would happen if one day one of the prisoners were released and forced to stand up and turn to the light. This would be a painful act for the man and he would most likely turn around once more to look at that which he was most familiar with – the shadows on the wall. But the man is dragged out of the cave into the sunlight to show him the ‘reality out there.’ But with time the free man sees the things outside the cave. Plato considers further what would happen if the man were returned to the cave and to his former position amongst the prisoners once again chained and facing the wall. He would attempt to inform his fellow prisoners that what they saw on the wall was not reality but a mere reflection. They would laugh and scorn him. They would argue that he went up and got his eyes corrupted. Even more, if anyone should therefore attempt to release them and lead them up to the light, they would surely kill him. (The same idea is pursued in H.G. Wells’ short story of the man who could see in the village of the blind.) By accepting the possibility of many selves, it becomes easier to submerge the self of realityorientation. One reason for this is that if you believe in only one true self, then there is a subconscious need not to eliminate this self – to do so, in a sense, is to die. If, however, the submergence of the reality self allows the emergence of another self, then the subconscious fear no longer exists so strongly. (It may still exits in some form because of the uncertainty attached to the other selves.) Now this is not the same as multiple personality, which is a psychological abnormality. The multiple personality is a fragmented self and not another self;

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it is a fragmenting of the self that creates the reality-orientation. Because the mind may become so fragmented, only some of the personalities are consciously aware of particular aspects of reality. Once the possibility of many selves is accepted then a totally new way of thinking and behaving opens up to the individual. Consider for instance, the following quotation from R.S. de Ropp, The Master Game, Picador, p. 151 on dealing with anxiety. The student of Creative Psychology does not attempt to eliminate anxiety of this kind. He simply observes, striving as far as possible, to separate his sense of ‘I’ from the physical sensations he is studying. After a while, he makes a very curious discovery. The effort to observe and, at the same time, not to identify with the sensations he is studying little by little changes those sensations. Without directly trying to do so (how can one ‘try’ not to feel anxiety?), he has learned how to control the reaction. For the fact is (as the student can confirm for himself) that observation, which means bringing a sensation into the focus of awareness, alters the process itself. It brings about a definite change in the nervous pathways that are operating to produce the anxiety. It switches the energy into a different channel. So one who sets out with a firm intention: ‘I am going to observe carefully the physical sensations of this thing I call anxiety,’ discovers to his surprise that there is no anxiety left to observe. All this would make no sense if one did not accept the possibility of many selves. The main difficulty about the concept of self, from the point of view of self-hypnosis, is that there are many such theories. They do, however, have one thing in common, and that is that there is more than one self. Given this, then you should have less worry in your attempt to submerge the conscious self, for only by so doing will you enter hypnosis successfully.

13.7 Focused relaxation A modern view of hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness is that it is a state of focused relaxation. The body is relaxed while the mind narrows its attention to the suggestions of the hypnotist. It does not matter whether the hypnotist is someone else or oneself, all that matters is that the body is in a relaxed state and the person is focusing his or her attention on the suggestions which are being given. When considered from this point of view, hypnotic induction is mainly getting the person being hypnotised into a relaxed state and narrowing down their focus of attention. In doing this the person being hypnotised is directed to introspection. Outside stimuli are restricted and attention is directed inwards to bodily feelings and responses. This inward looking nature of the induction process narrows the person’s attention. The suggestions of relaxation further create the relaxed body so allowing the introspection to take on a greater depth. As the focus of attention narrows, soon the only stimuli for the individual is that presented by the hypnotist. In simple terms, a state of hypnosis is being established. Once the state is established, however, there is no need for the individual to remain relaxed. On the contrary they can be quite active. What matters at this stage is that the individual is now focused purely on the suggestions of the hypnotist. As in Plato’s cave, the only reality is that which is suggested by the hypnotist.

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13.8 Summary Let us summarise where we have arrived at for the self-hypnotist. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Self-hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness that is self-induced. Self-hypnosis involves the construction of a special temporary orientation on a small range of topics and a suspension or reduction of the generalised-reality orientation. Positive self-hypnosis involves activating the parasympathetic nervous system. Self-hypnosis is a subjective state. The switch away from generalised-reality orientation means a switch from the left to the right hemisphere of the brain. Hypnotic tests of depth, discussed in chapter 0, not only test but also actually deepen the hypnotic state. They do this because they reinforce the special temporary orientation by activating the right brain. Any activity while in the hypnotic state that utilises right brain features, e.g., imagery, emotion, etc, will reinforce the hypnotic state, while anything that enhances a test with reality will lessen it. All forms of hypnosis require the suppression of the self in order to relinquish the reality-orientation and attain an appropriate altered state of consciousness. The sooner one ‘lets go’ the sooner one enters hypnosis; the more one ‘lets go’ the deeper the hypnosis becomes. Hypnosis can be thought of as a state of focused relaxation, however the individual need not remain in a relaxed state but does need to remain focused on the suggestions of the hypnotist.

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Chapter 14 Some Advances in Neuroscience

Summary Neuroscience has come a long way in the last few years, and which has provided much insight into the workings of the brain and the nervous system. Some of these advances have a bearing on hypnosis and hypnotherapy. These include brain imaging, gene expression, brain plasticity and mirror neurons. We also discuss the emotional system and the immune system., and conclude with a discussion of why we are a negative species.

CHAPTER 14 SOME ADVANCES IN NEUROSCIENCE Brain imaging research has given a stimulus to many areas of investigation, and one of these is the phenomenon of hypnosis. Although it is well accepted that hypnosis can influence the mind and behaviour, the precise mechanism is not understood. However, brain imaging research has shed some light on this topic. In coming to an understanding of this area of research by neuroscientists, it is first useful to explain what neuroscientists now believe occurs when processing information – whether this be motor or sensory information or simply that of suggestion (a particular form of sound input).

14.1 Neural process of sensory information Sensory information enters the body via the sensory organs – eyes, ears, nose mouth and skin. This sensory information is passed up the nervous system to the appropriate primary sensory regions of the brain. For instance, sensory information coming in through the eyes (e.g. your partner’s face) is directed through the optic nerve to the visual cortex of the brain. At this stage there is only a basic process of electrical stimuli. In order for this stimuli to get translated into your partner’s face the information must go to a higher region in order for it to be recognised as your partner’s face and not that of another person – or for that matter a flower! In other words, the incoming information is compared with stored information present in the brain. This higher region is the executive centre, which lies in the frontal lobe of the brain. The process described so far is referred to as bottom-up or feedforward. The stimulus comes up from the sensory receptors and enters the brain where it is decoded. How you respond, e.g. what you think you see, depends on what information flows down. This feedback mechanism (as distinct from feedforward) is also called top-down. The information comes down from the brain where it is acted upon. Each sensory input has its own set of nerve fibres, but when decoding occurs this information must be combined before it can be decoded and a composite response initiated. What neuroscientists now know is that the nerves relaying information from top-down are larger in number than those involved in bottom-up. It has been estimated that nerves involved in feedback (top-down) information is ten times that of feedforward (bottom-up). The important point is that what yo believe you see, hear feel and believe is based more on top-down feedback processing. This means what you see, feel, etc is not simply based on incoming information, but more on how this information id decoded based on your past experience and how the decoding takes place in the executive higher centres of the brain. How we respond, therefore, depends as much (if not more) on top-down processing. Here is the crux for hypnosis. If the top-down processing can be convinced of a particular reality (regardless of what that reality is in terms of bottom-up processing), then the person will respond to that top-down reality that is constructed in the brain. So the stage volunteer who eats an onion and responds to the suggestion it is an apple, responds to the apple if the suggestion create an alternative reality that over-rules the bottomup information. The degree of hypnotic suggestibility from this perspective depends on the extent to which top-down processing can over-rule bottom-up processing. Focused relaxation (one interpretation of the hypnotic state) can also be viewed as the suitable conditions for topdown feedback processing to over-rule bottom-up feedforward processing. It also explains why children are much more susceptible to hypnosis (and suggestion in general). In the case

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of children, top-down nerves are not fully matured and so the realities are those more from the suggestion.

14.2 Neuroimaging designs in testing hypnosis Although neuroimaging is used to investigate hypnosis there are different ways to do this. Three are most common. 1. Take an image of the brain in normal waking state and another when hypnotised then compare the two. 2. Take an image of the brain in a normal waking state while processing a particular suggestion and another when hypnotised while processing the same suggestion and compare the two. 3. Take an image of the brain in a normal waking state when performing a particular task and another when hypnotised and performing the same task and compare the two. In each case the difference is attributed to hypnosis. Using the first method it has been usual to compare low and high suggestible hypnotic participants. Although the brain scans show a difference, the problem with this approach is that there is no control over what the participants are thinking about, and it may be this that is creating the difference. Procedures two and three are attempts to control for this. The most common is the third text procedure and a popular task used is that involving the Stroop task. (See Stroop test for a more detailed account of this popular task used in many psychological experiments.) Briefly, participants are shown a set of colour words in black and asked to state the words as quickly as possible. Then they are presented with the same set of colour words, but now the words are coloured but the colour is different from the word, e.g. the word may be “BLUE” but is coloured red. In this second condition they are to state the colour the word is and not the word itself. Since language is so imprinted, when seeing the word “BLUE” but having it in the colour red, the participant takes longer to process the conflicting information in order to say the colour and ignore the word they are seeing. The Stroop effect denotes the delay involved when processing words from a conflicting colour. The Stroop effect can be quite accurately measured. What experiments with hypnosis do is to give suggestions under hypnosis that participants will attend only to the colours, i.e. they are given a posthypnotic suggestion. What has been found is that the Stroop effect is much shorter for such hypnotised participants compared to participants who are not hypnotised (the control group). What such experiments illustrate is that hypnotic suggestions can over-rule the conflict that takes place in the executive higher centres of the brain so speeding up top-down processing, as shown by brain images. What such experiments are demonstrating is that hypnosis does influence the brain and can influence behaviour by suggesting an alternative reality that overrules not only sensory information, but also belief systems that the person may hold. They also provide some insight into why hypnosis works – along with a number of other talk therapies and meditation. It also explains the importance of belief and expectation. In particular, what you expect to see (a top-down process) is what you do see. Normally, bottom-up and top-down processes are not in conflict, but when they are (and because the nerves in top-down processing out-number those involved in bottom-up), then it is likely that the top-down process will win out when the conditions are right. Part of the job of the hypnotherapist is to create those suitable conditions, but ultimately only the person being hypnotised can do this (which is why some believe all hypnosis is self-hypnosis).

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There is one important caveat, however. The nervous system is not a fixed network of nerves. Nerves can be created (neurogenesis), but more importantly there is a degree of plasticity in the brain occurring from the generation of new nerve connections, e.g. new dendrites that create new connections. Creating a trance state is a learning process, and such learning creates new neural pathways. It is this aspect that is important for self-hypnosis.

14.2.1 Stroop Test There are many variations of the Stroop test, but here we present a simple one. Participants are presented with two conditions (two sets of cards as shown below). Both conditions show the same set of colour words. Condition 1 has all colour words in black; while condition 2 has the same set of colour words in a different colour from the printed word. Participants are first presented with condition 1 and asked to say the list of words as quickly as possible. They are then presented with condition 2 and asked to say the colour of the words, ignoring the word, as quickly as possible. The time taken to do each task is recorded. The general result is that it takes longer to say the second set than the first because of the conflicting sensory information being received.

Figure 14.1 Stroop Cards

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14.3 Developments in neuroscience There are many new developments taking place in neuroscience that have important implications for the mind-body problem and hypnotherapy in particular. There is still a mystery about how a thought can lead to a change in t Gene expression Brain plasticity Mirror neurons Here we shall provide a simple explanation of these developments and speculate on their implications for hypnotherapy.

14.3.1 Gene expression Gene expression gives an explanation of how the environment can influence genes and so influence behaviour. In order to understand the link between the environment and genes it is important to understand that genes lead to the production of protein and it is proteins that influence the body. In simple terms, the environment can lead a gene to switch on or switch off a particular protein or to switch down or up a particular protein. It is this switching on/off - up/down that leads to a change in the body. Chromosomes are composed of a double-stranded DNA molecule (deoxyribonucleic acid): the double helix linking just four nucleotide bases: adrenalin, cytosine, guanine and thymine – denoted A, C G and T respectively. Cell division occurs with the DNA unravelling and duplicating itself so that each strand forms a duplicate of the original chromosome. The chromosomes are composed of genes that provide the genetic code. Some genes (structural genes) contain information for the synthesis of a particular protein. Other genes (operator genes) control one or more structural genes and it is the operator gene that determines if and when a structural gene will synthesize a protein, i.e. whether the structural gene will be expressed and at what rate. Operator genes are basically like switches: some switch structural genes on or off; others turn the structural genes up or down (like dimmer switches). An important aspect of operator genes is that they are influenced by signals coming from the environment. This is how experience (and suggestion) interacts with genes to influence development and behaviour. Gene expression involves DNA being converted into RNA (ribonucleic acid) which then leads to the production of a protein (a sequence of amino acids). There are two distinct phases to gene expression. First, DNA is converted into RNA, called the transcription phase. Second, RNA is used to produce a protein, called the translation phase. Such gene expression determines how a cell will develop and how it functions when it matures into a particular type of cell, such as a brain cell, bone cell, or a muscle cell. Gene expression gives rise to the phenotype (an organism’s observable characteristics and traits) from a particular genotype (an organism’s hereditary information contained in its genes). From the perspective of gene expression, it could be argued that when a hypnotist makes suggestions, and if those suggestions are taken on board by the client, then some changes can take place at the neural level that allows change to take place. Some research indicates that gene expression varies in time. Some can activate changes within about an hour, others in around two hours, while others take around four hours. Early gene expression, for example, may be important in the way the immune system operates. Once activated, the effects may be within a few minutes and may continue for hours, weeks or even years. Gene expression may play a major role in stress related problems, especially post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is an important implication for therapeutic sessions, which often are no longer than one

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hour. This may be too short for certain genes to express themselves. However, the use of audio files may (just may) overcome this problem. Therapeutic suggestions are given in the hope of changing a client’s behaviour – whether to think differently, to do something active, or to problem-solve. At the end of the day, only the individual can initiate gene expression. The clinician can only change the environment, create novelty in order to facilitate gene expression, or provide a different perspective that allows internal reappraisal to take place.

14.3.2 Brain plasticity Turning to brain plasticity, it must be appreciated that there was a view held in science about the brain for a long time. This view was that after initial development of the nervous system there was no further growth of nerve cells: that neurogenesis was not possible. The implication of this is that the brain, which is at the heart of the neural network, is fixed. The neural network is a network of nerves all linked by axons (long stems on the nerve) and dendrites (small-like tentacles). By means of these axons and dendrites nerves connected with each other to form a network – a neural net. Electrical impulses pass through the network and pass from one nerve to another at the synapse (the gap between a dendrite or axon and another nerve cell) by means of chemicals. If there was no growth in neurons then the number of such nerves and their connections would be fixed. In simple terms this implies we are hard wired. But some neuroscientists began to question this view, and considered the possibility that new nerves can grow in the neural network: that neurogenesis is possible. Others also argued that the brain could adapt, making new connections with dendrites that did not exist before: that neuroplasticity is possible. Such new connections could change the firing patterns of existing neurons. Brain plasticity refers to the existence of neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Neurogenesis is a longer term change in the neural net than neuroplasticity, and usually takes place in the hippocampus. Neuroplasticity hass led to the view of the brain of what fires together is wired together. These developments have important implications, most especially for therapy – and not just hypnotherapy. It now appears that experience can lead to neuroplasticity. Experience leads to changes in the cortical map, especially the motor cortex. Such change can also arise in the case of damage to the nervous system. Neuroplasticity can take two forms. One is a strengthening of existing connections; the other is the creation of new connections. Since experience can lead to neuroplasticity, it is fair to postulate that repeated hypnosis (or meditation) can lead to changes in the neural network. Going into trance is a skill, which becomes easier with practice. I made this point in my review of The Chicago Paradigm. Repeated hypnosis leads to a habit formation, which arises when new spindle cells (a particular type of nerve cell) form in the hippocampus. such a development of new nerve cells (neurogenesis) arises when we learn something new. An interesting question is, ‘If neuroplasticity is possibly, what holds it back?’ A probable partial answer to this question is our limited beliefs. Such limited beliefs arise from past experiences and culture. Limited beliefs lead to negative thinking, e.g. ‘I can’t do such and such’. Another aspect of the answer is that for certain new connections to occur, the experience needs to be intense, or repeated often enough. There is circumstantial evidence for this. Something becomes a habit if it is repeated often enough and once it has been taken over by the unconscious mind. But not just repeated often enough there needs to be an emotional element which gives it intensity, and so strengthens the firing and wiring.

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14.3.3 Mirror Neurons When an animal performs an act then certain neurons in the brain fire. However, it has recently (early 1990s) been noted that when an animal observes the same action performed by another then the same neurons fire. It is though the neurons are ‘mirroring’ the behaviour carried out by the other animal, i.e. they are acting as if they were them self carrying out the act. Such firing was first observed in the macaque monkey, but has subsequently been found in the human brain. Humans are complex animals and the mirror neurons found in humans appear more extensive than in monkeys. The mirror neuron system, if it exists (and not all accept it yet), provides a neurological foundation for empathy. Certain brain regions are active when certain emotions are being experienced: emotions such as disgust, happiness, pride, shame, embarrassment and lust. But they are also active when observing others in situations in which these emotions are prevalent: ‘we feel the other person’s pain’. The mirror neuron system has been used to explain the importance of mimicry. This has important implications for language and learning in children. But from the point of view of hypnosis, it has important implications for rapport, transference and countertransference, some NLP techniques, hypnotic depth, and creative visualisation – to name but a few. For example, it is well known that difficult subjects can more readily enter hypnosis when they observe others doing so. They are unconsciously mirroring the other person. Note too that mirror neurons fire with no conscious involvement: it is an unconscious act. This example highlights another issue found to be important with regard to mirror neurons. The mirror neurons fire more when observing another who is in close proximity. There are two points relevant in this statement. First, the one being observed is an actual animal or person. It is not a video or something being observed on TV. It is true that mirror neurons fire if the person who is being observed is (say) on a video, but it is not as strong. Second, the proximity of the person being observed is important. The mirror neurons fire more when the proximity is closer. It appears that this has important implications for humans as social animals, e.g. deducing the intension of others and for cooperative behaviour. Mirror neurons enable us to see and feel others in an intentional way, i.e. I can see you as having purpose and intention because I mirror what you are doing. Mirror neurons allow us to engage in pretend play; it allows me to put myself in your shoes in order to empathise with you and understand your intention. Such pretend play has many uses in clinical hypnotherapy. Much of creative visualisation is utilising mimicry. Even the simple induction and following an instruction that the arm is getting lighter and starting to rise is invoking (mimicking) what a person does and feels when their arm gets light. Similarly, the golfer who in his or her mind’s eye does the perfect put is invoking the mirror neuron system and doing (in the mind’s eye) the perfect put. It has often been stated that children are excellent hypnotic subjects. Could this simply be a reflection of the fact that they mimic so readily? It is the way they learn and learn to become social animals.

14.4 The emotional system and brain structures Our emotional system has two opposing responses: 1. The stress response 2. The relaxation response The stress response activates the body for fight-or-flight. Once the stressor no longer exists the relaxation response operates to bring the body back into a state of homeostasis (equilibrium). The stress response in the short term is a natural response to stressors – whether physical or psychological – and activates the sympathetic nervous system. The

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relaxation response on the other hand activates the parasympathetic nervous system. However, a long term stress response can prevent the relaxation response being activated and so leads to a maladaptive response. Evidence indicates that short term periods of stress, periods of stress lasting less than 100 minutes, leads to an improvement in the immune function. Long lasting stressors, however, adversely affect the immune function. A stressor has to by the brain. The centre of the brain 14.2 and the three tures involved in 1. The thala2. The amy3. The hip-

be perceived so emotional control is shown in figure important strucemotion are: mus gdala pocampus

Figure 14.2: The emotional brain All these structures lie deep within the brain and are not under any conscious control. When a stressor occurs, especially one involving fear, a number of emotional reactions occur that first influence the brain, and this in turn activates various responses within the body. In order to understand problems such as ME/CFS or PTSD, it is important to appreciate two responses (each with two elements) that take place. First there is a dual pathway within the core brain and the core brain and the cortex. Second, stress activates the pituitary-adrenal system along with the sympathetic nervous system. Let me briefly describe each one. First, sensory information from a stimulus that, for example, involves fear (perceived or actual) enters the brain via the thalamus and thereafter divides into two pathways: a ‘low road’ and a ‘high road’. The ‘low road’ is a quick and unconscious activation of the amygdala and will lead to immediate action on the part of the individual in terms of fight-or-flight. The ‘high road’ goes from the thalamus to the cortex of the brain where it is assessed as to whether it is truly life threatening. If it is not life threatening, then signals are relayed to the amygdala that dampens the influence of the ‘low road’s’ unconscious response. In the case of ME/CFS and PTSD the slower ‘high road’ dampening cannot sufficiently dampen the ‘low

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road’s’ responses. The individual therefore always seems constantly on the alert (which also has the effect of draining the person’s energy). But when a stressor occurs (typically a threat whether physical or psychological), it is compared with past experience. It is this comparison that determines the extent to whether the individual pays attention to the stressor. In the case of ME/CFS or PTSD sufferers, certain triggers lead to immediate attention and so increase the stimulus’ threat value. Once attention is directed towards the threat, its threat value is more fully evaluated. This in turn raises anxiety leading to even more attention. The amygdala is most likely involved in detecting and evaluating threat and, where context is important, the hippocampus is also involved. This is important for phobia, ME/CFS and PTSD sufferers amongst others. When a fear-conditioning stimulus is learned the learning involves the whole context and not just one aspect, e.g. it is not just a gun-shot sound but also the context in which the gun shot is heard. This means that even a similar context can bring on the fear response. What we now know is that constant stress leads to less branching of cells within the hippocampus and there is also a reduction in some types of new cells being generated, which can lead to memory impairment. Furthermore, these changes can last for months. Second, a stressor will activate the pituitary gland, which in turn activates the adrenal gland. The adrenal gland when stimulated releases a hormone that itself triggers the release of glucocorticoids. It is these that produce many of the effects that are associated with stress. At the same time, stressors activate the sympathetic nervous system which increases the amounts of adrenalin and noradrenalin in the body. It is these that lead to the feelings of anxiety (e.g. fear, worry, and despondency) and to physiological responses (e.g. rapid heartbeat, high blood pressure, nausea, breathing difficulties, sleep disturbance, and high levels of glucocorticoids). The magnitude of the stress response depends on (1) actual stressors, (2) the individual and (3) coping strategies. Furthermore, stress increases a person’s susceptibility to infections since it reduces the efficiency of the immune system.

14.5 The immune system The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues and organs that work together to defend the body from an attack of ‘foreign’ invaders. When the immune system is crippled in some way it can attack the wrong targets or lead to disease. The immune system can recognise millions of different enemies. The millions of cells of the immune system move around the body on the lookout for invading enemies and when encountered it activates powerful chemicals. These can regulate the growth and behaviour of body cells and lead to the enlisting of other immune cells that are directed to troubled spots. The essential feature of the immune system is its ability to recognise its own body cells from foreign cells. The body’s own cells carry markers to identify them as being cells of the body; but when the immune system encounters cells that carry markers identifying themselves as not belonging to the body, it quickly kicks into action and goes on the attack. Anything that activates the immune system in this way is called an antigen, e.g. a virus, cells of another person, cancer cells, etc. In some circumstances the immune system can mistake body cells as ‘foreign’ and goes on the attack against its own body. This results in an autoimmune disease. The organs of the immune system are scattered throughout the body, as illustrated in figure 14.3. They are major lymph nodes that produce lymphocytes, white blood cells that play a

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key role in the immune system. A particular set of lymphocytes are produced in the thymus (an important lymph node), called T-cells. Once produced in the thymus, they then migrate to other parts of the body. Another important class of lymphocytes are B-cells, these are plasma cells that make and release antibodies. Lymphocytes travel throughout the body via the blood system and the lymphatic system. Cells are exchanged between the blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels, so monitoring the whole body for invading microbes. Lymphocytes pass from the lymphatic system into the blood stream, constantly on the lookout for antigens, and eventually drifting back into the lymphatic system to begin a new cycle. One important organ of the immune system is the spleen. This contains specialised compartments that allow immune cells to gather and work. The immune system besides utilising lymphocytes also produces a special class of cells, called phagocytes, which can devour ‘foreign’ cells. Because there are many different ‘foreign’ cells, the immune system produces just a few of each kind of cell that is needed to recognise the millions of possible enemies. Once an enemy is encountered, the immune system has the ability to multiply its cells into a full scale army. Once the invading ‘foreign’ cells have been defeated, these newly created cells fade away, leaving sentries behind constantly on the lookout for any future attacks. Suppose a foreign organism invades the body. A reaction begins by a phagocyte ingesting this foreign organism. Having ingested the foreign body, the phagocyte displays the microorganism’s antigens on the surface of its cell, which has the result of attracting T-cells. Receptors are then produced that destroy all invading cells and the body cells that have been invaded. (B-cells produce antibodies that overcome foreign antigens in the blood stream while T-cells enter cells and destroy those infected or those changed by cancer.) A further response begins in which antibodies are produced. These either deactivate or destroy the microorganisms. These antibodies have a long life and so lead to immunity over long periods. Stress, however, interrupts the immune function just described. Stress, besides immune function also influence it changes, e.g. diet, drugs, etc.

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14.6 Negativity Bias 14.6.1 Why are we all so negative? Humans are a negative species. Why is this? The reason lies in our evolutionary development. Because it is built into our nervous system we have to make a conscious effort to overcome it. In order to overcome our in-built negativity it is necessary to understand its evolutionary development. Our survival is based on two opposing forces: approaching things we like and avoiding things we don’t like. When sensory information enters our body it is evaluated by two processes. A ‘low road’ route via the hippocampus that evaluates whether it is an immediate threat and leads to a quick response. If the hippocampus treats the threat as dangerous then it sends messages to the amygdala, which in turn activates the fight-or-flight response. There is also a ‘high road’ route via the prefrontal cortex as to whether it is truly a potential threat. This evaluation involves comparing this new sensory information with past experience. Accordingly, this ‘high road’ route is much slower. If the prefrontal cortex evaluation considers the situation as non-threatening, then messages are relayed to the amygdala which dampens the ‘low road’ responses. When sensory information is considered pleasant then the neural system releases dopamine. An increase in dopamine in the body is registered (subjectively) as pleasant. Because the body involves a mechanism of homeostasis, a process where the body is constantly reestablishing a state of equilibrium, then a drop in dopamine leads to a sense of craving in order to restore the more pleasant feelings. In addition, the things we find pleasant (whether real or imagined) lead to a release of natural opioids, e.g. endorphins, oxytocin and norepinephrine. These chemicals lead one to strengthen the behaviours that led to their release. On the other hand, unpleasant feelings lead us to avoid such situations. By avoiding them the individual is re-establishing a state of equilibrium. Since survival is the organism’s overriding aim, then the tendency to avoid unpleasant and possibly dangerous situations is very strong. So strong in fact that our evolution has created a number of ways to do this: all leading to a negative bias. First and foremost we are vigilant and anxious most of the time and constantly on the lookout for any threats. For humans such threats need not be just physical, they can also be psychological. In addition, the threats need not be only real, they can also be imagined. Second, and leading on from the first, is that our nervous system is very sensitive to negative information. The nervous system is constantly on the lookout for threats. Since experiences are stored and brought into awareness when required, unpleasant memories have a high priority and so are more readily recalled. Furthermore, such negative memories trump the positive ones. Just one negative experience can cancel out a number of positive ones. (Sports people are very aware of this!) Combined with this is the fact that negative experiences lead to lingering traces within the nervous system than do positive ones. Put simply, we recall the negative experiences more readily than the positive ones and recall them with a stronger emotional attachment. Finally, vicious circles of negative feelings are more readily created than virtuous circles of positive feelings. For all of these reasons, evolution has created within us a negative bias which we often have little control over: the negative bias is unconscious. Psychologists point out that such negative bias resides in implicit memory. (Explicit memory is conscious while implicit memory is unconscious.)

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14.6.2 What fire together wire together There is an aspect of our nervous system that reinforces the in-built negativity bias. But this same feature of the nervous system can also be utilised to dampen down its influence. When utilised within the context of hypnosis it can build up a strong positive force. It was thought until fairly recently that the nervous system once it reached its maturity early in our life span simply stopped growing and changing. What change there was reflected its deterioration. Such a view is no longer held. We now know that the brain has a greater plasticity than first thought. This plasticity takes two forms: the growth of new nerve cells (neurogenesis) and the growth of new dendrites, which increases neural circuitry. However, there is also deterioration in neural circuitry where parts of the brain in particular are not used. The brain is a very efficient organ and it strengthens the parts it uses and reduces those parts which are not used. This takes place throughout our life span. Mental activity leads to neurons firing; and such firing leaves traces behind. Thinking in a particular way creates a particular wiring in the brain. Constantly thinking in the same way (firing the same set of neurons) creates a strong wiring in the brain: what fire together wire together. Evolution in creating a negative bias means we constantly fire neurons associated with negative thinking which leads to more hard wiring in the brain that leads to yet more negative thinking. When problems occur, such as phobias (e.g. paruresis) or serious problems like PTSD, the brain develops firing in certain areas that activate the fight-or-flight response. New implicit memories are formed in the hippocampus that leads to further firing when similar contexts are encountered. Over time, hard wiring ensures that similar responses occur, and occur unconsciously, unless something is done.

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Chapter 15 Induction and Termination

Summary Induction and termination of the trance state are two essential elements in hypnosis. The chapter discusses induction in detail, providing a number of scripts that can be used for bringing this about. Termination is fairly straight forward. We conclude by addressing the question, ‘How do I know that I am hypnotized?’

CHAPTER 15 INDUCTION AND TERMINATION In this chapter we shall consider two of the most important aspects of hypnosis: induction and how to terminate the state. Of the two, the most important is induction, since it is this which will determine the success or otherwise of the hypnosis or self-hypnosis. In Book I we emphasised the importance of suggestion and that suggestion in hypnosis is usually through the use of words. We will, therefore, consider some important aspects about suggestions and how best they can be made. This is an important topic that seems to get too little attention. We know from our own experience that some suggestions we respond to quite readily and to others not at all. In the case of some suggestions we do the very opposite to what is suggested! Hypnotic induction is an art. Having said this, there are some basic procedures that should be followed for successful induction. Where the art comes in is when a particular induction is not successful. A good hypnotist will have a variety of induction techniques at his or her disposal. In many cases the actual induction technique used is irrelevant. This is especially true for susceptible subjects. In other cases, however, a subject although quite willing to be hypnotized, may be quite resistant to a particular induction procedure. It is then necessary to try a different one. Only the subject and the situation can dictate which is the most suitable induction procedure. Here expectation is important. If a person thinks that the only way they can enter hypnosis is if you swing a watch in front of their eyes (since that was the way it was done in the movies!), then this is the method you should use. Even in the case of selfhypnosis, it is useful to try a variety of induction procedures. In part this prevents boredom setting in, and in part it supplies flexibility to the hypnotic sessions over time. In this chapter we shall provide detailed induction routines. However, once they are learnt they can be varied. They should be thought of like learning a particular tune on the piano. Once the tune has been learnt, then you can improvise. Transferring the scripts to other media we considered in Book 1, Chapter 10.

15.1 Some general observations on hypnotic induction Induction means the process by which the hypnotic state is achieved. Although some people enter this state fairly readily, in general it must be learnt. Hypnosis is a purely subjective experience and only you can do it. Whether you are being hypnotized by someone else or by yourself, it is you who must alter your state of consciousness. The hypnotist only provides the help to change your state of consciousness into one of hypnosis. It is very much like learning to ride a bicycle. The first problem to overcome in learning to ride a bicycle is having confidence in yourself and convincing yourself that, although you will be on only two wheels which are a few inches wide, with enough momentum you will stay upright: so too with hypnosis. Once the state has been achieved and experienced, it can be repeated very easily and will become easier with practice. With enough practice the aim is to make entering hypnosis a reflex action. More significantly, the aim will eventually be to speed up the process by using a queue word or phrase. Just like Pavlov’s dogs, the cue word or phrase will provide the stimulus to enter hypnosis. With each practice the conditioned response will become more automatic and more like a reflex action.

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Before we outline various induction procedures in detail, it will be worth commenting on what is being done. All induction procedures are specifically designed to reach the right brain, the unconscious mind. In order to do this, the left brain must be ‘put to sleep’ as much as possible. In heterohypnosis, access to the right brain is often accomplished by giving the left brain a mental task so as to keep it occupied, although this is not the only means. In selfhypnosis the procedure is similar but more difficult because the individual has to act as both the hypnotist and the person being hypnotized. But in principle, the two are the same. A typical illustration is when a hypnotist asks a subject to mentally count backwards from three hundred and to continue this while the hypnotist talks. Thus, the left brain is kept occupied while the hypnotist’s suggestions are picked up and passed on to the right brain. Notice, in particular, that the suggestions being given by the hypnotist cannot be assessed in any critical manner. This is because you cannot consciously pay attention to two (complex) things simultaneously. You can switch between them, but at any moment of time only one is the focus of your attention. But having understood this, there is a problem for the selfhypnotist: they cannot perform it! So we must adapt the technique slightly for anyone engaging in self-hypnosis. A second operation is being carried out during the induction stage. Specifically, it is the quietening of the mind. A quiet mind is more responsive to suggestions. This is very important to understand, especially for the self-hypnotist. In this day and age, with its many pressures and anxieties, this is easier said than done. Let me, then, explain what is happening as the mind is being quietened. The mind responds to stimuli that come through the senses: touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing. The idea is to reduce these to an absolute minimum. As the mind has less to occupy itself with, so it focuses more and more on those stimuli that it is still receiving. The proposition being advanced here is that the mind abhors a vacuum. As the stimulation gets less, so the mind focuses more and more on those stimuli that it is still receiving. As we shall see, focused attention is an important feature of the state of hypnosis, and we discuss attention in some detail in 15.1.2.

15.1.2 Attention Attention and consciousness are very closely associated. If you pay attention to something then it is in your conscious awareness. If you do not pay attention to something the question is whether you are aware of it at the unconscious level or whether there is no trace of the awareness whatever – consciously or otherwise. Suppose you are at a dinner with a partner, and you are one of a set of tables, some of which are in hearing distance. Let us suppose this is just two of the other tables. Now at any moment of time you can pay attention to your dinner partner or you can listen to the conversation of one or other of the two other tables within your hearing. What you cannot do is listen to all three at the same time. You can, of course, switch your attention between them, but it is near impossible to pay attention to all three conversations at the same time. Does this mean that conscious awareness is limited? If it were not, then you should be capable of paying attention to all three conversations at the same time. This appears to be a reasonable conjecture. If conscious awareness is limited, and if incoming messages exceed this limit, then an individual must choose which to pay attention to at any given moment of time. Suppose you are paying attention to your partner and not to the other two tables in your hearing distance. Does this mean that you are aware of nothing of their conversations? Is it possible that you are picking up their conversations but that the information is not being

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allowed to enter your consciousness? Put another way, are all conversations being ‘heard’ by you, but at any moment of time, only one is allowed to enter your conscious awareness? If this is the case, then what is inhibiting the other two conversations? Also, what mechanism allows you to switch your attention from one to the other? The answers to these questions have an important bearing on hypnotic induction. What we have said so far shows the strong link with the acquisition of information. An organism can obtain information in two ways (the same two ways a computer can acquire information): either in series or in parallel. Let us illustrate these two important ways. If you have a cassette player the music on the tape is sequential. There is song 1 followed by song 2 and so on. The same is true on videotape: programme 1 is followed by programme 2 and so on. The information is recorded sequentially, and to obtain the information, you must ‘play through’ the recordings in sequential order (even if you use a number counter to find what you want to hear or see). Now consider a telephone exchange with one hundred in-coming lines. Each line can record a conversation. At any one time, therefore, there can be a maximum of one hundred conversations. It is still the case that on any one line in-coming calls follow in series, but the point is that with one hundred lines, conversations to the exchange can occur simultaneously. It is clear that parallel information flows are quicker and more information can be processed. We can represent these two alternatives as follows: Serial -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> ----->

Parallel

(1) -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> (2) -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> (3) -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> -----> ----->

In the case of parallel information, although lines (1), (2), and (3) can be operating at the same time, it may be that consciousness can only pay attention to one of them at any moment of time. If this is the case, then there needs to be a mechanism that allows you to switch between lines (1), (2) and (3). You can listen to conversation (1), or (2) or (3) individually but not simultaneously; you can switch between the three, since they are going on at the same time; but what you cannot do is pay attention to all three at the same time. This is not just to do with sound. Read the following paragraph as you would normally read a paragraph. Beware that Don't you count do not your loose the substance chickens by grasping before at the they shadow hatch. On a first reading it is difficult to make sense of this. But now read only the unbolded text. This makes sense. Now read only the bolded text. This too makes sense. In fact both sentences are from Aesop's fables. Now you are aware of this, you can readily switch between the two sentences. Even so, it is difficult to pay attention to both together – even though you know what they are. How do we account for these observations? The idea of a switching mechanism, although appealing, does not account for why we can register some pertinent information in the signal that is not being attended to, e.g., your own name. From experiments it has been found that information entering in parallel all gets processed ‘up to a degree’. For instance, when not attending to some stimuli certain of the characteristics of the item not being attended to are registered, e.g., whether a voice is present, whether the voice belongs to a man or a woman or

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whether it changed from one to the other. These are referred to as feature analysis. What cannot be remembered are such things as the content or the language being employed. In other words, individuals notice the gross characteristics of a stimulus not being attended to, but not those things that require interpretation, for these would require further processing. The switch theory of attention presupposes it is an all-or-nothing device: information either does or does not get through. But as we have pointed out, it appears some information gets through. This would suggest that the switching mechanism is an attenuator, which simply reduces the amount of information that gets through for further analysis. A more complete theory is that messages all enter and are registered as far as their feature analysis is concerned. These characteristics enter the short-term memory. But then an ‘active synthesis’ comes into play which has processing limitations. This is an active process requiring cognitive, conscious attention. This ‘active synthesis’ is a form of attenuator that cuts out all but one message that filters through to the (long-term) memory. The process can be illustrated as follows:

Figure 15.1 What these remarks indicate is that the first thing that must be done when hypnotizing someone, including yourself, is to find a quiet place. The person being hypnotized should either sit with their back straight or lie down. There should not be too much light, especially on the first few occasions. There should neither be any draughts, and the person being hypnotized should not be feeling cold. One other point, sometimes overlooked, is that the bladder should be empty before the induction begins. All these preliminary arrangements basically reduce down to putting the person being hypnotized into as comfortable a position as possible. Once this is accomplished the induction procedure can begin. It usually begins by getting the person being hypnotized to close their eyes – as we shall demonstrate in a moment. For the present it is important to explain why this is important. Sight involves a great deal of information, which is processed by both sides of the brain, and so the sooner the eyes are closed, the quicker such information is cut off and the sooner the mind can be quietened. Although closing the eyes is not a necessary condition of hypnotic induction, it does appear to make the process easier to accomplish. Once the eyes are closed and the subject is resting quietly, then there are only basically two sources of information available to the subject: the suggestions of the hypnotist and the subjects own bodily sensations. Now the mind is a curious thing. When it has no outside

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stimuli to process then it will turn to internal sensations. This is the very thing the hypnotist wants. In the case of self-hypnosis, then all stimuli are internal. The next stage of the induction process is to get the mind to think about bodily sensations – something most of us do very rarely. At the same time, a gradual process of putting the left brain to ‘sleep’ is undertaken. Very little analysis is required at this stage, all the subject is expected to do is listen to the hypnotist and when the suggestions indicate, to create images in the mind. If you close your eyes for a few moments, you will soon realise that all sorts of thoughts begin to impinge on your consciousness. Why you are doing what you are doing; whether you are doing it right; whether you should go to work by a different route today; whether you should be shopping soon and what you should buy for the evening meal; and so on. Slowly but surely these thoughts are reduced, and attention is directed to specific bodily sensations. As we indicated above, by directing attention to bodily sensations you pay less attention to these extraneous thoughts. As your mind quietens, that is as more and more of your left brain ‘shuts down’, so it becomes easier to concentrate on the one thing and keep your attention on it. Notice in all this, how willingness and co-operation are essential. Also notice that it is through suggestion that all these changes are being brought about. At this stage the subject will be in a light hypnotic trance, and will be feeling very relaxed. Exactly what subjective feelings the hypnotized subject is undergoing we shall discuss in detail in a later chapter. It should be apparent that what is happening to the hypnotized subject is a shutting down of parts of the left brain, so as to direct the thoughts on to the suggestions alone. This allows the suggestions to penetrate the corpus callosum and into the right brain. An analogy will help. If you take a convex lens, light will hit it and pass through in a rather dispersed fashion. If, however, the lens is angled correctly, then the light can be concentrated on a point. The process of hypnosis is like the lens; it concentrates the suggestions, and so allows penetration into the right brain. Furthermore, as the induction progresses, the hypnotized subject finds it easier and easier to focus his or her attention on the suggestions at the exclusion of everything else. We have already made the point that ‘hypnosis’ and ‘sleep’ are quite different things. However, the word ‘sleep’ has many things associated with it. Relaxation and the letting go of consciousness are the two most important. When you think about going to sleep at night a whole series of bodily reactions come into play. These are conditioned reflexes that you associate with the process of going to sleep. Consequently, when suggesting sleep what is really being suggested is the bringing into play the associated responses: relaxation, letting go, and the shutting off of the left brain. The subject knows that they are not expected to fall into a natural sleep. What they are expected to do is simulate the conditions associated with sleep. This is an expectation of both the subject and the hypnotist. It is a shared expectation. It is possible to avoid using the phrase “you are going to sleep”. It is possible to substitute something like “you are now going into a relaxed state”, but this phrase has far less connotations attached to it. So long as the subject and the hypnotist both know that a natural sleep is not intended, then using the phrase, “you are going to sleep” can be used without any confusion. Certainly, in the first instance, such a phrase should be used. Only where this appears to be a problem will it be necessary to find another one. Any alternative phraseology, however, should have strong connotations with relaxation, letting go, and switching off of the left hemisphere of the brain. With difficult subjects, discussions with them about what makes them feel very relaxed and what makes them feel detached will give sufficient clues for the

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hypnotist to improvise with. When you are hypnotizing yourself, you already know what makes you feel relaxed. We are now in a position to go through an induction routine in detail. In this routine, adapted from Hartland (1966), Medical and Dental Hypnosis, although a standard routine used by many practitioners, the numbers refer to comments that will follow the induction. The routine is specifically designed for someone being hypnotized by another person, but her we adapt if for hypnotizing yourself. The numbers indicate notes of elaboration, which follow the induction. So first, you should empty your bladder, find a comfortable position (either sitting or lying down), the lights should be dim and all external noise should be as little as possible. You should fix your gaze on something. It does not really matter what this is. Restricting your vision and focusing it is what really matters. It is useful, but not necessary, to have the object above the eye-line and slightly to one side. Why is this? The reason is that this will fatigue the eyes the most, and since you are suggesting sleep, then this will increase your expectation that you are responding to the suggestions. Expectation is all-important at this very early stage. If you expect to go into trance by looking at a metronome, then induce hypnosis by so doing. Whatever you expect should be done, then do it. What matters is getting your whole attention. In all the scripts throughout this book, … means a pause for about five seconds.

15.2 Induction by progressive relaxation This is by far the most common method, and we shall give the instruction in detail. The numbers refer to comments following the script. Induction Script #1 Progressive relaxation My eyelids are becoming very, very heavy. Heavier and heavier, yes, my eyelids are becoming ever so heavy and they want to close (1). With every breath I take, my eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier … . I am becoming very limp and relaxed, and as I become more limp and relaxed, so my eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier. With every breath I take, my eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier and they just want to close (2). And all I want to do is relax and sleep, not a natural sleep, but a relaxed sleep where all I want to do is listen to my suggestions (3). I am becoming more and more relaxed and all I want to do is sleep and relax; all I want to do is to fall into a very deep sleep, a very deep relaxed sleep … . [Keep repeating this until your eyes close. If they close sooner, just go straight on to the remaining instructions.] My feet are very relaxed; my left foot is very relaxed … . My left ankle is relaxed and as my left foot relaxes, so I am going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . And now my left calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, very relaxed indeed (4). And the relaxation is spreading up my left leg into my left thigh … . And now the whole of my left leg is becoming very relaxed and, as I relax more and more, so I am going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . Not a natural sleep, but into a deep hypnotic sleep. [Now do the same with the right leg.] And now the relaxation is spreading up my body. My pelvis is very relaxed and, as I relax more and more, so I am going into a deeper and deeper sleep …

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. The muscles of my stomach are now relaxing, I am feeling very warm and comfortable and relaxed (5), and the more relaxed I am so the deeper asleep I will go … . And now my chest muscles are relaxing, very, very relaxed. All of my body is very relaxed, and, as I relax more and more, so I am going down and down into a deeper and deeper sleep, into a very relaxed deep sleep … . My shoulder muscles are relaxing now. Very, very relaxed … , just as all the other muscles have relaxed and are going to continue to relax. And so my shoulder muscles are relaxing and I am going down still deeper, yes down and down into a much deeper sleep … . And now the muscles of my left arm are relaxing. They are becoming very limp and relaxed. All the muscles in my left arm are becoming very limp and relaxed. And now my left hand is also becoming very relaxed, just like the remainder of my body. And as I relax still further, so I am going into a much deeper sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . [Now do the same for the right arm and right hand.] Now the muscles of my neck are relaxing. Yes, they are becoming very relaxed indeed … . All tension is going from my neck and the muscles are becoming very limp and relaxed … (6). And as the muscles of my neck relax, so I am sinking down into an even deeper and deeper sleep. The muscles of the back of the neck are becoming very relaxed indeed (7). And, as I relax, so I am sinking down into an ever-deeper sleep. And now the muscles of my face, my ears and around my eyes are relaxing. The muscles of my brow are relaxing. Yes, all the muscles of my face and head are becoming very relaxed, just like the rest of my body … (8). And I am sinking into an ever-deeper sleep … (9). [If you do not feel entirely relaxed by this stage, either concentrate on those parts where tension still exists, or repeat the whole process from feet to head.] (1)

If your eyes should begin to blink, don’t worry. The best procedure if this happens is to incorporate it into the induction process – such as, “As I blink, so I am becoming more and more relaxed and my eyelids will become heavier still, heavier and heavier with every blink.”

(2)

If the eyes close earlier, simply go on to the instructions referring to the feet.

(3)

We have mentioned already the use of the word ‘sleep’. It is a convenient word because it is associated with the act of closing the eyes and relaxing the body. Natural sleep is not intended, and this is repeated in the suggestions to emphasise the fact.

(4)

As you move up your body, something particular and important happens. As your attention switches from the feet to the calf muscles, then the feet will almost certainly relax more; and as your attention switches from the calf muscles to the thighs, then the calf muscles will almost certainly relax more; and so on up the body.

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(5) (6)

The suggestion of warmth in the stomach has shown to be significant from work on autogenic training. At this stage, your head may fall to one side or forwards, if it has not already done so. This is especially true if you are sitting in a chair. Don’t worry simply let it happen. If, however, this causes strain in the neck muscles, then suggest to yourself that you put your head upright again – although it will repeatedly fall to one side. If this becomes troublesome for you, then this is a good sign to undertake the session in a lying position.

(7)

The muscles of the back of the neck are very important and the more they can be relaxed by suggestion, the more relaxed you will feel overall.

(8)

By now you should feel the muscles of your face relax. Your mouth may open as the jaw relaxes. Again, just let things happen. Simply pay no attention to them.

(9)

At the termination of all this relaxation, you will want somewhere to ‘rest your mind’. Suggest to yourself that you will place your awareness at the centre of your forehead, between your eyes – the location of the third eye! You should find that the mind is quite happy to remain there without any effort on your part.

At this point you should be feeling very relaxed, your thoughts somewhat sluggish and your breathing very low and steady. You are, in fact, in a light hypnotic trance – you may be much deeper. You will find this relaxed state very pleasant. What should be noted about the induction routine, taken in its entirety, is how it directs your attention to internal body sensations. Sensations, like emotions, are features of the right brain and so the procedure ‘closes down’ parts of the left brain and ‘awakens’ part of the right brain. As the left brain ‘shuts down’, the mind focuses more and more on the only stimulation it is receiving – namely, the suggestions, in the form of words, a left brain activity. These suggestions more readily pass into the right brain and so generate a feeling or emotion of warmth and relaxation. The length of time it takes to enter this light state of hypnosis partly depends on how detailed the suggestions are and partly on how adept you are at carrying out the instructions. With practice, it becomes easier and quicker. In time, the induction routine can be dropped altogether and a hypnotic state achieved in a few minutes. But this comes later, after practice of these preliminary exercises.

15.3 Induction using a coin People vary in their response to the method of induction. The art is to find the one that you are happy with. Generally, the simple induction method given in the previous section will work after a few attempts. If not, however, then it is useful to know if some alternatives are available. One simple alternative, and most suitable for self-hypnosis, is the following. Take a coin and clasp it in the palm of your hand fairly tightly. Now stretch out your arm with your thumb pointing up so that you are looking at your thumbnail. Now stare at your thumbnail, and as you do so repeat the following suggestions.

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Induction Script #2 Grasping a coin I am now relaxing, and, as I relax, my fingers are becoming looser and looser. And the looser they become, the more relaxed I am becoming … . And when the coin drops, that will be the signal for me to close my eyes and fall into a very deep relaxed sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . And now my grip is becoming lighter and lighter and I am relaxing more and more, and soon, very soon, I will drop the coin … . And when I drop the coin I will also drop my arm, and when I do that I will close my eyes and fall into a pleasant deep sleep … . Yes, I am becoming more relaxed and my fingers are becoming more and more loose … . [Keep repeating this until the coin drops and you close your eyes. Then begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.]

15.4 Induction using clasped hands A popular induction, often used by stage hypnotists, employs the clasping of the hands. This can be very effective because it gives some feedback to the subject that they are responding. First close your eyes and clasp your hands. Alternatively, simply clasp your hands and look at them. Then repeat the following suggestions. In these suggestions the italicised words should be emphasised. Induction Script #3 Clasped hands My hands are clasping tighter and tighter, and as they clasp tighter and tighter so I am becoming more and more relaxed and going into a deep, deep sleep … . Yes, I am going into a deeper and deeper sleep, the tighter my hands clasp together, and they are becoming tighter and tighter, and I am becoming more and more relaxed, and going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . [Keep this up until you begin to respond. Once this happens, then continue in the following manner.] I am now going to relax my grip, and as I relax my grip, so I will go into an even deeper sleep, not a natural sleep, but a hypnotic sleep. And so as I relax my grip, as I am doing now, so I am going even deeper asleep. [Once the grip is loosened and you are relaxed, begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.]

15.5 Induction using the eyes Utilising the eyes and the eyelids is quite common in hypnosis. This is not surprising since we use our eyes constantly. We are very aware of changes in the eyes, whether it is a physical problem or difficulty in focusing. We are aware when we blink and what it feels like. Most of all, we are aware we close our eyes when going to sleep at night. With this induction you look ahead but do not fixate on a point, rather you have a wide angled focus. You then close your eyes and continue in the following manner. Induction Script #4 Induction by opening and closing the eyes In a moment, I am going to count down from one hundred. With each number I count I will open my eyes briefly and then close them. Each time I do this it will become more and more difficult to open my eyes. My eyelids are going to become heavier and heavier and so more and more difficult to open … . Not only will it become harder and harder to open my eyes … but I will become

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more and more relaxed. I will do this until I no longer can open my eyes. When this happens, I will be very relaxed indeed. Yes, very relaxed and in a deep trance state … . [Now begin counting until you achieve the result.]

15.6 Termination of the hypnotic state Termination is remarkably easy, and amounts to no more than suggesting you will awaken with a specified word, phrase or action. A convenient one is counting up – the opposite of counting down to deepen (see next chapter). This also has the merit of bringing you up to consciousness gradually. Script #5 Termination instruction I am now going to count up from one to ten, and as I count up from one to ten, I will become lighter and lighter with each number I count … . I will become lighter and lighter and by the time I reach the number eight, I will open my eyes; and by the time I reach the number ten I will be wide, wide-awake … . And when I awaken, I shall feel very relaxed, very fresh and very alert … . Yes, when I awaken, I shall feel very relaxed, very fresh and very alert. So, one, two three … , four, five, six … , seven, eight [open your eyes], nine, ten. Occasionally, you may awaken with a slight headache. This arises from the deep concentration of the trance state. For many people this does not happen. But if you are one such person where it does happen, then in the final instructions suggest that you will awaken fresh and free from any headache. Another occurrence worth mentioning is that of awakening spontaneously for no apparent reason. This has probably something to do with the mood you are in, but why it occurs is not known. It is in no way harmful. This is to be contrasted from awakening spontaneously from an unpleasant dream. If it does happen that you awaken spontaneously because of some emotional reaction, then it is advisable to re-hypnotize yourself and awaken yourself with suggestions of relaxation, calmness and peace of mind. The reason for doing this quickly, is simply because, at that stage, you are still very suggestible and hypnosis can be re-established fairly quickly and easily. If you cannot re-hypnotize yourself, then the unpleasant feelings will wear off, just like any unpleasant feeling. But try again later. Short sessions can be most beneficial in establishing a quick response mechanism to the stimulus. These can be positively established by means of a post-hypnotic suggestion, outlined in Chapter 17. What if you do not awaken when you count to ten? The reason why this happens is because you are enjoying the trance state so much that you do not want it to end. Or it could arise because you have not cancelled a particular suggestion, which may influence your behaviour adversely in the normal waking state. You will know which of these two it is. If the reason you have not awakened is because you are enjoying the trance state, then simply repeat the termination instructions. This will be very rare in self-hypnosis because you will not have begun the termination instructions had you not wished to awaken from the trance state in the first place! If it is because of the second reason, then remember the basic rule: always cancel any suggestion you have given yourself during the trance state that you do not want to affect you in your waking state. Of course, this does not apply to positive suggestions you have given yourself with which you do want to influence your behaviour in the waking state.

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15.7 How do I know that I am hypnotized? This is one of those questions like, ‘How do I know whether I am in love?’ All we can do is list features of the trance state. What is important is to recognize that hypnosis is a subjective experience, and you will soon recognize the difference of the hypnotic state from your normal waking state and other states of consciousness. This is not an unreasonable reply. Just think about how you would answer the question, ‘How do you know you are awake?’ The reason why some people find it difficult to know that they are hypnotized is simply because they are aware of everything, often very aware, when they expected something else. When you are in a trance state, you are conscious and can hear and think in much the same way as normal. Those who are most surprised by the state are those who think they will become unconscious when they enter hypnosis. But if you become unconscious, then you cannot give yourself instructions. We shall consider the characteristics of the state of hypnosis in more detail in chapter 9. It is useful at this early stage, however, to indicate what you might expect when you enter a trance state. This is particularly important when you enter this state for the first time. The most conspicuous feeling you have is one of relaxation and peace of mind. This should not be surprising, since this is exactly what the induction suggestions are attempting to bring about. Your muscles will become flaccid, especially in the face and jaw. Many people feel a tingling sensation throughout parts of their body – especially in the legs and arms. Your mind will feel sluggish and you may have difficulty remembering the suggestions you are trying to give yourself. Don’t worry; this is exactly what you want to happen because it indicates that parts of the left brain are ‘shutting down’. Just carry on as if nothing had happened. Above all, do not analyse what is happening, for this will re-activate the left brain, your reasoning conscious mind, and this is the very thing you are attempting to suppress. If your mind is at rest, along with your body, then you could very well be in a state where all you want to do is remain like that and not bother about anything. There is no danger that you will remain like this for long periods of time. Again, this is a state you want to achieve. When this happens, suggestions are carried out more readily because you neither want to resist, since this requires analysis, nor do you want to give the matter any thought, because this requires effort and disturbs the tranquillity that you are in. You simply want to experience the state. Thinking about this now is fine. Just surrendering to the experience when it happens allows the mind to take the route of least resistance. This is sensible. Resistance requires effort and an expenditure of mental energy, and this is wasteful. You expend most mental energy when you are anxious and worried, which is an unpleasant experience. A more obvious sensation is the reduction in the heart rate as you relax and, more particularly, a slow rhythmic breathing. Your breathing may become hardly noticeable. This is a useful indicator that you are in a trance state because it shows the body is finding its own natural rhythm, which is a right brain function. The pace of life makes breathing and heartbeat lose their natural rhythm: they often become unsynchronised. One of the essential benefits of being in a trance is to re-establish a synchronised breathing and heartbeat., as illustrated in the following exercise. Exercise: Synchronized breathing and heartbeat Take a metronome and place it on sixty beats to the minute or seventy-two beats to the minute. The first is the beat of largo in classical music, especially

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baroque. The second represents the typical beat of the human heart. Now just sit quietly with your eyes closed while listing intently to the metronome. Very soon you will find your breathing and your heartbeat will slow down. More particularly, your breathing and your heartbeat will synchronize with the beat of the metronome. In fact, this is the basis behind lulling a baby to sleep. It is also why listening to classical baroque music, such as Bach, is so relaxing. The synchronization of heartbeat and breathing in response to certain types of music is known to improve concentration and learning. Music by Mozart has been particularly beneficial in this regard. The opposite also applies. For instance, if you are in a car driving along a motorway and the music you are playing is loud and fast, then your breathing and heartbeat will synchronize with this too. Before long, you have also increased the speed at which you are driving! The most important thing to avoid at this stage, or any stage in the process, is the ‘prove it to me’ attitude. Simply accept things. The deepening suggestions given in the chapter 16 will give you sufficient subjective experiences from which to sense that you are indeed in a trance state: a state of self-hypnosis. At this early stage avoid testing whether you are in a trance state. Doing this has two negative impacts. First, it lessens the trance state because it often involves conscious thinking, which is what you are trying to reduce. Second, and more important, if the test is not successful then this has a great tendency to reduce your confidence in bringing it about. As you become more proficient at creating a trance state then there are a number of tests you can do. Some involve the process of deepening simultaneously, e.g., sticking of the eyelids (Deepening script #16) or not being able to rise from the chair (Deepening script #17), both outlined in the next chapter. Yet more convincing tests involve post-hypnotic suggestions, which we discuss in detail in chapter 17.

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Chapter 16 Deepening

Summary This chapter deals with deepening the trance state, providing many scripts to do this. However, we first discuss whether depth of trance is important. The deepening scripts are characterised by means of imagery, physical associations and creative imagery.

CHAPTER 16 DEEPENING THE HYPNOTIC STATE There are techniques for deepening the hypnotic state, but before discussing these it is important that we consider whether this is necessary. After all, if it is not essential then why bother! But even if we assume it is necessary, to increase the depth implies that we can measure depth in some way, for how else will we know that we are in a deeper state of hypnosis! In heterohypnosis, especially in laboratory situations, scales are used to measure depth of trance. For the self-hypnotist these are not available and so other signs of depth need to be utilized. Even so, a brief discussion of hypnotic depth scales does give us some insight into the meaning and importance of trance depth. There is a more important reason to discuss depth in some detail for the self-hypnotist. The reason is that the most common disappointment with self-hypnosis is not being able to enter a deep trance state and so not being able to produce ‘on command’ the effects similar to those produced in heterohypnosis. It is therefore necessary to deal not only with techniques of deepening, but also with the issues surrounding the meaning of trance depth.

16.1 Depth of trance Some initial comments on depth are important. If you have attempted the induction then you will have already experienced some depth of trance. But depth of trance is not a constant. It is neither a constant for a given trance nor constant across trances for the same individual. As you are probably aware, your consciousness varies throughout the day. Sometimes you are quite alert and other times you feel like just closing your eyes for a few minutes and having a ‘catnap’. Some days you are more alert than other days. In other words your level of consciousness varies. The same applies to depth of sleep. During a given night, at some times you are in light sleep and at other times you are in deep sleep. Some nights you are exceedingly restless and have only a light sleep; other times you appear to have a good deep nights sleep. Depth of sleep varies through a given evening and from one night to the next. There is no reason to expect a trance state to be any different. This should not be surprising. The brain is not in a constant state, but rather it is in a constant state of flux. The depth of trance is not an inherited characteristic. You are not born with a certain ability to reach a given depth of trance. However, your earlier years will have led to some level of suggestibility. You can learn to increase your depth of trance and to some degree your suggestibility. We discussed suggestibility in detail in chapter 5, for the moment we shall concentrate on learning how to deepen the trance state. Of course, some individuals can go deeper than other individuals without much effort – probably because they are more suggestible. This is like saying some people are better at ball games than other individuals. For some individuals, their basic make up – their inherited characteristics and their upbringing – has meant that they enter a deep trance state easier than others. They have a certain natural aptitude for entering a deep trance state. But just like everyone can learn to play tennis, so everyone can learn to deepen his or her trance state. Some individuals do this quickly; others take a much longer time. But all can do it. When considering the term ‘depth’ one naturally thinks of a scale that goes down in a monotonic fashion; like the depth of the sea measured in fathoms. The higher the number of

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fathoms, the deeper into the sea one has gone – and this is true for all the numbers on the scale. We constantly measure things with a single scale because what we are measuring is one-dimensional. We measure the height of a building in feet or metres; we measure the weight of something in pounds or kilograms; etc. There are three separate issues involved in this view. First, depth is not an objective measure but a subjective one. Following on from this is a second issue. Suppose we have a scale, and suppose for the moment we can give it a number. Let us simply call this number 6 on a scale that goes from 0 to 10 (0 meaning a normal state and 10 meaning the deepest state of hypnosis). Now suppose two individuals have a measure of 6 on the depth scale. Does it mean that they are at the same depth of trance? This would be true if the same scale meant the same thing to each individual. In other words, the scale needs to be an objective scale. If I measure the weight of an item at two kilograms, and you measure the weight of an item at two kilograms then we would say categorically that they have the same weight. This is because the measuring scale is independent of the item being measured and independent of the person doing the measuring. But this is not true of the trance state, since the trance state is a subjective feeling of the individual. In an absolute sense, we cannot make interpersonal comparisons. So indicating on some scale that the trance state is the same by no means should be interpreted to mean that the two individuals are necessarily at the same depth. The third confusion arising from discussions on measuring depth is to assume that the measure is monotonic and of a single variable. By monotonic we mean that the variable always rises or always falls (it cannot sometimes rise and sometimes fall). By one-dimensional we mean that the measure of something requires only one variable in which to measure it. Consider two boxes. Suppose both boxes have the same height. Would you conclude, then, that they have the same volume? Of course you would not. You would say you need to know the area of the base, i.e., you would also need to know the length and width of the base. Only if the base had the same length and width would you conclude that they had the same volume. In other words, volume requires three dimensions to characterise it: length, width and height. Of course, volume itself is one-dimensional. Volume requires just a single number to represent it. However, hypnotic scales do assume a single variable can measure hypnotic depth: that the measure of depth is one-dimensional. All these issues are more important for the laboratory scientist. For the person engaging in self-hypnosis what matters is learning to go as deep as possible so that the full benefits of the trance state can be utilized – and utilized when required. It does not matter whether your depth is the same or deeper than another persons. What matters is that you have reached sufficient depth to achieve your goal. It was just indicated that what matters is to reach the depth to achieve your goals. But this too is not as clear as it might be. Depth of trance can be broken down into parts to indicate depth. The most common is to divide the trance state into light, medium and deep. Having done this, the literature then discusses what is ‘typical’ of being in a light trance state, a medium trance state and a deep trance state. But what do we mean by ‘typical’ in any stage of trance? By ‘typical’ we mean what most individuals will carry out when instructed to do when in such as stage of trance. What is most important to appreciate when considering this scale is that what occurs in, say, the medium trance state is assumed not capable of being accomplished in the light stage. What can be accomplished in the deep stage is assumed not capable of being accomplished in either medium or light trance. To take but one illustration: amnesia. Amnesia is supposed to be a characteristic of a deep trance state. In our history (Book 1, Chapter 1) we noted that Victor, who was hypnotized by Chastenet de Puységur, went into a deep trance state and did not remember anything when he awoke. It was from this experience that we have the term

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‘somnambulism’, which is supposed to be the deepest state of hypnosis. Of course the more consciousness closes down the less we can consciously remember. That is why we do not remember our dreams. But just as dreams can be brought into conscious memory – admittedly not easily – so too can the suggestions given in trance. Even for a somnambulist, they can be instructed to remember what transpires. If they truly are very suggestible, and this is one of the characteristics of somnambulism, then they will follow the suggestion of remembering what transpires in the trance state. We return to the issue of subjectivism. There is a presumption that all individuals are alike. So if something can only be done in medium trance then everyone can only do it in medium trance. This is wrong. For whatever reason, some individuals can be in a light or medium trance state and yet carry out a suggestion that ‘normally’ would be true of a deep trance state. Equally important, sometimes an individual will carry out a particular suggestion no matter what the state, and on other occasions the same individual will not comply. This can be true of both heterohypnosis and self-hypnosis. One feature of the supposed deep trance state is important for the self-hypnotist. It is often stated that only in deep trance state can an individual open their eyes without disturbing the trance state. Equally, amnesia is also supposed to be a characteristic of deep trance state. Yet I have had clients, and I myself, who have not experienced amnesia and yet can open their eyes without disturbing the trance state. What all this indicates is that measuring the depth of hypnosis is fraught with difficulties and misinterpretations. The scales that are used to measure depth of trance are simply a guide. They are not immutable. Even so, one should not conclude from this that reaching a deep trance state is unimportant. Far from it, the conclusion that is important to draw is that more can be accomplished the deeper the trance state. But equally important is that often many goals can be accomplished in a light or medium trance state – even some of those ‘typically’ attributable to a deep trance state.

16.2 Deepening techniques Deepening techniques serve three purposes for the self-hypnotist. 1. They take you to deeper trance states in stages so increasing your chance of success in whatever you wish to accomplish by the trance. 2. It gives you an opportunity to become acquainted with your subjective feelings. In doing this it also means that you come to a better understanding of what ‘being hypnotized’ really means. 3. They are used to assess the depth of your trance. The third purpose is really more of interest in heterohypnosis, especially in laboratory situations. For the self-hypnotist what matters is learning to go as deep as possible so that the full benefits of the trance state can be obtained as and when required. It is like learning piano scales over and over so that you do not have to think about them. Although you do not need a deep trance state on every occasion, the more proficient you become at going deep means that you can quickly and easily reach a sufficient depth for whatever it is you wish to do with the trance state when you most need it. There is one cautionary note. If any of the deepening scripts lead to anxiety then simply avoid that particular one. For example, someone who had nearly drowned in his or her youth would

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find deepening with reference to the sea quite upsetting. Enough scripts have been supplied to find suitable ones that you respond to the best. In this section we shall consider scripts under three headings: 1. deepening by means of imagery 2. deepening by means of physical associations 3. deepening by means of creative imagery We shall discuss the importance of imagery, and most especially how to improve it, in chapter 18. If your imagery is already well developed, then the deepening scripts utilizing imagery can be most effective. But what if you presently do not have a well-developed imagination. Must you give up the idea of self-hypnosis at this point? This is not necessary. What you can do is utilize deepening suggestions that involve physical associations, such as arm heaviness or arm lightness. The advantage of these particular suggestions is that they involve biofeedback. You will be aware that your arm is getting heavier or your arm is getting lighter. This will give you a sense of success and expectancy, which will have a positive impact on the trance state. Even if you are good at responding to the deepening scripts by means of imagery, you should add a number of these deepening scripts that involve physical sensations.

16.2.1 Deepening by means of imagery Almost all imagery involves the idea of ‘down’ – either going down or counting down – and associating this idea with the idea of going down deeper into trance. Often there is a combined suggestion: namely, relaxing and going deeper. The first two scripts involve the simplest of all: simply counting down. They can be done often together, with the second naturally following on from the first. Script 1 suggests counting down from ten to one, but it does not have to be ten. You can count backwards from any number. Counting backwards from, say, three hundred allows the counting to proceed until you feel you are responding. This particular deepening is very good if you respond to numbers. If you are particularly responsive to the first script, then the second, which involves counting down in units of ten, will be even more effective. This is because you will be utilizing the experience of the first in doing the second and magnifying the impact in the process. Deepening Script #1 Counting down from 10 to 1 In a moment, I am going to count down from ten to one, and as I count down from ten to one, I will become more and more relaxed and will go deeper and deeper into trance. Yes, with each number that I count, I will become more and more relaxed, and as I become more and more relaxed, so I will go deeper and deeper into trance. Ten, nine … more and more relaxed and deeper and deeper. Eight, deeper still. Seven, more and more relaxed, much deeper … Six, deeper still … Five … deeper and deeper, deeper and more relaxed … Four, more and more relaxed, and as I relax more and more, I am going deeper and deeper into trance … Three … deeper and deeper … Two, deeper still … and one, all the way down.

