Hazardous Waste_group Iii

TASK COMPILATION HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT (TL 5122)

Group III NGUYEN THI NGOC ANH RESTI AYU LESTARI KENDRA TANDEGA SATRIYANI KUSUMA N FATIMAH JUHRA MINDA NICELIA MENTARI KHAIRITA UTAMI VA VANDITH TRY KIMLENG

(25313044) (25314707) (25314711) (25314729) (25314732) (25314740) (25314752) (25314756) (25314758)

Lecturer: PROF. ENRI DAMANHURI

POST GRADUATE PROGRAM ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND CIVIL ENGINEERING BANDUNG TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE 2014

TABLE OF CONTENT TABLE OF CONTENT CHAPTER I HEAVY METAL 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ I-1 1.2 Heavy Metal in Waste .................................................................................................. I-1 1.2.1 Regulations of Heavy Metal Waste in Indonesia ................................................ I-1 1.2.1.1 Heavy Metal Waste From Specific Sources ............................................. I-1 1.2.1.2 Heavy Metal Waste From Expired Materials, Spill or Discharge of Residual Packaging Products ................................................................... I-2 1.2.1.3 Heavy Metal TCLP Standard .................................................................. I-3 1.2.2 Source of Heavy Metal Pollutants ....................................................................... I-3 1.2.2.1 Electroplating Industry ............................................................................ I-3 1.2.2.2 Tannery Industry ..................................................................................... I-3 1.2.2.3 Battery Industry ....................................................................................... I-4 2.1 Mercury / Hydragyrum (Hg) 2.1.1 Definition and Characteristic ............................................................................. I-4 2.1.2 Sources ............................................................................................................... I-5 2.1.3 Influence of Mercury ......................................................................................... I-5 2.1.4 Pathway .............................................................................................................. I-7 2.1.5 Regulatory Limits .............................................................................................. I-8 2.2 Chromium (Cr) 2.2.1 Definition and Characteristic ............................................................................... I-8 2.2.2 Sources ................................................................................................................ I-8 2.2.3 Pathway ............................................................................................................... I-9 2.2.4 Influence of Chromium ....................................................................................... I-9 2.2.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment .................................................................. I-10 2.2.6 Handling and Storage ........................................................................................ I-10 2.2.7 Workplace Exposures Limits ............................................................................. I-11 2.3 Lead (Pb) 2.3.1 Definition and Characteristic ............................................................................. I-11 2.3.2 Sources .............................................................................................................. I-11 2.3.3 Pathway ............................................................................................................. I-12 2.3.4 Influence of Lead ............................................................................................... I-12 2.3.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment .................................................................. I-13

2.3.6 Handling and Storage ........................................................................................ I-13 2.3.7 Exposure Limits ................................................................................................. I-13 2.4 Hazardous Waste Treatment 2.4.1 General Treatment ............................................................................................. I-13 2.4.2 Special Treatment .............................................................................................. I-15 2.4.2.1 Chemical Precipitation ................................................................................... I-15 2.4.2.2 Ion Exchange .................................................................................................. I-16 2.4.2.3 Adsorption ...................................................................................................... I-16 2.4.2.4 Membrane Filtration ....................................................................................... I-16 3. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... I-16 CHAPTER II STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. II-1 2.2 Classification ............................................................................................................... II-4 2.2.1 Storage of Hazardous Waste .............................................................................. II-4 2.2.2 Storage and Transporting of Solid Waste ........................................................... II-5 2.2.2.1 Storage of Solid Waste ........................................................................... II-5 2.2.2.2 Transportation of Solid Waste .............................................................. II-10 2.2.3 Storage and Transporting of Liquid Waste ....................................................... II-14 2.2.4 Storage and Transporting of Gas Waste II-18 ................................................... II-18 2.2.4.1 Storing Gases Cylinder .......................................................................... II-19 2.2.4.2 Transporting Gas Cylinder ................................................................... II-21 2.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. II-22 CHAPTER III ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE Definition: ........................................................................................................................III-1 3.1.Illegal Trafficking of Hazardous Waste Case in Indonesia .......................................III-1 3.1.1.PT Hwang Hook Steel (HHS) scrap steels case in Tanjung Priok port ...........III-1 3.1.2.Case problem solving ......................................................................................III-3 3.2. Illegal Trafficking of Hazardous Waste Case in Other Country (CS : China) .........III-4 3.2.1.The Nanjin Korean Chemical Wastes Case .....................................................III-4 3.2.2.Rian Hualong Plastic Chemical, Ltd. Case .....................................................III-5 3.2.3.Fushun Plastic Products, Ltd. Case .................................................................III-6 3.3. Cross Border Notification Based On Basel Convention ...........................................III-6 3.4. Control system for the transboundary movements of hazardous and other Wastes.....................................................................................................................III-10

3.4.1.Management-related control activities ..........................................................III-11 3.4.2.Control system in Basel Convention .............................................................III-11 3.5 Cross Border Notification Procedure in Indonesia ..................................................III-13 3.5.1 Determining the case of Illegal Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste ............................................................................................................III-13 3.5.2. Export and Import Notification Procedure in Indonesia ..............................III-13 3.5.3 Cross-Border Movement rules in indonesia ..................................................III-14 3.5.4 Restrictions on Transboundary Movement ...................................................III-15 3.5.4.1 Restrictions on export for final disposal ..........................................III-15 3.5.4.2. Restrictions on export for recovery .................................................III-16 3.5.4.3. Restrictions on import for final disposal .........................................III-16 3.5.4.4. Restrictions on import for recovery ................................................III-17 3.5.4.5. Restrictions on transit......................................................................III-17 3.5.4.6. Prohibited wastes to be imported in Indonesia ...............................III-17 CHAPTER IV E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS 4.1. Background Of E-Waste 4.1.1. Definition ..................................................................................................... IV-1 4.1.2. Source and Classification of E-Waste .......................................................... IV-1 4.2. Substance And Environmental Impact Of E-Waste 4.2.1. Hazardous Substances of E-Waste ............................................................... IV-2 4.2.2. Human Health and Environmental Impact ................................................... IV-6 4.3.E-Waste Management 4.3.1. Recycling ..................................................................................................... IV-7 4.3.2. Disposal ........................................................................................................ IV-9 4.3.3. Policy approaches in managing e-waste in Asian countries ...................... IV-10 4.4. Some Case E-Waste Recycling Activities In Some Countries In Asia By Informal Sector 4.4.1. Some cases E-waste recycling activities in China ..................................... IV-13 4.4.2. Some cases E-waste recycling activities in Vietnam ................................. IV-16 4.4.3. Some cases E-waste recycling activities in Indonesia ............................... IV-18 REFERENCES

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS

CHAPTER I HEAVY METALS 1.1 Introduction A heavy metal is a member of a loosely defined subset of elements that exhibit metallic properties. Many different definitions have been proposed—some based on density, some on atomic number or atomic weight, and some on chemical properties or toxicity. The term heavy metal has been called a "misinterpretation" in an International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) technical report due to the contradictory definitions and its lack of a "coherent scientific basis". There are many heavy metals in our environment both naturally and from pollution. If metallic element has a high atomic weight and a density much greater (at least 5 g/cm3) than water, it is called heavy metal. There are more than 20 heavy metals, but four are of particular concern to human health: lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and inorganic arsenic (As). Others are including copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), play important roles in our bodies. Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust. They cannot be degraded or destroyed. To a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain.Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to accumulate in organism. Bioaccumulation means the increasing of concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the chemicals concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted. 1.2 Heavy Metal in Waste Heavy metal waste come from human activity, both domestic or industrial contain heavy metals. This waste with specific requirements can be classified as hazardous and toxic waste that must be managed specifically in order not to pollute the environment. 1.2.1 Regulations of Heavy Metal Waste in Indonesia General regulations on heavy metal waste in Indonesia is regulated in Government Regulation No. 18 junction to 85 in 1999. Both of this rule regulate waste belonging to the hazardous category consisting of hazardous waste from non-specific sources, hazardous waste from specific sources, as well as waste from expired materials, spill of the packaging or disposal of products that do not meet classification. In this regulation, heavy metal waste should be managed as hazardous waste in accordance with applicable regulations. 1.2.1.1 Heavy Metal Waste From Specific Sources Table 1 lists the hazardous heavy metal waste from specific sources in Indonesian Government regulation number 18 of 1999 conjunction to 85 of 1999: Table1. List of heavy metal waste from specific activities No

Specific Activites

Heavy Metals

1

Fertilizer

As, Hg

2

Pesticide

As, Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Th

3

Chloro alkali process

Hg

4

Polymer

Cd, Pb, Sb, Sn I-1

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS No

Specific Activites

Heavy Metals

5

Petrochemical

Cr, Ni, Sb

6

Smelting / processing of iron and steel

As, Cr, Pb, Ni, Cd, Thdan Zn

7

Refinement steel operation

As, Cr, Pb, Ni, Cd, Th, Zn

8

Lead smelting

As, Pb, Cd, Zn, Th

9

Smelting and refining of copper

Cu, Pb, Cd, Th

10

Ink

Cr, Pb

11

Textile

As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn

12

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ag, Hg, Cu, Ni, Zn, Se, Sn

13

Manufacturing and assembly of vehicles and machinery Electroplating dan galvanizing

14

Paint

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag, Zn

15

Dry cells battery

Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Hg

16

Wet cells battery

Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn, Sb

17

Components and electronic equipment

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ag, Hg, Cu, Ni, Zn, Se, Sn, Sb

18 19

Exploration and production of geothermal Oil and gas refinery

20

Mining

Not specific

21

Coal powerplant

Not specific

22

Tannery

Cr, Pb

23

Dyestuffs and pigments

Cr, Zn, Pb, Hg, Ni, Sn, Cu, Sb, Ba

24

Pharmacy

As

25

Recycling of used lubricating oils

Zn, Pb, Cr

26

Processing animal fat / vegetable and derivates

Cr, Ni, Zn

27

Zinc smelting and refinement

Zn, Cr, Pb, Th

28

Non-ferrous metal process

As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb

29

Metal hardening

Ba, Cr, Mn

30

Industrial WWTP

As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag, Cu, Ni

31

Glass ceramics

Pb, Cd, Cr, Co, Ni, Ba

32

Seals, gaskets, packing

Pb, Hg, Zn

oil,

gas and

Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, Ba, Hg, Se, Ag, Ni, Zn, Sn

Ba, Cr, Pb, Ni Ba, Cr, Pb, Ni)

1.2.1.2 Heavy Metal Waste From Expired Materials, Spill or Discharge of Residual Packaging Products. Government regulation Number 18 of 1999 conjunction to 85 of 1999, heavy metal waste included in this category are shown in Table 2. Table 2. List of heavy metal waste from expired materials, spills or disposal of residual packaging products Num 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Waste name Acetic lead Chromate lead Nitrate lead Oxide lead Phospate lead Mercury and its compounds Cyanide silver

Waste code D3104 D3105 D3106 D3107 D3108 D3113 D3157 I-2

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS 1.2.1.3 Heavy metals TCLP standard Table 3 shows the quality standards of heavy metal that determines the nature of a toxic waste by the Indonesian Government regulation number 18/1999 conjunction to 85/1999: Table 3.Quality Standard Which Determines The Heavy Metal Toxicity of a Waste Num

Heavy metal

1

Arsen

Concentration standard in waste extraction (TCLP) (mg/l)

2

Barium

3

Boron

100

4

Cadmium

0,05

5

Chromium

0,25

6

Copper

0,19

7

Lead

8

Mercury

0,01

9

Selenium

0,05

10

Silver

11

Zinc

0,2 5

2,5

2 2,5

1.2.2 Source of Heavy Metals Pollutants Sources of heavy metal pollutants in the environment can come from industries that use the metal base material. As the industry is using Cu electroplating, chemical industries that use dyes, leather tanning industrial metals containing chromium, as well as industrial batteries. In this paper we will discuss the sources of pollution of the few industries that during the process produces wastewater containing heavy metals. 1.2.2.1 Electroplating Industry One example of metal-based industries is the electroplating industry. Electroplating activities produces solid and liquid wastes and emissions. Solid waste come from activities polishing and removing the crust. Wastewater come from washing, cleaning and plating processes. The wastewater contains a lot of dissolved metals, solvents and organic compounds and other dissolved inorganic. Electroplating industry is an industry that make metal plating with the help of electric current. Metal coating process consists of washing, cleaning, coating, rinsing and drying. Water from the washing process metals, cleaning and flushing usually contain metals such as Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Ni and Pb. 1.2.2.2 Tannery Industry Waste of tanning industry is divided in to solid waste and sludge, liquid and gases (odor). Waste leather tanning industry is also determined by the use of raw materials both large and small leather skin, auxiliary materials (chemical drugs) as well as the use of process technology and hold process, capacity up to the type of product produced. The main sources of waste leather tanning industry consists of: a. The parts of the skin that must be removed, including feathers, various proteins and oil, remnants of leather cutting, splitting and the rest of the chemicals used during the tanning process; b. Excess chemicals from tanning process. The waste beside being form of solids, liquids and gases can also be mixed waste containing some substance.

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TASK A3-HEAVY METALS The nature and characteristics of tannery wastewater by type of process stages in Table 6. Table 6. The Nature And Characteristics Of Tannery Wastewater By Type Of Process Stages Input Dried rawhide, 200-1000 % water, 1 g/l wetting drug and antiseptic (tepol, molescal) Skin that has been soaked, 300– 400% water, 6–10% (Ca(OH2), 3– 6% Sodium Sufide (Na2S) Chromium sulphate alkaline

Process Soaking

Waste Meat offal, blood, feathers, salt, minerals, dust and dirt.

Liming

Greenish white water, and dirty, containing calcium, sodium sulfide, albumin, fur, meat offal and fat chrome

chrome tanning

1.2.2.3 Battery Industry Battery has three important component¸ namely anode, cathode, and electrolytes. Primary battery or disposable battery for example is made of zinc as anode, carbon as cathode and electrolytes which is used as pasta mixture MnO2 powder, carbon and NH4Cl. While secondary batteries that can be filled generally have re-anode from cadmium, and cathode from nickel with electrolytes alkaline (KOH). In addition, lead (Pb) also often used for battery manufacturing. These components compilers battery will have a negative impact for the environment, such as cadmium, and manganese.The concentration of cadmium into the ground will enlarge the arrest elements volume was advanced by plants and food chain entered. Impact that emerged when poisoning volume cadmium would be high blood pressure, renal impairment, decrease of red blood cells, stomach disorders and fragile bones. Manganese in large number can cause poisoning and damage thenervous system for humans. In this paper will be discussed 3 kind of heavy metals those Mercury(Hg), Chromium hexavalent (Cr+6) and Lead (Pb) 2.1 Mercury/ Hydrargyrum (Hg) 2.1.1 Definition and Characteristics Mercury is made by cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) and form [Hg(0)], [Hg(I)], [Hg(II)], [MeHg] in nature. Mercury is a peculiar metal. The important way to exposure man and the environment to mercury are two other properties: a. Under reducing conditions in the environment, ionic mercury changes to the uncharged elemental mercury [Hg(0)], which is volatile and may be transported over long distances by air; b. Mercury may be chemically or biologically transformed to methyl mercury and dimethyl mercury, of which the former is bioaccumulative and the latter is also volatile and may be transported over long distances; Physical Characteristics: a. b. c. d.

Fluidity at room temperature; Shiny; Silvery white; Volatile.

Chemistry Characteristics: a. Mr = 200,59 b. Density = 13,534 g/cm3 I-4

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS c. Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa d. Melting Point = 38,870C e. Boiling Point = 356,720 2.1.2 Sources a. Mercury in Nature

Fig. 2 Source Hg in Nature

b. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Mercury in Waste Zinc and lead metallurgy; Thermometers; Dental amalgams; Batteries; Laboratory analyses; Fluorescent tubes; Barometers; High-voltage discharge lamps; Primary zinc production; Basic metal industry;

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Dredged sediment; Chlorine-alkali industry; Lamp production; Petrochemical and other industry; Large household waste; Power plants; Hospitals and laboratories; Sewage sludge; MSW residues.