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Deepening Script #2 Counting down from 100 to 1 in units of 10 In a moment I am going to count down from one hundred to one in units of ten, and it will be as if I have counted every number in between, and it will be as if I have become more and more relaxed and deeper and deeper with all those numbers in between. One hundred …. ninety … deeper and deeper … eighty, letting go and sinking down, all the way down … seventy … more and more relaxed and deeper and deeper … sixty … down deeper still … fifty … all the say down … forty … just letting go … letting go so easily and sinking down into a deep, deep trance state … thirty, down and down … twenty … all the way down … ten letting go … and one. Counting down calls on little if any imagery and involves abstract thought. It is, however, possible to utilize the idea of counting down with more visual imagery. Stairs, escalators and paths down are all good metaphors for deepening. The next four scripts all involve such metaphors. The aim is not only to see the image being presented, but also to feel it and involve all of your senses. Smell whatever seems appropriate for the image. See yourself going down and around the stairs, going down the escalator or down the path to the pond. Hear associated noises, such as birds singing. Deepening Script #3 Down stairs in a castle turret I am in a castle, the castle like many castles has four turrets: one on each corner of the main building. Each turret has a circular staircase going down from the top to the chambers below. I am now standing at the top of one of these staircases. In a moment I will descend the staircase … and with each step I take, I will go deeper and deeper … becoming more and more relaxed with every step I take. I am now beginning my descent … and with each step I take, I am going deeper and deeper into trance … deeper and deeper … I am going much, much deeper as I go round and round and down and down. Yes, as I go down and around, so I am going deeper and deeper into trance … the further down I go … so the deeper I will go … and as I go round and down, so I am going deeper and deeper. Deepening Script #4 Escalator down I am in a large supermarket on the fifth floor. I am about to take the escalator down to the lower ground floor. As the escalator goes down, so I am going down deeper and deeper into trance. With each floor I go down, so I will let go that much more and go deeper and deeper into trance. And now I am stepping onto the escalator, which is going down. And as the escalator goes down, so I am going down into a deeper and deeper trance … a much deeper trance. I am now stepping off as I reach the fourth floor. My trance state is now going much, much deeper as I make my way to the top of the escalator to go down to the third floor. I am very, very deep and ready to go deeper still as I make my way to the top of the escalator to go down to the third floor. I am very, very deep and ready to go deeper still as I make my way down the escalator to the second floor. As I step on the escalator, the whole of

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my body is relaxing and I am sinking down and down as the escalator goes down. I now reach the second floor and my trance becomes much, much deeper. I am letting to that much easier … I now make my way to the top of the escalator to go down to the first floor. My trance state is becoming deeper and deeper … I am letting go that much easier … I now reach the ground floor. I am very deep but ready to go much, much deeper as I take the final escalator down to the lower ground floor. And so, as I step on the escalator, I let go and sink down, down into a deep trance state. And as I step off the escalator, I am ready to follow all of my suggestions. Deepening Script #5 Down a river to the sea I am in a rowing boat on a river. The oars are in and I am just lying in this rowing boat. The rowing boat is padded and it is very comfortable. I am just looking up at the clouds. The current of the river is taking the boat down the river with no difficulty at all … and as the boat goes down the river, so I am going down and down into a deeper and deeper trance state. I can feel the warmth of the sun on my face and the gentle breeze as the boat drifts down the river, and as I sink deeper and deeper into trance. I can hear the birds in the trees and on the bank, and I can hear the ripple of the water as the boat makes its way down the river … And all the time I am going deeper and deeper into trance. The sun is glistening through the trees, sparkling and dancing as they do. The clouds are drifting across the sky and it is all so relaxing and peaceful. I don’t have a care in the world … the only thing that matters is the feeling of relaxation and the wish to let go and sink down and down into a deep, deep trance state … And now the river approaches the sea … and as it does so, it begins to slow down … and so too is my mind … the boat drifts into the sea, and there is hardly a ripple on the surface of the water … just like there is hardly a ripple on the surface of my mind … And in this beautifully relaxed state, so I am very responsive to all of my suggestions … very, very responsive indeed. Deepening Script #6 Down to the pond I am in a park strolling around. The path I am on works its way through the different beds of flowers. I can see the bumblebees flying from flower to flower collecting their pollen. I can smell the scent of the different flowers and it is all so relaxing. I feel calm and at peace … a peace within myself and at the world around me …. The air in the park is so clear and fresh … and I feel one with nature as I stroll along the path. Now the path turns right and heads down towards the pond, meandering as it does so. And as I make my way down the path, so I am sinking down and down into a deeper and deeper trance state. It seems so easy to go deeper and deeper in this open and pleasant park. My thoughts are free and I am letting go … letting go that much more as I do gown the path towards the pond. The flowers and ferns on the side of the path are different from before, and the smells are different too. There are more rhododendron bushes on the side of the path all with different colours of flowers.

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I can now clearly see the pond below. Large water lilies are floating on the surface of the pond. Some just have the large leaves, but some have a white flower. Ducks are wading between the water lilies, and it is all most pleasant and most soothing. And as I am making my way down now to the edge of the water, so I am letting go and going into a deeper and deeper trance state. I reach the edge and there is a rock where I can sit looking out over the pond. I sit on the rock and can now see the dragonflies darting around over the surface of the water. Flies too, small and barely noticeable are also flying around over the surface of the pond. And as I look deep into the pond, I can see the goldfish in the water. The water is drawing my thoughts down and I am sinking deeper and deeper into trance. There are a whole variety of images that involve going down. Others are to do with water, which is always claming in itself. The next three images all involve water. Deepening Script #7 Jungle and lagoon I am in jungle hacking my way through with a machete. I am on my own. I am hot with the sun and sweating with the exertion. My muscles are aching as I hack my way through the jungle. There is no path, no obvious way to go. But on I go. And now I come on a clearing and in this clearing there is a lagoon with a waterfall at the far end. I strip off and take a bathe. There is no one around; I am alone in this beautiful place: this paradise in the depths of the jungle. And after washing off the sweat from my body, I come out of the water and sit under a tree drying in the warm noonday sun. I feel so relaxed now, and my mind wonders, and I just let it wonder. I am relaxed and sinking into a deep, deep relaxed state … a state that is getting deeper and deeper. It is getting deeper as I watch the sun move across the sky. I am so relaxed and feel so free that I just don’t want to move. I just want to watch the sun dip below the mountains. And the day turns into night, but I still don’t want to move. I just want to sit here and let go, to sink down and down into a deeper and deeper trance state. And the state is getting deeper as I see the moon move across the sky. In fact, with each day that passes I will become deeper and deeper … and with each night that passes, I will become even deeper still … And so the sun rises and the night turns into day … The sun moves rapidly across the sky, and I go deeper and deeper … And the day turns into night … and the moon too moves rapidly across the sky … and all the time I am going deeper and deeper into trance. And so the night turns into day … and the day into night … the days and nights flash faster and faster and as they do, I am sinking deeper and deeper into trance. And now the sun and moon settle down, and I feel myself in a deep and very responsive trance state … a state where I will follow all of my suggestions easily and readily. Deepening Script #8 Beach and the lapping of the sea I am on a beach all alone and I go in for a swim. It is all so refreshing. I dive around against the incoming waves. After a time, I am tired and I come out

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and lie down in the warm sand. I can feel the sand beneath my body. The sun is drying my body and my body is relaxing. And as my body relaxes, I feel so comfortable and so much at peace. My mind is drifting and I am sinking down deeper and deeper into trance. I can hear the seagulls above and can feel a cool breeze blowing over my body. It has been such a long time since I felt so relaxed, so ready to let go. And as I lie hear on the beach, I can hear the water coming up the beach and going down again … up the beach and going down again. And as I hear the water coming up the beach, so I am relaxing much, much more; letting go that much more … and as I bear the water going down the beach, so I am going deeper and deeper into trance. Yes, I can hear the sea coming up the beach and going down again; up the beach and going down again. Deepening Script #9 Diving into the sea I am on a yacht that is moored in a beautiful and peaceful bay. I decide to go into the water, and dive into the sea. I find to my surprise that I can breath under water. I don’t need oxygen tanks or any aids. I swim around beneath the surface of the water curious at all what I can see. I am just swimming around below the surface of the water, and I don’t need to come up for air; I can breathe under water with no difficulty at all. There is a rope that goes down and along this rope there is a set of markers that measures the depth in fathoms. At the moment I am only at the marker indicating one fathom. I start to swim downwards, down along side the rope. And as I go down, so I feel myself sinking down deeper and deeper into trance. I see the numbers on the rope rising: two fathoms, three fathoms, and four fathoms. And all the time, I am going deeper and deeper into trance. Yes, as I go deeper into the sea so I go much, much deeper into trance. On I go, down further. Now reaching five fathoms, then six fathoms. And the markers now come quick and fast as I go much, much deeper into the sea; much, much deeper into trance. The next imagery script also involves going down, this time down into the depths of a mountain. The simple act of going deep down into a mountain is also a good metaphor for going down deeper into trance. This particular script, however, will be continued in a later chapter. The crystal cave can be utilized for a whole variety of uses. Because of this, I would suggest that the reader becomes quite familiar with this particular deepening script. Deepening Script #10 Going down to the crystal cave I am walking along the hills all alone. It is warm and peaceful and I feel calm and relaxed. Over on the right I see a set of rocks, not particularly high, but there appears a crevice between two large boulders. I make my way over and find that the crevice leads into a passageway. I squeeze in and the entrance opens up to a passage that goes down into the mountain. I make my way down the passage. As I go down the passage, so I am going down deeper and deeper into trance. The passageway meanders, but always it is going down deeper into the mountain … and as it does so, so I am going deeper and deeper down into trance. As I go deeper down into the mountain, so it is getting darker, but not dark enough to prevent me from seeing. It is as if the moss on the walls of

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the passage is giving off a gentle glow. And before me, I see a glow much brighter now. It appears to be coming from an inner cavern. I can see the entrance, and so I make my way over to it. On entering I find I am entering a beautiful crystal cave. A cave full of crystals of all different colours and shades. The final imagery script was originally suggested by hypnotherapist Andy Moore under the title, ‘The Scottish Highland Double Dice Induction’. It has the merit of being both an induction script and a deepening script. Here we adapt it for self-hypnosis as a deepening script. I am grateful to Andy Moore for permission to adapt the script for self-hypnosis. Because this script does involve imagery, you should visualize it as clearly as you can, most especially the dice. You may even want to make the dice larger than usual with very big clear dots on the surfaces of the dice. Become fully involved in the image and most especially in the emotions suggested. Deepening Script #11 The double dice I am now very relaxed. I am at a gaming table playing a game of dice on my very own private dice table with a posh green velour covering. I see at my end of the table there are two dice and as I pick them both up they make me feel very special in someway, making me feel more deeply relaxed and calm. I now roll the dice along the full length of the table, the dice tipple and tumble as they go until they finally come to rest and I notice that I have scored two, a double one, which makes me feel twice as deeply relaxed and twice as deep in trance as before. I pick up the dice and roll them again along that green velour surface and when the dice come to rest, this time I score four, a double two, which makes me four times more deeply relaxed, four times deeper in trance, with a warm comfortable feeling, feeling even more calm and relaxed and deeper in trance. As I prepare to take my third roll of the dice I am feeling very pleased with myself, knowing that I have scored two doubles on the trot and this makes me feel even more calm and relaxed every more ready to go deeper and deeper into trance. As I roll my very special dice it now seems that it is taking much longer for the dice to stop rolling and I wait with eager anticipation. This time I can hardly believe my eyes: I score six, a double three, which makes me six times more deeply relaxed, going six times deeper into trance. I quickly gather the dice up and I instantly know in my own mind that they must be magical in someway which makes me feel so good, so deeply relaxed, so deep in trance. I roll the dice again and eventually I get another double, scoring eight, which sends me eight times deeper than before, eight times more relaxed and eight times deeper into trance. I can hardly believe my luck scoring a double with every roll of the dice and I start to marvel at my achievements. I collect up the dice once again and this time I decide to examine them one by one counting the numbers on the dice and with each number that I count I go even more deeply into trance: a deep relaxed trance state. Six, five, four, … turning the dice to look at each of the dots … three, two and one. Having now a warm comfortable feeling, feeling so safe and secure in this deep trance state. I then begin to roll the dice along the table and this time I score ten, a double five, which makes me feel ten times more deeply relaxed

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than before; ten times deeper in trance than before. On picking up my magic dice for my final roll along that now seemingly longer dice table, I roll the dice and as the dice leave my hands they roll over and over and over again: I see them in slow motion, tippling and tumbling along that long green dice table. And after awhile they come to rest one by one scoring a magnificent twelve, a double six, which sends me twelve times more deeply relaxed, twelve times deeper into trance, into a state more calm and relaxed, more at peace with myself and peace with the world around me than ever before.

16.2.2 Deepening by means of physical associations Deepening by means of physical associations is particularly useful if your imagination is not well developed. Your body already has stored in it a wealth of physical experiences. Heaviness, lightness and stiffness are the obvious ones. Movement, say of the arm, is something we have done all our lives. We do not have to think too much to illicit these feelings because they are already in our memory banks. The aim, therefore, of the following scripts is to associate the physical sensation, call this A, with something you wish to do, like relax, which we shall call B. What is being developed, therefore, is when A happens then B will happen. This is really no more than creating a stimulus-response behaviour. You can use different parts of the body, but the easiest is the arms. The following four scripts all involve the arms in different ways. In carrying out these trance states you should be sitting in a chair, preferable with arms so that you can rest your arms on the arms of the chair. Alternatively, for the first two scripts just have your arms resting with your palms face down on your thighs. We assume that you are already in a trance and that you have reached the point of deepening the trance state. Deepening Script #12 Heaviness in the arms My arms are becoming very, very heavy and, as they become very heavy, so I am sinking down into a deeper and deeper trance state. Yes, my arms are now becoming heavier and heavier, as heavy as lead, yes heavier than they have ever been before. And the heavier my arms become, the deeper into trance I will go. [Keep up these suggestions until you feel a response.] And now my arms are becoming relaxed once again, all the heaviness is now going out of my arms, and as my become arms become relaxed so I will become more and more relaxed all the way through, and I will go even deeper and deeper into trance. Notice in this script that not only are you associating going deeper with arm heaviness, but also you are suggesting going even deeper still when the arms relax. This, and later techniques, have the advantage that you can feel something is happening and so you are indeed responding to your own suggestions. This is reassuring and so you will find further suggestions are more readily carried out. This is because your belief in the power of suggestion has been verified. There is another observation to make about this and all the scripts in this sub-section. It is most important that the stiffness, heaviness, or whatever is removed at the end of the period – usually after you have attempted what is in the script. This is more important the more suggestible you are. You do not want the effects to continue into your normal waking state. So you must remove them once you have concluded trying that

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particular technique. You must remove the suggestions even if you did not comply. This is because you may comply later in the waking state. An alternative to arm heaviness is the opposite, normally called arm levitation. The object of this technique is to get your arm to feel very light, so light that it starts to rise. You then associate the lightness and the rising of the arm with going deeper and deeper into trance. In fact, the script goes even further. It then suggests that as you go deeper and deeper into trance so your arm will become even lighter still. It is as if you are saying when A happens then B will happen, and that when B happens A will happen. So creating a loop. Unlike arm heaviness, this particular technique allows you to direct the speed at which you go deeper into trance. Furthermore, having the arm rise so that you touch your face has the advantage that the suggestion has its own built-in termination point, which can be used to enhance the deepening most effectively. In the script to follow no visual imagery is used. If, however, you have even a small imagination, you can combine it with visual imagery to enhance the movement of the arm. For instance, you can suggest that a balloon is tied to your wrist and the balloon is rising, helping to raise your arm in the process. Or you can imagine that your arm is filled with helium gas, and so just drifts up as a result. In the script to follow I shall refer to your right arm, but either will do. Deepening Script #13 Arm levitation My right arm is becoming very, very light and as my right arm becomes lighter and lighter, so it will begin to rise. And as my arm rises, so I will go deeper and deeper into trance. The deeper and deeper my trance becomes, the lighter my arm will become and so it is rising higher and higher much more easily. My arm is rising higher and higher until my right hand touches my cheek. And when my hand touches my cheek, this is the signal for me to let go utterly and completely and sink into a wonderful deep trance state. [Keep this up until your hand touches your cheek.] When your hand does touch your cheek you will feel a greater surge of relaxation and deepening. Just let this happen, let the feelings take hold. There are, however, two responses at this stage. Either your hand will stay touching your cheek. If this is the case then simply suggest that you can lower your arm, and as it lowers, so you will go even deeper into trance. Alternatively, your arm drops in a rather limp relaxed fashion. It is even possible that your arm just lowers gradually. Whatever the response, utilize it and suggest that whatever is happening is deepening your trance state. Suppose nothing happens! What do you do now? Whenever you do not get the response you were hoping for, and it can be with any suggestion and not just arm levitation, then break down the response you want into smaller steps. This does mean that the suggestions are slower and longer, but it also illustrates that following suggestions is a learning experience. The following script (which we call script 13a) is basically the same as script 13, but broken down into smaller steps. Again we refer to the right arm and, in this case, the right hand. Deepening Script #13a Arm levitation (broken down into smaller steps) The index finger on my right hand is getting very, very light and as it becomes lighter and lighter so it will begin to rise. I can feel the index finger getting lighter and lighter. And the lighter my index finger becomes, the more it will want to rise. And the more it rises, the more relaxed I am becoming and the deeper into trance I am going. [Keep this up until the index finger rises.]

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Now my middle finger on my right hand is beginning to rise too. I can feel it wanting to lift off my thigh [or the arm of the chair.] My middle finger is getting lighter and lighter, and the lighter it becomes the more it wants to rise, and the more it rises the deeper and deeper into trance I am going. [Keep this up until the middle finger rises too. You may find either your index finger has come down while this is going on, or remained raised. Don’t concern yourself about this. Just ignore what happens to your index finger while you are concentrating on raising the middle finger.] I can now feel the palm of my right hand rising as my hand and my arm become lighter and lighter. My right hand and my right arm are becoming very, very light now and are rising up. My right arm is becoming very, very light and as my right arm becomes lighter and lighter, so it will begin to rise. And as my arm rises, so I will go deeper and deeper into trance. The deeper and deeper my trance becomes, the lighter my arm will become and so it is rising higher and higher much more easily. My arm is rising higher and higher until my right hand touches my cheek. And when my hand touches my cheek, this is the signal for me to let go utterly and completely and sink into a wonderful deep trance state. [Keep this up until your hand touches your cheek.] By learning to raise a finger and feel the lightness in the finger, it is then easier to elicit the same response in the whole arm. Some people find raising the arm rather difficult for whatever reason. Sometimes, however, the same individual has no difficult creating arm rigidity. Stiffness is something we have all experienced, and so getting stiffness in the arm is really just recalling what this feels like. In the following script, however, we combine this with a ‘small’ image: namely, the arm feeling like a board or a pencil. These objects are, of course, stiff and rigid, and so the mind is making an association between the object and the response in the arm that is required. Again we use the right arm, but either will do. Deepening Script #14 Arm rigidity My right arm is becoming very, very stiff, very stiff and rigid. The whole of my right arm, from the shoulders right down to the fingertips of my right hand, is becoming very stiff and rigid. And the more stiff and rigid my right arm becomes the deeper and deeper my trance state will become. Yes, my hand and my fingers are becoming stiffer and stiffer, and the stiffer they become the deeper into trance I will go. The whole of my arm is becoming stiff and rigid. My right arm is stiff and rigid like a plank of wood [or like a pencil]; stiff and rigid just like a plank of wood. [Keep this up until the whole arm becomes still and rigid.] Now my arm is relaxing, and as it relaxes once again, so I will go even deeper and deeper into trance. Yes, all the stiffness and rigidity is now going out of my arm, and my arm is very, very relaxed; I am very, very relaxed and in a deep trance state. As with arm levitation, this can be broken down into smaller responses. Stiffness and rigidity can be suggested first in the index finger, then in the middle finger, then in all remaining

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fingers. Once this has been achieved, the whole hand can become stiff and rigid, and then the whole arm. The final script, which uses the arms, is much more active. When this works it can be most effective in providing biofeedback, and so enhancing the trance state. While sitting in a chair you begin to roll your arms around one another at a slow steady pace. It does not matter which direction you roll your arms; whichever seems natural. You then give yourself the following suggestions. Deepening Script #15 Rolling the arms My arms are beginning to roll around faster and faster, and the faster they go, the deeper into trance I will go. Yes, my arms are going faster and faster, and the faster they go the deeper into trance I am going. Faster and faster, deeper and deeper. [Just keep this up until the movement does become faster and you go deeper into trance.] My arms are now slowing down, and as they slow down so I am going even deeper into trance. And when they stop, so I can lower my arms and go much, much deeper into trance. The following technique for trance deepening is suggesting that the eyelids are stuck together and cannot open, often called eye catalepsy. At its best it can be very effective in deepening the trance state; at its worst, it simply terminates the trance state. When it works, it is one of the most effective deepening techniques for the self-hypnotist. It gives the clearest signal that you are truly in a trance state. Luckily, most people respond very well to this technique. If, however, you do open your eyes and therefore do not respond to the suggestion, then try it on another occasion. Do not presuppose that you will never respond to it. It may be that you require being deeper before doing this particular deepening suggestion. It is a very simple technique, almost too simple, and its success arises from making the suggestions repetitive. Also, including visual imagery will enhance the chance of success. Deepening Script #16 Sticking of the eyelids (eye catalepsy) My eyelids are becoming very, very heavy, so heavy that I cannot open them. The harder I try to open my eyes, the heavier they will become and the tighter they will press closed. And the tighter they press closed the deeper into trace I will go. My eyelids are so very, very heavy that I cannot open them. No matter how hard I try, they will press closed that much more as they become heavier and heavier. My eyelids will feel so heavy, that they will feel as if they are stuck together; stuck tightly together, stuck so tightly that I cannot possibly open them. And the more I try to open them, the tighter they will press closed, and the tighter they press closed the deeper, deeper into trance I will go. [Repeat if necessary. Now try to open your eyes.] I am now relaxing my eyelids. I now have no difficulty opening my eyes, but I do not want to at the moment. But when I want to open my eyes I can do so with no difficulty at all. The more you involve visual imagery in these suggestions, the more likely you will respond to them. The imagery enhances involvement of the right brain in the whole process. As we shall indicate in chapter 18, the more vivid, and even the more bizarre, the imagery, the more

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effective it will be. This is because the images you create will give rise to bodily responses that are consistent with those being created. For example, in script 16 when suggesting the eyes are tightly shut and are pressing tighter and tighter, imagine that they are glued together, or that they are zipped shut. The final script for deepening using physical association utilizes the whole body. This too can be quite an effective deepening technique because it too gives immediate feedback that the suggestion is working. This particular script also illustrates something that the self-hypnotist needs to do frequently when giving suggestions: namely, a delayed response. This is still a stimulus-response reaction, but with a time delay. In other words, “when I do A then I will do B.” For example, “When I count to three I will do such and such.” For this script you need to be sitting in a chair and already in a trance. Deepening Script #17 Not being able to rise from the chair In a moment, I will count to three, when I reach the number three I will try to rise from the chair, but the more I try to rise from the chair the more my body will just want to sink deep down into the chair. And the more my body sinks deep down into the chair the more I will sink deep down into trance. Yes, when I count to three I will try to rise from the chair. But the harder I try to rise from the chair the more my body will sink deep down into the chair and the deeper into trance I will go. One, two three. [Allow time for the reaction to occur. But you must try to rise from the chair on the count of three.] My body is now relaxed. I can rise from the chair whenever I wish with no difficulty at all; yes, I can rise from the chair with no difficulty whatsoever whenever I want to. If it does not work, try it again on a later occasion. Like eye catalepsy, when it works it is extremely effective and provides important feedback that your suggestions are working. Notice too that the difficulty of rising from the chair is removed at the end of the suggestion. All these scripts involve simple suggestions that lead to deepening. In and of themselves, they are not very important. They should be thought of like practicing scales on a piano. When practicing scales you are not playing music, but the practice is most important nonetheless. The same applies to deepening. The purpose is to practice going deeper into trance when you do not need to. Because you do not need to, you can attempt the deepening without interference. Then, when you do need to go into a deep trance state, you will know how. You will know which of the many techniques works the best for you.

16.2.3 Deepening by means of creative imagery Although the images in section 16.2.1 involved imagery, these images were fairly realistic. We shall point out in chapter 18 that suggestions embodied in much more creative imagery has a much greater chance of being carried out. In this section, therefore, we consider two creative imaginative images for deepening the trance state. The success or otherwise of such suggestions, however, depend on how well you can become absorbed in the imagery. The images themselves describe scenes, and you should create these scenes in your mind’s eye as clearly as possible. For this reason we refer to them as images rather than scripts. They are

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not suitable for listening to. Their purpose is to create in you mind very vivid images. You should become completely absorbed in the scene unfolding. If your mind adds additional elements to the scene, this is fine. You should allow this to happen. Deepening Image #1 The triangle I see before me in my mind’s eye a triangle with thick sides and empty in the centre. It is a large triangle on an A4 sheet of paper, clear and distinct … Words begin to form on each of the three apexes. The first word starts to come into focus, and I clearly see it as the word ‘calm’. As I look at the next apex the word ‘relaxed’ begins to form. And as I turn to look at the final apex, the word ‘deeper’ begins to form. All the words are now clear to me. And as I look into the centre of the triangle, I suddenly enter that triangle, yes; I enter the triangle and am now contained within it. At first there is just emptiness around me. I can see the words at each apex, large now in relation to me. As I look at the word ‘calm’ a beam of light comes down from the apex of the triangle, encircling me and passing through me. As it does so, I feel a tremendous feeling of calmness and peace. The light is swirling about me and through me now. And I look at the apex that has the word ‘relax’ and as I do so, yet a different coloured light emerges, entwining with the first like a snake about me. But they are soothing, and a deeper relaxation is coming over me. And finally I turn to the third apex. From this a beautiful iridescent light, a soothing light, springs and it too entwines itself about the other two, and all the lights are circling around my body and through my body. And as this third light circles about me and passes through me, so I am letting go utterly and completely … sinking down, and down into an ever deeper trance state … A state so deep that I become completely responsive to my suggestions … going deeper and deeper and deeper. When you enter the triangle, you may wish to turn the triangle into a pyramid so that it takes on a more three-dimensional image in your mind. This particular image is well worth developing. Different words can be used on the apex of the triangle. For instance, you may want ‘confidence’ to be one of the words; other good words are ‘positive’ and ‘healthy’. This next image is even more creative. It does, however, illustrate a problem with images: you might not like them! This next image appeals to anyone who likes science fiction; but if you are a person who finds science fiction rather boring this is not an image for you. Even so, do read through the image to see how imaginative it is. This will give you some idea of how to create an image which you know you would like and that you would relate to that much easier. As we shall point out in chapter 18, this image verges on the fantastic. But it is really not that much different from what the mind conjures up in dreams. Deepening Image #2 Entering a black hole In my mind’s eye I am looking up at the sky. The sun is shinning through the clouds, which are forming white clusters like cotton wool. There is a slight breeze, which moves the clouds across the sky, and here and there I can see birds flying and circling up above. As I am looking up, I suddenly find myself moving up into the clouds and now beyond the clouds into the vast universe beyond. It does not seem strange

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that I am doing this and I feel comfortable and curious at the same time. I move right out into the galaxy, I can see the earth now below me; stars and planets begin to move past me. The movement becomes quicker and quicker as I find myself zooming out into space. I can now see the rings of Neptune, which are so beautiful and more colourful than I imagined them to be. Before me I see a swirling mass; stars and planets are swirling around what appears to be a black centre. I realise that this is a black hole, a dense thing that pulls into it all before it; like a huge magnet attracting everything in its path. And now I become part of this circling mass of planets, I am being pulled into the black hole. I find this intriguing and wonder what I shall find. And as I get pulled in closer and closer to the black hole, so I am moving faster and faster … yes, faster and faster. And suddenly I get sucked right into the black hole! All is dark, but not threatening. There is just blackness and emptiness: a void that gives me a feeling of just pure thought and nothing else. No sense of space or time; just a black emptiness. If you find this imagery disconcerting when you enter the black hole, then abandon it. If this does not happen, you can find your mind just leads to an intense feeling of blackness behind your eyelids. You will notice that there is no mention of deepening the trance state. This will simply happen as you become very involved in the imagery. When successful, this can be a very powerful image. Once you have entered the black hole, and black emptiness seems to cover your mind, you will be very receptive to suggestions that you now give yourself.

16.3 Fractionation This rather technical phrase simply means repeatedly going in and out of hypnosis. This may be done on the first or second consultation between a hypnotist and a client. After going through a typical induction and deepening, the hypnotist may then awaken the client and immediately re-hypnotize them. The hypnotist may do this three, four or five times. Why do this? First, the client is still highly suggestible in the period just when they come out of hypnosis. It is as if the trance state has not yet fully ‘warn off’. Re-hypnotizing is therefore much easier and the client enters a trance state much more readily. This enforces an expectation on their part that they are very responsive to the hypnotist and find going into a trance quite easy. Second, a stimulus response is being established, practiced and re-enforced. This makes going into a trance much easier on future occasions. There is no difficulty in you doing exactly the same in self-hypnosis. It is more useful to do this in your early training. Once you can enter hypnosis quite readily then it becomes unnecessary. As a means of deepening the trance state it needs to be combined with a posthypnotic suggestion, as described in the next section.

16.4 Deepening by means of posthypnotic suggestions We will deal more fully with posthypnotic suggestions in chapter 17, but simply put it refers to a suggestion given in hypnosis the act of which will be carried out later when you are in your normal waking state. So during the trance state, a hypnotist may suggest to their client that when they next go into trance they will do so easily, quickly and deeply (see

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Posthypnotic Script #1). This will be repeated a number of times and then repeated again during different stages of the trance so that it is constantly re-enforced. When this is combined with fractionation, as described in the previous section, then it can be a powerful deepening tool. Certainly it is useful to include such a suggestion in all self-hypnosis sessions, so providing a constant and repetitive suggestion to yourself that will surely become realized.

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Chapter 17 Some Uses of Hypnosis

Summary After highlighting a variety of uses under problems and self improvement, we provide a variety of scripts for posthypnotic suggestions, rapid inductions, dissociation and time distortion. Emphasis throughout is on scripts that can be utilised by therapists and anyone engaged in selfhypnosis.

CHAPTER 17 SOME USES OF HYPNOSIS Uses of hypnosis can be divided into two broad categories: 1. Problems 2. Self improvement Although the two are not wholly separate, they do often involve different techniques. Too often hypnotherapy is seen as a therapy (a method of dealing with a problem). But it is also a copying strategy and a means of dealing with self improvement. Here we list just some of the uses under each category. Later sections deal with some of these in more detail.

Problems Adoption trauma. This problem is often misunderstood. Although it has some similarities with PTSD, it has many additional problems associated with unresolved grief and fear of abandonment. The trauma can last well into adulthood. Hypnotherapy can help in bringing about integration. Anxiety. Hypnosis can reduce anxiety by increasing relaxation, reducing blood pressure and creating a more calming demeanour. Relaxation is the main element in combating problems of anxiety. ME/CFS. A problem not readily treated by drugs and leaving the sufferer tired, exhausted and depressed. This problem needs to be tackled from a number of angles, of which hypnotherapy can help in each. Obsessive compulsive disorders (CODs). There are many obsessive compulsive disorders (OCDs) from washing of hands, counting, and many more. Hypnotherapy can undo such "false programming". Phobias. Hypnotherapy is particularly efficient at removing phobias, whether they be of snakes, spiders, flying or simply leaving the house. It can be a quick and long lasting solution to such problems. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stress attached to a traumatic event can lead to anxiety, panic attacks and depression that can last for many years unless treated. Hypnotherapy has some success in this area. Sexual dysfunction. Many sexual dysfunctions are unconscious and so need a method of solution which approaches the problem from this perspective. Hypnotherapy is one such method. It involves relaxation, mental rehearsal and time distortion. Smoking. Smoking is largely a habit; and all habits can be broken. Hypnosis is an effective method of breaking the smoking habit. Addiction is only a small part of the problem of smoking. The main problem is that of habit, and hypnosis has a good record in this area of dealing with this problem.

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Stress. Like anxiety, stress is on the increase. There is stress at work and stress in the home. It is not only important to recognize when stress is occurring but also how to cope with stress. Hypnosis offers an effective method of dealing with stress. Weight control. Handling problems to do with weight, whether too much weight or too little weight, is a question of changing one's life style. This is no easy task, and hypnosis can help in this regard. It can also aid in extreme cases such as anorexia and bulimia.

Self Improvement Confidence. Not everyone has confidence, but also one can have confidence in some areas and not in others. Raising one’s self confidence is always beneficial. Examinations. Examinations, whether formal examinations or just taking a driving test, can be very stressful. Hypnosis can help in achieving one's full potential in such necessary tasks. Interviews. Applying for jobs, or just changing jobs, requires most often an interview. Hypnosis can rehearse interviews in the head and so enhance performance on the actual occasion. It is particularly helpful to actors and actresses who must attend rehearsals. Motivation. Sometimes we lack motivation to do things. Such lack of motivation is often linked to not having clear goals. Hypnosis can be employed to raise one’s motivation whether it be for sport or just in general. Relaxation. We all need to relax, but we often do not know how. Hypnosis helps to achieve a thorough relaxation. Relaxation through hypnosis is much more beneficial than relaxing in a chair or on the beach. Combined with imagery, this can be extremely therapeutic. Self-esteem. When self-esteem is lacking individuals can often feel depressed and in some cases be taken advantage of. Partners or people in the work place can reduce your selfesteem. Hypnosis, including self-hypnosis, can be used to raise one’s self-esteem. Sport. Sports can involve mental blocks which reduce performance; can lead to loss of confidence; or can simply involve reduced performance from the wrong mental set. Hypnosis can help in all these respects and many more in achieving one's full potential. HypnoSport is now becoming a major contribution to most professional sports. Studies. Hypnosis can improve concentration, focused attention, improve work efficiency and enhance reading. Learning self-hypnosis is a major contribution to all further studies.

17.1 Posthypnotic suggestions A posthypnotic suggestion refers to a suggestion which is given to a person when in a hypnotic state and which involves an action to be carried out later when the person is in their normal waking state. It can be given in heterohypnosis and self-hypnosis. Take the following example, which is simple and of no particular use in itself, except to demonstrate typical, posthypnotic behaviour. When in a hypnotic state, suppose you gave yourself a suggestion that when you awoke after five minutes you would have a tremendous desire to take off your right shoe, and that with each moment that passed this urge would become stronger and stronger until you took off your right shoe. If you were actually carrying this out you would

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use repetition and imagery. Now, in all probability, you would carry out this instruction. After five minutes had elapsed, you would find yourself thinking about your right shoe, your attention would more and more be directed at your right shoe. You will probably remember the posthypnotic suggestion, but still the urge to comply will get stronger and stronger and stronger, until you carried out what had been suggested. If a posthypnotic suggestion is not carried out, two reasons are usually advanced to explain this. First, the person was not in a sufficiently deep enough trance. Second, the instruction was ridiculous, inconsiderate or improper. Let me take each of these in turn. The first explanation is certainly true in a number of occasions, but it is a fallacy to conclude the depth of hypnosis from the fact of whether or not a given posthypnotic suggestion is carried out. Posthypnotic suggestions, if reasonable, can be acted upon with the person being in a light, medium or very deep trance. The second explanation has arisen largely from experimentation and stage shows. If you are given a ridiculous instruction, in either heterohypnosis or in self-hypnosis, then in all likelihood you will not comply. One may consider the above suggestion to take off your right shoe after five minutes, comes into such a category. If you do, then you may not carry out this particular posthypnotic suggestion. The same is true if the suggestion, in some way, went against your moral code. It appears that the super-ego, to use a Freudian concept, is always working and does not ‘go to sleep’. The point here is that these situations tend to arise in heterohypnosis, where a ridiculous suggestion is being used in experimental work to ‘demonstrate’ the existence of posthypnotic phenomenon; or by stage hypnotists who wish to create an amusing performance (at the cost of the volunteer). In self-hypnosis this is unlikely to arise because you are unlikely to give yourself ridiculous or improper posthypnotic suggestions. The great importance of posthypnotic suggestions is their use in speeding up the induction process on future occasions (see section 16.4) and in creating useful and beneficial behaviour patterns – a topic we shall discuss in detail in Book 4.

17.1.1 Posthypnotic suggestions for deepening the trance state If you re-read section 16.4 you will note that the posthypnotic suggestion involved giving a suggestion to yourself that you will go into trance easily, quickly and deeply on the next occasion. Consider the following script, which presupposes you are in a trance state and have deepened it. Posthypnotic Script #1 Posthypnotic suggestion for next trance … When I next go into trance, I will go into trance quickly, easily and deeply … yes, I will go into trance on the next occasion more easily, more quickly and more deeply. [Repeat a few more times if necessary, and repeat on different occasions throughout the present trance state.] We shall now use this posthypnotic suggestion to discuss some of their characteristics. First and foremost, posthypnotic suggestions do not occur only in heterohypnosis. There is no more difficulty in giving yourself a posthypnotic suggestion as being given one by another person. The only real difference, if there is one, is that human nature has a tendency to follow other people’s suggestions more readily than our own – especially if the other person is someone in authority. Second, the posthypnotic suggestion is to be carried out when you are

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in your normal waking state. It is an act to be carried out in the future when you are in a normal waking state. Whether you temporarily re-enter a state of hypnosis to carry out the act we shall discuss later. The performance of a posthypnotic suggestion needs to be activated. It can be activated by a signal, such as snapping the fingers; a phrase, ‘when I say, “sleep” you will go into a deep trance state’; or some other signal, such as playing a particular piece of music (very popular with stage hypnotists). The signal should be simple and unambiguous. It does, however, require careful consideration. The signal should not be something that a person (the hypnotist on this occasion) does quite naturally. In other words, it should not be something that commonly occurs in everyday life. Snapping the fingers does not come into this category. Why? The hypnotist will always say, “When I snap my fingers, you will go into trance.” So the signal is very explicit to the hypnotist snapping his fingers. But even this can lead to a problem. Suppose a hypnotherapist gave this signal. Suppose that this particular hypnotherapist was being interviewed on TV and happened to illustrate giving posthypnotic suggestions by snapping his fingers (which he does so on the programme). You happened to be watching this programme because you heard your hypnotherapist was on TV. Lo and behold, you go into a trance! As we pointed out in chapter 6, you would not remain in trance. Even so, it is not something you would have preferred to do on this occasion. Commonly used signals by stage hypnotists become even more of a problem. Suppose a stage hypnotist suggested that when you heard the opening bars of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, you would “go to sleep”. You are driving home from the show, and listening to Classic FM, and they play Beethoven’s Fifth. You begin to close your eyes and lose control of the car: not at all a happy experience. The problem here, as we shall point out later, is not cancelling the suggestion. It therefore acts as a posthypnotic suggestion. Why? Because the stage hypnotist says, “When you hear this” (and the music is then played), the suggestion is open-ended. It is not clear that it means only during this performance. The person being hypnotised may interpret the suggestion as meaning whenever he or she hears this particular piece of music. What we observe here is that suggestions given in trance can sometimes be interpreted as posthypnotic suggestions on the part of the person being hypnotised, even though the hypnotist did not mean it to be so. This is why common signals – whether actions, phrases or other signals – should be avoided at all costs. When engaging in self-hypnosis, therefore, you must be careful. Avoid generalisations, like “When I snap my fingers I will bark like a dog”. This is something you would not like to do at a meeting when you happened to snap your fingers! What you want to say is, “When I next snap my fingers I will bark like a dog”. This is specific and not general and involves only the next act of snapping your fingers and not all future occasions. Of course, “barking like a dog” is a silly suggestion, but it illustrates the importance of being careful about giving posthypnotic suggestions even to yourself. One way to avoid common phrases or actions is to combine a phrase and an action – where these would never occur together in common usage or by accident. In this case both the action and the phrase can be simple and of common usage, but would not occur together. Whatever signal you choose, the posthypnotic suggestion should make it absolutely clear that you will respond only when you yourself give it. Although this may have been assumed, it is much safer to incorporate it into the suggestions so that there is no doubt as to what you are expected to do. In other words, you will carry out the posthypnotic suggestion only when you yourself give the signal.

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A particularly useful signal for the self-hypnotist is to combine your Christian name with an action or phrase. So you may give yourself the posthypnotic suggestion that when you say, “Ronald [your name], go into trance” you will go into a deep trance state. Or you may give yourself the posthypnotic suggestion that when you snap your fingers while saying to yourself, “Ronald [your name], go into trance”, then you will do so. This in fact combines three features: snapping the fingers, saying your Christian name and saying, “go into trance”. All three must occur at the same time (or in rapid sequence) for you to comply. We shall now give a complete script for inducing a trance state in the future by using a signal. The signal will be that when you say to yourself, “[Name], go into trance” you will immediately go into a deep trance state. This is a posthypnotic suggestion, which is repeated and combined with a deepening set of instructions. Posthypnotic Script #2 Signal for inducing future trance states In the future, whenever I say to myself, “[Name], go into trance” I will immediately close my eyes and fall into a deep trance state … yes, a very deep, deep trance state. And this deep trance state will come over me whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance”. Each and every time I say, “[Name], go into trance” I will go into a deep, deep trance state immediately. And each time will be easier than the time before; each time will be quicker than the time before; each time will be deeper than the time before. Yes, whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance” I will immediately fall into a deep trance state, deeper than the time before, easier than the time before, quicker than the time before. And if anyone else should happen to say, “[Name], go into trance” then nothing will happen unless I want it to. It is only when I say to myself, “[Name], go into trance” will I immediately fall into a deep trance state. And on each occasion, I will become much more relaxed, and because I will become much more relaxed, I will go deeper and deeper into trance on each future occasion. And all this will happen whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance”. Because from now on, whenever I say to myself, “[Name], go into trance” I will immediately close my eyes and sink into a beautiful deep trance state: quickly, easily and deeply. Notice in this script the constant repetition of the signal. Also notice the safeguard of only responding whenever you say the signal to yourself. If anyone else should happen to say it, you have given yourself instructions that you will not respond unless you wish to do so. Allowing yourself to respond when another person says the same phrase, so long as you wish to, is just in case you want to consult a hypnotherapist who happens to use this as a means of induction. With some individuals a posthypnotic suggestion is long lasting while with others it wears off. Why is not clear. Since you want to go into trance easily and quickly on future occasions, then repeating the above script at intervals will reinforce the posthypnotic suggestion. As you become more proficient at going into a deep trance state, then these instructions can be shortened considerably. You may only have to remind yourself of the signal and what response you will give to it. This is because you have established a stimulus (signal) response (the action to be carried out) mechanism. With repetition, the stimulus-response mechanism is reinforced. This not only makes going into trance much easier on future occasions, but also makes other posthypnotic suggestions easier to respond to.

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17.1.2 Practice Because of the therapeutic value of posthypnotic suggestions, it is important that you become familiar with giving them. More important, is that you become convinced in their effectiveness. This leads to successful expectations when you use posthypnotic suggestions for a particular problem you have; or when you use it to enhance some ability, such as your golf. Practice also allows you to consider the wording of posthypnotic suggestions. We have already pointed out the need to avoid open-ended posthypnotic suggestions. Posthypnotic suggestions should be simple and clear; the signal for activating the action should be simple and not a common action or phrase. Where necessary, the termination of the action should be included in the posthypnotic suggestion. We can illustrate some of the aspects of posthypnotic suggestions with the one we outlined at the beginning of this chapter: namely, taking off your right shoe. Consider, then, the following specific script. It is assumed you are already in a hypnotic state. Posthypnotic Script #3 Taking off right shoe … When I awaken, after five minutes, I will have a tremendous urge to take off my right shoe. All I can think about, all I will want to do is take off my right shoe … After five minutes of awaking from this trance, my right shoe will become so uncomfortable that all I will want to do is take it off … The posthypnotic action is to take off your right shoe. The signal is a time lapse of five minutes from the time you awaken from the trance state. Now a posthypnotic suggestion is still a suggestion; and like all suggestions in hypnosis, sometimes you comply and sometimes you do not. This implies that you will either carry out this posthypnotic suggestion or you will not carry it out. But this is too simplistic. To see why, let me discuss what you may go through if you gave yourself such a suggestion. One response is that you comply. After five minutes, you find a tremendous urge swelling within you and a desperate need to take off your right shoe. You may, and this is important, give yourself a reason for why you need to take off your right shoe. Even though you know this is a response to the posthypnotic suggestion, you may find you want to give a logical reason for the act. This is especially true in heterohypnosis. Whether you recall the posthypnotic suggestion or not, there seems to be a need to give a rational explanation for your behaviour. Another possible response is that nothing happens. You feel no urge whatsoever to take off your right shoe. We have already discussed a possible reason for this: namely, you consider this particular suggestion rather ridiculous, and so unconsciously have no desire to comply. However, it may also be that you have not implanted the posthypnotic suggestion strong enough. In script #3 we repeated the posthypnotic suggestion three times. This may not be enough. More repetition may be called for. Alternatively, the posthypnotic suggestion was not forceful enough or you needed to include a reason for taking off your right shoe other than simply an urge to do so. For instance your suggestions may go along the following lines. … after five minutes of awakening from this trance, I will find my right foot becoming very itchy. I will feel as if there are many ants in my shoe which are crawling all around … loads and loads of ants that I will want to get rid of and I can only do this by taking off my right shoe …

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This is a much more colourful posthypnotic suggestion. It involves much more imagery than in script #3, and it also provides a logical reason for wanting to take off your right shoe. But there is a third possible response. You may find a slight urge to take off your right shoe. You may think about it, focus your attention on your right shoe for a while, but still not comply. In other words, there is some response, but it is not strong enough for you to totally carry out the intended act. In this case, you will be aware of some need to comply, but it will not be a totally successful posthypnotic suggestion. As with the case were you do not comply, more repetition may be required or a more colourful posthypnotic suggestion is called for. It should be noticed that the posthypnotic suggestion in script #3 had no specific termination point. This is because the termination point is actually built into the suggestion. Once you take off your right shoe that terminates the action implied in the posthypnotic suggestion. If you did carry out this particular script, and did take off your right shoe, you will immediately notice that the urge immediately evaporates. In the case were you do not comply, but still feel a slight urge to take off your right shoe, this urge soon tails off and very soon no urge to comply is felt. It will not be the case that you will have a slight urge all the time to take off your right shoe which lasts all day. If you do not comply, the posthypnotic suggestion is not strong enough in the first place and will inevitably fade away. Although the posthypnotic suggestion provided in script #3 is totally unimportant in and of itself, it does have the merit that you can establish first-hand your response to posthypnotic suggestions. When you comply, you immediately appreciate the force involved in a posthypnotic suggestion and the need to comply. If you do not comply, you can establish the reason. You first may want to repeat the suggestions more times. You may want to make the suggestion more imaginative. Or you simply may want to give yourself a less ridiculous posthypnotic suggestion. In other words, you will obtain tremendous insight into your own particular response to posthypnotic suggestions. In particular, you may find that you need to make them very imaginative. Practicing simple posthypnotic suggestions gives you confidence in performing them and insight into the best ways in which to give them. It builds up a confidence about your ability to use hypnosis and an expectation of success in the future when you need to give yourself a very specific posthypnotic suggestion. Now try exercise #3 to see how you respond to these posthypnotic suggestions. Exercise: Practicing posthypnotic suggestions While in a trance state give yourself a posthypnotic suggestion for each one of the following in turn. Do not do all in the same trance state; each one should be done in a different trance state. Observe your response and alter the posthypnotic suggestion accordingly. 1. Sing when you next do the dishes 2. Touch your toes five times 3. Some time in the next hour you will have a memory which will make you laugh

17.1.3 Some further considerations There is some confusion by researches into hypnosis as exactly what happens when a posthypnotic suggestion is carried out. The general consensus seems to be that the individual temporarily goes into a trance state, and the state terminates once the act is carried out. If the

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act is not carried out, and some compulsion is felt, the question arises as to whether the individual is now in a temporary hypnotic state. Since they do not carry out the act, does this further mean that this temporary state of hypnosis is not terminated? This does not appear to be the case. Certainly there is no chance of you remaining in a ‘temporary’ state of hypnosis. If anything, it is like going to the supermarket and having a tune humming in your mind about a particular make of toothpaste (or some other product advertised on TV). The tune does not continue indefinitely. Other pressing needs to your time and attention prevent this. A common characteristic purported to indicate a state of deep trance is amnesia to a posthypnotic suggestion. Now amnesia is neither necessary nor sufficient for deep hypnosis. Furthermore, the response to a posthypnotic suggestion is quite separate from amnesia. These two characteristics should not be confused. However, in heterohypnosis a hypnotist will often suggest to the client that they have amnesia for a particular posthypnotic suggestion. If they are quite responsive to the suggestions of the hypnotist then they will comply with both suggestions: the posthypnotic suggestion and amnesia about it. A subject, however, can quite readily accept the posthypnotic suggestion but not the amnesia. It does appear to be the case that for many individuals in deep hypnosis they either have spontaneous amnesia for posthypnotic suggestions (although the amnesia may be an implied suggestion) or readily comply with the instruction to have such amnesia. It is the combined posthypnotic suggestion and amnesia that is utilised considerably by stage hypnotists. Thus the stage hypnotist may suggest to a volunteer (whom we will assume is male) that when they hear a piece of music by Elvis Presley then they will consider themselves to be Elvis Presley and when the music stops they will be back to normal; and furthermore they will have no memory of this instruction. This particular suggestion acts as a warning. Although it may give rise to an amusing performance, it is absolutely necessary for the stage hypnotist to cancel such a posthypnotic suggestion. If the volunteer was highly susceptible, and if the posthypnotic suggestion was phrased in the way just indicated and not cancelled, then the volunteer may find himself becoming Elvis Presley each time this is played on the radio or TV. The reason is that the volunteer interpreted the suggestion to mean whenever he hears a piece of music by Elvis Presley, since there was nothing in the original suggestion that prevented this interpretation. Second, since the posthypnotic suggestion was not cancelled, then it is not clear that it was meant to apply only during the performance. Whenever can readily be interpreted to mean both during the performance and after the performance. The constant response on the part of the volunteer becoming Elvis Presley reinforces the posthypnotic suggestion even though they do not recall being given it. One should not go away with the impression that all stage hypnotists are creating problems for their volunteers. But amateur stage hypnotists may fall into this category and may not be aware of the impact of their posthypnotic suggestion. On a more positive note, what can come away from viewing such a performance – whether one finds it amusing or not – is the sheer power of posthypnotic suggestions.

17.1.4 A foretaste of the therapeutic use of posthypnotic suggestion Although we shall consider a number of uses of posthypnotic suggestions in later chapters, it will be helpful to conclude this chapter with a useful application of posthypnotic suggestion rather than just the removal of your right shoe or becoming Elvis Presley. A visit to the dentist is an ideal application. It is something we all do, and the majority of us find this an unpleasant experience. I myself tend to have a gagging response and so use self-hypnosis to

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keep this under control while in the dentist’s chair. Let me suppose, therefore, that you have arranged an appointment at the dentist and want to use a posthypnotic suggestion for this and every other visit to your dentist. So, unlike the stage posthypnotic suggestion, which needs to be cancelled, this particular beneficial suggestion you want to influence you into the indefinite future. Posthypnotic Script #4 Visit to the dentist From now on, whenever I visit the dentist, I am going to be calm and relaxed. From the moment I enter the building which houses the dentists surgery, I will immediately become calm and relaxed … free from tension and free from worry … From the moment I enter the building I will enter a trance state with my eyes open and to everyone else I will look normal. I will be able to act normally and speak normally … but inside I will be in a clam peaceful relaxed trance state with my eyes open … and I will enter this state the moment I enter the building which houses the dentists surgery and I will awaken the moment I leave. And no matter what the dentist is doing to my teeth, I will be in a calm relaxed state. I will be able to respond to the receptionist, the dentist and anyone else as normal, but all the time I will be in a trance state with my eyes open. When in the dentist’s chair, I will look up at a point on the ceiling, and I will be calm and relaxed. I will be able to give myself suggestions while doing this and I will respond to those suggestions … just as I would now if I gave them to me … And no matter what the dentist is doing, I will be calm and relaxed and always feeling comfortable. I will be able to think of other pleasant things while the dentist is going about his [or her] work, and I will look forward to having a much better set of teeth when I leave the dentist than when I arrived. I will leave the dentists surgery feeling fine, calm and relaxed knowing that I now have a much better set of teeth than when I arrived. And the moment I leave the building in which houses the dentist’s surgery I will awaken … awaken free from pain and discomfort. Of course, you should include specific suggestions to do with your particular visit or your particular worry. In my case I include suggestion about being able to breath easily while the dentist’s aid is squirting liquid in my mouth. It may be the sound of the drill that you find most disconcerting, in which case you can include suggestions that the noise of the drill will be of no concern to you; that you will welcome this because it indicates that the hole is being cleaned and so you will be free from pain. Notice that the script opens with the phrase ‘From now on, whenever …’ and so clearly is meant to apply to the indefinite future. But it also clearly indicates that the trance state with your eyes open will only occur during the period in which you are in the dentist’s surgery. The trance state has a well-defined starting point and a well-defined termination point. There will be no embracement about being in a trance state while at the dentist’s surgery because your suggestions involve being in such a state with your eyes open and acting normally. You do not have to have a zombie-like stare to be in a trance. It is a state of mind; and so your body, your looks and your responses can be like normal to anyone else, but yet you can still be in a trance state.

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17.2 Rapid inductions Rapid inductions are difficult to describe because they usually involve physical actions and these need to be observed. You can, however, see many of these on YouTube. The hand interrupt is a good example. Before undertaking this the client is informed that a suggestion of ‘sleep’ will be given during the induction and that this is simply a symbol to denote going into a very relaxed state. It does not mean ‘sleep’ in the normal use of the term. The procedure is as follows. You go to shake a person’s hand, but then interrupt this by gently taking the wrist and moving the hand up to the face (palm facing the face) and suggest to the client that they focus on the lines on their palm. Soon you say (forcibly) ‘sleep’ and gently move their head forward in the process. Why does such a rapid induction bring about a state of hypnosis? The initiated handshake leads to an unconscious reciprocated response on the part of the client. We have a whole lifespan of automatically responding to a handshake. When this is interrupted the mind is suddenly thrown off-guard, i.e. into a state of disequilibrium. Both the body and the mind constantly monitor and attempt to re-establish equilibrium if this is disturbed. While the mind is attempting to do this (and so is pre-occupied) it is open and responsive to suggestion. So when ‘sleep’ is suggested forcibly, the client responds. Stage hypnotists use a similar rapid induction by having a volunteer fall backwards. This is disorienting and creates a state of bodily disequilibrium. While falling backwards the hypnotist suggests ‘sleep’. Exactly the same principle is involved as in the hand interrupt induction. It should be noted that the hand interrupt induction involves eye fixation. The client is asked to focus on the lines on their palm. In addition, when ‘sleep’ is suggested this is rapidly followed by suggestions of going deeper asleep (hypnotic deepening). This is done before the client has had a chance to re-establish equilibrium and so they are still highly suggestible.

17.2.1 Rapid self-hypnosis (and eyes-open hypnosis) This technique, adapted from Gerald Kein, takes longer to describe than it does to perform. Besides inducing rapid self-hypnosis it includes utilising posthypnotic suggestions.

The switch The technique involves imagining or visualising a simple switch on which there is four settings, as shown in the following drawing. You can imagine or visualise any type of switch so long as it has these four settings and fits into the description to follow.

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Imagining or visualising the switch Imagine or visualise a switch just at the base of your brain where the spinal cord descends down. This switch has four settings: (1) ON, which is on the right (3 o’clock), (2) OFF, which is on the left (9 o’clock), (3) NEUTRAL, which is on the top centre (12 o’clock) and (4) POSTHYPNOTIC, which is on the bottom centre (6 o’clock). All the nerves from the brain and up to the brain pass through this switch. The switch can control the flow of electrical impulses. Descending from the switch is your spinal cord and all the network of nerves emanating from the spinal cord to all parts of your body. The OFF setting shuts off all electrical impulses to the body, so relaxing it totally and immediately taking you into a deep sleep, a deep trance state. The ON setting brings you immediately out of trance by allowing all electrical impulses to flow freely. When set to ON, you are in your normal waking state. The NEUTRAL setting is under your control and you can selectively allow signals to specific parts of your body so allowing specific feelings or bring about specific behaviours. When this setting is chosen you can open your eyes and remain in a deep trance state, which goes even deeper still. The final setting, the POSTHYPNOTIC setting, allows you to send impulses to the relevant parts of the body to carry out changes or to carry out behaviours in the future when the appropriate signal is given. It sets up the conditions that just need activating at some future time.

17.2.2 Procedure for rapid self-hypnosis You first need to condition yourself to the OFF/ON settings. 1. Place yourself in a deep trance state, deepening it sufficiently with whatever deepening technique you find acceptable. This only needs to be done on the first few occasions. 2. Describe to yourself the above switch and the four settings. Again this only needs to be done initially. Thereafter you can simply create the image or visualisation immediately. 3. The initial setting should be clearly in the OFF position as you are in a deep sleep, a deep trance state at this point. This means all electrical impulses are switched off. 4. Undertake a test to establish that you are in a deep trance state. Try to move a finger, a hand or try to open the eyes. Since all electrical impulses are switched off you should find you cannot do any of these things. 5. Now tell yourself that in a moment you will move the setting to the ON position, and the moment you do this you will immediately awaken to your normal conscious self. 6. However, before you actually do this, you give yourself a further suggestion as follows. ‘Whenever I imagine or visualise this switch and turn the setting to the OFF position, I will find all electrical impulses switched off and my whole body will immediately relax and I will immediately fall into a deep relaxed sleep, a deep state of hypnosis.’ 7. Now switch the setting to ON and awaken immediately to a normal waking state. 8. Now switch the setting to OFF and go immediately back into a deep relaxed sleep, a deep state of hypnosis. 9. Again test the deep trance state. Try to move a finger, a hand or your eyelids. But because you have switched off all signals these tasks cannot be carried out. This is to convince yourself that you are in a deep sleep, a deep trance state.

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10. Practice this daily (or even a few times a day) for at least a week. It is important to achieve a stimulus-response reaction to the switch and the OFF/ON settings before progressing to the other two settings.

Programming the NEUTRAL and POSTHYPNOTIC settings 11. Think of something you want to test the NEUTRAL switch on. Initially this should be something simple. But over time and with practice it can be more elaborate. Here we shall suggest an itchy right palm. 12. Place yourself in a deep trance state and have the switch setting in the OFF position. 13. Now say to yourself, ‘When I turn the setting to the NEUTRAL position, I will open my eyes and be in a deep trance state. I will allow only the electrical impulses through the switch that will immediately create a great itch in my right palm (or whatever you wish to use as a test).’ 14. Now move the setting in your mind’s eye to the NEUTRAL position. You should find you open your eyes and have a very itchy right palm. The remainder of your body is in a deeply relaxed trance state since the electrical impulses that are allowed through the switch only activate the itching in your right palm. 15. Now return the switch setting to the OFF position. You should find you immediately close your eyes and sink back into a deep sleep, a deep trance state, and the itchy palm ceases. 16. Now move the setting on the switch to the POSTHYPNOTIC setting. Once at this setting you say to yourself ‘When I awaken, after 5 minutes I will find that my right palm is very itchy (or whatever post hypnotic suggestion you want to give yourself). Yes, after 5 minutes of awakening from this trance, my right palm will be exceedingly itchy. This itch will remain until I snap my fingers.’ (Note: It is important to give closure to the post hypnotic suggestion.) 17. Now set the switch setting to the ON position to awaken yourself and await the response – possibly do something to take your mind off the post hypnotic suggestion and the lapse of time.

17.2.3 Some general observations 1. Once you have imagined or visualised the switch and its settings it can be re-created in your mind’s eye instantly. You may even have a hand switching the settings. The clearer this initial image the more successful you will be. In doing this, imagine clearly the fibres going from the brain into the switch and imagine clearly a cable coming from the switch (representing your spinal cord) and all the nerves emanating from this to all parts of your body. 2. You should first practice using the OFF and ON settings so that you can immediately enter a deep trance state and awaken yourself immediately. Neither of these two needs to be slow: they can be very quick. 3. Then practice using the NEUTRAL setting (along with the OFF/ON settings). 4. Finally practice using the POSTHYPNOTIC setting (along with the OFF/ON settings). 5. Before you attempt to use the NEUTRAL setting, do a test of the OFF setting (which you should be at before turning the setting to NEUTRAL). This test can be anything simple. If you fail the test, then deepen the trance state and re-emphasise that when

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the setting is OFF all impulses coming from the brain are switched off so that your body is very relaxed. 6. Once you have practiced operating the NEUTRAL and POSTHYPNOTIC settings with something simple, you can be more adventurous. This is especially true of the posthypnotic setting. For example, it could be used for your response at an interview; or your playing of a musical instrument. But there are so many things it can be employed to enhance. 7. When using the POSTHYPNOTIC setting ensure you include in the suggestions a clear signal that initiates the response and a closure if that appears appropriate. Sometimes the suggestion itself will include (explicitly or implicitly) closure. For example, ‘When at the gym, I will be enthusiastic to do all my exercises.’ The initiation is when at the gym and the closure is either when finishing the exercises or when leaving the gym. Sometimes the initiation signal (the trigger) needs to be very specific, e.g. ‘When I snap my fingers …’.

17.3 Dissociation Scripts The aim of these suggestions is to ‘detach’ yourself from your immediate environment, to ‘step outside’ of yourself. In the first of the three instructions, I shall employ this term somewhat literally. In the second and third instructions, dissociation is brought about by means of pictorial images. In each case, it is assumed that you are already in a hypnotic state. Dissociation #1: Stepping Out of Your Body I am now stepping out of my body; I can feel myself rising from the chair. Yes, I have no difficulty in rising up out of my body. It is as if there are two me: the one rising from the chair and the one remaining seated in the chair. And this is happening now with no difficulty at all. I am stepping out of my body and moving about the room — in my mind’s eye … I can see myself sitting in the chair and I look very peaceful and very relaxed and in a deep hypnotic state. And there appears nothing strange about seeing myself in the chair. All my consciousness seems to be with the person outside. I can see everything in the room, including myself, very clearly indeed. And now I can give that person in the chair instructions, and he (or she) will carry them out, without any difficulty whatsoever. And I will be able to observe how well he (or she) is carrying out my suggestions. This straightforward set of instructions can be very effective and is well worth practicing. The important aspect is to have your consciousness in the person outside of your body. In your normal waking state you are aware that your thoughts are in your head. This tends to localize your thoughts and contains them in the body. It is possible, however, to have them ‘outside’ of the body. When this is achieved, the person is said to have dissociated, and the person ‘left’ in the chair is more amenable to suggestion. What seems to be happening is that your conscious awareness, which resides in the left brain, locates itself ‘outside’ of the body; while the physical body sitting in the chair is then controlled solely by the right brain. The dissociation is no more than operating the two hemispheres of the brain independently of one another. And why should we not be capable of doing this? You have two arms and hands that look fairly alike, but are not. You rarely let one dangle unused while you concentrate on using the other. No. You achieve more by utilizing

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your arms and hands independently and yet in co-operation. So why not use your two brains in the same manner? It has been argued that Leonardo da Vinci had both left and right brains equally developed, which is one reason why he could write with both hands simultaneously. The obvious school game to demonstrate that, for most of us, the two halves are not equally developed, is to rub your stomach with your left hand in a clockwise direction and circling your head with your right hand in a counter-clockwise direction – and then try to switch directions repeatedly. Dissociation #2: Disappearing I awaken from a sound sleep, I am in bed and very comfortable. But I now feel myself becoming smaller and smaller. I am shrinking, first to four feet, then to three feet, two feet … The bed now appears tremendously large and looks the size of a football pitch. And I continue to get smaller. Now I am only one foot tall and becoming smaller still. And I am not, in any way, worried about this sensation or any other sensations that I may have. I will be taking a very detached interest in the whole thing. And now I am continuing to get smaller and smaller. I am now so small, smaller than an ant, so that I can move around in the fibres of the pillow or sheets. Yes, I am so small that I can crawl around the fibres, which look like giant stalks (pause and really feel this experience). And I am continuing to get smaller. I am smaller than a molecule and in fact so small that I can pass in and out of the fibres. And I now vanish altogether! This can be a very absorbing scene and one that you may respond to in a variety of ways. There is no harm that can arise from this instruction, although, on the first occasion, the sensations that may be created can surprise you. Never be alarmed. Simply realize that no harm can come to you and just let things happen. By the time that you have vanished (!), you will be in a dissociated state. Why? Because the person becoming smaller and smaller must be some ‘other’ person from the one in the chair, and so the two must dissociate. The scene does not have to be a bed; it can be outdoors, or anywhere else you may like. The message is: be imaginative. Dissociation #3: Change in Body-image I am becoming very, very heavy. So heavy that I feel as though I am made of lead, and I can feel myself sinking down into the chair as you become heavier and heavier … Now I am returning to my normal weight. I am becoming lighter and lighter; very light indeed, as light as a feather, and still lighter. And I am becoming so light that I can feel myself rising up just a little amount … Now I am returning to my normal weight, quickly and easily. And now I feel as if I am made of wood, yes I can feel myself made of wood. I am a young tree bending and swaying in the breeze, and I can feel the wind blowing through your leaves … And now I am becoming very porous, very porous indeed, so porous that the wind is blowing right through me. And I am expanding, expanding more and more and I am the wind. Yes, I am now the wind, blowing over mountains and lakes …

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And now I am becoming a whirlwind, yes, a whirlwind, and I am at the centre and I am spinning faster and faster, faster and faster. So fast now that I go shooting off into space. Once again, this can become very absorbing because you will experience a number of sensations. As the scene unfolds, you should allow enough time in the pauses (denoted …) to let the sensations take effect on the body. Inevitably, you will dissociate from the person in the chair. Your thoughts and your conscious awareness seem to be ‘out there’ in the wind and in the whirlwind. If you have not dissociated before you become a whirlwind, this will almost certainly bring it about. Once these instructions have been completed and you have gone off into space (!), after some moments of silence you can continue with suggestions, because now you will be in a much more suggestible state. A common use of hypnosis is illustrated with glove anaesthesia. Dissociation #4 Glove Anaesthesia I can imagine raising my right arm until it is horizontal. I can see, in my mind’s eye, my right arm held out horizontal. I can feel the tension in my horizontal arm as it stretches out straight. All my awareness is concentrated on my right outstretched arm. I can see my right hand, with fingers outstretched, pointing at the wall opposite. [Continue the image until the awareness is well established in your ‘extended limb’.] This type of suggestion is usually undertaken in a heterohypnotic situation. If anaesthesia can be accomplished, it has been used in operations, childbirth and dentistry. In the self-hypnotic context it can only be used as a means of redirecting your attention, your awareness, away from the source of the pain. If, however, you had a pain in your right hand, you would be better to direct your attention completely away from your hand and to something different. The point of including this is to demonstrate the importance of dissociation. All research demonstrates that pain remains present in the location, but if you can redirect your awareness away from the location of the pain, then the pain will not be felt. Dissociation is just one technique of redirecting your awareness. The idea of dissociation in your arm is useful in another phenomenon, namely that of automatic writing. Although automatic writing can be done in a non-hypnotic state and without the aid of dissociation, it can be accomplished easier by means of hypnosis. The idea is basically the same as glove anaesthesia, but now, having dissociated your awareness away from your physical right hand, you then make suggestions to the effect that your right hand, which is now resting on a page of paper and holding a pen, is controlled solely by the unconscious mind. Thus, you prepare yourself with a board and paper on your lap and a pen resting in your right hand. You then dissociate as in glove anaesthesia, and continue the suggestions in the following manner. Dissociation #5 Automatic Writing I can imagine my right arm and hand now in the air. All of my awareness is in my right arm that is in the air. The right arm on the pad is now being controlled by my unconscious mind. Yes, my awareness is on my right arm in the air but my unconscious mind is controlling my right arm on the pad …

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And now my unconscious mind is making my right hand write on the paper. It is going to write whatever it wishes, whatever it feels I ought to know. Wait a few moments. The writing may begin in a jerky fashion, it may or may not be intelligible; it may even be in the form of mirror writing. Most certainly, it could be joined together and use its own form of shorthand, e.g. to, too or two is likely to be written as ‘2’. Basically, the right brain does not conform to the correct usage of English. This has begun to interest those involved in linguistics, but they must realize that ‘primitive language’, or what Chomsky calls ‘deep structure’, is a feature of the right brain and not the left, in which words and ‘surface structure’ is processed. In carrying out automatic writing you need not be in a hypnotic state, but you must be capable of dissociating your writing arm. This is a clear illustration of why dissociation and hypnosis are different.