2.1.3 Influence of Mercury a. Humans Mercury and its compounds are toxic to humans. The toxicity varies among the different types of mercury. Generally, organic forms are much more toxic than the inorganic forms because organic form are easier to absorb and mobile in human tissue than in organic form. Methyl mercury Methyl mercury is kind of organic mercury and represents the most important toxic impact of mercury to humans. It is present worldwide and the general population is primarily exposed to methyl mercury I-5

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS through their diet, in particular through the consumption of fish and fish products. Most of the total mercury in fish is in the form of methyl mercury (may be close to 100% for older fish, especially in predatory species). Due to long-range atmospheric and aquatic transport of mercury, methyl mercury is also present in the environment in remote areas without local or regional mercury sources. The high toxicity of methyl mercury is well documented. Methyl mercury has been found to have adverse effects on several organ systems in the human body as well as in animals. These include the central nervous system (mental retardation, deafness, blindness, impairment of speech etc.) and the cardiovascular system (blood pressure, heart-rate variety and heart diseases). Research on animals has given evidence of effects on the immune system and the reproduction system. Methyl mercury in our food is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestine), readily crosses the placental barrier and enters the brain. A series of large epidemiological studies have recently provided evidence that methyl mercury in pregnant women's marine diets appears to have subtle, persistent effects on the children's mental development (cognitive deficits) as observed at about the age of school start. Inorganic mercury The general population is primarily exposed to inorganic mercury through the diet and dental amalgam. Acute inhalation exposure to mercury vapour may be followed by chest pains, dyspnoea, coughing, haemoptysis, and sometimes interstitial pneumonitis leading to death (WHO 1991). The central nervous system is the critical organ for mercury vapour exposure. Subacute exposure has given rise to psychotic reactions characterised by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. The kidney is the critical organ following the ingestion of inorganic divalent mercury salts. Occupational exposure to metallic mercury has been associated with the development of proteinuria, both in workers with other evidence of mercury poisoning and in those without such evidence (WHO 1991). b. Environment Birds and mammals Experiments on certain groups of animals have shown that the central nervous system and the kidneys are the organs most vulnerable to damage from methyl mercury and inorganic mercury exposure. Effects include neurological impairment, reproductive effects, liver damage and significant decreases in intestinal absorption. These effects may appear at animal tissue concentrations above 25-60 mg/kg wet weight (AMAP 1998). Birds fed inorganic mercury show a reduction in food intake and consequent poor growth. Adverse effects on birds hatching have been observed at above 2 mg/kg wet weight (free ranging birds and experimental). Other more subtle effects on enzyme systems, cardiovascular function, blood parameters, the immune response, kidney function and structure, and behaviour have been reported. Other aquatic organisms The organic forms of mercury are generally more toxic to aquatic organisms than the inorganic forms. Aquatic plants are affected by mercury in the water at concentrations approaching 1 mg/litre for inorganic mercury, but at much lower concentrations of organic mercury. High concentration of inorganic mercury affect macroalgae by reducing the germination. Aquatic invertebrates vary greatly in their susceptibility to mercury. Generally, larval stages are more sensitive than adults. A wide variety of physiological and biochemical abnormalities has been reported after fish have been exposed

I-6

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS to sublethal concentrations of mercury, although the environmental significance of these effects is difficult to assess. Reproduction is also affected adversely by mercury. Other terrestrial organisms Plants are generally insensitive to the toxic effects of mercury compounds. Mercury is, however, accumulated in taller plants, especially in perennials. The primary effect in plants is associated with the root tips. Microorganisms Mercury is toxic to microorganisms. Inorganic mercury has been reported to have effects at concentrations of the metal in the culture medium of 5 µg/litre, and organo mercury compounds at concentrations at least 10 times lower than this (WHO 1991). Organo mercury compounds have been used as fungicides. These effects are often irreversible, and mercury at low concentrations represents a major hazard to microorganisms. Subtle, but notable impacts are believed to take place in large parts of Europe in forest soils dominated by organic material and potentially in many other locations in the world with similar characteristics. The microbiological activity in soil is vital to the material balances for carbon and nutrients in the soil and is affecting trees and soil organisms, which form the basis for the terrestrial food chain. 2.1.4 Pathway The main human exposure to mercury is via inhalation of the vapour of elemental mercury, ingestion of mercury and methyl mercury compounds in food . The driver of most environmental Hg and CH3Hg studies is the perception that human health risk from CH3Hg exposure has increased with industrialization and the increasing cumulative release of Hg to the environment from anthropogenic sources. CH3Hg concentrations are elevated in fish and shellfish, particularly piscivorous fish such as tuna. Dietary consumption of marine fish and other seafood is a major route of CH3Hg exposure among human populations with many populations dependent on fish for food, protein, and nutrients. In addition to the global commercial fishery, CH3Hg exposure can be important at the ―local consumer‖ scale. Local consumers include a. Recreational anglers who eat their catch; b. People who rely on local marine fish and marine mammals for a majority of their protein and nutrition; c. Immigrant communities who catch their own fish and may have different eating habits such as consuming whole fish instead of fillets; d. Consumers who prefer to eat local seafood. Indigenous peoples around the world that rely on local fish catch for subsistence living.

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TASK A3-HEAVY METALS

Fig 3.Bioacummulation of heavy metals

2.1.5 Regulatory Limits a. EPA – 2 parts per billion parts (ppb) in drinking water; b. FDA – 1 part of methyl mercury in a million parts of seafood; c. OSHA – 0.1 milligram of organic mercury per cubic meter of workplace air and 0.05 milligrams per cubic meter of metallic mercury vapor for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work week. d. Indonesia: depend on the food 2.2 Chromium (Cr) 2.2.1 Definition and Characteristics Chromium is a metallic element with oxidation states ranging from chromium(-II) to chromium(+VI) with the trivalent (III) and hexavalent (VI) sates being the most predominant. Elemental chromium, chromium(0), does not occur naturally. Although there is a divalent state, chromium II (chromous), it is relatively unstable under environmental conditions and is readily oxidized to the trivalent (III or chromic) state. Chromium compounds are most stable in the trivalent state under environmental conditions and occur in nature in ores, such as ferrochromite (FeCr2O4). The hexavalent (VI or chromate) is the second most stable state; however, it only occurs naturally in rare minerals such as crocoite (PbCrO4) (Hurlbut 1971; Papp and Lipin 2001). Hexavalent chromium compounds primarily arise from anthropogenic sources (Alimonti et al. 2000; Barceloux 1999; EPA 1984a; Johnson et al. 2006; Shanker et al. 2005). Physical Characteristics: a. Hard; b. Steel-gray; c. Shiny.

Chemistry Characteristics: a. Mr = 51,966 b. Density = 7,1 g/cm3 c. Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa d. Melting Point = 19070C e. Boiling Point = 26710C

2.2.2 Sources a. Chromium in Nature Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in animals, plants, rocks, and soil and in volcanic dust and gases. Chromium has oxidation states (or "valence states") ranging from chromium(-II) to chromium(VI). Elemental chromium (chromium(0)) does not occur naturally. Chromium compounds are stable in the trivalent (III) state and occur in nature in this state in ores, such as ferrochromite. The I-8

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS hexavalent (VI) form is the second-most stable state. However, chromium(VI) rarely occurs naturally, but is usually produced from anthropogenic sources (EPA 1984a). b. Chromium in Waste The best known sources of effluents containing chromium ions are chromium plating shops working with electrolytes based on aqueous solutions of chromic acid, metallurgic plants producing or processing alloyed steels (where types with high chromium and nickel content are dominating) and running acidic pickling baths, textile industry and leather tanning. 2.2.3 Pathway Respiratory How to enter chrome through the respiratory system by inhaling dust chromium are generated from the production process. Chromium (VI) was found in the breathing zone of the worker welding section with a concentration between 3.8 to 6.6 μgr/ m3. Digestive tract How to enter chrome can be through food or swallowed. The content of chromium in the diet ranged from 5-250 μgr / kg. foods that have high levels of chromium, namely pepper and beer yeast (Schroeder et al, 1962). Skin The nature of the chrome the chromic compounds, dichromate and chromium (VI) in addition to irritants also corrosive, in case of direct contact is likely to cause allergies. Chromium chromate particular, many cause allergies and dermatitis biggest cause for workers. 2.2.4 Influence of Chromium a.

Humans

The general population is exposed to chromium by inhaling ambient air, ingesting food, and drinking water containing chromium.Dermal exposure of the general public to chromium can occur from skin contact with certain consumer products or soils that contain chromium. The primary route of nonoccupational workers, however, is food ingestion. Chromium content in foods varies greatly and depends on the processing and preparation. Chromium Hexavalent Clinical effects Effect of chromium on health which may develop respiratory problems and also interfere with digestion. Chromium (VI) is known to cause a variety of health affects. When a mixture of chromium in the leather products, it can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. After breathing chromium (VI) can cause nose and nosebleeds. Other health problems that are caused by chromium (VI) is skin rashes, gastrointestinal effects, problem in respiratory, weakened immune system, kidney and liver damage, lung cancer and even death. Acute Effects:  Chromium (VI) is much more toxic than chromium (III), for both acute and chronic exposures.  The respiratory tract is the major target organ for chromium (VI) following inhalation exposure in humans. Shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing were reported in cases where an individual inhaled very high concentrations of chromium trioxide..  Other effects noted from acute inhalation exposure to very high concentrations of chromium (VI) include gastrointestinal and neurological effects, while dermal exposure causes skin burns in humans.  Ingestion of high amounts of chromium (VI) causes gastrointestinal effects in humans and animals, including abdominal pain, vomiting, and hemorrhage. I-9

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS 

Acute animal tests have shown chromium (VI) to have extreme toxicity from inhalation and oral exposure.

Chronic Effects (Non cancer)  Chronic inhalation exposure to chromium (VI) in humans results in effects on the respiratory tract, with perforations and ulcerations of the septum, bronchitis, decreased pulmonary function, pneumonia, asthma, and nasal itching and soreness reported.  Chronic human exposure to high levels of chromium (VI) by inhalation or oral exposure may produce effects on the liver, kidney, gastrointestinal and immune systems, and possibly the blood.  Dermal exposure to chromium (VI) may cause contact dermatitis, sensitivity, and ulceration of the skin. Reproductive/Developmental Effects:  Reproductive effects of chromium (VI) in humans exposed by inhalation suggest that exposure to chromium (VI) may result in complications during pregnancy and childbirth. Cancer Risk:  Epidemiological studies of workers have clearly established that inhaled chromium is a human carcinogen, resulting in an increased risk of lung cancer. Although chromium-exposed workers were exposed to both chromium (III) and chromium (VI) compounds, only chromium (VI) has been found to be carcinogenic in animal studies.  Animal studies have shown chromium (VI) to cause lung tumors via inhalation exposure. b.

Environment

Chromium can affect the air quality through coal manufacturing, which eventally can lead to water or soil contamination. Water contamination is fairly limited to surface water, and will not affect groundwater because chromium strongly attaches to soil and is generally contained within the silt layer surrounding or withing the groundwater reservoir. Water contaminated with chromium will not build up in fish when consumed, but will accumulate on the gills, thus, causing negative health effects for aquatic animals; chromium uptake results in increased mortality rates in fish due to contamination. When consumed by animals, the effects can include "respiratory problems, a lower ability to fight disease, birth defects, infertility and tumor formation." 2.2.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment For eye contact, immediately flush with large amounts of water, lifting upper and lower lids. For further medical treatment, seek for some medical attention. For skin contact, quickly remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash contaminated skin with large amounts of soap and water. For inhalation, remove the person from exposure and transfer the person promptly to a medical facility. To prevent some injuries, protective equipment is recommended. Gloves and clothing is highlyrecommended to avoid skin contact. The glove and clothes must be made from a material which cannot be permeated or degraded by this substance. Wear an eye protection such as goggles to prevent an eye contact and wear respiratory to prevent chromium exposure through inhalation. 2.2.6 Handling and Storage a. Chromium may react violently or explosively with some other compounds; b. Chromium is not compatible with oxidizing agents; c. Store in tightly closed containers in a cool, well-ventilated area. I-10

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS 2.2.7 Workplace Exposure Limits a. OSHA – The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 1 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift b. NIOSH – The recommended airborne exposure limit (REL) is 0,5 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift. c. ACGIH – The threshold limit value (TLV) is 0,5 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift. 2.3 Lead (Pb) 2.3.1 Definition and Characteristics Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in the Earth's crust at about 15–20 mg/kg. In comparison to the two most abundant metals in the Earth, aluminum and iron, lead is a relatively uncommon metal. Lead rarely occurs in its elemental state, but rather its +2 oxidation state in various ores throughout the earth. The most important lead containing ores are galena (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), and cerussite (PbCO3). Physical Characteristics: a. Bluish-white; b. Ductile; c. Soft. Chemistry Characteristics: a. Mr = 207,2 b. Density = 11,34 g/cm3 c. Vapour Pressure = 0,3 Pa d. Melting Point = 327,460C e. Boiling Point = 17490C 2.3.2 Sources a.

Lead in Nature

Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in the earth's crust. There is a high occurrence of lead ore deposits around that are gathered, and distributed around the world. A person's environment is full of lead. People are exposed to lead in many different ways (such as paint, gasoline, solder, and consumer products) and through different pathways (such as air, food, water, dust, and soil). Although all there are several exposure sources, lead-based paint is the most widespread and dangerous high-dose source of lead exposure. Additionally, lead in drinking water accounts for 10 to 20 percent of human exposure. Infants who consume mainly mixed formula can receive 40-60 percent of lead through drinking water b.

Lead in Waste  Automotive industry: wheel weights, bearings, friction additive in clutch facings and brakes, storage batteries  Construction industry: flashing, pipe, sheeting, counterweights, paint additives  Electronic industry: cathode-ray tubes, radiation shielding, solder  Resource industry: fishing sinkers, rifle bullets, backstops at rifle and pistol ranges  Printing industry: letter blocks  Miscellaneous: paint, insecticides, fungicides, chemical reagents, gasoline additives, pigments, dyes  Automotive industry: spent glycol solution removed from cooling systems with heat exchangers made from alloys containing lead as an adhesive  Oil field construction: joining compound (pipe dope) I-11

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS  

Automotive industry: ceramic products, paints, rubbers, dyes, corrosion inhibiting pigment in paints and primers Miscellaneous: manufacture of explosives, blasting caps, matches and pyrotechnics, chemical reagents, pigments, dyes

2.3.3 Pathway Air Most of the lead in ambient air is in the form of sub-micron-sized particles. Some 30–50% of these inhaled particles are retained in the respiratory system. Virtually all of this retained leadis absorbed into the body. Particles in the size range of 1–3 µm are also efficiently depositedin the lungs. Larger particles are deposited with variable efficiency, mainly in the upperrespiratory tract with incomplete absorption. All lead particles that are cleared by the lung canbe swallowed and result in further lead absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Drinking-water Lead concentrations in drinking-water and groundwater vary from 1 µg/l to 60 µg/l. In most European countries, the levels of lead in domestic tap water are relatively low, normally 20 µg/l. Consequently, exposure to lead through water is generally low compared with exposure through food. Nevertheless, in old houses with lead pipes used for the domestic drinking-water supply, blood lead levels in sixyear-old children were found to be elevated by about 30% relative to houses without lead pipes. In areas with soft water, where leadwater pipes and lead plumbing are common, the contribution of lead in drinking-water to thetotal lead intake may even be more pronounced. Food Most people receive the largest portion of their daily lead intake via food. Most lead entersfood during storage and manufacture, for example in canned food and in alcoholic drinks. The most important pathway whereby atmospheric lead enters the food chain is thought to be direct foliar contamination of plants. This contamination depends on the rate of fallout of lead in thedistricts where food is grown; it tends to be higher in heavily industrialized areas.Additionally, air deposits raise the level of lead in soil, which, in the course of decades andcenturies, may result in an increased uptake of lead through the roots. 2.3.4 Influence of Lead a. Humans Infants and children who drink water containing lead in excess could experience delays in their physical or mental development. Young children could show slight deficits in attention span and learning abilities. Adults with exposure, over years, may develop kidney problems or high blood pressure. Even low levels of lead exposure can result in decreased performance on intelligence tests. Lead exposure in adults is also associated with fertility problems and cataracts. Additionally, lead is stored within bones/teeth, and can be released into the blood stream at times of stress. As new information has emerged about the neurological, reproductive, and possible hypertensive toxicity of lead, the CDC has progressively increased the level of concern for blood lead levels. CDC case management guidelines are designed to keep children's blood lead levels below 10 µg/dL, and adults below 30 µg/dL. The maximum contaminate level goal of lead in drinking water is zero, but the EPA's final rule is set at 15 µg/L. b. Environment Lead is commonly found within plant tissues and in their roots. Most lead will accumulate in cell walls or vacuoles. This shows that big amounts of lead can now easily enter the food chain via plants. High tolerance to lead in plant roots is quite unfavorable for other members in the food chain, including man.

I-12

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS 2.3.5 First Aid and Protective Equipment For eye contact, immediately flush with large amounts of water, lifting upper and lower lids. For further medical treatment, seek for some medical attention. For skin contact, quickly remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash contaminated skin with large amounts of soap and water. For inhalation, remove the person from exposure and transfer the person promptly to a medical facility. To prevent some injuries, protective equipment is recommended. Gloves and clothing is highlyrecommended to avoid skin contact with Lead. The glove and clothes must be made from a material which cannot be permeated or degraded by this substance. Wear an eye protection such as goggles with a non-vented, impact resistant ability to prevent an eye contact from fumes, gases or vapors, and wear a face shield along with goggles when working with corrosive, highly irritating or toxic substances. Wear a respiratory to prevent lead exposure through inhalation, such as half-mask purifying respirator, fullfacepiece, powered-air purifying respirator with high efficiency filters. 2.3.6 Handling and Storage a. b. c. d.

A regulated, marked area should be estabilished where Lead is handled, used or stored Lead reacts violently with other compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, ammonium nitrate Lead is not compatible with oxidizing agents and strong acids Store in tightly closed containers in a coolm well-ventilated area

2.3.7 Exposure Limits a. b.

c.

OSHA – The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over an 8hour workshift NIOSH – The recommended airborne exposure limit (REL) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over a 10hour workshift. Air concentrations should be maintaned so that blood Lead is less than 0,06 mg/ 100 grams of whole blood ACGIH – The threshold limit value (TLV) is 0,05 mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workshift

2.4 Hazardous Waste Treatment 2.4.1 General Treatment

Fig 4. General Hazardous Waste Treatment I-13

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS Rapid Mix The goal of the rapid mix operation is to first raise the wastewater pH to form metal hydroxide particles. After the addition of caustic, the next step is to add aluminum or iron salts, or organic polymers (coagulants) directly to the wastewater. These polymers attach to the metal solids particles. The small metal hydroxide particles become entangled in these polymers, causing the particle size to increase (form flocs), which promotes settling.

Fig 5. Rapid Mix Influence To Hazardous Metal

Sedimentation Once particles become enmeshed in the polymer, they are allowed to settle so that they are removed from the wastewater. The particles settle since they are heavier than water. This settling occurs in the sedimentation tanks. Sedimentation tanks, in contrast to rapid mixing units, are designed to have no mixing, to produce a calm flow for settling

Fig 6. Sedimentation Process

Filtration Water emerging from the sedimentation basin is routed to the filtration unit. The filtration unit is designed to trap those particles that did not settle in the sedimentation basin (because they were too small) or did not have sufficient time to settle and were carried out of the basin. Water entering the filtration unit is passed through silica sand, diatomaceous earth, carbon, or cloth to capture the remaining metal hydroxide particles. Metal particles stick to the filtering material and are removed from the water. Filtration completes the metal treatment process. Only now should the pH be reduced for discharge, if necessary, or pH can now be adjusted for water reuse. As filtration progresses and more metal hydroxides and other solids clog the filter material, pressure drop through the filter rises and some solids may pass through the filter. When either of these two situations occurs, the filter must be backwashed by reversing the flow of water through the filter. This backwash water is sent back to the rapid mix tank for mixing with the incoming water since it contains a significant concentration of solids from the dislodging that has occurred. Furthermore, the pH of this I-14

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS water (since it will be diluted with incoming water) may drop significantly and pose the problem of redissolving all of the metal hydroxides solids.

Fig 7. Filtration Process

Sludge Treatment The solids produced in the sedimentation stage (and possibly solids from filtration) are denoted as a sludge and periodically removed. In diatomaceous earth and fiber filters, the entire filter media (diatomaceous earth, filter cartridge) is dumped with the captured metal hydroxide solids. This sludge may be sent to a dewatering stage to remove excess water and leave only solids. The water from the dewatering stage may not be completely free of metals and should be piped to the rapid mix tank. The sludge now contains the precipitated metal hydroxide solids, made up of identifiable quantities of heavy metals, which are regulated according to state and federal guidelines. The solids produced from heavy metal wastewater treatment must then be disposed of as a hazardous waste 2.4.2 Special Treatment 2.4.2.1 Chemical precipitation Water containing hevy metals is treated with a chemical oxidation-reduction process. Some chemicals are needed to make suitable pH for heavy metal to be precipitated. A retention time of 45 minutes is usually maintained to ensure adequate mixing and reaction with the sulfur dioxide or other chemicals. This process converts the valent of heavy metal so it can be precipitated. a. Hydroxide precipitation NaOH or Ca (OH)2, pH 8 – 11 Figure below explain about the relationship between the concentration of heavy metals and the pH so the heavy metal can be precipitated. The colour area is the area that heavy metal will be precipitated.

Fig. 8 The Relationship between Heavy Metal Concentration and pH I-15

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS b. Addition of coagulants possible c. 99 % removal possible d. Requires high concentration, produces sludge, some metal hydroxides are amphoteric, inhibition by complexing agents e. Also sulfide precipitation (possible using sulfate-reducing bacteria), chelates 2.4.2.2 Ion exchange Characteristic: a. High efficiency, fast process b. Synthetic resins are most common c. Research with natural zeolite d. cost-effective at high concentration, secondary pollution from regeneration

Fig 8. Ion Exchange

2.4.2.3 Adsorption Characteristic: a. b. c. d.

Activated carbon – price increasing Carbon nanotubes (CNT) Low-cost or bioadsorbents (e.g. zeolite, clay; potato peels, eggshell, banana peels etc.) Separation of biosorbents still a problem

2.4.2.4 Membrane filtration Characteristic: a. b. c. d. e. f.

Ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis high energy cost and membrane restoration Flotation Ion flotation = imparting the ionic metals hydrophobic an d removal by air bubbles Electrochemical methods Electrocoagulation

3. Conclusion The general population does not face a significant health risk from methyl mercury, although certain groups with high fish consumption may attain blood levels associated with a low risk of neurological damage to adults. Since there is a risk to the fetus in particular, pregnant women should avoid a high intake of certain fish, such as shark, swordfish and tuna. Fish, such as pike, walleye and bass, taken from polluted fresh waters should especially be avoided. I-16

TASK A3-HEAVY METALS Children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure. Blood levels in children should be reduced below the levels so far considered acceptable, recent data indicating that there may beneurotoxic effects of lead at lower levels of exposure than previously anticipated. Although lead in petrol has dramatically declined over the last decades, thereby reducing environmental exposure, there is a need to phase out any remaining uses of lead additives in motor fuels. The use of lead-based paints should also be abandoned, and lead should not be used in food containers. In particular, the public should be aware of glazed food containers, which may leach lead into food. Some treatments of heavy metals waste are precipitation, ion exchange, adsorption and membrane filtration. Before using this special treatment, primary and secondary treatment is needed. Choosing the kind of the treatment depend on the efficiency, budget and some other technical and non technical aspects.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

CHAPTER II STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

2.1 Introduction According to UNDP, “Hazardous wastes: wastes (solids, sludges, liquids, and containerized gases) other than radioactive wastes which, by reason of their chemical activity or toxic, explosive, corrosive, or other characteristics, cause danger or likely will cause danger to health or the environment, whether alone or when coming into contact with other wastes” . Or In Indonesia Law32/2009, “Hazardous waste is the residual of activities that contains substances that are dangerous or poisonous which because of its characteristics and or concentration and or quantity, directly and indirectly can pollute and or damage the environment and or endanger the environment, health, life sustainability of human and other living things”. Therefore, Hazardous waste management deals with minimizing harmful effects on humans and environment by applying special techniques which begins as soon as the waste has been generated and continues through all subsequent stages to final treatment and disposal. In the simplest form, a hazardous waste management system comprises three units: a. Storage upon generation b. Collection and transportation c. Final treatment and disposal Handling and storage are both important factors in all of these management stages, from cradle to grave. Different materials have to be handled in different ways, and may have special storage requirements. For this reason proper identification and labelling of materials is essential, and is likely to represent the difference between a safe hazardous waste management system and a dangerous one. Correct handling, storage, packaging and labelling are vital if accidents are to be avoided and the environment is to be protected. Hazardous waste materials must be stored somewhere. Ideally the storage should be near the place where the hazardous wastes were generated. However,

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

storage can be managed on-site or off-site. On site storage - within the premises of the waste generator – requires a storage site away from the manufacturing and processing areas, and also from the areas of employee activities, but in a place not subject to flooding. Off-site storage – outside the premises of the waste generator may be, for example, at waste collection or transfer stations, pending final treatment and disposal. In the United States, industries may store hazardous waste for up to ninety days without obtaining a paermit as a storage facility. In the United Kingdom, this is limited to 28 days and even this exemption is being eliminated in certain instances. Collection and transportation has become practice in most countries, but now many countries require a more stringent licensing procedure. Similarly a manifest system is used by all of the countries listed except Japan, India, and the countries in Southern Africa. The nature of the manifest system does vary considerably. In the United States, primary responsibility for identifying lost shipments is placed on the generator, who must report exception to the authorities. In other countries it is the government (local or regional) that does the checking of manifest forms to assure that shipments of waste have not been lost. The objectives of the transportation of Hazardous Waste are: a. To ensure the correct packaging, temporary storage and collection of a waste prior to transportation, so as to prevent accidental spillage into the environment and minimise the impact should a spillage occur; b. To ensure that the Hazardous Waste is never “lost”: this is achieved by use of a system of documentation or a manifest system; c. To ensure that the waste arrives safely at a permitted facility; d. To ensure that emergency procedures are in place before an accident occurs, and that the Hazardous Waste is correctly marked so as to aid the emergency team. Based on Government Regulation No. 85 1999 and Government Regulation No. 74 in 2001 the waste includes hazardous waste is the characteristics as the

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

following: Explosive Waste, Combustible Waste, Reactive Waste, Toxic waste, Infectious and corrosive. General regulations on management of hazardous waste

in Indonesia is

regulated in Government Regulation No. 18 junction to 85 in 1999, decision of the head of Bapedal No.1 in 1995 about Technical Requirements And Procedures The Storage And Collection Of Hazardous waste and then cradle to grave concept for the transportation of hazardous waste.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

2.1 CLASSIFICATION 2.2.1. Storage of Hazardous Waste At the moment, the industry is growing by leaps and bounds in terms of variety and numbers in Indonesia. Every industry has the potential to cause the waste resulting from the production process. The remaining material is waste resulting from an activity and the production process, both on the scale of household, industrial, mining, etc. The waste can be a form of gas and dust, liquid or solid (Cesar, 2010). Hazardous waste should be stored appropriately, when danger is likely to be prevented. The storage facilities and procedures should accommodate the salvation from all possible dangers. Hazardous waste storage is meant to prevent escape into the environment hazardous waste so that the potential danger to humans and the environment can be avoided. To enhance security, then prior to storage of hazardous waste must be packaged in advance. Given the diversity of characteristics of hazardous waste, then the packaging needs to be also regulated the right way so that waste can be stored safely. Hazardous waste packaging is an activity Pack, filling in or entering hazardous waste into a container and or packaging, close and seal. In Indonesia, the provisions of the packaging and storage of hazardous waste is regulated in the decision Heads Bapedal No. 01/09/1995/Bapedal. General packaging requirements are as follows : a. Packaging of hazardous waste must be in good condition, undamaged and free of corossion and leakage. b. The size and shape of the hazardous waste packaging material adapted to the characteristics of the hazardous waste that will be packed with considering security and ease in handling. c. Packaging can be made from a container or tank-shaped cylinder vertical as well as horizontal or drums made from metal, drum made from plastic (HDPE, PP or PVC) or metal materials subject to packaging materials used do not react with the stored hazardous waste.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

d. Waste material that does not fit its characteristics must not be stored together in one package. e. To prevent the risk of danger during storage, the amount of packaging waste in the filling should consider the possibility of the development of the volume of waste, gas formation or the occurrence of elevated pressure. f. If hazardous waste is packaging in conditions which are not feasible (e.g. going on permanent damage or rust) or if it starts to leak, the hazardous waste must be transferred into other packages that qualify as packaging for hazardous waste. g. The packaging that has contained sewage should be labelling in accordance with the applicable provisions and stored by fulfilling the provisions about the manner and terms for the collection and storage of hazardous materials. 2.2.2 Storage and Transporting of Solid Waste Solid waste comes from industrial and domestic activities. Domestic waste is generally shaped household solid waste, solid waste activities in Commerce, offices, farms, agriculture as well as from public places. The types of solid waste: paper, wood, rubber/leather imitation, plastic, metal, glass, organic, bacteria, egg shells, etc. 2.2.2.1

Storage of Solid Waste In most office and commercial buildings, solid wastes that accumulate in the

individual offices or work locations usually are collected in relatively large container mounted on rollers. Factors that must be considered in the onsite storage of solid wastes includes: 1. The type of container to be used ( examples, steel, fiber, or plastic drums ) 2. The container location 

The type of container to be used Typical applications and limitations of containers used for the onsite storage of solid wastes :

1.

Small types : - Container, plastic or galvanized metal II - 5 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Very low-volume waste sources, such as individual homes, walkways in parks, and small isolated commercial establishment; low-rise residential areas set out collection service. And the limitations,

containers

are damaged

over time anddegraded in appearance and capacity; containers add extra weight that must be lifted during collection operations; containers are not large enough to hold bulky wastes. - Disposable Paper Bags Individual homes with packout collection service; can be used alone or as a liner inside a household container; low-rise and medium-rise residential areas. And the limitations, bag storage is more costly; if bags are set out streets or curbside, dogs and other animal tear them and spread their contents; paper bag themselves add to the waste load. - Disposal Plastic Bags Individual homes with set out collection service; can be used alone or as a liner inside a household container; for cold climates, bags are useful in holding wet garbage inside household container as well as in commercial container; low-, medium-, and high-rise residential areas; commercial areas; and industrial areas and the limitations, bag storage is more costly;bags tear easly, causing litter and unsightly conditions; bags become brittle in very cold weather, causing breakage; plastic lightness and durability causes later disposal problems 2.

Medium Types Medium-volume waste sources that might also have bulky wastes; location should be selected for direct-collection truck access; high-density residential areas; commecial areas; industrial areas and the limitations, snow inside the containers forms ice and lowers capacity while increasing weight; containers are difficult to get to after heavy snows.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

3.

Large Types - Container, open top High-volume commercial areas; bulky wastes in industrial areas; low-density rural residential areas; location should be within a covered area but with direct-collection truck access and the limitations, initial cost is high, snow inside containers lowers capacity. - Container, used with stationary compactor Very high-volume commercial areas; location should be outside buildings with direct-collection truck access and the limitations, intial cost is high; if container is compacted too much, it is difficult to unload it at the disposal site. To a large extent, the types and capacities of the containers used depend on

the characteristics of the solid wastes to be collected, the collection frequency, and the space available for the placement of containers. And Storage of solid wastes is relatively simple. Solid waste may stored either in small containers such as drums and boxes, large container such as 20 cubic yard (or larger) roll-off boxes. Usually Small containers, steel drums, fiber and plastic drums, and similar containers are used for most hazardous waste other than heavy sludges or contaminated oil. After knowing the characteristics of solid waste that will be storage. Then the procedures of the solid waste storage area must be in accordance with the criteria.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Fig 2.1 Container

The Procedures Solid Waste Storage : - The storage system must be made of blocks and each block is composed of 2 x 2 packs. - The width of the aisle between the blocks for the human traffic of at least 60 cm (Fig. 2.2) - A pile of metal drums of 200 litres maximum of 3 layers, each layer being given any pallet, as pallets trays for 4 drums. Stack more than 3 laps/packaging of plastic have to use shelf. - Pile high with a roof and a wall of at least one metre - Packaging containing hazardous waste that is not mutually suitable stored separately, not in one block.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Fig 2.2 The storage system with block is composed of 2 x 2 packs

Onsite storage are function of the types and amount of hazardous waste generated and the time period over which waste generation occurs. Usually, when large quantities are generated, special facilities are used that have sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period a several days. When only small amounts of hazardous wastes are generated on an intermittent basis, they may be containerized, and limited quantities may be stored for periods covering month or years. Container and facilities used in hazardous waste storage and handling are selected on the basis of the characteristics of the wastes. For example, corrosive acid or caustic solutions are stored in fiber glass or glass-lined containers to prevent deterioration of metals in the container. Great care must also be exercised to avoid storing incompatible wastes in the same containers or locations. Disposal of incompatible wastes can lean to the development of hazardous situations through heat generation, fires, explosions,or release of toxic substances.  Container Location

Placement of solid waste from domestic industry usually containers used are placed at the sides or rear of the house, in alleys where alley collection is used, in garage or where available, some common location specifically designated for that purpose. When two or more dwellings are located in close proximity, a concrete pad may be constructed at some convenient location between them.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

For industrial waste the location of container at existing commercial and industrial facilities depends on both the location of available space and serviceaccess conditions. And the location building of container storage building must be: a. Is a flood-free area, making it safe from possible flood affected b. The minimum distance between the location of the public facility is 50 meters. 2.2.2.2 Transportation of Solid Waste The collection of hazardous wastes for delivery to a treatment or disposal facility normally is done by the waste generator or specialized hauler. Typically, the loading of collection vehicle is completed in one of two ways : 1. Wastes stored in large-capacity tanks are either drained or pumped into collection vehicles 2. Wastes stored in sealed drums or other sealed containers are loaded by hand or by mechanical equipment onto flatbed trucks. All storage containers collected with the wastes are transported unopened to the treatment or disposal facility. At no time in the collection cycle should the collector come directly in contact with the wastes. To avoid accidents and the possible loss of life, two collectors should always be assigned when hazardous wastes are to be collected. The equipment used for collection varies with the waste characteristics. For short haul distances, drum storage and collection with a flatbed trucks is often the preferred method. As hauling distances increase, larger tank trucks, trailers and railroad tank cars are used.  The type of transfer operation to be used Motor vehicles, railroads, and ocean-going vessels are the principal means now used to transport solid waste. Pneumatic and hydraulic systems have also been used. 1. Motor vehicles transport Where the point of final disposition can be reached by motor vehicles, the most common means used to transport solid wastes from transfer stations are trailers, semitrailers, and compactors. All types of vehicles can be used in conjunction

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

with either types of transfer station. In general, vehicle used for hauling on highway should satisfy the following requirements : a. Wastes must be transported at minimum cost b. Wastes must be covered during the haul operation c. Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic d. Vehicle capacity must be such that allowable weight limits are not exceeded e. Methods used for unloading must be simple and dependable - Trailer and semitrailers : in recent years, because of their simplicity and dependability, open top trailers and semitrailers have found wide acceptance. When equipped for use with a dolly supporting the front end, semitrailers can be used interchangeably as the first or second trailer in tractor-trailer-trailer combinations , thus lending flexibility to the operation. Methods used to unload the transport trailers may be classified as: 1. self emptying, transport trailers are mechanisms such as hydraulic dump beds, powered diaphragms, and moving floors that are part of vehicle. Moving floor are an adaptation of equipment used in the construction industry for unloading trailers that carry gravel and asphalt. 2. requiring the aid of auxiliary equipment Unloading systems that require auxiliary equipment are usually of the " pull-off " type, in which the wastes are pulled out of the truck by either a movable bulkhead or wire-cable slings placed forward to load. the disadvantage of requiring auxiliary equipment and workforce to unload at disposal site a relatively minor in view of the simplicity and reliability at the method. an additional disadvantage, however, is the unavoidable waiting time during which the haul vehicle remains idle at the disposal site until the auxiliary equipment can be placed in the required position. - Compactors, large-capacity container in conjunction with stationary compactors are also used in a number of transfer stations. In some cases, the compaction mechanism is an integral part of the container. Representative data for such unit

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

are reported. When containers are equipped with a self-contained compaction mechanism, the movable bulkhead used to compress the waste is also used to discharge to compacted wastes. the contents of containers used with stationary compactors usually are unloaded by tilting the container and allowing the contents to fall out by gravity. If the wastes are compressed too tightly, unloading can be a problem. various ejection devides also are available to empty the contents of the containers. the most common device is the movable bulkhead that pulled out by cables. - Other vehicle, almost every imaginable type of vehicle has been used at one time or another for the transport of solid wastes.