17.4 Scripts for time distortion Time distortion is fairly easy to obtain, although the duration of time distortion requires practice. Under hypnosis, man’s in-built clock can be controlled to some degree. The initial instructions for time distortion are always the same – a straightforward statement of the time to be distorted. For instance: ‘In just one minute of clock time, you will experience thirty minutes of subjective time’; or, alternatively, the statement can be left ambiguous, but with specified limits, e.g. ‘you will, in one minute of clock time, solve this problem which normally takes about thirty minutes’. Both of these are examples of time expansion, which have a number of non-medical uses, as we shall see in later chapters. Time contraction is more difficult, but why this is so is not known. It has many uses in clinical situations, most notably, shortening the time a pain is experienced. Time Distortion #1 (Time expansion): The Time Machine I am now going to expand time. One minute of clock time is going to feel like thirty minutes to me. Yes, in one minute, I am going to feel as if thirty minutes have elapsed, and this time distortion will remain until I return it once again to normal. I am sitting in a time machine, just like the one created in H. G. Wells’ novel by that name, and I am seated before a window, through which I have no difficulty in seeing out. I now push the lever forward and time begins to speed up. I can see things moving across the window, and they are moving faster and faster, yes they are moving faster and faster. Day becomes night, and then night becomes day. And the night follows the day, more and more quickly. The seasons now become noticeable, because time is moving very, very quickly. And now it all goes dark. (Pause) My time is now slowing down to normal. Yes, my sense of time has returned to normal. With no difficulty at all, I am now back to normal. During this set of suggestions, a variety of sensations will probably be experienced. The most conspicuous is a sense of speed. Furthermore, the whole suggestion will probably take a few minutes of clock time, but your subjective experience of the lapse of time will be much longer. Although you suggested one minute into thirty this is unlikely to be the actual distortion, although the difference will become longer with practice. During this sequence, you may also dissociate, as you may in other time distortion experiments.

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A variant of the above, which will appeal to the scientist or science fiction lover, is the following. In this, we will not again repeat the distortion, and we shall shorten the instructions because they are basically the same as for the time machine. You can elaborate, and above all, picture the whole sequence. Time Distortion #2 (Time expansion): Space Travel [Stipulate the time distortion first, then continue as follows.] I am on a disc, tied down securely. The disc is below a dome on the roof, which opens up to the sky. And now the disc begins to spin, faster and faster (repeat, increasing the speed). The dome now opens and I fly out off into space. I pass the planets, the stars, and the moons, going faster and faster. And I am now being pulled into a black hole, ever faster (repeat). I am now through the black hole where time is motionless and everything is dark and peaceful. [Now return your sense of time to normality.] This set of instructions will, in all probability, elicit the same sensations as the first, with the possible exception of the final stage, which can produce blackness and a feeling of emptiness far greater than you may have experienced before. This particular instruction may also cause a far greater degree of dissociation. In addition, both instructions will deepen the hypnotic state automatically, because of the deep involvement in the subjective experiences. Time contraction is more difficult to elicit and it is generally more difficult to devise scenes that will help in developing this technique. The object, however, is for you to create a scene in which you become very involved and that would generally take a long time for such an event or situation to unfold. In this way a long journey, for instance, can be passed without too much notice: a two or three hour journey can be reduced to thirty minutes or so. The more involved and detailed the scene, the longer your attention will be held by this and not focused on the journey. Time Distortion #3 (Time Contraction) Thirty minutes of actual time are going to feel like five minutes to me. Yes, time is going to go by very, very quickly, just as it does whenever I become very interested in something. Yes, in thirty minutes of subjective time, my entire journey of three hours is going to be over. [Now create the most vivid scene you can, paying attention to details, no matter how small. Be involved in it. More importantly, have a clock somewhere in the scene that strikes twelve, and between each strike continue to elaborate on the scene. A fairy tale or something from the Arabian Nights is ideal.] The object, of course, is to become involved in the scene: to become so interested and involved that your attention becomes very directed to it. This slows down your subjective sense of time and so actual time goes more quickly. It is apparent that time distortion refers only to mental thinking, and not to physical responses of the body. Even with time expansion, you cannot build a doll’s house in half the time. You

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can, however, reduce the objective time taken from the amount of time you would normally take. But we shall return to this later. The point being made at the moment is that the uses of time distortion are limited to mental actions. Under hypnosis and using time expansion, it is possible in five clock minutes or so to re-experience the reading of a whole novel or to see, once again, the whole of Gone with the Wind. As explained earlier, this is likely to arise from the holographic nature of the mind. The suggestion used to elicit experiences of this nature, is as follows. Time Distortion #4: Re-experiencing a Whole Film or Novel in Five Minutes In a moment, when I snap my fingers, I will imagine that I am once again watching Gone With the Wind, and in just five minutes I will have watched the whole movie through again in my mind’s eye; yes, the whole of the film, with no difficulty at all, and in all its detail. [Now snap your fingers.] There is more to this than watching a film. The brain records all past and present experiences. Under hypnosis, these can be recalled much easier than normal and, certainly, in more detail than normal. Combined with time expansion, you can re-read a whole book, for instance, and so help your memory and recall. As an educational device, this is extremely valuable – and it costs nothing! Here, I wish to consider further just one other non-medical use of time distortion: namely, solving a problem. Solving problems, whether they are to do with the household or are of a more technical nature, are both time-consuming and require the expenditure of a great deal of energy. This loss of energy often goes unnoticed, except when the problem is solved. Then, a sense of relief is usually felt, which is quite noticeable. Alternatively, those people who worry about problems at the unconscious level tend to create tensions somewhere in the musculature of their bodies – especially in the walls of the stomach (which also tend to aggravate ulcers). The act of hypnosis reduces tensions, and allows you to approach a given problem more effectively and more objectively. By also using time distortion, you can amass in your mind all the relevant facts, and begin to solve the problem in far less time than you would take in your normal waking state. The reason for this should now be fairly apparent. Under hypnosis, you are concerned only about that which you have decided to direct your attention to, namely the problem, at the exclusion of everything else. Second, you have reduced your general level of tension, which allows more energy to be directed at the problem – rather than in a wasteful tension of the muscles. Third, your recall of information is far superior to normal. Finally, by speeding up the process, you can obtain a better understanding of the different facets of the problem, which, in turn, helps in formulating a solution more quickly – and almost certainly a better solution, if more than one exists. Let me expand on this issue a little further. Suppose you cannot keep all the facts, etc., in your head, or that you wish to write out steps in obtaining the solution, or to draw a diagram. In other words, suppose that, in coming to a solution, you must consider material that you have gathered, constructed, sketched, or whatever. In this case, you wish to approach the solution somewhat differently. The first job is to hypnotize yourself and then carry out a time distortion instruction. Having done this, you then give yourself the following suggestions.

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Time Distortion #5: Problem-solving In a moment, when I say, I will open my eyes and I will go to my desk (table, or whatever), which has all the necessary information that I require in considering my problem. And because five minutes of time is going to feel like thirty minutes to me, then I will find that the solution to the problem will arise quicker than normal. I will be able to marshal all the facts very easily, and the solution will come to me very easily and very quickly. [Now open your eyes and go to work.] If necessary, elaborate the suggestions with specific details, in the light of whatever problem you are trying to solve. You will notice that there is no termination to the trance state in these instructions. Once you have completed the task of solving your problem, and even if you do not manage a complete solution, you should then awaken yourself. An alternative approach is rather than initially being in a trance state, you could give yourself a posthypnotic suggestion to the effect that as soon as you come out of trance you will go to your desk and begin to solve the problem and while you are doing this five minutes will feel like thirty minutes of time and so you will solve in five minutes what normally takes thirty minutes. It is also possible to use this technique in earlier stages, such as setting out the problem, seeing whether the problem can be looked at in a variety of ways. Creativity is a right brain feature and, under hypnosis, this has a greater chance of arising. If your work involves design, then, at this stage, engage in self-hypnosis so that you can apply the creativity that we all possess, but under utilize. The educational value of time distortion is very great and is quite underrated in the literature on hypnosis, largely, I feel, because of the greater emphasis on the medical uses of hypnosis. This is one of the costs of allowing the medical profession to monopolize the training of professional hypnotists. In Distortion #5, I highlighted the use of time expansion as an aid in solving problems. Another possibility is to combine time distortion with a post-hypnotic suggestion. We shall do this with the use of time contraction, since we have not used this feature as frequently as time expansion. Time Distortion #6: Housework (or any disagreeable job) When I awaken, I will go about doing my housework. I will begin with the living room, then go on to the kitchen, etc. (1). I can see myself going through each room, doing all that is necessary. (2). And while I am doing this, which I will do when I awaken, I will not notice time passing and very soon all the housework will be done. I will be able to get through all of my housework in no time at all. I will concentrate on each task and think of nothing else. (repeat) (3). I will feel happy and will direct all my attention to the task in hand. Yes, I will go from the living room to the kitchen, and then on to … And in no time at all, the housework will be done and I will be very pleased and most satisfied with my progress and what I have accomplished.

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Let me now explain the three points. 1. It is useful to have a clear idea of which rooms and in what order you wish to do the housework, and to do this before you induce self-hypnosis. This is so that you can give yourself the instructions without having to think about it, for to think about it will activate your left brain. The order is purely illustrative, but it is best to begin with the most disagreeable task because the posthypnotic suggestion will be strongest at this stage. This approach also has the advantage that, as the jobs get shorter, you will, quite naturally, take less time to do them, and so the success of the suggestions will act as a reinforcement. 2. It is very important to carry out the visualization. Actually see yourself hoovering the floor, washing the dishes, etc. Furthermore, see yourself doing these in a very happy frame of mind – singing if you like that. In all likelihood, you will do the work very much as pictured. If you can, try introducing some fun into the whole affair. A job is not, in itself, drudgery: it is your attitude towards the job that makes it so. Knowing this, it can be eliminated and even replaced by something else. So why not introduce some humour into the whole affair. If you have children, include them in the work and turn it into a game. Be imaginative, and housework, or any job, can take on a totally new dimension. 3. This is an important suggestion. It can be referred to as the principle of onepointed attention. Jobs often take longer than necessary because a person’s whole attention is not on the job in hand. How often are we doing one thing while thinking about something else? This should be avoided at all costs. This one-pointed attention should be cultivated in all things you do, and not just in this posthypnotic suggestion concerning housework. The more busy you are, especially if this means you have a variety of jobs to deal with, then the more important it is to deal with each problem in turn, and devote all your attention to that one task. When this is done, then and only then should you turn your attention to the next job. If you do have many jobs, always workout in advance of the hypnotic induction, the sequence in which they are to be carried out.

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Chapter 18 Creative Imagery

Summary After discussing the types of images we turn to the imagination - so important in mastering creative imagery. We include a brief discussion of dreams, since these utilise creative imagery. After considering some principles and propositions of creative imagery, we provide 27 creative images that can be used for problems and selfimprovement.

CHAPTER 18 CREATIVE IMAGERY 18.1 Types of Images Suppose I asked you, ‘Where is your home?’ When answering such a question, would you have an image in your mind of where your home is in relation to where you are now? Even if I simply said ‘teapot’ – would you just remember the word or would you picture a ‘teapot’ almost instinctively? If I asked you to describe in words what your mother looked like, would you simply remember or would you first create an image in your mind and then describe the image? Now think about ‘church bells’. What is it that comes to mind? Finally, think about ‘vinegar’. All these examples, to different degrees, combine both memory and images. The point is that we often remember by first creating an image. Images are not only visual. We can have images of sound (auditory), of movement (kinaesthetic or motor), of touch (tactile), etc. Undoubtedly, the most common image is visual. In terms of a sample of the population, the types of images and their percentage in ranking order are (McKellar, 1968): Visual imagery Auditory Motor Tactile Gustatory Olfactory Pain Temperature

97 93 74 70 67 66 54 43

This in itself is useful information. If you intend to improve your imagery, then you should concentrate on the visual and auditory, since these are the easiest and will lead to the greatest success. This book emphasizes creative visualization and as such deals to a large extent with visual imagery. Given that most of the population has visual imagery then this emphasis is justified. Why are visual images in the mind so important? The most important thing about visual images is that they can influence the body. This does not apply to all images, but only to those images in which you are involved. The image, however, does not have to be about reality, it can be a totally imaginary (unreal) image. In the mind’s eye it is possible to place an image of oneself in a totally imaginary scene. But why go about this image formation? A strongly formed image will lead to an emotional response or some other bodily response. It does not matter whether the image is about reality or something totally imaginary. Both will create changes in the body that are consistent with the image. You only have to ask a small boy to imagine that he is brave and strong and you will see him straighten up and throw out his chest. In other words, the body is responding to the image being formed in the mind. But it is not only the body that is influenced by images; images also influence behaviour. Again the result is similar. A strong image leads to behaviour consistent with the image being formed in the mind’s eye. It does not matter whether the image is one of reality or unreality.

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What matters is whether the image is strong and whether you have belief in the image. What is generally lacking in image formation, especially when the image involves something that is not real, is an ability to create and hold a strong image. The reason for this is simply that we have not developed the skill. It has not been thought necessary to train a person in image formation. The fact that nearly everyone forms images and uses images as guides to their memory does not mean that most people do it well. Everyone can speak (with a few exceptions) but some are better than others because they have practiced it and been taught how to do it well. Creating images in the mind is no different. This type of training plays a central role in psychosynthesis, and a number of techniques for developing strong mental images can be found in Assagioli (1965) and Ferrucci (1982). Some of these we shall discuss in ‘Developing the Imagination’ in section 18.3.

18.2 What is Imagination? Imagination is the mental faculty of forming images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses. Imagination, however, is very closely linked with daydreaming and fantasy. Daydreaming is the act of indulging in fantasy or reverie while awake; fantasy is the faculty of inventing images. Behaviourism put an effective stop to research into subjective states of mind – and imagination, daydreaming and fantasy are all subjective states. Fortunately, there has been a return of interest in such states, e.g. J. L Singer’s Daydreaming and Fantasy. In this section we shall not attempt to distinguish between these three faculties but concentrate on some tentative remarks about the imagination. Although we cannot measure people’s imaginative ability – at least not precisely – it is clear that people possess it. But research takes us no further. At our present state of knowledge we cannot answer the following questions. · · · · · · · · · ·

What is the imagination? What purpose does the imagination serve? How does the imagination function? Where is the imagination located? Has imagination changed over the course of history? What is the relationship between imagination and creativity? Is imagination positively or negatively related to language development? Who has a good imagination and why? Can the imagination be improved? Can a person have no imagination?

This list is by no means exhaustive, but it does highlight the extent of our ignorance about the imagination. Given this ignorance, let me make a number of personal speculations about the imagination. 1. Imagery of some form, whether visual, auditory, or any one of the others listed in the previous section, would seem to be a basic element in our make-up. This would suggest that everyone has an imagination – the only difference is the degree. 2. The fact that visual images are the most frequent, and probably the most important, would suggest that imagination is an attribute of the nervous system that predates language. Language, however, has given imagination a new dimension that is almost

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as significant as the purely visual features of imagination. 3. The main groups of individuals to possess a good imagination are writers, artists, actors, poets, dancers and, above all, children. The fact that children have a good imagination suggests that imagination is associated with those parts of the brain that are formed in the early years. Its poor state in later life would further suggest that it is simply neglected as language and other logical pursuits are concentrated on in the person’s educational development. The fact that certain groups, such as poets and actors, retain and develop their imaginations as they grow older, would suggest that it does not naturally diminish with age, but diminishes from lack of use (or by the design of the educational system). 4. Image formation is a feature largely (although not wholly) of the right brain. The points made in my third speculation on the imagination support this. Children are only beginning to develop their powers of reason; that is to say, they are only beginning to develop the faculties of their left brain. While this is going on, they can readily call on the faculty of imagination, with its dependence on imagery. Writers, artists, actors, poets, and dancers use many of the features of the right brain – imagery, synthesis, rhythm, etc. They have retained and developed their imaginations. 5. The age of reason has meant that all other faculties of the mind have been treated as less, or even of no, importance. Put bluntly reason is more important than imagination! But this is placing reason and imagination in conflict with one another in such a way that a choice has to be made. However, reason and imagination are different things, each with its individual use and purpose. It is wrong to ask, ‘Is reason more important than the imagination?’ The more appropriate question is, ‘How can we develop both reason and the imagination?’ 6. Creativity is the ability to show imagination as well as routine skill. In other words, creativity is the combining of reason and the imagination. The creative person combines the features of the left brain with those of the right: reason with imagination. Western dependence on reason has meant that we frown on such things as the imagination. Schooling develops reasoning powers and implicitly, if not explicitly, treats the imagination as unimportant. It is not surprising, therefore, that children very soon give up being imaginative. As this process continues, the growing person finds it more and more difficult to form mental images, simply because this particular faculty goes unused. For such a person creative visualization is not easy. But remember, imagination is inherent in the nervous system and as such it can be re-learned.

18.3 Developing the Imagination From what has been said in the previous section, it would appear that we all possess an imagination, which most of us have simply left to diminish from lack of use. But how do we develop imagination? This can be done from two directions. First, by practicing forming mental images. Second, by developing imaginative skills.

18.3.1 Developing mental images Visual Close your eyes and practice forming the following images in your mind’s eye. · numbers written on a board · letters or words written on a board · a coloured circle

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· a coloured triangle · a coloured square · a crescent moon · a star If you have difficulty with any of these then construct them on large sheets of white A4 paper. Look at them for a few minutes and then visualize them in your mind’s eye. This can be especially useful in the case of the coloured shapes. In the case of writing, visualize the page of a book with writing on. In the case of numbers, see them on a page and begin to do addition and subtraction – visually. Auditory In your mind’s eye recreate the following sounds. If you find them difficult, create a scene in which the sound is a natural part. · a gong · a voice calling your name · children playing · traffic · a train · a ship’s horn · a church bell Kinaesthetic (i.e. movement) In your mind’s eye see, and most particularly feel, yourself doing the following. · walking · running · swimming · driving · sawing wood · dancing Tactile In your mind’s eye feel yourself doing the following. · shaking hands · stroking a cat (or dog) · placing your hand in snow · stroking a piece of wood · placing your hand under running water · running your fingers through soft wool Gustatory In your mind’s eye imagine what it’s like to taste the following. · your favourite dish · an orange · whipped cream · ice-cream · a hot drink · a date (or fig) · whisky (or some other spirit) Olfactory In your mind’s eye imagine what it’s like to smell the following. · perfume · petrol · freshly baked bread · wood · tar · mint

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· a rose All these examples are purely illustrative and you can readily devise your own. The important point is to practice them. Since they are all done in the mind’s eye they can be practiced anytime and anywhere – most especially when travelling. Nor are they independent of one another. When trying to smell a rose in your mind’s eye, it is highly likely that you will also visualize one. Creating situations in which you are actively participating is a very good way to practice. This will also help in developing your imagination. For instance, imagine yourself, in your mind’s eye, walking down the street. In the background you hear the church bells ringing out. In the street children are playing, you hear them clearly, and they are playing with a large red ball. A friendly dog comes up to you at this point, and you stroke it And so on... It is not just a question of remembering similar situations. The object is to be in the scenes, seeing and feeling, smelling and tasting what you are creating. It requires you to pay attention and concentrate on the images being created in your mind’s eye. As you practice all these various images they become easier.

18.3.2 Developing imaginative skills This is less straightforward. The object, however, is ‘to be as a child’. If you present a child with a picture of a youngster with a guitar and then ask him or her to create a story to account for this, then you will observe the imagination in action. Some children with very vivid imaginations have imaginary companions – and some go as far as to hallucinate these companions. As we get older we ‘put away such childish things’ but do not put anything in their place (with the possible exception of sexual fantasies). But there does appear to be a need to ‘feed’ the imagination a need that is most commonly met by novels and films – most especially science fiction. The simplest way to practice being imaginative is to role-play. Just as in the case of the child creating a story about the youngster with the guitar, you can be as imaginative as possible in fully creating the role and carrying it through in your mind’s eye. Although you may feel a little foolish doing this for the first few times, there is no need because it is all done in the mind and no one need know you are doing it. If you give up readily it is a likely indication that you cannot carry it through; that you have a poor imagination. In this case you should increase the role-playing rather than decrease it. To aid in developing your imaginative skill try the following role-playing. · Hercules (or Aphrodite) · Merlin the Magician · Julius Caesar (or Cleopatra) · a rabbit · a sea gull · a computer · a £20 note Such roles are the basis of fairy tales, mythology, novels and films. In literature, and more recently in scientific works comparing man and machines, you will find many imaginative essays written from an unusual vantage point – from Kafka’s Metamorphosis to Harding’s On Having no Head, this second reprinted in Hofstadter and Dennett (1981).

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18.4 Imagination and the Will The will is no match for a strong imagination. If the will and the imagination are in conflict then the imagination will win. We have pointed out that little is known about the imagination, but even less is known about the will. It appears to be a force belonging to the inner self that gives direction and purpose to a number of things we do. For example, a blind boy or girl may have ‘the will to succeed at college against all odds’. The will acts as a means of marshalling the body’s energies, emotions, drives, etc. into a purposeful and co-operative relationship. It has no obvious outward manifestation: it simply directs – like the conductor of an orchestra. Assagioli in The Act of Will puts it as follows: The most effective and satisfactory role of the will is not as a source of direct power or force, but as that function which, being at our command, can stimulate, regulate, and direct all the other functions and forces of our being so that they may lead us to our predetermined goal. There is no intention here to discuss the will; suffice it to say that the will can direct the imagination in a purposeful way in order to achieve some stated goal. When an individual has no clear idea of the purpose of the will, then it is possible that the will and the imagination are directed at two opposing purposes. When this happens, the person’s behaviour is governed more by the imagination than by the will – this is especially true when the imagination is acting negatively. In our discussion of goal-directed visualization (see chapter 0), we shall discuss how to bring the will and the imagination into co-operation and not into conflict.

18.5 What Are Dreams? Man has almost certainly dreamed from the very beginning, but dreams have defied scientific analysis. Even so, people persist in taking an interest in dreams and believe that they have a purpose (even if they do not know what it is) and that they have a meaning (no matter how bizarre they appear to be on the surface). Dreams are a personal subjective experience, and a particular dream is a one-off event that does not occur ever again. Even recurring dreams are slightly different – only the basic content remains the same. There are two quite distinct aspects to dreams: (1) the definition and description of dreaming, (2) the interpretation of dreams. The definition and description of dreams involves the scientific study of dreams, which only began in the twentieth century. The interpretation of dreams has been a constant feature of man and is recorded in mythology and in the bible. In the next two sections we shall have a few remarks to make on the scientific study of dreams – if for no other purpose than to dispel some myths about dreams. In section 18.7 we shall consider what we can learn from dreams as an aid to developing creative visualization. These sections are not meant to be a study of dreams and their interpretation, a subject that could fill a number of books. Rather, the aim is to concentrate on those aspects of dreaming which give us some insight into how the right brain formulates and uses images. Once we distil this information we can use it at the conscious level as a means of carrying out creative visualization. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology defines a dream in the following way:

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A train of hallucinatory experiences with a certain degree of coherence, but often confused and bizarre, taking place in the condition of sleep and similar conditions. In simpler terms, dreams are images in the mind that are experienced during our hours of sleep. (Similar dream experiences can be undergone by means of drugs or hypnosis.) Because dreams occur when we are asleep, then it is dear that they are not generally part of our conscious mind; they belong to what we invariably call the unconscious or subconscious mind. When a dream is ‘recalled’ we mean that it is consciously remembered – i.e., it is brought into conscious awareness. When people say that they ‘don’t dream’, what they in fact mean is that they do not, or cannot, bring their dreams into conscious awareness: they cannot recall a dream. If a dream cannot be recalled then it does not consciously exist. However, it does exist in the unconscious mind and can still influence our behaviour. The difficulty is not in the dreaming but in the recall of dreams. We now have our first clue as to why dreams often appear confused and bizarre. They appear only confused and bizarre to our conscious mind. And why is this? It is because the left hemisphere of the brain dominates our conscious mind. Our conscious mind, therefore, looks for logical patterns, linear associations, realistic patterns, etc. But dreams being a part of the unconscious mind are dominated by the right hemisphere of the brain and so are governed by other features – such as nonlinear patterns, emotional content, symbolism, etc. The patterns and associations created by the subconscious mind cannot readily be re-arranged into a logical pattern that the conscious mind can absorb. But then why should they? It is like trying to study a fish out of water. You can see it wriggle and die. You can cut it up and observe its inside. But you can only appreciate a fish if you study it in its own environment: so, too, with a dream. You can study it at the conscious level, but you will not appreciate a dream outside its own environment – or better still, outside its own frame of reference. The common mistake in dream interpretation is in attempting to fit the dream into a frame of reference that appeals to the conscious mind. What needs to be done is to change the frame of reference. This, however, is easier said than done. Studies are only just beginning on how the right brain functions and processes information. It is this research that will supply us with the new frame of reference. All we can do at the present is realize that dreams operate on principles different from the conscious mind. They utilize features such as symbolism, nonlinear patterns, holism, time distortion and emotion. One dream state is worthy of comment, and this is the lucid dream. A lucid dream is a state of dreaming where the person actually, i.e., consciously, knows that they are dreaming. It would appear, therefore, that a lucid dream occurs when some particular relationship exists between the conscious and unconscious mind (or the left and right brains). The nature of this relationship is not known. But like so many things we do not know, it is still possible (some argue) to bring about and increase lucid dreaming see, for example, P. Garfield (1974, Chapter 6) and A. Faraday (1972 and 1974).

18.6 Facts, Myths and Symbolism Intensive research into sleep and dreaming was undertaken when it was noticed that during certain periods of the sleep state the eyes rapidly moved under the eyelids. This became known as Rapid Eye Movement sleep (or REM sleep for short) or even paradoxical sleep. Later research found that during REM sleep a person was dreaming. So began a scientific study of sleep and dreaming.

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It was soon discovered that everyone dreams during his or her period of sleep and that this takes place during REM sleep. This immediately disproved the myth that some people do not dream. What it demonstrates is that everyone dreams during sleep, but that dream recall can vary from zero (no recall) to almost 100 per cent (almost perfect recall). It also disproved the very common myth that dreams happen in a flash. Dreams take time and can occur over twenty minutes or more (usually during three REM periods in a night). In addition, certain foods, such as cheese, do not lead to more dreaming but, by disturbing sleep, increase the recall of dreams. A final myth that this research can dispel is the belief that dreams do not involve colour. Dreams do involve colour, but not in great quantities and the colour is soon forgotten. We can obtain some insight into dreams and how they utilize the right brain, by considering what people actually dream about. One survey, undertaken by Calvin Hall and reported in Scientific American, indicates that people dream about dwelling places, conveyances (e.g. a car) and entire buildings. One usual interpretation for this predominance is that dreams reflect things going on in the unconscious mind, and that the unconscious is often represented in dreams by rooms in buildings. The majority of dreams have only a small number of characters – usually two in addition to the dreamer (although it is possible that all characters are simply different personalities of the self). Furthermore, the content of dreams reflects our emotional involvement with our family and friends. When considering behaviour most dreams involve movement (e.g., walking, running and riding). Contrary to popular opinion, most dreams do not involve falling or floating: these are the exception. Talking in dreams is quite common, and dreams generally involve passive or quiet activities rather than manual activities, although sporting and recreational activities are fairly frequent. Dreams involve much emotional content, a particular feature of the right brain. The most frequently reported emotion was apprehension, with anger, happiness and excitement next. Although most dream content was negative or unpleasant, the dreamers themselves rated dreams as generally pleasant rather than unpleasant. It would appear, then, that dreams are a form of thinking which occurs during sleep – a form of thinking which is characteristic of the right brain and not the left brain. The conceptions and ideas are not conveyed in words and logical reasoning, but rather in the form of images, most usually visual images. The dreamer is concerned about him or herself: their fears and hopes, their anxieties and ambitions. When other people enter the dream it is only with respect to how they impinge on his or her existence. Because of this, dreams are among the most important sources of information we have about how people see themselves. They also reveal that people are dynamic and their conception of themselves changes constantly. It has just been pointed out that dreams convey ideas and conceptions in the form of images. Because the information is conveyed usually in the form of pictures then symbols play an obviously important role in forming such pictures. Put another way, given that dreams do not convey information in words and logical reasoning, then in what form can such information be conveyed? The symbolic meaning of dreams played a very important part in Freud’s theory of dream interpretation and was extended in Jung’s theory. These theories are too involved to go into here, but what is clear is that symbols play a very crucial role in dreams as a means of conveying information. When engaging in creative visualization, therefore, we should take note of this and use symbols in a very conscious way.

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18.7 What Can We Learn From Dreams? Dreams are not part of our conscious mind but rather of our unconscious. They indicate how the brain processes information in a way ‘natural’ to its internal workings; that is to say, when freed from the logical reasoning processes of the conscious mind, the unconscious mind processes information in a totally different way. There is no ‘right’ way to process information; it is a result of the development of the human nervous system – most particularly the brain. It is possible to argue that logical reasoning processes were devised as a means of living in the external world and relating to other people and things in the external world, while another form of processing information has been devised for internal workings of the individual. What we learn from dreams is that pictures are very important in conveying information. Since dreams are largely (if not exclusively) about ourselves, then it would appear that we could best change our self-image by also using pictures. It is a two-way process. Dreams give us a picture of our self-image at any given moment of time. But the self-image can itself be influenced by means of creative visualization, as we shall indicate in the next chapter. This, in turn, will give rise to a different self-image in our dream. The important point is that you have more chance of changing your behaviour or the image of yourself by presenting to your mind (to your right brain, to your unconscious mind) a picture of how you would like to behave or like to be. It is, of course, possible to attempt to reason to yourself why you should change or why you should be a certain way, but this is not likely to bring about any change. In a dream you are the central character, and often the only character. When engaging in creative visualization again you are the central character and it is quite easy to picture yourself in some setting or doing some activity. It is easy because you do it so frequently in your dreams. What matters when forming these pictures is the whole content of the picture; it is the whole that is conveying something to the mind. In the same way, it is important to include emotion in creative visualization. Our dreams reveal our hopes, desires and anxieties. Emotion appeals to the right brain and gives involvement and commitment to what is contained in the picture. Hence, if you wish to change your behaviour or your self-image then it is important that you not only believe that the change is possible, but you must also want it. The wanting is not wishful thinking; it is a means of incorporating emotion into the picture. The emotion provides the energy for the transformation. This should be borne in mind during all the exercises in part IV.

18.8 Principles and propositions about creative imagery Imagination is not an abnormal part of our makeup. On the contrary, it is a most normal feature of the nervous system but has largely gone unutilised because behavioural psychology claimed that it was ‘unscientific’. To a large extent it was kept alive in works on magic and in Eastern philosophies. With the interest in expanded consciousness, however, there has been a return of interest in the imagination. This work is beginning to show that imagery and the use of the imagination in creative visualization is grounded on sound principles. Some of these principles and basic propositions concerning creative visualization are scattered throughout this book. The propositions in this chapter are largely conceptual, but the basic message is that the brain when it creates an image (whether the image is a memory or something unreal) gives rise to consistent bodily changes and to behavioural changes. If these changes are to be brought about then they must be impressed upon the mind when the

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mind and body are in a relaxed state. Only when mind and body are sufficiently relaxed will suggestions take root in the unconscious mind. Such an ideal state is brought about by hypnosis. It is one thing to state the importance of images and the use of the imagination but they must be practised. Part IV provides such practice. Here the intention is to bring together in simple and straightforward terms statements, principles and propositions that are contained throughout this book. There are fifteen in total. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15.

Creative visualization is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination. Images can take many forms; e.g. visual, auditory, motor, tactile, gustatory and olfactory, but the two most important are visual and auditory. Images create corresponding bodily changes. It does not matter whether the image is a memory or something unreal, the response can be equally effective. Images affect the body most if they are strong, clear and the person believes in their influence. Imagination can be trained by training the use of the right hemisphere of the brain. The will can be used to direct the imagination or oppose it. When the will opposes the imagination then it is the imagination that will govern behaviour. Dreams belong to the unconscious and utilize features of the right hemisphere of the brain. There is in our personality a core that is the true self, which is surrounded by the conscious and unconscious selves. The unconscious also includes the superconscious and beyond all these is the collective unconscious. People rarely know their true self; they only know their false personality. A person’s personality has both a male and female component (the yang and yin), which can be called on in the form of ‘inner guides’. These ‘inner guides’ belong to the levels of consciousness beyond the conscious level. Concentration and attention can be combined (in the form of one-pointed attention) to achieve efficient behaviour. Creative visualization employs goal-directed imagery to bring about desired outcomes. These can be for objects, lifestyles, and desired personality traits. Education, sport and many other areas can utilize creative visualization to good advantage. It is the basis of inner games and autogenic training. A number of memory aids; e.g. link and peg systems, utilize creative visualization. A more recent development, also using creative visualization, is the construction of mental maps. Goal-directed visualization employs many features of the right hemisphere of the brain. Health can be improved by employing creative visualization.

18.9 27 Creative Images Images are different from scripts. Scripts are meant to be said to yourself more or less as presented. Images, however, are descriptions of what you should imagine in your mind’s eye. On the printed page such images need describing in words. In your head you can visualize a whole scene in an instant. So although some of the following scenes appear long, they are only long to describe and not necessarily when you carry them out. Before giving the creative images in detail, we list all 27 in the table below. A few of these have occurred elsewhere in these books.

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List of creative Images # The triangle #2 Entering a black whole #3 Pictorial scene for relaxation #4 Desert scene #5 Body image #6 Unravelling the tension knot #7 Tree of confidence #8 House and lungs of tar and ash #9 Change in body image #10 Feeling music #11 TV screen and inner guide #12 The three baths #13 Stepping out of your body #14 Being a glass container #15 Entering the sun

#16 Pegasus the flying horse #17 Room to everywhere #18 Disappearing #19 Blue revolving crystal #20 The crusade #21 Under the sun and moon #22 Protective oil against criticism #23 Walking along a beam of light #24 Meeting someone important #25 Triangle of security #26 Tree of life #27 The pyramid

Some of the images are realistic, often drawing on bodily sensations. Other images are not so realistic and are more creative. All, however, can be used for various problems or selfimprovement. The images by being more creative appeal to the unconscious mind. All images should be imbued with as much vividness and emotion that you can muster. #1 The triangle You see before you in your mind’s eye a triangle with thick sides and empty in the centre. It is a large triangle on an A4 sheet of paper, clear and distinct … Words begin to form on each of the three apexes. The first word starts to come into focus, and you clearly see it as the word ‘calm’. As you look at the next apex the word ‘relaxed’ begins to form. And as you turn to look at the final apex, the word ‘deeper’ begins to form. All the words are now clear to you. And as you look into the centre of the triangle, you suddenly enter that triangle, yes; you enter the triangle and are now contained within it. At first there is just emptiness around you. You can see the words at each apex, large now in relation to you. As you look at the word ‘calm’ a beam of light comes down from the apex of the triangle, encircling you and passing through you. As it does so, you feel a tremendous feeling of calmness and peace. The light is swirling about you and through you now. And you look at the apex that has the word ‘relax’ and as you do so, yet a different coloured light emerges, entwining with the first like a snake about you. But they are soothing, and a deeper relaxation is coming over you. And finally you turn to the third apex. From this a beautiful iridescent light, a soothing light, springs and it too entwines itself about the other two, and all the lights are circling around your body and through your body. And as this third light circles about you and passes through you, so you are letting go utterly and completely … sinking down, and down into an ever deeper trance state … A state so deep that you become completely responsive to my suggestions … going deeper and deeper and deeper. #2 Entering a black hole In your mind’s eye you are looking up at the sky. The sun is shinning through the clouds, which are forming white clusters like cotton wool. There is a slight breeze, which

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moves the clouds across the sky, and here and there you can see birds flying and circling up above. As you are looking up, you suddenly find yourself moving up into the clouds and now beyond the clouds into the vast universe beyond. It does not seem strange that you are doing this and you feel comfortable and curious at the same time. You move right out into the galaxy, you can see the earth now below you; stars and planets begin to move past you. The movement becomes quicker and quicker as you find yourself zooming out into space. You can now see the rings of Neptune, which are so beautiful and more colourful than you imagined them to be. Before you you see a swirling mass; stars and planets are swirling around what appears to be a black centre. You realise that this is a black hole, a dense thing that pulls into it all before it; like a huge magnet attracting everything in its path. And now you become part of this circling mass of planets, you are being pulled into the black hole. You find this intriguing and wonder what you will find. And as you get pulled in closer and closer to the black hole, so you are moving faster and faster … yes, faster and faster. And suddenly you get sucked right into the black hole! All is dark, but not threatening. There is just blackness and emptiness: a void that gives you a feeling of just pure thought and nothing else. No sense of space or time; just a black emptiness. #3 Pictorial scene of relaxation You are in a forest in which you are making your way to a mineral spring, a familiar mineral spring (1)… You now reach it and you are there, all alone. You undress and slip into the warm water. The water is soothing and it is relaxing all of your muscles (2)… You can feel the beneficial effects of the minerals that are passing through all the parts of your skin, and into your body. And as the minerals enter your body, they are relaxing all of your muscles – large and small. You can feel the soothing freshness on your face (3). And you are now getting out, slowly, feeling very relaxed and just wanting to lie down. And so you lie down in the warm sun, the warm rays shining on your body and mixing with globules of mineral water, relaxing you still further, and sending you into a beautiful deep sleep, not a natural sleep, but a deep hypnotic sleep. Becoming all the time more and more relaxed, and deeper and deeper asleep. Everything is utterly peaceful and tranquil (4). And as you are lying there looking up at the sky you are going deeper and deeper. And the day turns into night, but you are so relaxed that you don’t want to move. And the night is warm also and you can see the stars in the sky and the moon that is full. And you are going deeper still. In fact you are going to go considerably deeper with each day and each night that passes. Yes, with each day and each night that passes, you will go deeper and deeper into trance. And now the day returns once again, warm and pleasant. And now the night returns, dark but warm. And the night turns into day, and you are going deeper and deeper all the time. [Just keep this up for a while. Then slow it all down to the present.] 1. The more these suggestions are used, the more familiar will become the mineral spring. Picture it in full. See its surroundings, the colours, whether there is a waterfall there, (although it is best to consciously introduce one!). Make the whole scene so familiar that it becomes the client's private place for rest, relaxation and the gaining of inner strength. And that is exactly what it will become to them. After using this instruction a few times, the client will simply have to imagine the place and they will immediately elicit the relaxation and

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warmth in their body, without having to repeat the instructions at all – a picture is worth a thousand words. This scene is a very good preliminary to the image of the ‘guru within’. 2. Have the client Imagine themselves taking handfuls of water and rubbing their arms and face, and other parts of the body not in the water. Have them seeing themselves ducking or swimming. 3. It is most important, both here and earlier in the scene, to actually have the client feel the water. Feel the water on their face. Let the feeling be one of luxuriousness, as if the minerals were giving them a tingling feeling as they entered their skin and into their muscles. 4. You can keep up these suggestions, but you should find, by this stage, that the client is extremely relaxed. #4 Desert Scene You are in the desert, the sun is beating down and it’s very hot and dry. You have no water, since you used up the last of your water some hours ago. And you are very thirsty, very thirsty indeed … The sun is hot and your mouth is dry and your lips are parched. Hour after hour you have been walking over the sand dunes and becoming more and more thirsty, and your mouth more and more parched. [You can continue this saga until the full effect is felt. You can, however, obtain the full impact of the suggestion by continuing in the following manner.] You now reach an oasis with palm trees and a pool. Yes, you now reach the pool and drink the cool clear water. It’s so refreshing … And now you sit under a palm tree, relaxing in the warm sun and the day passes into evening, but you are so relaxed that all you just want to do is sit here, undisturbed. #5 Body image You are in the garden, lying there, feeling pleasantly relaxed. Suddenly the garden appears to be getting bigger and bigger; and the trees are getting taller and taller, and then you realize that it is not the garden that is getting bigger and the trees taller, but that you are getting smaller and smaller. Smaller still and yet still smaller: three feet, two feet, and one foot. You can see everything growing large and towering. And now you are the size of Tom Thumb. You see everything around you from this perspective, and the feeling of being the size of Tom Thumb is getting stronger and stronger … [Let time pass sufficiently to get a feel for the situation. Then continue.] And now you are getting bigger and bigger. Yes, you are returning easily and quickly to your normal size … But you are continuing to grow still taller and taller. You are very large, and growing taller and bigger. The house and the garden are like a doll’s house, as you become a giant above them all. Tall, strong and powerful … [After the feeling has had a chance to be felt, continue as follows.] You are now shrinking, becoming smaller once again. Returning to your own height, to your former size, easily and quickly. Yes, you are now back to your normal size … And now you are beginning to feel like stone, like a statue, very solid. Just like stone. And this feeling of being solid, just like a statue, is getting stronger and stronger … stronger all the time … And now you are returning to normal, quickly and easily. All your feelings have now returned to normal.

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#6 Unravelling the tension knot With your eyes closed visualise the tension, which we shall suppose is in the shoulder. You see it as a ball of string, all tied in knots. It is a large ball of string, all interlaced with the string forming a huge round ball that is full of knots. You can feel the knots in the string, the tension in your shoulder. The knot is like the Gordian knot, tightly tied and well secured. And like the Gordian knot, it has been around for a long time. But today, you feel like the famous Alexander the Great who solved the knot of Gordius. He solved it by cutting the ball of string with his sword. But in your case the solution is slightly different. Dangling from the knot is one end of the string. You see it clearly in your biceps where it is dangling down; you see it quite clearly in your mind's eye. Suddenly, something comes up and takes hold of the end of the string and begins to pull it down your arm. Yes, this something pulls the string down your arm and towards your hand, towards your middle finger. You now feel someone, or some thing, has come to your aid. You are pleased and excited. You see the string clearly becoming longer and longer as it passes down your arm. And as it does so, so you feel the tension getting less and less. It seems as if as the string is pulled down so the tension is passing down the string and away from the knot, away from your shoulder. Yes, you can feel the tension being drawn down the string. You may even see the tension passing down the string. And now the string passes out of your middle finger. You know that this is important. And why is it important? It is important because you now know that you can take control of the tension. You can take hold of the string and continue to pull, and pull, and pull. Yes you can pull the string and as you pull so knot after knot will unravel, the tension will get less and less, and the tension will pass down the string, down your arm, and out of your finger. Just as the string is passing down your arm and out of your finger, so too is the tension. And you pull and pull with all of your might. And as you feel the tension getting less and less as the knot gets smaller and smaller, so you begin to pull faster and faster. You are excited, excited with the idea of at last ridding yourself of the tension in your shoulder. You pull harder and harder and faster and faster. The knot is now getting smaller and smaller. You see before you on the floor all of the string, all of the tension, which you have pulled from your shoulder. And you know that this string, this tension, will no longer be a problem to you. The knot in your shoulder now is very tiny; the tension you had felt in your shoulder is now only a small reflection of what it has been. You now give one final mighty pull and with it comes the final knot, the final bit of tension, and you see the end of the string fall from your finger to the floor. You see your tension finally leave your body for good. And you are filled with a feeling of relief and joy because the tension is finally gone from your shoulder. You see before you on the ground all the string, all the tension, that has built up over the years and you are satisfied that at last it has been removed, the Gordian knot has at last been unravelled. You are free of all the tension you had in the shoulder. #7 Tree of confidence In this relaxed state you can be anything you want to be; you can do anything you want to do; and you can be as responsive as you want to be. And you do want to be very responsive, you want to respond easily and quickly to all of your suggestions. In fact, you will find it easier and easier to follow all of your suggestions. Things are very easy when you want to do them. It is only when we don't want to do something that that

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something seems a bother or difficult. But you know how easy it is to do something you want to do, something that you like doing. And so because you want your suggestions to work, because you want your suggestions to take root in your unconscious mind, so you will be very responsive to the suggestions - now and in the future. Not only do you want to respond to the suggestions, but you will find that you will respond to them easier and quicker on each occasion. And this should not surprise you. You know that as you practise something so it becomes easier and easier - and so too in response to your suggestions. You have confidence in yourself. Your confidence in yourself is going to grow stronger and stronger. You have already observed how readily you respond and this was without any practise and without knowledge of what was happening. So how much more responsive you will be when you know that a change will take place as you practise more and more, as you respond to your suggestions more and more. And you will find yourself responding more and more as you become more and more confident. Yes, your confidence in yourself is going to grow and grow. And as it grows and grows so you will find it easier and easier to cooperate; easier and easier to carry out your suggestions; and any doubts you may have had are going to get less and less.

And this growth of confidence in yourself is like a tree which is growing and growing, growing taller and taller and growing more and more branches. And as it grows taller and taller, and grows more and more branches, so the tree becomes more mature and more rooted in the earth. And as the tree becomes more rooted in the earth, so it draws more and more nutrient from the earth. And now you feel you are this tree, growing taller and taller, becoming more and more confident. And you feel your roots growing deep into the ground, deep into the earth, making you feel rooted and grounded as never before. And just as the tree takes in nutrient allowing it to grow and grow, so you are taking in nutrient, becoming more and more confident. Yes, you confidence too is growing greater and greater, just like the tree. And just like the tree blossoms from its growth and from its nutrients, so you too are blossoming with confidence. And all this is going to be so very easy because you want it so. Yes, these suggestions are going to take root in your unconscious mind where they are going to bear fruit, and the fruit is your greater confidence. #8 House and lungs of tar and ash No one likes a dirty or untidy house and so why would any one want a dirty or untidy pair of lungs. Imagine for a moment having a beautiful house. A clean and tidy house. It has a beautiful living room with comfortable furniture, pictures and curtains all to your liking. It has a TV and hi-fi, a cabinet with crystal glasses. your bedroom is bright and sumptuous and your kitchen is a dream kitchen with every convenience . [Elaborate to other rooms if necessary, especially any favourite room.]

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You come home one day and begin to throw cigarette ash and tar everywhere. Every room is covered with the ash and tar; every item of furniture is covered with ash and tar. The whole house, every room, is covered with ash and tar which you wantonly strewn over your beautiful house. Your best friend arrives, but when he/she enters they look around in shock, horror and contempt. They leave immediately saying that there is no way they will sit or even stand in such filth. And so with utter contempt, they leave. On leaving they say "You have the filthiest home I know, and never again will I come to your house." You are sad. They are such a good friend, and you have turned them away with the state of your home. You are quite aware of why they will not visit you again, and you wonder why you so wantonly and deliberately destroyed your beautiful house, and why you turned away your best friend. And yet, you realise the remedy is quite simple. You no longer will throw ash and tar over your house, over your living room, your bedroom and your kitchen. Yes, from now on you intend to have a tidy and clean house. But, of course, you must first clean up the mess you have already made. You must clean away all the ash and tar from each room in your house. You want to see your friend again and you know this will only be possible with a thoroughly clean house. Clean of all ash and tar. But you also realise that it is not just a question of cleaning the house, it is also the situation that you must not in future throw ash and tar over your house. Yes, from now on you intend to have a clean and tidy house. And just as you want to keep your house clean and free from ash and tar, so you will do this same to your lungs. Just as you do not want to strewn ash and tar all over your house and turn away your friends, so you do not want to strewn ash and tar all over your lungs. Just as you consider it unnecessary to strewn your house with ash and tar, so you consider it equally unnecessary to strewn you lungs with ash and tar. Just as you do not want to turn friends away from your house, so you do not want to turn friends away from your company just because you smoke. Yes, you want a clean and tidy house and you want clean and tidy lungs. You want friends to visit your house, and so you want friends to talk to you and be in your company. And you know this will only happen with a clean and tidy house, with a clean and tidy set of lungs. You must have no more ash and no more tar deposited in your house; you must have no more ash and no more tar deposited in your lungs. #9 Change in body image You are becoming very, very heavy. So heavy that you feel as though you are made of lead, and you can feel yourself sinking down into the chair as you become heavier and heavier … Now you are returning to your normal weight. You are becoming lighter and lighter; very light indeed, as light as a feather, and still lighter. And you are becoming so light that you can feel yourself rising up just a little amount … Now you are returning to your normal weight, quickly and easily. And now you feel as if you are made of wood, yes you can feel yourself made of wood. You are a young tree bending and swaying in the breeze, and you can feel the wind blowing through your leaves … And now you are becoming very porous, very porous indeed, so porous that the wind is blowing right through you. And you are expanding, expanding more and more and you are the wind. Yes, you are now the wind, blowing over mountains and lakes …

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And now you are becoming a whirlwind, yes, a whirlwind, and you are at the centre and you are spinning faster and faster, faster and faster. So fast now that you go shooting off into space. #10 Feeling music In a moment, I will go and put on a CD of music. And when you hear the music, you are going to hear it more intensely than you have ever heard it before. More than that, you are going to feel the music … as if all of your nerve endings all over your body are responding to the music. Yes, you are going to feel the music very intently and in a way you never thought was possible, but is. And it is going to be a most pleasant experience. #11 TV screen and your inner guide In a moment you are going to switch on the TV set in your mind's eye. When you do so you are going to see a male (or female) figure. This male (female) figure is going to be one of your inner guides. You know that he (or she) is going to be one of your inner guides, and you know that you will be able to ask him (or her) questions about yourself (or decisions, etc.). You also know that he may be from the present, the past or the future and that he may be young or old. You are now going to switch on the TV. [Wait a few moment - or alternatively use an ideomotor response to indicate they have visualised their guide.] When your guide appears you will be able to converse with him. (or her). You can ask him (or her) questions or ask for advice. Now indicate to the inner guide that you will soon be finishing your conversation, thank them and say that you would like to call on them again in the future. #12 The thee baths You are going into a Roman Baths with two rooms. The air is warm and you undress. Already as you undress you begin to feel relaxed, knowing that you are going to have a very relaxing massage and bath. You are very much looking forward to this, and as you are undressing the expectation is already giving you a feeling of calm expectancy. You walk in and lie down on a table ready to be massaged. You are very much looking forward to this massage because you know that it is going to make you feel relaxed and comfortable. And now the masseur begins to massage your neck muscles and your shoulders. The masseur’s hands are going over your muscles in a steady circular motion, taking away all the tension and all the worries of the day. And you are beginning now to relax more and more. Your eyes are closed and all you feel is the relaxation and calmness spreading through your body. You are very warm and calm, feeling more and more relaxed. You can hear the masseur saying to you to relax all your muscles and let all the tension drain out of your body. And this feeling of relaxation is getting stronger and stronger. Now you go into a second room that contains three small baths, like jacuzzies. Each pool is a different colour. The first pool is red, and it is red because it contains a very special aromatic oil. And you now step into the pool, which is not deep and very easy to get into. The water is warm and relaxing. You take the water in the cups of your hands and rub your arms and face. You dip into the water if you feel like it. What you do feel, though, is the water over the surface of your skin. And the aromatic oil in the water is going very quickly into the pores of your skin. Very quickly the aromatic oil gets into your blood stream and goes to your brain. And because of its effect, which you are now beginning to feel, you are beginning to be unconcerned about anything except your own suggestions. Nothing else matters except what you wish to tell yourself. Yes, the aromatic oil in the water is taking away all your cares and worries of the day. It is very quickly making you unconcerned about anything except your own suggestions. Nothing

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else matters except what you wish to tell yourself. Yes, the aromatic oil in the water is taking away all the cares and worries of the day. It is very quickly making you unconcerned about anything except your own suggestions. For this period only, the only thing that matters to you is what you wish to tell yourself. Nothing else matters, nothing else is of importance, nothing else is of concern to you. The only thing which concerns you is the suggestions you are giving yourself. The only thing that matters is what you want to tell yourself. And this feeling is getting stronger and stronger as you feel the water over your skin, as you feel the aromatic oil getting into the pores of your skin and going up to your brain. You are feeling so good, because you are free from all the worries of the day, all the concerns of the day. The only thing that matters to you is being here and now, feeling unconcerned about anything except what you tell yourself.

You now come out of the first bath and go into the second bath. This second bath is blue, blue because the water contains yet another aromatic oil. The water is warm and you can feel it over your skin. You are again wetting all parts of your body with the warm blue water. And the blue aromatic oil in the water is getting very quickly into the pores of your skin; you can feel the aromatic oil entering your body. It is quickly getting into your blood stream and going very easily and quickly to your brain. You are feeling good, very calm with a feeling of luxuriousness. And this aromatic oil that is making the water blue, is helping you to go into a deeper relaxed state. And you know that as you go deeper and deeper so you will find it easier and easier to follow all of your suggestions. Yes, the blue aromatic oil is helping you to easily and quickly go deeper and deeper, where it is becoming easier and easier to follow all of your suggestions. More than that, it is so effective that you want to follow your suggestions; you want to follow them very much. You are looking forward to following your suggestions. The only thing that matters to you is what you are saying and the only thing you want to do is to follow all of your suggestions to the best of your ability. There is going to be no strain in doing this, no forced actions, all you want to do is simply follow the suggestions because you want to follow the suggestions.

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You now come out of the second bath and go into the third one. This third bath is green. The water is warm and you can feel the water all over your body. This final bath has an aromatic oil which is taking away all final resistance you may have for going deeper and for following all your own suggestions. Yes, the green aromatic oil is getting into the pores of your skin and going quickly and easily to your brain, where it is removing any final resistance you may have to going into the most deep relaxing state, a state which is deeper than ever before, a state where you feel utterly relaxed, utterly calm, utterly free from worries and concerns, where the only thing you wish to do is to carry out all of your suggestions.

Now you come out of the third bath and return to the table where once again you begin to be massaged. But now as the masseur goes over your back all the three aromatic oils are getting mixed together and entering the pores of your skin much easier. And their effect is getting stronger and stronger and they are reinforcing each other. You are finding it easier and easier to let go and sink into a most deep, deep, relaxed state… deeper than ever before, more comfortable than ever before. You have no worries and no concerns. The only thing you wish to do is give yourself suggestions and follow them to the best of your ability. And with this very strongly in your mind, you drift down letting all these thoughts sink deep into your unconscious mind. #13 Stepping out of your body You are now stepping out of your body; You can feel yourself rising from the chair. Yes, you have no difficulty in rising up out of your body. It is as if there are two of you: the one rising from the chair and the one remaining seated in the chair. And this is happening now with no difficulty at all. You are stepping out of your body and moving about the room — in your mind’s eye … You can see yourself sitting in the chair and you look very peaceful and very relaxed and in a deep hypnotic state. And there appears nothing strange about seeing yourself in the chair. All of your consciousness seems to be with the person outside. You can see everything in the room, including yourself, very clearly indeed. And now you can give that person in the chair instructions, and he (or she) will carry them out, without any difficulty whatsoever. And you will be able to observe how well he (or she) is carrying out your suggestions. Now return to the body in the chair and become just the one person. #14 Being a glass container You are sitting in a chair very comfortably. You see yourself like a glass container. Your body has its normal shape but it is transparent, like a glass object moulded into the

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shape of yourself. In one of your shoulders is an opening in which liquid can be poured into the glass container. Now an orange coloured liquid is being poured into you through the opening in your shoulder. This liquid sinks down to your feet. First it begins to fill up the leg nearest the opening in the shoulder. You have no difficulty seeing the orange liquid rising in your leg, filling up your calf, going past your knee and then filling up your thigh. The orange liquid then begins to spill into your other leg, sinking down to the foot. It fills up the toes, the ankles, the calf and the thigh. Yet more liquid is being poured into your body. And there is no discomfort about this and you have no difficulty in picturing it at all. The orange liquid rises still further, now filling your stomach and up past your waist. It is rising higher and higher. And it is now easier to see as it fills up your chest, coming up to your shoulders. You can now see the orange liquid. You see the liquid easily filling up your arm. And now the liquid is overflowing into your other arm, down to the tips of your fingers. The liquid is rising up your second arm. And as more liquid is poured into you it is filling up the neck and the head, yes the glass container is being filled right up to the very top. And you find there is no discomfort in this at all; it appears just like filling up a vase with water. Now this orange coloured liquid is a very special liquid. It gets into every part of your body, and as it gets into every part of your body, it begins to attract to it all your worries, all your anxieties, and all your anger. Yes, the orange liquid has in it a very strong bonding substance that attracts to it worries, anxieties and anger. It is a very powerful liquid drawing from every cell in your body any trace of worry, any trace of anxiety and any trace of anger. All these negative feelings are being drawn into the orange coloured liquid. And as these feelings get drawn into the orange coloured liquid, the liquid begins to change colour. It begins to get darker and murky as all your worry and all your anxiety and all your anger gets absorbed into it. And as the liquid begins to absorb more and more of your worry, more and more of your anxiety, more and more of your anger, so you begin to relax much more and go into a deeper and deeper state of hypnosis. You can feel the relief as the liquid absorbs more and more of your worry, more and more of your anxiety, more and more of your anger. And as it does so, so you relax more and more and go much deeper and deeper into hypnosis. And the relief as all these negative feelings get absorbed into the liquid is getting stronger and stronger. It is now time to drain off all the liquid. There is a second opening in one of your big toes. This is opened and the liquid begins to flow out of your body. As it flows out of your body so it takes with it all the negative feelings that have become absorbed in it. Yes, the liquid is draining out of your body and taking with it all feelings of worry… all feelings of anxiety and all feelings of anger. You can sense the tremendous relief as all these negative feelings leave your body as the liquid pours out through your toe. The sense of relief is very great indeed and it makes you feel very good as you know all these negative feelings are being taken out of your body, leaving you far less worried, far less anxious and far less angry. You can even see these negative feelings in the liquid, like grains of sand in water. As the last drops of the liquid leave your body so you feel utterly relaxed, utterly calm because your negative feelings have been removed from your body. And you sit there going deeper and deeper into hypnosis with no difficulty at all. It is easier to go deeper

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now, because before it was these negative feelings that were absorbing all of your energy. Now you can use all of this energy to go deeper and deeper into hypnosis. #15 Entering the sun It is a warm day and you are relaxing by lying on your bed with very few clothes on. Your eyes are closed and you are very, very relaxed and you are feeling warm and comfortable while lying on top of the bed. Your bed however is before an open window. There is no draft, only the warmth of the sun on your body. Yes, you can feel the warmth of the sun on your face and all over your body. And now a beam of light enters through the window and envelopes the whole of your body. Yes, this appears to be a large single beam of light that engulfs the whole of your body in its rays. It is not a harmful beam of light; on the contrary, it appears warm and gives you a mellow glow all over your body, and a feeling of great security and warmth. Now you find yourself rising from the bed and passing up the beam of light. This event is quite natural and not at all unusual, and you pass along the beam of light and out through the window, up into the sky. You travel through the sky passing stars and planets and continue to travel towards the source of the beam. But you know the source of the beam is the sun, but this in no way seems strange or threatening. On the contrary, you feel quite an excitement, an exhilaration about what it going to happen to you. And now you come closer to the sun, but the sun is not hot. It remains the same warm feeling all of the time. And you now enter the heart of the sun where you continue to have a warm feeling all over your body from the sun. Now you are at the very centre of the sun, and you put your legs astride and your arms up forming a letter X with your legs and arms. Your hands are out-stretched and your fingers are too. You are not in any way straining yourself since this is not an exercise; it is just simply to have your whole body ready to be exposed to the special rays of the sun. The sun is now sending health-giving rays into your body. Yes, your body is being circled and penetrated by special rays of the sun. These rays seem to have a different colour from your surroundings, and this is because of the special property that they have. And the rays circle and penetrate, going in and out of all the different parts of your body. And these rays are supplying lots and lots of energy to your body; yes your body is absorbing energy from these rays. Just like a battery gets recharged and absorbs energy from the sulphuric acid, so you too are absorbing energy from the suns rays. The rays are influencing every cell in your body, a ray is touching every cell in your body, and every cell in your body is being revitalised by the rays of the sun that are passing through it. Yes, you can feel the energy in your body, you can feel yourself becoming revitalised, and you can feel yourself full of energy and vitality. And you are now saying to yourself how wonderful it is to absorb the energy of the sun, the ultimate source of energy for man. How wonderful it is to be able to tap into the sun's energy and bring it into your body, drawing into your body all the energy that it requires, all the energy that it needs. [Keep this up until you feel that your body has sufficient energy - a feeling that is not too difficult to recognise.] Now that you are fully energised, you bring your arms down and pass down the beam of light and return to your bed, feeling full of energy, full of vitality, and with a wonderful

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feeling that you can do anything, that all things are possible, and that nothing will prevent the positive attitude which you now posses.