Fig 2.3 Modern Compactors 2. Railroad Transport Although railroads were commonly used for the transport of solid wastes in the past, they are now used by only a few communities. However, renewed interest is again developing in the use of railroads for hauling solid wastes, especially to remote areas where highway travel is difficult and railroads lines now exist, and where railroads own property or adjacent land for filling is available. 3. Water transport Barges, scows, and special boats have been used in the past to transport solid wastes to processing locations and to seaside and ocean disposal sites, but ocean disposal is no longer practiced by united states. Although some self-propelled II - 12 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

vessels (such as United States Navy garbage scows and other special boats) have been used, the most common practice is to use vessels towed by tugs or other special boats. On of the major problems encountered when ocean vessels are used for the transport of solid wastes is that it is often impossible to move the barges and boats during storms or during times of heavy seas. In such cases, the wastes must be stored and the construction of costly storage facilities may be necessary. 4. Pneumatic, hydralic and other systems of transport Both low-pressure air and vacuum conduit transport systems have been used to transport solid wastes. The most common application is the transport of wastes from high density apartement or commercial activities to a central location for processing of for loading into transport vehicles. From a design ang operations standpoint, pneumatic systems are more complex than hydraulic systems because of the complex control valves and ancillary mechanism that are required. The necessity to use blower or high-speed turbines further complicates the installation from a maintenance standpoint. Because installation costs for such systems are quite high, they are most costeffective when used in new facilities. The concept of using water to transport wastes in not new. Hydraulic transport is now commonly used for the transport of a portion of food wastes. One of the major problems with this method is that ultimately the water or waste water used for transporting the wastes must be treated. As a result of solubilization, the organic strength of this waste water is considerably greater than that of other domestic waste water. Hydraulic systems may be pratical is areas where proper preprocessing and postprocessing facilities are incorporated into the treatment systems. Usually, such applications are limited to areas with high population densities. Other systems that have been suggested for the transport of solid wastes include various types of conveyors, air-cushion and rubber-tired trolleys, and

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

underground conduits with magnetically transported gondoles,but these systems have never been put into operation. Transporting Solid Waste (according to case studies in PT Bayern) Internal Transport a. Documents required in the transportation of the production unit to a temporary shelter was waste transfer document specifying the identification of the type, amount and sources of hazardous waste, or news event the handover document. b. Operator Transport of hazardous waste using hand lift and fork lifts. For the driver of the forklift must be experienced in the field, have qualified as a driver of a transport means will be used, having a work permit letter, follow the work safety training. 2.2.3. Storage and Transporting of Liquid Waste Storage of large quantities of liquid waste are advised to use the tank to the provisions: a. Around the tank must be made embankment equipped with drains leading tank. b. Bak container must be watertight and able to accommodate liquids of at least 110%, and the maximum capacity of the tank volume c. The tank should be arranged so that when rolled over will occur in the embankment and will not overwrite another tank d. The tank must be protected from solar radiation and direct entry of rain water. Building requirements for the placement of the tank (Damanhuri, 2010) : a. Hazardous waste storage tanks must be situated outside of the building waste storage. b. The construction of the wall, without having a protective roof with a waterproof floor

II - 14 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

c. Tank and sump as well as embankment area shielded from the sun shines directly and avoid the entry of rainwater directly or indirectly. The location of the storage tank building (Damanhuri, 2010) : a. It is a flood free area, or attempted to secure from possible flooding affected b. The minimum distance between the location of the public facility is 50 meters.

Fig 2.4 Storage tank of liquid hazardous waste. (Damanhuri,2010) Transportation of hazardous material and hazardous waste is the same. The difference of them just in the manifest used. 1. Hazardous Liquid Material/Waste Transportation in Indonesia Hazardous transportation in Indonesia is managed by special company but the industry producing hazardous material/waste can be the transporter and fulfill all of the requirements. Some of the companies are PT. Horas Miduk and PT. Andhika Makmur Persada. The transporter have to get permit or legitimacy from Kementerian Perhubungan for all of the truck used. For liquid hazardous material/waste, the capacity of the truck usually 2000 liter. Before transporting, symbol and label is needed on the packaging to inform the people in charge about the characteristic of the hazardous waste/material. Almost all of the hazardous transportation in Indonesia using truck eventhough it acrosses the sea. There is no special ship that carry hazardous in Indonesia.

II - 15 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

2. Hazardous Liquid Material/Waste Transportation in RCRA Regulation of Hazardous material/waste transportation in USA include 30.000 hazardous materials using vessel, tank car, tank truck, intermodal portable tank, cylinder, drum, barrel, can, box, bottle and cask. Most of transportation use: a. Cargo tank is kind of transportation that made by steel, aluminium, titanium, nikel or stainless steel. The capacity of the transportation is 4000 – 12000 gallon and maximal weight is 36 ton. Inlet and outlet (except safety relief valves) shall be marked to designate whether the inlet and outlet communicate with vapor or liquid, when the tank is filled to its maximum permitted filling density. b. Tank car can be used for bulky tranpostation than can carry maximal 34500 gallom and 107 ton in weight. Tank Car is made by steel or aluminium. About 66% hazardous material/waste in USA is chemical and 23% is fuel. c. Tank barges is kind of transport used in water, that can carry 300.000 – 600.000 gallon. All kind of transportation need the symbol and label to give information to the people in charge and to prevent accident on duty. Before transporting, hazardous waste/material liquid have to be: a. Packed with the closures of the inside packaging in the upright position b. Marked "THIS SIDE UP" or "THIS END UP" on the outside packaging c. Arrowed symbol on the outside packaging to show upright orientation of packages. When bringing hazardous waste to household hazardous waste collection services, take the following precautions: a. Don't mix products b. Keep products in their original containers c. Label products that aren’t in their original containers

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

d. Secure products so they can't tip over and/or leak. Transport similar containers in cardboard boxes NOT garbage bags/bins, etc. e. Secure the Load in the vehicle or trailer. Vehicles arriving at public or private transfer stations in King County with unsecured loads can be charged an unsecured load fee. f. Store products away from the passenger compartment and separate waste products from those that will be retained. 3. Case of Emergency RCRA views the cleanup of “ accidental or intentional spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, or dumping of hazardous waste into or on any land or water” as the transporter’s responsibility. The transporter regulations are designed to protect human health and the environment. The foremost responsibility of the transporter is to notify the appropriate authorities. The transporter must notify the National Response Center if a hazardous waste discharge results in: a. Death b. Hospitalization c. property damage exceeding $50,000 d. fire, breakage, spillage, or suspected contamination involving radioactive materials e. fire, breakage, spillage, or suspected contamination involving etiologic agents f. danger to life at the site; or g. release of a reportable quantity of a CERCLA hazardous substance Hazardous waste releases from water transport must give the same notice as given for oil discharges. The second step for the transporter is to clean or contain the situation so the hazardous waste will not pose a threat to human health or the environment . Approval by federal, state, or local officials may be necessary before cleanup can begin. The government authority in control of the situation can

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

bring an unrelated transporter that does not have an EPA identification number to remove the discharged waste. A follow-up report must be written by the transporter and sent to the Office of Hazardous Materials Regulations, Material Transportation Bureau, Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. The report must include the quantity of waste removed from the scene, where the contaminated materials were sent, the manner of disposition of any remaining waste, and a copy of the waste manifest. 2.2.4. Storage and Transporting of Gas Waste Classifying hazardous chemicals in storage absolutely necessary, so that there is a place or space that can be best utilized and safe. Gases can also have corrosive properties, eg Ammonia. The class of gas defines its physical properties and transport requirements. However, it is also important for considering storage and handling/usage requirements. One of the classification of hazardous waste is a compressed gases which is a gases that is stored under pressure or liquefied gases or gases dissolved in a solvent under pressure (Wardan, 2012). In general, there are three types of gas cylinders : a. High Pressure Cylinders – High pressure cylinders come in a variety of sizes, examples of gases supplied in High pressure cylinders include Nitrogen, Helium, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. b. Low Pressure Cylinders – Low pressure cylinders come in a variety of sizes, Some examples of gases supplied in low pressure cylinder are LPG and refrigerant gases. c. Acetylene Cylinders – aggregate filled and acetylene is dissolved in acetone to get sufficient product into the cylinder. The gas cylinder valve is the primary safety mechanism on a gas cylinder and shall not be tampered with. It is a device used to contain the contents of the cylinder that is under pressure. Cylinder valves are fitted with pressure relief valves of different types (depending on the cylinder) to protect against

II - 18 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

catastrophic failure of the cylinder valve. The regulator is the next most important safety device to be fitted to a gas cylinder before operation/use.

It

allows for the high pressure of the cylinder contents to be brought down to a usable working pressure. Regulators come as single stage for short term applications and two stages for long term applications. Regulators are also constructed from different materials, mainly brass or stainless steel (Anonymous, 2012). Cylinders with the compressed gases should be kept in a state to stand up and bound in chains or tied strongly to an additional buffer. Storage space should be kept cool, free from direct sunlight, away from heat pipeline in the room that no circulation weather. Storage building must be fire resistant and preventive action must be taken to keep the cylinder cool if there is a fire, for example by installing a sprinkler (Sujiatno, 2013). 2.2.4.1. Storing Gases Cylinder Check the laws and building fires, regional, and local partners to determine the maximum amount of gas that can be stored in the laboratory. With toxic and reactive gas, or gas causes suffocation in bulk, specialty gas cabinets may be required. Gas cabinets designed for leak detection, safe replacement, ventilation, and emergency exit (Adamy, 2014). There are some way to storage cylinder : a. Bulk Cylinder Storage Gas stores should be located outdoors, preferably in a secure, cage protected from sunlight. Storage indoors is not recommended unless the building has been designed for that purpose with appropriate fire rated walls and ventilation. Where gases are stored indoors, additional safety considerations and control measures need to be given consideration.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Fig 2.5. Bulk Cylinder b. Laboratory Specific Storage Requirements – Cylinders in Use Store cylinders in an upright position1. If cylinders have been lying on their side, place the cylinder in the upright position and wait 30 minutes before using.If Acetylene has been laid on its side, then it is recommended that the cylinder is not used for 12-24 hours. Secure cylinders using a purpose built non-abrasive coated chain, strap or cable that will not scratch the cylinder markings and paint work or a racking system.

Fig 2.6 Tube Gas

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

c. Segregate Incompatible Gases and Dangerous Goods Corrosive liquids can damage gas cylinders on contact. Flammable liquids can spread a fire across a workplace floor and allow flames to come into contact with gas cylinders. Other dangerous goods may also be adversely affected by gas cylinders in an emergency. For this reason, gas cylinders are kept separately from other dangerous goods and combustible liquids by at least 5m or by using appropriate fire rated barriers. Segregation of incompatible goods also allows fire fighters to safely use appropriate fire fighting media for each type of goods present. d. Heat and ignition Sources Heating of the cylinder (e.g. from fire) or impact to the pressure vessel wall may result in explosion and shrapnel hazard to exposed persons. - DO NOT use oil or grease on the valve of a cylinders or regulators/gauges, particularly those containing oxygen, to avoid fire or explosion. - Store cylinders in cool areas away from sources of radiant heat (e.g. boilers, hot surfaces, and internal combustion engines). Where possible, store cylinders in the shade to avoid exposing cylinders to direct sunlight. - Cylinders containing flammable gas should not be stored near sources of ignition such as naked lights / flames, cigarette smokers, etc. - For flammable gas storage, appropriate signs stating “No Smoking”, “No Naked Lights” should be erected to preclude ignition sources from

these

areas.(Anonymous, 2012). 2.2.4.2. Transporting Gas Cylinders 1. Transport Indoor Transporting cylinders between floors of a building shall be done in the lift alone. No person is to travel in the lift with the gas cylinder. The cylinder trolley shall be secured to the lift hand rail to prevent it from falling over. Ideally a sign should be used across the entrance of the lift to prevent others

II - 21 -

TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

entering the lift while the cylinder is in transit. Secure the cylinder immediately once arriving at the usage location. 2. Transport with Vehicles Gas cylinders used in the field may require the use of a vehicle to get them to the field site. If a vehicle is required to transport cylinders, then it shall be done as follows: - Gas cylinders shall only be transported on an open back utility OR in a utility back canopy that is separate from the main body of the vehicle. - Ideally cylinders should be transported standing up and firmly secured. Flammable and Liquid withdrawal cylinders should always be transported in upright position. - If cylinders are transported lying down than suitable support devices are required to prevent the cylinders from rolling. - Remove the gas cylinder(s) from the vehicle immediately on arrival to destination and secure them appropriately. - DO NOT carry gas cylinders of any kind in the passenger compartment of a vehicle.(Anonymous, 2012).

2.3 CONCLUSION Storage of hazardous waste is hazardous waste saving activities carried out by the manufacturer, the collecting, processing, users and/or stockpiling of hazardous waste with the intention of saving while. Hazardous waste should be stored appropriately, when danger is likely to be prevented. The storage facilities and procedures should accommodate the salvation from all possible dangers. Hazardous waste storage is meant to prevent escape into the environment hazardous waste so that the potential danger to humans and the environment can be avoided. To enhance security, then prior to storage of hazardous waste must be packaged in advance. Given the diversity of characteristics of hazardous waste, then the packaging needs to be also regulated the right way so that waste can be stored safely.

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TASK B3 – STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

In Indonesia, the provisions of the packaging and storage of hazardous waste is regulated in the decision Heads Bapedal No. 01/09/1995/Bapedal. In this legislation there is provision for packaging hazardous waste, pre-packaging requirements, general requirements of packaging and, procedures for packaging, lug and storage, as well as a good building requirements in the conduct of safe storage. In this paper, discussions were held regarding storage and transportation of hazardous waste. In this paper, distinguished way of storage and transportation between solids wastes, liquids wastes and gases wastes. For solid and liquid waste, together with the use of the relative storage tanks or drums, and the layout of the building is also nearly the same, while for the storage of waste in the form of gas a little bit different. And in the process of storage and transport

need to be considered

characteristic of hazardous waste such as flammable, explosive, reactive, corrosive and toxic. If it is known the potential dangers to humans and the environment can be avoided. The location of the storage tank building: a. It is a flood free area, or attempted to secure from possible flooding affected b. The minimum distance between the location of the public facility is 50 meters. Then for transporting and transfer location should be located : 1. As near as possible to the weighted center of the individual solid waste production areas to be served 2. Within easy access to major arterial highway routes as well as near secondary or supplemental means of transportation 3. Where there will be a minimum of public and environmental objection to the transfer operations, and 4. Where construction and operating will be most economical

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TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

CHAPTER III ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE Definition: Any transboundary movement of hazardous wastes or other wastes shall be deemed to be illegal traffic when it is: a. Without notification pursuant to the provisions of this Convention to all States concerned; or b. Without the consent pursuant to the provisions of this Convention of a State concerned; or c. With consent obtained from States concerned through falsification, misrepresentation or fraud; or d. That does not conform in a material way with the documents; or e. That results in deliberate disposal (e.g. dumping) of hazardous wastes or other wastes in contravention of this Convention and of general principles of international law. I.

Illegal Trafficking of Hazardous Waste Case in Indonesia

Case of hazardous waste pollution in Indonesia is commonly the result illegal hazardous waste movement (Sukandar, 2013). Supposedly, a company that produces hazardous waste, manage the waste in accordance with applicable regulations, treated by themselves or use the services of intermediaries (transporter). Case illegal hazardous waste disposal, means that the company is not managing B3 in accordance with the regulations that could harm the environment. In addition, the handling of the case of hazardous waste in Indonesia still needs to be refined. Case of hazardous waste export and import in Indonesia, many caused by ignorance and the regulations which not clear. Regulations stating everything tainted hazardous waste, but has not said how many pollutants are contained in a contaminated hazardous item so that goods can be categorized as hazardous waste. This still causes many unclear case because such regulation is unclear. I.1.

PT Hwang Hook Steel (HHS) scrap steels case in TanjungPriok port

One of the cases of illegal entry of hazardous waste in Indonesia is the case of the entry of 113 containers of scrap metal or contaminated steel scrap to Tanjung Priok port on January 10, 2012. PT Hwang Hook Steel (PT.HHS) bring metal wastes to be processed into various III-1

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

types of goods. Waste iron was supplied from a company called WR Fibers Inc., which is located at 1330 Valley Vista Dr., Diamond Bar, California, USA. However, the item was not shipped directly from the US, but rather through the Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands, and Felixstowe in the UK. In detail, 24 containers comes from Rotterdam and 89 containers from the UK. Directorate of Customs and Excise, together with the Ministry of Environment have seized as many as 113 containers measuring 20 fit.

Figure 1. Containers containing scrap steels in TanjungPriok Port

Figure 2. Customs officer investigating containers of scrap steels Irons suspected to contain Toxic and Hazardous Substances. However, according to the Section Head of General Services Office of Information Services (KPU) Tanjung Priok Customs, Arif Rahman Hakim, this import already have the full permission of the government along with official documents. Irons was then located in Tanjung Priok as temporary location for further investigation. Containers were detained, according to him, because imports of iron-scrap was not considered appropriate licensing by the government.

III-2

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

The container contains of steel scrap as the Ministry of Commerce issued a permit, but it is mixed with usedgoods suspected of containing hazardous substances. Importing junk or secondhand items allowed by law in Indonesia, whether it be iron junk until used clothing is allowed with a permit issued by the authorities. The case of this scrap metal waste import will be re-exported or sent back to their home countries, such effort ever undertaken in other countries. Minister for the Environment, Berth Kambuaya, is also considered that the scrap metal importers violated UUNo. 32 of the Environment which prohibits the import bins. Furthermore, the goods will be exported back catch after a court decision. Meanwhile, Finance Minister Agus Martowadodjo want the case handled seriously, until firm to the importer. Because when you see from the stuff, they have committed a crime that is punishable by five to 15 years in prison, in accordance with Law No. 17 Year 2006 on Customs. However, the Ministry of Industry and Trade they argue, as long as they have economic value, each item should go to Indonesia. Waste iron was taken up directly by the importer of the existing landfills in the USAwithout cleaning. The iron contains many impurities including soil, oil, rust, plastic, asphalt and other debris. Yet according to the rules, imports of scrap metal must be cleaned first, and only brought the metal or iron. This item is in the category of garbage. I.2.

Case problem solving

After coordinating with the Ministry of Environment, Customs then act to secure these items on Friday, January 20th, 2012 ago. The process of entry of the waste from the Netherlands and the UK to Tanjung Priok need to get the clarity of Customs. However, investigation of 113 cases of illegal import scrap metal containers, containing B3 was considered slow. Commission III DPR also criticized the attitude of the British and Dutch governments, because sending junk iron-containing hazardous waste to Indonesia. Whereas existing Basel conventions, namely the agreement between governments about the sale and purchase of trash between developed and developing countries. Long investigation process occure for KLH was checking any type of hazardous substances contained in the scrap metal. Examined is not just for one container, but the entire 113 containers. This is done so that the investigators had strong evidence, that the laboratory III-3

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

results to ensnare criminal provisions to importers and related parties in the case. Customs has now put specialized personnel across the main harbor to prevent the recurrence of similar cases. With the entry of the containers containing the B3 waste, then there has been a violation of a provision banning the entry of waste and hazardous waste to the Homeland, based on Law No.32 of 2009 on the Protection and Management of the Environment, the import ban junk under Law No. 18 of 2008 on Waste Management and the Customs Act. At the international level, the occurrence of illegal imports will be informed by the Indonesian Customs to Customs in the country of origin and waste loading, and due also related to hazardous waste, then KLH as the focal point will coordinate with the Basel Convention focal points in the country of origin. According to the provisions in force in the Republic of Indonesia, then the importer may be subject to criminal sanctions and obligation to re-export the illegal waste. II. Illegal Trafficking of Hazardous Waste Case in Other Country (CS : China) Lot of cases happened in China related to illegal traffic of hazardous waste. The case will be discussed in following part. II.1. The Nanjin Korean chemical wastes case The Xinshengyu Customs Administration, Nanjin, discovered a total of 6,440 barrels, 1,288 tons of chemical wastes under the name of “other fuel oil” in Nanjin Port in Sept. 29, 1993. The inspection report of the Commodity Inspection Administration found the materials in the barrels were not fuel oil but chemical wastes. Most of the barrels contained unidentified mixture of muddy materials with strong acid or alkali, high corrosiveness, high pressure and strong offensive smell. The rest of the barrels contained wastewater. The Customs Administration detained the barrels in Oct. 8, 1993. A cargo ship shipped them to Nanjin chartered by a Korean company called Hanchang Industrial Company in September 25, 1993. The shipment of the wastes was according to a contract between a Chinese company in Beijing called Beijing Zhongmaofa Import and Export Company, which is a subsidiary of the China Foreign Trade and Development Corporation and was entrusted as an agent to import the cargo. By a Chinese company in Shanghai called Shanghai Huafu Business Company, and a Macao company called Xinjingang International, Ltd. Under the contract, the Xinjingang International shall export from Korea to the Shanghai Huafu Business Company a III-4

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

total of 200,000 tons of “other fuel oil”. The “oil” was divided into A and B classes. The price for A class was US$27.00/ton, the price for B class was US$8.00/ton. The detained 1,288 tons of wastes was the first delivery under the contract. Six months later, after the Foreign Ministry and the National Environmental Protection Agency of China notified the Korean Government and reported the case to the Secretariat of Basel Convention, the wastes were finally taken back to Korea by Korean side. All the companies involved in this case denied their liability to the illegal traffic. The Xinjingang International said that it was a mistake of the ship loading company in Macao. The representative of the Korean side said that he could provide evidence to prove that the Chinese companies demanded the Korea chemical wastes. The China Foreign Trade and Development Corporation and Beijing Zhongmaofa Import and Export Company claimed that the contract was altered, the Hanchang Industrial Company was not in the original contract, the bill of landing was not in accordance with the contract, and it was possible that someone falsely used their import contract permit. The Beijing Zhongmaofa Company discharged its agency relationship with Shanghai Huafu Business Company soon after the wastes were discovered. It claimed that its reputation was harmed and would look into the legal liability of the parties concerned. It claimed that the Korean side intentionally replaced the “other fuel oil” with the wastes. The Shanghai Huafu Business Company claimed that it was the innocent victim and that only when the inspection report of the Commodity Inspection Administration in Nanjin released, did it know the cargo was not “other fuel oil” but chemical wastes. In addition, It was reported that those wastes came from seven Korean chemical plants. Six of them declared bankruptcy after the wastes were discovered in Nanjin in order to escape from their liability. The only reasonable conclusion about this case would be that it was a case of illegal traffic. The excuse of the Macao Company that the loading company misloaded the cargo is not acceptable. The barrels contained the hazardous wastes were the only cargo on board. There was no chance and possibility to mix the 6,440 barrels with other cargo. The arguments of the Chinese companies that they were the victim of a fraud and that they did not know the wastes are also untenable. The import permit in this case is a permit for end product oil, not for other fuel oil”. It is hard to believe the price for end product oil could be so low as the price in the case. As to the Korean companies, they cannot clear themselves from the wrongdoing of exporting the wastes to China.

III-5

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

II.2. Rian Hualong Plastic Chemical, Ltd. Case Rian Hualong Plastic Chemical, Ltd. is a Sino-Foreign Joint Venture in Wenzhou City, Zhejiang Province. The company applied to the Environmental Protection Bureau of Wenzhou City for importing 183 containers of waste plastics, which had arrived at the Wenzhou port, in May 1994. During reviewing the application, the Bureau discovered that the company had imported another 50 containers, over 1,000 tons of wastes plastics without applying permit from the Bureau. Forty-five containers of the wastes had been discharged to a ground for separation and picking up process. The specialists of the Environmental Protection Bureau found that the wastes were mostly plastic packaging materials collected from households and supermarkets. They were wastes under strict control for import by China. It was reported that the wastes came from Rotterdam via Hong Kong. The Environmental Protection Bureau detained all of the containers and fined Rian Hualong Plastic Chemical, Ltd. 50,000 yuan. II.3. Fushun Plastic Products, Ltd. Case Fushun Plastic Products, Ltd. is a new Indonesian invested company engaging wastes reutilization in Longhai City, Fujian Province. The company imported 1,874.1 tons of waste plastic from Europe as the raw material for the first operation of the plant. The waste plastic comes from Rotterdam via Hong Kong. Under the contract, the waste plastic should be leftover bits and pieces of industrial materials. As the sample of the cargo, the first shipment of one container did contain the materials as the contract specified. But the latter shipment of 100 containers contained mainly hazardous plastic materials including wasted hospital plastic materials, such as plastic injectors and infusion tubes. The price of the cargo was US$20.00/ ton. It was reported that the European Community Environmental Protection Bureau subsidized the freight. The company was shocked by the latter shipment and telegrammed the European exporter to stop the shipment of another 150 containers. Ironically, the first container shipped to the exporter after the telegram contained the leftover bits and pieces of industrial plastic materials again. In this case, the Fushun Plastic Products, Ltd. did not obey the procedural requirements of the 1991 Notice for import of wastes as raw materials. The Provincial Environmental Protection Bureau only inspected the first shipment, but neglected to inspect the latter shipments. There was no one in Chinese side claimed for damages or requested the exporter to take the wastes back. How to dispose the imported hazardous wastes remained a problem. III-6

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

III. Cross Border Notification Based On Basel Convention The Basel Convention is the foremost piece of international legislation governing transboundary movements of waste. It requires parties to provide prior notification before shipping hazardous and certain other wastes across international borders. Waste classified as hazardous in the Convention or by the country of export, import or transit is subject to a prior notification process before trans boundary movement. This means that the exporter must inform the competent authorities in the countries of dispatch, transit and destination about a planned movement across national borders (for example regarding the waste type, amount and destination) and needs a written consent from the authorities prior to transporting the waste out of the country. Notification is a procedure where the exporter has to ask the competent authorities of the countries of dispatch, transit and destination for a permission for the export before the export actually takes place. Notification procedures actually require, however, that exporters submit much more detailed information, such as ELW codes, to the relevant authorities. In fact, notification procedures require exporters to provide much more detailed information to recipient countries. Moreover, many countries already have more detailed data based on their Waste List codes, or would be able to generate such data without significant additional effort. Regular reporting and publication of data based on these codes would boost understanding of hazardous waste flows, thereby helping national policymakers track the implementation and effectiveness of the legislation on trans boundary movements of waste.

Figure3. Notification diagram on Basel Convention III-7

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

A trans-boundary movement requires all competent authorities of countries concerned to be notified. A notification usually covers only one type of waste and may cover only one shipment. However, the notification may cover several shipments of waste over a maximum period of one year. Before the shipment can be allowed to start, the generator and the disposer conclude a contract for the disposal of the waste. Under the Convention this contract must ensure that the disposal is conducted in an environmentally sound manner. Upon conclusion of the contract, the Generator or the Exporter should inform the Competent Authority of the country of export of this proposed movement. If the Competent Authority has no objection to this export, it will transmit a notification document to the CA (Competent Authority) of the Country of Import, and to the CA of the countries of transit. The purpose of the notification is to provide the CA of the countries concerned with detailed, accurate and complete information on the waste itself, on the proposed disposal operation and other details relating to the proposed shipment. These are the information that needed to be provided in the notification document. 1. Reason for waste export 2. Exporter of the waste 3. Generator(s) of the waste and site of generation 4. Disposer of the waste and actual site of disposal 5. Intended carrier(s) of the waste or their agents, if known 6. Country of export of the waste 7. Expected countries of transit 8. Country of import of the waste 9. General or single notification 10. Projected date(s) of shipment(s) and period of time over which waste is to be exported and proposed itinerary (including point of entry and exit) 11. Means of transport envisaged (road, rail, sea, air, inland waters) 12. Information relating to insurance 13. Designation and physical description of the waste including Y number and UN number

and

its

composition and

information

on any special

handling

requirements including emergency provisions in case of accidents 14. Type of packaging envisaged (e.g. bulk, drummed, tanker) III-8

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

15. Estimated quantity in weight/volume 16. Process by which the waste is generated 17. For wastes listed in Annex I, classifications from Annex III: hazardous characteristic, number, and UN class 18. Method of disposal as per Annex IV 19. Declaration by the generator and exporter that the information is correct 20. Information transmitted (including technical description of the plant) to exporter

or

generator

from

the

disposer

of

the

waste

latter has based his assessment that there was no reason to wastes

will

not

be

managed

in

an

upon which the

believe

environmentally sound

accordance with the laws and regulations of

the

that

the

manner

in

the country of import

21. Information concerning the contract between the exporter and disposer And these are the information that must be provided by the transporter for the hazardous waste in the form of a document : 1. Exporter of the waste 2. Generator(s) of the waste and site of generation 3. Disposer of the waste and actual site disposal 4. Carrier(s) of the waste or his agent(s) 5. Subject of general or single notification 6. The date the transboundary movement started and date(s) and signature on receipt by each person who takes charge of the waste 7. Means of transport (road, rail, inland waterway, sea, air) including countries of export, transit and import, also point of entry and exit where these have been designated 8. General description of the waste (physical state, proper UN shipping name and class, UN number, Y number and H number as applicable) 9. Information on special handling requirements including emergency provision in case of accidents 10. Type and number of packages 11. Quantity in weight/volume 12. Declaration by the generator or exporter that the information is correct 13. Declaration by the generator or exporter indication no objection from the competent authorities of all States concerned which are parties III-9

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

14. Certification by disposer of receipt at designated disposal facility and indication of method of disposal and of the approximate date of disposal These information required on the movement document. The movement document shall carry instructions as to who is to provide information and to fill-out any form. Some notes should be included on movement document. The notes includes this information : 1. Full name and address, telephone, telex or telefax number and the name, address, telephone, telex or telefax number of the person to

be contacted.

2. Full name and address, telephone, telex or telefax number. 3. In the case of a general notification covering several shipments, either the expected

dates

of

each

shipment or,

if

this

is

not

known,

the expected

frequency of the shipments will be required. 4. Information to be provided on relevant insurance requirements and how they are met by exporter, carrier and disposer. 5. The nature and the concentration of the most hazardous components, in terms of toxicity and other dangers presented by the waste both in handling and in relation to the proposed disposal method. 6. In the case of a general notification covering several shipments, both the estimated total quantity and the estimated quantities for each individual shipment will be required. 7. Insofar

as

this

is

necessary to

assess

the

hazard

and

determine

the

appropriateness of the proposed disposal operation. IV. Control system for the transboundary movements of hazardous and other wastes Effective control of the generation, storage, treatment, recycling and reuse, transport, recovery and disposal of hazardous wastes is of paramount importance for proper health, environmental protection and natural resource management, and sustainable development. This will require the active cooperation and participation of the international community, Governments and industry.