#16 Pegasus the flying horse In this image you are going to raise your self confidence and your general feeling of well being. Both during this image and when you awaken, you are going to feel good and going to feel elated. Yes, these feelings and others which will grow stronger and stronger as the image progresses will last for many days and into the future. This is because the image is a positive image and your unconscious mind will be able to relate easily and quickly to the image and because of this the benefits which it involves will remain with you today and into the future. You are walking over the hills on your own. It is a warm day but not hot, and the sky is blue with just some white clouds moving across the sky. You have now been walking over the hills for about one hour and are beginning to feel a little tired, but not tired enough to spoil the feeling of freedom. There is no one else and you can see the hills rising and falling before you. Over to one side is a small lake with trees on one side, but the path you are now on veers in the other direction away from the lake into a section of hills with few trees. And now you see in the distance something that looks white but you cannot make it out because it is moving quickly and making dust as it does so. And you realise that whatever it is is coming toward you. And as it does so you can hear the clatter of hooves, like a horse makes when it gallops. And now you can make out that what is coming galloping towards you appears to be a pure white stallion. And you are in no way afraid or even surprised. On the contrary, you are filled with a feeling of great excitement. The stallion now comes to a standstill in front of you. It is like a unicorn with a horn in the centre of its head. It flicks its head and its main waves in the breeze. It is pure white magnificent and so friendly. And you go over to it and pat and stroke its neck, which it clearly likes. And as you do this you see along its side feathers. And you realise that this is no ordinary horse. It has wings and it can fly. And the prospect of climbing on the back of the horse and letting it take you where it will, fills you with excitement. And the animal, which you believe is Pegasus (the flying horse), is friendly and you know that it wants you to climb on its back. And this you now do. You are now on the back of Pegasus and have no difficulty sitting there. In fact, the wings of Pegasus seem to make you more secure than you expected. And now Pegasus goes galloping off. You feel the animal beneath you, and you can hear it galloping and snorting as it gallops. And you are filled with a tremendous feeling of freedom, and a feeling of confidence rises up and fills your whole being, making you feel good. And as Pegasus picks up speed now, you can feel the confidence grow within you. And as the animal goes faster so you can feel the wind on your face and you feel exhilarated and full of confidence. And it feels so good and so secure to be on its back. And now Pegasus' wings open and the animal soars into the sky. And this fills you with a fantastic sense of freedom, and a fantastic feeling of confidence. As you soar into the sky the hills below you get smaller and smaller. Yes, you are leaving the land behind. And just as you are leaving the land behind, so your are leaving behind you all of your insecurities, all of your negative feelings, and all of your worries. All you feel is a sense

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of great joy, a great sense of freedom and a great sense of confidence. Confidence in yourself fare greater than you have ever had before. And as Pegasus moves on through the sky, so these feelings are getting stronger and stronger. It is all so wonderful, so exciting, so basic and so primitive. Yes, the feelings just penetrate deep into the core of your being and make you feel so good. You feel so uplifted, so confident and so positive. [pause] Pegasus now leaves the land behind and is flying over a great expanse of water. But you are secure on its back, feeling confident and so good. All worries, all concerns have receded to insignificance as you soar across the sky on the back of Pegasus. All things of this earth seem now small and insignificant. Yes what you might have thought a major difficulty or a major problem now appears easy and not major. And because things seem easy and of no major difficulty, so you feel free, confident and positive. Pegasus now begins to descend towards a small island which you can see below, and as it does so you are filled with a sense of anticipation because you are not sure of what you will find on the island. Yet as Pegasus descends further you can see a crystal tower, which is glistening in the sun. And Pegasus comes down and comes to rest a few hundred yards from the crystal tower. She clearly intends to go no further and you realise that you must make the journey to the tower on your own. And this you now do. It is not far and you now find yourself at the entrance to the tower. You now enter the tower and before you is a man (or woman), a wise old man (or woman) with a grey beard (or long hair) and a cloak, looking very much like a magician. He (or she) has eyes penetrating yet kind. And he (or she) welcomes you to his (her) home and bids you to climb the stairs with him (her) to the top of the tower. And up you go. Not a word is spoken, but you are filled with a great excitement. And now you enter a room at the top of the tower. The room is shaped like a hexagon, with windows around. One window is open and he (she) takes you across to it. The anticipation and excitement is now growing stronger and stronger and you both stand before the open window looking out on the land below. And the wise old man (woman) now throws into the air something like dust, which glistens in the sun, but completely obstructs your view. But as the dust settles, and the scene begins to clear, what you see before you is yourself in familiar surroundings doing what in the past have lead to anxiety. But now you see yourself full of confidence, doing all the things which in the past have led to anxiety and worry. But no longer is that the case. No before you see yourself as you want to be, you see yourself as you can be, you see yourself as you hope to be. [pause] And because you are confident and positive and feeling good, so even when something goes wrong you approach this too in a positive way. And because you are confident and positive, you feel good and you are so cheerful. And so you see yourself like this and it fills you with a longing to be as you see yourself now. [pause] And now the man (woman) gently says to you: "This is how you will be, this is how you are." This is all that he (she) says, but you believe it absolutely, you believe it with all of your being, and it fills you with joy and confidence. You now leave the glass tower filled with joy and confidence, filled with such confidence in yourself and such confidence in what the future holds. And there waiting for you still is Pegasus. You climb on its back, almost in a dream-like state, filled with the wonder of what has happened and what you feel. And Pegasus soars once again into the sky, flying over lands and mountains returning you to the hills on which you were walking. And Pegasus now lands, you climb from his back and thank her for the journey, and so she

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flies off leaving you with a feeling of joy and confidence, leaving you to stride off on your journey over the hills into a more confident future. #17 Room to everywhere You have a room in the top of your house. It is a most special room which you cherish very much because it is the room which gives you access to everywhere. It gives you access to the past, access to the present and access to the future. You now go up the stairs to the first landing. This landing gives you access to a second set of stairs which takes you to your special room. You are walking along the landing heading to the second set of stairs. And while you are doing this you think to yourself how lucky you are in having such a special room. A room which not only gives you access to the past, access to the present and access to the future, but that it allows you access to any place in the past, any place in the present and any place in the future. It is a room which only you have the key to, and it is a room which only you can enter. And you are filled with a feeling of wonder and excitement as you climb the second set of stairs to your special room. As you approach the top of the stairs, there is a door which you have the only key to. And as you approach the door at the top of the stairs, you are thinking to yourself whether you wish to go to the past, the present or the future. Not only that, you are wondering which person or persons you wish to meet. Because this room has the other special facility that it allows you to meet anyone from the past, anyone from the present and anyone from the future. Yes, anyone you wish to meet you can meet via your special room. You now unlock the door to your special room, you enter and lock the door behind you. You look around at the familiar surroundings. The walls contain books which are very special books. They give you information on individuals you may wish to visit and places you may wish to go. If you consider you can obtain information better by means of a computer terminal that too is provided in the room. If you do not like computer terminals, that does not matter. All information can be obtained either from the books or by telephone. Yes, the telephone in this room is also a special telephone. It links you to anyone you wish to contact. Anyone from the past, the present or the future. You simply have to think about who it is you wish to talk to and all you need to do is pick up the phone and dial zero. This links you with the operator who can connect you to anyone you wish to be connected to. The operator is always there, always ready to connect you. Unlike telephone operators you are used to. This one always answers immediately, always connects you immediately to whoever you wish to speak to. You know this, since you have used the operator before and become quite friendly with them. But there is also another machine in your room, a video phone which is also connected to the same operator. This not only allows you to speak to the operator and the person you wish to communicate with but to see them. You may find this much more acceptable because it allows you to stop the communication if you do not think they are responding appropriately. The room has all furniture to your liking. It has a comfortable seat where you can sit and read and consult the books on your shelves. It has a desk which has a computer terminal on which you can access if you so wish. The telephone is on a small table next to a comfortable chair so that you can make you phone call in comfort. On the same

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table is the video phone. Each are small and take up very little room on the table. The room is warm, comfortable and just to your liking. If you like fires, the room has a fire, if you like another form of heating then the room has this. Yes, everything in this room is just as you wish it to be. The room contains three doors besides the door you entered by. The doors are quite clearly marked. One has "Past" marked on it, another has "Present" marked on it, and a third has "Future" marked on it. And you know that by passing through each door you can enter the past, you can enter the present and you can enter the future. You also know that in each case you can enter any place in the past, any place in the present and any place in the future. Every part of the globe is available to you; every part of the cosmos is available to you; every part of the world of reality, the world of fiction, and the world of imagination is available to you. You know that everything is available to you through this room. You can meet with any individual from the past who have lived, any person in the present and any person from the future. You can meet with fictitious characters from novels, works of great significance or simply individuals from fables and fairy tales. You can meet anyone from the present no matter where in the world they live. You can consult with individuals from the future just as easily as you can from the present. And although you cannot visualise what they look like, or dress like, you still have no difficulty meeting with them when you enter through the door of the future. Today you have come up to your special room to consult with individuals from the past, the present and the future. It is not often you do all three, but today this is what you wish to do. You are wondering whether to move house. Your family has mentioned all sorts of issues, some good and some not so good, and you are quite confused and wonder what is the best thing to do. So you have come to your special room to obtain some help. You sit in a comfortable chair to sit and think. You wonder to yourself who you can contact from the past who will help you in your decision. You think to yourself what it is that is so difficult about this decision. It is the fact that you are not sure of your own intentions, your own emotions in this matter. You have never been to a psychoanalyst, and don't see the point of doing so, but at the same time you realise that your problem at the present is more a psychological one. It is knowing what your true wishes are. You have always heard that Freud [Jung may be your first choice, whoever, it does not matter] was a famous psychoanalyst, so why not consult him. You don't particularly like computers and so you ignore the computer terminal. You decide to ring instead. You move over to the chair next to the telephone. You have no apprehension about this. It is nothing to meet with these people through your room. It is just like talking to them in your living room. You pick up the phone and ring zero for the operator. [Alternatively you use the video phone.] You make pleasantries with the operator, who you have now come to know quite well, and say that you are trying to make a decision but do not know your own intentions, and so wish to consult with Sigmund Freud. You are connected immediately with Sigmund Freud, who asks you what it is you want of him. You explain briefly what it is, and he says to come immediately to his office and discuss the matter. You put down the phone, collect anything you wish, and go through the door marked "Past". On entering through the door there is a staircase down, not too long but takes you down into the past. At the end of the stair case is a door, and you know that once you pass through the door you will immediately be where you wish to be, where it was you are expected to be from your phone call. In this case you know that once you enter the door you will be in the office of Sigmund Freud. He is there waiting for you, expecting you. He greets you and asks you to sit down and tell him what it is that is concerning you. You explain your dilemma, you explain what your concerns are about moving house, you explain all the pressures on you from yourself, your family, and all other individuals and situations. Both of you talk through the situation. You find him most discerning. He seems to ask those questions that make you consider what your true intentions are. And

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as the situation develops, you come to realise exactly what your true intention are. In your discussion with Freud you discovered that one of your worries was money. The new house would involve purchasing new items: new furniture, new curtains, all what makes a home an individuality. You realise you cannot do it all at once, but you would like to make it special if you intend to move. Freud has already indicated that your own intentions are such that you have not ruled out the possibility of moving and so you must deal with all the implications of so doing. After satisfying yourself of Freud's advice, you return to your special room. But you return knowing that you need some financial advice, and that advice can only come from someone in the present. You realise that you need help from a financial expert, but one that you consider that you can understand. You know that Building Societies are specialists in this field. You also know from a friend, that the local manager of the Building Society is extremely helpful even if you have no account with them. So you decide to consult him/her. You phone (or video phone) him/her. There number is immediately at hand. They say come and see me immediately. So you go through the door marked "Present". After entering through the door there is a corridor along which you walk, and at the end of this corridor there is a door, and you know that once you enter through this door you will be in the managers office of the local Building Society. You pass through the door and there waiting for you is the manager. You discuss with him/her your financial situation and your worries. The manager is most sympathetic and understanding, not at all the usual person you have heard of, but then you knew that the person you would be contacting was special, and most sympathetic and understanding. After discussing through your financial situation, and their advice, you come away with a much clearer understanding of your situation, and your return to your special room. After all of this you are still a little apprehensive. What you now wish is to "see" what the future would be if you moved to your new home. You realise that one of your worries is how your children (now grown up with their own families) will see this. You also realise that you are not sure of what the views of your spouse really are. So you decide to enter the third door, marked "Future". But before doing so, you telephone (video phone) both your spouse and your children. The situation is now five year's on. And so, when you contact your spouse, the views they express are what they feel five years on from now. Your children express their views in terms of what they feel and think five years on from now. And so you make your call to see your spouse and your children five years on from now. You do this with the sole intention of asking them how they felt about the move, and what it did for them. You have now made contact, and with prearranged places, you move through the door to meet them. You discuss the situation with them, most especially their views and how the move has affected them. You understand quite clearly what it is that they feel and what it is that makes them happy and unhappy. And hearing them makes the situation so much clearer to you. So you return to your very special room having dealt with your own emotions, having obtained information on the financial implication, and having come to terms with the implications of the move for your spouse and your children. And so, you sit in your room considering all this information that you have gathered. And far from confusing you, you see things much more clearly now and much more honestly. So sitting in the security of your special room, you soon come to realise exactly what you must do, what is right for you and right for the situation that you are in right now. #18 Disappearing You awaken from a sound sleep, You are in bed and very comfortable. But you now feel yourself becoming smaller and smaller. You are shrinking, first to four feet, then to three feet, two feet … The bed now appears tremendously large and looks the size of a football

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pitch. And you continue to get smaller. Now you are only one foot tall and becoming smaller still. And you are not, in any way, worried about this sensation or any other sensations that you may have. You will be taking a very detached interest in the whole thing. And now you are continuing to get smaller and smaller. You are now so small, smaller than an ant, so that you can move around in the fibres of the pillow or sheets. Yes, you are so small that you can crawl around the fibres, which look like giant stalks. [Pause to let the client really feel this experience]. And you are continuing to get smaller. You are smaller than a molecule and in fact so small that you can pass in and out of the fibres. And you now vanish altogether! #19 Blue revolving crystal You are on a spaceship that is on its way to a planet where you are going to be helped into going even deeper more relaxing state, and in which you will be more responsive to the suggestions which you give yourself. The spaceship has been travelling at warp speed and is in the outer galaxy where your planet is located. And now you have arrived at the planet and will be soon beamed down to its surface on your own. And the thought of all this fills you with excitement and anticipation. And now you have been beamed down to the surface of the planet. It is warm and inviting and you feel quite excited about what is about to happen. There is no worry, no concern, just a feeling that something quite exciting and most rewarding are about to happen. But now you are there you are wondering which way you should go. And as you survey your surroundings you hear a gentle humming sound. At first you have no idea where it is coming from, but very soon you see a small flicker in the sky and something coming towards you. At the moment you cannot make it out. But as it comes towards you the humming gets louder and as it comes closer all you see is a blue glow in the air. You realize that whatever is making this humming sound is coming from this blue glow which is approaching you now much more closely. And the blue glow now becomes clear as it comes to rest just in front of your face. It is a small blue crystal about the size of a fist. And the crystal is spinning in front of your face, and it is making a gentle humming sound that is most pleasant. Even your sense of smell appears to become more acute. And as you look at the blue crystal spinning before you, and hear the crystal spinning before you, you know that you are going deeper and deeper and becoming more and more responsive to your suggestions. But you also know, by some form of telepathy, that the crystal is just a messenger and that you are to follow the crystal. And so the crystal moves off and you follow it. And soon it takes you to an entrance with a passage leading into a vast building. And you enter the building with no worry. On the contrary, you know without any doubt that this is why you are here. You now come to a junction, a T-junction. The crystal stops at the junction and you stop before it. And the crystal is joined by two other crystals. These too are blue. And the three crystals now are spinning and the humming is even louder and you are going deeper and becoming more responsive still. But you know this is only the beginning. And now the crystals move to the right and you follow them, you know you must follow them you must become even more relaxed and even more responsive to

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your suggestions. And now the spinning crystals come to another junction and are joined by yet more crystals, making the spinning shape in front of you bigger. And as if grows, as the humming gets louder and louder, so you know with more and more certainty that you are becoming even more relaxed, even more responsive to the suggestions which you are about to give yourself. But the spinning crystals move on. And now they settle in front of a large closed doorway. They are spinning and humming before the door. And you feel with a great sense of excitement and anticipation that inside is something quite unique, quite wonderful. And now the crystals begin to glow a stronger blue, they spin faster and the humming rises in volume but is not piercing. And the result of this is to open the doors. The doors now open and the crystals move in and you just know that you are expected to follow. And when you enter you see before you a vast blue crystal, spinning and humming. And you know without any doubt that this is the master crystal, the crystal controlling all other crystals, including the ones that brought you. And as you look at the large blue crystal, which is humming and spinning, you know without any doubt whatsoever that a deep relaxed state is within your grasp, within your capabilities and that your suggestions will be acted on as never before. That following your suggestion now and in the future is going to be so easy, so delightfully easy. And this feeling this realization is growing stronger and stronger, more and more certain as you look at the spinning master crystal and hear it humming. And all these feelings are growing more and more intense, and are being more and more strongly felt. And now the master crystal moves across the room to engulf you. It appears transparent, and engulfs you completely. And the power of the master crystal, a power that is so strong and so intense that you know you just want to carry out that which it reveals, and what it reveals is penetrating your very being and you just know that you will carry out what is expected of you. [Here be very explicit about what you want, and what is expected of you.] And now you come out of the building and return to the place where you landed, having been directed by a spinning blue crystal. And in your own time you return to the spaceship and go to bed where you sleep, a deep sleep, a sleep where the experiences you have had sink deep into your unconscious mind. #20 The crusader Picture yourself being at the time of the crusades, and that you are a Knights Templar. You are now putting on your armour. First you put on your under garments, then you put on the chain mail. The chain mail is intricate but not heavy, covering all your chest and arms. Next you put on your armour plating. Covering your legs, your chest and your arms. Your armour is strong but light. And on the front, on the chest plate, there is a white cross, the cross of all the crusaders. Next you put on your helmet. Yes, your helmet covers your head to protect it, and it has a white plumage coming from the top, a sign that you are a Knights Templar. Finally you put on your gloves and your sword around your waist. Your horse, which has already been saddled, is a pure white stallion, a magnificent animal that has been your companion throughout all your battles. A steed that knows your every wish, your every intent, your every need in battle. And now you mount your horse and ride forth to make battle. Riding proud and fearless, confident in your ability in battle, confident in your destiny to win every battle that you engage in. And today you know that

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you are to engage in a battle with a single opponent who is waiting at the bridge over the nearby river. You now make your way to the river and to the bridge. You are now at the bridge and you can see your opponent the other side of the bridge, a knight, a black knight, with black armour, a black plumage on his helmet and a black stallion. The only colour to break the blackness is the emblem on his chest, which is a thorn in red. And you face each other ready to do battle, ready to fight for that which is yours, ready to fight for that which has been denied you, but which is yours by right. And you are confident in your ability to do battle with the black knight. Never before have you lost a battle, and you are completely confident in your ability now to overcome the black knight. It is your destiny to kill the black knight, and to rid the land of him forever: to rid the land of the thorn. The battle now begins, and you fight with all the might of the right, all the might of the good, all the might of someone fighting for what is theirs by right. And your power and strength overcomes the black knight. [Elaborate on this if necessary according to your difficulty.] The black knight is killed, and lies before you on the bridge. And you are filled with satisfaction. Satisfaction not for having killed someone, but for having removed the thorn from the land, having removed the object that has stopped you from having that which is rightly yours. And for this reason, and this reason only, you are filled with joy and with satisfaction. [The next paragraph would need to be adapted according to what the client considers has been a thorn in his/her side, a difficulty that needs to be overcome. Here I am assuming it is difficulty in concentrating and paying attention to things. But it can be virtually anything.] And now a strong wave of emotion comes over you. Having killed the black knight, having removed the thorn, you realise that the black knight was all along what had prevented you from concentrating, that had prevented you from paying attention to things, and that had led to you being constantly distracted. You realise too that you needed to cross the river if you were ever going to succeed in the future, if you were ever going to progress on your journey in life. And, finally, you realise very strongly that the bridge was the only crossing point. That it was necessary for you to face the black knight and to kill him. And all this you realise in an instant, realise with such a power and such an emotion. But having killed the black knight the emotion is one of relief, of liberation, of freedom. Freedom from the thorn of the past, freedom to go on to concentrate on things as needs to be done, and as can be done. Freedom to be able to pay attention to things, as they need to be paid attention to, without your thoughts wondering off; without you being constantly distracted. And with this realisation, and this feeling of joy and freedom, you ride off on the other side of the river; ride off to your destiny, to that which is rightly yours. #21 Under the sun and moon (Adapted from W.S. Kroger and W.D. William, Hypnosis and Behavior Modification) You are now in a forest in which you are making your way to a mineral spring, a familiar mineral spring which you have been to many times before. You are sweating from the hard work of making your way through the forest. You have to cut through all the heavy undergrowth with a large machete. But soon you arrive at the mineral spring. The day is very warm but not too hot. There is a waterfall supplying the spring with water, and on the banks there are beautiful plants and flowers. You are alone at the spring, and you know that no one will disturb you. You take off your clothes and go for a swim. The water is very soothing and relaxing. You can feel the water over all of your body. And because this is a mineral spring, you can feel the minerals entering your body, entering

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the pours of your skin, relaxing all of your muscles. You are simply letting the water go over all of your body, washing away the sweat and at the same time cleansing all of your body. You can feel the minerals entering your body, giving you a feeling of relaxation.

You are now getting out of the mineral spring, feeling very relaxed and just wanting to lie down in the warm sun. And so you lie down in the warm sun, the warm rays shining on your body and mixing with the globules of mineral water, relaxing you still further and sending you into a beautiful deep relaxed state, a dreamlike state where your mind is wondering and drifting. And all of the time you are becoming more and more relaxed, and more and more calm, more and more free from tension, and more and more free from the worries of the day. Everything is utterly peaceful and tranquil. The sky is blue, you can hear the birds in the background, the rays of the sun are warming your body and you feel at peace with the world. As you lay there looking up at the sky feeling utterly relaxed with not a care in the world, so you begin to notice that the sun is going down. But you are so relaxed, so peaceful, that you do not wish to move from where you are. And even as the sun begins to slip down it is still warm and you do not mind in the least remaining there lying naked. And the day turns into night, but you are so relaxed and so warm that you do not want to move. You see the moon rise in the sky and the stars begin to shine. It is now all very quiet and you are drifting into an even more relaxed and dreamlike state. Nothing is worrying you. All is so peaceful that you find it easier and easier to sink deeper and deeper. You have no desire to move, you are enjoying looking up at the sky and sinking deeper and deeper. And now the moon begins to wane and the morning light begins to show itself. The sky begins to brighten as the first rays of the sun begin to show themselves. It is such a beautiful morning. The birds are now beginning to sing and the temperature begins to rise as the sun gets higher and higher in the sky. And still you lie there totally unconcerned about anything except the feeling of relaxation and calmness. You lie there in utter peace and tranquillity. Yet you notice that the day seems to be very short. This in no way disturbs you, and you simply note it as a fact. The sun already has begun to sink below the horizon and the moon and stars are beginning to show themselves in the night sky. And as the day turns into night so you are becoming even more relaxed and even more calm. In fact, with each day and night that passes you become even more relaxed and even more calm. And now the night passes very quickly also and you very soon see the first rays of the morning sun. And the day moves very quickly, the sun rising and falling. And night goes very quickly as you see the moon move quickly across the sky. You are lying there observing each day and each night pass in quick succession. And as each day passes so you become even more relaxed and even more calm, and as each night passes so you become even more relaxed and even more calm. With each passing of the day and with each passing of the night you find it easier and easier to become even more relaxed and even more calm.

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#22 Protective oil against adverse criticism [This image is with protective oils. It can readily be replaced with a bubble bath, in which the bubble liquid replaces the aromatic oils.] You are undressing in order to have a massage, and this massage is with aromatic oils. But these oils are very special oils. Even so, like all massage oils, they will be gently rubbed into your skin. But this is no simple massage in which just the back or the neck is massaged. No, on the contrary, this is a full body massage. And the aromatic oils will be massaged into every part of your body. And the special nature of these oils is that they protect you from adverse criticism. Yes, just like oil protects against water, since oil and water cannot mix, so these oils will protect you against adverse criticism, since these oils and adverse criticism just do not mix. The oils prevent any adverse criticism penetrating your body, penetrating your mind, penetrating your consciousness, and even prevents any adverse criticism penetrating your unconscious mind. And now the oils are being massaged into your body. The masseur begins with the feet, rubbing the oils between your toes and over the ball of the foot and over the ankles. The oil is now being rubbed over the legs: the calf muscles, the knee and the thigh. Both the front and the back of the legs are being covered with the oil, every part of the legs are being covered by the oil. Your stomach is now being rubbed with the oil, your chest and your arms. Yes, all the front of your body is being rubbed by the protective oil. And now you turn over, and the back is being massaged by the oils. Yes, your whole body is being covered by this special oil, this special aromatic oil, which is going to protect you from adverse criticism. And you are now covered with this protective oil, from the tips of your toes to the top of your head. You now meet with someone who begins to criticise you, someone you know who often does this but who does not seem to realise how upsetting it has been in the past to you. But now, you find that the criticism seems to just bounce off the skin. It is as if you can 'see' the criticism like a beam, but that the beam cannot get past the protective oils in your skin and so is reflected. Yes, the criticism is simply reflected from your body and does not enter your body, does not enter your mind, does not enter your consciousness and does not enter your unconscious mind. And this makes you feel good, makes you feel confident, makes you feel that you can now cope with any adverse criticism and with other people's negative criticism. You are aware that the people you know and the people you meet are generally negative and that they emanate negative criticism, not just of you and your views, attitudes, etc, but of everyone else's too. Yes, they are generally negative and destructive individuals. And they are not unusual in this respect. You have already found in life that many individuals are negative and destructive in their criticism. But now you find that the oils have given you a permanent protection against such negative criticism, such negative thoughts. Yes, all such negativity is simply bounced back, and does not penetrate any part of your body, any part of your consciousness, or any part of the unconscious mind. So powerful is the oil that no negative comment, no matter how small or how large, can penetrate the protective film that now covers you.

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And this makes you feel good, feel confident, feel positive. Yes, most of all it makes you feel positive. #23 Walking along a beam of light into the setting sun You are walking along the beach on your own, there is no one else, just you on a great stretch of beach. It is late afternoon in July and the sun is warm but not hot, and there is a nice cool breeze coming off the water, and you can even smell the salt from the sea in the breeze. The sun is a golden yellow casting brilliant glows onto the surface of the water, and the surface of the water is glistening in the sun. The sand is white from the suns rays and you can feel the sand beneath your feet. And close by there is a rock on which you can sit and you go over to the rock and sit on it. You can see the sea and the beach from the rock, and yet the rock is sufficiently close to the sea that it sends up sprays below. And you are now sitting on the rock looking out to sea. You can hear and feel the waves lapping against the rock, and you can even taste the salt water in the air as it becomes saturated with the spray.

And you are now looking along the beach and can see the waves coming up the beach one after the other. Yes, you can see the waves and hear the water as it laps in a typical rhythmic movement up and down. And as the water moves back so you become more relaxed, yes with each flow of the water back you become more and more relaxed. And with each lap of the water up the beach as it comes in so you will respond to your suggestions that much easier. Yes, each time the water comes lapping up the beach you will respond to your suggestions that much easier. And so you will be becoming more relaxed as the water laps down and finding it easier to follow your suggestions as the water comes up the beach. And you can see the waves coming up the beach and down again, and you can hear the water as it rolls up the beach and then rolls down again. [Pause] And now you look out towards the horizon. The sun is beginning to set. The sun is just approaching the horizon, big and golden yellow, and yet not harmful on the eyes to look at it. And the sun is sending beams of light across the surface of the water. Beams of light in all directions. And one of those beams of light comes right in your direction. This beam of light is so enticing, so appealing. The sun is so appealing. All you wish to do is walk across the beam of light to the sun. And now the sun is beginning to dip down just a little below the horizon. The perfect circular shape of the sun is beginning to be cut off at the bottom as the sun dips below the horizon. And you realise that if you are going to cross the beam of light to the sun it will have to be very soon. And this idea does not seem strange to you at all. The beam of light is like a path, a solid path on which you can walk, a path which links you to the sun. And in a moment you are going to step off the rock and make your way along the beam to the sun. And as you do this, as you

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make your way along the beam of light, so you will go even deeper, become even more relaxed, become even more responsive to your suggestions. [Repeat] And now you step off the rock and step onto the beam of light. It is secure and very easy to walk along. You can see the water either side of you and yet the beam of light is quite wide and very secure. And now you make your way along the beam of light towards the sun, and as you do so the sun begins to dip further below the horizon. But this does not worry you. You know that you will have no difficulty reaching the sun, and equally important you do not find it strange that you can approach the sun with no harm to yourself. And so you are making your way to the sun, and it feels good. You can still see the water on either side, you can still hear it. You may even hear seagulls above. And you feel good, you feel confident, you feel as if you are on the path to something new, to something quite exciting, to something quite different, and yet to something that you want. And you will find the scenes easy to follow and the suggestions which you give yourself will go deep into your unconscious mind with no difficulty at all. And so now you are nearly at the point of the sun, and the sun has dipped further down below the horizon. And you know without any doubt whatsoever that once you reach the sun you will be very responsive to your own suggestions. And so now you have reached the sun just as it begins to dip finally below the horizon. And having reached the sun, it is like reaching a goal that you have set yourself. Yes, reaching the sun is like achieving a goal that you have set yourself. And this goal is the most deepest state of relaxation, a state where you are the most responsive to your own suggestions. And having achieved this goal you feel good, you feel very satisfied. Think of some occasion when you wished to do something or accomplish something and you did. And as you think of this, so the same feeling will come over you now - but much stronger, because the sense of achievement, the sense of accomplishment is that much greater. And as you feel these feelings so it will be without any doubt whatsoever. [Pause]. #24 Meeting someone important Before you there is a lake with rowing boats on it. And you are coming up to the quayside where the boats are for hire. You hire a boat and go rowing out on the lake on your own. The sun is warm and the day is bright and clear. And you row out into the centre of the lake. You can see in the distance trees on the shore, some cabins and in the background some mountains rising above the trees and cabins. And the day is calm and tranquil. It is so calm and tranquil that you pull in your oars and just look at the surroundings. There is no one else in sight, you are all alone in this section of the lake which seems quite secluded. You can see the trees on the shore and the mountains in the distance. And it all seems so calm and peaceful. And as you look out to the shore you suddenly realise that the lake seems to be getting bigger and bigger, the trees on the shore seem to be getting smaller and smaller and the mountains behind also seem to be getting smaller and smaller. And as the lake seems to be getting bigger and bigger, you realise that it is not the lake getting bigger and bigger, or the trees or the mountains which are getting smaller and smaller but that you and your boat are getting smaller and smaller. Yes, you and your boat are getting smaller and smaller. And although you and your boat are getting smaller and smaller, this in no way seems to be a problem, it does not seem strange. On the contrary, it seems a most interesting experience. And now you are very small and you and the boat are very small. And a bird comes swooping down. It appears large, but not threatening. And it lands on the water just at the side of your boat. And you climb on the back of the bird. And when you are secure on the back of the bird, the bird takes off and soars into the sky. And as the bird soars into the sky so you feel a tremendous feeling of freedom. Yes, the feeling of freedom as you soar into the sky on the back of the bird is most exciting, most exhilarating. The bird is moving up into the sky, sweeping across mountains and valleys which you see below

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you. And all this feels most releasing. Yes, you feel as if you are released from all of the things of this earth. Nothing is impossible. The feeling of freedom, of being totally unconstrained, is most exciting. And the bird now settles down on the top of a mountain. And you climb off the bird and thank it for its flight to freedom and to a new adventure. And you begin to climb across the mountain. And although you are small that does not worry you. You realise that there is a purpose in this. And at the same time you realise that you have been placed on this mountain in order to meet a certain person. You are not sure where you will meet him (her) or how you will meet him (her), but you know that this is the reason for you being placed on this mountain. And so you go off in search of this person. And while in search of this person you realise that the reason you are searching for him (her) is that he (she) will [here add something that you want very much and that the person will help you to acquire/achieve etc.] and that this is the reason you are searching him (her) out. You so much want [add the same thing as before] that you wish to search out this person who will aid you in this endeavour. And you see up on the rock above you a small crevice with a light shining through. And you know without any doubt whatsoever that the person you seek is inside this rock, and that the only way in is through this crevice where the light is shining through. And now you know why you shrank in size. Why it was necessary to be as small as you are, because only by being as small as you are could you possible make your way through the crevice. And that is what you now begin doing. You make your way through the crevice and into the interior of the mountain. And now the mountain opens up into a domed cave with all sorts of belongings scattered around. And you know that you have come on the very place where the person you seek lives. And just as you are looking around the cavern, the man (woman) you seek comes through a sort of doorway. He (she) is small just like you. And once again you see, you feel, you know why it was necessary to shrink in size. And the man (woman) asks you to sit in front of the green crystal which is in the centre of the cave. It is glowing, pulsating with a green glow. And so you sit in front of the green crystal and look into its centre. And the man (woman) begins to make sounds which you have never heard before. Sounds which seem to penetrate your very being. Sounds so pleasant and so wonderful, so eerie and so possessing that they send you on a wave of emotion stronger than you have felt for a long time. And this emotion is one of utter confidence in him (her), utter belief in what he (she) has to say. And although you know this is so, you also know that he (she) has not uttered a word, all he has done is made these sounds which seem to penetrate to the core of your being. And he (she) says to you that from now on you will [repeat again the suggestions above], and that from now on you will be able to respond to all your suggestions as never before. And this knowledge, this belief, this realisation, this utter truth will enter so deep into your unconscious mind that it will be acted upon without you even being aware of it. Yes, what he (she) now says to you will enter so deep into your unconscious mind that it will be acted upon without question. And to ensure this is the case he (she) will in a moment take from around his (her) neck a medallion which he (she) will hold above his (her) head. And when he (she) holds it above his (her) head the rays from the sun outside will hit it and send a beam of light into the green crystal which you are now looking at. And once the beam of light hits the green crystal the crystal will send a green beam of light into your head, into your thoughts into your mind, deep into your

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unconscious such that you will know that you will from now on do [repeat again the suggestions above]. And now he (she) holds up the medallion above his (her) head and the beam of light hits it and enters your head. [Pause...] And because this is what you want, you are filled with a warm glow, a feeling of great peace and calm, a feeling that everything is now possible. And so the light fades, you know that it is all over, that you have what you want. You thank the man (woman) and make your way out of the cave and to the mountain top. The bird returns, and you climb on its back and you are returned to the boat. You climb on the boat, you and the boat return to your normal size very quickly. [Pause]. And you now return to shore in the knowledge that something quite unique, quite wonderful has happened to you. #25 Triangle of security You see before you a large triangle drawn on an A4 sheet of paper. It is an equilateral triangle and on the three sides you can see quite clearly the three words:

And as you look at the triangle so these feelings begin to fill your mind. You begin to feel confident, you begin to feel secure, and you begin to feel very positive. And these feelings of confidence, of security and positiveness are getting stronger and stronger as you look at the triangle. You have a strong sense of confidence in your future, a strong sense of security about your future and a strong positive attitude about your future. And these feelings appear to be getting stronger and stronger as you look longer and longer at the triangle. And as you now look into the centre of the triangle you see yourself doing something with great confidence, something which in the past you have wanted to do but for some reason have failed to do. But now you see yourself doing this thing, and doing it with great confidence. And this fills you with a sense of achievement, a sense of joy, a sense of being in control. Now the image changes into a second image in which you are doing something secure in the knowledge that what you are doing is the right thing, secure in your ability to do what has to be done, secure in your feelings towards what needs to be done. And the very thing you are doing makes you even more secure, secure about yourself, secure about your future. You feel so secure that nothing can penetrate this security unless you want it to; yes, you are now feeling so secure in yourself, that nothing can penetrate the security unless you want it to.

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The image in the centre of the triangle changes again and this time you see yourself doing something with such a positive attitude. You are positive, confident and secure. Not an ounce, not a whisper of negativity enters your thinking, enters your behaviour. No, you can see yourself doing this thing with such a positive attitude. An attitude that feels as if you have had it for all of your life. A positive feeling that nothing is beyond your capabilities. This third image now clears and you suddenly find yourself in the centre of the triangle. You feel the power of the triangle filling your very being. Yes, you feel the confidence, the security and the positiveness filling your very being. In the security of the triangle, where no outside forces can enter you are being filled only with the forces of confidence, of security and positiveness. Yes, you feel these forces coming from all the sides of the triangle, entering your body, entering your thoughts and entering your mind. And their influence is very great, all powerful. You feel yourself almost bursting with the power of confidence, with the power of security and with the power of positiveness. It is as if each force is sending a straight beam of power and they all cross in the centre of the triangle, exactly where you are and come together with a force which is greater than each combined. Yes, it is as if each is enhancing the power of the others as they coalesce in your body, in your mind. Never before have you felt so confident, so secure and so positive as you do now. And these feelings, you know, are going to remain with you. #26 Tree of life and the fountain of knowledge In a beautiful garden, which you may wish to think of as the garden of paradise, there is a magnificent tree, which is the Tree of Life. A tree which has been constantly developing and changing, rising up towards the heavens. It’s trunk is strong, it has a well developed root system in the ground, and its branches rise out from the trunk allowing the sun on all of its leaves. This Tree of Life connects all that is below the ground, all that is on the ground and all that is in the heavens above. It is the essence of life and regeneration. The rain supplies it water which it takes in through the leaves, the trunk and the roots. The suns rays give it vital energy which it photosynthesises through its leaves. And from mother earth the tree takes in nutrients through its roots. At the base of this Tree of Life is a spring, the Fountain of Knowledge. The spring brings forth pure clear fresh water, the life force of all living things. All living things require water. And as the water constantly flows from the Fountain of Knowledge so it is constantly changing. Now this spring flows from the ‘Marshes of Memory’, and it is through memory that the fountain gains its knowledge.

So you stand there looking at the Tree of Life and the Fountain of Knowledge, contemplating its beauty and its magnificence. You realise that you are in this garden alone, thinking how nice it would be to take of the waters of the Fountain of Knowledge. There is nothing forbidding you to take of the water. Far from it, you suddenly realise

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that the very reason you are here in the garden is that you can take of its spring water: of the Fountain of Knowledge. You realise to take of the waters which comes from the ‘Marshes of Memory’ will increase your memory, increase your concentration and will help you to focus much more sharply. That the waters of the Fountain of Knowledge will help you to understand things in a clearer and easier way than ever before. You suddenly realise that you crave for the knowledge, crave for the waters of the spring, and want desperately to increase your knowledge. And so you go to the spring and partake of the waters of the Fountain of Knowledge. The water is cold and clear, fresh and sparkling. You can feel it in your mouth and going down into your stomach. You are not sure you will feel any different, and at the moment you do not seem to be. But as you look at the Tree of Life, you suddenly realise that you see it more sharply, much more in focus. You see its vibrancy and colours far sharper than before. In fact, the tree seems to be sharper and clearer in every way. Its almost as if you can see each and every leaf on the tree; each and every markings on the bark, and each and every twist of the branches. As you look around the garden you now notice how clearer the colours are of the flowers, and how full of life and energy they all appear. Even the sky seems bluer to you. Everything seems to have taken on a sharpness and vibrancy which makes them so much clearer. And all life in the garden seems to be connected, all the flowers and the trees, the grass and the earth seems to have its place. Even the birds flying above and the breeze and clouds have a place which all seems so right and proper to you. It’s as if you have some divine knowledge of the purpose of life. And you feel so go. You feel at last that all knowledge is yours now that you have taken of the Fountain of Knowledge. Even more, you know that when you leave the garden this knowledge will go with you. This knowledge is now a part of you, enabling you to remember, enabling you to concentrate, enabling you to focus, enabling you to see things so much more clearly than ever before. Understanding will come so much easier from now on; will come so much more quickly from now on. The waters of the Fountain of Knowledge which came from the ‘Marshes of Memory’ will for ever flow in your veins. #27 The Pyramid (Source: D.C. Hammond (ed). Handbook of Hypnotic Suggestions and Metaphors.) You are back in ancient Egypt, standing in the desert before the great pyramid of Cheops, the largest of the pyramids at the site of the sphinx. The pyramid has steps leading up to the entrance, and the entrance itself is a steep passage with steps that take you into the heart of the pyramid. The passageway is well lit and as you pass deeper and deeper into the heart of the pyramid, so you have a greater and greater sense of confidence and security. You follow the passageway that takes you deeper and deeper into the heart of the pyramid. At the end of the passage is a large vaulted chamber, and in this chamber is a whole collection of treasures: treasures of all design and description. This is the storehouse of all your vast untapped resources, all the potential of excellence and achievement, which you have not yet turned to your advantage. All of this treasure is rightfully yours, since it has been stolen from you by circumstances. But you must take the treasure back with you into the world outside if you are going to enjoy it and share it with others. You begin to gather up some of this treasure, the treasure that is rightfully yours. But you find you cannot. Some force is preventing you from doing so, a force that is coming from a huge statue in the centre of the chamber. This statue, powered by a brilliant

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jewel that is embedded in the centre of its forehead, is the embodiment of all your negative forces of failure and defeat. It has been placed in the chamber as the guardian of the treasure, making all other guardians unnecessary. To free this vast storehouse of your potential so that you can become the person you desire to be, you must first overcome the negative tendencies, the forces of failure and defeat which are within you and which are personified in the large black statue in the centre of the chamber. You take a jewelled curved knife from amongst the treasures and go over to the statue. You use the knife and prize out the jewel from the statue, and hold the jewel in your hand. But now the jewel’s lustre begins to fade as you look at it in your hand, it begins to look dark and crinkled like a piece of coal. But the coal has little substance, and you squeeze and crush the coal in your hand, and it disintegrates to a dust. You open your hand and the dust drops to the ground. It is gone; it no longer has any power or influence over you. And to show yourself that the statue has lost its power to guard the treasure and have no power over you, you go to the side of the statue and push at it. You push and topple the statue. The statue falls to the ground and crashes into little pieces. No longer is it the guardian of the treasure. The treasure is now all yours for the taking. You are now free, free to take all that is rightfully yours. You can take up as much of the treasure as you can carry. And while gathering up all of the treasure that you can carry, you feel good, you feel free, you feel in control of your own destiny. And yet you know that you do not have to take all of the treasure at the moment. You need only take what you can carry; what you need at this moment of time. You know that you can return at any time for some more of the treasure, secure in the knowledge that the guardian of the treasure is no more, secure and confident that you can take more treasure in the future. Secure and confident in the knowledge that no matter how much treasure you take from the chamber, there will always be more. The chamber will never be empty of its treasure. The storehouse has an infinite amount of treasure for a whole lifetime. And this treasure is rightfully yours. And so, you only take what you need at this moment of time. And so you now have all of the treasure that you need on this occasion and begin to retrace your steps until you are once again outside of the pyramid. You emerge into the warm sunshine, with a feeling of joy and excitement, and return to the world of your everyday life with the treasures you have gathered. These treasures, which can be anything you want them to be, will reveal themselves in new habits, new ideas, and new directions. They will reveal themselves during the days and weeks to come. On any occasion when you feel a lack of confidence in your ability to do something, think of the pyramid and the treasures it contains. As you do, you will feel a sense of confidence, strength and power surge through you, filling you with the certainty that you are capable of accomplishing the task about which you were doubtful. You will only have to think of the pyramid, and a confidence, strength and power will surge through you, filling you with confidence. The return to the pyramid You’re returning to Egypt to the pyramid containing all your treasure... the treasure that is rightfully yours... You are now standing before the great pyramid... you know it contains a wealth of treasure... and the guardian of the treasure is no more... since you took the jewel from his forehead and toppled him to the ground… So once again you enter the pyramid.... this time you are confidant and secure... secure in the knowledge that you can collect from the chamber in the centre of the pyramid all that you require... You reach the centre chamber... you see on the floor in the centre of

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the pieces of the smashed black statue... and you feel good about that... you feel that nothing can prevent you from taking what is rightfully yours... And so you take up all the treasure you require on this occasion... you return to the light of day joyful and confident... secure in the knowledge that the treasure you have brought back to your everyday life will help you in all sorts of ways... ways that you could not possibly even imagine... but are sure nonetheless... that it will be of tremendous help…

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Chapter 19 Stories

Summary Stories have an impact on the unconscious mind and can often help clients resolve issues that may not appeal in other forms of therapy. Here we present 30 stories, which although classified into groups, can serve many purposes. Stories should be told with passion and emotion and should not be analysed.

CHAPTER 19 STORIES 19.1 The purpose of stories Stories are similar to metaphors, and sometimes it is hard to distinguish between them. In fact, many authors use the terms interchangeably. For this reason some of the stories supplied in this chapter will also occur in the next chapter dealing with metaphors.) A story, like a metaphor, does not require a response. It is designed to initiate unconscious thought processes. Usually a story is longer than a metaphor. Take the following story, which is an adaptation of The Alchemist by Paulo Coelho. [All numbers following the story’s title refer to the story as listed on the web site.] In search of wisdom [Story #10] Sebastian was eighteen years of age and had read many things but wanted to become wise. He had read that the wisest of all men was Kalib, who lived in a far off land. So Sebastian set off to seek out Kalib. As he made treks across the land and sea, he pondered about what he would learn: of all the things he would read, of all the exercises he would have to perform, and of all the lessons he would go to. He was ready to take many years in achieving this wisdom, and was prepared to work hard. He had already prepared himself with reading so many important works. In fact, he had read so much he wondered why he did not already have this wisdom he sought. But he knew deep down that such wisdom had escaped him. After many days and nights and many arduous encounters, Sebastian came across the splendid castle where Kalib lived. Sebastian was expecting to see someone finely dressed in robes of silk and with many attendants. But what he found was a fairly plain old man whose castle was a hustle and bustle of activity. Kalib was in a fairly large chamber, set with a table of delicious foods from many parts of the world. Music was playing, there was dancing and merriment. Kalib himself was conversing with many strangers, and all were eager to learn. Sebastian too was eager to learn the wisdom of the ages, but an attendant told him he had to wait two hours. These two hours seemed the longest two hours of his life. At last Kalib beckoned Sebastian to approach him. Sebastian was all excited and his adrenalin began to flow causing him to sweat and for his heart to pump. “At last,” he thought, “I will learn wisdom from the wisest of men.” Approaching, Sebastian explained that he had come to learn wisdom from the wisest of men. Kalib asked Sebastian what he had already done to achieve the wisdom he sort. Sebastian listed all the books he had read, and all the subjects he had studied. Kalib just laughed.

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“Yes,” he said, “but what have you done to achieve this wisdom?” Sebastian was somewhat confused and didn’t know what to say or do. After a few moments of silence, Kalib said, “I have no time at the moment to teach you wisdom. Go look around my palace and return in two hours time. However, I would like you to do something for me.” Sebastian was both disappointed and excited. Disappointed that Kalib had no time to teach him about wisdom, but excited that he, Sebastian, could do something for the wisest of men. While pondering this, Kalib went on, “I would like you to take this teaspoon, which I am now filling with two drops of oil, and while looking around my castle I would like you not to spill any of the oil.” “What a strange and rather stupid request,” thought Sebastian. But he did what Kalib asked. He went from floor to floor. Certainly it was a splendid castle that Kalib lived in. As Sebastian climbed the many stairs of the castle he kept his eye keenly fixed on the oil so as not to spill it. After two hours he returned and not a drop of oil was spilt. Sebastian was pleased with himself. He had accomplished his task. He had looked around the castle without spilling a drop of oil. On approaching, Kalib asked, “Did you see my magnificent tapestries in the main hall? Did you see the rose garden, which my gardener had taken many years to perfect? Did you see my personal manuscripts in the library?” Sebastian became all embarrassed. He had seen none of these things and had to confess this fact to Kalib. Sebastian’s sole concern had been not to spill the oil that had been entrusted to him. He had been so intent on not spilling the oil that he had missed all these things that Kalib had mentioned. Yet, he had passed through the great hall, he had gone into the garden and he had entered Kalib’s library. “Then go back and see the beauties of my home. You cannot trust a man if you do not know his house. And,” said Kalib, “do not spill any of the oil.” Sebastian was relieved he had been given a second chance, even though he thought the whole thing was a waist of time. He picked up his spoon and went on his way. In the next two hours he looked closely at all the things in Kalib’s castle. He was very attentive this time of the tapestries, of the rose garden and the library. But he made sure too that he noticed so many other things just in case Kalib asked whether he had seen them. On returning Sebastian mentioned all he had seen. He was pleased with himself that he remembered all these things and in such fine detail. “Yes,” said Kalib, “that is most interesting, but what have you done with my two drops of oil?” Sebastian was aghast. He was so attentive to all the fine details that he had forgotten about the oil and had spilled it all somewhere in the castle. “Well there is only one piece of wisdom I can offer you,” said Kalib, “and that is you should see all the marvels of the world but never forget the drops of oil on the spoon.” With that, Kalib dismissed him. So disappointed was Sebastian, not about spilling the oil, but rather about not learning any real wisdom. “What a waste of time and effort,” he thought. “I never read any new books, I never learned anything from Kalib and I am no wiser now than when I arrived.” Yet he was sure that Kalib was truly a wise man. There must have been some purpose in what he asked him to do. As he

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pondered this, the first important realization began to form in his consciousness. He recalled Kalib laughing when he had listed all the books he had read. At first he thought he was laughing at the types of books he was reading, that they were not quite right. But now he thought that that might not be right. Kalib did ask him what he had done, not what he had read. Sebastian had been so intent on his reading, that he had mistaken knowledge for wisdom. He had intellectualized about many things but not experienced them. He suddenly realised that he had done nothing: he had simply read about things. While pondering about what Kalib had asked him to do, Sebastian recalled one of Aesop’s fables. It was the one about the astronomer. The astronomer had a habit of going out each night to look at the heavens. One night while out in the suburbs looking up at the stars he fell down a manhole. He had hurt himself and was in pain. Reeking with pain, he called out. A passer by heard his call, and looking down the manhole saw the astronomer, who explained what had happened. The passer by replied, “You were so intent on looking up at the stars that you failed to see what was beneath your feet down here on the ground!” There clearly was an important lesson to learn in what Kalib had asked him to do. But he also realized something else. To learn many things you need to do something, you need to experience it in order to fully understand it. Reading about it is just an intellectual exercise. Understanding requires more than intellect. A third important realization formed in his consciousness. “How strange,” he thought, “that so much wisdom could come from such a simple act.” And that was his third realization: that we can learn most from simple things. He recalled reading about meditation and that the first lesson was to think about nothing but a candle flame. He had read this and passed over it. He had not done the exercise because he thought it was trivial. More and more he realized that he had not done anything about what he had read. Many of the things he had read were so simple he ignored them. But now, having tried to concentrate on a candle flame, he realized how difficult it was to do. And it was in the doing that knowledge and understanding was acquired. Sebastian’s spirits lifted as he realized, after all, that he had learned some wisdom from Kalib. He had learned more too. He had learned how to move on in life and acquire even greater wisdom. That he must do and not just simply read. Traditionally stories were passed down by word of mouth. Villages had their storytellers. Often these stories were a way of educating children by sharing the experiences of the characters in the story. But stories are not solely for children. A major use of storytelling is to guide and shape our lives. Many early stories we hear are those from the bible – at least in the West. But this illustrates a point. The stories are particular to the culture because they attempt to guide people to live in that culture. Stories that guide have heroes and heroines, they have mentors, models and heroes and heroines that do kind and heroic deeds – the things that we ourselves would wish to do. Because stories expand the possibilities of what we might imagine ourselves to do, so they expand our actual possibilities. We only do what we perceive it is possible to do. Some people perceive the impossible and do it!

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Stories help us create new realities for ourselves and go beyond reason. They engage our imagination and our emotions. They help us in making ethical choices. Many a story, especially in the bible, is about good and evil. Mr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a case in point. But stories can help explain the haziness of concepts. The story can show how evil can have some good while good can contain elements of evil intent. As we identify with the characters in a story so we begin to image that we may act in that way, that we might act with an evil intent. But then we learn from the story how to suppress this and allow our good nature to dominate. We learn from stories that absolutes do not exist. The point is that a story influences both the right and left hemispheres of the brain. We experience (right brain) and do not simply reason (left brain). We become emotionally involved in a story, which does not happen when we read reasoned logical argument. Consider that you are grieving and not handling your grieving well. Some people grieve for many years over a loved one that they have lost. Sometimes grieving can go on too long and dominates a person’s life, making it empty and without purpose. Logical argument in such circumstances often has no impact. But suppose they hear the following story. Prince Nasime and Princess Jasmine [Story #17] I want to tell you a story about Prince Nasime. He lived in the province of Baghdad where he grew into manhood. He learned to ride and to fight, he learned strength and he learned compassion. And he learned to carry out many princely tasks. It was also here where he fell in love with the Princess Jasmine. One day Princess Jasmine fell ill from a strange affliction. The Wazir was sent for but he could not help. Messages went to all parts of the land for magicians to find a solution to the malady. But they could not find one. One day, with no warning, Princess Jasmine died and Prince Nasime was stricken with grief. His grief was so great that he just locked himself away in the palace. He ate food and slept, although he had no great love of the food he ate and his sleep was constantly troubled. He arose each day with no real zest for the day ahead, and each day began to seem like any other day. There seemed no purpose to his life and he found it difficult to be enthusiastic about anything. His hawks, which he loved so dearly, did not seem to comfort him either. He withdrew from the world and grieved a tremendous grief. But his grief continued for many years. His manhood was slipping away while he grieved over his beloved Jasmine. His wise and trusted Wazir had tried everything in his power to interest the prince in what was going on around him, but to little avail. But the Wazir knew that the grief was eating away at the prince and that if he did not do something soon, the prince would simply sink further into an abyss of grief and torment. But he loved his prince and did not want to see this happen. So he consulted all the wise magicians of Baghdad to see what he could do for his prince. They all came up with the same solution to the princes’ malady. He would have to undertake three arduous quests. The first was to recover the heart contained in the tower of Alkezar. The second was to cross the bridge of darkness that led into the light. The third was to partake of the elixir of remembrance in the well of forgetfulness. But now the Wazir had a problem,

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and that was how to encourage his prince to undertake such arduous journeys and accomplish such arduous tasks. The solution was provided by the oldest and wisest of the magicians, BelShazar. Although the princes’ grief was great he would still listen to the wisdom of his beloved Jasmine. Bel-Shazar would come to the palace with a magic lantern and he promised the Wazir that with this magic lantern he would re-introduce the prince to his beloved Jasmine and that his beloved Jasmine would be the one to tell him to undertake the quests. In fact, the Wazir was given strict instructions not to tell Prince Nasime about the quests, that this is what Princess Jasmine would do. Only in this way would the prince undertake the quests which were necessary. So a meeting between Prince Nasime and Bel-Shazar was arranged, and it was a meeting between only the two of them - even the Wazir was not to be present. Bel-Shazar entered the chamber where the prince was and placed the lantern on a table between the two of them. Prince Nasime was fairly indifferent to the presence of Bel-Shazar although he had some vague notion of why he had come. They made some polite conversation and then BelShazar pointed to the lantern and asked the prince if he minded it being turned on because it revolved and gave off such beautifully coloured lights. The prince had no objection and so Bel-Shazar turned on the lantern. It began to revolve. It was a sort of hexagonal lantern with eight faces to it. Each face had an oval centre from which the many colours emanated, and filled the chamber they were both in with its colours. It was as if the centre of the lantern contained a light and from this light it went out through each of the eight sides where it gave off a different colour. And Bel-Shazar continued to talk to the prince about this and that, nothing of any consequence. And in the process Bel-Shazar would casually comment on the lantern, saying how nice it looked and how appealing the colours were. How the lantern seemed to draw one into it.... And while this was going on Prince Nasime began to look more and more at the lantern.. And Bel-Shazar then continued with comments about how relaxing it was to look at the lantern... and how soothing it was... and how it made one feel as if all one wanted to do was to look at the lights of the lantern.... And that is exactly what Princess Nasime did; he went into a deep and restful trance while looking at the lantern as it revolved. His eyes were open but he was deep in trance... drawn into the centre of the lantern by the coloured lights. As Prince Nasime continued to look into the centre of the lantern Bel-Shazar indicated that the prince would see in the centre of the lantern Princess Jasmine, that he would see her clearly and just as he remembered her.... And after a few moments Bel-Shazar went on... “And Princess Jasmine will ask of you something.” And as Prince Nasime continues to look into the lamp, his beloved Jasmine comes clearly into view. She tells Prince Nasime, she implores him, to undertake a series of three quests. If he does not do these she will forever linger in the netherworld; that if he truly loves her, he will release her… that it is his grief and sorrow which is preventing her from going to her final resting place… Prince Nasime heard all this and was saddened. Princess

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Jasmine continued, “You must undertake three quests, and that although these will be arduous, only by completing them will I be released from the netherworld in which you have placed me with your grief.” Now although Prince Nasime’s grief was great, his love of Princess Jasmine was greater still, so great that he made her the promise she asked: he promised with all his heart to undertake the three quests. Princess Jasmine now explained the three quests. “You must first recover my heart, which is contained in a chamber at the top of a tower. The tower itself is impossible to climb. The second quest is to cross the bridge of darkness and into the light. And finally, you must drink of the well of forgetfulness and drink the elixir of remembrance.” No explanation of these quests was given, no locations or what exactly he should look for. Bel-Shazar switched off the lantern and Prince Nasime awoke from his deep trance state. Although he was aware he had agreed to undertake the three quests, he had little, if no, information to go on. He recounted the quests to Bel-Shazar, but wise as he was, he could not tell him anything more – other than when the time was right he would be aided in his quests.

The first quest: The heart at the top of the tower In the east of the kingdom there was a tall tower, narrow, 100 metres high and which was solid all the way up. At the top of the tower was a single chamber. In the centre of this chamber was the heart of Princess Jasmine. Now how it came to be there was a mystery, and why it was contained in the tower was an even greater mystery. But Princess Jasmine had informed Prince Nasime that her heart needed to be buried along with her; it had to be returned to her resting place along side her body before she could rest in peace. Prince Nasime road off on his pure white stallion taking the road to the east. While on his journey he was constantly thinking about how he could reach the top of the tower. It was clear that there were no steps up, and the tower could not be scaled. The difficulty seemed insurmountable, but that did not deter him, and on he rode. He reached the tower and saw with his own eyes that it was impossible to scale, and there seemed no way up. He sat for two days and two nights thinking about the

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problem but could not find a solution. Then on the third night he had a dream. In this dream he saw a large winged bird on whose back he road. And while still in the dream he pondered where he would find such a bird, the like of which had never been seen before. And the answer was revealed to him in the dream. He was to seek out the wise man of the forest in the area he was in. So on the fourth day he set off into the forest. He was not sure where the wise man was, and so he let go of the rains of his horse and let it take him where it will. Before long he came on a clearing and in this clearing there was a small hut, from which smoke rose through the roof. Prince Nasime got down from his horse and entered the hut, not knowing what to expect. Inside the hut was a small frail man with white hair but shinning eyes: the type of eyes that seemed to see into the soul of a man. Prince Nasime got right to the point. "I need the assistance of a large bird. Do you know of any such bird?" said Prince Nasime. The frail old man simply nodded. "How do I get this bird?" said Prince Nasime. The wise old man looked deep into Prince Nasime’s eyes, and after what appeared to be about five minutes, he said, "The bird comes to feed once a day at dawn. Tomorrow at dawn you must take the food that is over there in the corner, and feed the bird. Only if you allow the bird to take the food from your hand will you be allowed on its back." So at dawn, sitting outside the hut at dawn Prince Nasime waited for the large bird. Soon the sky seemed to go black, and then Prince Nasime saw the bird that was blocking out the rays of the sun as it came swooping down. Not knowing what to expect, and being somewhat afraid of the bird because of its size, he placed food in his outstretched hand. The bird came down, landed a short way away, and then came over. They each looked at the other, and then the bird came and pecked the food from Prince Nasime's hand. Prince Nasime continued to feed the bird until all the food was gone. And then, to Prince Nasime's surprise the bird, as if by some form of telepathy, crouched down in such a manner the Prince Nasime could clime on its back. And this is what he did, holding onto the bird by taking hold of the large stem of one its feathers. The bird flew straight to the tower. Circling it landed on the very top. Prince Nasime could climb down and then into the chamber. This he did, and in the centre of the chamber was the heart of Princess Jasmine. He was suddenly filled with sadness, but this then turned to joy, as he knew he could return the heart to where it belonged. He took the heart and placed it in a pouch he had been carrying just for this purpose. He climbed out of the tower, onto the back of the bird and was returned to the hut in the forest. Prince Nasime thanked the old wise man, who simply smiled and said nothing, and rode off back to Baghdad with the heart. On his return he himself buried the heart next to his beloved Princess Jasmine. The second quest: The bridge of darkness into the light Having buried the heart and said a farewell to his beloved Princess Jasmine, he returned to the magician to find out what he next must do. He knew his second task was the bridge of darkness into the light, but that was all he knew. Unfortunately, Bel-Shazar could not help him. So Prince Nasime set off to search out once more the wise old man in the forest who had led him to the bird. “Surely he would know,” thought the prince.

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He reached the cabin by nightfall and the old man welcomed him, fed him and bade him sleep without any further discussion. Prince Nasime was too tired to object and lay down and fell into a deep sleep. While asleep he began to dream. He dreamt he was entering a cave, and this cave led deep into the earth, and as it led deeper and deeper into the earth it became darker and darker. He became somewhat accustomed to the dark and could just about see his way ahead. The path twisted and turned and in places became quite dangerous. But on he went in his dream. Somehow he knew that he must go on. But then he came on a chasm, a break in the rock formation, which seemed to just give way to an abyss. The abyss was a blackness the like of which he had never seen before, and it seemed to stretch in both directions as far as the eye could see. On the other side, however, he could see the light penetrating through an opening. He knew that if he was ever going to see the light of day he would have to cross this abyss, but he did not know how. And in his dream a voice called out, a voice that sounded just like his beloved Jasmine, and it said “Look for the bridge of darkness and this will take you into the light.” He then awoke and found that it was morning. Prince Nasime realised that the dream was important and that it gave him some information on the bridge of darkness. But what it did not give him was the location of the cave. He asked the wise old man if he knew of the whereabouts of the cave, but he did not. But he could help him locate it. He sat the prince at a table and in the centre of the table he placed a large green crystal. He asked Prince Nasime to look deep into the crystal and if he concentrated hard enough the location would be revealed to him. So Prince Nasime looked deep into the green crystal, and very soon a picture formed. He recognised the area, it was to the west of Baghdad, and he had gone there many times to fly his hawks. He was surprised he had not recognised the cave since he had seen it on a number of occasions in the past. He thanked the old wise man and set off once more. He had no difficulty finding the cave because he knew of it from flying his hawks. He entered the cave and was surprised to find that it led into a passage that led deep into the earth. It was dark, but his eyes became accustomed to the dark, and soon he had little difficulty following the passage deep into the earth. It all seemed very familiar, and he realised that his dream had foretold of this quest in fairly accurate detail. This reassured him as he continued deeper and deeper towards the centre of the earth. Soon he came on the abyss, the dark black chasm as far as the eye could see in both directions. There seemed no way to cross. He could see the light on the other side, just as in his dream, but there seemed no way to cross. His dream reassured him that there was a bridge, but he could not see one. The words of Princess Jasmine came back to him, “Look for the bridge of darkness and this will take you into the light.” “But where,” he thought, “is this bridge of darkness?”

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He realised that the bridge if it were dark would simply blend into the blackness of the abyss below. Even so, where was the bridge and how would he find it? He was completely at a loss and he sat there pondering this problem for some time. While sitting there, he noticed a number of rats scurrying to and fro. Not being afraid of rats, he collected up a number and placed them on the edge of the abyss. Quite a few fell into the abyss. He moved along doing this at various points. And then suddenly, some of the rats began to move across the abyss as if walking on emptiness! And he realised that he had found the bridge of darkness. But having found what he thought was the bridge of darkness, he faced a second problem: how to cross the bridge. He could only be partially sure that there was such a bridge, since he could not see it. He placed some more rats in the vicinity just to make sure, and they too scurried across. But still he saw nothing. Truly this was the bridge of darkness. He realised that the only course of action was to step out and take fate in his hands: to take a leap of faith. Not only was he not sure the bridge was there, but even if it was there he was not sure of how wide it was. Nothing of the bridge could he see. But to reach the light he knew that he must step out, that he must make that step and cross the bridge of darkness to the light. And so Prince Nasime stepped out with some trepidation. And as he did so he felt a solid foundation on which he stepped. He could not see it, and was not even sure of its width, but what he was sure of was that a bridge was below his feet. There was a means of reaching the light on the other side. He moved cautiously across and soon reached the other side. He was filled with elation and thanks that he had succeeded, that he had found a way over the bridge of darkness and so he was ready and willing to find the light before him. He moved up towards the light, found his way out of the cavern into the sunlight and was filled with joy and happiness. And the reason he was filled with such joy and happiness was because he realised that he had overcome his own darkness, his own gloom, and his own inner turmoil. He had succeeded in reaching the depths and rising into the light. And so Prince Nasime returned to Baghdad filled with joy once again and ready to undertake his final quest. Third quest: The elixir of remembrance in the well of forgetfulness Prince Nasime sets off on his third and last quest, unsure that how will succeed. If, as was foretold he would forget all, how then would he remember. But a surge of hope rose in his heart as he thought of his beloved Jasmine. He travelled far and soon he water ran out. Thirst was knowing at him and he knew that all would be lost if he did not find water soon. Then he came on an oasis and he knew that water would not be far away. But the oasis appeared not to contain any water. What it did contain was a hole with a passage down into the ground. Nasime was certain that he would find water there. So he let himself down. There was a labyrinthine series of passages, which he blindly took since his thoughts were now fixed on finding water to quench his thirst. At last he came on a well containing water. He was

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not so thirsty that he had put out of his mind the quest and so paid no heed to the though that this might be the well of forgetfulness. And so he drinks his fill from the well feeling refreshed and no long thirsty. But now he wonders why he is at this well; where he had come from; or even where he was going. He could not even remember who he was. Having drunk from the well of forgetfulness he had no recollection of the final quest he was on. Although his beloved Jasmine had told him of the chalice of remembrance, he had no memory of this. He continued through the passages trying to find a way out. He had no memory of coming in and no idea of how, if at all, he could re-trace his steps. He comes on a chamber with a chalice in a crevice. But he pays no heed to it. The elixir of remembrance was as far from his mind as it could be. So on he goes, leaving the chalice in its crevice, not realising he had passed by his salvation. Not far from the chamber containing the chalice was another chamber, which Prince Nasime soon comes across. On entering he is bedazzled by an array of crystals of all colours, shining and glowing. He turns, abut rays from the various crystals sparkle with an almost blinding light. And very soon Nasime falls into a deep trance, a trance similar to the one in which he saw his beloved Jasmine in the centre of the lamp. In fact, he now recalls a woman telling he of the well of forgetfulness and the elixir of remembrance. He could not recall who she was, other than she was very beautiful. He comes out of the trance with just the memory of the lamp and what was said. Since this memory was created down in the labyrinth, then it is not forgotten. What is created in the labyrinth stays in the labyrinth. He was not aware of this, but what mattered was that he recalled what the beautiful woman had said. He also now recalled what she had said about the chalice. He had no problem recalling the chalice he passed a little time ago, and was sure that this contained the elixir of remembrance. So he returns to the chamber, and true enough it contained an elixir. Being so reassured by his vision in the crystal cave, he drinks from the chalice. Memories start to flood back, but what he only later became aware of was that only the good and pleasant memories flooded his consciousness. The good times he spent with Jasmine, their intimate moment, their discussions of what they would do in the future – not just for themselves but for the people of Baghdad. His heart soared and a great burden was lifted from him. He left the labyrinth with joy in his heart and a longing to bury at leas his Jasmine and do for his people what they had talked of doing. And so it came to pass. Now although this was a rather long story, it captures the imagination of the listener, and the listener suffering from excessive grief will identify very much with Prince Nasime. As the listener becomes engrossed in the story, so the conscious faculties get by-passed and their unconscious mind is stimulated into action.

19.2 Stories that empower Films are replete with stories that can be used to give guidance, empower and help in resolving problems. Nor do they have to be long. Suppose a therapist is confronted with a client, we assume a male client, who for some reason has lost confidence because he does not believe he can do what has to be done. Lack of confidence often has its roots in lack of belief.

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Let us further suppose that the therapist knows that the client is a fan of Star Wars. Then the therapist may recount the following short story. Luke Skywalker and Yoda [Story #11] You may recall that in the Return of the Jedi, Luke Skywalker seeks out Yoda, the last of the Jedi Knights, for training. He was expecting someone tall and powerful. He meets a rather small, somewhat obnoxious, being and asks if he knows of a Jedi Knight. At first the small rather insignificant looking being avoids a direct answer, but says he can take Luke to him. Of course, this rather insignificant being was in fact Yoda, the last of the Jedi Knights. And so Luke’s training begins. As part of his training he has to use his mental powers to raise his spaceship, which had sunk in the swamp on his arrival. He tries and he tries but barely manages to budge the spaceship, claiming, “I can’t … it’s too big … it’s impossible.” But then Yoda seats himself down, closes his eyes and proceeds to raise the spaceship from the swamp. Luke in amazement says, “I can’t believe it.” And Yoda responds, “And that’s why you failed.” The occasions when things get very tough we find it difficult to carry on. We are at the end of our tether and are totally deplete of energy. It is in such moments that a short story can help the individual. Take the following short story from Lord of the Rings, The Two Towers (film version). There is some good in this world [Story #6] On the way to Mordor Frodo and Sam get captured by Faramir and taken to Gondor. While there, Gondor comes under attack from Saruman’s forces and Frodo almost gives up the ring to one of the Wring Wraiths, but is saved from doing so by Sam. Sam having saved Frodo is almost killed by him while under the power of the ring. In despair with the burden placed on him, Frodo says, “I can’t do this Sam.” and Sam replies, ‘” know, it’s all wrong. By rights we shouldn’t even be here. But we are.” Sam continues, “It’s like in the great stories, Mr Frodo, the one’s that really matter. Full of darkness and danger they were, and sometimes you didn’t want to know the ending because how can the end be happy? How can the world go back to the way it was with so much bad happened?” “But in the end, it’s only a passing thing. The shadow, even darkness, must pass. A new day will come, and when the sun shines it will shine out the clearer. These were the stories that stay with you. That meant something, even if you were too small to understand why.” “But I think, Mr Frodo, I do understand. I know now. Folk in those stories had lots of chances of turning back, but they didn’t, they kept going, because they were holding onto something.” Frodo, still feeling despair responds, “What are we holding onto, Sam?”

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Sam replies, “There’s some good in this world, Mr Frodo, and it’s worth fighting for.” This is a very empowering little story full of ethical statements and emotion. As delivered in the movie (extended version only) it has even greater force because the despair and the emotion of why we need to keep fighting is done in such a way that it influences both our right brain and our left. We see the despair; we feel for Frodo; we become focused on Sam’s justification for fighting on, which raises our emotions. Many an empowering story comes from people’s lives and how they dealt with problems. The following is a typical story recounted in Napoleon Hill, Think and Grow Rich. Wilshire Book Company. The man who quit too soon [Story #25] There was a man, Darby by name, who was caught up in the “gold fever” in the gold-rush days and went digging. After weeks of labour his efforts were rewarded finding the shining ore. But he needed to bring the ore to the surface and to do that he required money. He carefully covered up his mine and returned to his hometown telling a select few of his “strike”. They got together the money for the machinery and had it shipped to the mine, and Darby went back to work. The first car of ore was mined and shipped to the smelter. He was there informed that he had one of the richest mines in Colorado. A few more cars of ore would clear his debts, and sheer profit to follow. Down went the drills, up went Darby’s hopes, but then the vein disappeared. They had come to the end of the rainbow. They drilled on desperately but to no avail. Finally, they decided to quit. They sold the machinery to a junk man for a few hundred dollars and took the train home. But the junk man called in a mining engineer to look over the mine. The engineer advised that the previous owners failed because they did not take into account the fault line, and that his calculations showed that the vein would be found just three feet from where the Darby’s had stopped drilling! And that is exactly where it was found. The junk man took millions of dollars in ore from the mine simply because he took advice from an expert before giving up. Even so, Darby managed to turn his misfortune into fortune. He never forgot that he lost a fortune because he stopped just three feet from gold. He became one of America’s successful life insurance salesmen. He constantly reminded himself that “I stopped three feet from gold, but I will never stop because men say ‘no’ when I ask them to buy insurance.” Darby converted his “quitability” into “stickability” and made millions. Another similar short story also from Napoleon Hill’s book, is that of Barnes and Edison. Barnes and Edison [Story #26]

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Edwin C Barnes wanted to work with Thomas Edison not for Edison, but two difficulties stood in his way: (1) he did not know Edison, and (2) he could not pay the railroad fare to East Orange, New Jersey. Not put off he eventually presented himself at Edison’s laboratory and announced he had come to go into business with the inventor. He arrived looking like an ordinary tramp, according to Edison, “but there was something in the expression of his face which conveyed the impression that he was determined to get what he had come after... I gave him the opportunity he asked for, because I saw he had made up his mind to stand by until he succeeded”. Months went by and nothing happened to bring Barnes nearer his goal. However, he was constantly intensifying his desire to become the business associate of Edison, and so he remained ever ready when the opportunity arose. Certainly he did not give up. When the opportunity did come it came in a way totally unexpected - which is very common and why many an opportunity is missed. Thomas Edison had just perfected a dictating machine and his sales staff was not overly enthusiastic about it. Basically they thought it could not be sold without great effort. Barnes, however, knew he could sell the dictating machine, and suggested this to Edison. He promptly got his chance. He was so successful at selling the machine that Edison gave him a contract to distribute and market it nation wide. Out of that business association Barnes made himself rich and came into partnership with Edison. This next story (from the film Gladiator) is both empowering and about goals. It illustrates that motivation arises from having clear goals. Although the story is about a gladiator and fighting, the message of the story is clear: it is about becoming motivated. Gladiator [Story #26] Maximus, the most successful Roman general, lost favour with Comodos, who had just killed his father. Comodos had sentenced Maximus to death along with his family, but Maximus managed to escape. Unfortunately he was wounded in the process. On returning to his home, he found his wife and son had been murdered. After burying them he fell exhausted at the graveside. He was found by a slave trader and taken as a slave. Later a gladiatorial trainer, Proximo, bought him. At first Maximus had no purpose to fight; he refused even to take up a sword. He had lost his wife and child; he had lost his reason to live. He had no motivation to fight: no reason to fight. Then one day just before a gladiatorial spectacular Proximo made a speech about dying. Dying, of course happened quite readily to gladiators. Proximo made the point that some did not want to fight, while others did not know how to fight. But they would all inevitably meet their

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death. But his point was that they could choose the manner in which they faced their death: they could face it as men. This was the first thing that Maximus had heard that moved him. So he went out into the arena that day and fought courageously. He chose to die, if that was to be, as a man. He had become motivated because he found a reason to fight: he found a reason to exist. In fact, he now found a reason to get up each morning even if it meant fighting another battle in the arena and dying. But later he became even more motivated. Proximo was one day praising Maximus’ ability as a gladiator, by saying he was good, but not that good. To be the best he had to win the crowd. At first this did not impress Maximus. But Proximo went on that Comodos had reinstated the gladiatorial games in Rome at the famous Coliseum. Maximus’ excitement began to rise. It was Comodos who had arranged his death; it was Comodos who had arranged for the death of his wife and son. Maximus wanted nothing more than to kill Comodos. But to do that he would have to get close to him. He could do this if he became a supreme gladiator. And so he told Proximo that, “I will win the crowd, I will become the greatest gladiator Rome has ever seen.” Maximus now had a goal. He had a clear goal and it was this clear goal that motivated him: that gave everything he now did a purpose. He had a main central goal and that was to kill Comodos. That was all he lived for. But there were many steps in achieving this goal. He had to ensure that he went to Rome and to do that he had to fight some local games with renewed enthusiasm and in such a way as to win the crowd. He had to learn how to win the crowd, so that when he went to Rome he could do it there. And so the film developed. But just think about if for a moment. Maximus needed to be motivated: he needed a reason to do what he wanted to do. But he had to know what he wanted to do. He needed a goal. It was a goal that provided the reason for getting up each morning; it was the goal that made him go into the arena each time; it was the goal that made him fight in the arena each time with conviction and determination. Now although the speech by Proximo gave him an initial motivation, it was the goal of killing Comodos that really galvanised all his thoughts and actions into a single purpose. It gave them meaning and direction. He became fully motivated: fully energised to achieve his goal. And so in life: to be motivated you need to have goals, you need to have clear goals, goals that are important to you. You need to set sub-goals to achieve higher goals. And so on. Maximus had a major goal to kill Comodos. To do this he had a lesser goal to perform in the Coliseum in Rome. But to do this he had yet other more immediate goals: namely, to win the crowd in the outlying areas in which Proximo operated. For a particular performance he had to stay alive and to do that he had to learn his trade. And that is the way of goals. There is a hierarchy in which the minor daily ones achieve some intermediate goals, which in turn achieve some higher or ultimate goal. It is the goals that provide the driving force: the motivation to do what has to be done no matter how mundane or repetitive. It is like the Olympic swimmer whose main goal is a medal (and preferably the gold medal). It is that which motivates him or her to get up early each morning and do many lengths of the pool before most of us are even out of our beds.