The prevention of illegal traffic in hazardous wastes will benefit the environment and public health in all countries, particularly developing countries. It will also help to make the Basel Convention and regional international instruments, such as the Bamako Convention and the fourth Lomé Convention, more effective by promoting compliance with the controls III-10

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

established in those agreements. Article IX of the Basel Convention specifically addresses the issue of illegal shipments of hazardous wastes. Illegal traffic of hazardous wastes may cause serious threats to human health and the environment and impose a special and abnormal burden on the countries that receive such shipments. Effective prevention requires action through effective monitoring and the enforcement and imposition of appropriate penalties. IV.1. Management-related control activities Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and with the cooperation of the United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should: 1. Adopt, where necessary, and implement legislation to prevent the illegal import and export of hazardous wastes; 2. Develop appropriate national enforcement programs to monitor compliance with such legislation, detect and deter violations through appropriate penalties and give special attention to those who are known to have conducted illegal traffic in hazardous wastes and to hazardous wastes that are particularly susceptible to illegal traffic. 3. Governments should develop as appropriate, an information network and alert system to assist in detecting illegal traffic in hazardous wastes. Local communities and others could be involved in the operation of such a network and system. 4. Governments should cooperate in the exchange of information on illegal transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and should make such information available to appropriate United Nations bodies such as UNEP and the regional commissions. 5. The regional commissions, in cooperation with and relying upon expert support and advice from UNEP and other relevant bodies of the United Nations system, taking full account of the Basel Convention, shall continue to monitor and assess the illegal traffic in hazardous wastes, including its environmental, economic and health implications, on a continuing basis, drawingupon the results and experience gained in the joint UNEP/ESCAP preliminary assessment of illegal traffic. 6. Countries and international organizations, as appropriate, should cooperate to strengthen the institutional and regulatory capacities, in particular of developing countries, in order to prevent the illegal import and export of hazardous wastes. IV.2. Control system in Basel Convention The control system regulated in Basel convention are as follows:

III-11

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

a. In accordance with paragraph 3 of Article 2 of the Convention, a transboundary movement means “any movement of hazardous wastes or other wastes from an area under the national jurisdiction of one State to or through an area under the national jurisdiction of another State or to or through an area not under the national jurisdiction of any State, provided at least two States are involved in the movement”. b. The control system for the transboundary movement of hazardous and other wastes is based on prior written consent. The forms to be used – notification document and movement document – and the associated instructions on how to do so. c. Article 6 states that the State of export is to notify, or is to require the generator or exporter to notify, in writing, through the channel of the competent authority of the States concerned of any proposed transboundary movement of hazardous wastes or other wastes. The information to be provided through the notification procedure is listed in Annex V to the Convention and includes the reason for the export, the exporter, the generator, the site of generation and the process by which the wastes were generated, the nature of the wastes and their packaging, in addition to the intended itinerary, the site of disposal, the disposer and the method of disposal. States of import then make a written response, consenting to the movement with or without conditions, denying permission for the movement or requesting additional information. d. The State of export is not to allow the generator or exporter to commence the transboundary movement until it has received written confirmation that: 

The notified has received the written consent of the State of import.



The notified has received from the State of import confirmation of the existence of a contract between the exporter and the disposer specifying environmentally sound management of the wastes in question.

e. Competent authorities are designated to administer these tasks. f. The movement document is intended to accompany the consignment at all times, from the moment of departure from the waste generator to its arrival at the disposer in the importing country. It provides relevant information about a particular consignment, for example, the carriers, passage through Customs offices, and the receipt and disposal of waste by the disposer. g. The information provided in the notification and movement documents – or lack thereof – may be central to the prosecution of a case of illegal traffic.

III-12

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

V. Cross Border Notification Procedure in Indonesia V.1. Determining the case of Illegal Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste Trans-boundary movement can happen because of many things in the regulation misses, such as: a. Without notification from origin country, transit country (if any) and importing country; b. Without approval from importing country; c. False approval from importing country; d. Shipped wastes are different with waste identification stated in the export-import documents/manifest; e. Waste disposal which do not meet international convention principles and national regulation V.2. Export and Import Notification Procedure in Indonesia This is how Indonesia manage the wastes to be exported from Indonesia. First, exporter must submit a request to ministry of environment (KLH) and fill the notification form. Then, KLH will give notifications to Competent authority od destination country and transit country. The countries will evaluate the export process according to the country’s rule. KLH will give approval to the exporter based on the destination country and transit country evaluation. V.3. Cross-Border Movement rules in indonesia According to Article 53, third part, PP No. 18 juncto 85 1999 : a. Nobody is allowed to import hazardous waste; b. The transportation of hazardous waste from abroad through the territory of the Republic of Indonesia for transit purposes must first be covered by a written approval from the head of a responsible government agency. c. The dispatch of hazardous waste from abroad through the territory of the Republic of Indonesia must first be notified in writing to the head of a responsible government agency. d. The dispatch of hazardous waste abroad can be conducted after a written approval has been obtained from the government of the recipient state and the head of a responsible government agency

III-13

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

e. Further provisions on the trading system of hazardous waste will be stipulated by the Minister assigned in the trade area after considerations have been obtained from the head of a responsible government agency

Exporter

1.

Submitting a request to the competent authority (Ministry of Environment/KLH) 2. Filling the notification form

Notification from KLH

Competent Authority of Destination Country

Competent Authority of Transit Country

EVALUATION Based on the Country National’s Rule

Approval from KLH Yes

Export Process

No Import Disallowed

Hazardous Waste Export Policies according to “Government regulation Number 18/1999 and the Basel Convention”: 

Export activities of hazardous waste must be in the procedure of notification



Hazardous waste can be exported after receiving a formal approval from the importing country and from the authority in Indonesia III-14

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous Waste Import Policies applied are as follows: 

Prohibition of all hazardous waste imports, include for used lead acid battery (since September 2002)



Prohibition of all waste in form dust, sludge, paste and mud



Prohibition on plastic wastes



Prohibition on issuing permits for any types of business or activities that uses hazardous wastes imports



Import for non-hazardous waste for dumping is prohibited, unless for recovery or recycle purposes and for supplement of raw material in production process.

Nearly 180 million tonnes of hazardous and household wastes are generated annually around the world, of which at least 9.3 million tonnes move from country to country each year, presumably legally. However, many countries are receiving shipments which they never agreed to or that they are unable to properly dispose of. Preventing and combating illegal traffic of hazardous and other wastes is a critical challenge. Indonesia’s territory is a possible and potentially place as a final disposal of waste. So there are many strict regulations and policies on hazardous waste transboundary movement to prevent the impact of export-import activities: a. Act Number 23/1997 regarding Environmental Management, Article 20 (2) & Article 21Management, 21 b. Government Regulation Number 18/1999 regarding Hazardous Waste Management, Article 53 c. Presidential Decree Number 61/1993 Basel Convention Ratification d. Act Number 10/1995 regarding Custom Policy e. MinistrialDecree Number 230/MPP/Kp/ 07/1997regarding List of Imported Goods f. SK MenperindagNo. 231/MPP/Kp/ 07/1997 regardingWaste Import Procedure V.4. Restrictions on Transboundary Movement There are some restrictions on Trans-boundary movement in Indonesia including export and import of hazardous waste. All restrictions will be discussed as follows:

III-15

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

V.4.1. Restrictions on export for final disposal Indonesia restricts the export of hazardous wastes and other wastes for final disposal. To supervise hazardous waste exports, Indonesian Government has issued policies as written in Article 53 GR18/1999 Jo. GR 85/1999 and the Basel Convention, which states that waste exports are allowed as long as the shipment of wastes receives a written permission from the competent authority of the destination country and exporting country. KLH (Ministry of Environment) is Indonesian competent authority. The restriction covers all countries/regions. Other legislations are: a. Minister of Industry and Trade, Letter of Decree No. 228/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Export Regulations b. Minister of Industry and Trade, Letter of Decree No. 259/KMK.01/1997 on Export Custom Procedures c. Law of the Republic of Indonesia (UU.RI.) No. 23/1997 on Environmental Management (Articles 43 and 49); d. Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 10/1995 on Custom Regulation and e. Governmental Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia (PP) No. 18/1999 Jo. PP 85/1999 on Hazardous Waste Management (article 64). V.4.2. Restrictions on export for recovery Indonesia restricts the export of hazardous wastes and other wastes for recovery. Article 53 of the Governmental Regulation No 18/1999 Jo 85/1999 on Hazardous Waste Management states that exports are allowed as long as the shipment of wastes obtain a written permission from the competent authority of the destination country. Ministry of Environment is the competent authority of the Indonesian Government. V.4.3. Restrictions on import for final disposal Indonesia restricts the import of hazardous wastes and other wastes for final disposal. The restriction covers all countries/regions. Articles 21, 43 and 49 of the Act No. 23/1997 regarding Environmental Management : a. Decree Letter of Minister of Industry and Trade No. 229/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Import Regulations. b. Decree Letter of Minister of Industry and Trade No. 230/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Regulated Import Goods. III-16

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

c. Decree Letter of Minister of Industry and Trade No. 231/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Waste Importing Procedures. d. Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 10/1995 on Custom Regulation. e. Articles 64 and 53 of the Governmental Regulation No. 18/1999 Jo. 85/1999 on Hazardous Waste Management. V.4.4. Restrictions on import for recovery Indonesia restricts the import of hazardous wastes and other wastes for recovery. The restriction covers all countries/regions. 

Article 21 of the Act No. 23/1997 prohibits importing of toxic and hazardous waste;



Minister of Industry and Trade, Letter of Decree No. 229/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Import Regulations;



Minister of Industry and Trade, Letter of Decree No. 230/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Regulated Import Goods;



Minister of Industry and Trade, Letter of Decree No. 231/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Waste Importing Procedures;



Law of the Republic of Indonesia (UU.RI.) No. 23/1997 on Environmental Management (Article 43 and 49);



Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 10/1995 on Custom Regulation ;



Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia (PP) No. 18/1999 Jo. PP 85/1999 on Hazardous Waste Management (article 64).

V.4.5. Restrictions on transit Indonesia has no restrictions on the transit of hazardous wastes and other wastes. Though there are no restrictions on transit, Article 53 paragraph (2) and (3) on the transportation of toxic and hazardous waste trough Indonesia’s territory, states that the transit must obtained a written approval from Ministry of Environment in advance. V.4.6. Prohibited wastes to be imported in Indonesia Wastes that are prohibited to be imported according to existing regulations are: 

Wastes listed in Appendix I PP85/1999 on Hazardous Waste Management;



Hazardous Wastes with characteristics specified in Article 7 Sub Article 3 of the GR 85/1999 on Hazardous Wastes Management;· III-17

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE



Wastes that have been discovered to have acute and chronic characteristics after toxicological test specified by Article Sub Article 4 of the GR 85/1999 on Hazardous Wastes Management;



Wastes listed in Annex I, II, and VIII and exhibiting characteristics listed in Annex III of the Basel Convention;



Wastes in the form of dust and mud/paste/sludge as it is written in Article 4 Minister of Industry and Trade Letter of Decree No. 231/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Waste Importing Procedures; and



Plastic Wastes as specified in the Appendix of Minister of Industry and Trade Letter of Decree No. 230/MPP/KP/07/1997 on Regulated Imported Goods.



The following are some waste import policies that the Indonesian Government has implemented: -

Prohibition of all hazardous waste imports, except for used lead car-battery, started in September 2002;

-

Since September 1997, prohibition on issuing permits for any types of business or activities that uses hazardous wastes imports.

-

Since January 1998, prohibition of hazardous wastes imports, including used carbatteries, from countries that are registered in the Basel Convention Annex VII (OECD, EC, Liechtenstein); and

-

Car-batteries imports are allowed only from developing countries that are members of the Basel Convention, and other developing countries through bilateral, multilateral and regional agreements.

Until the present time, there are no data on the used electronic and electric objectsor E-waste trans-boundary movements either to or from foreign countries. Recently, theincreasingly prevalent practices of used electronic appliances illegal trafficking made thesituations even worst. Several sources of used electronic and electric appliances and E-wastescirculation in Indonesia areas follows: 

Import through false import documents or on behalf of other names;



Illegal imports, by inserting used electronic and electric appliances to legallyimported virgin objects.



Donation activities on behalf of certain governmental institutions or privatelyowned enterprises. III-18

TASK C3 – ILLEGAL TRAFFIC OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Based on inspections by the Government of Indonesia, it showed that the practiceof used electronic and electric appliances still prevailed in Indonesia. For examples, wastefrom electronic and electric appliances that contain or have been contaminated byhazardous materials (such as PCB) could be imported to Indonesia in illegal ways bydeclaring on the related import document that these items were mixed metal materials.Small islands usually served as the targeted markets of illegally imported E-wastes toIndonesia. Table 1. Prohibited Import of Used Electronics and Electric Good

III-19

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS

BAB IV E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS

IV.1. BACKGROUND OF E-WASTE 4.1.1 Definition Trash became one of the issues that complement the complexity of environmental problems that never ended. Because as long as there are still life, waste production will still be continued. Unfortunately, not all types of waste could be elaborated and eco-friendly. Some types of waste can be a threat to environmental sustainability. One of waste that is harmful to the environment is electronic waste. Electronic waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. The used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also considered as e-waste. Informal processing of electronic waste in developing countries may cause serious health and pollution problems, though these countries are also most likely to reuse and repair electronics. E-waste is any refuse created by discarded electronic devices and components as well as substances involved in their manufacture or use. The disposal of electronics is a growing problem because electronic equipment frequently contains hazardous substances. In a personal computer, for example, there may be lead in the cathode ray tube (CRT) and soldering compound, mercury in switches and housing, and cobalt in steel components, among other equally toxic substances. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), more than four million tons of e-waste goes to U.S. landfills each year. Around the world, a number of initiatives have arisen to address the issue of e-waste, by promoting the reuse of electronic devices (e-cycling) and mandating that safer alternatives to hazardous substances be used in their manufacture whenever possible. In Europe, legislation has been drafted to deal with the problem, including the Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive and the Basel Convention. In the United States, initiatives have mostly come from the private sector, such as eBay's Rethink project.

4.1.2

Source and Classification of E-Waste Source of e-waste based on Categories of Electrical and Electronics Waste [UNEP, 2007a].

Here some source of e- waste: No 1

Category Large

Household

Appliances 2

Small Appliances

Typical Examples Refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, clothe dryers, microwaves, heating appliances, radiators, fanning/exhaust ventilation/conditioning equipment

Household

Vacuum cleaners, other cleaners, sewing/knitting/ weaving textile appliances, toasters, fryers, pressing iron, grinders, opening/sealing/packaging appliances, knives, hair cutting/drying/shaving devices, clocks, watches IV-1

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS 3

IT

and

Telecommunication

Mainframes, microcomputers, printers, PC (desktop, notebooks, laptops), photocopiers, typewriters, fax/telex equipment, telephones

Equipment 4

Consumer Equipment

Radio and TV sets, video cameras/decoders, Hi-fi recorder, audio amplifiers, musical instruments

5

Lighting Equipment

Luminaires for fluorescent lamps, low pressure sodium lamps

6

Electrical

and

Drills,

Electronic

Tools

turning/milling/sanding/sawing/cutting/shearing/drilling/punching/folding/ben

(excluding large-scale

ding equipment, riveting/nailing/screwing tools, welding/soldering tools,

industrial tools)

spraying/spreading/dispersing tools,

7

Toys,

Leisure

and

Sports Equipment

saws,

sewing

machines,

Electric trains, car racing sets, video games, sports equipment, coin slot machines, biking/diving/running/ rowing computers

8

Medical Devices

Devices for radiotherapy/cardiology/dialysis, ventilators, analyzers, freezers, fertilization tests, detecting/preventing/monitoring/treating/alleviating illness, injury or disability

9

Monitoring

and

Control Instruments

Smoke

detectors,

heating

regulators,

thermostats,

measuring/weighing/adjusting appliances for household or laboratory use, other industrial monitoring and control instruments

10

Automatic Dispensers

for hot drinks, hot or cold bottles/cans, solid, products, money, and all kinds of products

IV.2. SUBSTANCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF E-WASTE 4.2.1.

Hazardous Sustances of E-Waste

Electrical and electronical equipment contain different hazardous materials which are harmful to human health and the environment if not disposed carefully. While some naturally occurring substances are harmless in nature, their use in the manufacture of electronic equipment often results in compounds which are hazardous (e.g. chromium becomes chromium VI). The following list gives a selection of the mostly found toxic substances in e-waste: Substance

Occurrence in e-waste

Halogenated compounds: PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) Condensers, Transformers TBBA (tetrabromo-bisphenol-A) PBB (polybrominated biphenyls) PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers)

Fire retardants for plastics (thermoplastic components, cable insulation) TBBA is presently the most widely used flame retardant in printed wiring boards and casings.

Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)

Cooling unit, Insulation foam

PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

Cable insulation

IV-2

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS Heavy metals and other metals: Arsenic

Small quantities in the form of gallium arsenide within light emitting diodes

Barium

Getters in CRT

Beryllium

Cadmium

Power supply boxes which contain silicon controlled rectifiers and x-ray lenses Rechargeable NiCd-batteries, fluorescent layer (CRT screens), printer inks and toners, photocopying-machines (printer drums)

Chromium VI

Data tapes, floppy-disks

Lead

CRT screens, batteries, printed wiring boards

Lithium

Li-batteries Fluorescent lamps that provide backlighting in LCDs and in some alkaline

Mercury

batteries

Nickel

Rechargeable NiCd-batteries or NiMH-batteries, electron gun in CRT

Rare Earth elements (Yttrium, Europium)

Fluorescent layer (CRT-screen)

Selenium

Older photocopying-machines (photo drums)

Zinc sulphide

Interior of CRT screens, mixed with rare earth metals

Others: Toner Dust Radio-active substances Americium

Toner cartridges for laser printers / copiers Medical equipment, fire detectors, active sensing element in smoke detectors

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of organic compounds use in a variety of applications, including dielectric fluids for capacitors and transformers, heat transfer fluids and as additives in adhesives and plastics. PCBs have been shown to cause cancer in animals. PCBs have also been shown to cause a number of serious non-cancer health effects in animals, including effects on the immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, endocrine system and other health effects. PCBs are persistent contaminants in the environment. Due to the high lipid solubility and slow metabolism rate of these chemicals, PCBs accumulate in the fat-rich tissues of almost all organisms (bioaccumulation). Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) The 3 main types of BFRS used in electronic and electrical appliances are Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and Tetrabromobisphenol - A (TBBPA). Flame retardants make materials, especially plastics and textiles, more flame resistant. They have been found in indoor dust and air through migration and evaporation from plastics. Combustion of IV-3

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS halogenated case material and printed wiring boards at lower temperatures releases toxic emissions including dioxins which can lead to severe hormonal disorders. Major electronic manufacturers have begun to phase out brominated flame retardants because of their toxicity. CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) Chlorofluorocarbons are compounds composed of carbon, fluorine, chlorine, and sometimes hydrogen. Used mainly in cooling units and insulation foam, they have been phased out because when released into the atmosphere, they accumulate in the stratosphere and have a deleterious effect on the ozone layer. This results in increased incidence of skin cancer in humans and in genetic damage in many organisms. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the most widely-used plastic, used in everyday electronics and appliances, household items, pipes, upholstrery etc. PVC is hazardous because contains up to 56 percent chlorine which when burned produces large quantities of hydrogen chloride gas, which combines with water to form hydrochloric acid and is dangerous because when inhaled, leads to respiratory problems. Arsenic Arsenic is a poisonous metallic element which is present in dust and soluble substances. Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to various diseases of the skin and decrease nerve conduction velocity. Chronic exposure to arsenic can also cause lung cancer and can often be fatal. Barium Barium is a metallic element that is used in sparkplugs, fluorescent lamps and "getters" in vacuum tubes. Being highly unstable in the pure form, it forms poisonous oxides when in contact with air. Short-term exposure to barium could lead to brain swelling, muscle weakness, damage to the heart, liver and spleen. The long-term effects of chronic barium exposure to human beings are still not known due to lack of data on the effects. Beryllium Beryllium has recently been classified as a human carcinogen because exposure to it can cause lung cancer. The primary health concern is inhalation of beryllium dust, fume or mist. Workers who are constantly exposed to beryllium, even in small amounts, and who become sensitised to it can develop what is known as Chronic Beryllium Disease (beryllicosis), a disease which primarily affects the lungs. Exposure to beryllium also causes a form of skin disease that is characterised by poor wound healing and wart-like bumps. Studies have shown that people can still develop beryllium diseases even many years following the last exposure. Cadmium Cadmium components may have serious impacts on the kidneys. Cadmium is adsorbed IV-4

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS through respiration but is also taken up with food. Due to the long half-life in the body, cadmium can easily be accumulated in amounts that cause symptoms of poisoning. Cadmium shows a danger of cumulative effects in the environment due to its acute and chronic toxicity. Chromium Chromium and its oxides are widely used because of their high conductivity and anti corrosive properties. While some forms of chromium are non toxic, Chromium (VI) is easily absorbed in the human body and can produce various toxic effects within cells. Lead Lead is the fifth most widely used metal after iron, aluminium, copper and zinc. It is commonly used in the electrical and electronics industry in solder, lead-acid batteries, electronic components, cable sheathing, in the glass of CRTs etc. Continued excessive exposure, as in an industrial setting, can affect the kidneys. It is particularly dangerous for young children because it can damage nervous connections and cause blood and brain disorders. Mercury Mercury is one of the most toxic yet widely used metals in the production of electrical and electronic applications. It is a toxic heavy metal that bioaccumulates causing brain and liver damage if ingested or inhaled. In electronics and electrical appliances, mercury is highly concentrated in batteries, some switches and thermostats, and fluorescent lamps. Selenium Exposure to high concentrations of selenium compounds cause selenosis. The major signs of selenosis are hair loss, nail brittleness, and neurological abnormalities (such as numbness and other odd sensations in the extremities). Item

Hazardous Components

Cathode Ray Tube

Lead, antimony, mercury, phosphorous

Liquid Crystal Display

Mercury

Circuit Board

Lead, beryllium, antimony, BFR

Fluorescent Lamp

Mercury, phosphorous, flame retardants

Cooling systems

Ozone depleting substance (ODS)

Plastic

BFR, phthalate plasticizer

Insulation

ODS in foam, asbestos, refractory ceramic fibre

Rubber

Phthalate plasticizer, BFR, lead

Electrical Wiring

Phthalate plasticizer, BFR

Batteries

Lead, lithium, cadmium, mercury

4.2.2

Human Health and Environmental Impact

IV-5

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS The degree of hazard posed to workers and the environment varies greatly depending on the individuals involved and the nature of operations. As known that the pollution generated by e-waste processing brings about toxic or genotoxic effects on the human body, threatening the health not only of workers but also of current residents and future generations living in the local environment (Liu et al., 2009). It is evident from several studies in China that the rudimentary recycling techniques coupled with the amounts of e-waste processed have already resulted in adverse environmental and human health impacts, including contaminated soil and surface water (Zhao et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2011; Frazzoli, Orisakwe, Dragone & Mantovani, 2010; Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011). Health problems have been reported in the last few years, including diseases and problems related to the skin, stomach, respiratory tract and other organs (Nordbrand, 2009). Workers suffer high incidences of birth defects, infant mortality, tuberculosis, blood diseases, anomalies in the immune system, malfunctioning of the kidneys and respiratory system, lung cancer, underdevelopment of the brain in children and damage to the nervous and blood systems (Prakash & Manhart, 2010). However, long-term health studies of ewaste workers have yet to be conducted. Long-range transport of pollutants has also been observed, which suggests a risk of secondary exposure in remote areas. Atmospheric pollution due to burning and dismantling activities seems to be the main cause of occupational and secondary exposure (Sepúlveda et al., 2010). Informal sector ewaste activities are also a crucial source of environment-to food-chain contamination, as contaminants may accumulate in agricultural lands and be available for uptake by grazing livestock. In addition, most chemicals of concern have a slow metabolic rate in animals, and may bioaccumulate in tissues and be excreted in edible products such as eggs and milk. E-waste-related toxic effects can be exacerbated throughout a person‟s lifetime and across generations. E-waste therefore constitutes a significant global environmental and health emergency, with implications far broader than occupational exposure and involving vulnerable groups and generations to come (Frazzoli, Orisakwe, Dragone & Mantovani, 2010). Toxic Mercury

Typical Sources Fluorescent

lamps,

Effects On Humans LCD

Impairment of neurological development in fetuses and

monitor, switches, flat panel

small children, tremours, emotional changes, cognition,

screens

motor function, insomnia, headaches, changes in nervous response, kidney effects, respiratory failures, death

Lead

CRT

of

TV,

computer

monitor, circuit boards

Probable human carcinogen, damage to brain and nervous systems, slow growth in children, hearing problems, blindness, diarrhea, cognition, behavioural changes (e.g. delinquent), physical disorder.

Chromium

Untreated and galvanized steel

Asthmatic

bronchitis,

skin

irritation,

ulceration,

plates, decorator or hardener

respiratory irritation, perforated eardrums, kidney damage,

IV-6

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS Toxic

Typical Sources

Effects On Humans

for steel housings

liver damage, pulmonary congestion, oedema, epigastric pain, erosion and discolouration of the teeth, motor function

BFR

Plastic casings, circuit boards

May increase cancer risk to digestive and lymph systems, endocrine disorder

Cadmium

Light-sensitive corrosion

resistors,

retardant,

as

Ni-Cd

Inhalation due to proximity to hazardous dump can cause severe damage to the lungs, kidney damage, cognition

battery

IV.3. E-WASTE MANAGEMENT 4.3.1. Recycling Today the electronic waste recycling business is in all areas of the developed world a large and rapidly consolidating business. People tend to forget that properly disposing or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, create jobs, and reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Part of this evolution has involved greater diversion of electronic waste from energy-intensive down cycling processes (e.g., conventional recycling), where equipment is reverted to a raw material form. This recycling is done by sorting, dismantling, and recovery of valuable materials. This diversion is achieved through reuse and refurbishing. The environmental and social benefits of reuse include diminished demand for new products and virgin raw materials (with their own environmental issues); larger quantities of pure water and electricity for associated manufacturing; less packaging per unit; availability of technology to wider swaths of society due to greater affordability of products; and diminished use of landfills. One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from the electronic wastes. The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit acid leaching for separating metals of value. Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for printed circuit board recycling, and some other methods are still under investigation (Wikipedia, 2014) a. Significance of E-waste recycling E-waste is usually regarded as a waste problem, which can cause environmental damage if not dealt with in an appropriate way. However, the enormous resource impact of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is widely overlooked. Summarizing the lack of closing the loop for electronic and electrical devices leads not only to significant environmental problems but also to systematic depletion of the resource base in secondary materials. Modern electronics can contain up to 60 different elements; many are valuable, some arehazardous and some are both. The most complex mix of substances is usually present in the printed IV-7

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS wiring boards (PWBs). In its entity electrical and electronic equipment is a major consumer of many precious and special metals and therefore an important contributor to theworld‟s demand for metals. Despite all legislative efforts to establish a circular flow economyin the developed countries/EU, the majority of valuable resources today are lost. Several causes can be identified: firstly, insufficient collection efforts; secondly, partly inappropriate recycling technologies; thirdly, and above all large and often illegal exports streams of E-waste into regions with no or inappropriate recycling infrastructures in place. Large emissions of hazardous substances are associated with this. Unfortunately, these regions with inappropriate recycling infrastructure are often located in developing and transition countries. b. Structure and main steps in the recycling chain The recycling chain for e-waste consists of three main subsequent steps: i) collection, ii) sorting/dismantling and pre-processing (incl. sorting, dismantling, mechanical treatment) and iii) endprocessing (incl. refining and disposal) (Figure 1). Usually for each of these steps specialized operators/plants exist. The efficiency of the entire recycling chain depends on the efficiency of each step and on how well the interfaces between these interdependent steps are managed. If for example, for a certain device/metal the efficiency of collection is 50%, the combined dismantling preprocessing efficiency is 70% and the materials recovery efficiency 95% (which all are rather optimistic assumptions), the resulting net metal yield along the chain would be only 33%.

Figure 1. Recycling Chain Collection of e-waste is of crucial importance as this determines the amount of material that is actually available for recovery. Many collection programmes are in place but their efficiency varies from place to place and also depends on the device. Improvement of collection rates depends more on social and societal factors than on collection methods as such, but should be considered when discussing innovative recycling systems. When no devices are collected, the feed material to dismantling, pre-processing and end-processing facilities is lacking and a recycling chain cannot be established. The collected equipment is sorted and then enters a pre-treatment step. The aim of dismantling and pre-processing is to liberate the materials and direct them to adequate subsequent final treatment processes. Hazardous substances have to be removed and stored or treated safely while valuable components/materials need to be taken out for reuse or to be directed to efficient recovery processes. This includes removal of batteries, capacitors etc. prior to further (mechanical) pre-treatment. The batteries from the devices can be sent to dedicated facilities for the recovery of cobalt, nickel and copper.

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS After removal of the hazardous and other special components described above, the remainder of the ICT, cooling or television devices can be further separated in the material output streams by manual dismantling or mechanical shredding and (automated) sorting techniques. Fractions are usually iron, aluminium, copper, plastic etc. It is of utmost importance that the generated output streams meet the quality requirements of the feed materials for the end-processors. A mismatch between the two can lead to the creation of difficult or non-recyclable fractions. Well-known examples are the limits on copper content in fractions for iron/steel recycling, or the limits on iron, nickel and chromium content in aluminium fractions. Furthermore, a quality mismatch can lead to the loss of material resources. For example, aluminium would not be recovered during end-processing when mixed with an iron/steel fraction or with a printed wiring board fraction, iron/steel is not recovered during aluminium recycling, and copper/precious metals are not recovered during iron/steel recycling. The challenge is to define the right priorities and find a balance in metals recovery that considers economic and environmental impacts instead of only trying to maximize weight based recovery rates, regardless of the substances involved. Another aspect could be the mismatch in physical aspects of the materials, such as particle size. One could think of shredded e-waste material while the smelters can easily take unshredded material. The final metals recovery from output fractions after pre-treatment takes place at three main destinations. Ferrous fractions are directed to steel plants for recovery of iron, aluminium fractions are going to aluminium smelters, while copper/lead fractions, circuit boards and other precious metals containing fractions are going to e.g. integrated metal smelters, which recover precious metals, copper and other non-ferrous metals, while isolating the hazardous substances. 4.3.2Disposal Determining the correct disposal route and arranging disposal: a) Legislation requires waste electronic and electrical equipment to be re-used, recovered or recycled; under no circumstances should departments dispose of WEEE in the general waste bins. b) The corporate scheme for the disposal of WEEE is responsible for the disposal of computer equipment and historic WEEE. „Like for Like‟ WEEE and WEEE must be disposed of using producer compliance schemes. c) Departments are responsible for determining the appropriate method of disposal for unwanted equipment (either the corporate disposal scheme or a producer disposal scheme), using the documents Procedure for the disposal of WEEE. d) Where the appropriate method of disposal is to use a producer compliance scheme, it is the departments responsibility to contact the appropriate producer and arrange for the collection of the WEEE.

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS e) Where WEEE is classed as hazardous waste departments will need to provide the producer with a premises code. Departments should not allow the producer / supplier to. f) Where items of WEEE that have been contaminated with hazardous substances, departments must not dispose of them until they have been decontaminated (unless a specialist waste disposal contractor has agreed to dispose of the equipment in its contaminated state). If equipment has been decontaminated, departments must keep records / evidence to demonstrate that the equipment has been decontaminated. g) Departments must ensure that copies of the relevant licences are obtained before any WEEE is collected and that the relevant documentation is kept on file for three years. Relevant documentation includes; 

Details of producer compliance schemes and registration numbers;



Copies of any waste carrier‟s licences, waste brokers licences or waste management licences (for all the contractors used);



Copies of waste transfer notes / hazardous waste consignment notes.

h) In order to arrange for a collection of historic WEEE or computer equipment by the Recycling Team, departments must complete an E-form. i)

Departments must ensure that WEEE is stored in line with the Duty of Care Regulations prior to collection for disposal – equipment should be stored inside a building rather than outside.

j)

The Recycling Team will assess the request for a collection - small amounts of WEEE that require collection will be collected by the Recycling Team within 5 working days. Requests for collections of larger amounts of WEEE will be referred to the Mail and Waste Supervisor who will liaise directly with the department and the waste disposal contractor to arrange collection. If for any reason the collection of WEEE is delayed the Recycling Team will contact the requesting department (Winnert, 2011).

4.3.3. Policy approaches in managing e-waste in Asian countries Number of workshops and studies has been conducted by organizations such as Basel Convention to investigate the obstacles in developing countries to adopt ESM of e-waste. These have identified lack of e-waste inventories, lack of trained personnel to enforce ESM practices, lack of legislation including export and import rules, inadequate infrastructure to collect, handle, recycle and recover materials from e-waste and lack of awareness about the health and environmental impacts of unsound e-waste management practices as the main obstacles in achieving ESM of e-waste. a. Informal sector To manage the emerging threat from e-waste, and due to the urgency of the issue, number of developing countries are looking into adopt policies and technologies that are already been implemented in developed countries where proper infrastructure is in place to manage e-waste. However, the economic, environmental and social situation in number of these developing countries IV-10

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS (mainly located in Asia and Africa) are different to the developed world, hence, the need for adapting, implementing, and scaling up appropriate technologies that are more suited to the local conditions. One of the key areas that developing countries need to concentrate relates to how to deal with the informal e-waste recycling sector. It is important to note here that in many developing countries the informal sector is very active in activities related to the e-waste recycling chain. These informal recyclers are motivated by the precious materials contained in the e-waste stream and its market value.In countries such as India and China, where significant amount of e-waste recycling is taking place, informal collectors achieve very high collection efficiencies. In fact informal collection of ewaste does not have any major adverse impacts on the environment. Instead they lead to high collection rates and many economical and social benefits to the poor section of the community. The informal sector is also involved in the second stage of the e-waste recycling chain - dismantling preprocessing. Even here there are no major impacts on the environment instead more economic and social benefits to poor community. The last stage of the e-waste recycling chain where processes/techniques are necessary to extract the valuable components such as metals is where the current environmental impacts are. Most of the informal recyclers utilise low efficiency processes resulting in major health and environmental impacts. For example primitive technologies utilised by informal recyclers to extract raw materials from printed wire boards, wires and other metal bearing components have very low material recovery rates and also result in major environmental impacts. The challenge for the policy makers in developing countries is how to achieve efficiencies in the informal sector at the same time taking into account the environmental and social aspects of their operations. Prohibiting and imposing fines on informal recycling have not helped in countries like China and India. This is due to the fact that informal recycling is undertaken by the poor people and as such the government is unable to impose heavy fines as they cannot pay it. These governments then tried to regulate the informal e-waste recycling sector by licensing them. However, the effectiveness of such a scheme depends a lot on the responsibility of the disposer of e-waste. The challenge is how to deal with the e-waste disposer who receives more money from unlicensed informal recyclers than from the licensed recyclers. (Shinkuma & Managi, 2010) argues that generally the disposers of e-waste are relatively richer than the recyclers, hence the government can afford to place a heavy fine on them. However, the issue is governments of developing countries are unable to impose fines on e-waste disposers of developed countries where most of the e-waste comes from. One solution is for the governments in developing countries to co-orporate with governments of importing countries to impose fine on noncompliant exporters. (Chi et al., 2011) argues that the emergence and growth of the informal sector in developing countries is the result of intricate interactions between economic incentives, regulation gaps, industrial interdependence and the social reality and predicted that informal sector may remain an influential recycling force for years to come. They suggested the