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So to become motivated know your goals, think about your goals and clearly set the subgoals to achieve the higher goals, right down to daily goals. Setting goals and achieving goals is the secret to obtaining and having motivation.

19.3 Healing Stories There are many stories about healing, and can be used for a number of purposes. Like many stories they can have more than one purpose. We have already included the story of Prince Nasime and Princess Jasmine, which is a story for handling grief. On the other hand, the next story can be used to deal with anxiety or even anger management. Mr Buttons [Story #3] Mr Buttons, he was named this because he had electronic buttons all over his body. When he came in contact with a particular person the same button would light up and produce a tingling sensation in his body. It was as if that person had pressed this same particular button. It started way back when he was young. The buttons then were small in number, but quite distinct. There was the button that reacted when his mom was taking to him and another when he came in contact with is dad. Sometimes he did not have to be talking to them. Thinking about them was enough to activate the button. As the years went by the buttons increased in number: one for his teacher, another for his young sister and another for his brother. As the years rolled by buttons formed for people way beyond his family. They began to form even for characters and person he would see on TV. Some would activate his buttons so much that his heart pounded. As the years went by and the buttons increased in number, he simply thought that this was normal; that this is how it was meant to be. He did not question it; he simply accepted it. Not that he like the idea of being activated by other people whether he liked it or not; or wanted it. He simply gave it no thought. But the buttons began to annoy him. “Why should I be activated willy-nilly by others?” he thought. “Why can’t I be in control of myself, of my own body, of my own thoughts? Why must I be covered with all these buttons?” As each day passed, Mr Buttons would become even angrier and did not like the idea of the remainder of his days being pushed by this person and that person. But Mr Buttons did not know what to do about it. Since he had not thought about it before, he had not inquired about how he could stop the buttons forming. Of course, now that they had formed, he needed to know how he could prevent them from being activated. There was no manual ‘How to deactivate your buttons’ that he could consult. He read and read, but nothing seemed to help. One day while out strolling in a part of the country he had not been to before, he came across a derelict building. It seemed Romanesque, because there were stones strewn in all directions. As he walked around he came across a section of building that must have been at the main entrance to a building and probably straddled two large pillars. The section was incomplete but there was one element still in tact. In the centre was written the phrase ‘Know Thyself.’ He thought to himself. “Of course, I know myself, what a ridiculous

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statement!” He gave it no more thought and after walking through the remainder of the ruin, went home. That night his sleep was troubled. The statement ‘Know Thyself’ kept rising up in his dreams in all different disguises. It would rise out of the sea; fall from the sky and suddenly come out of the mist. Every way he turned there it was: a neon sign in a shop window; the title of a book; and an advertisement on TV. It was as if he were trapped in a world that knew nothing other than ‘Know Thyself.’ He awoke as if from a nightmare. Yet, it did not feel like a nightmare. He was not sweating, his heart was not beating more than usual and he did not feel anxious. But to his amazement, all the buttons were on! Slowly the truth dawned on him. Of course he did not know himself. How could he? He always responded when his buttons were pressed. He had no control over his buttons. He had no control over himself. As he thought about this and as he thought about his dream, he wondered if he ‘Knew Himself’ would he have control over the buttons? He decided that this was indeed the case and that was what his dream was telling him. But how could he ‘Know Himself’? He had a manual for his car – even a manual for the washing machine – but what he did not have was a manual for himself. Oh, yes, there were books and manuals on the body and the mind, but they did not apply to his buttons. He thought and thought and became quite frustrated in the process. “There must be a way?” he kept saying to himself. As he thought about it he realized that he was over-anxious and that he was pressing for a solution. He was increasing tension in his body. So he decided to relax. He decided to learn to relax thoroughly. Soon he could relax his body. But he knew that he was not just body that he needed to relax his mind also. So he practised this too. As he came to relax his mind so his body would relax that much more. At first he did not find this easy, but he persisted. As the days went by, he noticed something important. He noticed that some of his buttons did not activate so much or with such intensity. Not all, but enough for him to notice the difference. The more he learned to relax the less active the buttons became. “Why is this?” he thought to himself. As the months went by and the buttons responded less, he came to realize that he was not responding to certain individuals in the way he used to. They did not activate his buttons so much as a consequence. As this realization dawned on him, he also realized that the difference was within himself and not in the other person. “That means,” he said to himself, “it must be me who is activating the buttons and not the other person or situation!” The more he though about this, the more certain he became about its truth. “Strange,” he thought, “I always considered that it was the other person who was activating my buttons. I never dreamed for a moment that it was myself.” So Mr Buttons began to monitor his reactions to people and situations. He neither passed judgement nor became annoyed. He merely observed himself. He began to know himself much more as he did this. The more he observed

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his reactions to people and places, the more detached he became. The more detached he became, the less the buttons became active. He did not find this easy, and many times he slipped back into his old ways. But each time he did, he noticed the buttons activating out with his control once again. He was determined to be in control of his buttons. Slowly and steadily through selfobservation and an indifference to outcomes, the buttons became less active and he began to take more and more control of them. Yet Mr Buttons needed more control. He could take non-attachment only so far. But he had come a long way. He had learned to let others be as they wished to be. In doing this he had released himself from their control. He had broken whatever it was that activated his buttons. He had achieved a major control over his buttons. In letting others be what they wished to be, he had gained a freedom that he hardly thought was possible and was glad. He would let the future handle greater freedom from his buttons. The next story can be used for many problems, in particular guilt. The two teddy bears [Story 14] I know a little boy who has many toys. In particular he has two teddy bears: a light brown one and a black one. Now this little boy has a very vivid imagination. He likes his light brown bear but thinks the black one is most unpleasant. This is because he gives each of his teddy bears a personality. He attributes all the nice things to his light brown teddy bear and all the nasty things to his black teddy bear. Sometimes, when his black teddy bear is bad, he hides it so it will not remind him how bad he is. On other times, it’s not that the teddy bear is bad but it just hurts so much. And when his teddy bears are happy the little boy is happy; and when the teddy bears are unhappy, then so too is the little boy. At the moment the black teddy bear hurts a lot and so this little boy has hidden it away so that he will not be reminded. But he cannot throw away his black teddy bear because he has had it a long, long time and he always feels it’s a part of his toy collection. This is why he hides it when it is bad or when it hurts. Now at the moment his black teddy bear hurts a lot and so this little boy has hidden it away and refuses to bring it out. His parents have tried to help and have tried hard to find out where the little boy has hidden his black teddy bear. But he is stubborn and refuses to tell them. He does not want to tell them because he knows he will feel the hurt that his black teddy bear is feeling. And he doesn’t want this. So he does not tell.

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Now a mystical stranger comes to stay at the home of this little boy I know. He watches the boy play with his toys and notices that he talks to he light brown teddy bear. One night he asks the boy about his toys. With glee the boy tells him of his various toys and about this light brown teddy bear. And then, with a sheepish expression and a low voice, he says that he has another, but he has hidden it away. “How exciting,” says the mystical stranger. Now this confuses the boy. How can hiding a toy be so exciting? Anyway, the whole point of him hiding the black teddy bear is that it makes him hurt. So curiously, he asks the mystical stranger what can be so exciting about a hidden toy. “Well,” says the mystical stranger, “we often hide the very things that can do us the most good.” Now the little boy became even more confused. “That’s daft,” he says. “Ah!” says the mystical stranger. “Do you not recall of people in the past hiding their treasure. They hide it so others will not find it. The Pharoes did this in particular. They hid all their treasures in great pyramids and tombs. They even supplied booby traps to stop others from finding the treasure.” “Well, yes,” says the little boy, “but that is treasure. My black teddy bear hurts: it’s not treasure.” But the mystical stranger persists. “That is true, but it is still your treasure: and yours alone.” “Well, yes, I know it’s mine,” says the boy, “but I just hurt when I bring it out. That’s not treasure.” “But,” says the mystical stranger, “treasure comes in many forms. It does not have to be jewels and rubies and precious stones. I am talking about the treasure within.” Now the little boy was becoming even more confused. “I don’t understand,” says the little boy. The mystical stranger begins to explain to the boy that we all possess within us a treasure. Not only is this treasure far superior to jewels and precious stones, but it is often clouded so we cannot recognise it. And because we cannot recognise it we tend to hide it, just as he had done with his black teddy bear. The little boy is curious, but not convinced. “What possibly could this hidden treasure be?” At this point the mystical stranger lowered his voice and whispered in the young boy’s ear, “You must let me help you see this treasure.” “And how can you do that,” replies the boy. The mystical stranger grinned. “That is difficult and I don’t know whether you are up to the task.” “Of course I am,” says the little boy, peeved that the stranger could even think such a thing. “Well,” says the mystical stranger, “the first thing you must do is let go of the past.” “What do you mean, let go of the past?” says the little boy, his curiosity rising. “I don’t mean forget the past, no I mean you must let go of the past experiences that influence the present and future negatively. You must take from the past only what is positive and good. Everything that ever happens to us can have a positive element, even if it is only how we should handle the things that hurt us and not hide them away.” With this remark the little boy was suspicious. He kept thinking that the mystical stranger wants me to tell him where he had hidden the black bear.

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But the mystical stranger went on. “From what in life do you learn the most? When things go well and you are happy or when things go bad and you are hurt? It’s when you hurt that you find out your true worth - your inner treasure. If you hide that hurt you learn nothing. If you face up to that hurt then you will learn your true worth. In some Indian tribes this is well understood. So little boys like your are told to face their enemies in their dreams rather than run away. Turn and face your pursuer in your dreams. Do not hide from your pursuer but face up to it. When you face up to your pursuer they loose their power. They have power over you while you run and hide. When you turn and face them, that power is lost. Do you remember doing something wrong and not admitting it. All sorts of worries and nasty thoughts enter your head. Then you own up to it - you face it head on - and suddenly, it’s power is gone and you wonder why you worried about it so much. “Only when you give up the past in this way can you face it head on and learn from it. Learn how to handle your emotions and the things that hurt you. Life will always have things that hurt us. We cannot hide form every hurt. We would learn nothing and would merely exist. To grow, to mature, to develop we must learn from our hurtful experiences. If we hide them we cannot do this.” “That sounds hard,” says the little boy. “Yes, it is,” says the mystical stranger. “But the more it hurts the more you can learn , and you can only do this if you do not hide the hurt.” The little boy thinks about this but is worried that the hurt is too great and would overwhelm him. He points this out to the mystical stranger. “That is fair,” says the stranger. “So we must do it a little at a time. Just enough that you can handle each bit of hurt released.” “But how can I only let a little hurt out at a time?” says the little boy. First, let it out in your dreams. Release little by little the hurt in your dreams. But know that you can face the little you have released. Face up each night to each little hurt. If you do not face up for some reason, do not let more hurt out, just keep dealing with the bit you have released. And with each little you will eventually release all. But also talk over your hurt with your light grey teddy bear. Ask, demand even, what you can do during the day to release the hurt.” “But is there anything I can do during the day to release the hurt?” asks the young boy. “Yes,” says the mystical stranger. “But this too is not easy.” Now the boy’s appetite was fully wetted and he wondered what possibly the mystical stranger would suggest. The mystical stranger went on, “You recall doing something, like changing the tyre on a bicycle, and you were aware of yourself doing it. You may have not changed a tyre, but you will have done something where you were aware of yourself doing it. It’s as if you were two individuals: the one doing something and the other watching on. Well this is common. We all do it: we dissociate into two. And you too can do this with my help. You can dissociate the part that hurts and the other part. But more than that, we can aid the process and find the treasure within by allowing a dialogue to take place between these two. And because you are totally relaxed while this is going on, the part that hurts can reveal why it hurts. And when you are good and ready, you can

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bring out your black teddy bear from hiding. You can confront it and learn from it. You can gain strength of personality from it. So much so, that you will no longer need to hide it. You will always be able to confront it and learn the treasure which is rightfully yours.” “And when we next meet,” says the mystical stranger to the young boy, “I will explain how you can take the treasure which is rightfully yours.” And with all this the little boy was quite satisfied for the moment. He felt that when he went to bed that night he would sleep deeply and that he was prepared to confront a little of his hurt. He wanted earnestly to seek the true treasure within. A common phobia is the fear of flying. The following story has numerous embedded suggestions to alleviate such a fear. The italic text in the story should be stressed when telling this story. Robin’s kite [Story 15] Robin was now fourteen years of age, but he still had the same hobby that he loved dearly, and that was to fly … his kite. He had flown kites now for so many years he could hardly remember when it started. All he knew was that he loved to fly … his kite. He had had many kites now over the years, and all where a joy to him. He did not know why he so loved to fly … his kit, but what mattered was that he did. When not at school, he would pack his lunch, carefully put his kite on the back of his bike and ride off to the hills. Luckily these were not too far from where Robin lived, and he would be out on the hills within fifteen minutes. He loved it most when it was warm but not too hot and there was a pleasant breeze, since this would allow his kite to fly far and wide. Today was one of those days. He knew it the moment he got up this Saturday. The day was all his to fly his kite to his heart’s content. He had already arranged with his mother about lunch, and she had it ready, knowing how keen he was to fly … his kite. She too was aware that his only passion in life was to fly … his kite. Why he had such a passion she did not know, but was certainly not worried about it. It kept Robin off the streets and allowed him to take in the fresh air. So Robin rushed down his breakfast so he could get away as soon as possible. He packed his lunch and his kite and rode off down the road towards the hills. Already he was excited about the idea of flying … his kite. The sense of freedom and being one with nature gave him such a joy. Robin found his favourite spot. He had been to this particular hill many times and knew that the air currents were just right for flying his kite. He unpacked his lunch and began to prepare his kite. He always took great pains to prepare his kite. Flying his kite required his full attention and preparation, but he enjoyed this too. Such preparations were not a bother to him. They were part

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of the joy of flying … his kite. Not only did he realise that he could not have one without the other, but he enjoyed both. For some kite flyers he knew they only enjoyed the act of flying their kite, but for Robin, all aspects of flying were a joy. And so he took great pains today to prepare his kite for flying. And as he did this, he pondered on why he liked flying … his kite so much. He liked being out on the hills alone with his kite. It gave him a sense of freedom from all the cares and worries of the day. Looking at the sky and the clouds made him feel good, it always gave him a fillip when he saw sunbeams streaming down from behind a cloud. This was especially true when his kite made a silhouette against this backdrop. He liked it most when the wind picked up a little and there was a pull on his string. He knew that was the time to let out more string and allow the kite to fly yet higher and further. But he also knew that when he did this he had to be in control else the string would tangle. He knew he needed to keep calm and relaxed with just the right amount of tension in his hands and arms to control the string on the kite correctly. Too much tension and the kite would not take advantage of the air currents; too little, and the string would likely get entangled. Robin was confident that he could achieve the right amount of tension by not consciously thinking about it. He had learned from bitter experience that the more he thought about how he flew his kite the worse it got. It took him some time to learn to “go with the flow” and allow his unconscious to take control. He had learned that in letting go he achieved control. He had learned that in letting go of conscious control he had achieved unconscious control. And it was also this sense of control and mastery of his kite flying that gave Robin such joy. He had all these thoughts while preparing his kite: and they too made him feel good. He felt good about the day, he felt good about flying … his kite, and he felt good about the control he had mastered. Getting the kite off the ground was always the first thing to overcome. He had overcome this so many times that it was now not a problem to him. He just took it in his stride. Anxiety is one of the major problems a hypnotherapist has to deal with. This next story can be used to help clients deal with their anxiety. The two chests [Story #19]

There was a young man who found two chests. Both chests were locked but they had the key in the lock, so there was no difficulty opening the chests. He was, however, afraid because he was not sure what he would find in the chests. There may be precious stones, but there may also be something quite

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unspeakable. He sat and pondered for a while: saying to himself that he needed to be courageous and to take a risk. So he opened both chests. One chest was totally empty while the other chest was filled with a swirling mist that prevented him from seeing exactly what was inside of the chest. He sat there looking at the chests wondering what to do. It was then that he noticed inscriptions on the inside of the lids of both chests. The chest that was empty had the inscription: “Place within your worries and anxieties and you will be free” The other chest had a different inscription. It said: “Take out all your desires and all your ambitions and they will come to you” He liked the idea of both chests, but sat pondering how he could do what was indicated in the lids. How could he place his worries and anxieties into the empty chest? He was even more perplexed about the second chest, since he could not get hold of desires and ambitions. So how could he possibly take them out of the chest? He then noticed that each lid contained a glass tube shaped like a pipette, with one end very narrow while the other was sealed. “They must have a purpose” he thought to himself; “it is no accident that each chest contains the same unusual glass tube.” He took out the one in the empty chest to examine it. In very faint writing on the side he could just make out the inscription: “Into me and you will be free” He could make no sense of this. So he took out the glass tube in the second chest. Again he found writing very faint on the side of the tube: “Take from me and all will be yours” Confused, yet certain there was something magical about these two chests and the glass tubes contained within the lids. Taking hold of the glass tube from the empty chest, he examined it in great detail. But there was nothing unusual about it other than the writing on the side. He turned it; stroked it and rubbed it in his hands. But nothing. Doubt and uncertainty began to creep in. And while doubting and thinking he put the glass tube to his temple with the narrow end next to his skin. Suddenly a tingling sensation was felt in his temples, there was a rushing sensation as if something was draining from his brain. But he thought he was just making this up. Yet, he felt so much better. He felt positive and carefree. Nothing seemed to bother him. He took a look at the glass tube and there moving within were particles. He was aghast, surprised and curious. All he could think about was that they must have come from his brain, his mind and entered the glass tube when he put it to his temple. Then he remembered the phrase on the glass tube: “Into me and you will be free”. But there was a doubt. Why was the glass tube in the lid of the empty chest? So, holding the glass tube inside the chest, he noticed immediately that the particles came out of the tube and into the chest. Quickly, he placed the empty glass tube into the lid, closed the chest and locked it. This was an instinctive reaction on his part. He was sure he now knew the secrets of the two chests. To test his theory he took the glass tube from the second chest and held it in the box. He was

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correct. Particles started to fill the tube until it was full. He then took the glass tube and held it to his forehead. Once again he felt a tingling and a rush but this time entering his head. He immediately felt positive. He was filled with clear desires and ambitions with little doubt that they could be achieved. He wondered if he could get more out of the chest, so again he placed the glass tube into the chest. But nothing happened. So he placed the glass container into the lid once again, closed and locked the chest. Most of the stories so far deal with problems for older people. But children face many problems and at the same time they relate very well to stories. The next story was developed for an eight-year-old boy who suffered major panic attacks prior to repeated surgery he required for leukaemia. His panic attacks were so great he needed to be held down by a number of nurses and doctors. The story, however, can be used to instill a sense of courage in the face of adversity. Lindon and the dragon [Story #24] I want to tell you a story about Lindon, a young Swedish boy living in a small village with his sister Olga. There were many young children in this village and they were all told of the monstrous dragon that lived in a cave just outside of the village. Everyone was scared of this dragon, even though he had not harmed anyone. Certainly a number of the villages had seen the dragon, which showered flames from its mouth – as dragons do. So Lindon grew up fearing this dragon just because everyone else did. Such fear was all in his imagination. He had not seen the dragon, his fear was based all on the stories the folks in the village had conjured up. Even he had fallen asleep at night fearing all sorts of things the dragon could do to him. One day, Olga said to Lindon, ‘Why are we so afraid of the dragon? He has never hurt anyone in the village. It is just the stories and our imagination that create the fear.’ Olga went further and said to Lindon. ‘Why don’t we go up and see the dragon for ourselves?’ Lindon thought about this, and feeling very courageous than ever before (since he wanted to be this way in front of his sister), he agreed that they should find out for themselves. The next day they decided to go up to where the dragon was located. They decided not to tell their parents because they knew they would not want them to go, and might even stop them going. But they wanted to know for themselves whether their fear was justified. ‘Maybe the dragon was friendly?’ thought Lindon. He wanted to be more of a hero than his sister Olga, and was determined to be very brave. So Lindon and Olga went to seek out the dragon. They passed through the forest and then began to climb through rocks as they continued upwards to where they had been told the dragon’s cave was. They soon came out into a clearing, although on the far side there was an entrance to a large cave. They were sure this was the dragon’s lair. That was very soon

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verified because they heard a deep sound coming from inside the cave. This made them somewhat scared and a little frightened. Olga was most afraid and wanted to return. But Lindon was more brave and ready to overcome his fears and anxieties. ‘Let’s wait behind this bush’ said Lindon, ‘and see what happens.’ They did not have to wait long. Out came the dragon, opening up his big wings, stretching his neck and sending fireballs into the sky. This is what dragons do when they awaken from slumber. The dragon then began to survey the surrounds to his lair. Not soon as he did this, he pointed his head in their direction. To Lindon’s and Olga’s amazement, the dragon began to talk. ‘I see you behind the bushes little ones’ same the dragon. ‘You cannot hide from me because I can see right through things and I see you through the bushes.’ Olga was now whimpering and Lindon’s courage was waning a little. But he thought the dragon did not sound frightening; it simply was that they always assumed dragons were scary, but he did not seem scary at all. ‘You are very brave to come up to my lair. In fact, you are the first to do so. Are you not afraid of me?’ said the dragon. Lindon was now getting over his fear. ‘Yes, well no’ said Lindon, ‘should we be?’ ‘Well dragons are supposed to frighten people, but I don’t like doing that. I’m sad, because no one comes to visit me or to talk to me and I am the last of the dragons.’ Lindon and Olga felt sorry for the dragon. They looked at each other, saying, ‘’Why not let us be the dragon’s friend.’ So they said to the dragon, ‘We shall be your friend, and we will come and visit you frequently and talk with you.’ ‘That would be very nice,’ said the dragon, ‘and if you like I will let you ride on my back.’ Lindon was very excited about that, but Olga declined as she was afraid of heights. The dragon was not put out that Olga did not want to ride on his back, but was delighted Lindon had agreed. ‘No one has ridden on my back since the old days, and they are a very long time ago. Dragons live a very long time, but they do die and I am the last.’ Lindon’s courage was now growing and he was no longer afraid of the dragon. In fact, he felt very calm and relaxed when he was with the dragon. He even wondered why he and other people in the village had been anxious and afraid of the dragon. He put it down to the fact that they had just imagined the worst without having met the dragon. So Olga and Lindon befriended the dragon, and they grew up unafraid and were the only people from the village who made contact with the dragon. Lindon was never afraid of anything anymore. He realised that being afraid was just something we conjure up in our imagination and this was far worse than it really was. And so, Lindon became one of the great heroes of his village. He was not afraid of anything. Although this story has a boy as the main character, it is very easy to switch this to a girl if the client is a young girl. Equally, the story does not have to be for a youngster. The main character can be a grown man or woman where the story is dealing with courage in the face of adversity.

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A major function of hypnotherapy is to bring about change. The next story is one I have used on many problems and numerous occasions. It is very easy to adapt the story for the presenting problem, e.g. weight. The caterpillar who became a butterfly [Story #30] [This famous story/metaphor was originally about a silkworm and comes from St. Teresa of Avila ’s The Interior Castle, Chapter 2 of the Fifth Mansion. It is adapted here to a caterpillar. “She” throughout can readily replace “him”.] There was this caterpillar, a cabbage-leaf caterpillar, which just ate and ate and ate. Each day seemed to be the same. He munched away on his cabbage leaves, working from one leaf to another. The only variety seemed to be which cabbage he ate next. There were some differences depending on whether the day was sunny, whether dull or whether it was raining. And as the days went by this same caterpillar became more and more dissatisfied. “Surely” he kept saying to himself, “there must be more to life than this?” He considered that he wanted to do something different, something exciting, and something that would raise his spirits. “But what?” he thought to himself. So he decided that he needed to give some real thought to this problem. He also realised that he needed to shut himself off from all other influences while this momentous decision was taking place. So he began to spin a cocoon, which totally encased him from outside influences. And while in this cocoon, he began to ponder on what he would like to become and how he might accomplish this. While a caterpillar he crawled along the cabbage leaves slowly and rather clumsily. The only view of the world was the leaf and the ground below. “How nice” he thought, “it would be to fly above the ground and see all that was below.” So he decided that he would become a butterfly. He had seen a number of these land on the cabbage leaf, and he had thought how wonderful they looked, and what an exciting life they must lead. But to become a butterfly he had to change. He had to change quite dramatically and had to shed all his past form. Yes, if he were to grow wings, he needed to change, and to change quite dramatically. And so while in this cocoon, and safe from all outside influences, he began his change: his metamorphosis. As the days went by he could feel the changes taking place. He was not yet sure what shape they would take, but he was sure that something was happening, something important. And he was glad about this. He was satisfied with his accomplishments in carrying out the changes that he so wanted. He began to work on the small things at first. Changing this small part of him and then another. Reducing the number of legs he had, which he never liked anyway. Changing the shape of his body. Then he decided to start the change that allowed him to grow wings. This took some time, and was quite a new experience for him. He had to change the part of his body where the wings would grow from. He had to decide the shape and span of these new strange things. But all this he accomplished. Then he had to change his head and the over-all weight distribution of his body so that he could fly. And all this he did with great enthusiasm and great joy. Confident that all this change was under his direct control and within the confines of the cocoon. And he knew that he

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could take as long as he liked to carry out the changes that he thought were necessary. Then one day he decided that the time had come for him to go out into the world, to fly above the ground and to see the things he had never seen before, to feel things he had never felt before, and to experience things he had never experienced before. Although he was a little apprehensive, he was also excited by the whole idea. He so desperately wanted to fly, to rise above the ground, to sour into the sky. He wanted to expand his horizons as never before. No longer was he going to just simply munch away on cabbage leaves. There was so much more to do, so much more to experience, so much more to learn. And he wanted all these things. Yes, now he thought he was ready. No matter what the future would bring, he was happy with his decision to change. And having made this decision to change, he was going to get the most out of his newfound freedom.

So he broke open the cocoon, a little at first, and then more and more until he could squeeze himself totally out of it. It was a day like no other day. The sun was shining and it was warm without being too hot. There was a little breeze in the air. The first thing that felt strange was his smaller number of legs. He had to use these to get out of the cocoon. But they were strong and longer than those he had as a caterpillar. The most exciting thing of all, however, was opening up his wings for the first time. His wings were totally new to him. Yet, somehow, he knew what he must do with them. Certainly he had seen other butterflies landing on the cabbage leaves, so he had some idea of what was necessary. But nothing could detract from the thrill of opening up those wings and feeling the wind above and below them: feeling the lift that the air brought as it went over the wings. But the real excitement was yet to come. He began to flap his wings, and lo, air born he became. Being unsure of himself, he only went a little way into the air. Then landed. The landing was a little clumsy because he had not done this before. So again he took a small flight,

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landing better this time. He flew from leaf to leaf. So quick it was relative to when he was a caterpillar. Now having mastered the takeoff and landing, he thought the time had come to really go air born. Up he went, higher and higher. He could see so many cabbages in the field below, much more than he thought there was when he was a caterpillar. As he soured higher and higher, the field became part of a farm, and the farm became part of a whole landscape that went as far as the eye could see. How small and insignificant a cabbage is, he thought, as he soured above the landscape. Then he saw a field of daffodils: so yellow and so bright. “What a wonderful sight,” he thought to himself. Never before had he experienced so wonderful a sight. “I would never have seen such a sight as this,” he said to himself, “if I had not decided to change and become a butterfly.” This made his decision all the more important, all the more the right thing to have done. And so he spent the rest of the day flittering from flower to flower, enjoying the bright sunny day amongst the field of daffodils. He even became aware that he was picking up some yellow substance from the centre of the flower that seemed to be at the top of a long stem. He was aware that as he went from flower to flower he deposited some of this. But all was too exciting to linger on such thoughts at this time. As the days went by he flew further and further in all directions. The day even came when he no longer returned to the place where he first started. He just went on and on from field to field, from hill to hill and from one valley to the next. It was all so exciting and so wondrous. He just wanted to learn from all the new experiences, from all the new sights and sounds. He loved the feel of the sun on his back and on his wings. He loved it when he could glide in the wind. He was glad he had made the decision to change! With the increase in anxiety there is the associated problem of insomnia. The next story illustrates not only the use of embedded suggestions, but also stories embedded in stories. This puts the client off guard and so the healing suggestions are more readily accepted by the unconscious mind. The structure of such stories is as follows: start story 1, then move into story 2, then into story 3, then back to story 2 and finally return to story 1. The Book of the Thousand and Nights and One Night (generally known as the Arabian Nights) is full of such structured stories. Sleep temples [Story #29] Jonathan was a traveller; he loved to travel to exotic places and to discover what ancient civilisations did. He particularly loved Egypt. He would travel to Cairo. This was a bustling city with lots of noise and aromatic smells from spices and cooking. But there were also the not so pleasant smells from donkeys and camels that moved around the streets intermingling with the taxies and buses. Jonathan had always found Cairo a thriving city but one difficult in which to fall to sleep at night. His mind would range over the past: the pharaohs and the pyramids. The noise and the smells of Cairo just seemed to make this inevitable. But nothing in life is inevitable. His investigations into Egyptian culture had disclosed that the ancient Egyptians had no trouble getting to sleep at night. And in his moments of

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wakefulness, Jonathan would contemplate the strange and powerful knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. The pyramids were a mystery to modern man. How they were constructed and for what purpose still elude us. With all our modern knowledge, we still have gaps. And one of these gaps is in the working of the sleep temples of ancient Egypt. These sleep temples were located down the Nile from Cairo in the region of Sakara, which is north of Khartoum, but located further in the desert and away from the Nile. The Nile, of course, is the most important river in Egypt. It is their life-blood. The seasons and most of the crops are dependent on its rise and fall. Drifting down the Nile in a fulicur is one of the most relaxing experiences imaginable. Jonathan had many times taken a fulicur down the Nile as the sun set. It was such a relaxing experience that he often fell easily to sleep. Sleep just seemed to come over him almost without him being aware of it. This was the way of the Nile. It allowed all the cares and worries that one had to just fall into insignificance against the grandeur of the Nile. And so the next day, Jonathan made his way out of Cairo heading for the sleep temples of Sakara. The only way for a traveller like himself to get to Sakara was on horse back across the desert. It took about two hours in the hot sun. The journey was not at all arduous, and surprisingly the desert had more to see than just sand. On reaching Sakara it was evening and Jonathan had arranged to see a guide who would take him around the sleep temples the next day. They talked late into the night. The guide went off to his home and his wife and Jonathan went to his room. Sakara was quiet and peaceful relative to Cairo and he soon drifted off into a peaceful and restful sleep: a sound and satisfying deep sleep. And in this deep sleep he began to dream. He dreamt of Menaphis the high priest of the sleep temple. Menaphis was the high priest after his father and his father before him. The secrets of the temple had been passed down from father to son. The most important secrets were the knowledge of helping people to dream. Not insignificant dreams but dreams that allowed them to resolve their problems. This was the most significant part of the priest’s work. Menaphis was an expert at this. He could get the people who came to the temple to dream dreams so significant and so important and so useful that they resolved many problems in just a few nights, sometimes just in one night. But for some individuals the problems were very great. Even so, he could always help but it just took longer. The dreams had to be built up. They first resolved the lesser problems, and once they were resolved, the more significant problems could be worked on. All the time, Menaphis had a way to allow the person to sleep soundly and peacefully through the night while all this was taking place. In this he never failed. The secrets of the temple ensured that this was so. No one was clear what these secrets were and some just felt that Menaphis had an intimate knowledge of the workings of the unconscious mind. But whatever it was, and the people who came for help were not concerned, all they wanted was a solution to their problem.

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Jonathan awoke with a banging on the door it was the guide who was to take him to the sleep temples that day. He dressed and they went down for a small breakfast and then went off to the temples. Jonathan was even wondering if his dream was a premonition and whether Menaphis did exist or whether it was all just a dream. Egypt had a strange effect of making dreams come true. The sleep temples of Sakara, like all the monuments of ancient Egypt, were strewn with hieroglyphics. Jonathan was quite an expert on Egyptian hieroglyphics. He had learned to read hieroglyphics after he had studied Greek civilisations. They too had sleep temples. One of the most famous of the sleep temples was that at Delphi in the north of Greece. The temple of Delphi was situated up on the mountain above the town and away from the shore. The Oracle of Delphi was famous throughout the land. Although the sleep temples of Greece were so called, they were not like the sleep temples of Egypt. They were places people went to resolve their problems. True, the sleep temples of Egypt did this too, but the Oracle of Delphi was more to do with resolving problems. The sleep that came over the individual wanting help was not a normal sleep but a trance state that allowed them to be receptive to the Oracle’s pronouncements. The temple at Delphi was located on the far side of the complex. This had developed over the years with peddlers selling their wares and trying to sell the seekers potions. There was even an amphitheatre. This was not as big or as famous as Philae in the Pelopenese, but it was grand all the same. Many plays were acted here, many of which were about the fame of the Oracle. Exactly how the Oracle resolved the problems was not known. Seekers came to the temple. First they had to go through some purification ceremony. Then they were clothed in special robes and were garland in flowers of great perfume. Only then could they enter the temple. They always entered alone. Soon after entering they would enter a sleep-like state and when in this state the Oracle would deliver its resolution. When the individual came out of the temple they could remember nothing of what took place. It was all like a dream and as if they were asleep. All they had were vague images and impressions. But what they were certain of, and why they were certain eluded them completely, was that they had a solution to their problem. The solution was not always something simple. Sometimes it involved them changing their life-style or taking responsibility for something. But whatever it was, the individual knew deep down that it was a solution: but a conditional solution. It would only be a solution if they carried out what they were instructed to do. This reminds me of a youth called Caleb. Now Caleb had been given a sword from his father when his father was on his deathbed. “This sword,” his father said, “is the sword of life. But, my son, it has two sharp edges: one of beauty and one of ugliness. The edge of beauty moves with grace and appreciation while the edge of ugliness cuts with ignorance and distain. My son, you can create a situation of ugliness or you can create a situation of beauty. You must learn to recognise both. When you come to recognise both you can then avoid the situation of ugliness and turn more and more to the situation of beauty. My son,” he continued, “only you can recognise your true nature. Only you can recognise when you turn to the side of ugliness and when you turn to the side

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of beauty.” At this Caleb was not sure of his father’s meaning. “How do I know?” said Caleb. “My son, when you wield the sword, you will cut with only one of the two sides. When you cut with the side of ugliness you will feel certain emotions and feelings. The type of feelings you would have if you used your sword on a deer and cut its throat. On the other hand, when you cut with the side of beauty, your soul surges in your breast. You will know from your feelings and emotions that your deed was just. You will know instinctively which side of the sword you yielded. Learn to recognise these differences, my son, learn to yield the sword on the side of beauty and not on the side of ugliness.” His father continued, “But there is more to the sword, my son. Your mind is like the sword with its two sides: the side of ugliness and the side of beauty. When you wield the sword, the direction of the blade is being directed by your mind. If your mind is filled with ugliness, then the sword will cut with the side of ugliness. When your mind is filled with beauty then so your sword will strike with the side of beauty. So the secret, my son, is to fill your mind with beauty and banish all thoughts of ugliness. Sharpen your mind and constantly keep it under your control. Know when your thoughts are ugly and when they are beautiful. Do not wield the sword when your thoughts turn to pictures of ugliness. Learn only to wield your sword when your thoughts are pure and full of beauty. As you turn your thoughts only to those of the highest order, so you will only wield your sword on the side of beauty.” Caleb’s father was almost at his last breath. But he managed to say one more thing. “As you keep your mind sharp and in your control, so Caleb, you will keep the side of beauty of the sword sharp and in your control, so Caleb you will keep the side of beauty of the sword sharp and you will learn only to wield the sword on the side of beauty.” And so he died. Caleb sat there looking at his dead father and pondering all that he had been told. Realising that the mind controls the body and the emotions. To wield the sword on its side of beauty he will need to sharpen his mind and keep it within his control. In so doing, when he wields the sword it will strike with the side of beauty and not ignorance. And so Caleb thanked his father as he buried him in the family grave. … And so the seekers of the Oracle at Delphi often could not remember what they were instructed to do since this was given to them while they were in a sleep-like state. But their unconscious knew what it was, and so long as their unconscious was prepared to take on board the Oracle’s instructions, then a resolution to their problem was certain. That was why the Oracle had such good success. People clearly wanted a resolution to their problem: both consciously and unconsciously. Who wants to carry a burden around for long periods of time? Who wants to make life so depressing for themselves? No, people want to be unburdened; people do not want to be depressed. On the contrary, people want to be happy and want to live life to the full. And so it was that the sleep temple at Delphi came to be known far and wide. But it was not about sleep as such, not like the knowledge of sleep in ancient

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Egypt, as shown by the hieroglyphics on the walls at Sakara. And as Jonathan studied the hieroglyphics he came to understand at some level what the sleep temples of Egypt were all about. Sleep was disturbed when individuals worried and placed excessive burdens on themselves. As these burdens mounted, they became like mountains of pressure in which there seemed no relief. All problems became big problems to them. All concerns were big concerns. Each day became more and more difficult. And the aim of the sleep temple was to bring perspective to the individual. They were asked to consider the worst thing that could possibly happen to them. And having thought about this, they were to consider getting through this event or situation. They were shown that they had resources within themselves to do this. It was they who resolved the most difficult thing that could happen to them. The solution did not come from outside but from inside: from their own resources. What they were shown, really, was they had resources within themselves far greater than they realised. And that if they could resolve the most difficult thing that could happen to them, then they could certainly resolve lesser ones. They could draw on the same internal resources that they used for the biggest of all problems. But that was only part of the solution provided by the sleep temples. They taught people to see the bedroom as a place to sleep. In just the same way as a garage is a place to put the car when finished for the day, so the bedroom and the bed was a place to sleep. Not a place to brood or worry, not a place to exercise in, but a place to shut down for the night and allow the body to recuperate through the night. The priests pointed out the need the body has to rest each night so that a new day could be faced with a clear head and a restored energy. Above all, they emphasised constant relaxation. Not just when going to bed at night but at all times. And as Jonathan was reading this from the hieroglyphics, to his amazement he found that the main priest who expounded this was Menaphis! It appeared that Menaphis had discovered that calm relaxation was not a luxury but a necessity. That over the years man had become so preoccupied with challenges, with work, with wars and with constant developments, that they had lost a most fundamental body need – a need to relax. Menaphis knew that when the body was calm and relaxed, the mind and body acted as one. When an individual was synchronised in mind and body sleep came much more easily. It was also a deep, satisfying sleep. A sleep that allowed the person to dream as they were meant to dream. It appeared that Menaphis had come to appreciate one of life’s mysteries. And like many mysteries the idea was simple, but so simple it had been missed. Like looking for something and you don’t see it. You don’t see it because it is right in front of you! And so individuals who came to the sleep temples at Sakara were taught to relax: to relax throughout the day and to remain calm in all circumstances. To realise that objects cannot make them tense, they can only do this to themselves. Situations that happen cannot make them tense; they can only do this to themselves. Even people cannot make them tense, only they can do this to themselves. Menaphis taught the seekers to the temple

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not to be so hard on themselves. That they deserved better and it was within their own behaviour that they could make it better, could make it so. And those who left the temple resolving to do this, improved. But others did not heed the words of Menaphis. They considered it too easy. They wanted a complex solution to their problem. Jonathan thought about what he had learnt from the hieroglyphics in Sakara and resolved himself not to make the same mistake. That he too would now learn to relax and remain calm and to do so each hour of each day. And that night Jonathan went to sleep easily and quickly, and drifted into a deep and restful sleep.

19.4 Stories that educate There are many stories that educate. We have already included the story in Search of Wisdom. This next one is about taking risks, and is based on a true story. The Calendar girls [Story #16] A group of women in their 50s used to go to the meetings of the Women’s Institute (the WI) in the village of Knapely, England. The evenings were usually not that entertaining – hearing about holidays, broccoli and the like. It was then announced that it was time for a New Year Calendar. Nothing more was said. In this period one of the women’s husbands was being treated for Leukaemia. Unfortunately he died. So when thinking about how they could remember him, some of the women decided that they could make a calendar with themselves nude. This was a most daring thing to do, especially given their ages. They were taking an enormous risk – not only financially, but also in terms of their modesty and their reputation. At first they found it difficult to find a photographer. But two of the women recalled the hospital carer who used to wheel the husband back to the ward after his chemotherapy treatment and the fact that he was also a photographer. After some thought he came up with the idea of the women doing everyday things that they would normally do – except that they would be naked! Although pretty shocked with the idea, they decided to risk it: to take a chance. Like all risks, however, certain people had to be won over first. One of the first things was to find twelve women to do this. Next they had to win over the WI so that they could use its name; otherwise their act might simply be interpreted as pornography. The implications of their risk-taking started to dawn on them. Like many risktaking situations, doubt creeps in. But confidence in themselves and their idea won through and they completed the calendar. The calendar turned out to be a tremendous success. Not only did it get wide acclaim in the UK, but the girls were invited to Hollywood. Rather than

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raising a few hundred pounds that they originally thought, they raised thousands of pounds for Leukaemia. Now had they not taken a risk, none of this would have happened. That is the nature of risktaking. It opens up new alternatives. If you do not take risks, then you can only continue on your present path. Taking risks allows new and exciting paths to be followed. Here is yet another story that emphasizes the importance of living in the here and now. The other side [Story #5] Once upon a time, in a land far away, was a young man in his youth. He longed for excitement and a much richer life. He would sit under a tree and daydream. Dream about being this and that, doing exciting things and having a full life. Now he lived in a valley to the south. But he always thought that the land to the north was where the true excitement was. “If only I could leave this valley and head north,” he thought, “then my life would be so much better.” He had visions of what the north was like, and while sitting under the tree he dreamed and visualized the excitement he would find in the Northern Province. The valleys and plains where green and lush with flowers, far greener and more lush than where he was at present. The sun shone brightly each day and the sky was clear. He would in his mind’s eye walk through the fields with a light breeze blowing on his face and he felt good. But such images made him long for the Northern Province. Day after day he dreamed, trying to pluck up the courage to leave all he knew and all he had grown up with behind him. As the days passed and the longing raged stronger in his soul, he decided that on the following day he would leave the south and head north. And so, for the remainder of that day he prepared himself. The next day came, and true to his determination, he headed north. The trip was more arduous than he was expecting. He had to pass through dense forests and cross difficult streams. But his thoughts of the green and beautiful north valley drove him on. As he made his way through the forest, he would ask a local inhabitant about the north valley. They would point the way, but were somewhat surprised at this enthusiasm. “Why are you going to the north valley?” they would ask. And he would describe his image of the valley. But their experience was not like his, and they would just smile politely. He did find their lack of enthusiasm somewhat surprising, but that did not deter him. On he went, over coming all hazards and discomforts along the way. Always thinking of the green fields in the north and hardly looking at the countryside he was passing through. Eventually the forest got thinner and he knew he was close to his destination. He now came to the edge of the forest where there was a hamlet. He approached and knocked on the door. The lady beckoned him to come in and have refreshments, since he looked like a traveller who had had a long journey. He did so, and while having a most refreshing drink, asked the woman about the beautiful green fields and what excitements the north had to

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offer. But like some of those he had already talked to in the forest, she seemed not aware of this. She too smiled politely and said nothing. But as they sat together, she asked why he had left the beautiful land in the south. At this he was now the one surprised, and for a moment could say nothing. Then he said, but surely the land here in the north is more beautiful and more exciting. “I am not aware of this,” said the woman. He then went into a long description. She laughed, and said, “That is just your imagination. You have thought that the grass is greener on the other side!” Now this woman had been to the south, even though she lived in the north. She inquired then whether he had seen the beautiful lily pond down by the shore. He said, “No.” What about the rose garden in the village church? He said, “No.” What of the orange grove on the far side of the river with the beautiful weeping willows and kingfishers that flew up and down the river. He was now becoming embarrassed, and had to admit, once again, that he had not. The woman too was confused. “How,” she said, “have you come to think and long for the beauty of the north when you have failed to see the beauty of the south?” He had to admit that he was so engrossed in his visions of the north that he did not consider to see the beauty of the south. The lady was wise. She pointed out, “When you have all your thoughts on the greener grass on the other side you fail to live in the present. The other side is tomorrow, while this side is today. You have been looking to your tomorrows and failed to live in the present: the here and now.” “It reminds me of a man who was shot by an arrow,” she said, “which was lodged in his shoulder. The arrow went deep and was painful. It needed immediate attention. But rather than see to his wound immediately, the injured man inquired about the man who shot the arrow. He asked about his bow and his arrows and where the quivers where made. He went on about many inconsequential things and failed to do anything about his immediate problem – his injury. Too often we fail to be in the here and now, and deal with the important issues. We turn to the inconsequential because they are easier. We fail to live in the moment.” Because of this, you have failed to see the beauty of the south. What is more,” she went on, “your view of the north is not correct. It is not as beautiful as the south. You have just thought that the grass is greener on the other side. That is a pity” she said, “you have wasted all of your youth, all of the best years of your life thinking that the north is better and more beautiful and so did not see what was before you.” He began to appreciate what she was saying. He realized within his soul that he had failed to live in the present. Even more, he realized that he could not have those years back. He was filled with a great sadness. “What can I now do?” he asked the woman. She replied, “Always live in the present, always live in the here and now. Appreciate each moment as if it were your last. Let tomorrow look after itself. As you cherish each moment, you will see the beauty in all things.” He realized within his soul the wisdom of what the lady said. He left thanking her both for the refreshments and her wisdom. He walked away, not to the north but back to the south. Vowing as he did so that from now on he would live for each moment and

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cherish each moment. And this he did for the remainder of his days, seeing the beauty in all things no matter where he was. As mentioned, there are many stories that educate and have other purposes. Here are a further three stories that can be used. The feast [Story #2] Once upon a time there was a young man called Rashid. Now Rashid was a shepherd boy who had simple pleasures. While tendering his sheep he would sit in the sun. Sometimes Rashid would play his flute and at other times he would just sit and ponder on the beauty of the world around him. To someone from the city, Rashid’s life would be utter boredom, but not to Rashid. Even a blade of grass glistening in the morning sun would give him pleasure. What he liked most of all was when the sun just crept from behind a cloud sending rays of sunshine across the fields where he had his sheep. Such scenes of beauty raised his spirits and expanded his soul. On most days Rashid’s mother would pack a simple lunch for her son. He would sit under his favourite tree, which shaded him from the hot noonday sun. He would play his flute and eat his lunch. To Rashid, this was heaven. One day Rashid decided to go into the city. It was not too far but would take him unit mid-day. When he arrived the city was bustling with peddlers of all kinds, and there were street carnivals too. It was all quite exciting to Rashid, partly because Rashid saw pleasure in all things. The ugliness of the city did not seep into Rashid’s consciousness. While in the city he was befriended by another youth, Pasha, about his own age. Pasha was very streetwise and Rashid decided to follow his advice. They enjoyed each other’s company and did many things that gave them both pleasure. Then Pasha said he knew of a great feast, which he had been invited to, but was not going to because he really did not know anyone. But now it was different. So Pasha and Rashid went to the feast. Passing through the courtyard, they entered a large room. The room was draped in the most magnificent drapes of bright colours of pure silk. In the centre was a large table containing delicacies and foods from all parts of the known world. The aromas rose and mingled in the air, giving rise to a scintillating smell. The

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guests, all seated around the single central table were laughing and talking. Pasha and Rashid sat at a small space looking at the sumptuous food. Rashid quickly noticed, however, that although all the guests were enjoying themselves, no one was eating the food in front of them. Rashid asked Pasha whether this was some religious ceremony and the food was not to be eaten. “No,” said Pasha. There is nothing special about the day or the feast. Rashid became even more confused. The man next to him said that he was most hungry and longed for food. Although the food was out before them, and they were hungry, it was as if they did not see it. Rashid asked those around him “Don’t you see all this food?” To this they replied, “Yes, but so what?” This confused Rashid even more. “What do you mean, so what? Are you not hungry?” The seated guests near Rashid just laughed. “Of course we are.” Rashid persisted. “Then why are you not eating the food?” The guest nearest Rashid answered, “Why? Because this will not satisfy our hunger! The pangs of hunger I feel will not be satisfied with the food before us.” Rashid and Pasha decided that the guests, although they could see the food, could not realise for some reason that it would satisfy their hunger. Rashid and Pasha tucked in to the amazement of the guests. But the guests simply treated their behaviour like they would treat a street juggler. Briefly amused and then they went on with their conversation and still ignored the food within their reach. Rashid said farewell to Pasha and returned home, confused by what he had seen. When he arrived home he told his mother what he had seen. He often found her wisdom comforting. She replied, “Well, my son, people often do not see what is in front of them. They do not see what it is that will quench their thirst and satisfy their hunger. They do not see it even when their thirst is great and the pangs of hunger rage in their stomachs. But, my son, this is a warning. The thing we need the most can be in front of us but we fail to see it. The reasons are many. If you want to see the light in a tunnel you do not light the lamp. You do not look for water in the fire. If you lost your sheep in the field you do not seek it out in the city. People make it difficult for themselves to see what will satisfy their pangs or even look in totally the wrong place. Be true to your heart and you will see. Search in the right place and you will find.” With that she suggested that Rashid should retire for the night as he needed to tend the sheep early the next day. Plato’s cave [Story #13] A set of prisoners have lived all their lives in a cave chained and facing a wall. The prisoners in the cave are chained in such a way that they cannot turn their heads. Behind them is a fire, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a parapet. On this parapet puppeteers can walk. These puppeteers hold up their puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave in front of the prisoners. But because the prisoners cannot turn their heads, they do not know that the ‘things’ on the wall are mere shadows and that the real things pass by behind them. Their only reality is the shadows on the wall.

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Plato ponders on what would happen if one day one of the prisoners were released and forced to stand up and turn to the light. This would be a painful act for the man and he would most likely turn around once more to look at that which he was most familiar with – the shadows on the wall. But the man is dragged out of the cave into the sunlight to show him the ‘reality out there.’ But with time the free man sees the things outside the cave. Plato considers further what would happen if the man were returned to the cave and to his former position amongst the prisoners once again chained and facing the wall. He would attempt to inform his fellow prisoners that what they saw on the wall was not reality but a mere reflection. They would laugh and scorn him. They would argue that he went up and got his eyes corrupted. Even more, if anyone should therefore attempt to release them and lead them up to the light, they would surely kill him. (The same idea is pursued in H.G. Wells’ short story of the man who could see in the village of the blind.) The river [Story #20] In a small village there was a mound from which a stream trickled. This stream had great ambitions to flow down the mountain and become a great river. It flowed over different terrains gaining in volume and strength. Nothing was too much of an obstacle to it. One day it reached the edge of the dessert: a vast dessert. The stream which was now a river felt nothing could stand in its way. It had gained in strength and volume and nothing before had stood in its path. It thought to itself, ‘The dessert is just another obstacle I will overcome’. And so the river flung itself at the desert. But each time it did so its waters just got sucked up by the dry sand and disappeared away. The river was not to be deterred. It felt that it was its destiny to cross the desert. It must find a way. It thought to itself, ‘If the wind can cross the desert, then so can I.’ The desert sands seemed to echo back, ‘If the winds can cross me then so can you.’ The river and the desert sands then began a conversation. ‘I know I must cross this desert’ the river told the sand, ‘but every time I try you swallow me up. NO matter how hard I try, I don’t get very far as you swallow me up.’ The sands replied, ‘You won’t cross me by using your old methods as you did up the mountain. Just repeating your same movements and flinging yourself at me sand will simply lead me each time to swallow you up. No, you must do something different. You must change. Only by changing will you succeed in crossing the desert.’ ‘But how must I change?’ the river replied to the sands. ‘You must trust the wind and let it carry you over the desert. You must let

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yourself be carried’ said the sand. ‘But how can the wind carry me over the desert?’ asked the river, doubting it was at all possible. ‘You must let yourself be absorbed into the wind, and in that way the wind will carry you over the desert’ replied the sand. But the river did not like this idea. After all, it was a river with its own form and identity that it had become over time and over much terrain. If it let itself be absorbed by the wind it would lose all this. The sand sensed the worry of the river and reassured it. ‘If you do not change you will never cross the desert. So if you really want to cross the desert then you must have the courage to allow yourself to be absorbed by the wind. Trust me, and trust the wind. If you change and allow the wind to absorb you then it will transport you across the desert and let you fall again on the other side, to be a river once again.’ But the river was not convinced and told the sand, ‘If I do this and change and let the wind carry me over the desert, then when I fall on the other side I will no longer be who I am now. I will be a different river.’ Again the sand understood the concern of the river and once again reassured it. ‘You certainly won’t be the same river. But nor will you be the same river if you repeatedly fling yourself at the desert and get absorbed. However, if you change and allow the wind to transport you over the desert, then your real essence – that which is truly you – will be born again on the other side. You will be able to flow again and determine your new course. You will become more than you are now: more than you imagined you could become. The river thought about this for a while. He realised that if he did not change then there was no way he would cross the desert. He also realised that change always involved a risk. But he did so want to cross the desert. And so h put his trust in the sand and the wind. The wind raised up the vapour from the river in its strong and loving arms and took it high above the desert sand and deposited it gently on the other side of the desert on top of a new mountain. And so the river flowed again and it understood what it really was to be a river.

19.5 Problem solving stories Often anxiety is increased when individuals are grappling with one or more problems. These can be at home or at work, or some major life-time decisions. Stories can help clients to break out of negative circular worries about such problems. Here we provide six stories that can be used. The sword [Story #1] Once upon a time, in a far off land, there was a youth called Caleb. Now Caleb had been given a sword from his father when his father was on his deathbed. “This sword,” his father said, “is the sword of life. But, my son, it has two sharp edges: one of beauty and one of ugliness. The edge of beauty moves with grace and appreciation while the edge of ugliness cuts with ignorance and distain. My son, you can create a situation of ugliness or you can create a situation of beauty. You must learn to recognise both. When you come to recognise both you can then avoid the situation of ugliness and turn more and more to the situation of beauty. My son,” he continued, “only you can recognise your true nature. Only you can recognise when you turn to the side

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of ugliness and when you turn to the side of beauty.” At this Caleb was not sure of his father’s meaning. “How do I know?” said Caleb. “My son, when you wield the sword, you will cut with only one of the two sides. When you cut with the side of ugliness you will feel certain emotions and feelings. The type of feelings you would have if you used your sword on a deer and cut its throat. One the other hand, when you cut with the side of beauty, your soul surges in your breast. You will know from your feelings and emotions that your deed was just. You will know instinctively which side of the sword you yielded. Learn to recognise these differences, my son, learn to yield the sword on the side of beauty and not on the side of ugliness.”

His father continued, “But there is more to the sword, my son. Your mind is like the sword with its two sides: the side of ugliness and the side of beauty. When you wield the sword, the direction of the blade is being directed by your mind. If your mind is filled with ugliness, then the sword will cut with the side of ugliness. When your mind is filled with beauty then so your sword will strike with the side of beauty. So the secret, my son, is to fill your mind with beauty and banish all thoughts of ugliness. Sharpen your mind and constantly keep it under your control. Know when your thoughts are ugly and when they are beautiful. Do not wield the sword when your thoughts turn to pictures of ugliness. Learn only to wield your sword when your thoughts are pure and full of beauty. As you turn your thoughts only to those of the highest order, so you will only wield your sword on the side of beauty.” Caleb’s father was almost at his last breath. But he managed to say one more thing. “As you keep your mind sharp and in your control, so Caleb, you will keep the side of beauty of the sword sharp and in your control, so Caleb you will keep the side of beauty of the sword sharp and you will learn only to wield the sword on the side of beauty.” And so he died. Caleb sat there looking at his dead father and pondering all that he had been told. Realising that the mind controls the body and the emotions. To wield the sword on its side of beauty he will need to sharpen his mind and keep it within his control. In so doing, when he wields the sword it will strike with the side of beauty and not ignorance. And so Caleb thanked his father as he buried him in the family grave.

The two sages [Story #4] Once upon a time, in the land of Abriz, there were two sages. These two sages never saw things in the same way and constantly argued. One day they were debating reality. Habitat was saying, “The picture you create in your mind is the picture you live in.” Rashid disagreed. “But the picture in your mind is not

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reality. Reality is outside of you and exists independent of you.” Habitat responded thus, “What does it matter what is outside of you. How you perceive it, how you picture it, is what matters. A man born blind does not know what is out there in the same way you and I may see it – although this I dispute also, but let it be so for the moment. His perception of a rose is the smell, the feel of its petals the sting from its thorns. The rose has meaning only from the picture in his mind. The picture in his mind defines the picture he lives in. It may not be yours or mine, but it is his.” “But the rose is God’s creation and is always the same. It can have different scents, different colours and different leaves. But a rose is a rose and we know it is different from a daffodil.” Rashid was quite adamant on all of this. To him reality existed independent of the person. Habitat was not so dogmatic. Although he agreed that there was an external reality, what mattered to the individual was their picture of that reality. It was this picture that brought about feelings of joy, feelings of wonder and so many other feelings. The picture in the mind defined for that person the picture they lived in. Habitat elaborated further. “Because the picture in a person’s mind defines the picture which they live in, then it is necessary to complete the picture slowly and in detail. A masterpiece is never produced quickly. It is conceived slowly until the picture is right. When the picture is right, then the slow and painstaking work begins to construct what has been pictured in the mind. Not only what it looks like, but also what it feels like. And when it does not feel right, it is important to stand back and ask yourself, ‘What is wrong?’ It is important to be true to yourself. You know when something does not feel right. When this occurs, stop and stand back.” Rashid although nodding his head replied, “But how do you know when something is not right. If you have no outside reality to compare it with, then there is no basis of knowing when it is right.” Habitat pointed out that Rashid had missed the point. “When something is not right, it means not right from your point of view. It is not right in terms of your soul. Something within you tells you it is not right. You know instinctively it is not right. But having this feeling, it is a question of whether you act on it. You can ignore it, or you can agree and do something about it. The reason why most people ignore these feelings is that it involves work. It may even mean scrapping what you have done and start over again. To do this is being true to yourself, being true to the picture in your mind.” Habitat continued, “For this reason it is necessary to have a detailed picture. The greater the detail, the more you know when it does not feel right. If I paint an object more or less round and more or less rid, it may be an apple, it may be a peach or it may be a nectarine. But if I paint my object as a peach, then if

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it does not look like a peach it will feel wrong. So detail is important in my pictures.” Rashid liked the more vague picture. “If the picture is less clear, less detailed,” says Rashid, “then the onlooker can make up his own mind.” Habitat disagreed, as was usually the case. “A masterpiece can only be a masterpiece if it contains detail. If it does not contain the detail, how can it be distinguished from the many other pictures? When your life is a picture that you have in your mind, you want it to be as detailed as possible because then your life becomes a masterpiece. It becomes different and distinguishable from all others. Your life becomes meaningful.” With this the night drew on and the darkness fell and the two sages went off to a nearby tavern to begin another dispute. Clearing your mental house [Story #8] [Based on Louise L. Hey, You Can Heal Your Life, Chapter 3] Imagine that you have decided to do a thorough summer clean of your house. It is to be most thorough, where every room in the house is to be cleaned one after the other. You have put sufficient time to one side to do this. And you intend to do it alone for only you know what needs to be thrown out and what is to be kept. And you do want to throw out all the things that are no longer useful to you or serve no present or future purpose. You start with the smaller easier room first. These were not so dirty and you have less to clean. Even so, there are still some things you decide are of no use and pack them in a bag for throwing out. Other things you know will be of use to you, and these you place neatly in their proper place. Soon the smaller rooms are done and already you feel a sense of accomplishment. This spurs you on now to tackle one of the larger and more untidy rooms. This room has much more material in it and more to make decisions of what to keep and what to throw out. Sometimes you decide to keep something just in case you may need it, but then you realise that you won’t really use it and it will remain cluttering the room unless you throw it out too. Your courage and your resolve increases and you make a clear decision to discard all those things that you do not need. Do not need now or in the future. And although your future is unknown, you know that these things are a thing of the past, and have no use for you in the present or the future. The more you discard from the various rooms the more you like the rooms, the more you can see why you liked the rooms, the more you can see why you liked this house of yours. “Strange,” you think to yourself, “I have forgotten why I liked this house of mine.” And so as you get rid of the clutter and put all those other things in their proper place, so you come to appreciate your home once more. --------------------

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Now you are like your house. You decide to clean it out: the physical rooms, the emotional rooms, the mental rooms and even the spiritual rooms. There is so much rubbish from the past that needs to be thrown out. Other things that you want to keep are to be put in their proper place. As with your house, you start with the easy things first. You decide the physical is the easiest room first. You, of course, know that needs throwing out, what needs changing and what needs to be placed in its proper place: what needs cleaning and what needs strengthening. And so you go through your physical room thoroughly and like what you see when you finish it. You had even forgot what it was to be like to be physical and strong, healthy and full of vitality. And you like what you see and feel. You next turn to the emotional room. This is a little more difficult. There is so much rubbish from the past and from your childhood that you have kept. But looking at it now, you know there is much you need to discard, to throw away. You know not only that it no longer serves any positive purpose, but that it even has negative impacts. So in throwing these away, they will not longer influence you negatively. Of course, there are other emotions you want to keep and serve a positive purpose. These you put in their proper place that allows their influence to be as great as is needed. Next you turn to the mental room. By now you are recognising what needs to be thrown out: what serves no useful purpose. Prejudices, generalisations and the like need throwing out. Views about being self critical and putting yourself down. Worries and concerns that make you avoid risks and stifle development. All these need throwing out. As you get rid of these negative mental attitudes and impressions, so you begin to recognise the positive mental states. Some you have not used for so long. And so you begin to love yourself and find life less threatening. You put these proper mental states in their proper place and as you do so you feel good about yourself. You begin once more to appreciate yourself and love yourself. It is not an infatuation with yourself, but a love of your uniqueness. Turning to your spiritual rooms you wonder how to begin. But soon you realise that you must at least make a start, and you decide a good start is in right thinking. You consider that for the moment that will be sufficient. But you also consider what you should do thereafter. The Dam Busters [Story #12] You may have seen the movie The Dam Busters, whether this is true or not, I want to go over some aspects of it with you. Vital to the German war effort was the industrial region of the Ruhr, which was supplied by water and electricity by means of the Eder and Moehne dams. It was considered essential for the war effort to destroy these and other dams of the Ruhr valley. The difficulty was how to do this. The first part of the solution came from the brilliant scientist Barnes Wallis, who was working on a “bouncing bomb.” Now most children have taken a stone and thrown it horizontally across water seeing it bounce. This was the

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basic idea that Wallis was working on. However, his bombs had to be dropped from an aeroplane without smashing. They also had to bounce far enough so that they eventually came to land in front of the dame wall, so that when they exploded they would have the greatest impact on the dam. Barnes worked long hours trying to perfect his bombs. At first it was all theoretical, then it was tested in water tanks. But, of course, the time came when it was necessary to test the bombs being dropped from aeroplanes. Barnes needed a Lancaster to test his theories. The four-engined Lancaster was one of the newest and most sophisticated of aeroplanes used in the war effort. Barnes asked the Ministry of Defence for a loan of a Lancaster. “Do you realise what you are asking for,” says a minister, “these are very sophisticated and expensive aeroplanes that you wish to borrow.” Barnes was rather a timid man, but replied, “Would it help to mention that I designed the Lancaster!” So Barnes got the aeroplane he wanted to test out his bouncing bomb. Wallis had indicated that the Lancaster needed to drop the bomb from a height of 150ft over water. This required very low flying on the part of the pilot. But in addition, the bombs had to be dropped precisely 1275ft from the target. By now a special squadron had been set up, 617 Squadron under the command of Wing Commander Guy Gibson. They practised and practised low flying. But they had to solve the problem of exactly when to drop the bomb. The solution was simple and ingenious, although not obvious at first. The dams had two towers at either end. The bomb aimer was given a simple V-shaped wooden device. At the end of its arms were nails. When these were lined up with the towers on the dam, then the aeroplane was exactly 1275ft from its target and the bombs could be dropped. With that problem solved, Guy Gibson got his squadron to drop make-shift bombs to practice getting it exactly right as to when to drop the bombs. But there was still the problem of low flying. Flying so low, without radar, at night and over water made it virtually impossible to determine the aeroplane’s height above the water. In the meantime Wallis was perfecting his bouncing bombs, but without much success. They continued to break-up on first impact with the water. Desperation was setting in. Wallis realised that he would have to have the bombs dropped from an even lower height, namely 60ft. This presented Gibson with a virtually impossible problem.

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His men had been working hard, so Gibson decided that both he and they needed some time off. Gibson himself went to a show in London. The lights dimmed, the performer came on stage, and the spotlights shone on the artist. In one of those extraordinary moments of inspiration, Gibson realised how he could determine that the Lancaster was exactly 60ft above the water. As with the V-shaped wooden device, distance can be determined using the properties of a triangle. What Gibson realised was that if lights were placed on the nose and rear fuselage at the appropriate angle, when they overlapped, just as on the artist in the theatre, then the aeroplane would be exactly 60ft above the water. No radar or sophisticated equipment was required, just the two spotlights correctly fitted. So the second difficult problem was solved: and solved by such a simple device. With the stronger reinforced casing for the bombs, with the even-lower flying aeroplane and with the exact distance from the dam being determined everything was in place. The final demonstrations to the Ministry of Defence were a success. Three formations of three aircraft were dispatched to attack three of the main dams: the Moehne, the Eder and the Sorpe. A second wave of five aircraft was dispatched two hours later to attack either the main three dams or the Lister, Diemel and Ennepe. The mission was a great success for the Allied forces. Two questions [Story #23] [Adapted from One Hundred Wisdom Stories by Silf Margaret, Story #70] There was a king of a small principality. One of his major tasks was to administer on matters of importance. He constantly worried about which were the matters of most importance so he could be more efficient. He consulted his chief adviser about how he should resolve this problem. He advised to consult all the wise men of his kingdom. The wise men came: scholars, priests, politicians, philosophers and counsellors. But all gave different advice about what matters were most important. This left the king in despair and no clearer on what matters were important. Now the king knew of a holy hermit living in the hills. So off the king went to consult the hermit. On approaching the hermit’s dwelling he found the holy man digging his garden. The king approached the holy man, who continued to dig his garden. So the king explained his dilemma and that he wanted advice from the holy man. I have two questions for you, said the king. ‘On whom should I spend my time and focus my attention?’ And, ‘Which affairs are the most important, and so should be dealt with first?’ The holy man listened attentively while he continued to dig his garden. Now the garden was full of stones and not easy to dig, and the holy man was struggling and clearly getting tired. The king, who was a considerate man, said, ‘Here let me take the spade and I will do some digging for you.’ The hermit thanked the king and handed him the spade. The king dug away at the hermit’s garden for two hours, during which he asked the hermit the two questions once again. But still the hermit did not

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answer. He just said he would now take back the spade and that he would dig. But the king refused and continued to dig until Sundown. When he finally put down the spade and with disappointment, said to the hermit, ‘since you cannot, or will not, answer my two questions, I will now return.’ At that moment a man came running towards them. The hermit said, ‘Let’s see who this is.’ The king, turning towards the running man, noted that he had his hands clutched over a wound in his stomach. As the man reached the king, he fell to the ground moaning and in great pain. The hermit and the king quickly washed and dressed the man’s wound. The king used one of his handkerchiefs and one of the hermit’s clean rags to prevent more blood flowing. Once the blood stopped flowing, the man asked for a drink of water. The hermit gave him a drink, and together the king and the hermit carried the man into the hermit’s hut and laid him on a bed. The king, now exhausted from the day’s digging and carrying the wounded man, also fell asleep. When the king awoke he saw the wounded man staring at him. ‘Forgive me’ the man said. ‘But I don’t know you’ replied the king, ‘so I have no reason to forgive you.’ ‘But you do’ said the man. ‘I had sworn a vengeance on you because you executed my brother, so I followed you to the hermit’s house intent on killing you. But when you did not return for so long, I came out of hiding. But I was recognised by your guards, who then attacked me. I managed to escape but was badly wounded. Had you not taken care of me I would have bled to death. I wanted to kill you, but you saved my life. From now on, I will be your most faithful servant. So please forgive me.’ The king readily forgave the man and promised him that he would care for him until he was fully recovered. Leaving the man, the king returned to the hermit, who was once again digging his garden. ‘For the last time,’ the king pleaded, ‘will you answer my two questions? If not, I shall return home.’ To the king’s surprise the hermit replied, ‘But you have had your answers.’ ‘I don’t understand’ retorted the king. ‘Yesterday,’ the hermit said, ‘you had compassion for my weariness, and stayed to help me dig my garden. Had you gone straight home, our friend here would have attacked and killed you. So the most important task was to show compassion. Then later, when the wounded man appeared here, it was time to care for him and bind his wounds before he bled to death. Had you not done so, the man would have surely died and he would never have had an opportunity to make peace with you. At that moment, he was the most important person, and caring for him was your most important task.’ ‘So the answer to your questions’ continued the hermit, ‘there is only ever one important time and that time is “now”. Furthermore, the most important person is the one who stands before you now. God gives us one opportunity at a time. The person you are with now and the task that lies just ahead of you is always more important than either that in the past or that in the future. The past has one. The future may never happen. The present is the only reality.’

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The elephant [Story #27] There was a city whose inhabitants were all blind. One day, the king arrived with his entourage and camped outside of the city. The king had a huge elephant that he used in battle and as a symbol of his authority. The villages were keen to know about the elephant and some went running out to the encampment to seek it, even though they had no idea what they were hoping to find. When this group came on the elephant they began to feel a part of it – and a different part. Each considered that he had knowledge of what the elephant was. When they returned to the village the inhabitants were eager to hear exactly what an elephant was. From those feeling it they heard: “It is a large, rough, thing, wide and broad, like a rug” from the one who had felt its ear). “It is like a straight and hollow pipe, awful and destructive” (from the one who had felt its trunk). “It is mighty and firm, like a pillar” (from the one who had felt its feet and legs). Of course, each had felt only one part and had no true picture of the whole. This next story is typical of the way the American Red Indian tribes dealt with problems, and is adapted from Peter A. Sanders, Scientific Vortex Information. Free Soul Publishing, pp. 51-2 The Wheel [Story #28] Robert had a major problem that he wanted the answer to. He thought about it day after day. He dissected it, worried about it, had sleepless nights as he grappled to solve the problem. As he did so, he realized he was going round and round in circles. He was going over the same issues in the same way. But Robert was aware he needed to approach his problem differently. He also knew he could not do this on his own. It was time to enter the wheel. He had gone as far as he could on his own. Robert had to go to the elder of the village to request the wheel to be formed. The wheel was special, it was a one-off situation; it was unique. Robert had to state which day the wheel was to be formed and he had to supply something of sentimental value as payment. He knew that the payment did not have to be materially of value, just of sentimental value. Robert gives his object, his

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payment, of sentimental value and arranges for the day of the full moon for his turn of the wheel. The day arrives. The elders of the village just know they are being summoned to form the wheel. Their ancient wisdom is so great, their intuition and psychic abilities so great that they just know not only that they are being called to form the wheel, but exactly the day that the wheel is to be formed. As the elders arrive in the village each places a stone, which soon begin to form a circle. As the day progresses, so the circle takes shape. As the last elder arrives, the final stone is placed to complete the circle. With the circle complete, the elders arrive and sit around the stones of the wheel. Robert is called and he enters the centre of the wheel. He knows the purpose of the wheel. After stating his problem, he can turn to the elders in turn and ask him or her their view of his problem. This he does. Each elder gives a different perspective on his problem. One elder expressed in part his own interpretation of the problem, but there was a slightly different slant on it. Another elder gives a totally different interpretation, and one that he had not thought about at all. Yet another, a woman of great age, gave a more sympathetic view of the problem with many shades of meaning and interpretation. As Robert turns to each elder in turn, hearing their different views of his problem, so he realizes that he truly had not thought it all through sufficiently and was most glad he had asked for the wheel to be formed. He was beginning to formulate a solution to his problem as he turned the wheel. Slowly but surely he escaped his own vicious circle and began to see the problem in a clear light. By the time he came to the final elder he had clearly solved the problem he had. He knew exactly what he must do. Robert bowed low and thanked the elders for their time and for their wisdom. Each elder then took up the stone that marked his or her place in the circle and dispensed with it. Soon no sign of the circle remained. Yet, Robert, who was still standing in what was formerly the centre of the circle, was fully aware of its value: the value of the wheel – his wheel!

19.6 Some miscellaneous stories In this section we present four additional stories that don’t readily fit into the earlier classifications, but are still useful in their own right, e.g. the first on ‘You are not a camel’ is useful for dealing with binge eating. You are not a camel [Story #9] I was born into this world in the oasis of Semona in the north of Nubia. I recall it was a warm day. The day was warm and I drank from the pool at the centre of the oasis. I soon recognized that I was part of a camel train, that I was a young camel with a hump on my back. Not that I minded the hump, it was simply a part of me.

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As the camel train moved through the dessert from oasis to oasis, I learnt to take my fill of water when it was available and go for days without any. The desert was like that. Water was only available in the oases, and these ere far apart. Some other animals, like sheep, perished from lack of water and were slaughtered for their meat. But we camels were prized above all because we could go without water for days and yet drink our fill when it was available. Now Billy was born into the Jones’s family. It was a family of five and Billy had two brothers and two sisters. Billy’s parents were not well off and at meal times Billy and his brothers and sisters were forced to eat every morsel of food. ‘Clean your plates,’ was a common demand from Billy’s mother. Even more was the constant threat that he could not leave the table until every scrap of food was eaten. As Billy grew up he started to binge eat. He would eat everything in front of him and more. He did not eat because he was hungry but rather out of habit. But that was not quite true. He went for large parts of the day without eating. This could even go beyond one day. But with the change in his blood sugar level his body demanded food. This was natural. It was straightforward hunger pangs. But then when Billy started to eat, he would gorge himself. He went well beyond satisfying his hunger and simply binged out of habit. He deluded himself that this was OK because he went for long periods without food. One day Billy was watching TV and the programme was about camels and their way of dealing with water. And suddenly Billy saw that his binge eating was just like the camel’s intake of water. His binge eating was inevitably initiated by his body’s hunger and that this needed to be satisfied. But he realized that he allowed this to go beyond satisfying hunger; as if he was then able to diet in-between his binges. But of course this never happened. He soon realized that unless he switched off the hunger pangs he would continue in a cycle of binging and dieting. He was not a camel and did not have to have this eating pattern. The horse soldier [Story #18] [Source: Adapted from Aesop’s Fables.] A cavalry soldier depended much on his horse, which became his companion too. As the days of the war progressed the soldier shared all he had with his horse. They shared all the toils and troubles of the war, but they shared their food as well. The master treated his horse well for the duration of the war. At the end of the war the soldier kept his stead and the soldier began to farm. It was now peacetime. The land was plentiful and the master began to burden his horse with more and more work. No longer did the master share his food with his

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horse. Nor did he feed him well. He was only fed on straw and the poorest of hey. The horse became feeble and weak, but this went unheeded by his master. Then one day, another war was declared and the farmer was once again drafted into the cavalry. The master bridled his horse and mounted. But the horse was too weak and stumbled at every step. As he did so he said to his master, “Now go and join the foot soldiers. From a horse you have made an ass of me. How then can you expect to change me back from an ass into a horse?” Mulan’s story [Story #21] Mulan is the only daughter. Each year the emperor calls on each family to provide one male for the army. Mulan’s father is the only male in the family and he is old and injured in the last war. But the law demands that he must go. Honour, pride and duty would mean he would not refuse. Mulan considers going in his place. She struggles with this decision, knowing that for a woman to impersonate a man in China is punishable by death. However she overcomes her anxieties and concerns puts on her father’s armour and rides off to enlist in his place. Obstacles are many. She must act like a man and learn to fight. She however finds resources within herself she never knew she had and finds allies to help her. She even begins to have pride in herself. She becomes ‘one of the guys’ and rides bravely into battle with the other men. The battle is with the Mongolian hordes. They have amassed on the snow-covered land and are ready to ride down on the Chinese army. The Mongols way outnumber the small contingent of Chinese soldiers. But the Chinese commander gives the order to charge and terror reigns as they know they are outnumbered. Mulan sees one chance. She grabs a rocket and fires it at a large glacier. The glacier breaks off and comes thundering down with an avalanche covering the Mongolian army. But just as the avalanche comes down the Mongolian chief fires an arrow at Mulan, which wounds here in the shoulder. The Chinese soldiers cheer Mulan for saving the day. But while attending to her wound they discover that she is a girl. The advisor to the captain says that she must be executed immediately. But the captain cannot bring himself to do this, since it was Mulan who saved them all. Torn between the rules and his conscience, he banishes Mulan. The soldiers pick up their gear and begin their journey back to Beijing, totally ignoring Mulan who was left in the cold and the snow of the mountain pass. One moment a hero, but now considered a villain – despised by the very men who she had saved so valiantly. She begins a lonely trek home in the snow. However, she discovers that not all the Mongol soldiers had died in the avalanche. The Mongol chief and a few of his army had survived. Not only survived, but they were making their way to Beijing clearly bent on killing the emperor. Mulan follows them even to the risk to herself, knowing she had to warn the emperor.

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But when she arrives in Beijing and attempts to inform the captain of the impending assault, they simply ignore here: it’s as if she doesn’t exist. Frustrated she runs ahead to the emperor’s palace pursued by the captain and some of his men. But there on the balcony of the palace is the Mongolian chief holding the emperor at sword point. Now they believe Mulan, but cannot do anything about it. Once again Mulan comes to the rescue. She suggests to the captain that she and some of the soldiers dress as concubines and present themselves flirtatiously to the guards at the gate, so letting them pass. This they succeed in doing. Once in the place they make their way to where the emperor is held captive. Mulan herself overcomes the Mongolian chief after much difficulty and force of wit, so saving the emperor. She is cheered and celebrated by all of China for saving the emperor’s life. Grandmother spider [Story #22] The Choctaw say that when the people first came up out of the ground, they were encased in cocoons, their eyes closed, their limbs folded tightly to their bodies. This was true of all people – the bird people, the animal people, the insect people, and the human people. They could not help themselves, enclosed as they were in their cocoons. The Great Spirit took pity on them and sent down someone to unfold their limbs, dry them off, and open their eyes. Such help from the Great Spirit however was not enough. Their opened eyes saw nothing, because the world was dark – no sun, no moon and not even stars. People moved around by touch. If they found something that didn’t eat them first, they ate it raw, for they had no fires with which to cook. The people came together for a great powwow. The animal and the bird people took the lead while the human people hung back. The animal and bird people decided that life was too cold and miserable. A solution must be found they concluded. Someone spoke from the dark, ‘I have heard that the people in the East have fire.’ This caused a stir of wonder. ‘What could fire be?’ And so there was a general discussion. It was decided that if, as rumour had it, fire was warm and gave light, that they should have it too. But as usual in such circumstances, bickering and uproar erupted that threatened into violence as they argued over who should control fire. Another voice said, ‘The people of the East are too greedy to share with us.’ It always seems that someone else has your fire and that you are searching for that fire. But as the bird and animal people decided, they should steal what they needed; that they should take it themselves no matter what force were required! But who should have the honour of stealing fire? Grandmother Spider volunteered, ‘I can do it! Let me try!’ But her voice could barely be heard over the clamour. At the same time, Opossum began to speak, ‘I am a great chief of

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the animal people. I will go to the East and since I am a great hunter, I will take the fire and hide it in the bushy hair on my tail. It was well known that Opossum had the furriest tail of all the animals. So Opossum was selected to travel the underground trail to the East. When Opossum arrived in the East he soon found the beautiful red fire; the red fire guarded by its people. Opossum got closer until he was able to pick up a small piece of burning wood. He stuck it in the hair of his tail, which began to smoke and then flame. The stench was terrible. But the people of the East saw Opossum stealing their fire. They took fire back and drove Opossum away. Poor Opossum! Every bit of hair on his tail had burned and that is why to this day opossums have no hair on their tails. And so it seems that even the great chiefs of the animals who always tell others what to do, never seem to get it right. Another powwow took place to find a volunteer. Again Grandmother Spider said, ‘Let me go since I can do it.’ But again she was ignored and Buzzard was elected to go and steal fire. Buzzard was proud. ‘I can succeed where Opossum failed.’ So he flew to the East, flew past those guarding the fire and picked up a small piece of burning ember, hiding it in his head feathers. But Buzzard’s head began to smoke and flame and the faster he flew the brighter and greater it burned. This meant people of the East could see Buzzard had stolen fire and they took it from him and put it back. Buzzard fell to the ground with his head bare of feathers, red and blistered. To this day buzzards have naked, red heads. The new powwow sent Crow but he too failed. The Council was at a loss who to send. If only we had a great sorceress? But as often happens the least likely to succeed has talents that can save the day. Like Frodo in Lord of the Rings, the smallest has abilities that can save the day: talents within themselves. And so at last tiny Grandmother Spider shouted with all her might, ‘Let me try it.’ Although the council thought Grandmother Spider had little chance of success, they agreed she should have her turn. Although Grandmother Spider had a small torso suspended by eight legs, she used these legs to find a stream where there was clay. And with those legs, she made a tiny clay container and a lid to fit perfectly. She put the container on here back and spun a web all the way to the East. On this web she tiptoed in until she came on the fire. Being very small she went in unnoticed by the people from the East. She took a tiny piece of fire and put it in the container, covering it with the lid. She tiptoed back along her web until she returned to her people. But the people could not see the fire saying, ‘Grandmother Spider you too have failed.’ But Grandmother Spider said, ‘I have the fire!’ And lifting the lid of her clay container, the fire flamed up into its friend, the air. Even though Grandmother Spider had got the fire, all the birds and animals discussed who would get this wonderful warmth. Bear said, ‘I’ll take it.’ But then he burned his paws on it and so decided fire was not for animals; pointing out how it had affected Opossum. The birds too wanted no part of fire; pointing out how Buzzard and Crow were still nursing their wounds. Even the insects wanted nothing of fire. Then a small voice was heard. ‘We will take it’

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said the timid human people, ‘if Grandmother Spider will help us control the fire.’ And so Grandmother Spider taught the human people how to feed the fire wood to keep it from dying and how to keep the fire safe in a circle of stones. At the same time she taught them about pottery made of clay and fire, about weaving and spinning. So Grandmother Spider became the humans’ inner spiritual wisdom, and humans now remember Grandmother Spider by making beautiful designs of her to decorate their homes so that their children never forget to honour Grandmother Spider.

19.7 Stories and self-hypnosis As we pointed out in the previous chapter stories like metaphors are best told by someone else. A story needs to be carefully chosen so that it is suitable for the client and their problem. This is even more true if the story is a long one otherwise the client is likely to get bored. For the self-hypnotist stories need to be found that have a bearing on your problem or help in some way with your self-improvement. Real-life stories are readily available in magazines and films. This highlights the two forms they can come in: the written word and the spoken word in the form of a film. Today we rarely hear just the spoken word. How, then, might a self-hypnotist use stories of this nature? If the story is in the written form, then cut it out (although this may be unnecessary). We assume that the story already has significance for you otherwise it would not have attracted your attention. Next place yourself in a state of self-hypnosis and give yourself the following suggestion. In a moment I will open my eyes and remain deep in trance and I will read the story about … It will have a deep impact on me, helping me to deal with my problem [or to bring about the improvement I am wanting]. There is no need to elaborate any further. The whole point about this is that reading the story in a trance state will activate unconscious thought processes even more significantly than listening to such a story in a normal waking state. The same basic instruction can be given about a movie. Here you have a choice about suggesting the whole movie or, as with Story #11 about Luke Skywalker and Yoda, it can be just a clip. It can be quite rewarding watching a whole movie while in a trance because your emotions are more heightened and so the impact of the movie will be greater. Care and common sense needs to be exercised here. Violent films, or those that give rise to negative feelings, should be avoided. The instruction can go something like this. In a moment I will open my eyes and remain deep in trance. I will play the movie … and will be even more moved with it than normal. It will have a deep impact on me, helping me to deal with my problem [or to bring about the improvement I am wanting]. In both the above suggestions the bit about self-improvement can be elaborated on to suggest the story will inspire me, motive me to do something, give me inspiration, etc. Here is a short list of some movies that are useful to use in a trance state. ·

Field of Dreams

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· · · · · ·

Chariots of Fire Dead Poets Society The Color Purple Gladiator The Shawshank Redemption Longitude

The list is by no means exhaustive. What matters is that the movie is one that moves you even in the normal waking state. In a state of self-hypnosis it will then have a much greater impact still.

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Chapter 20 Metaphors

Summary Metaphors are analogies that elicit and guide a person’s internal associations. They facilitate insight into problems and provide new ways of looking at them. They do this by invoking the unconscious mind. Here we provide fourteen metaphors.

CHAPTER 20 METAPHORS 20.1 Why use metaphors? A metaphor is a figure of speech which contains within it a comparison in which a word or phrase that is usually used for one thing is applied to another. Metaphors are analogies that elicit and guide the client’s internal associations. They facilitate insight into a problem and provide a new way of looking at it. Metaphors do not have to be long. But they are more than imagery: they have a point to make. Their use brings about unconscious thought processes which leads to knew meaning and understanding of a problem. For the therapist, metaphors allow the repeat of suggestions in a different form: a form that is engaging and nonthreatening. But why use metaphor? Therapists can use metaphors to by-pass clients’ resistance to discuss certain topics. By using the metaphor the therapist reduces the degree of threat that the client may feel. So rather than discuss the client’s problem directly the therapist may discuss a friend with some similar problem; or if adept at the use of metaphor, discuss some animal or thing in which the problem somehow arises and is handled. Suppose, for example, the client needs to change in some way from the way they are presently into something different. A therapist can, of course, discuss the change. But a therapist can discuss the caterpillar that wants to become a butterfly. By seeing how another (person or animal) handles the problem the client learns from the other’s experience. The same, of course, applies to fairy stories and parables. In fact, drawing on the experience of others without going through it yourself is a way of learning. So the young child reading Harry Potter draws on the experience of Harry Potter so helping them in their own life struggles. Another use of the metaphor is it allows the therapist to incorporate embedded suggestions which are less likely to be picked up at the conscious level by the client, but which are picked up unconsciously. In the example above of the caterpillar that wants to become a butterfly, the therapist may readily incorporate suggestions of life being tedious as a caterpillar; that each day seems like every other day; that there is no excitement, etc. These embedded suggestions then lead to unconscious thought processes that can help the client resolve some problem or undertake some change. The caterpillar metaphor is such an important and useful metaphor that we present it here in full. [The metaphor numbers refer to those on the web site.] The caterpillar that wanted to change [Metaphor #9] [This famous metaphor was originally about a silkworm and comes from St. Teresa of Avila’s The Interior Castle, Chapter 2 of the Fifth Mansion. It is adapted here to a caterpillar. “She” throughout can readily replace “him”.] There was this caterpillar, a cabbage-leaf caterpillar, which just ate and ate and ate. Each day seemed to be the same. He munched away on his cabbage leaves, working from one leaf to another. The only variety seemed to be which cabbage he ate next. There were some differences depending on whether the day was sunny, whether dull or whether it was raining. And as the days went by this same caterpillar became more

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and more dissatisfied. “Surely” he kept saying to himself, “there must be more to life than this?” He considered that he wanted to do something different, something exciting, and something that would raise his spirits. “But what?” he thought to himself. So he decided that he needed to give this problem some real thought to this problem. He also realised that he needed to shut himself off from all other influences while this momentous decision was taking place. So he began to spin a cocoon, which totally encased him from outside influences. And while in this cocoon, he began to ponder on what he would like to become and how he might accomplish this. While a caterpillar he crawled along the cabbage leaves slowly and rather clumsily. The only view of the world was the leaf and the ground below. “How nice” he thought, “it would be to fly above the ground and see all that was below.” So he decided that he would become a butterfly. He had seen a number of these land on the cabbage leaf, and he had thought how wonderful they looked, and what an exciting life they must lead. But to become a butterfly he had to change. He had to change quite dramatically and had to shed all his past form. Yes, if he were to grow wings, he needed to change, and to change quite dramatically. And so while in this cocoon, and safe from all outside influences, he began his change: his metamorphosis. As the days went by he could feel the changes taking place. He was not yet sure what shape they would take, but he was sure that something was happening, something important. And he was glad about this. He was satisfied with his accomplishments in carrying out the changes that he so wanted. He began to work on the small things at first. Changing this small part of him and then another. Reducing the number of legs he had, which he never liked anyway. Changing the shape of his body. Then he decided to start the change that allowed him to grow wings. This took some time, and was quite a new experience for him. He had to change the part of his body where the wings would grow from. He had to decide the shape and span of these new strange things. But all this he accomplished. Then he had to change his head and the over-all weight distribution of his body so that he could fly. And all this he did with great enthusiasm and great joy. Confident that all this change was under his direct control and within the confines of the cocoon. And he knew that he could take as long as he liked to carry out the changes that he thought were necessary. Then one day he decided that the time had come for him to go out into the world, to fly above the ground and to see the things he had never seen before, to feel things he had never felt before, and to experience things he had never experienced before. Although he was a little apprehensive, he was also excited by the whole idea. He so desperately wanted to fly, to rise above the ground, to sour into the sky. He wanted to expand his horizons as never before. No longer was he going to just simply munch away on cabbage leaves. There was so much more to do, so much more to experience, so much more to learn. And he wanted all these things. Yes, now he thought he was ready. No matter what the future would bring, he was happy with

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his decision to change. And having made this decision to change, he was going to get the most out of his newfound freedom. So he broke open the cocoon, a little at first, and then more and more until he could squeeze himself totally out of it. It was a day like no other day. The sun was shining and it was warm without being too hot. There was a little breeze in the air. The first thing that felt strange was his smaller number of legs. He had to use these to get out of the cocoon. But they were strong and longer than those he had as a caterpillar. The most exciting thing of all, however, was opening up his wings for the first time. His wings were totally new to him. Yet, somehow, he knew what he must do with them. Certainly he had seen other butterflies landing on the cabbage leaves, so he had some idea of what was necessary. But nothing could detract from the thrill of opening up those wings and feeling the wind above and below them: feeling the lift that the air brought as it went over the wings. But the real excitement was yet to come. He began to flap his wings, and lo, air born he became. Being unsure of himself, he only went a little way into the air. Then landed. The landing was a little clumsy because he had not done this before. So again he took a small flight, landing better this time. He flew from leaf to leaf. So quick it was relative to when he was a caterpillar. Now having mastered the takeoff and landing, he thought the time had come to really go air born. Up he went, higher and higher. He could see so many cabbages in the field below, much more than he thought there was when he was a caterpillar. As he soured higher and higher, the field became part of a farm, and the farm became part of a whole landscape that went as far as the eye could see. How small and insignificant a cabbage is, he thought, as he soured above the landscape. Then he saw a field of daffodils: so yellow and so bright. “What a wonderful sight,” he thought to himself. Never before had he experienced so wonderful a sight. “I would never have seen such a sight as this,” he said to himself, “if I had not decided to change and become a butterfly.” This made his decision all the more important, all the more the right thing to have done. And so he spent the rest of the day flittering from flower to flower, enjoying the bright sunny day amongst the field of daffodils. He even became aware that he was picking up some yellow substance from the centre of the flower that seemed to be at the top of a long stem. He was aware that as he went from flower to flower he deposited some of this. But all was too exciting to linger on such thoughts at this time. As the days went by he flew further and further in all directions. The day even came when he no longer returned to the place where he first started. He just went on and on from field to field, from hill to hill and from one valley to the next. It was all so exciting and so wondrous. He just wanted to learn from all the new experiences, from all the new sights and sounds. He loved the feel of the sun on his back and on his wings. He loved it when he could glide in the wind. He was glad he had made the decision to change! Metaphors have multiple functions. They · Make or illustrate a point · Suggest solutions · Get people to recognize themselves · Seed ideas and increase motivation · Decrease resistance · Reframe and redefine a problem

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· Are engaging and non-threatening · Allow the individual to identify with person in the story Any given metaphor can involve one or more of these functions. But usually they have a particular emphasis. For instance, the metaphor may be presented to help resolve a problem, but it may in the process enable the individual to recognize themselves and even provide motivation to change or do something. The following table summarizes some of the most popular metaphors encountered in hypnotherapy.

Table 20.1 Popular metaphors Broken picture

Imagine a picture, broken into a thousand pieces. Begin to pick up the pieces and put them back together again. [Good for children and for traumatic events.] Changes in preference Elaborate on eating and how one’s preferences for certain foods changes over one’s lifetime. Emphasis on being part of nature to change. That change is natural, change is exciting. Closed draw Put problems on paper, put the paper in a draw, close the draw and leave the problems and stresses there. Each week, clear out the draw of all the old slips of paper, ready for a new set. Computer programming Wiping the disk of all faulty programmes. Re-programming. That they are the one’s who are re-programming. Different parts Story of a schoolboy where one part wanted to stay at school because he liked his teacher, part who wanted to go on. He had many parts. Which part would you like to talk to and know about? Gate control Unconscious mind can interrupt the messages coming from the site of the pain. There are many gates that the messages must pass through. Have the gates closed to prevent the message passing through. Lake Standing on the lakeshore. Where you stand is dreary and depressing, the water is rough and treacherous. Other side is calm, bright, people enjoying themselves. You must cross the lake. Things will impede your progress, but you overcome all. Memory bank Must put facts into your memory bank. You go into a bank to withdraw money, you fill out withdrawal slip. Mexican Food Eating hot chilli. Burning hot, eyes watering, etc. Can’t imagine anyone eating hot chilli, can’t taste anything. Then lived in Mexico for some time, got used to it, got used to the pain, the stinging, etc. Moving house Giving up known for unknown. Leaving past for future. Getting rid of old outdated things.

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Pain Penicillin Pressure cooker

Prominent tree

Pygmalion

Pyramid

Runner off the block Scab

Setting broken bone

Sickness (flu)

Sky diving

Snowball

Symphony metaphor

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Synapses where pain has to jump the gap. Can spread the gap so the sparks can’t jump the gap. Things should not be taken at their face value. Mould growing on plate killed off the bacteria. Gave rise to penicillin. Ever seen a pressure cooker? Steam builds up creating great pressure. But pressure must be released, which is why we hear the hiss. If not, something will burst. Important to release the pressure. Grows from seed. Roots into the ground, branches up to the sky. Nutrient both from the ground and from the sun. Strong and can withstand all storms. Learning to bend in the wind so as not to break. In mythology Pygmalion was sculpture on Cyprus. Could not find a woman to equal his expectations. Overcritical and found fault in all women. Built statue of the perfect woman. But could not find real-life counterpart. Prayed to Aphrodite to find a woman of perfection. She knew this was not possible, so breathed life into the statue. Pyramid has single chamber housing all their treasure. Must topple the black statue to get at their treasure. Can take only what they need at any given moment of time. Must learn to use the starting blocks properly. Important to come out of the starting block faster. We’ve all cut or scraped ourselves. A scab forms. Makes us feel self-conscious. May be painful and scab a reminder. Most of us get scars as we grow up. But then the scars heal, the scab falls off, and we no longer feel the pain or hurt. Work like setting a broken bone. Doctor doesn’t want to cause pain but must set the bone otherwise the pain will continue and possible person become disabled. Remember when you got the flu, how bad you felt. But then you got over it. Before long forgot completely how bad it was. Now it doesn’t influence you at all. Making a star requires teamwork. Must connect. Takes discipline and co-operation. Star is skydivers’ favourite design. Constant practice. When not right immediately go back and try again. When the star is right, they all share in the satisfaction. On snow-capped mountain looking down into valley, a place you have been trying to reach. All obstacles are what stand between you and your goals. Pick up a ball of snow. Lacks firmness and strength. Pack more snow, making it firm. Go over to steep incline and roll the ball down. Straight at obstacles. Ball grows in size, soon crushing everything in its path. Your way is now clear. Like to think of the body as an orchestra. Symphony orchestra makes beautiful music but made up of many parts. [Include aspects of harmony and discord, orchestrating, rehearsal, cooperation, importance of different parts, balance, tune, not in tune, fine tuning, practice, tempo, etc.]

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Turn off the light

Ugly duckling

In house with many rooms. Find room that contains unpleasant feeling that experiencing now. Turn off the light in the room and tiptoe out. Lock the door behind you so those feelings don’t bother you any more. Story of the ugly duckling. Used to discuss transformation, growth and change.

The difficulty with the metaphor for the self-hypnotist is that they have to think of the meaning of the metaphor for the issue at hand and so it seems to lose its force. Metaphors are best heard from someone else. Even so, because metaphors act on unconscious processes hearing them a few times leads to different unconscious thought processes. Therefore, although the self-hypnotist may consider they understand the metaphor in the first place, they may find that they react to it differently on different occasions. This means that it is useful to tape or place on a CD metaphors, or embed them in a session that is taped/placed on CD. Different societies have known about the importance of metaphors and approach them in slightly different ways. In all cases the aim is to enable the individual to think about their problem in a different way. The metaphor places the problem in a totally different context and, like a story, it does not require a response. In so doing it allows the person to consider the problem in a totally different way. The metaphor, therefore, initiates conscious and unconscious thought processes different from the way the individual has so far thought about the problem. This is the value of the metaphor. It allows the individual to think consciously and unconsciously, but most especially unconsciously, about their problem in a totally different way. Some societies do this in terms of sayings, for example, the parables of Christ, the Sufi sayings of the East and the Zen koans. The parables of Christ are probably well known to the readers of the West, but the Sufi sayings may not be so familiar. The Sufi sayings are classic in the use of metaphor and they illustrate another feature of metaphor, namely that they must capture the interest (focus) of the listener. There is even one about the use of analogy in Sufi sayings. A certain important man of learning said to a Sufi, ‘Why do you Sufis always use analogies? Such forms are good enough for the ignorant, but you can speak clearly to people of sense.’ The Sufi said, ‘Experience shows, alas, that it is not a matter of the ignorant and the wise. It is a matter that those who are most in need of a certain understanding, or even a certain part of understanding, are always the least able to accept it without an analogy. Tell them directly and they will prevent themselves perceiving its truth.’

The Sufi sayings are short and, most especially, quite amusing. Idries Shah has complied a whole series of Sufi sayings of the famous Nasrudin. Take just the following. The Mulla’s neighbour wanted to borrow his clothes-line. ‘Sorry,’ said Nasrudin. I am using it. Drying flour. ‘How on earth can you dry flour on the clothes-line?’

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‘It is less difficult than you think when you do not want to lend it.’

The parables of Christ are serious while the Zen koans are puzzles that force the mind along different paths.

20.2 Some general metaphors Metaphors are introduced by a therapist for a particular problem or to create a specific change. We have already included the caterpillar who wants to become a butterfly as a metaphor for change and transformation. A second useful metaphor for change and transformation is the bread machine. This metaphor has the advantage of stressing doing things in the correct order and getting the proportions right. The bread machine [Metaphor #2] Baking bread is such a miracle, such a transformation. From some simple raw ingredients you can produce one of natures most satisfying and wholesome foods. Creating change in your life is just like baking bread. And just like bread, the basic raw ingredients are simple, readily available and small in number. To change something in your life also requires a small simple set of readily available items. These items we have in abundance within ourselves. It is simply a case of calling on them. They are there in the unconscious mind. When baking bread in a bread machine – a modern way and an easy way to make bread – the art is having the right ingredients in the right quantities and put in the bread machine in the right order. Then and only then can the correct transformation take place. But if we think of ourselves as the bread machine, and the unconscious mind as the programme then the right ingredients can be supplied in the right quantities without us knowing exactly how. The unconscious mind knows what the right ingredients are, what the right quantities are and what the right order is. All we are required to do is want the change: and want it very much; want the transformation. And so with the right ingredients put in the baking tin in the right amount and in the right order, the size of loaf and the programme is then set. It is like saying to your unconscious mind that you want to change and you are now ready for the change and are willing to accept the consequences of the change. This is enough, so long as you are truly willing to set the change in motion. So from just water, flour, wheat, salt, butter and yeast the process of change begins. The bread machine kneads and warms the ingredients and allows the transformation to take place and the loaf to rise within the tin. Rise into something we know as bread; something quite different from the ingredients we placed in the tin. But all this change, all this transformation, takes around three hours. And just as you can let the bread machine get on with the process, so you can allow your unconscious mind to

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bring about the transformation you want. You do not have to know exactly how this transformation is done; all you need is the confidence in your unconscious mind to do what has to be done. To give it the time to do what has to be done; and in so doing a beautiful loaf will result. A transformation will take place bringing about what you want to bring about. Related to change and transformation is that of empowerment. We dealt with this in stories, but the gladiator also acts as a good metaphor for empowerment. Gladiator [Metaphor #8] Maximus, the most successful Roman general, lost favour with Comodos, who had just killed his father. Comodos had sentenced Maximus to death along with his family, but Maximus managed to escape. Unfortunately he was wounded in the process. On returning to his home, he found his wife and son had been murdered. After burying them he fell exhausted at the graveside. He was found by a slave trader and taken as a slave. Later a gladiatorial trainer, Proximo, bought him. At first Maximus had no purpose to fight; he refused even to take up a sword. He had lost his wife and child; he had lost his reason to live. He had no motivation to fight: no reason to fight.death. But his point was that they could choose the manner in which they faced their death: they could face it as men. This was the first thing that Maximus had heard that moved him. So he went out into the arena that day and fought courageously. He chose to die, if that was to be, as a man. He had become motivated because he found a reason to fight: he found a reason to exist. In fact, he now found a reason to get up each morning even if it meant fighting another battle in the arena and dying. But later he became even more motivated. Proximo was one day praising Maximus’ ability as a gladiator, by saying he was good, but not that good. To be the best he had to win the crowd. At first this did not impress Maximus. But Proximo went on that Comodos had reinstated the gladiatorial games in Rome at the famous Coliseum. Maximus’ excitement began to rise. It was Comodos who had arranged his death; it was Comodos who had arranged for the death of his wife and son. Maximus wanted nothing more than to kill Comodos. But to do that he would have to get close to him. He could do this if he became a supreme gladiator. And so he told Proximo that, “I will win the crowd, I will become the greatest gladiator Rome has ever seen.” Maximus now had a goal. He had a clear goal and it was this clear goal that motivated him: that gave everything he now did a purpose. He had a main central goal and that was to kill Comodos. That was all he lived for. But there were many steps in achieving this goal. He had to ensure that he went to Rome and to do that he had to fight some local games with renewed enthusiasm and in such a way as to win the crowd. He had to learn how to win the crowd, so that when he went to Rome he could do it there. And so the film developed.

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Then one day just before a gladiatorial spectacular Proximo made a speech about dying. Dying, of course happened quite readily to gladiators. Proximo made the point that some did not want to fight, while others did not know how to fight. But they would all inevitably meet their Change and transformation often involves making decisions and problem-solving. The next two metaphors are useful for this. The Wheel [Metaphor #1] Robert had a major problem that he wanted the answer to. He thought about it day after day. He dissected it, worried about it, had sleepless nights as he grappled to solve the problem. As he did so, he realized he was going round and round in circles. He was going over the same issues in the same way. But Robert was aware he needed to approach his problem differently. He also knew he could not do this on his own. It was time to enter the wheel. He had gone as far as he could on his own.payment, of sentimental value and arranges for the day of the full moon for his turn of the wheel. The day arrives. The elders of the village just know they are being summoned to form the wheel. Their ancient wisdom is so great, their intuition and psychic abilities so great that they just know not only that they are being called to form the wheel, but exactly the day that the wheel is to be formed. As the elders arrive in the village each places a stone, which soon begin to form a circle. As the day progresses, so the circle takes shape. As the last elder arrives, the final stone is placed to complete the circle. With the circle complete, the elders arrive and sit around the stones of the wheel. Robert is called and he enters the centre of the wheel. He knows the purpose of the wheel. After stating his problem, he can turn to the elders in turn and ask him or her their view of his problem. This he does. Each elder gives a different perspective on his problem. One elder expressed in part his own interpretation of the problem, but there was a slightly different slant on it. Another elder gives a totally different interpretation, and one that he had not thought about at all. Yet another, a woman of great age, gave a more sympathetic view of the problem with many shades of meaning and interpretation. As Robert turns to each elder in turn, hearing their different views of his problem, so he realizes that he truly had not thought it all through sufficiently and was most glad he had asked for the wheel to be formed. He was beginning to formulate a solution to his problem as he turned the wheel. Slowly but surely he escaped his own vicious circle and began to see the problem in a clear light. By the time he came to the final elder he had clearly solved the problem he had. He knew exactly what he must do. Robert bowed low and thanked the elders for their time and for their wisdom. Each elder then took up the stone that marked his or her place in the circle and dispensed with it. Soon no sign of the circle remained. Yet, Robert, who was still standing in what was formerly the centre of the circle, was fully aware of its value: the value of the wheel – his wheel! Robert had to go to the elder of the village to request the wheel to be formed. The wheel was special, it was a one-off situation; it was unique. Robert had to state which

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day the wheel was to be formed and he had to supply something of sentimental value as payment. He knew that the payment did not have to be materially of value, just of sentimental value. Robert gives his object, his It is quite difficult to get across to someone in a reasoned discussion not only what is meant by the term ‘being grounded’ but also why it is important for a person to so feel. This is one of the advantages of the metaphor. This metaphor is adapted from Stanton, The Fantasy Factor, p.32. Being grounded [Metaphor #10] In your garden is a beautiful large tree, an old tree which has blossomed every year and bears the most delicious fruit. In spring the tree blossoms with the most magnificent pink blossom. You can see it now full of blossom with the bees coming to collect their honey; and birds nestling in its leaves. Over the years the tree has become a heaven for so much wildlife, from the spider to the birds, from the bees and wasps to the insects that habit its trunk without causing it any harm. In summer the tree bears its fruit, which is the most delicious fruit you have ever tasted. And this seems to be so year after year. The tree itself is tall and has a full and thick trunk, with roots that go deep into the ground and from which it takes in all its nutrient. Yes the tree is fully grounded, solid and secure in the earth. But not only is the tree grounded in the earth below, but it rises into the sky above, and as it does so so it gains strength and vitality from the earth below and the sun and sky above. It is grounded but still rises tall and magnificent. You are now looking intently at this magnificent tree and you think of yourself like this tree. You feel yourself firmly grounded, secure and solid just like the tree's roots and the tree's trunk. Yes, you consider yourself fully grounded and having a clear and solid conception of life, being confident in yourself and secure. And just like others see the tree as grounded, solid and secure, so they too see you in the same way: solid, secure and dependable. Always grounded, and always bearing fruit. But you know that you are more than the tree: yes, you know that you can think, that you can reason, and that you can take control of your life. You can use the nutrient from the soil and the power from the sun for your own desires, for your own wishes, and for your own plans for the present and the future. Yes your power is like the power of the tree - but even more so, even more powerful and strong, even more grounded. And because of this you feel that nothing is beyond your capabilities; that no problem is difficult enough that it cannot be handled. For someone with your grounding and with your power all is possible. Many clients that arrange to see hypnotherapists are those suffering from anxiety (often acute anxiety). Anxiety is often associated with depression and the individual not only has negative thinking, but ruminates over the same issues over-and-over again. Metaphors act as a useful

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escape from rumination. Here are five metaphors. The first presents an analogy often used, especially in sport, of being an anchor. An anchor holds a ship fast. So a person can be the anchor of a team. The next image may be used to help an athlete realize that role he or she must take. Anchors away [Metaphor #5] The Mary Rose came round the peninsular into the bay. The wind was beginning to rise and the sea was developing a swell. Her masts were heaving in the wind and the sails were full. It was necessary to take shelter from the storm. Like all good sailing ships, the Mary Rose had a good anchor. When the anchor was lowered, which it was now, it held the ship firm. The anchor was made of solid iron whose weight could, and would, hold the ship fast in any storm. Faithful as always, the anchor now held the ship fast from the developing storm. No matter what the weather became, the captain knew that his anchor would hold him firm, as it had done so many times before. It was solid and faithful and held the ship firm and steady amid the flux of changing air and sea currents. No matter how turbulent the weather became, no matter how much the Mary Rose swayed in the fullness of a storm, the anchor held it firm and steady. Just like the Mary Rose, we each have an anchor that is the stable part of our being. The part that holds fast no matter what is going on around us. The part that keeps our mind clear amid the changing nature of sensations and emotions that beset us. But this anchor is not made of solid iron, but none the less is strong enough to withstand all that life can throw at it. And we can think of our own anchor just like the anchor of the Mary Rose. The anchor symbolises our own anchor, our own steadfastness in turbulent times. When a storm is rising a ship will birth in sheltered surroundings and lower its anchor in order to hold fast against the rising storm. So too with our own anchor. We can imagine going to a place of tranquillity, and lowering our anchor, allowing us to hold fast and firm no matter what emotions are besetting us, no matter what negativity is being directed towards us. Our anchor allows us to be centred and calm amidst the troubled waters of life. The plot of land [Metaphor #6] Imagine that you are both a plot of land and the person about to cultivate this plot of land. Your first job is to cut away all the growth, most especially the weeds. You are going to clear this plot of land totally of all previous growth ready for planting totally new seeds. Some weeds are particularly troublesome, since they have roots way down into the ground. All these roots must be got rid of. You know this because even if you leave just some they will sprout up again, and you don’t want this. You are out with the spade digging up all these roots, clearing away all the previous growth. You are now ready to turn over all the soil. You are out with the spade and the pitchfork, digging into the clay soil and turning it over. You are getting the entire plot ready for planting. You especially get one section well turned over, and with every bit

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of old plants removed. This is going to be your rockery, your special part of the plot for bright and colourful flowers. You survey your plot now that all the land has been cleared and all the soil has been turned over. You introduce manure into the soil to give it an extra boost of nutrient, spreading it all around, most especially in your rockery. The plot is now ready for planting. But first you look around making decisions of what to plant and where to plant them. You have a clear picture in your mind of what you would like the plot of land to look like when all the plants are blooming: the colours, the shapes, the different textures. You give special consideration to your rockery. Thinking about the height of the plants as well as the colours and perfumes. You consider not only flowers but also food, which you are also going to plant in this plot of land of yours. In fact, your plot of land is not only going to have trees, bushes and flowers, but also fruit and vegetables. And now you begin to plant your various items. The trees and bushes, which will provide shade and an environment for birds, are planted. Various flowers and fruits are planted. You plant your rockery with loving care and much thought. Finally, you plant the various vegetables. You place a net over certain sections of the plot to protect it from birds that would like to eat the seeds. You think about the worms that will arrive to aireate the soil, the butterflies, bees and wasps that will pollinate the flowers and blossoms from the trees; and the ladybirds that will eat the green fly. You survey your plot and think about it as a living, breathing cosmos; and you feel gratified in what you have started. As the seasons pass, you look after and tend to your plot with loving care. You water it when it needs watering; you provide it with extra nutrient when you consider this is necessary. You ensure nothing harmful arrives in your plot of land. Allowing it to grow and blossom as it was meant to do. And in the spring, you begin to see the fruits of your labours. The first shoots begin to appear and the spring flowers begin to bloom. The plot begins to change in colour and texture as the variety of plants and vegetable, trees and shrubs begin to bloom and blossom. The rockery begins to take shape, as you wanted it to; with a beautiful blend of colours and textures. When the sun shines on your plot of land you see the colours at their most magnificent, and you are pleased with what you see and pleased with the result of your labours. As recognized in the Sufi sayings, metaphors often use analogies to make a point. A very common metaphor used in hypnotherapy is removing the rubbish – binning it, burying it, etc. Here is one typical metaphor which illustrates this analogy, this one being adapted from Wells, The Joy of Visualization, pp.26-7. Cleaning out your mind [Metaphor #11] You have made a decision to clean out your mind, yes you mind, which has become cluttered with rubbish from the past and the present. Rubbish that you do not want, rubbish that is stopping you from doing things, of being what you want to be. You take a bag and begin with one particular room; one particular 'room' of your mind, which contains all your worries and concerns, and into the bag you begin to throw away the rubbish. As you begin to do this, you find even more rubbish than you thought possible; all the worries and concerns from the past are being thrown into the rubbish bag. You begin to enjoy the experience, you enjoy the idea of getting rid of

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all those worries and concerns from the past that has cluttered up your mind. Not only the big worries but the little ones too are being discarded. The worries from the past and the worries from the present, all are being thrown away into the rubbish bag. Now you tie up the rubbish bag of worries and place it ready to be thrown out: but not yet, because you have other rubbish bags too. You go to a second room, a second 'room' of your mind, which has all the hang-ups you have accumulated from other people's negative thoughts and from your own negative thoughts. Yes, this room contains all the accumulation of negativity that has stifled you, that has prevented you from doing what you want to do, from doing what you can do, from being what you can be. And so into a second bag go all your negativity, all other people's negative influences on you: all negativity both from the past and from the present. All are being thrown into the rubbish bag. This too makes you feel good, feel uplifted, feel free from negative influences. You now tie up this second bag and place it with the first. [Keep this up for as many 'rooms' of the mind you consider you wish to clear out.] Now you take all the rubbish bags to the front, to where they are just about to be collected by the refuge men. The van just roles up as you are putting out the rubbish. You say to the men that you have lots of rubbish today since you have been clearing out your mind. And the men comment that this is good, and that people should do this more often. They are happy to remove such rubbish because not only is that their job, but they consider it an essential one. And you comment that you will from now on be doing this at regular intervals, that you will be clearing out the rubbish from your mind. And as the van roles off down the street, so you feel liberated, you feel free from the hang-ups and worries from the past and present, from the negativity both of others and yourself. You feel so good as you return to the house, the house which is now cleaner and free from the rubbish from the past and the present. You feel good, you feel happy and you feel life now has more to offer you because you can meet it fully and unconditionally. A related metaphor is letting go of the rubbish. This metaphor is adapted from H.E. Stanton, The Stress Factor. Letting go of of the rubbish [Metaphor 13] You are in a garden, not necessarily your own garden, a garden in which you have been collecting up all the rubbish and placing it in a drum ready to burn. You see yourself putting in the leaves and branches which you have been clearing from the garden. As you do so you consider how lovely the garden looks now that you have cleared away the rubbish. And your mind starts to think how wonderful it would be to be able to do the same to the rubbish of your mind, to all that rubbish that

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accumulates in the mind. And this idea seems to take hold and amuses you to its possibility. And suddenly you see a drum, which has your name blazon across its side and below it the word “Rubbish”. You turn around, and now you see strewn around the garden are bits of rubbish. They are not the usual types of rubbish, on the contrary, they represent the accumulated rubbish of your mind. Rubbish from your past, and rubbish from your present. They represent your fears, your worries and your anxieties. They represent all your doubts and all your apprehensions. And over in the corner you can see rubbish which has been getting in your way, getting in the way of what you would like to be, of what you would like to become. And you begin to place all this rubbish into the drum. And as you do so, you go about the garden singing, pleased with yourself for at last tidying up the garden of this unwanted rubbish, tidying up your mind of this unwanted rubbish. And you are happy as a consequence, happy that at long last you are taking control of the situation, and clearing away the years of rubbish. Now the drum is full of your unwanted rubbish, and you set fire to the rubbish in the drum. The blaze roars and the rubbish burns. And you feel quite elated, quite free, quite cleansed of the accumulation of so much rubbish. You see the smoke rising into the air from the rubbish, and you feel as if these are all the worries, all the anxieties and all the fears going up into the sky and away from the garden, away from you for ever. And other rubbish -like your doubts and apprehensions - also go up in smoke. And you have a wonderful feeling of joy and freedom. But you feel you want to rid yourself completely of every element of the rubbish, not even the ash do you want remaining in your garden, remaining in your mind. And so you tie a large balloon to the drum, which now contains only the ashes of your rubbish. The balloon now drifts up into the sky taking with it the drum with your remaining ashes. And you have the strongest feeling of freedom that you have every felt. Freedom from all the constraints of the past, free from all the things in the past and present that have prevented you from doing the things you want to do, of being the person you want to be, of becoming the person you want to become. And you now feel that everything is possible, that you can be everything you want to be, that you can become everything you want to become. This fills you with an enormous sense of joy, and an enormous positive feeling. And these feelings become stronger and stronger as you watch the drum drifting higher and higher in the sky. And as the drum gets smaller and smaller as it drifts higher and higher so you know, you know without any doubt whatsoever, that all this rubbish will hinder you no longer, that you can be the person you want to be; that you can become the person you want to become in every way possible.

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The next metaphor, although similar to other “Rubbish” metaphors, has some distinctive features of its own. Dumping the rubbish [Metaphor #14] Over the week you place your laundry in the laundry basket until it is full and you are ready for washing, until you are ready to clean your clothes and rid them of all the accumulated dirt, rubbish or whatever. And so you are going to do that now with your mind, you are going to clear your mind of all the accumulated rubbish. You see yourself going over to the empty laundry basket. In this basket you place your mind. This does not appear at all strange to you. Yes, in the laundry basket you place your mind. And you do this because you are now ready to cleanse it; cleanse it of all the dirt, of all the negativity that it has accumulated since you last cleaned it out. You take the laundry basket down and to the sink. You take out your mind and place it in the bowl in the sink. There is already water in the bowl but you now add a cleansing liquid. This is a special cleansing liquid. Yes, you see on the bottle a label which says "Specially for Unclean Minds", and you think to yourself that your mind certainly does need cleaning. You now begin to squeeze your mind in the bowl, squeeze out all the dirt and all the rubbish that has accumulated in your mind. As you do so, so you see the water becoming dark with the dirt that is coming out of your mind. From your mind is coming out all negative thoughts, all negative feelings, all anxieties and all concerns you have. And as these negative thoughts, negative feelings, anxieties and concerns ooze out of your mind and into the water so the water becomes black while your mind takes on a pinkish colour as it gets lighter and lighter in colour. And this makes you feel good, because you know you are cleansing your mind, but it makes you feel good because it is also you who are cleansing your own mind and not someone else. No, it is you and you alone who are cleansing your own mind of all its negative thoughts, all its negative feelings, all its anxieties and all its concerns. You even see yourself singing as you squeeze and wash your mind in the bowl. You now take your mind carefully from the bowl and dry it and place it in your head, and your head feels clear and light because all the dirt, all the rubbish, all the negativity and anxiety which has accumulated in your mind has been cleansed away. Yes, all this rubbish is now in the bowl, while your head feels light and free. And you now empty the bowl, pulling out the plug and watching the dirty water make its way down the plug hole. Down the plug hole and gone forever. Gone forever, and leaving you with a sense of freedom and a sense of being light headed; feeling happy and content and ready to face the future with a clear, clean mind which is not cluttered from the rubbish of the past. Although smoking can be dealt with by direct suggestion, some of the more unhealthy aspects of smoking respond to metaphor. Here are two.

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The factory [Metaphor #3] There was a rather old factory in my hometown that belched out smoke. Over the years the factory management had let things slip and the machinery’s workings became clogged up and inefficient. Oil started to seep out of the working parts and into the workspace. But it also seeped into other areas of the cooling system and it was this that led to more and more of its smoke that it expelled into the surrounding air to become contaminated. Over the years the smoke became darker and darker as it contained more and more oil and clogged up more and more of the factory’s machinery. Most surprising of all was that the management knew the oil was creating a problem and was reducing the efficiency of the company. They even knew as a consequence that their costs were rising and their profits falling. But this did not seem to make a difference. The dark belching smoke was now becoming a major problem for nearby residents. They no longer could put out their clean washing because it simply became dirty with spots of oil that were difficult to remove. Children in the neighbourhood were beginning to suffer more and more from respiratory problems. The local doctors were becoming aware of these more frequent complaints. Now the town’s folk had had enough and they formed a committee. They not only wanted change, but they were adamant that change would happen. They were no longer content to hear the promises of the management, since these had come to little in the past. They now wanted action. Action was the only thing that they would accept. Not only action, but action now. But how could they take positive action? That was the real difficulty. Then at one meeting of the town’s folk, a member had a bright idea. They needed to take control of the situation if they were going to have the change they wanted. To do this they would need to get rid of the present management – since it was they who had created the problem. So this enterprising young man suggested that the town’s folk buy up as many shares of the company as they could so that they had the ruling majority. Once they had this majority then they could bring about the change they wanted. So in the coming period the town’s folk went about buying up the company’s shares. The company was unaware this was even taking place. But because so many were helping in this endeavour, the town’s folk soon had the controlling interest in the company. The first thing they did was remove the management – all of the management in a vote of no-confidence. This totally took the management by surprise, but there was nothing they could do about it since they were a listed company. A new management, who were known to be environmentally friendly, replaced the old management.

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The new management immediately brought about changes. Changes to the running of the company; changes to working practices, which helped workers with a cleaner atmosphere within which to work; and new machinery that involved purification processes. Under this new management smoke became less, the air was cleaner and the factory made much higher profits. The steamboat [Metaphor #4] You are back in the time of the old steamboats on the Mississippi; those flat boats with large paddle wheels on each side. You have been working on the ‘Mary Rose’ now for some years, working down in the hold stoking up the boiler. You have been down in the boiler room for so long now that your lungs are black from the smoke and fumes. Over the years your lungs have become coated so that your breathing has become more difficult. Your skin has started to get dark streaks from the coal dust, which has entered your skin. The work is hard and pays very little. Not only that but it has worsened your health. You are no longer as fit as you once were. True, your muscles are more developed from the hard stoking, but your breathing is now much worse. One night, after a particularly hard day’s work stoking, your lungs are particularly clogged up and your breathing is heavy. You have difficulty getting to sleep. You begin to take stock of your life. You readily come to the view that you must change, that your must get out of this smoky atmosphere. You long for the clear air of the mountains. You long to be healthy and strong once again so that you can climb these mountains. In your mind’s eye you see yourself up on the Sierras. You feel good; you feel free; you feel alive. These feelings are getting stronger and stronger; they are filling the whole of your consciousness with a feeling of joy and exhilaration; so much that you make a decision to free yourself from the smoke and dirt of the stoking room. So strong is the feeling that you feel that you must do it immediately: that there can be no delay. You do not want to delay. So you get up, pack a few belongings – just the necessities – and slip overboard during the night. The decision has been made and acted on. The next morning, lying on the bank exhausted from the exertion of the night before, you look up at the clear blue sky. It feels good, you feel free, you are glad that at last you had the courage to make the change. You are so glad that you have decided to be a non-smoker. One important requirement in sport is to be focused - although this also applies in other areas too. Here we present two metaphors that deal specifically with focus.

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The lighting engineer [Metahor #7] I know a ballerina Natasha is her name. She has been dancing now for over twenty years, and has done so in all the major theatres around the world. I went to see her the other night performing Swan Lake by Tchaikovsky. While watching the performance there were a number of solo dances in which Natasha danced alone on stage. What struck me most forcibly was not the dancing as such, but rather the lights! There were two main lights that sent down sharp beams onto the stage making an oval. Because the lights were positioned at each side of the theatre the lights made two ovals one from the left and the other from the right, but intersecting just wherever Natasha was. When she moved so did the lights, always intersecting exactly at Natasha’s feet.

It was the lighting engineer’s job to focus the lights to make these clear oval patterns and to intersect always where Natasha was positioned on the stage. Oddly enough, this could not be done by computerisation – so much of which is now done this way. It was something that had to be done manually. Natasha did not, of course, move exactly the same way each performance, which is why it had to be done manually. The lighting engineer had done this for many years and was good at his job. He could focus the lights in unison so that they always intersected with a crisp clear intersection that was not too large and not too small. But his most difficult job was to keep the lights focused in this way as Natasha pirouetted and danced across the stage. He had to concentrate always on what Natasha was doing at any moment of time. He certainly could not allow his mind to wonder off. When she rose in the air and landed in the same spot it was necessary for the lights to intersect at that point. He therefore had to learn the ballet so he could anticipate whether Natasha was going to land on the same spot or would pirouette across the stage. He certainly could not let his concentration lapse or he would soon be out of a job. But he was good at his job. He knew how to focus the lights so they intersected at the right spot and at the right time. He had learned to keep his concentration on the performance and not let it wonder off – at least not until the intervals. During the intervals he rested so when the next part started he would be refreshed and could concentrate anew. And because he enjoyed his job he had no difficulty concentrating for long periods of time. This was essential because some ballets, and especially some

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plays, did not have an interval. So he had to ensure he was fresh enough to hold his concentration for the full length of the performance. He became quite proficient with the lights. He could focus them on a very small spot and yet could move this spot in line with the performer. The art was to keep focused but be flexible. But to be flexible he had to concentrate. They were two aspects of the same outcome. Concentration without focus was unsuitable; focus without concentration was also unsuitable. He had to be both focused and fully concentrated at one and the same time. And as each day passed he found this easier and easier to do. Yes, as each day passed he found he could focus the light so much easier, so much quicker and so much better. He found as each day passed that he could concentrate easier and longer. As each day passed he found he could keep his mind focused without wondering off. And this made him feel good about his job and secure about his ability to do it right. Cheetah [Metaphor #12] You are in Africa, in the Kenya game park. These parks are not like those of the UK; they are huge areas of land where animals can live in their natural habitat. And you are in the park for a reason, and that reason is to watch a cheetah stalk and catch its prey... You can see the cheetah now in the distance; it is sitting low in the grass observing a herd of gazelles. It creeps a few steps forward, constantly focused on the herd of gazelles. It is focused and watching, picking out the one it is going to chase... yes it knows that once it goes in for the kill then the gazelles will all move off as fast as they can go... and so the cheetah must know precisely which one it is going to chase... And yet... at the moment it needs to focus on the whole herd because it needs to know how the one it has chosen will move in relation to all the others... it will need to know how the other gazelles are likely to behave... because once it goes in for the kill it will be totally focused on the one gazelle... It is now ready for the kill... it focuses on the one gazelle it has picked out... and moves in on its prey... focused totally on the one gazelle at the exclusion of everything else... although it is vaguely aware of the other gazelles... they are not important... the cheetah is focused directly on its prey... it is as if he and the prey are connected by some form of elastic band which will contract in as he moves on the prey... The cheetah is now oblivious to the wind, oblivious to the sky, even oblivious about the ground beneath its feet as it picks up speed and moving directly on its prey... it is totally focused... nothing matters except that on which it is focused ...nothing else is important... all its concentration all its attention is directed at the gazelle of its choice... it does not even think about how nice the gazelle will taste... all the cheetah is doing is being fully focused on the gazelle, how it is moving, where it is moving... and what it must do to reach the gazelle with the minimum of effort...And the cheetah achieves its goal... the gazelle is caught and killed...

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In this whole endeavour the cheetah is focused on the task in hand... it is task focused... it has a job to do... it is capable of doing it... it was designed for speed ... it doesn’t say it will do its best... it is so task focused... that it simple gets on with the job....

20.3 Metaphors and self-hypnosis Metaphors, like stories, are better told by someone else. Why is this? The purpose of the metaphor is to bring about unconscious thought processes and to do this the metaphor has to capture your interest. A therapist will carefully select a metaphor that is not only suitable for a particular client, but also for the problem that they are dealing with. It may also mean using the language of the client’s trade. A metaphor suitable for an accountant may not be so suitable for someone in the building trade. A metaphor may appeal to one gender but not the other. Metaphors, stories and anecdotes have their greatest force when heard for the first time. But to use a metaphor in self-hypnosis you will need to find a suitable one first. This in itself can be therapeutic. Even so, it can be time consuming and therefore not necessarily the most efficient use of your time. The time may come, however, when you are not progressing or handling a particular problem. It may be that your suggestions are all very similar. This may be the time to turn to metaphors. Find a few that seem appropriate. You will know which because they seem to relate to your problem when you read them. Put these on tape or CD and listen to them. The beauty of metaphor is that it can lead to different unconscious thought processes each time they are heard. Better still, embed them into a session of self-hypnosis that you construct on tape or CD. You will find that the same metaphor heard on different occasions leads to different thoughts about your problem. The use of metaphor is undoubtedly more effective in heterohypnosis than in self-hypnosis, and for self-hypnosis it is only second-best.

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Chapter 21 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Summary In order to deal with PTSD, whether in heterohypnosis or self-hypnosis it is necessary to know what caused the trauma (since this supplies the context) and also to understand the brain processes involved - namely the amygdala and hippocampus. The chapter provides affirmations for PTSD and ways to employ hypnosis.

CHAPTER 21 POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER 21.1 Introduction When dealing with PTSD it is necessary for a therapist, whether a hypnotherapist or a clinical therapist, not only to know what caused the trauma but also to understand how the brain processes emotional stimuli. It is the prolonged emotions after the initial trauma that is indicating a faulty emotional response to everyday emotional stimuli. The fault lies with the way the amygdala (a brain structure of the limbic system) is dealing with emotional stimuli in the post-trauma period. If the fault is not corrected the inappropriate emotional response continues, and can continue for many years. Because the response is an unconscious one, the sufferer feels they have little or no control over their thoughts and feelings. Energy becomes drained and depression often accompanies the trauma as the individual feels a loss of control of their emotions. Sleep becomes a problem and relationships strained. Recall an incident that happened to you in which you were quite embarrassed. The emotion is attached to the image. But more importantly, you will be retrieving both the image and the emotion from long-term memory. It does not pray constantly on your conscious mind. In the case of PTSD, however, memory of the incident – and more particularly the emotion associated with the incident – constantly springs into consciousness. It constantly prays on the mind; repeating itself like a record that is stuck in a groove. This breakdown in the proper encoding of memories is also analysed because it gives the therapist a clue as to what therapy needs to do in order to place the incident and its associated emotion into autobiographical long-term memory. In this section, therefore, we first present a discussion of brain structures and memory processing that are relevant in understanding PTSD. Without this understanding therapy is likely to be ineffectual or mis-directed. Only then do we turn to how hypnotherapy can be utilised to deal with PTSD. Although hypnotherapy is not the only therapy for dealing with PTSD, cognitive behaviour therapy being another, it is a very suitable therapy because it deals with unconscious processes and it is in these processes that the problem lies.

21.2 The amygdala and the two pathways of fear The amygdala is a central structure of the limbic system of the brain that is involved in producing appropriate emotional responses. Each emotion is produced by a different set of nerve modules in the brain. Two other brain structures are involved in these modules, namely the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. It is these two structures that control the hormones that produce physical reactions associated with particular emotions. The hypothalamus in particular modulates the activation of the amygdala. It is the amygdala that instantly assesses incoming information and determines the appropriate emotional response. On determining the appropriate response it sends signals to other brain structures to carry out suitable action; typically signals to the hypothalamus that triggers hormonal changes that alter muscle contraction and influence the heart rate. All this is an unconscious process. This, however, is only one of the routes in the brain responding to fear. This unconscious path is referred to as the ‘low road’. The second route to the amygdala arising from an emotional stimulus goes via

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the cortex where it is consciously evaluated. This slower conscious route is referred to as the ‘high road’. These two routes are shown in the following figure.

21.2.1 The two pathways of the fear response The purpose of the upper cortical route to the amygdala is to determine whether the stimulus is truly life threatening. If it is not, then it dampens the influence on the amygdala arising from the unconscious lower route stimulus. In the case of PTSD the lower unconscious route dominates and the route through the cortex is incapable of dampening sufficiently the response that has already taken place in the ‘low road’ route. Furthermore, there is a connection from the amagydala to the cortex and back from the cortex to the amygdala, the first connection is stronger than the second. This means fearful feelings affect our conscious thoughts more easily than our thoughts can dampen them. It is in part due to this that psychotherapies dealing with some emotional problems, like PTSD, fail. Knowing what the problem is (a cortex to amygdala connection) can be insufficient to correct the problem (an amygdala to cortex connection). A more successful approach is to work on the first connection: that between the amygdala and the cortex. The amygdala also has a role to play in the degree to which a threat or trigger gains a person’s attention. For PTSD sufferers certain triggers lead to immediate attention so increasing the stimulus’ threat value. Once attention is directed towards the threat, its threat value is more fully evaluated. This in turn raises anxiety leading to even more attention.

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21.3 The hippocampus and the emotional context When a fear-conditioning stimulus is learned the learning involves the whole context and not just one aspect, e.g. it is not just a gun-shot sound but also the context in which the gun-shot is heard. This means that even a similar context can bring on the fear response. The area of the brain particularly involved in processing the context of an emotional stimulus is the hippocampus. It is the hippocampus that brings the context of an emotional stimulus into conscious awareness. We know this because people with a damaged hippocampus leads to past emotional experiences being unable to be recalled. An emotional stimulus passes through two routes. One is to the amygdala (with its own high and low routes) and the other is to the hippocampus. The route to the amygdala gives rise to behavioural and physiological responses to the emotion and involves no conscious awareness. This process creates what is called an implicit memory. The other route, via the hippocampus, is responsible for the context of the emotion and involves explicit memories. Explicit memory involves the recall of the even and its context in the future. These two routes are shown in the following figure.

Implicit and emotional memory If a person has suffered a traumatic event and later some event or situation triggers their memory, then the route through the hippocampus will bring back memories of where they were, who they were with, etc. At the same time, the route through the amygdala will trigger a rise in heart rate, sweating, a sense of panic, etc.

21.4 Trauma and memory There has been considerable research undertaken on memory and although not all of it is relevant to PTSD, there is need to consider different types of memory when coming to an understanding of PTSD. The first type of memory is episodic memory. This is part of longterm memory and refers to episodes that take place in one’s life. It is a description of what was experienced in the past. Clearly traumatic experiences get encoded into episodic memory.When a traumatic event occurs it is only the individual’s subjective feelings and emotions about the trauma that will determine whether it develops into a PTSD.

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An extreme traumatic event, such as one that could lead to death, falls outside any self-image a person has of themselves, i.e. it is outside their working self (where the working self is our current set of active goals and the conceptions we have about our self). Because it falls outside of our experience that make up the self-image, then it cannot be readily processed and integrated into the memories we have of ourselves, i.e. into autobiographical memory. Traumatic events lead to two conflicting elements. 1.The trauma cannot readily be processed and integrated into autobiographical memory, i.e. the memory is not properly encoded. 2. If the working self survives the trauma then it would be useful for survival to retain a detailed record of exactly what happened, i.e. suitably encoding the memory. It is the lack of proper encoding that leads to selective elements of the trauma being ‘burned into the memory’ while others are not encoded that is so typically of PTSD sufferers. Although normally autobiographical memories take time to be recalled, in the case of PTSD sufferers, recall of aspects of the trauma can spontaneously and intrusively be recalled. Furthermore, such memories of a trauma may be difficult to keep out of mind, e.g. guilt. Such memory intrusions in PTSD lead to the hijacking of attention so making everyday tasks difficult. The sufferer is constantly being placed in retrieval mode whether they want to or not (and usually the don’t want to). Furthermore, it has been shown that PTSD sufferers show attentional bias towards things that trigger trauma stress. In the case of PTSD intrusive memories have the quality of being ‘in the here and now’; as if the experiences are really happening again. Intrusive memories experienced by PTSD sufferers are usually image-based - often taking the form of ‘film shots’. Although usually visual they can also include sounds and smells. Another intrusive memory is the verbal thought at the time of the trauma, e.g. ‘I’m going to die’. All this hijacking of attention is not only a drain on energy but can prevent a person from doing their job. During an extreme trauma a person may readily dissociate. This reaction is probably a mechanism to protect the working self from the destabilising effects of the trauma. Simply put, it protects the person from being overwhelmed with emotion that they cannot handle. If such dissociation does occur during the traumatic event, then this is highly correlated with the likelihood of developing PTSD. In PTSD there can be many triggers that lead to intrusive memories of the trauma experience. Unfortunately these triggers tend to generalise to other stimuli with similar features. Such generalisations are made unconsciously and so it may not be obviously why the intrusive memory comes to mind. PTSD sufferers learn to recognise such triggers and so avoid them. But such avoidance can lead to dysfunctional behaviour. Although avoidance feels helpful in the short run, it prevent recovery from PTSD occurring. Another form of avoidance in PTSD is amnesia for certain aspects of the trauma. This form of amnesia is also an unconscious act. The memory is still encoded in many cases since it can be retrieved under hypnosis or may come to mind during therapy. However, in extreme cases the encoding may not occur and the amnesia is more permanent.