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS whole informal recycling chain must be thoroughly investigated on which steps are environmentally harmless and should remain and which steps of the material mass flow should be changed for better downstream environmental and recycling performance. b. Basel Convention Officially known as the „Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal‟, the Basel Convention is the most comprehensive global environmental agreement on hazardous wastes ever developed (www.basel.int). Its main aim is to protect the human health and the environment from adverse impacts resulting from the generation, management, transboundary movements and disposal of hazardous and toxic wastes. It entered into force on 5 May 1992 in accordance with article 25(1) of the Convention. As at September 2010 there are 178 parties to the Convention. The Basel Convention‟s Conference of the Parties (COP) has made several decisions to achieve environmentally sound management of electrical and electronic waste. Commencing from its 6th meeting (COP6) in December 2002 where it identified electronic wastes as a priority waste stream in the strategic plan for the implementation of the Basel Convention to 2010. In 2006 Basel Convention‟s 8th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP8) was held in Nairobi on the theme „Creating innovative solutions through Basel Convention for the environmentally sound management of electronic wastes‟. During this meeting ministers, executive officers, civil-society representatives and other relevant participants from around the world participated in a high level world forum on ewastes. As a result, the „Nairobi declaration on the Environmentally Sound Management of Electrical and Electronic Waste‟ was adopted by COP8 as decision VIII/2. The details of this declaration are found in Annexes I and II of (UNEP 2007a) and Annex IV of (UNEP 2007b). Basel Convention has conducted number of workshops on environmentally sound management of e-waste in the Asia Pacific region, the latest one in Vietnam in 2009. The Basel Convention has developed two important initiatives to encourage private sector participation in ESM of e-waste. Launched in 2002 the „Mobile Phone Partnership Initiative‟ (MPPI) has overall objectives for better product stewardship, changing consumer behaviour, promoting best reuse, refurbishing, material recovery, recycling and disposal options and mobilising political and institutional support for environmentally sound management. A guidance document on the environmentally sound management of used and end-of-life mobile phone was adopted by the 8th Conference of the Parties (http://archive.basel.int/industry/mppi.html). The Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment (PACE) was adopted by the Basel Convention in June 2008. c. Other international treaties and initiatives related to e-waste The Basel Convention Partnership on the Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste in Asia Pacific Region was launched in 2005 by the secretariat of the Basel Convention with funding from the Government of Japan. Its goal is to enhance the capacity of Parties to manage e-waste in an

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS environmentally sound manner through the building up of public-private partnerships and by preventing illegal traffic. To address the issue of transboundary movement of e-waste, the Government of Japan in 2003 proposed the development of the „Asian Network for Prevention of Illegal Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes‟. The network aims at facilitating the exchange and dissemination of information on transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and selected used products among the North-East and South-East Asian countries and assists in formulating appropriate legislative responses. IV.4. SOME CASES E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN VIETNAM AND SOME OTHER COUNTRIES 4.4.1. Somecases E-waste recycling activities in China Formal and informal recyclers co-exist within China‟s current e-waste treatment system. In 2011, there were around 336 million home appliances (televisions, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners and computers) put on the domestic Chinese market. Most of the 61.3 million home appliances collected and treated by the formal sector in 2011 – 84 per cent of which were televisions – were collected through the “Old for New Program”. In 2011, the number of televisions put on the market roughly equaled the number of waste televisions generated, which suggests that televisions may have reached near market saturation. For the four other primary home appliances – refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners and computers – the number of waste units generated annually is lower than the number of new units purchased, meaning that there is still considerable room in the market to grow. In addition to the waste appliances collected, an estimated 1.76 billion units of the five primary home appliances currently being stocked in homes will become obsolete and be discarded in the future. As for home appliances not covered in the rebate program, most will go to informal recyclers or second-hand markets, or will be discarded as municipal waste or temporarily stored in homes. The chart is colour coded to indicate the availability of relevant data. Figure includes data on EEE sales, stocks and e-waste generation, as well as the quantities of e-waste collected and treated through formal channels. Due to the difficulty of data collection, however, reliable data on the collection and recycling capacity of the informal sector, as well as on the volume of e-waste that is illegally imported and treated by the informal sector, are largely unavailable. In order to gain a more thorough understanding of the systemic flows of e-waste in China, more complete and reliable data on all sectors must be collected. This program significantly shortened the lifespan of home appliances and led to higher volumes of e-waste being collected than were collected in the years before the rebate program. Because the rebate program ended at the end of 2011, it is likely that the amount of e-waste collected and treated through formal channels will decrease significantly from 2011 levels and that the amount of e-waste flowing through informal channels may rise to pre-rebate program levels. It is

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS therefore necessary to continue to gather data for 2012 and beyond in order to gain a more complete and accurate understanding of e-waste flows in China.

Figure 2: Overview of e-waste flows in China in 2011, millions of units (MU) China is not the only country in which the informal recycling sector is growing and flourishing. Many other parts of the world, including Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi and New Delhi in India, Lagos in Nigeria and Karachi in Pakistan, are also seeing an increase in informal e-waste recycling activities. According to Hicks et al. (2005) and Wang et al. (2008), among others, the primary reasons underlying the rise of the informal e-waste recycling sector in developing countries include: (i)

unwillingness on the part of consumers to return and pay for disposal of their old electrical and electronic equipment;

(ii)

high and unregulated levels of importation of e-waste for use as second-hand devices, together with substantial economic benefits from unregulated recycling activities;

(iii)

lack of awareness among consumers, collectors and recyclers of the potential hazards of improper e-waste handling;

(iv)

absence of recycling infrastructure or appropriate management of e-waste;

(v)

lack of financial resources to invest in improved e-waste recycling infrastructure and training;

Informal recycling of e-waste is prevalent in China, particularly in some coastal regions. The informal recycling sector in China did not develop overnight. Rather it has developed along with the economy and standards of living, both nationally and locally. In the 1990s, as imported waste began to enter in China as a cheap source for second-hand goods and secondary resources, individual recyclers began harvesting valuable materials from imported electronic waste. The most common

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS outputs of informal recyclers are second-hand components, refurbished appliances and valuable materials.

Figure 3.Spatial distribution of informal e-waste recycling sites and ports through which e-waste shipments enter China In areas with sizeable electronics manufacturing sector, informal e-waste recycling plays an important role by providing useful components and materials for production. By trading with various business partners, including e-waste importers, private collectors, and dealers of secondary materials and reusable components, informal recyclers have been able to incrementally expand their trading. While informal e-waste recycling occurs in several locations in China, the two largest centers are Guiyuis located in the Chaoyang District, Shantou City, in Guangdong Province, and Taizhou located in Zhejiang Province. Guangdong Province is geographically adjacent to Hong Kong, making it a logistically- convenient destination for the illegal transboundary transport of e-waste. Many of these workers are women and children. Informal e-waste recyclers have proven integral in meeting the region‟s industry evergrowing demand for cheap materials. Finally, because of the scale of e-waste recycling and the resulting efficiencies and centration of collectors, buyers, sellers, recyclers etc., Guangdong now also attracts E-waste flows from other parts of China, making it a primary centre for e-waste recycling and trading. Taizhou, a city famous for secondary material production, has been involved in informal e-waste recycling for nearly 25 years. In the early 1990s, Taizhou began to process imported wastes such as scrap metals, obsolete electric capacitors, household appliances, electric generators and cable wires, with an annual volume of dismantled e-waste exceeding 2.2 million tonnes. However, Taizhou has gradually phased out the informal recycling of e-waste as local manufacturing has shifted away from the production of electronics in recent years. As a result of this shift in local manufacturing and stricter regulation of polluting activities related to e-waste recycling (e.g. leaching of circuit boards), very little informal e-waste recycling has been identified in Taizhou in past five years. Like formal recyclers, informal recyclers seek to extract maximum value from e-waste by separating and upgrading secondary materials. However, unlike formal recyclers, informal recyclers IV-15

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS lack the appropriate technology, equipment and training to undertake such operations in a safe and environmentally- responsible manner. Substandard informal recycling practices include open burning or direct melting of plastics, toner sweeping, dumping of lead-containing CRTs, acid stripping of printed wiring boards (PWB) and de-soldering of chips, as well as dumping unwanted residuals such as CRT glass, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) liquid, and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) liquid, among others, directly onto the soil or into water sources. These common practices pose direct risks to the health of workers and to the local environment. Although these informal e-waste recycling practices have been banned by the government, the environmental damage they cause will persist for many years and require substantial effort and resources to mitigate.

Figure 4: Emissions and environmental pathways from informal e-waste recycling Much of the research on e-waste issues in China was triggered by the environmental calamity in the Guiyu area. In 2002, Greenpeace and Basel Action Network first exposed the pollution and ecological damage in the e-waste recycling town in their report titled “Exporting Harm”. This report attracted global attention to China‟s backyard e-waste recyclers and sparked a great deal of research seeking to evaluate the presence of heavy metals, persistent organics and other hazardous substances in the water, air, soil and even human bodies in e-waste recycling sites like Guiyu and Taizhou. Through onsite investigations, toxicity and pathology analyses, and other methods, these studies have clearly demonstrated the environmental and health damage caused by improper recycling of e-waste. 4.4.2. Some cases E-waste recycling activities in Viet Nam At the beginning of this century, the demand for electronic appliances was booming in Vietnam, and this led the electronics industry to become the most developed sector in its economy, where only television assembly had existed with low production capacity before 2000. A report by GfK Marketing Services1 shows an average yearly increase of more than 20% for the electronics market in Vietnam, from 1119 million US$ in 2003 to 2390 million US$ in 2006, and that a market value of about 3 billion US$ is expected for the year 2007. This dramatic change is likely to cause a rapid increase in e-waste in the near future.

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS Waste electronic appliances, or e-waste, can be defined as “a generic term embracing various forms of electric and electronic equipment that have ceased to be of any value to their owners. Similar to other developing countries such as China, India, Thailand, and the Philippines, Vietnam does not have appropriate technology or specific regulations or ordinances for ewaste management. There are some e-wasterelated articles contained in the amended Law on Environmental Protection8 (issued on November 29, 2005, and became effective as of July 1, 2006) and Decree 80/2006/ NÐ-CP (issued on August 9, 2005) with details and guidelines for the implementation of a number of articles of this law. Nevertheless, this legislation does not fulfill the requirement of an effective and powerful legal framework to control e-waste collection, purchase, and treatment. One of the most important reasons is that, to date, e-waste has been considered a beneficial resource rather than an environmental problem. Moreover, the amount of e-waste handled is still low and is scattered throughout the private small scale recycling system at craft villages and dumping sites, attracting less attention from the public. Vietnam also lacks a sound inventory of e-waste. (Nguyen et al., 2009) studied the e-waste flows of five large home appliances (televisions, refrigerators, washing machines, personal computers and air conditioners). They estimated that Vietnam would discard about 3.86 million appliances or 114,000 tonnes in 2010 and 17.2 million appliances or 567,000 tonnes in 2025. Another study conducted by URENCO Vietnam at the request of Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) estimated the e-waste quantities as shown in Table below. Estimated generation of e-waste from various sources in Vietnam Source: (URENCO Environment, 2007).

Waste recycling villages use solid waste as inputs for production. In 2004, there were about 90 waste recycling villages, classified into three main types: metal recycling (81 villages), plastic (5 villages) and paper recycling (4 villages). In 2012, there are approximately 3000 craft villages, but only 1% (about 30 villages) to have activities on e-waste recycling. The majorities of these villages are located in northern Vietnam and were established in the last decade. Industries here are involved in large‐scale production and use high levels of mechanization. Each business typically employs large numbers of workers, often from neighboring villages and districts. •

Does include electronic and electrical waste

•

Does not classified by law yet

•

Is considered as valuable things rather than waste by public IV-17

E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS •

Is considered as hazardous wastes bylaw

•

Is related to the transboundary flow (legal and illegal)

•

There is no official data or statistic index considering the amount of e-waste.

•

Have high increasing rate

4.4.3. E-waste recycling activities in Indonesia In Indonesia, the number of mobile phone users has increased from year to year. Information and communication have became basic needs of people in different economic groups. At the initial appearance, limited cell phone is used only by the people with upper middle economy as well as the professionals who require instant communication. But now, the use of this communication tool extends to various regions across the country and is also supported by the widespread network of mobile operator services. Mobile phones are one of the types of e-waste that have the fastest growing. The increase in volume per year is estimated at 3-5%, or three times faster than the regular trash. It is known that the electronic device unused sooner or later will end up in the final processing such as landfills or incinerators, where they will release toxic materials such as mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic, dioxins and other harmful substances into the air, soil and water. Many of these harmful substances persistent in the environment, experienced bioaccumulation in the food chain, and likely to cause harmful effects to human health and the environment (Wu et.al, 2008). In developing countries, including Indonesia, there are activities repair and reuse of used mobile phones in high quantities. Repair shops can be found in secondhand sector. The workers in these stores looking components damaged or discarded and replaced with new components local. Components are badly damaged and can not be reused still have a sale value because they can be recycled. The main reason to use the former component is for economic reasons. Usually consumers want to use original spare parts but want a cheap repair costs. Because the original product price is relatively high, then the repairman took the components of a cell phone already dead and used in the fixed phone. Thus the cost of repairs can be suppressed. Uncontrolled recovery undertaken by the informal sector can have impact on health and the environment. Hanafi (2011) also mentioned the type of E-Waste recycling in Indonesia are backyard recycling (done behind the house), which is done by the informal sector, generally by unskilled workers in a manner that is harmful to human health and pollute the environment. In 2007, Indonesia produced more than 3 billion units of electronic household appliances and IT equipment. In the same year, the annual consumption of television to reach 4.3 million units while the refrigerator to reach 2.1 million units and air conditioning and washing machines respectively reached 900,000 units. Based on data provided by the Association of Indonesian Cellular Phone, there are approximately 180 million mobile phone users in Indonesia until 2010 and the number is increasing. Stated that Indonesia is one of the largest consumer of electronic household appliances in

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS Asia. From these data it is conceivable in the coming year in Indonesia will have booming E-Waste. This data does not include the amount of E-Waste into Indonesia from developed countries illegally. While the attitudes and behaviors of consumers according to Lim (2010) in buying electronic goods become higher and neglect to return the electronic items that have become garbage back to the manufacturer. E-Waste in Indonesia is still relatively underdeveloped. The meeting between the relevant institutions of government agencies to discuss about E-Waste is still very weak. The basic questions about what is the E-Waste itself often still needs to be explained. The behavior of people in developing countries are too bad for E-Waste cause the e-waste is not found in the trash. Extension of e-waste streams carried by developing countries people do these informal practices can have a negative impact on health and the environment. According to Damanhuri and Sukandar (2006), the problems of e-waste in Indonesian involve not only the formal sector, but it was revealed that the role of the informal sector is very large. This is due to the term of e-waste still not familiar to most people in Indonesia. While 93.8% of respondents do not dispose of electronic items that have been damaged, it is the same as the results of research conducted by Damanhuri and Sukandar (2006), that are not found in the E-waste Final Disposal (TPA). a. E-waste management in Indonesia Until now, Indonesia does not have specific rules concerning the management of e-waste. Source of e-waste in Indonesia comes from domestic consumption, namely to the use of electronic equipment in house scale. Due to increasingly sophisticated technology and more affordable price, makes Indonesia citizen use many electronic tools and changing electronic device in accordance with the progress of existing technology. In addition, e-waste also found imported from abroad and the black market, with each percentage of 50%. E-waste is handled by the informal sector is derived from electronic equipment that is damaged. Electronic equipment which has been damaged taken by scavengers, and then taken to the agent trash. Then, the electronic device is repaired, disassembled, and recycled in the agent garbage. E-waste which has been handled by an agent of the garbage, which was originally no commercial value, into a commercial value. Result of e-waste handling that is carried by the garbage agent that is no commercial value again dumped into landfills. In the informal sector, e-waste are managed by shop service, scavengers, and medium scale garbage collector. Then e-waste is eventually recycled or melted, and then handed over to the large scale store collection. From large-scale garbage collectors stores, e-waste generated will be taken to a landfill scavengers. E-waste management in Indonesia can be seen in Figure X:

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E-WASTE RECYCLING ACTIVITIES IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY BY INFORMAL SECTORS

Figure X. E-waste management in Indonesia Indonesia still developed the specific e-waste regulation that cover e-waste from household and industry resources. This is the things that should be improved in E-waste management in Indonesia: 

Need more data analysis for chemical content on e-waste for further implementing technology for e-waste management



Need to build an incentive system to encourage electronic producer doing EPR



Need to coordinate with local governments to disclosure the e-waste management system and to build program on how to encourage community willing to collect their e-waste



Need to support coordination among electronic producer, refurbishment company and local government on how to build collection point.



Finding the effective incentive mechanism ; Indonesia has 37 provinces with their very various condition

IV-20

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