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PTSD sufferers tend to have an exaggerated startle response and feel constantly in ‘red alert’. (This is especially true of war veterans who suffer from PTSD.) Concentration is impaired because of constant intrusive memories, and these can affect other cognitive process as well.

21.5 Symptoms Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disorder that may occur following a traumatic event either in terms of witnessing the event or being in the event itself. Usually these events are seen as life-threatening. Typical events that lead to PTSD are military combats, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, serious accidents and personal assaults such as rape and child abuse. Adoption too can lead to PTSD. Although some people can deal with such incidents and return to normal, others develop stress symptoms that persist, constantly intrude consciousness, generalise and simply will not go away. To be classified as PTSD symptoms must have been experienced for at least one month. There are three primary symptoms of PTSD: intrusive memories, avoidance of situations associated with the trauma, and hyper-arousal. 1. Intrusive memories. These can involve reliving the trauma or parts of it with persistent ‘snap shot’ images. Typically sufferers have: - Recurring and disturbing memories of the traumatic event - Disturbed dreams - Flashbacks - Feelings of fear, anxiety and panic with situations that resemble aspects of the traumatic event 2. Avoidance. There are two types of avoidance. First avoidance of situations that trigger memories of the even. Second, amnesia with respect to certain aspects of the even. - The individual recognises triggers that bring on anxiety and feelings of panic and so avoid these. Such avoidance can, however lead to dysfunctional behaviour. - Amnesia for certain parts of the traumatic event, especially the period just following it. This form of amnesia is unconscious. The memory is often still encoded and so can be recalled; but others in extreme cases are not encoded and memories are more permanent. 3. Hyper-arousal. The intrusive memories constantly activate the fear response and lead to activation of the amygdala, especially the unconscious ‘low road’ (see amygdala). Sufferers tend to have an exaggerated startle response and feel constantly on ‘red alert’. This in turn leads to: - Sleep difficulties - Irritability and angry outbursts - Difficulty in concentrating - Hyper vigilance - Signs of panic Other symptoms can also be experienced to different degrees. These include: ● Inability to concentrate ● Amnesia and forgetfulness ● Anxiety and fear

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● ● ● ●

Depression Shame, embarrassment or guilt Emotional numbness and detachment from reality Lack of motivation

21.6 Affirmations The following affirmations cover aspects of intrusive memories, hyper-arousal and selfesteem. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

You are calm and relaxed You can cope with all things You have confidence in yourself You coped as well as could be expected in the trauma There is no reason to feel guilty about how you coped during the trauma Your unconscious mind no longer needs to constantly retrieve memories of the trauma Your unconscious can consolidate the memory of the trauma like any other sad event Intrusive memories and flashbacks of the trauma are diminishing as each day goes by Your unconscious is consolidating the trauma while you sleep without disturbing your sleep You are sleeping more soundly The things that trigger trauma memories are getting less and less Your concentration is improving Irritability is a thing of the past You are a unique person You are appreciated and respected You feel happy, healthy and fortunate You value and cherish your thoughts, feelings and actions You are in charge of your life You trust yourself You have the power and confidence to act correctly in each moment You no longer over react to unexpected noises Feelings of panic are a thing of the past You do not have to avoid situations that trigger trauma memories because you are now coping with those memories You are calm and relaxed and can cope with the unexpected

21.7 Hypnotherapy and PTSD There are a variety of hypnoanalytical techniques that can be used to treat PTSD. Some of these apply specifically to the three main symptom areas: intrusive memories, avoidance and hyper-arousal. Others are more general and either deal with the symptoms indirectly or in combination.

Intrusive memories These arise from an active ‘low road’ activation of the amygdala and triggers arising from contextual associations made by the hippocampus. Regression to the trauma can be used, but it is necessary when doing this to reassure the client that some responses are just the body’s

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‘flight and fight’ response being activated; that certain reactions and feelings are quite normal. During this the therapist can ascertain more clearly the client’s thoughts and feelings during the trauma, e.g. the feeling ‘I am going to die’. Some of these may have been suppressed and are part of the selective amnesia that often arises during traumatic events. Another useful technique here is dissociation combined with the video playback technique. Going through the trauma in a relaxed hypnotic state and re-experiencing it in a more favourable light, e.g. in a way they would have liked to have responded, allows a re-framing of the episode. One aim of therapy is to enable the client to place the memory of the trauma in long-term memory where it is suitably encoded and does not have to be retrieved unconsciously by contextual triggers. One way to do this is for the therapist to request the help of the unconscious mind in doing this. Suggestions can be quite general so as to leave it up to the unconscious mind how it will accomplish this. However, ideomotor responses can be involved to establish (a) whether it is prepared to do this, and (b) the time frame for doing it. Ideomotor responses may also be employed to establish which symptoms the unconscious wants to work on first and then subsequently.

Avoidance We pointed out that there are two types of avoidance: avoiding situations that trigger contextual memories and amnesia of certain aspects of the trauma. It is the first that is the most troublesome. Regression may uncover aspects of amnesia that can be suitably addressed. With respect to avoiding situations that trigger traumatic memories, the client can be taken through hypno-desensitisation until they no longer feel they need to avoid such situations. Another technique that can be beneficial in dealing with avoidance situations is to use a combination of relaxation and affirmations – preferably supplied on a CD. This can be supplemented with instructions for self-hypnosis. The affirmations, such as those suggested on this site, should deal with all aspects of PTSD and not simply avoidance.

Hyper-arousal The object here is to calm the client down. A CD on relaxation and confidence is of benefit here. This can be combined with affirmation suggestions dealing explicitly with PTSD symptoms. Another technique is dissociation with video playback so that startle responses are reframed.

Some general techniques Depending on the trauma, storytelling can be a most effective technique – especially with younger clients. Two useful stories are: (1) The two teddy bears (Story #14), and (2) Prince Nasime and Princess Jasmine (Story #17). Visualisations can usefully be employed for dealing with on-going symptoms. This site has many to choose from. A particularly useful one is the pyramid (Image #27). Also useful are a variety of the metaphors presented on this site which can suitably be adopted for the particular trauma. Another useful technique is that of grounding. Imagery and metaphors aid the unconscious mind to choose an inner resource that the individual can use at the present moment of time. Supporting this approach is suggestions concerning dreams, especially if the dreams are particularly disturbing. Such suggestions should deal not only with having a good nights sleep, but also giving suggestions to the unconscious to resolve issues during the dreams without disturbing the person’s sleep.

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Throughout the sessions cognitive behaviour hypnotherapy (CBHT) can usefully be employed. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is more effective when undertaken in a trance state. Lack of self-esteem, anger, self-blame, feelings of guilt and acceptance of their emotional responses to the trauma can usefully be dealt with using CBHT. Of particular importance here is challenging the client’s belief system. But some training in CBT is useful to employ this effectively.

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Chapter 22 Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/ Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Summary This chapter includes my article on Myalgic Encephalomyelitis outlining its symptoms and how hypnosis can be used to alleviate it. Source: European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Vol.4, No.1, 1997.

CHAPTER 22 MYALGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS ME/CFS Introduction Myalgic encephalomyelitis (M.E.), or what is sometimes called chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), has been very little discussed in the hypnosis literature. The many books on clinical hypnosis deal with pain, cancer, obstetrics and dentistry (to name a few) but no mention of M.E. The popular book on M.E. by Dr Charles Shepherd, entitled Living with M.E., dismisses the use of hypnosis in two brief paragraphs, arguing that it may be useful in dealing with the emotional difficulties of M.E. but not with M.E. itself. Such a dismissal of the use of hypnosis in dealing with M.E. is unjustified. Yet a more recent book by Joyce Fox entitled Surviving M.E. makes no reference to hypnosis whatsoever! Undoubtedly it can be used for the emotional difficulties attached to M.E., but it can also be used to help M.E. sufferers deal directly with their problems. It is this aspect which is emphasised in my article on Hypnosis and M.E.. In this article you will find a discussion of M.E. and how hypnosis can be utilised as an aid in recovery. The article (which follows this introduction) emphasises a four-pronged attack on the problem, shown in the following diagram.

It also highlights four hypnosis sessions, one attached to each of these aspects of the problem. The following supplies a list of audio files (in MP3 format) that you can download from the web site. 1. Relaxation 2. Energising 3. Immune system 4. Change in life-style

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HYPNOSIS AND M.E. Ronald Shone Myalgic encephalomyelitis (M.E.) has been very little discussed in the hypnosis literature. The many books on clinical hypnosis deal with pain, cancer, obstetrics and dentistry (to name a few) but no mention of M.E. The popular book on M.E. by Dr Charles Shepherd, entitled Living with M.E., dismisses the use of hypnosis in two brief paragraphs, arguing that it may be useful in dealing with the emotional difficulties of M.E. but not with M.E. itself. Such a dismissal of the use of hypnosis in dealing with M.E. is unjustified. Yet a more recent book by Joyce Fox entitled Surviving M.E. makes no reference to hypnosis whatsoever! Undoubtedly it can be used for the emotional difficulties attached to M.E., but it can also be used to help M.E. sufferers deal directly with their problems. It is this aspect which is emphasised in this article. The number of M.E. sufferers is increasing, and the medical profession at the moment has little to offer them. The fact that a person can suffer from M.E. for many years, sometimes up to ten or more years, with little comfort from the medical profession is itself disheartening to such individuals. As with other difficulties, sufferers of M.E. are turning to hypnotherapists for help. In this article just one particular approach is offered as a possibility. The approach is eclectic for the obvious reason that the cause of M.E. is unknown at the present time. Some of its obvious symptoms are clearly visible: the most conspicuous being muscle fatigue and being unable to concentrate for any long periods of time. Given this lack of knowledge, then only the symptoms can be dealt with in any positive way. Even so, the approach does allow the individual themselves to take some control over their own rehabilitation. This is important. M.E. sufferers tend to be ignored and left to fend for themselves, and yet are given little guidance in what to do in this regard B except to rest. This is the typical passive role of the patient in traditional medicine. But individuals want to be, and can be, more directly involved in their own improvement. To use hypnosis in dealing with M.E. it is important to have some idea of what M.E. sufferers go through. This is essential for two reasons. First, the approach needs to deal with the two basic characteristics of the problem: namely, muscle fatigue and loss of concentration. Second, the approach needs to emphasise the role of the client. If the problem is going to be around for many years, then the approach needs to be one which leaves the client capable of handling the situation themselves and not attending therapy every week (not least because the average sufferer could not afford it). In the next section we outline a case history B a typical M.E. suffer. It was based on Robert’s (not his real name) treatment that the approach taken here was devised. I am grateful to Robert for the long discussions about his problem and his views on M.E. Although no two persons are alike, the symptoms of M.E. appear to be fairly consistent across individuals. To see this the next section gives a general outline of what typically M.E. patients go through. The final section deals with a treatment plan. In line with the Journal’s policy, Robert kindly agreed to give his own views on the approach taken here.

A Case History Robert was a very fit 39 year old. Running two miles twice per week, weight training three or

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four times per week and was very rarely ill. This exercise was to balance his demanding job, which was very much mental. Aching in the joints began in 1991 but he put this down to the exercise. As the following year progressed the aches in the joints increased and there was more frequent pain. During this year he was working excessively, with work related stress occurring. By 1993 he began to sleep badly and found himself very exhausted on many mornings. Even so, he drove himself on as if quite normal. It was during this year that poor concentration developed, which was occurring on a regular basis. But again, forced himself into effort and trying to perform as normal. It was during 1993 that he came to realise he needed more rest, fresh air and sunshine. He was feeling overloaded at work and was taking life far too seriously. Although aware of all this, he rarely reduced his workload. In the second half of the year he came to the realisation that his tiredness was related to the way he felt and was not arising because of the exercise. He became grouchy and lacked enthusiasm. His concentration continued to deteriorate and at work became somewhat dull witted and slow. He became progressively more tired and ached all over. Furthermore, he began to look tired. Throughout this year he progressively reduced the amount of exercise he undertook. During the following year he noted increased tiredness and doziness, with his mind drifting. His lack of concentration now began to concern him, more so because his job required a clear head. His physical symptoms now increased, with more aching joints and more bouts of exhaustion. Eventually he stopped exercising altogether. By April of 1994 he had begun to have a number of memory lapses and was unable to sleep at all well. By June/July of this year he began to deteriorate rapidly, which coincided with major frustration with his circumstances at work. In August of 1994 he was diagnosed as having M.E. but was given little guidance of what to do - other than rest. He began to see me in March 1995.

Symptoms M.E. usually arises after an acute infection, which can be triggered by something specific or at other times can be traced back to some mild upset. The initial symptoms are like bouts of flu, with general feeling of being unwell and tired. The main symptoms now begin, with occurrences of muscle fatigue and brain malfunction. Both these symptoms increase in intensity with stress. Although generally M.E. develops after some specific infection, for others it just gradually develops. The symptoms of M.E. can be usefully grouped under three headings: 1. Muscle fatigue and pain. 2. Brain fatigue and malfunction. 3. Responses of the nervous system.

Muscle fatigue and pain Exercise-induced muscle fatigue is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the presence of M.E. It is the arms and legs which are most affected, with the legs bearing the main brunt, which become tired merely by the individual standing still for long periods of time. If the individual persists in doing what they are doing when such fatigue is present, then exhaustion soon follows. In a number of cases, severe fatigue leads the individual to be house-bound. Where patients find themselves involved in physical and mental activities they can become very tired. There appears to be no medical solution to muscle fatigue.

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Muscle pain (myalgia) affects about three quarters of M.E. sufferers, and can become the most prominent feature of the illness. It can also become the most distressing. It often starts in the shoulders, neck and chest and then generalises. Another common feature is muscle twitching, which can occur in any part of the body (i.e., in both the large and the small muscles). It varies throughout the day and is often associated with bright light. It is, however, intermittent.

Brain fatigue and malfunction These are a major part of the illness and vary according to exertion. Mental malfunction can be devastating to individuals whose work is largely mental. The two most common signs are (a) loss of concentration, and (b) loss of recent memory. Very few M.E. patients can carry on a mental task beyond thirty minutes, and this can often be much shorter. The typical problems patients encounter are: 1. switching words - usually their opposite; 2. inability to remember familiar words; 3. clumsiness; 4. difficulty in coordinating legs on stairs or escalators; 5. deterioration in handwriting when writing a long letter or report. Such intellectual malfunction fluctuates over the illness.

Responses of the nervous system It appears that the hypothalamus is affected, resulting in difficulty in maintaining body temperature. The individual can experience severe cold resulting in shivering or can experience night sweats. The resulting over activity of the sympathetic nervous system can result in a rapid increase in their pulse rate and heartbeat. Reduced blood flow to the tiny blood vessels can also occur, which leads to cold hands and feet. M.E. sufferers can feel faint, especially when suddenly standing up from a lying position. Problems with balance is also common.

Treatment Plan In our discussion of the symptoms, and in highlighting Robert’s situation, we emphasised the fatigue felt by M.E. sufferers and their lack of concentration. It is essential to deal with these two aspects separately. But we also highlighted an often held view that M.E. is more likely in individuals who are involved in constant stress which possibly has some impact on their immune system. There is little point in dealing only with the symptoms of fatigue and concentration. It is also necessary to aid the individual to change their life-style and either reduce stressful situations or provide better coping strategies for handling stress. The treatment plan has eight elements to it as follows. 1. Establish the individual’s circumstances. 2. Establish the person’s life-style, especially prior to the on-set of M.E. 3. Train the individual to enter trance and to utilise imagery. 4. Establish imagery to represent the individual’s immune system. 5. Establish a variety of images for building up energy. 6. Teach the individual self-hypnosis. 7. Discuss a possible new life-style. 8. Construct an individualised set of tapes.

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Some comments on each of these elements are necessary. 1. Establish the individual’s circumstances. This is the case history. It should deal with their treatment, if any; the symptoms they have and their present copying strategies. 2. Establish the person’s life-style. Again, part of the case history. It is necessary to establish their work/family situation when M.E. began. Emphasis here is on the degree of stress they were under and whether they felt they were not coping with the stress. Comment. It is possible to establish this information over a number of sessions. It is important to establish trance and begin to provide the M.E. sufferer with new possibilities. They are likely to be quite negative, especially if they have been suffering for many years, and so positive suggestions at an early stage will be beneficial.

3. Entering trance and utilising imagery. The client must be trained to enter and deepen the trance. This is no different from any other hypnotherapy. What this therapist emphasises, however, is imagery and so a number of basic images are pursued to establish the individuals most effective mode of imagery. This is an important preliminary step to later therapy. At this stage such images can be used for relaxation, deepening and confidence building. 4. Imagery of the immune system. This is one of the most important parts of the therapy, and may be done in one or two session. The aim is to get the client to imagine their immune system as a sort of regulator, where some of the body’s chemicals (or whatever) require enhancing while others require subduing. It is necessary to establish three things. a) An image of the immune system which is the individual’s own image. b) An image which shows what is ‘normal’ or ‘balanced’. c) An emphasis on the right amount of change at the present moment of time. This imagery once established to the client’s satisfaction should be utilised from then on. Emphasis throughout should be on just the right amount of change.

5. Images for energy. It is necessary to raise the client’s energy. This can be done by direct suggestion or the use of metaphors, especially imagery metaphors. After trying a variety it will be possible to establish those the client likes or feels comfortable with. The client will need to balance sufficient rest with a sufficient increase in energy. Again emphasis should be on just the right amount of rest and just the right amount of energy. 4. Teach self-hypnosis. As the therapy builds up it is essential to convince the client that they are to take control over their improvement and that they can do this through selfhypnosis. The client should be trained in this and in the use of imagery. 5. Discuss a possible new life-style. Throughout the sessions the importance of reducing stress should be emphasised. But also the importance of changing their life-style if that is what contributed to their stress and to the on-set of M.E. Training in a variety of coping strategies would be most beneficial.

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6. Tapes. The final element is to make a series of four individualised tapes (or 2 tapes with four topics on the four sides). The four topics are: a) Relaxation b) Energising c) Immune system d) Change of life-style The tapes should include all the features established in the earlier sessions, utilising the client’s imagery. One important consideration is no tape (or side) should exceed 30 minutes. This is important in the early treatment. Too much concentration on suggestions consciously or unconsciously - can drain the client’s already low energy level. Anything longer will be counterproductive. It is also necessary to keep the themes quite distinct in the tapes. The client can then pick and choose what they feel they require at any moment of time. The first, and most general, can of course be used frequently. A final observation is worth making. Throughout the therapeutic sessions constant use of IMR’s can be very useful. One reason for this is because the client needs to obtain just the right amount of something - whether this be rest, energy, or changes in the immune system. Only the client will know when this occurs, and a simple IMR is enough to indicate to the therapist that he or she can move on. Unfortunately this is not possible in the use of tapes, but sufficient time on the tapes should be allowed for appropriate responses to take place.

Note Although the article refers to tapes, I would now use a CD. As mentioned in the introduction, these can be downloaded from the web site.

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Chapter 23 Adoption Trauma

Summary Adoption trauma needs to be understood for a hypnotherapist to help, This allows the hypnotherapist to communicate with the adoptee’s unconscious mind by means of an inner child. The procedure involves five steps, with steps 2-4 involving hypnosis.

CHAPTER 23 ADOPTION TRAUMA 23.1 Introduction The adoption trauma needs to be first understood by the hypnotherapist before they can be of assistance to the adoptee in dealing with this primal wound. Having done this the first stage is to establish an ideomotor response. This not only allows the hypnotherapist to communicate with the adoptee’s unconscious, but it also allows the adoptee to communicate with their inner child. The following stages can be identified in the therapy. 1. Understanding the initial trauma - the primal wound. 2. Using hypnotherapy - Step 1: establishing an ideomotor response (IMR) 3. Step 2: Establishing a favourite place either to relax and/or to meet with the inner child. 4. Step 3: Creating an emotional container. 5. Step 4: Meetings with the inner child. Finally we present eighteen affirmations that the adoptee can use. It is useful for the hypnotherapist to put these on a hypnosis CD for the client to use.

23.2 The trauma [This section draws on Nancy Newton Varrier (1993) The Primal Wound, Gateway] Whether adopted soon after birth or later, the adoptee suffers a trauma from separation. This separation leads to a constant fear of abandonment. It is a mistaken view to think that a baby adopted soon after birth is not emotionally and psychologically affected by this separation. The adoptee often creates a false self that constantly seeks approval and has an inability to show feelings – especially negative feelings. The suppression of the true self and the creation of the false self is a protection from any further rejection. The creation of a false self is a coping strategy: a way of coping with emotional pain and the profound sense of loss they feel. Such a sense of loss often results in a feeling of sadness and bouts of depression. The adoptee often feels anxious and has a mistrust of relationships, especially with women (regardless of the sex of the adoptee). The loss of a birth mother often leads to emotional disturbance. Although the adopted mother may be loving and caring, the adoptee tends to reject such love and finds it difficult to be intimate with the adopted mother. When traumatic memories or feelings surge from the unconscious, the adoptee can be irritable, aggressive, impulsive and even anti-social. There is a tendency for the adoptee to want to be in control and so even household decisions can become a battle ground for control. Such control is a manifestation of the adoptee attempting to prevent future losses. Yet such behaviour can lead to the very thing the adoptee dreads. Adolescence can be a particularly difficult time for the adoptee since this is the period they are developing a sense of identity. The usual difficulties of such a period in a child’s

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development are compounded by the fact that they have been establishing a false self. An adoptee may ‘run around’ with the popular crowd but at the same time tends to feel a fraud. As the fear of rejection and abandonment continues unabated, so the adoptee tends to withdraw and become isolated. Since one of the greatest fears of the adoptee is not being loved or liked they tend to ‘test’ people. This in turn can lead to them rejecting people before they reject them. In other words, they tend to sabotage relationships – both in the home and with friends. Furthermore, when an adoptee perceives someone has abandoned them then they do not let them back into their lives. The adverse influence on the adoptee can continue into adulthood. In the workplace it can lead to a fear of success or an inability to believe in their competency or expertise. They can go about sabotaging their success. But it can manifest itself in its opposite. A strive to be perfect; to be the best. It is even possible for an adoptee to vacillate between these two possibilities. In either case the adoptee is very sensitive to criticism or the slightest hint that their views may be rejected. They may even be at a loss as to what triggers such apprehension. As pointed out, adoptees find relationships difficult. They mistrust closeness or forms of intimacy and so they distance themselves from others. Paradoxically, however, they yearn for such closeness and intimacy. This yearning is not surprising when it is realised that they have not had such closeness and intimacy with their birth mother. Although the adoptee does not want to reject other people, what they do is to reject themselves instead. Because they have been rejected from their birth mother, adoptees consider (unconsciously) that women are not to be trusted. It does not matter the sex of the adoptee: it was their mother who abandoned them. It is a very common response in which one incident becomes all: one female rejection means rejection by all women. Again paradoxically, when adoptees make attachments, which they find difficult to do, they find separation even more difficult. This means they often cling to unsuccessful relationships. Adoptees in their attempt to control tend to avoid situations that can trigger rejection and possible abandonment. An alternative control mechanism is to get the inevitable abandonment over with quickly. The adoptee often fails to integrate the trauma of separation with their mature development. As a result the original trauma is repeatedly triggered. The adoptee may rationalise this, but it simply maintains fear. The rationalisations keep the adoptee trying to maintain control; they block access to adult solutions and in the end lead to self-fulfilling fear. What the adoptee experiences are three barriers to integration: fear, anger/range, and guilt/shame. Their fear of abandonment leaves the adoptee with a constant feeling of being at the mercy of others.

23.3 How can hypnotherapy help the traumatised adoptee? Step 1: Establishing an IMR Once the trauma of separation (the primal wound) is understood by the hypnotherapist then, and only then, can they be of assistance in helping to bring about integration and closure. Without a full understanding of the adoption trauma the hypnotherapist can approach therapy from the wrong perspective. Such a knowledge of the primal wound immediately indicates to a therapist (whether a hypnotherapist or some other clinical therapist) that the process of integration will be slow and needs to be carefully planned. It is not a passive relationship between the hypnotherapist and the client: it is not simply a case of the hypnotherapist giving reassurances while the client is in trance. It requires the full cooperation of the client,

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especially the client’s traumatised child. The client needs to be in control of the progress: progress not only in what form it takes but also in the speed of change. It is necessary for the hypnotherapist to realise that they are dealing with a hurt child no matter what the present age of the adoptee happens to be. Since progress can only be made with the inner child, it is first necessary to set up a means of communication with this inner child. The obvious approach is to establish an ideomotor response (an IMR). Although this is often easy to do, it is more difficult in the case of an adoptee because of their desire to maintain (conscious) control. The therapist needs to establish rapport and constantly point out to the client that they are always the one in control. Furthermore, the trance state at this stage may not be deep enough. The therapist needs to address what may be holding the deepening back and why the IMR may not be happening. It is possible that the adoptee withdraws from therapy at this point because of no obvious signs of progress. The trigger of rejection may also be playing a part in this decision. Reassurance is necessary if therapy is to continue. However, the cost of prolonged therapy may also be a deciding factor in termination of the therapy.

Step 2: Establish a favourite place Once the ideomotor response (IMR) has been established, having the client create a favourite place is a useful next step. This place can either be where the client meets with their inner child or some other place where they can simply relax and feel at peace with themselves. It is useful for the hypnotherapist to use an IMR to see which of these two the client wishes to meet with their inner child. It is important to have agreement between the client and her/his inner child as to where they would like to meet each other. Mutual agreement is necessary if trust and security is to be established and maintained between them both. Even if the inner child wishes to meet elsewhere, it is still important to establish the favourite place in order for the client to have a place where they are relaxed and secure. Point out that when thinking about a favourite place the mind will scan a number of images but will settle down on one: this is their favourite place. Although this favourite place need not be established while in a trance state, it is much better to create it while the client is in trance since it is a place that is chosen by the unconscious mind. Favourite place Think of a favourite place, which can be real or totally imaginary; a place where you can feel utterly relaxed and at peace with yourself. This place can contain all the beauty you want it to contain. There need be nobody else in this place unless you want them there. If you wish to have a pet in this favourite place then that is OK. In this place you not only feel totally relaxed, but you also feel safe and secure. You have no worries or anxieties whatsoever when you are in this favourite place of yours. You feel totally at peace with yourself and your surroundings. In this favourite place you can be whatever you wish to be. It is a magical place: whatever you need is instantly available. It is a place that you can allow people in if you wish, but if you do, they will do exactly what you ask them to do. It is as if they cannot help but do exactly what you ask them to do. Most of all it is a place where you can come to relax thoroughly and put out of your mind all the cares and worries of the day.

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A place to meet between the client and her/his inner child If the client chooses to meet their inner child in this favourite place then that is fine. If not, then it is necessary for the client to think of a place where they could meet. Simply follow similar suggestions, but emphasise that this is a place where the client can meet her/his inner child with security: a place where both are happy with the choice. Let the client scan images (real or imaginary) where they can both meet and use the IMR to establish when this has been found. The hypnotherapist may wish to question the client as to the nature of this place so that they an utilise it to the full in later therapy.

Step 3: Creating an emotional container Choosing an image In this image the idea is for the client to contain all their emotions and feelings they have in relation to the initial separation and to being adopted. These will be all their emotions and feelings from birth to the present with respect to the primal wound, abandonment and adoption. Here we choose to have all these emotions in a box (an emotional box), which is a useful image. However, it may also be useful to see if the client wishes to choose an alternative image. While in trance simply ask the client to think of some object that can hold all their emotions and feelings with respect to being separated from their birth mother and being adopted. If they cannot think of one, this box will will suffice. Box image containing emotions and feelings about separation and adoption Think of a box that contains all of your emotions and pain from being adopted and separated from your birth mother. In this box they are safely contained (you may even wish to have a lock on the box for which only you have the key) but leaving you rather empty of emotion. You can open or unlock the box and take out something that represents an emotion or feeling that you will allow out: that you want to deal with at this moment of time. In allowing it to be taken out of the box you can exam the emotion more easily. You will only allow out what you can handle at this moment of time: at all times you are in control. Once it is out and examined, it can either remain out or put back. Whether it is left out or put back it reduces the power of what remains in the box. So every time you take out a feeling or emotion and deal with it, it reduces the power of what remains in the box. So step by step you will release yourself from the pain and hurt of being separated from your birth mother, being abandoned and adopted. can utilise it to the full in later therapy.

23.4 Meetings with the inner child Aims of meetings The aim of these meetings is to establish a meeting place between the grown adoptee and the inner child, either in a favourite place or some other place. There are a number of aims in these meetings: 1. To establish a loving relationship between the grown person and the inner child.

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2. To inform the inner child that her/his grown self has come to help them and to comfort her/him. To point out that you will always be around for her/him: that you will never go away. 3. To find out exactly the hurt felt by the inner child and what can be done about it. 4. To utilise the emotion box in order to work on the pain of abandonment in a step-bystep fashion. 5. To comfort the inner child and reassure her/him that you will never leave them. To gain their trust and reassure them that it was not their fault and that they are lovable. 6. In the mind’s eye to hug the inner child frequently in order to give them the feeling of love they long for. 7. To deal with various feelings and emotions that have arisen because of the abandonment and adoption. Although the meetings on the left have been numbered, the order can be determined by the hypnotherapist.

First meeting (gaining trust) Have the client go to their favourite place or the place they have chosen for meeting their inner child. The aim of this first meeting is to get them to know each other and to gain the inner child’s trust. Also to explore a little what the inner child is feeling. The type of questions and reassurances the client should ask their inner child are: 1. How are you feeling? 2. Tell her/him that you are the older version of themselves. Tell them that you have come to help them. 3. Ask her/him if they are sad or angry, pointing out that it is OK to be sad and angry. 4. Ask her/him if they would like a hug, and if so give it to them. 5. Tell the inner child that you love her/him and that they can trust you more than anyone in the world. That you will always be there for them and that you will never go away. 6. Tell them that being abandoned by their birth mother was not their fault. It was not about them. 7. Reassure them that they are a lovable human being - and give them a hug and tell them that you love them very much. The first meeting might feel a little strange. Do not put words into the child’s mouth: wait and hear what they have to say. If the inner child crys tell them it is OK to cry. Finish the session with relaxation and some affirmations (see trauma affirmations later in this chapter).

Second meeting (adolescence) Adolescence is a difficult period for all children. It is a time when they are finding their identity: of becoming a more independent human being. The adoptee has a more difficult time in establishing such an identity because of the false personality they have developed. It is a time of pain and confusion along with many other emotions attached to being a teenager. The hypnotherapist can begin this session by a dissociation and have the client see the inner teenager on a TV screen as she/he was then. The hypnotherapist’s aim to to establish her/his feelings during this period. Ask the person watching the teenager the following:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is she/he feeling at this time? How did you get along with your adopted parents? Is she/he angry or sad, and if so why? What thoughts and feelings does she/he have towards their birth mother? How does she/he behave in comparison to their brothers and sisters?

The therapist should utilise any information given during this interchange. This session should be finished with the older person and the teenager in the favourite place (or other chosen place), reassuring them that it is natural to have such feelings but they are OK now. Hug them and reaffirm your love for them and that you will always be around for them.

Third meeting (human relationships) Have the client take out of their emotion box feelings and emotions about human relationships. Ask them about these and then utilise this information in the follow image. Since such feelings are strong, it is necessary for the hypnotherapist to carry out a dissociation. In this dissociation we have the client watch a movie (either at the cinema or on TV) in which they are the main character. In this movie they readily express their feelings about others and easily form relationships with others. It is stressed that forming close relationships is very rewarding and natural for social beings as we are. Of course there are risks, but the rewards are great. Having completed this, and following the dissociation, the therapist needs to establish what is to be returned to the box. It is strongly emphasised that now the power of the box is reduced.

Fourth meeting (birth mother) This is a meeting in the mind’s eye with their birth mother. The hypnotherapist should have this take place either in their favourite place or other place they feel secure and relaxed. The therapist needs to suggest what type of things that may transpire - but it is up to the client to determine exactly what happens and what is discussed. It is emphasised that the client is in full control of the meeting. Some of the items to consider are the following. 1. 2. 3. 4.

What she/he would want to ask their birth mother. What she/he would want their birth mother to say and do. To make clear to the birth mother the feelings they have towards her. Whether the birth mother was glad she gave the adoptee up.

Finish the session with the client taking out of the emotion box their feelings and emotions with respect to their birth mother before this interchange. Ask them what they now wish to put back in the box following on from their interchange with their birth mother. Point out that whatever they put back, the power of the emotion box is reduced.

Fifth meeting (age regression) In this meeting it is assumed that the adoptee was informed that they were adopted. It may be when they were very young and could not cognitively appreciate what was being said (but could feel emotionally) or it may be when they were much older. Either way the hypnotherapist is carrying out age regression.

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Take the client back to the meeting and have them re-experience it as fully as possible especially their feelings, emotions and unexpressed thoughts that they had at this time. Let them take their time, pointing out that they can raise a finger or hand when they have finished. It may be necessary to give relaxation suggestions here if there are signs of distress. Now bring them back to the present, and tell them that they will remember it all when they awaken and that they will be able to relate what happened to the therapist - being relaxed and calm while doing so. Awaken them and discuss what happened. Re-hypnotise them and have them take out of the emotion box whatever seems appropriate and to put back what now feels right, pointing out that the box has lost more of its power as a result. Take them to their favourite place and give them some affirmations before awakening them.

23.5 Visualisation Exercise The hypnotherapist needs to carry out an induction, a relaxation and have the client in their favourite place or other place where they meet with their inner child. Establish what beliefs the inner child has about herself and correct these. Now establish whether the inner child is willing to have a hug from her birth mother. Also whether she/he is willing to have a hug from the client (her older self). Reassure the child that you are here to protect her/him and that you love them dearly. Now begin the following visualisation. Have the client imagine a field with a brook. The field is full of beautifully coloured flowers. The warm sun seems to enhance their colour. You feel the breeze and watch the flowers bending in the wind. You hear the songs of birds and you see butterflies moving from flower to flower collecting their pollen. You now make your way over to the brook. Over this brook is a bridge and on the other side is a barn. You (the client) is making your way over the bridge to the barn. Now in this barn is a child newly born, a child who is in fact you - you when you were born. The child is crying because she/he has been abandoned and is all alone. You go over to the child and cuddle her/him and reassure her/him that she/he is lovable; that you love her/him. Tell the child that what happened was not her/his fault. Hold her/him and let the child cry for their mummy. You now tell the newly born child that they are a caterpillar who is sad and abandoned. But that you want to become a beautiful butterfly. You know that changing into a butterfly is painful and scary. You have never flown before and so it will be all new to you. So you form a cocoon around yourself in which you are safe while you transform yourself into a butterfly. You can feel the changes taking place. Your many legs are receding into your body and leaving just a few, you begin to grow wings and you carry out all other changes while in this protected cocoon. Now you are ready to break out of the cocoon, which you do so. You open up your wings and fly up into the sky. You feel wonderful, you feel free and you feel you can do anything and go anywhere. You are like this caterpillar who becomes a butterfly. You face your fears and you open up your wings and go wherever you want to go because you are now free: free to be yourself, your true self.

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23.6 Affirmations 1. Nothing is happening now; I know it feels like nothing is happening now, and so I am OK. 2. I know I may feel the separation from my natural mother is happening now, but it is not. It can never happen again and I am now safe. 3. It is OK to feel my feelings, they will not destroy me but rather to truly live life. 4. It is OK to be angry and to express my anger. 5. It is OK to be sad and express it. 6. It takes courage to cry. It is not a sign of weakness. If I let myself cry, I will not cry forever – my heart will not break from the pain. 7. I do not need to be afraid of my own feelings. 8. Nothing can make a baby unlovable. I am lovable. Losing my birth mother was not about me. 9. Feelings are only feelings and so cannot kill. 10. I love myself 11. I trust myself 12. I am lovable. I can give and receive love 13. I can like and trust women just as much as men 14. I am lovable and I do not feel ashamed 15. I love and accept myself 16. I am not a victim and so I do not need to feel angry 17. I am taking responsibility for myself and do not have to blame others 18. I am in control of my feelings and do not let my feelings control me

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Chapter 24 Past Life Regression

Summary Undertaking past life regression requires a means of going back in time, which here we use a time tunnel. Stepping out of the tunnel they see with their inner eye. The hypnotherapist then asks a variety of questions depending on what is being investigated.

Past Life Regression Chapter 24 24.1 An Opening comment Although regression to an earlier part of a person’s life is accepted by the majority of hypnotherapists, regression to a past life is not. This is a view particularly of hypnotherapists from Christian cultures. Neither Catholicism nor Protestantism accept the view of reincarnation. Hypnotherapists and psychologists in general accept that everything that has happened to you from the time you were born (and possibly in the womb) is stored away in the unconscious part of your mind. Regression then is simply a way of tapping into these memories. But for other cultures, and some in the West, reincarnation is an accepted belief. Furthermore, for Buddhists and Hindus the memories of past lives are also accessible. Such memories are located in what Jung referred to as the collective unconscious (which is very similar to the superconscious referred to by the spiritualist Edgar Cayce). Past life therapists, therefore, accept the existence of a collective unconscious that houses all memories from not only your past lives, but those of all previous souls. The purpose of past life therapy is to bring back positive information that you can utilise in your current life. In one sense it does not matter whether a person actually has past lives. Past life regression can simply be viewed as another technique of tapping into the unconscious mind – whether simply the individual’s unconscious or the collective unconscious. It is another means of understanding some situation or problem that a person may be having at the present time. However, what a person says under trance when past life therapy takes place will be influenced by that person’s view (or the therapist’s view) of the existence of past lives and how and why they influence present lives. Of particular importance in this respect is the concept of karma.

24.2 Karma For Buddhists, karma represents the unfinished business that carries over from one lifetime into the current life. It may be the one previous to your current life or some unfinished business from some other past life. Each incarnation has a lesson to be learned. These lessons represent your soul journey. You revisit karma in order to progress on your soul journey to a level of higher understanding. In this view of karma, karma refers to the “work” that must be undertaken. In Hinduism there is good and bad karma and these will determine the conditions of your life and reincarnation. The emphasis is on cause and effect, what you did in a previous life affects

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your current life. Your free will allows you to make choices in this life that can lead to advancement in your soul journey or to move back. If the aspect of karma is not resolved in this lifetime you may have to repeat it in another. In this view karma can show you where you have been and where you might go to learn the lessons you have chosen for this lifetime. Karma is the basis of earthly reality. Karma is cause and effect. The aim of karma is to create harmony. You and you alone create what happens to you. There is no issue of blame. Things that happen is your karma and what you need to learn from the experience. Balancing karma can lead to events that you can learn from in this life or past lives. Forgiveness is the basis of karma.

24.3 Why experience past life regression? There are a number of reasons why you may wish to experience past life regression. The first is that you may learn something from a past life that allows you to understand something about your present life. It may be why you do what you do or it may be why you are having the same recurring dream. It may therefore help you to understand a good or (more likely) a bad relationship or why you have a particular medical problem or phobia. In terms of karma, it may help you to resolve an old karma or to consciously choose a better path for this life and future lives. In other cases it may help in researching a past life or even trace a previous life. Some of these reasons do not actually depend on the existence of a past life since they are simply a means of tapping into the unconscious mind. Others, however, are predicated on the actual existence of past lives.

24.4 Cautionary note to therapist and client As pointed out, a hypnotherapist does not have to believe in the actual existence of past lives for past life regression to be of help. However, for the therapy to be successful the hypnotherapist does need to be convinced of the therapeutic benefit of undertaking past life therapy. The degree of belief or scepticism on the part of the hypnotherapist will undoubtedly be picked up by the client. It is necessary therefor to establish the beliefs and wishes of the client: to establish exactly what they wish from undertaking past life regression. From the client’s point of view, they need to be convinced in the hypnotherapist’s approach to the past life regression. Only by mutual understanding will rapport be established.

24.5 All-seeing eye or third eye An essential element in the therapy is tapping into the unconscious mind, including the collective unconscious. A preliminary discussion with the client may go along the following lines. Now just as your unconscious houses all memories of all the experiences that you have had from the time you were born to the present, so the collective unconscious houses all the memories of experiences (past and present) of all your soul journeys – that is to say all the memories of all the lives you have had. But the collective unconscious is more since it houses all the memories of all the souls in the universe. Because of this you can communicate and gain knowledge from this collective unconscious. It is your inner eye that allows you to communicate with this

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collective unconscious. Once this has been explained, and once the client is in a state of hypnosis the suggestions can go along the following lines. Imagine that you have a single eye lying deep within your brain and located between your eyes in the centre of your forehead. Some like to think of this as the pineal gland or third eye. This eye is different from the two eyes you have in your head. It sees in another plane: it sees into the collective unconscious of the universe. But it is more than just a seeing eye. It is both a means of sending signals into the collective unconscious and also receiving signals from the collective unconscious. You imagine a beam of energy, a beam of light, emanating from your inner eye expanding outwards into the universal unconscious. You can think of the beam of energy as a golden thread connecting you to the universal unconsciousness. It is by means of this beam that you send signals to and receive signals from the collective unconscious.

24.6 The time tunnel In undertaking past life therapy it is necessary for the therapist to have a means of getting the client to ‘step back in time’. This is readily accomplished by means of the time tunnel. Going down a tunnel (which should be of the client’s choosing), is linked with going back in time. Furthermore, when stepping out of the tunnel and into the past, they will be seeing with their inner eye: their allseeing eye or third eye. This session (probably session 2) is simply getting the client familiar with the process of stepping into a past life and back again. There is no need at this stage to deal with the client’s particular problem or reason for engaging in past life therapy. This will come later after the process is familiarised. The session can take the following form. You are now entering a time tunnel, a personal time tunnel, and as you pass down this time tunnel I will count back from 5 to 1. And as I count down from 5 to 1 you will go back in time, back as far as you wish to go on this occasion. And when I reach 1 you will be back in time. And when you come out of the tunnel you will be seeing with your inner eye. So move down the tunnel 5 …1. You are now stepping out into the past. The hypnotherapist may now wish to ask the following type of questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What year is it? What place are you? Are you male or female? How old are you? What are you doing? What is happening? Now move onto another situation in this time. What is your job?

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Or suggest 7. On the count of 3 you will find yourself at your proudest moment in this time and place you now find yourself. 1, 2, 3. Tell me about it. 8. On the count of 5 you will be back in the present. 1..5. Notice that this process can be used either for regression (back within the present life) or for past life regression. If simply for regression in the present life then the hypnotherapist would not ask for their sex. This is relevant only if undertaking past life therapy. Although this is getting the client used to the process of past life therapy, they may readily jump back in time to a past life that is relevant to their problem. The therapist must be flexible enough to handle whatever the client says and does - including any possibility of an abreaction.

24.6 Sessions for past life regression Typically past life therapy involves at least five sessions. It is important not to rush into a past life without first acquainting the client with the process of moving back in time and using their inner eye. Here I suggest the possible content of the five sessions. I would also suggest that the therapist makes these sessions clear to their client.

Session 1 1. 2. 3. 4.

Practice entering hypnosis Using imagery Post hypnotic suggestion for further trances Discussion of past life therapy

Session 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Learn the process of investigating past lives All-seeing eye Introduction of the time tunnel Establishing (1) time, (2) place, and (3) sex Discuss experiences

Session 3 1. 2. 3. 4.

Discuss problem to be investigated Discuss (1) negativity, (2) karma and (3) forgiveness Discuss spirit guides Hypnosis session dealing with (1) ideomotor responses and (2) spirit guide

Session 4 1. Investigate the problem and its causes 2. Use spirit guide to investigate resolution to the problem 3. Discuss what has been learnt from the session

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4. Establish whether further investigation is necessary

Session 5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Investigate whether resolution of the problem is complete How to verify there is completeness Establish a signal indicating completeness Establish whether there are parts of the unconscious resisting completeness What changes can be expected (use spirit guide?)

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Chapter 25 Three Articles

Summary 1. Outer and inner-world communication 2. Self-hypnosis: Beyond the Chicago paradigm 3. Bereavement, counselling and hypnotherapy

Chapter 25 Three Articles In the final chapter of Book 2 I include three articles written by me or in conjunction with another therapist. 1. Outer and Inner-world Communication 2. Self-hypnosis: Beyond the ~Chicago Paradigm 3. Bereavement, Counselling and hypnotherapy

25.1 Outer and inner-world communication Outer-world and inner-world communication Ronald Shone European Journal of clinical Hypnosis, Edition 1, No.1, October 1993

Summary The individual has two worlds to communicate with: - An outer world and an inner world. Hypnosis plays an important role in both of these forms of communication. Furthermore, the degree to which outer communication is Involved and the extent to which inner communication is involved will differ depending on whether heterohypnosis is being used or autohypnosis is being employed. Although some authors have claimed that all hypnosis is just self-hypnosis, this can be seen in the present context to simply be a statement about the importance of inner communication in the hypnotic process. In this article a clear distinction will be made between the way a person communicates with the outside world and the way they communicate with their inner world. This distinction is necessary because, as we shall argue, they take different forms. it is in part this difference which helps to clarify the hypnotic process: its induction, its deepening and its therapeutic use. In particular, attention will be drawn to the importance of outer world communication in achieving rapport and the use of imagery in the inner communication process. Since rapport is so central to hypnosis, we shall argue here that achieving rapport depends on good outer world communication while maintaining rapport depends on good inner world communication. There is no intention here to put forward a communication-theory of hypnosis. The intention is more pragmatic. It is simply to highlight two quite different types of communication that have important implications for hypnosis and hypnotherapy. It is only when the distinction is highlighted that a hypnotist can direct his or her attention to the most suitable way to proceed. If you do not distinguish between two possible routes to a given destination, then you cannot possibly decide which is the better way to go!

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An individual must communicate with other members of society. This we refer to as outerworld communication. But they must also engage in inner-world communication. What do we mean by inner-world communication? To bring about a change in oneself, then some transformation must take place. But for this to happen, an individual must communicate the change necessary and so must engage in some form of inner-world communication. Outer-world communication seems fairly obvious. It is the means by which two or more individuals transfer information between themselves. (Although this discussion can be generalised to things in general, we shall here deal only with communication between individuals.) Inner-world communication, on the other hand, is between different parts of the same individual. Whether we are referring to outer-world communication or inner-world communication, the process involves three aspects: Two or more elements The method of transfer The type of information being transferred The point of making a distinction between outer-world communication and innerworld communication is that these three aspects differ, in each case a difference that has important implications for hypnosis. Consider first outer-world communication. We need to communicate with one another. This could be done, and often is done, in terms of gestures. We tend to resort to simple gestures when abroad and having no knowledge of the local language. Gestures piedate language in human development, but are not without their use in modern society. Body gestures are still a part of our communication with one another in the outer world. Of course, the main means of communication in the outer world is by means of words. We talk to one another. It is a fundamental skill that we all must develop if we are to function in the outer world. ‘How do I get to Marks and Spencers?’ you ask a passer by. ‘You go down there [they gesture the direction] then turn right, through a set of traffic lights, and its immediately in view.’ Such a communication would be very difficult without words. Communication between individuals, then, requires at least two individuals. Second, information can be by means of words, by gestures, or some other means (such as body language). Third, specific information is being transmitted. All three aspects listed above are involved in the outerworld communication process. Words are often necessary for one individual to communicate with another individual. That was the reason they were developed. But how do you communicate with yourself? This first begs the question of what part of the self is communicating with what other part of the self, for communication must be between at least two things. Before answering this question return to communication in the outer world. When two people are communicating (talking to one another) it is the conscious part of one individual communicating with the conscious part of the other individual. Words are necessary for communication between the conscious parts of two individuals. Furthermore, such words must be put together in logical constructs: sentences, which conform to strict grammatical construction. This is obviously necessary if one rational individual is going to understand what another rational individual is talking about. Here communication is effectively between two rational minds. However, when such communication is taking place it is invariably true that nonverbal communication is simultaneously taking place. It is the verbal and the nonverbal communication together that will determine successful interaction between two people.

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In the inner world, communication is necessary between the conscious self and the unconscious self or between one part of the body and another part of the body or between the mind and the body. But how does this communication take place? It is certainly not between two rational minds! Words are not a suitable medium of communication because the unconscious mind does not work in words. Even where communication is between one part of the body and another, words are not a suitable means for such communication. Of course, it is possible to “talk to oneself’ and to try to convince oneself of something. Here a person engages himself or herself in logical argument as if they were talking to someone else. At times this can be useful and successful, but it is by no means the main form of communication in the inner-world. Inner-world communication is not logical and rational communication. Inner-world communication is best undertaken by means of images. These images may include words, but they are only contained in the image to give the image substance and wholeness. They are simply an integral part of the image, but not in place of that image. Images are the only effective way that the unconscious mind can acquire information from the conscious mind; images are the only effective way that the mind can influence the body. Why is this so? If you wish to communicate with a child of one year of age you must reduce your communication to gestures. You cannot say to a one-year-old, ‘Now stop doing that and pick up what I have just given you.’ (You could, but it would make no sense to the child!) You must adapt your communication to the mode of the receiving individual. In the same manner, the conscious self can only communicate with the unconscious self by adopting the mode of operation of the unconscious self. Even where one part of the body affects another part of the body, if this is done as a deliberate act, then it needs to be accomplished by means of images. This will be elaborated on more fully in a later section.

Free flow of thought Communication, of course, is in two directions. If the conjecture being advanced here is correct, then when the unconscious self is communicating with the conscious self it must do so in the mode of the unconscious self. Although this is so, it works in a different way. It works by supplying flashes of insight. These flashes of insight can then be put into words (or even mathematics!) and communicated to other conscious minds. It is unfortunate that scientists in particular highlight such insights but treat them as the exception rather than the rule; a random event which cannot be cultivated. They can be made to be common and individuals can cultivate them. What is required is to improve the skill of communication between the conscious self and the unconscious self. Education teaches language as a basic skill of communication. But this is a skill of communicating in the outside world. What about the skill of inner communication? Education supplies no such training. In fact, they assume that it does not exist! But it does exist, and like all forms of communication, we need to develop its skill. When one individual is communicating with another individual there are certain requirements. They must be within hearing distance of one another, background noise must not be too great, they (usually) must be speaking the same language, they must construct sentences according to accepted conventions, etc. But what conditions must exist between the conscious self and the unconscious self for good communication? Since such communication takes place in the brain - and one may conjecture between the left brain and the right brain then the conditions necessary are what helps brain processes. The requirement is a relaxed and calm state of mind: the type of mind that allows the ‘free flow of thought’. A very descriptive phrase that captures the free flow of communication between the conscious self and the unconscious self.

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The relaxed state is typical of many forms of therapy. It is an essential element in meditation, it is essential in autogenic training, and it is essential in hypnosis. But the relaxation response, as Benson has argued, needs to be cultivated. Unlike the ‘flight-or-fight’ response, which seems to be programmed into our nervous system, the relaxation response needs to be learned. An individual has to learn how to activate their parasympathetic nervous system in order to calm themselves down. A hypnotist can only give guidance and imagery to help this process along, but only the individual can activate their own parasympathetic nervous system.

Hypnosis in the communication process Having made a clear distinction between outer-world communication and inner-world communication, we can now clarify some aspects of hypnosis. The first obvious point is that heterohypnosis is part of outer-world communication while self-hypnosis is part of innerworld communication. Heterohypnosis must largely be by means of words, and involves communication between two (rational) minds. It must conform to expected conventions of outer-world communication. Like all outer-world communication, this is more successful the more an individual can concentrate and the more they can pay attention to what is being said. This is even more successful, the more the hypnotist can reduce other sensory information being picked up by the person being hypnotised. In this sense, the induction routines employed in all forms of hypnosis are a means of focusing the attention of the individual on the communication being undertaken, i.e., on what is being said and what is being conveyed by the words. Getting a subject to close their eyes, although not essential, does improve the communication process. It does allow concentration and attention on what the hypnotist is saying and not on what is going on around them. Successful induction, however, is undertaking one other important act. This is switching the subject’s communication from outer-world communication to inner-world communication. It is here that we observe what is meant by the phrase “all hypnosis is self hypnosis”. To the extent that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, then only the individual themselves can alter that state. To alter their state then they must engage in innerworld communication. Such inner-world communication is activated and helped along by the hypnotist - by outer-world communication - but it is not what brings about the hypnotic state. The hypnotic state can only be brought about by the individual themselves: can only be brought about by inner-world communication. Heterohypnosis, then, involves two forms of communication: outer-world communication and inner-world communication. Its success depends on the success of these two forms of’ communication. When a person does not enter hypnosis the present analysis highlights two possible causes: Poor outer-world communication or Poor inner-world communication In heterohypnosis it is necessary for the hypnotist to establish which is the case. If it is outer-world communication, then the hypnotist can do something about it. If it is inner-world communication, then it is more difficult for the hypnotist to change the situation. In the case of self-hypnosis, the problem must squarely lay with inner-world communication. Even so, good outer-world communication will always be more successful than poor outer-world communication. There are successful communication practices and there are not so successful practices. A good hypnotist knows how to communicate with the

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person they are hypnotising. Because the hypnotist will be hypnotising different subjects, then they must learn to change the means of communication that best suits the person that they are hypnotising. A hypnotist who uses the same induction routine for all subjects is not a good outer-world communicator. (It is like opening every letter with “Dear Sir” whether you are writing to the telephone company, your friend, or even your spouse!) A good hypnotist is one who knows what most attracts and holds the attention of’ the subject. Induction, then, is largely a question of good outer-world communication.

Rapport An essential aim of the hypnotist is to achieve good rapport with the subject. Good rapport has always been difficult to describe, but it generally means building a relationship of trust and confidence, and enabling the subject to relax and let go. It is quite clear, however, that if a hypnotist is not communicating effectively with his or her subject then they cannot be achieving a successful rapport. Good communication is a pre-requisite for good rapport. Good rapport requires suitable verbal and nonverbal forms of communication. This is because rapport has to involve an emotional influence between the hypnotist and the subject. If verbal communication were enough then it would be possible to hypnotise subjects just by talking to them in any tone of voice and with any degree of intonation in the voice. But experience shows that this is not the case. A relaxed response on the part of a subject can be achieved more easily and quickly not only by a suitable choice of words, but also by a suitable intonation of the voice and the pacing of speech. People in rapport mirror and match each other. It is through rapport that pacing and leading, major skills in Neuro-Linguistic Programming, play their part. The rapport that is essential between hypnotist and subject is necessary for hypnotic induction, but for continued hypnosis and hypnotherapy the rapport must take on a different character. Once an altered state of consciousness has been developed in the subject, then the rapport must be with the right brain, with the unconscious mind. There is no reason to suppose that a rapport with the conscious mind is the same as a rapport with the unconscious mind. More to the point, hypnotic depth and hypnotherapy requires good rapport at the unconscious level. Put another way, a hypnotist must know how to communicate best with the subject’s unconscious mind if they are going to succeed in their endeavours. Such communication, however, must elicit in the subject a communication between the subject’s conscious mind and their unconscious mind.

Hypnosis and imagery The hypnotist must endeavour to create imagery which the subject can relate to and which has emotional meaning to the subject. When this is done, rapport is maintained. If this is not achieved, then the rapport initially achieved between the hypnotist and the subject will be lost. Once the hypnosis is established, deepening is the next stage. However, deepening now depends on inner-world communication. It is therefore necessary for the hypnotist to switch mode: to switch to practices that are successful for inner-world communication. In the case of self-hypnosis, this must begin immediately. It is commonly stated that when hypnotising a subject the hypnotist should change their voice to a slow, almost monotonous pace, with constant repetition. This element of the deepening process is a characteristic of good outer-world communication. But it also helps to activate the inner-world communication that must be undertaken by the subject. Even so, simply using words on their own is not sufficient. It needs to be supplemented by imagery. This is because inner-world

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communication largely takes place between the left and the right hemispheres of the brain, and, as we have pointed out, it is necessary to use the mode of the receiving agent. The right brain, the right hemisphere of the brain, is not rational and logical. It is intuitive and holistic. It operates according to patterns, relationships and symbolism. It is the mode in which dreams operate. A hypnotist can say to a subject “You are feeling hot”. This is an outer-world form of communication. It may or may not be successful. If it is successful, it is most likely because the subject has already converted this statement to an inner image. If they have not, if the information is processed purely in the left side of the brain, in the logical and rational side, then it probably will not be acted on. On the other hand, if the hypnotist knows that it is essential to communicate with the subject’s inner-world, then it is much easier to say something like “You are in a dessert, the sun is shining down, you have been walking over the sand now for some hours and you are feeling the full extent of the sun’s heat on your body.” This image, which creates in the subject an inner-world communication, is far more likely to create a feeling of hotness. Why? Because it operates in the mode suitable for innerworld communication and not outer-world communication. Some theorists see this process as presenting images in an indirect way hinting and intimating what is required of the subject by the hypnotist. But it is more reasonable to suppose that all that is happening is that such imagery is the means by which a logical rational mind of the hypnotist can influence the unconscious mind of the subject. It certainly does not mean that the suggestion will automatically succeed. What it does mean is that it is more likely to succeed than using outerworld forms of communication. This distinction has been well recognised in psychocybernetics and by Neuro-Linguistic Programming. Imagery for inner-world communication can itself be good imagery or poor imagery. What constitutes good imagery? Good imagery is that which facilitates good communication between the right hemisphere of the brain and the left hemisphere. It is important to realise that this will vary from person to person. There are, however, some basic principles that will operate in all cases. This is not surprising. Outer-world communication is most successful when it conforms to basic patters (e.g., basic sentence constructions) that are recognised by everyone. The same is true of inner-world communication. That this is so is readily established by the fact that dreams have a mode that is common to most individuals and to individuals in all cultures. All humans dream. Dreams operate with images and convey holistic impressions. Words are usually irrelevant, and where they are used they are used to convey meaning (e.g., “two”, “to” and “too” will all imply symbolically the same thing) or are used in the form of puns, etc. It is the whole image of the dream sequence that is important. Furthermore, the dream sequence may be quite bizarre. What matters is the emotional impact of the dream(s). So too with verbal images communicated between the hypnotist and the subject. It is not a question of the image being indirect, hinting or intimating, it is a question of whether the image has emotional content for the subject. If it does have emotional content then it will have an immediate impact on the unconscious mind. What is often lacking in hypnotherapy is good imagery. This is not surprising since there is little training in image work. A considerable amount has been written on hypnotic induction. Yet this process is relatively easy. What is far more important, especially for hypnotherapy, is creating suitable images that will influence the emotional level of a subject. Inner-world communication, to be successful, must operate according to images, and must act on the emotional level of the subject. There cannot, therefore, be a set of images for all individuals and all situations. Images must be chosen according to the problem and chosen according to the individual being hypnotised. A good image, a successful image, is one that arouses the emotional level of the subject. It is an image that the subject can relate to.

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Relaxation training only the beginning The study of hypnotic suggestibility undertaken by Josephine Hilgard indicated that suggestibility was more successful in such subjects as: persons in the armed forces; nurses; students; individuals of a religious disposition; individuals who could loose themselves in a novel; artists; etc. In terms of the hypothesis being advanced here, all these correlates allow good innerworld communication. Such individuals have already developed, often without realising it, good inner-world communication techniques. During hypnosis, they simply draw on these techniques unconsciously. This does lead to an alternative programme of study. Rather than study the correlates with hypnosis, as done by Josephine Hilgard, why not study in more detail good inner-world communication techniques? Even more to the point, why not train individuals in how to develop inner-world communication techniques! Training in relaxation techniques is only a beginning; it is only one aspect of inner-world communication, albeit an important one.

Implications for the therapeutic use of hypnosis The distinction between outer-world communication and inner-world communication has important implications for hypnotherapy. Good hypnotherapy, successful hypnotherapy will depend on: Good outer-world communication Good inner-world communication It is necessary, therefore, for the hypnotist to develop good techniques for both forms of communication. However, the techniques for good outer-world communication are not the same as good techniques for inner-world communication. Furthermore, only the subject can undertake inner-world communication. Although the hypnotist can improve their own outerworld communication, they are only in the position of guiding the subject in how to improve their inner-world communication. A hypnotist cannot force a subject to have an image; they cannot have the subject’s image for them. An image must be formed in the mind of the subject at his or her own instigation. Only the subject can undertake inner-world communication. What constitutes good outer-world communication? This would include, in no particular order: Talking clearly Being understood Being visual as well as being auditory Saying exactly what you mean What constitutes good inner-world communication! Again let us present a list in no particular order. Clear flow of thought between the conscious and unconscious mind (left and right brain) Being relaxed Being oneself (not pretending)

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Not expecting too much Good imagery Emotional involvement in the imagery Although both lists are not in any way new, what they do is to direct the attention of the hypnotist to possible avenues of improvement. Furthermore, they raise the question of whether the improvement should be in terms of the hypnotist’s ability to communicate with their patient or with the patient’s own ability to communicate effectively with themselves. The final observation, which is also important for hypnotherapy, is that induction is often thought of as a passive process. This is not in fact the case. This implies that the communication is in the form of instruction: a typical outer world form of communication. Image work, however, is emotional and is very much an active form of inner-world communication. It is this active element that will ensure that the rapport established between the hypnotist and the subject is maintained and enhanced throughout the session.

25.2 Self-hypnosis: Beyond the Chicago paradigm Self-hypnosis: Beyond the Chicago Paradigm Ronald Shone I recently read with great interest Self-hypnosis: the Chicago Paradigm by Erika Fromm and Stephen Kahn (Fromm & Kahn, 1990) - which contains a number of chapters reprinting articles published elsewhere, plus some new material. It was more remarkable from my point of view because it was the first in-depth study of the subject I had come across. There is virtually nothing on self-hypnosis in the more learned journals, and as the authors point out, many consider the topic more or less the same as heterohypnosis. But as their book testifies, this is not so. In presenting their studies they draw on the diaries of the subjects they used although much of their formal analysis is derived from the analysis of questionnaires. What I present here is a comment on, a critique of, and a condensed longitudinal study of the topic based on my own experience. The longitudinal studies used in their analysis were based on a mere four weeks of using self-hypnosis. My own experience comes from utilising self-hypnosis intensively over a 25-year period. It is also based on my study of hypnosis and my training as a hypnotherapist. I am aware that one can always dispense with a single study on the grounds that it is not possible to generalise from the particular. My reply to that is that a longitudinal study over a 25-year period can, and does, give additional insight into the subject that adds to our understanding of self-hypnosis in particular, and the phenomenon of hypnosis in general. It has the added advantage that it not only draws on the experience of the person engaging in self-hypnosis, but draws on a knowledge of the subject matter which most subjects would not possess.

Heterohypnosis versus Self-hypnosis Prior to 1970 the general belief was that self-hypnosis and heterohypnosis were basically the same, the only difference was who was inducing the trance state. Based on this belief, teaching self-hypnosis is to teach the individual trance induction and deepening. Fromm and her team came to question this. The first consideration was the degree to which consciousness was split in the two types of trance. In heterohypnosis there is, besides the hypnotist, the experiencer and the part that is the observer. In other words, the individual’s consciousness splits into two. In the case

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of self-hypnosis, however, the individual must be the director (the hypnotist) the one being directed (the experiencer) and the observer. In other words, in self-hypnosis the individual’s consciousness splits into at least three. In their investigations, all subjects reported more splits in consciousness (what Fromm and Khan call “ego splits”) in self-hypnosis than in heterohypnosis. My own experience confirms this too. However, the same ability can be utilised in heterohypnosis, e.g. when utilising double dissociation. It appears to me that the split occurs ‘more naturally’ in self-hypnosis but has to be suggested in heterohypnosis. My own view is that self-hypnosis is easier to achieve once heterohypnosis has been achieved. The reasons for this are: (a) knowing what to expect; (b) knowing/learning the body responses; (c) becoming comfortable with the experience; (d) taking advantage of posthypnotic suggestion, and (e) removing doubts and uncertainties. My own experience, however, of teaching self-hypnosis is that individuals can induce and deepen a trance fairly readily, but then get stumped - often asking “what do I do now?” This is important. The next step is no longer self-hypnosis but more correctly self-therapy. The individual moves from being a hypnotist to being a therapist. But not all individuals know how to be a therapist, or even if they do, it does not mean that they will be a good therapist. Therapists go through long periods of training. Why should a clinician assume, then, that an individual they train in self-hypnosis will also be a good therapist? Clearly, guidance is required in the use of suggestions, imagery, metaphors, etc., depending on the problem or the use to which the selfhypnosis is to be put. Take the following example. Suppose self-hypnosis is to be used for improving concentration and examination performance. A knowledge of learning skills is called for - unless one believes simple direct suggestions like: “I am going to perform magnificently” will work! Where self-hypnosis is for a specific purpose, like pain, then the guidance can be specific, short and reasonably comprehensive. But it should not be forgotten that what the clinician is now instructing the client in is not self-hypnosis but self-therapy. These are quite different things. In carrying out their investigation the authors raise doubt about the technique used in their pilot study: “Also, we wondered whether a single autohypnosis session was sufficient to enable a subject to experience and explore the really significant phenomena of selfhypnosis.” (p.31). I find this astonishing! Would anyone say from one session of golf or one session of tennis that an individual fully appreciated either? No. So why should they expect it of self-hypnosis. If self-hypnosis was innate and fixed, then this makes sense. If it is a skill that must be learnt, then it makes little sense. Hypnosis is a skill that not only can be learned but can be constantly improved. This was indeed found to be the case on a further study of six volunteers. The authors report that subjects switch back and forth between Ego Activity and Ego Receptivity, i.e., actively deciding to focus on something as against letting things float into their awareness. This terminology, however, I find very value-laden. Furthermore, the study showed that Ego Receptivity was greater in self-hypnosis than in heterohypnosis. The problem here is disentangling what is going on. Ego Receptivity is highly correlated with vivid imagery, and vivid imagery was reported by the subjects to be much more prevalent in self-hypnosis than in heterohypnosis. They go as far as saying that “Ego Receptivity and Imagery are the most important aspects of self-hypnosis.” (p.25). One interpretation of this, however, is the limitation of the study. The subjects had no great purpose or focus for engaging in self-hypnosis. Quite naturally, then, subjects would concentrate on internal states, which utilised imagery and fantasy. In heterohypnosis part of their focus, part of their attention, would be directed at what the hypnotist was suggesting. Even so, it does indicate an important observation that in self-hypnosis imagery is crucial for achieving focused concentration, which is essential for the trance state.

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Trance is a skill Going into trance, deepening the trance, maintaining the trance and utilising the trance state are all skills. In heterohypnosis the hypnotist acts like a coach. They give instruction, encouragement and facilitate the trance process. In self-hypnosis the individual also takes on board the tasks performed by the coach. I can learn tennis by reading instructions and playing with others who know the game. I can join a club and be instructed by a coach on how best to play the game. The second route is more likely to lead me to play better. In either case, I am still the one who learns to play, and the standard I reach depends on a mixture of innate ability, practise and taking advantage of what the coach instructs me to do. Over time my skill improves, usually with many ups-and-downs. Now I could go to a club and play once a day for four weeks. My skill would improve, but I very much doubt that I would be a proficient player of tennis in such a time-period. Why, then, should researches expect so much from individuals engaging in self-hypnosis for an equally short period of time? My comments should not be construed as saying we learn nothing from the present study, far from it. What it does imply is that we need to go beyond it. The study is an important one because it is the first of its kind. What, then do we learn from it? First, and as to be expected from any learned skill, it became easier over time. Certain aspects of the induction and deepening became automatic (almost like changing a gear). Once they had become automatic, the subjects could concentrate on the utilisation of the trance state itself. Furthermore, as time went on subjects found it easier to concentrate. As in meditation, this is a learned experience. Consciousness varies, and even more when in a relaxed state. In selfhypnosis the individual has to learn to keep focused. As the trance deepens this becomes more difficult. What needs to be emphasised, however, is that if concentration wavers, then don’t worry. Bring the thoughts back to what was being focused on before this happened. As a corollary to this, the authors make an interesting observation on p.36. When engaging in self-hypnosis you can always give yourself enough time to carry out some suggestion. In heterohypnosis the client has often created an image while the therapist is trying to describe it. Furthermore, the image can often be at variance to what the therapist is describing, especially if it is quite explicit. In self-hypnosis this simply does not happen. The individual knows exactly what is wanted and creates it and knows when he or she has created it. For this reason I have found it necessary in heterohypnosis to utilise ideometer responses “Nod your head when you have done such-and-such”. On one occasion when utilising a computer re-programming metaphor (basically achieving reframing), the subject took 10 minutes! He was, however, very actively engaged in debugging his programme throughout it all, as he informed me later. Another feature discovered in the study was the loss of motivation to continue with self-hypnosis. But this is a common feature in all learning experiences. Sustaining motivation requires a high input of energy and a desire to achieve some goal. The only real goals of the volunteers were a curiosity and a desire for self-exploration. The lesson to be learned from this is that the individual must have a good reason for pursuing self-hypnosis. Pain is one of the greatest motivators. What individuals seem to want were new skills and knew areas to explore. Without these, boredom sets in. There needs to be a reason to utilise self-hypnosis, even if it is only for relaxation or the control of tension. The difficulty is that we often do not know the value of a new skill, nor do we know the many uses to which it can be put - neither of which can be achieved in four weeks. Only be acquiring this additional knowledge can a person engaging in self-hypnosis gain fully from it. Over the many years of engaging in self-hypnosis I have found that my skills have changed and developed as I have become more knowledgeable about the subject. In the early period I tried, like the subjects in this study, simple exercises and simple explorations. Like them, I used it for problem solving and for self-exploration. Like them I became bored. What

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I discovered very early on was my limited acquaintance with imagery and image formation. Correcting this led to my book on Creative Visualization (Shone, 1984). In the study it was reported that individuals had greater and more vivid imagery. But as a hypnotherapist I have found individuals need some guidance on image formation and the utilisation of imagery. As an example see my earlier paper on Hypnosis and ME, (Shone, 1997). I will have more to say on imagery later. The journal reports of the subjects indicate that they explored the trance phenomena by giving themselves tasks to do and establishing which were easy and which not. But the trance state is a dynamic process. On some occasions a task may be easy while on other occasions the same task may be difficult or simply not done. The longitudinal studies do not indicate sufficiently that even entering trance can vary across states; and that the quality of the trance state can vary. The authors do speculate that the depth of trance fluctuated much more during self-hypnosis than heterohypnosis and that this could be because of changes in arousal levels throughout the day. My experience is just so.

Ultradian rhythms and self-hypnosis In this study subjects were not instructed to enter self-hypnosis at the same time of the day or to take note of the time. Consequently, nothing could be gleaned from these studies concerning changes in arousal levels and its impact on the trance state. Over many years I have frequently entered self-hypnosis in the morning and again after returning from work. The morning session immediately on awakening was not found to be effective. However, after breakfast and before going to work it was very effective. In fact, this would be around the first ultradium rhythm of the day (see Rossi, 1991; Rossi, Lippincott & Bessette, 1994 and 1995). The one on returning home after work often overlapped another. But interestingly, the two differed in quality and purpose. In terms of the authors’ distinctions, the morning session was Ego Active while the afternoon session was Ego Receptive. Very rarely was it the other way round. It is now becoming documented that hemispherical dominance switches throughout the day. One manifestation of this is the dominant nostril in breathing! The 90-to 120-minute of the rest-active cycle, the ultradian rhythm, leads to much more vivid imagery during the rest phase of the cycle when self-hypnosis or heterohypnosis is engaged in. It is also possible that during the rest phase individuals are likely to loose consciousness more readily during heterohypnosis. If, as Rossi maintains, it is possible to tune oneself into the rest phase of the ultradium rhythm, then entering self-hypnosis during these periods, even for short periods of time, could be more beneficial than at other times, in which longer periods of self-hypnosis are undertaken. Or it may be that during the rest phase of the cycle Ego Receptivity is more prevalent and during the active phase more Ego Activity is prevalent. Far more research needs to be undertaken on hemispherical dominance and the ultradian rhythm and its relationship to the trance state

Imagery and self-hypnosis A constantly reported feature of the subjects’ experiences was the greater use of imagery in self-hypnosis - the imagery being idiosyncratic, very rich and very vivid. Quantitatively, about three-quarters of the subjects reported a greater and more vivid imagery in selfhypnosis than in heterohypnosis. It also appeared that geometric shapes were more frequent in self-hypnosis. The report also indicated that levels of imagery production remained virtually the same over the four-week period. With regard to this last point, four weeks is simply not long enough to learn the skill of utilising imagery.

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Images can be realistic or they can be unrealistic, they can metaphorical or symbolic, they can be empowering or not. Creative imagery is a skill. There is a basic and natural level of imagery that everyone can utilise. But to go beyond this requires some understanding of imagery formation and imagery utilisation. Hypnotherapists are well acquainted with basic imagery. I can say to a client relax or I can ask them to imagine that they are on a beach, lying in the warm sun just having had a swim... But as the subjects indicated, they can become bored. Images need to be varied, even when wanting to illicit the same response. This is as true in self-hypnosis as it is in heterohypnosis. Good imagery utilises the subject’s own experiences. In heterohypnosis these experiences must be obtained either by direct questioning or by simply listening to the client. In self-hypnosis the individual knows what interests them, knows the type of fantasies that they like and can relate to. But even here, exploring new images can still be achieved and perfected. However, unless imagery is to be developed simply for its own sake, it needs to be directed at some purpose. There needs to be a goal or reason for the imagery in the first place. Consider the simple example of someone worried about examinations. The hypnotherapist can do a whole variety of procedures to help: direct suggestion, going through the examination in the mind’s eye, being given post-hypnotic suggestions about what they should do when they first go into the examination room and sit down, etc. But suppose you know that they are a great fan of Star Trek. In the case of self-hypnosis you would know this without having to illicit it. The point is, that with this knowledge it is possible to construct a very elaborate image that has the individual on the spaceship Enterprise, heading for a planet on which examinations are undertaken. On board, however, they go through all sorts of procedures to enhance their abilities and allow them to achieve their full potential. Such imagery can be as simple or elaborate as the individual needs. The point is that in selfhypnosis, the images can be as elaborate as the individual wants, and can be pursued for as long as the individual wants. But having said this, images of this type need to be practised. The self-hypnotist has to become proficient at creating images easily and quickly. I do not believe that imagery is a constant innate characteristic. Once this is accepted, then the logic is that imagery can be improved and utilised far more efficiently. One simple way forward is to learn a stock of images, try them and adapt them for your own purpose (see Denning & Phillips, 1993; Epstein, 1989; Fanning, 1988; Page, J.L., 1990, Page, M, 1990; Shone, 1984; Stanton, 1985; Wells, 1990). Like fairy stories, there are good fairy stories and there are ones not so good. Equally, there are good images and there are images that are not so good. But an image that is good for one person may not be for another. The Star Trek image is good for someone who likes Star Trek and is comfortable with science fiction, but for others a different image is called for. In heterohypnosis it is the therapist who has to become proficient in the use of imagery. In the case of self-hypnosis, it is the individual himself or herself. Once again, then, we return to the point that individuals require guidance in the use of imagery if they are to take full advantage of it.

Conclusion When teaching self-hypnosis to a client it is important to realise that a number of skills are required: i) entering, deepening and maintaining the trance state ii) utilising the trance state iii) self-therapy iv) utilising imagery

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The first is often all that a client is given guidance in. But this is the easiest and (probably) the least important of the list - so long as the individual can enter self-hypnosis. Once the skill of entering and deepening self-hypnosis is achieved, which is not at all difficult for most people, then the real difficulty is utilising the trance state; knowing exactly how to engage in self-therapy and how to utilise imagery to its full advantage. References Denning, M. and Phillips, O. (1983) The LLewellyn Practical Guide to Creative Visualization, 2 edn. LLewellyn Publications. Epstein, G. (1989) Healing Visualizations, Bantam Books. Fanning, P. (1988) Visualization for Change , New harbinger Publications, Inc. Fromm, E. and Kahn, S. (1990) Self-hypnosis. The Chicago Paradigm, New York: The Guildford Press. Page, J.L. (1990) Applied Visualisation, Quantum. Page, M. (1990) Visualization, The Aquarian Press. Rossi, E.L. (1991) The 20-Minute Break, Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. Rossi, E.L., Lippincott, B.M. and Bessette, A. (1994) Ultradian Dynamics in Hypnotherapy Part One. European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 2, No.1, 10-20. Rossi, E.L., Lippincott, B.M. and Bessette, A. (1995) Ultradian Dynamics in Hypnotherapy (Part 2). European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 2, No.2, 6-14. Shone, R. (1984) Creative Visualization, Wellingborough: Thorsons Publishers Limited. Shone, R. (1997) Hypnosis and M.E. European Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 4, No.1, 3539. Stanton, H.E. (1985) The Fantasy Factor, Optima. Wells, V. (1990) The Joy of Visualization, Chronicle Books.

25.3 Bereavement, counselling and hypnotherapy Bereavement, Counselling and Hypnotherapy Ruby Smith R.G.N. and Ronald Shone The Therapist, Vol.4, No.1, 1995 Bereavement, the loss through death of someone to whom there has been a strong attachment, is part of the cycle of life and death. But because all of us at some stage lose someone we are attached to - whether it be a parent, a partner, a brother or sister, a sibling, or just a close friend - it is generally assumed that we can all cope with the experience. Yet it is recognised that such an experience is one of the most traumatic that a person can go through. It leads to a loss which requires coming to terms with. For many individuals, this process is achieved

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satisfactorily. For others, however, they simply find it too difficult to cope with. They get “stuck” somewhere along the process to full adjustment. The process of bereavement is halted at some point and does not complete its natural progression. This can at times be very extreme. The grieving individual can simply “stop living”. They function, they may even go to work, but they simply exist in a constant grieving state. For others, the grieving is so great that they even stop functioning normally. It is for such individuals that counselling is often sort. Counselling the bereaved can take many forms, but in order for the counselling to be effective it is important for the therapist to be acquainted with the bereavement process. Only then can the most appropriate therapy be undertaken. In this article, therefore, we set out what is now a fairly well recognised bereavement process. Individuals do not get stuck at the same point in the process, and it is not obvious that the same therapy should apply for all the stages of the bereavement process. This is important for successful therapy. Bereavement is not a single entity; rather it is a process which takes place over time. Individuals dealing with their bereavement can take different lengths of time to come to terms with the death, can become stuck at different points in the process, and can develop different coping strategies for handling the experience. Only by recognising this can the therapist develop a suitable therapy for the individual seeking counselling. But it is not just recognising the bereavement process. Some individuals who suffer excessive grief find themselves in a vicious circles of loss where their grief is unresolved. But in order to break this circle of loss it is necessary for the counsellor or therapist to note that there are different types of unresolved grief, where each type is likely to lead to a different possible solution. Counselling and hypnotherapy have different approaches. The only right approach is the one that allows the bereaved individual to adjust. When one approach, however, leads to little progress then it is important to change direction. This is illustrated in the final section where we consider a case study in which a young man had great difficulty coming to terms with the sudden death of his mother. After two years of counselling with little progress, the young man sort hypnotherapy. The bereavement process The first reaction to death, no matter how much one is prepared for it, is usually one of shock or numbness. This is followed by a period of realisation, when movement takes place from the primary denial or avoidance of the loss to one of acceptance of the fact. During this period there may be a variety of feelings taking place including anxieties, restlessness, isolation and the feeling that no one cares or understands what the bereaved individual is going through. Very often the individual has an urge to search for and find the dead person in some form or other. For instance this can take the form of being convinced of a sense of the continued presence of the dead person. In some instances there is an element of anger, where blame is laid on others; or guilt, where it is directed at themselves. What can also be felt is one of internal loss, a feeling in which part of the person has gone and can never be replaced. This in turn can lead to a feeling of apathy and despair. In some instances the bereaved may attempt to identify with the lost one by adopting mannerisms, traits or even symptoms similar to those of the deceased. Gradually through time there is an adjustment to a greater or lesser extent. For many people there i a kind of turning point. Whether sudden or gradual, the bereaved individual once again takes up their life. What this process indicates is that the therapist is not concerned with the loss per se but rather with the feelings associated with the loss, namely: • numbness • isolation

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• loss • deserted

• anxiety • vulnerable

• restlessness • empty

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• incomplete

• despair

• anger

• guilt

This is most especially true when the feelings become extreme and lead to a dis-functional individual. Grief counselling The most characteristic element of bereavement is grief. It is when grief becomes excessive that counselling is sought or becomes necessary. There are basically ten aspects (principles) to grief counselling of the bereaved individual: · · · · · · · · · ·

help them to actualise the loss help them to identify and express their feelings assist them to live without the deceased person facilitate an emotional withdrawal from the deceased provide time to grieve interpret ‘normal’ from ‘abnormal’ behaviour allow for individual differences provide continuing support examine the individual’s defences and coping styles identify special needs and refer if necessary.

The purpose of such counselling is to help the bereaved recover and to enable them to ‘let go’ of the loved deceased person. It is useful, therefore, to see these principles in relation to the needs of the bereaved. These are set out in Table 1.

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One aspect that the counsellor needs to address is the often experienced vicious circle in which the bereaved person can find themselves, shown in Figure 1. The loss leads to loneliness and social withdrawal and hence to further social loss. Both counsellor and hypnotherapist need to enter the circle at some appropriate point and break it. In particular, providing not only reassurance but alternative scenarios for the bereaved to consider. When an individual is trapped in such a vicious circle of loss they are very often experiencing unresolved grief. However, for the counsellor or hypnotherapist to break this vicious circle of loss and resolve excessive grief it is important to realise that unresolved grief itself can take at least six forms, which are summarised in Table 2. The extent to which unresolved grief becomes pathological depends upon the severity of its features and the extent

Figure 1 Vicious circle of loss

to which normal functioning is impaired. Only by listening and considering the needs of the bereaved can these be ascertained.

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Table 2 Unresolved Grief Type

Characteristics

Absent grief

Bereaved person denies the loss and acts as if the death never occurred.

Delayed grief

The grieving is delayed. It is often re-activated by another later loss, perhaps years afterwards.

Conflicted, exaggerated or distorted grief

The bereaved initially feels relieved, but then this is followed by despair and intense feelings of anger or loss. There is often the loss of what might have been. Generally associated with what was an ambivalent relationship.

Chronic grief

The bereaved continues to show intense signs of mourning that are appropriate to the initial stages of grief. There are often intense feelings of helplessness and secondary gains for the bereaved.

Unanticipated grief syndrome

Occurs where major loss was unexpected and untimely. Characterised by prolonged shock or disbelief which hinders emotional grieving. There can be self reproach and a persistent obligation to the dead person.

Violent or traumatic grief syndrome

Can be as in unexpected grief, but the nature of the death itself also traumatises the individual. These feelings may be extreme and the bereaved feel continually self-reproachful if they survived the violent event

.

In trying to assess whether the grief is abnormal some writers consider it necessary to think of the grieving process in terms of an approximate time scale. But such chronological time scales of the grieving process should be taken as only a very crude guide.

Hypnotherapy and grieving The hypnotherapist involved in resolving grief will approach the problem in quite a different way. The first two needs of the individual - an understanding and coming to terms with the loss along with identifying and expressing personal feelings about the loss - are likely to be dealt with together. The typical approach is regression and dissociation. Within the trance state the individual can be regressed to the time of the death, or before, to establish their feelings and thoughts. The individual can be put through imaginary scenarios in which they interchange with the deceased before their death. This is especially important in dealing with unresolved issues between the two individuals or with things they would have liked to have said but could not bring themselves to say. In the relaxed trance state these can be done. It is also possible to aid them in expressing feelings of sadness, remorse, anger, etc. while in such a trance state. Dissociation, in particular, will allow the individual to express the things they may never have had an opportunity to do (see the case study later). Their own sense of loss, how this is affecting them personally and to come to an understanding of what is ‘normal’ behaviour can be dealt with by suggestions, both direct and indirect, while in a trance state. Emphasis here is what they were like before the bereavement, since this sets the basis for ‘normality’. Confidence boosting and a general positive attitude to life can also be undertaken. Pseudo-orientation is also a useful approach in

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establishing future scenarios. Throughout the hypnotherapist should be taking note of what the individual needs are and re-introduce these into the suggestions and metaphors. Different individuals need different time periods for adjustment, they also need different emphasis. In counselling this must be established by question and answer. In hypnotherapy, however, it is possible to be a little more direct. It is quite easy to use ideomotor responses (IMR’s). This is particularly important in establishing whether the individual has had enough time to implement some change, or whether there has been enough lapse of time for the individual to have come to terms with some aspect of the relationship which now cannot take place. Or even whether the time is right to move on! Finally, hypnotherapy can be used to provide the individual with a solution to their difficulty and allow them to move on. Techniques can be used (as in the case study) to allow the individual to find either a solution, or a better solution, to their difficulty. Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) techniques within the context of hypnosis can be particularly useful in this regard. Scrutton points out that counselling is a ‘problem-solving’ approach. What NLP along with hypnotherapy does is allow the individual to come up with their own solution to the problem - admittedly at the unconscious level.

A case study Robert (not his real name) was a young man, a member of a closely knit family, who was of Irish origin and studying in Scotland . Very active in the sports club and having a good social life along with his studies. His mother was a nurse who became ill and died rather suddenly. Robert himself was called home on her illness, and the day she died Robert could not be found. Robert’s exact whereabouts never did come to light since he repressed the whole of the week surrounding his mother’s death. The bereaving process began, but then got stuck. Robert had many of the characteristics of the unanticipated grief syndrome outlined in Table 2. That the grief became pathological was the fact that it went on for two years! Robert went into the vicious circle of loss shown above. He became depressed, withdrawn had difficulty sleeping and was generally not a nice person to be with. He continued his studies but he more and more found little purpose in his studies, his social life nor even in his football, which he loved dearly. Even his football mates were beginning to shun his company. Robert clearly was aware of his difficulty in coming to terms with his mother’s death and sort a student counsellor. Counselling proceeded for the most part of two years with little progress. The counselling seemed to prevent further decline, but could not get Robert to break out of the vicious circle of loss so that he could once more continue with his own personal growth. He became desperate and sort the help from a hypnotherapist. Robert was a responsive subjective. The early sessions involved getting Robert to express his grief, guilt and remorse in a trance state. An important element in the therapy was getting Robert to visit his mother in hospital “in the mind’s eye” and have him say all the things he wanted to say and did not say. Equally important, he was to hear his mother tell him how he was to handle her coming death and how he was to go on with his life. In order to allow Robert full time to engage in this an IMR was first elicited. When the whole interchange was complete he was to raise his “yes” finger. Pseudo-orientation and visual imagery were also used along with metaphors for overcoming personal difficulties. Although these early sessions had some success, they failed to break through Robert’s circle of loss. He continued with the same behaviour pattern. Age regression, although it took place, could not unlock what happened the week surrounding his mother’s death. Some deep repression was taking place which had brought about the prolonged grieving, and even under trance was not allowing change and development to take place.

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A totally different approach was called for. Although not an obvious choice, the therapist chose to use reframing combined with hypnosis. The basic six step approach to reframing is discussed in Frogs into Princes and is readily adapted within the trance state. The six steps in reframing are the following. · Identify the pattern · Establish communication with the part responsible for the pattern · Distinguish between the behaviour and the intention · Create new alternative behaviours · Have the creative part take responsibility for generating new behaviours · Perform an ecological check In carrying out these six steps in a trance state an IMR is first established and this is used to take control of the creative part, to indicate that it knows the intent of the behaviour and to indicate when alternatives have been found and to indicate that the ‘best’ three have been found and that the most satisfying of these three has been selected. Finally, the individual is to try out “in the mind’s eye” the choice and to indicate whether it is working satisfactorily. In line with the approach, Robert was asked, by means of an IMR, whether he was prepared to try out the new choice for a period of three weeks. One of the important features of this approach is that no one need know what the alternatives are and what the unconscious has decided to try out. In fact, Robert had no idea what it was himself. He was aware his “yes” finger was rising indicating he had found ten alternatives, and that he had selected three, and that finally he had homed in on one. But what this was he had no idea. In such therapy it is useful not even to inquire about the solution. In Robert’s case it seemed to satisfy some aspect of his deep repression. Since he did not need to reveal it, this too was unconsciously satisfying. From that one session on recovery began, and moved quickly. Further sessions simply continued to inquire with the unconscious whether it was happy with the new behaviour and whether it would continue in helping Robert overcome his grief and to pursue a more normal life-style. A continual “yes” response was obtained with never a hint at what the solution was. It is probable that an important reason why the therapy was so successful is that Robert came up with the solution himself and not the therapist! Reinforcement soon followed. Friends commented on how much better he looked and how more positive he was. He had at last broken out of the circle of loss and entered the virtuous circle of recovery.

Notes 1. Colin Murray Parkes (1986) Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life, 2nd edn. Harmondsworth: Penguin. This is not the only way to view bereavement. For example, J. William Worden (1991) Grief Counselling and Grief Therapy: A Handbook for the Mental Health Practitioner, 2nd edn. London: Tavistock, views it as a series of tasks to be completed. 2. A typical case is C. S. Lewis (1961) A Grief Observed. London: Faber & Faber. 3. J. William Worden (1991) Grief Counselling and Grief Therapy: A Handbook for the Mental health Practitioner, 2nd edn. London: Tavistock. 4. Adapted from Steve Scrutton (1995) Bereavement and Grief. London: Edward Arnold, Chapter 4. 5. Compiled from C.M. Parkes (1986) Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life, 2nd edn. Harmondsworth: Penguin; C.M. Parkes and R. Weiss (1983) Recovery from Bereavement. New York: Basic Books; B Raphael (1984) The Anatomy of

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Bereavement: A Handbook for the Caring Profession. London: Hutchinson and others by Silvia Bourne, Trinity Hospice. 6. Jenny Penson (1991) Bereavement. In Jenny Penson and Ronald Fisher (Eds.) Palliative Care for People with Cancer. London: Edward Arnold. Chapter 13. 7. This is why the time scale of the grieving process should be taken only as a very rough guide. 8. Richard Bandler and John Grinder (1979) Frogs into Princes. Neuro Linguistic Programming. Utah: Real People Press, p.160.

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Hypnotic Scripts, Inductions and Deepeners - Ronald Shone http://www.shoners3.co.uk/scripts.html http://www.shoners3.co.uk/inductions.html

Inductions Content #1 Progressive relaxation #2 Induction using a coin #3 Clasped hands #4 Induction with eyes open/closed

#1 Progressive Relaxation

(Adapted from J. Hartland, Medical and Dental Hypnosis) (The numbers refer to points that are elaborated on below the script)

Your eyelids are becoming very, very heavy. Heavier and heavier, yes, your eyelids are becoming ever so heavy and they want to close (1). With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier … . You are becoming very limp and relaxed, and as you become more limp and relaxed, so your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier. With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier and they just want to close (2). And all you want to do is relax and sleep, not a natural sleep, but a relaxed sleep where all you want to do is listen to my suggestions (3). You are becoming more and more relaxed and all you want to do is sleep and relax; all you want to do is to fall into a very deep sleep, a very deep relaxed sleep … . [Keep repeating this until the client closes their eyes. If they close sooner, just go straight on to the remaining instructions.]

Your feet are very relaxed; your left foot is very relaxed … . Your left ankle is relaxed and as your left foot relaxes, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . And now your left calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, very relaxed indeed (4). And the relaxation is spreading up your left leg into your left thigh … . And now the whole of your left leg is becoming very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . Not a natural sleep, but into a deep hypnotic sleep. [Now do the same with the right leg.]

And now the relaxation is spreading up your body. Your pelvis is very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . The muscles of your stomach are now relaxing, you 1

are feeling very warm and comfortable and relaxed (5), and the more relaxed you are so the deeper asleep you will go … . And now your chest muscles are relaxing, very, very relaxed. All of your body is very relaxed, and, as you relax more and more, so you are going down and down into a deeper and deeper sleep, into a very relaxed deep sleep … .

Your shoulder muscles are relaxing now. Very, very relaxed … , just as all the other muscles have relaxed and are going to continue to relax. And so your shoulder muscles are relaxing and you are going down still deeper, yes down and down into a much deeper sleep … .

And now the muscles of your left arm are relaxing. They are becoming very limp and relaxed. All the muscles in your left arm are becoming very limp and relaxed. And now your left hand is also becoming very relaxed, just like the remainder of your body. And as you relax still further, so you are going into a much deeper sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . [Now do the same for the right arm and right hand.]

Now the muscles of your neck are relaxing. Yes, they are becoming very relaxed indeed … . All tension is going from my neck and the muscles are becoming very limp and relaxed … (6). And as the muscles of your neck relax, so you are sinking down into an even deeper and deeper sleep. The muscles of the back of the neck are becoming very relaxed indeed (7). And, as you relax, so you are sinking down into an ever-deeper sleep.

And now the muscles of your face, your ears and around your eyes are relaxing. The muscles of your brow are relaxing. Yes, all the muscles of your face and head are becoming very relaxed, just like the rest of your body … (8). And you are sinking into an ever-deeper sleep … (9).

[If you do not feel entirely relaxed by this stage, either concentrate on those parts where tension still exists, or repeat the whole process from feet to head.]

Remarks

1. If the client's eyes should begin to blink, don’t worry. The best procedure if this happens is to incorporate it into the induction process – such as, “As you blink, so you are becoming more and more relaxed and your eyelids will become heavier still, heavier and heavier with every blink.” 2. If the eyes close earlier, simply go on to the instructions referring to the feet. 3. You may want to avoid the word 'sleep' and can readily substitute 'trance state'. It is, however, a convenient word because it is associated with the act of closing the eyes and relaxing the body. Natural sleep is not intended, and this is repeated in the suggestions to emphasise the fact. 4. As the person moves up their body, something particular and important happens. Their attention switches from the feet to the calf muscles, then the feet will almost certainly relax more; and as their attention switches from the calf muscles to the thighs, then the calf muscles will almost certainly relax more; and so on up the body. 5. The suggestion of warmth in the stomach has shown to be significant from work on autogenic training. 2

6. At this stage, the client's head may have fallen to one side or forwards, if it has not already done so. This is especially true if they are sitting in a chair. Don’t worry simply let it happen. If, however, this causes strain in the neck muscles, then suggest to them that they put their head upright again – although it will repeatedly fall to one side. If this becomes troublesome for them, then this is a good sign to undertake the session in a lying position. 7. The muscles of the back of the neck are very important and the more they can be relaxed by suggestion, the more relaxed the person will feel overall. 8. By now you should notice that the muscles of their face have relaxed; their mouth may open as the jaw relaxes. Again, just let things happen. Simply pay no attention to them. 9. At the termination of all this relaxation, you will want somewhere to ‘rest their mind’. Suggest to them that to place their awareness at the centre of their forehead, between their eyes – the location of the third eye! They should find that the mind is quite happy to remain there without any effort on their part.

#2 Induction using a coin

Have the client take a coin and clasp it in the palm of their hand fairly tightly. Now ask them to stretch out their arm with their thumb pointing up so that they are looking at their thumbnail. Now ask them to stare at their thumbnail, and as they do so repeat the following suggestions.

You are now relaxing, and, as you relax, your fingers are becoming looser and looser. And the looser they become, the more relaxed you are becoming … . And when the coin drops, that will be the signal for you to close your eyes and fall into a very deep relaxed sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . And now your grip is becoming lighter and lighter and you are relaxing more and more, and soon, very soon, you will drop the coin … . And when you drop the coin you will also drop your arm, and when you do that you will close your eyes and fall into a pleasant deep sleep … . Yes, you are becoming more relaxed and your fingers are becoming more and more loose … . [Keep repeating this until the coin drops and the client closes their eyes. Then begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.]

#3 Clasped hands

Your hands are clasping tighter and tighter, and as they clasp tighter and tighter so you are becoming more and more relaxed and going into a deep, deep sleep … . Yes, you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep, the tighter your hands clasp together, and they are becoming tighter and tighter, and you are becoming more and more relaxed, and going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . [Keep this up until your client begins to respond. Once this happens, then continue in the following manner.]

You are now going to relax your grip, and as you relax your grip, so you will go into an even deeper sleep, not a natural sleep, but a hypnotic sleep. And so as you relax your grip, as you are doing now, so you are going even deeper asleep. [Once the grip is loosened and the client is relaxed, begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.]

3

#4 Induction by opening and closing the eyes

In a moment, I am going to count down from one hundred. With each number I count you will open your eyes briefly and then close them. Each time you close your eyes it will become more and more difficult to open your eyes. Your eyelids are going to become heavier and heavier and so more and more difficult to open … . Not only will it become harder and harder to open your eyes … but you will become more and more relaxed. I will do this until you no longer can open your eyes. When this happens, you will be very relaxed indeed. Yes, very relaxed and in a deep trance state … .

[Now begin counting down from 100]

Deepenings1 #1 Counting down from 10 to 1 #2 Counting down from 100 to 1 #3 Down stairs in a castle turret #4 Escalator down #5 Down a river to the sea #6 Down to the pond #7 Jungle and lagoon #8 Beach and lapping of the sea #9 Diving into the sea #10 Going down to the crystal cave

4

5

Hypnotic Inductions www.shoners3.co.uk /inductions.html #1 Progressive Relaxation (Adapted from J. Hartland, Medical and Dental Hypnosis) (The numbers refer to points that are elaborated on below the script) Your eyelids are becoming very, very heavy. Heavier and heavier, yes, your eyelids are becoming ever so heavy and they want to close (1). With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier … . You are becoming very limp and relaxed, and as you become more limp and relaxed, so your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier. With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier and they just want to close (2). And all you want to do is relax and sleep, not a natural sleep, but a relaxed sleep where all you want to do is listen to my suggestions (3). You are becoming more and more relaxed and all you want to do is sleep and relax; all you want to do is to fall into a very deep sleep, a very deep relaxed sleep … . [Keep repeating this until the client closes their eyes. If they close sooner, just go straight on to the remaining instructions.] Your feet are very relaxed; your left foot is very relaxed … . Your left ankle is relaxed and as your left foot relaxes, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . And now your left calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, very relaxed indeed (4). And the relaxation is spreading up your left leg into your left thigh … . And now the whole of your left leg is becoming very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . Not a natural sleep, but into a deep hypnotic sleep. [Now do the same with the right leg.] And now the relaxation is spreading up your body. Your pelvis is very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . The muscles of your stomach are now relaxing, you are feeling very warm and comfortable and relaxed (5), and the more relaxed you are so the deeper asleep you will go … . And now your chest muscles are relaxing, very, very relaxed. All of your body is very relaxed, and, as you relax more and more, so you are going down and down into a deeper and deeper sleep, into a very relaxed deep sleep … . Your shoulder muscles are relaxing now. Very, very relaxed … , just as all the other muscles have relaxed and are going to continue to relax. And so your shoulder muscles are relaxing and you are going down still deeper, yes down and down into a much deeper sleep … . And now the muscles of your left arm are relaxing. They are becoming very limp and relaxed. All the muscles in your left arm are becoming very limp and relaxed. And now your left hand is also becoming very relaxed, just like the remainder of your body. And as you relax still further, so you are going into a much deeper sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . [Now do the same for the right arm and right hand.] Now the muscles of your neck are relaxing. Yes, they are becoming very relaxed indeed … . All tension is going from my neck and the muscles are becoming very limp and relaxed … (6). And as the muscles of your neck relax, so you are sinking down into an even deeper and deeper sleep. The muscles of the back of the neck are becoming very relaxed indeed (7). And, as you relax, so you are sinking down into an everdeeper sleep.

And now the muscles of your face, your ears and around your eyes are relaxing. The muscles of your brow are relaxing. Yes, all the muscles of your face and head are becoming very relaxed, just like the rest of your body … (8). And you are sinking into an ever-deeper sleep … (9). [If you do not feel entirely relaxed by this stage, either concentrate on those parts where tension still exists, or repeat the whole process from feet to head.] Remarks 1. If the client's eyes should begin to blink, don’t worry. The best procedure if this happens is to incorporate it into the induction process – such as, “As you blink, so you are becoming more and more relaxed and your eyelids will become heavier still, heavier and heavier with every blink.” 2. If the eyes close earlier, simply go on to the instructions referring to the feet. 3. You may want to avoid the word 'sleep' and can readily substitute 'trance state'. It is, however, a convenient word because it is associated with the act of closing the eyes and relaxing the body. Natural sleep is not intended, and this is repeated in the suggestions to emphasise the fact. 4. As the person moves up their body, something particular and important happens. Their attention switches from the feet to the calf muscles, then the feet will almost certainly relax more; and as their attention switches from the calf muscles to the thighs, then the calf muscles will almost certainly relax more; and so on up the body. 5. The suggestion of warmth in the stomach has shown to be significant from work on autogenic training. 6. At this stage, the client's head may have fallen to one side or forwards, if it has not already done so. This is especially true if they are sitting in a chair. Don’t worry simply let it happen. If, however, this causes strain in the neck muscles, then suggest to them that they put their head upright again – although it will repeatedly fall to one side. If this becomes troublesome for them, then this is a good sign to undertake the session in a lying position. 7. The muscles of the back of the neck are very important and the more they can be relaxed by suggestion, the more relaxed the person will feel overall. 8. By now you should notice that the muscles of their face have relaxed; their mouth may open as the jaw relaxes. Again, just let things happen. Simply pay no attention to them. 9. At the termination of all this relaxation, you will want somewhere to ‘rest their mind’. Suggest to them that to place their awareness at the centre of their forehead, between their eyes – the location of the third eye! They should find that the mind is quite happy to remain there without any effort on their part. #2 Induction using a coin Have the client take a coin and clasp it in the palm of their hand fairly tightly. Now ask them to stretch out their arm with their thumb pointing up so that they are looking at their thumbnail. Now ask them to stare at their thumbnail, and as they do so repeat the following suggestions. You are now relaxing, and, as you relax, your fingers are becoming looser and looser. And the looser they become, the more relaxed you are becoming … . And when the coin drops, that will be the signal for you to close your eyes and fall into a very deep relaxed sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . And now your grip is becoming lighter and lighter and you are relaxing more and more, and soon, very soon, you will drop the coin … . And when you drop the coin you will also drop your arm, and when you do that you will close your eyes and fall into a pleasant deep sleep … . Yes, you are becoming more relaxed and your fingers are becoming more and more loose … . [Keep repeating this until the coin drops and the client

closes their eyes. Then begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.] #3 Clasped hands Your hands are clasping tighter and tighter, and as they clasp tighter and tighter so you are becoming more and more relaxed and going into a deep, deep sleep … . Yes, you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep, the tighter your hands clasp together, and they are becoming tighter and tighter, and you are becoming more and more relaxed, and going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . [Keep this up until your client begins to respond. Once this happens, then continue in the following manner.] You are now going to relax your grip, and as you relax your grip, so you will go into an even deeper sleep, not a natural sleep, but a hypnotic sleep. And so as you relax your grip, as you are doing now, so you are going even deeper asleep. [Once the grip is loosened and the client is relaxed, begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.] #4 Induction by opening and closing the eyes In a moment, I am going to count down from one hundred. With each number I count you will open your eyes briefly and then close them. Each time you close your eyes it will become more and more difficult to open your eyes. Your eyelids are going to become heavier and heavier and so more and more difficult to open … . Not only will it become harder and harder to open your eyes … but you will become more and more relaxed. I will do this until you no longer can open your eyes. When this happens, you will be very relaxed indeed. Yes, very relaxed and in a deep trance state … . [Now begin counting down from 100]

Hypnotic Inductions www.shoners3.co.uk /inductions.html #1 Progressive Relaxation (Adapted from J. Hartland, Medical and Dental Hypnosis) (The numbers refer to points that are elaborated on below the script) Your eyelids are becoming very, very heavy. Heavier and heavier, yes, your eyelids are becoming ever so heavy and they want to close (1). With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier … . You are becoming very limp and relaxed, and as you become more limp and relaxed, so your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier. With every breath you take, your eyelids are becoming heavier and heavier and they just want to close (2). And all you want to do is relax and sleep, not a natural sleep, but a relaxed sleep where all you want to do is listen to my suggestions (3). You are becoming more and more relaxed and all you want to do is sleep and relax; all you want to do is to fall into a very deep sleep, a very deep relaxed sleep … . [Keep repeating this until the client closes their eyes. If they close sooner, just go straight on to the remaining instructions.] Your feet are very relaxed; your left foot is very relaxed … . Your left ankle is relaxed and as your left foot relaxes, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . And now your left calf muscle is becoming very relaxed, very relaxed indeed (4). And the relaxation is spreading up your left leg into your left thigh … . And now the whole of your left leg is becoming very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . Not a natural sleep, but into a deep hypnotic sleep. [Now do the same with the right leg.] And now the relaxation is spreading up your body. Your pelvis is very relaxed and, as you relax more and more, so you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . The muscles of your stomach are now relaxing, you are feeling very warm and comfortable and relaxed (5), and the more relaxed you are so the deeper asleep you will go … . And now your chest muscles are relaxing, very, very relaxed. All of your body is very relaxed, and, as you relax more and more, so you are going down and down into a deeper and deeper sleep, into a very relaxed deep sleep … . Your shoulder muscles are relaxing now. Very, very relaxed … , just as all the other muscles have relaxed and are going to continue to relax. And so your shoulder muscles are relaxing and you are going down still deeper, yes down and down into a much deeper sleep … . And now the muscles of your left arm are relaxing. They are becoming very limp and relaxed. All the muscles in your left arm are becoming very limp and relaxed. And now your left hand is also becoming very relaxed, just like the remainder of your body. And as you relax still further, so you are going into a much deeper sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . [Now do the same for the right arm and right hand.] Now the muscles of your neck are relaxing. Yes, they are becoming very relaxed indeed … . All tension is going from my neck and the muscles are becoming very limp and relaxed … (6). And as the muscles of your neck relax, so you are sinking down into an even deeper and deeper sleep. The muscles of the back of the neck are becoming very relaxed indeed (7). And, as you relax, so you are sinking down into an everdeeper sleep.

And now the muscles of your face, your ears and around your eyes are relaxing. The muscles of your brow are relaxing. Yes, all the muscles of your face and head are becoming very relaxed, just like the rest of your body … (8). And you are sinking into an ever-deeper sleep … (9). [If you do not feel entirely relaxed by this stage, either concentrate on those parts where tension still exists, or repeat the whole process from feet to head.] Remarks 1. If the client's eyes should begin to blink, don’t worry. The best procedure if this happens is to incorporate it into the induction process – such as, “As you blink, so you are becoming more and more relaxed and your eyelids will become heavier still, heavier and heavier with every blink.” 2. If the eyes close earlier, simply go on to the instructions referring to the feet. 3. You may want to avoid the word 'sleep' and can readily substitute 'trance state'. It is, however, a convenient word because it is associated with the act of closing the eyes and relaxing the body. Natural sleep is not intended, and this is repeated in the suggestions to emphasise the fact. 4. As the person moves up their body, something particular and important happens. Their attention switches from the feet to the calf muscles, then the feet will almost certainly relax more; and as their attention switches from the calf muscles to the thighs, then the calf muscles will almost certainly relax more; and so on up the body. 5. The suggestion of warmth in the stomach has shown to be significant from work on autogenic training. 6. At this stage, the client's head may have fallen to one side or forwards, if it has not already done so. This is especially true if they are sitting in a chair. Don’t worry simply let it happen. If, however, this causes strain in the neck muscles, then suggest to them that they put their head upright again – although it will repeatedly fall to one side. If this becomes troublesome for them, then this is a good sign to undertake the session in a lying position. 7. The muscles of the back of the neck are very important and the more they can be relaxed by suggestion, the more relaxed the person will feel overall. 8. By now you should notice that the muscles of their face have relaxed; their mouth may open as the jaw relaxes. Again, just let things happen. Simply pay no attention to them. 9. At the termination of all this relaxation, you will want somewhere to ‘rest their mind’. Suggest to them that to place their awareness at the centre of their forehead, between their eyes – the location of the third eye! They should find that the mind is quite happy to remain there without any effort on their part. #2 Induction using a coin Have the client take a coin and clasp it in the palm of their hand fairly tightly. Now ask them to stretch out their arm with their thumb pointing up so that they are looking at their thumbnail. Now ask them to stare at their thumbnail, and as they do so repeat the following suggestions. You are now relaxing, and, as you relax, your fingers are becoming looser and looser. And the looser they become, the more relaxed you are becoming … . And when the coin drops, that will be the signal for you to close your eyes and fall into a very deep relaxed sleep, not a natural sleep but a hypnotic sleep … . And now your grip is becoming lighter and lighter and you are relaxing more and more, and soon, very soon, you will drop the coin … . And when you drop the coin you will also drop your arm, and when you do that you will close your eyes and fall into a pleasant deep sleep … . Yes, you are becoming more relaxed and your fingers are becoming more and more loose … . [Keep repeating this until the coin drops and the client

closes their eyes. Then begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.] #3 Clasped hands Your hands are clasping tighter and tighter, and as they clasp tighter and tighter so you are becoming more and more relaxed and going into a deep, deep sleep … . Yes, you are going into a deeper and deeper sleep, the tighter your hands clasp together, and they are becoming tighter and tighter, and you are becoming more and more relaxed, and going into a deeper and deeper sleep … . [Keep this up until your client begins to respond. Once this happens, then continue in the following manner.] You are now going to relax your grip, and as you relax your grip, so you will go into an even deeper sleep, not a natural sleep, but a hypnotic sleep. And so as you relax your grip, as you are doing now, so you are going even deeper asleep. [Once the grip is loosened and the client is relaxed, begin the relaxation suggestions given in the relaxation induction, beginning with the feet.] #4 Induction by opening and closing the eyes In a moment, I am going to count down from one hundred. With each number I count you will open your eyes briefly and then close them. Each time you close your eyes it will become more and more difficult to open your eyes. Your eyelids are going to become heavier and heavier and so more and more difficult to open … . Not only will it become harder and harder to open your eyes … but you will become more and more relaxed. I will do this until you no longer can open your eyes. When this happens, you will be very relaxed indeed. Yes, very relaxed and in a deep trance state … . [Now begin counting down from 100]

Self-hypnosis www.shoners3.co.uk /self_hypnosis.html Important note Learning self-hypnosis, either from a book or from a computer screen, is not the ideal way to learn it. You are best taught self-hypnosis from a hypnotherapist, supplemented either by reading or what you will find on this web site. Having said this, it can be done, but it might take longer. Some preliminary considerations We begin this topic with a discussion of consciousness and altered states of consciousness. What is important to pick up from this discussion is the possibility of many selves. The reason for this is that in selfhypnosis you become two persons: the person being hypnotised and the person doing the hypnosis. For the individual interested only in learning how to carry out self-hypnosis, this is all that needs to be understood. Much attention in heterohypnosis is paid to rapport. Good rapport between the hypnotist and the client leads to a quick induction and good hypnotic depth. But in self-hypnosis there is only you. Does this mean that you cannot contemplate rapport? This is not the case. This is why it is important to realise that you have many selves. The difficulty is establishing rapport between the various parts of yourself. We discuss this on the web page referred to as 'Rapport'. How do you know whether you will be a good hypnotic subject? We have discussed this elsewhere under 'Hypnotizability'. We have also discussed the type of bodily responses you can expect when you achieve self-hypnosis. In heterohypnosis, a hypnotist will spend some time allaying fears and confusions of the client. This is important, especially to eliminate mis-conceptions about hypnosis. This too is covered elsewhere on the web site, under the title 'Fallacies'. All these topics are important for the self-hypnotist. Preparation for self-hypnosis On a first consultation, and after dealing with the misconceptions a client may have about hypnosis, the next stage is to discuss with the client the appropriate state of mind to adopt when engaging in hypnosis. To some extent this is a continuation of rapport that is being established between the hypnotist and client. The hypnotist will reiterate that they will not go unconscious and will hear everything going on around them, but most especially will be focusing on the suggestions of the hypnotist. In this respect they will not feel much different from normal. What is different is that they will be opening themselves up to the suggestions of the hypnotist. They should not try to do anything nor try not to do anything. The client is encouraged to attempt a total indifference to the whole procedure. In other words, the client is asked simply to listen to the suggestions of the hypnotist and simply let things happen. This is not what the client may expect, so it is important to emphasize that they are not to try to make things happen or to prevent things from happening. Nor should the client try to anticipate the hypnotist. Of course, with self-hypnosis, you know what you know about hypnosis. What is more important is that you have a similar state of mind to that being discussed in the previous paragraph. The most important state of mind is one of indifference. You must be totally unconcerned about whether you enter or do not enter hypnosis; and you must be totally unconcerned about whether you do or do not follow a particular suggestion. You neither try nor do you not try. You take a purely passive stance. This may at first be a little difficult to do, but you will get better at it. On those occasions where you respond well to your

autosuggestions, you will note that it is when your state of mind is just as described. You will therefore come to recognise the state of mind, and this will aid you in achieving it on future occasions. Furthermore, when engaging in self-hypnosis, you do not have to tell yourself these things. You simple adopt such an attitude the moment you decide to enter self-hypnosis. In heterohypnosis, the client may ask a variety of questions during this interchange. The hypnotist will take special note of these and utilize anything of significance pointed out by the client (a very Ericksonian approach!). In the case of self-hypnosis, you do not carry out such an interchange, but you may have passing thoughts of a similar nature. Again, utilize anything that seems appropriate. These passing thoughts indicate what matters to you; so if possible, utilize them. The Trance State The trance state involves induction, deepening and termination - along with other suggestions you will want to give yourself. It would be easy to simply say, "Induction, deepening and termination are exactly the same as in heterohypnosis". For this reason many works on hypnosis do not discuss self-hypnosis. But there are some particular considerations to keep in mind when engaging in self-hypnosis. Induction is considered first. Here we provide a discussion of the process and what you might expect and how you might feel during the induction. We provide in detail just one induction script, probably the most famous one of progressive relaxation. All other induction scripts can be adapted in a similar fashion. Deepening the trance state is the next step in the trance state process. Here we provide a number of deepening techniques: some straight forward and others involving imagination. What is important for the self-hypnotist is to try a whole variety of deepening techniques and find those that you respond to the best. You can then concentrate on these. Step three in the trance state is giving yourself suggestions for change that you wish to carry out. We shall deal with this later. Here we note the final stage in the trance state process is termination of the trance state. This is much easier than people imagine it to be. Using the hypnotic state In some respects, learning self-hypnosis is the easy part. What you do with it is more difficult. What you do with the trance state takes place after deepening and before you terminate the state of hypnosis. But because you are in a very relaxed state, and thinking is a great effort, you need to know what you wish to accomplish with the trance state before you enter it. What you do with self-hypnosis falls into two broad categories: 1. Dealing with problems 2. Engaging in self-development Although the two are not wholly separate, they do often involve different techniques. Too often hypnotherapy is seen as a therapy (a method of dealing with a problem). But it is also a copying strategy, and as such is a means of dealing with self improvement. You will find a brief list of uses on the web page Uses of Hypnosis. This web site emphasises the second use more than the first. There are many books on hypnotherapy on the market which deal with the first topic. Once you know how to hypnotise yourself, you can consult these works and deal with your particular problem, whether it be smoking, dieting, lack of sleep, pain, tinnitus, etc. Amazon on the links page directs you to these. Another good source is the Anglo American Books, also found on the links page. Self-hypnosis should be seen as a tool. You become proficient at using the tool the more you use it. It is a learning experience. Reading about how to use it is purely an intellectual exercise, and largely affects only

your left brain. Using self-hypnosis is a subjective experience, and utilizes your right brain. Experiment with the use of self-hypnosis, and most of all have fun. Depth Techniques

Time Distortion www.shoners3.co.uk /time_distortion.html Time distortion is fairly easy to obtain, although the duration of time distortion requires practice. Under hypnosis, man’s in-built clock can be controlled to some degree. The initial instructions for time distortion are always the same – a straightforward statement of the time to be distorted. For instance: ‘In just one minute of clock time, you will experience thirty minutes of subjective time’; or, alternatively, the statement can be left ambiguous, but with specified limits, e.g. ‘you will, in one minute of clock time, solve this problem which normally takes about thirty minutes’. Both of these are examples of time expansion, which have a number of medical and non-medical uses. Time contraction is more difficult, but why this is so is not known. It has many uses in clinical situations, most notably, shortening the time a pain is experienced. Generally, after the time has been distorted a suggestion is given about which you are dealing with. Sometimes this will involve a posthypnotic suggestion about time when dealing with something. #1 The time machine One minute of clock time is going to feel like thirty minutes to you. Yes, in one minute, you are going to feel as if thirty minutes have elapsed, and this time distortion will remain until I return it once again to normal. You are sitting in a time machine, just like the one created in H. G. Wells’ novel by that name, and you are seated before a window, through which you have no difficulty in seeing out. You now push the lever forward and time begins to speed up. You can see things moving across the window, and they are moving faster and faster, yes they are moving faster and faster. Day becomes night, and then night becomes day. And the night follows the day, more and more quickly. The seasons now become noticeable, because time is moving very, very quickly. And now it all goes dark. [pause] Your time is now slowing down to normal. Yes, your sense of time has returned to normal. With no difficulty at all, You are now back to normal. #2 Space travel [Stipulate the time distortion first, then continue as follows.] You are on a disc, tied down securely. The disc is below a dome on the roof, which opens up to the sky. And now the disc begins to spin, faster and faster repeat, increasing the speed]. The dome now opens and you fly out off into space. You pass the planets, the stars, and the moons, going faster and faster. And you are now being pulled into a black hole, ever faster [repeat]. You are now through the black hole where time is motionless and everything is dark and peaceful. [Now return the client's sense of time to normality.] #3 Time contraction Thirty minutes of actual time are going to feel like five minutes to you. Yes, time is going to go by very, very quickly, just as it does whenever you become very interested in something. Yes, in thirty minutes of subjective time, your entire journey of three hours is going to be over. [Now create the most vivid scene you can, paying attention to details, no matter how small. Be involved in it. More importantly, have a clock somewhere in the scene that strikes twelve, and between each strike

continue to elaborate on the scene. A fairy tale or something from the Arabian Nights is ideal.] #4 Re-experiencing a whole film or novel in five minutes In a moment, when I count to five, you will imagine that you are once again watching Gone With the Wind, and in just five minutes you will have watched the whole movie through again in your mind’s eye; yes, the whole of the film, with no difficulty at all, and in all its detail. [Now count to five.] #5 Problem-solving [This problem-solving is assuming that the client needs to amass information, such as preparation for an essay or examination. We also assume that this will take place tomorrow (but it can be any specified time.)] Tomorrow, when you are ready to look over your problem, you will go to your desk (table, or whatever), which has all the necessary information that you require in considering your problem. And because five minutes of time is going to feel like thirty minutes to you, then you will find that the solution to the problem will arise quicker than normal. You will be able to marshal all the facts very easily, and the solution will come to you very easily and very quickly. #6 Housework (or some disagreeable job) When you return home, you will go about doing your housework. You will begin with the living room, then go on to the kitchen, etc. You can see yourself going through each room, doing all that is necessary. And while you are doing this, which you will do when you return home, you will not notice time passing and very soon all the housework will be done. You will be able to get through all of your housework in no time at all. You will concentrate on each task and think of nothing else. [repeat] You will feel happy and will direct all your attention to the task in hand. Yes, you will go from the living room to the kitchen, and then on to … And in no time at all, the housework will be done and you will be very pleased and most satisfied with your progress and what you have accomplished.

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Peripheral system BOX 1 Fight-or-flight Two systems Negative and positive The divided brain BOX 2 An experiment

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In the browser window you should if prompted Open With Different Viewer, and choose Open with Adobe Reader. Alternatively, the file can be saved. Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

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A Brief History of Hypnosis Fallacies Hypnotizability Characteristics of the hypnotic state Suggestions in hypnosis The nervous system Ideomotor Responses Association and Dissociation

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8: Association and Dissociation 9: Time Distortion 10: External aids 11: Alternative theories of hypnosis 12: Some NLP techniques 13: Consciousness and Altered States of Consciousness 14: Some Advances in Neuroscience

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Induction and termination Deepening Some uses of hypnosis Creative imagery Stories Metaphors Post traumatic stress disorder

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Post traumatic stress disorder Myalgic encephalomyelitis/Chronic fatigue syndrome Adoption trauma Past life regression Three articles

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Book 3 contains no chapters. There are just two documents. 1. Self-hypnosis on web site and in Complete Guide 2. Self hypnosis book

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The first provides a table showing a list of what is on the web site and where this material is already covered in this Complete Guide in Books 1 and 2. The second provides a booklet that would be provided to clients who wished to learn self-hypnosis. Video files can only be accessed from this web site.

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Affirmations Relaxation, Self-confidence and Self-esteem Hypnosis for Sport Hypnosis for Study Hypnosis for Music Hypnosis for Business Well-being

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Well-being Stress, Anxiety and Negativity Hospitalisation and Hypnosis Hypnosis for Weight Loss Hypnosis for Overcoming Shyness Pain Control and Regaining Health

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Counting down from 10 to 1 Counting down from 100 to 1 Down stairs in a castle turret Escalator down Down a river to the sea

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#6 Down to the pond #7 Jungle and lagoon #8 Beach and lapping of the sea #9 Diving into the sea #10 Going down to the crystal cave

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Heaviness in the arms Arm levitation Arm levitation (in smaller steps) Arm rigidity Rolling arms

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#16 #17 #18 #19

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Eye catalepsy Not being able to rise from the chair The triangle Entering a black hole

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Content #1 Stepping out of your body #2 Disappearing #3 Change in body image #4 Glove anaesthesia #5 Automatic writing

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#1 Stepping out of your body You are now stepping out of your body; You can feel yourself rising from the chair. Yes, you have no difficulty in rising up out of your body. It is as if there are two of you: the one rising from the chair and the one remaining seated in the chair. And this is happening now with no difficulty at all. You are stepping out of your body and moving about the room — in your mind’s eye … You can see yourself sitting in the chair and you look very peaceful and very relaxed and in a deep hypnotic state. And there appears nothing strange about seeing yourself in the chair. All of your consciousness seems to be with the person outside. You can see everything in the room, including yourself, very clearly indeed. And now you can give that person in the chair instructions, and he (or she) will carry them out, without any difficulty whatsoever. And you will be able to observe how well he (or she) is carrying out your suggestions. Now return to the body in the chair and become just the one person. #2 Disappearing You awaken from a sound sleep, You are in bed and very comfortable. But you now feel yourself becoming smaller and smaller. You are shrinking, first to four feet, then to three feet, two feet … The bed now appears tremendously large and looks the size of a football pitch. And you continue to get smaller. Now you are only one foot tall and becoming smaller still. And you are not, in any way, worried about this sensation or any other sensations that you may have. You will be taking a very detached

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And you are not, in any way, worried about this sensation or any other sensations that you may have. You will be taking a very detached interest in the whole thing. And now you are continuing to get smaller and smaller. You are now so small, smaller than an ant, so that you can move around in the fibres of the pillow or sheets. Yes, you are so small that you can crawl around the fibres, which look like giant stalks. [Pause to let the client really feel this experience]. And you are continuing to get smaller. You are smaller than a molecule and in fact so small that you can pass in and out of the fibres. And you now vanish altogether! #3 Change in body image You are becoming very, very heavy. So heavy that you feel as though you are made of lead, and you can feel yourself sinking down into the chair as you become heavier and heavier …

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Sauna and massage The log cabin Elimination of tension prior to engagement The clean slate The helmet of protection

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#6 Positive approach to thinking #7 The job interview #8 General increased self confidence #9 One pointed attention #10 The efficient day

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The cloud The crystal cave Adapted crystal cave (bruxism) Overcoming the brick wall and ravine Getting rid of negative thoughts

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#16 #17 #18 #19 #20

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Your duplicate The night porter Sleep temples Correcting a computer programme Planet examina

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History Fallacies Hypnotizability Characteristics Suggestions Bodily Responses

This page directs you to some basic information about hypnosis. History of hypnosis

Ideomotor

Twelve fallacies about hypnosis

Dissociation

Hypnotizability

Time Distortion

Characteristics of the hypnotic state

External Aids

Suggestions in hypnosis Bodily responses

Theories NLP Techniques

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Brain Imaging

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External aids Theories of hypnosis Some NLP techniques Brain imagining and hypnosis Developments in neuroscience and their implications for hypnotherapy

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Metaphors Metaphor 1 The wheel Metaphor 2 The bread machine Metaphor 3 The factory Metaphor 4 The steamboat Metaphor 5 Anchors away Metaphor 6 The plot of land Metaphor 7 The lighting engineer Metaphor 8 Gladiator Metaphor 9 The caterpillar Metaphor 10 Being grounded Metaphor 11 Cleaning out your mind Metaphor 12 Cheetah Metaphor 13

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Metaphor 13 Letting go of rubbish Metaphor 14 Dumping the rubbish

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Uses of hypnosis can be divided into two broad categories: 1. Problems 2. Self improvement Although the two are not wholly separate, they do often involve different techniques. Too often hypnotherapy is seen as a therapy (a method of dealing with a problem). But it is also a copying strategy and a means of dealing with self improvement.

Problems

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Adoption trauma. This problem is often misunderstood. Although it has some similarities with PTSD, it has many additional problems associated with unresolved grief and fear of abandonment. The trauma can last well into adulthood. Hypnotherapy can help in bringing about integration.

Confidence. Not everyone has confidence, but also one can have confidence in some areas and not in others. Raising one’s self confidence is always beneficial.

Anxiety. Hypnosis can reduce anxiety by increasing relaxation, reducing blood pressure and creating a more calming demeanour. Relaxation is the main element in combating problems of anxiety. ME. A problem not readily treated by drugs and leaving the sufferer tired, exhausted and depressed. This problem needs to be tackled from a number of angles, of which hypnotherapy can help in each. (see my article on ME). Obsessive compulsive disorders (CODs). There are many

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Examinations. Examinations, whether formal examinations or just taking a driving test, can be very stressful. Hypnosis can help in achieving one's full potential in such necessary tasks. Interviews. Applying for jobs, or just changing jobs, requires most often an interview. Hypnosis can rehearse interviews in the head and so enhance performance on the actual occasion. It is particularly helpful to actors and actresses who must attend rehearsals. Motivation. Sometimes we lack motivation to do things. Such lack of motivation is often linked to not having clear goals. Hypnosis

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Obsessive compulsive disorders (CODs). There are many obsessive compulsive disorders (OCDs) from washing of hands, counting, and many more. Hypnotherapy can undo such "false programming".

of motivation is often linked to not having clear goals. Hypnosis can be employed to raise one’s motivation - whether it be for sport or just in general.

Phobias. Hypnotherapy is particularly efficient at removing phobias, whether they be of snakes, spiders, flying or simply leaving the house. It can be a quick and long lasting solution to such problems.

Relaxation. We all need to relax, but we often do not know how. Hypnosis helps to achieve a thorough relaxation. Relaxation through hypnosis is much more beneficial than relaxing in a chair or on the beach. Combined with imagery, this can be extremely therapeutic.

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stress attached to a traumatic event can lead to anxiety, panic attacks and depression that can last for many years unless treated. Hypnotherapy has some success in this area.

Self-esteem. When self-esteem is lacking individuals can often feel depressed and in some cases be taken advantage of. Partners or people in the work place can reduce your self-esteem. Hypnosis, including self-hypnosis, can be used to raise one’s self-esteem.

Sexual dysfunction. Many sexual dysfunctions are unconscious

Sport. Sports can involve mental blocks which reduce

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Content #1 Posthypnotic suggestions for next trance state #2 Signal for inducing future trance state #3 Visit to the dentist #4 Suggestion for a forthcoming engagement #5 Cue word to bring about relaxation

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#1 Posthypnotic suggestion for next trance state … When you next go into trance, you will go into trance quickly, easily and deeply … yes, you will go into trance on the next occasion more easily, more quickly and more deeply. [Repeat a few more times if necessary, and repeat on different occasions throughout the present trance state.] #2 Signal for inducing future trace state In the future, whenever I say to you, “[Name], go into trance” you will immediately close your eyes and fall into a deep trance state … yes, a very deep, deep trance state. And this deep trance state will come over you whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance”. Each and every time I say, “[Name], go into trance” you will go into a deep, deep trance state immediately. And each time will be easier than the time before; each time will be quicker than the time before; each time will be deeper than the time before. Yes, whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance” you will immediately fall into a deep trance state, deeper than the time before, easier than the time before, quicker than the time before. And if anyone else should happen to say, “[Name], go into trance” then nothing will happen unless you want it to. It is only when I say to you, “[Name], go into trance” will you immediately fall into a deep trance state. And on each occasion, you will become much more relaxed, and because you will become much more relaxed, you will go deeper and deeper into trance on each future occasion. And all this will happen whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance”. Because from now on,

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deeper into trance on each future occasion. And all this will happen whenever I say, “[Name], go into trance”. Because from now on, whenever I say to you, “[Name], go into trance” you will immediately close your eyes and sink into a beautiful deep trance state: quickly, easily and deeply. #3 Visit to the dentist From now on, whenever you visit the dentist, you are going to be calm and relaxed. From the moment you enter the building which houses the dentists surgery, you will immediately become calm and relaxed … free from tension and free from worry … From the moment you enter the building you will enter a trance state with your eyes open and to everyone else you will look normal. You will be able to act normally and speak normally … but inside you will be in a clam peaceful relaxed trance state with your eyes open … and you will enter this state the moment you enter the building which houses the dentists surgery and you will awaken the moment you leave. And no matter what the dentist is doing to your teeth, you will be in a calm relaxed state. You will be able to respond to the receptionist, the dentist and anyone else as normal, but all the time you will be in a trance state with your eyes open. When in the dentist’s chair, you will look up at a point on the ceiling, and you will be calm and relaxed. you will be able to give yourself suggestions while doing this and you will respond to those suggestions … just as you would now if I gave them to you … And no matter

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Rapid inductions are difficult to describe because they usually involve physical actions and these need to be observed. You can, however, see many of these on YouTube. The hand interrupt is a good example. Before undertaking this the client is informed that a suggestion of ‘sleep’ will be given during the induction and that this is simply a symbol to denote going into a very relaxed state. It does not mean ‘sleep’ in the normal use of the term. Why does such a rapid induction bring about a state of hypnosis? The initiated handshake leads to an unconscious reciprocated response on the part of the client. We have a whole lifespan of automatically responding to a handshake. When this is interrupted the mind is suddenly thrown off-guard, i.e. Into a state of disequilibrium. Both the body and the mind constantly monitor and attempt to re-establish equilibrium if this is disturbed. While the mind is attempting to do this (and so is pre-occupied) it is open and responsive to suggestion. So when ‘sleep’ is suggested forcibly, the client responds.

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You go to shake a person’s hand, but then interrupt this by gently taking the wrist and moving the hand up to the face (palm facing the face) and suggest to the client that they focus on the lines on their palm. Soon you say (forcibly) ‘sleep’ and gently move their head forward in the process.. This is illustrated in the video blow.

Stage hypnotists use a similar rapid induction by having a volunteer fall backwards. This is disorienting and creates a state of bodily disequilibrium. While falling backwards the hypnotist suggests ‘sleep’. Exactly the same principle is involved as in the hand interrupt induction. It should be noted that the hand interrupt induction involves eye fixation. The client is asked to focus on the lines on their palm. In

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fixation. The client is asked to focus on the lines on their palm. In addition, when ‘sleep’ is suggested this is rapidly followed by suggestions of going deeper asleep (hypnotic deepening). This id done before the client has had a chance to re-establish equilibrium and so they are still highly suggestible.

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Rapid self-hypnosis (and eyes-open hypnosis) This technique, adapted from Gerald Kein, takes longer to describe than it does to perform. Besides inducing rapid self-hypnosis it includes utilising post hypnotic suggestions. The switch The technique involves imagining or visualising a simple switch on which there is four settings, as shown in the following drawing. You can imagine or visualise any type of switch so long as it has these four settings and fits into the description to follow.

Imagining or visualising the switch Imagine or visualise a switch just at the base of your brain where the spinal cord descends down. This switch has four settings: (1) ON, which is on the right (3 o’clock), (2) OFF, which is on the left (9 o’clock), (3) NEUTRAL, which is on the top centre (12 o’clock) and (4) POST HYPNOTIC, which is on the bottom centre (6 o’clock). All the nerves from the brain and up to the brain pass through this switch. The switch can control the flow of electrical impulses. Descending from the switch is your spinal cord and all the network of nerves emanating

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switch can control the flow of electrical impulses. Descending from the switch is your spinal cord and all the network of nerves emanating from the spinal cord to all parts of your body. The OFF setting shuts off all electrical impulses to the body, so relaxing it totally and immediately taking you into a deep sleep, a deep trance state. The ON setting brings you immediately out of trance by allowing all electrical impulses to flow freely. When set to ON, you are in your normal waking state. The NEUTRAL setting is under your control and you can selectively allow signals to specific parts of your body so allowing specific feelings or bring about specific behaviours. When this setting is chosen you can open your eyes and remain in a deep trance state, which goes even deeper still. The final setting, the POST HYPNOTIC setting, allows you to send impulses to the relevant parts of the body to carry out changes or to carry out behaviours in the future when the appropriate signal is given. It sets up the conditions that just need activating at some future time. Procedure for rapid self-hypnosis Conditioning yourself to the OFF/ON settings 1. Place yourself in a deep trance state, deepening it sufficiently with whatever deepening technique you find acceptable. This only needs to be done on the first few occasions.

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Uses Of Hypnosis Scripts Imagery Stories Metaphors Rapid Inductions PTSD ME/CFS Adoption Trauma Past Life Regression Articles Links

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Inductions Deepening 1-10

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Deepening 1-10 #1 C ounting down from 10 to 1 #2 C ounting down from 100 to 1 #3 Down stairs in a castle turret #4 Escalator down #5 Down a river to the sea #6 Down to the pond #7 Jungle and lagoon #8 Beach and lapping of the sea #9 Diving into the sea #10 Going down to the crystal cave

Deepening 11-19 #11 Heaviness in the arms #12 Arm levitation #13 Arm levitation (in smaller steps) #14 Arm rigidity #15 Rolling arms #16 Eye catalepsy #17 Not being able to rise from chair #18 The triangle #19 Entering a black hole

Post hypnotic suggestions #1 For next trance #2 Signal for future trances #3 Visit to the dentist #4 For forthcoming engagement #5 C ue word to bring about relaxation

Imagery 1-10 #1 Sauna and massage #2 The log cabin #3 Elimination of tension prior to event #4 The clean slate #5 The helmet of protection

Imagery scripts 11-20 #11 The cloud #12 The crystal cave #13 Adapted crystal cave (Bruxism) #14 Overcoming the brick wall #15 Getting rid of negative thoughts #16 Your duplicate

Post Inductions

Imagery 11-20

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Inductions #1 Progressive relaxation #2 Induction using a coin #3 C lasped hands #4 Induction with eye open/close

Deepening 11-19

Imagery 1-10

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#5 The helmet of protection #6 Positive approach to thinking #7 The job interview #8 General increased self confidence #9 One pointed attention #10 The efficient day Time distortion #1 The time machine #2 Space travel #3 Time distortion #4 Re-experiencing a whole book/film #5 Problem-solving #6 Housework (or any disagreeable job)

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Your duplicate The night porter Sleep temples C orrecting computer programme Planet Examina

Dissociation #1 Stepping out of your body #2 Disappearing #3 C hange in body image #4 Glove anaesthesia #5 Automatic writing

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Affirmations Relax & Confident Sport Study Music Business Exercises Well-Being Stress And Anxiety Negativity Bias TKR And Stroke Weight Loss

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Information on self improvement Click on the tabs on the left. Briefly, they are: Affirmations - for problems and self improvement Sport - goals, confidence, imagery, mental set, etc. Study - affirmations, concentration, memory, and examinations Music - hypnosis and music Business - efficiency, decision-making, human relationships and motivation Exercises - just a few exercises Well-being - an introduction to positive psychology, happiness and grounding Stress and anxiety - causes of stress and anxiety and the use of hypnosis Negativity bias - why we are negative and how to overcome it TKR and Stroke - total knee replacement and stroke and the use of self-hypnosis Weight loss - food intake and exercise; the virtual gastric band Are you a developer? Try out the HTML to PDF API

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Weight loss - food intake and exercise; the virtual gastric band Shyness - use of imagery for dealing with shyness Pain control - anatomy of pain and the use of self-hypnosis Audio files - MP3 audio sessions to be played or downloaded

Shyness Pain Control

Self improvement and hypnosis Self improvement does not require hypnosis but it can be made much more effective with the aid of selfhypnosis. See One-to-one training in self-hypnosis Hypnosis via Skype

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